Open air grape culture : a practical treatise on the garden and vineyard culture of the vine, and the manufacture of domestic wine

4 I

OP THE

0PM AIR GRAPE CULTURE:

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE

(Sartow wtir JKwprfc (felto 0f % iine,

AND THE

MANUFACTURE OF DOMESTIC WINE,

DESIGNED FOE THE USE OF AMATEURS AND OTHERS

IN THE NORTHERN AND MIDDLE STATES.

PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH NEW ENGRAVINGS FROM CAREFULLY
EXECUTED DESIGNS, VERIFIED BY DIRECT PRACTICE.

BY JOHN

AUTHOB OF "ESSAY ON OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE," TO WHICH WAS AWARDED
THE FIRST PREMIUM OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

TO WHICH IS ADDED A SELECTION OF

EXAMPLES OF AMERICAN VINEYARD PRACTICE,

AND A CAREFULLY PREPARED DESCRIPTION OF THE CELEBRATED

THOMERY SYSTEM OF GRAPE CULTURE.

YORK:

C. M. SAXTON, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER.
1862.

**IK I IMAM

ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, bv
S. J. DEWEY,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Northern
District of New York.

W. II. TINSON, Stereotyper.

PEEFACE.

THE following work has been undertaken, not so much in the
hope of adding anything new to what is already known of the
culture of the vine, as with a view to collect the scattered infor
mation which exists on the suhject in periodicals and kindred
works as well as amongst practical men, and to throw it into
such a shape as may prove useful to the amateur and the vine
dresser.

This being our object, we have endeavored to modify and adapt
the practice and principles of others to our own climate and
wants, and to simplify and explain the processes of the profes
sional gardener so that he who reads may practice. To this end
we have in general avoided theoretical discussions, and have
depended chiefly upon the practice of ourselves and others for
the directions here laid down. For although we know that
well established principles are the only sure foundation of all
right practice, this is not the place for discussing the theoretical
grounds upon which these principles rest. A practical work
should deal with facts and be a guide to action.

As the garden culture of the vine, at least in the northern
States, differs from that in the vineyard only in the more
thorough preparation of the ground and the larger size of the
plants, we have not formally divided the work into sections cor
responding to these two classes, as the principles which govern
both are precisely alike.

Where, however, some peculiar details of management apply
to either we have inserted them in the section to which they
properly belong — as under the subject of VINE BOEDEES and

IV PREFACE.

CARE OF OLD VINES. A full account of the Ohio vineyards is
given in the Appendix, amongst other examples of American
practice, and the peculiar principles which regulate the manage
ment of grapes devoted to the production of wine will be found
in their appropriate place, viz., in the second part of this work,
which is specially devoted to that subject.

The varieties of the vine have multiplied so rapidly of late,
that it would be impossible to give a complete list even of those
which have been brought out. Seeing then that at best our
work must be incomplete in this respect, we have described
those only which have been thoroughly proved and recom
mended by some well known society or cultivator. Of the
two or three hundred varieties of American grapes of which
names are to be found, probably not more than one in ten have
been tested in localities differing greatly from the place of their
origin.

In the execution of our work, we believe that where we have
had occasion to make use of the labors of others, due credit has
always been given ; and we have also added a list of those
books which we have most freely consulted, so that those who
desire to make the culture of the grape a specialty may be
directed to original sources of information.

That the culture of the grape will ere long attain a position
of which its present condition affords little idea, we have no
doubt. Not only is it one of the most delicious and easily
raised fruits, but it also gives quick returns, so that he who plants
a vine has not to wait for the better portion of his lifetime ere
he eats the fruit of it; in three or four years it will yield an
ample vintage.

CONTENTS.

PAOH

PREFACE, iii

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE, List of Works on, or relating to the Vine, . ix
CHAPTER I. — NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE, . .17

II. — CHOICE OF SOIL, 30

Situation, 36

Aspect, 39

Necessity for Protection from Wind and Storms, . 40

III. — PREPARATION OF THE SOIL, 50

Draining, ...» 50

Trenching, 55

Subsoil Ploughing, 55

Manuring, 59

Terracing, 60

Construction of Vine Borders for Gardens, . . 65

IV. — PLANTING THE VINES, 76

Time to Plant 77

Choice of Plants— Distance Apart, .... 79

Marking off the Ground, 80

Digging the Holes, 83

Taking up the Plants, 84

Setting them out, 86

Staking, 90

After-culture, 91

T

VI CONTENTS.

PAOK

CHAPTER V.— CARE OF VINES DURING THE FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD

YEARS, . . .92

Mulching, 95

Laterals, 96

Winter Protection, 97

Management during the Second Year, . . 98

Management during the Third Season, . . . 100

VI MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES, 104

Winter Protection of the Fruiting Canes, . . .105

Summer Pruning, 108

Thinning the Berries, 118

VII. — SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINE, . . .120
VIII. — THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING AND TRAINING AS

APPLIED TO THE GRAPE VlNE, 127

IX CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS, TRELLISES, ETC., . . 158

Effect of Walls, 159

X. — PROPAGATION OF THE VINE, 175

Layering, 175

Cuttings, 180

Eyes, 186

Grafting, 187

Budding, 194

Seed — Hybridization, 196

XL — MANURES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO THE VINE, . 202

Sources of Manures, .203

Effects on the Vine, 209

Liquid Manure, Mode of Producing and Principles of
its Application, 215

XII.— DISEASES AND INSECTS, 225

CONTENTS. V

PACK

CHAPTER XIII. — METHODS OF HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE

GRAPE, 231

Hand Glasses, 231

Wall Glasses, 232

Reversing the Bunches, 234

Ringing or Girdling, 234

XIV.— CARE OF OLD VINES, 241

XV.— To PRESERVE GRAPES, 247

XVI. — DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES, .... 250

Bland, 250

Canadian Chief, . 251

Catawba, 251

Clinton, 252

Concord, 252

Delaware, 253

Diana, 253

Elsinborough, ........ 254

King, 255

Hartford Prolific, .255

Herbemont, 256

Isabella, .257

Logan, 259

Early Northern Muscatine— a Shaker Seedling, . . 260

Rebecca, 262

To Kalon, 264

Union Village, 265

New Varieties, 265

TABULAR VIEW OF TUE SIZE, COLOR, SHAPE, ETC., ETC., of all the
Varieties of American Grapes, of which any account can be
found, . 269

Vlll CONTENTS.

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

PAGB

Extracts from Letters from Mr. Jefferson, late President of the

United States, 281

Manufacture of Wine in the South of England, 283

Manufacture of Wine by Mr. Longworth and others, .... 285

Currant Wine, 293

Recipe for White Currant Wine, 295

Another Recipe, 295

Mr. Cornell's Recipe for making Red Currant Wine, .... 295

Black Currant Wine, 296

Elderberry Wine, 296

Another Method, 297

Blackberry Wine, 297

Strawberry or Raspberry Wine, 297

Orange Wine, 298

Ginger Wine, 298

Currant Wine, . 299

APPENDIX I.

EXAMPLES OF AMERICAN VINEYARD PRACTICE.

The Ohio Vineyard System, % 30j

Dr. Underbill's Vineyard, 305

Judge Conklin's Vineyard, .311

McKay's Vineyard, t 31fi

CONTENTS. IX

APPENDIX II.

THE THOMERY SYSTEM OP GRAPE CULTURE.

(This is the famous system under which the splendid Chasselas de Fontaine-
bleau Grapes are produced ; it is the method advocated by Dr. Grant. The ac
count is literally translated from Du Breuil's Cours d'Arborlculture, and is the
only complete account which can be found — at least so says the Frenchman,
Rendu, in his " Ampelographie Francaise," and he ought to know.)

PAGE

Cultivation of the Vine upon Trellises, in Northern and Central

France, according to the New Methods in use at Thomery, . 320

Form to be given to the Trellises, 322

Horizontal Cordon of Thomery, 324

Horizontal Cordon of Charmeux, 328

Vertical Cordon, 330

Vertical Cordon with alternate Shoots, 331

Cultivation of Trellised Vines arranged in the form of the Verti
cal Cordon with opposite Shoots, 334

Walls proper for the Trellis, 334

Exposure of the Walls, 337

Propagation of the Vine, 337

Graft, 339

Plantation and Process of Bedding or Laying the Trellised Vine —

First Year, 340

Second Year of the Plantation, 344

Third Year, 345

Method of Pruning adopted for the Vertically Trellised Vine

with opposite Shoots — Construction of the Frame — First Year, 348

Second Year, 351

Third Year, 353

Fourth Year, 354

Care necessary to the Lateral Branches — First Year, . . . 355

Disbudding the Lateral Branches or Coursons, .... 358

Pinching the Shoots, 359

Manner of fastening the Shoots in Summer, .... 360

CONTENTS.

PAGB

Renewal of the Coursons, 360

Replacement of the Spurs (Coursons), 361

Care of the Grapes, 361

Suppression of the Superfluous Branches, 361

Thinning the Branches, 361

Gathering the Leaves, 362

Protections, 363

Annular Incision, 363

Renewal of the Trellised Vine, 363

Culture of Table Grapes in the Open Air, 366

Culture of Table Grapes in Southern France, .... 367
Diseases of the Vine — Destructive Animals and Insects, . . 368
Gathering and Preservation — Fresh Grapes, .... 370
Dried Grapes — Raisins, 374

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE.

THE subjoined list contains all the principal works which
have been consulted in the preparation of the following treatise.
Having made the study of the subject a specialty, we have been
at considerable pains to collect all the works relating to vine
culture of which we could find any account, and although there
are several important omissions in the list given below, yet it is
believed that their place is tolerably well supplied by those of
which titles are given. As our attention has been chiefly
directed to open air culture, we have intentionally omitted some
excellent English works. The French, however, possess some
valuable treatises which we regret having been unable to obtain
and a still greater source of regret has been that we have been
unable to use the many fine works possessed by the Germans.

It was suggested that this list be prefaced with a short article
on the bibliography of grape culture, or at least that the pecu
liar features of the works mentioned be indicated. But we found
ourselves incompetent to the former, and the latter would have
occupied a space disproportionate to its importance in a prac
tical treatise. It is hoped, however, that the list given will not
prove useless to those who desire to extend their inquiries be
yond the narrow limits of the present work, and from the assist
ance which we ourselves have frequently derived from similar
catalogues, we feel confident that this hope is not ill founded.
It may be added, in conclusion, that many works have been con
sulted and used of which no mention is made, simply from the
remoteness of their general bearing upon the subject. Thus
the figure of the oi'dium is taken from Pouillet's "Traite de

Xll BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE.

Physique," and is, we believe, the only thing in all the three vo
lumes of that work which at all relates to vine culture.

Having no desire to preface our work with a mere catalogue
of our private library (as we have seen done more than once),
no work has been mentioned which it will not repay the reader
to consult. On the general subject of the "Theory of Horti
culture," Lindley's work has been our guide and our standard,
and for our chemical facts and principles we have relied upon
the work of Gmelin, published by the Cavendish Society of
London, in twelve volumes, as we have always found it most
full and reliable.

But in selecting a course of reading with a view to advance
his knowledge of grape culture, the student must bear in mind
that so varied, complex and intimately connected are all the
operations of nature, that the facts which have a bearing upon
any portion of them, are to be found in books which professedly
treat of the most diverse subjects. Chemistry and mechanics
are alike important ; the principles which govern the relations
of heat, light, and electricity, exert a more or less important
influence on all vegetation, and he who would be fully master of
the subject, must aim at an extent of knowledge only to be
found in the widest range of scientific reading and experiment.

Abercrombie, John, Practical Gardener. London.

Adlum, John, Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America. Wash
ington, 1828.

Allen, J. P., Practical Treatise on the Culture of the Grape. New York,
1858.

the same, Boston, 1849.

American Cyclopaedia. New York, 1858, continued.

American Pomological Society, Transactions 1852, 1854, 1856, 1858.

Barry, Sir Ed., Observations on Wines. 4to. London, 1775.
Barry, P., Fruit Garden. New York, 1855.
Bernay, A. J., Household Chemistry. London, 1854.
Blodgett, Lorin, Climatology of the United States. Philadelphia, 1857.
Bordeaux Wine and Liquor Dealer's Guide. New York, 1851.
Boussingault, J. B., Rural Economy. London, 1855.
Bradley, R., Survey of Ancient Husbandry and Gardening. London,
1725.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE, Xlll

Bridgeman, Thomas, Young Gardener's Assistant. New York, 1857.
Brown, J. D., Sylva Americana. Boston, 1832.

Trees of America. New York, 1851.

Field Book of Manures. New York, 1855.

Buchannan, R., Culture of the Grape and Wine Making. Cincinnati, 185-.

Buist, R., Management of the Grape Vine. New York, 1856.

Busby, James, Visit to Vineyards of France and Spain. New York, 1835.

Carnell, P. P., Treatise on Family Wine Making. London, 1814.
Carpenter, W. B., Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors. Philadelphia,

1855.

Chaptal, C., Traite" sur la Vigne et 1'Art de faire Vin. 2 vols., Paris, 1801.
The same, translated in Philosophical Magazine.

Chemistry applied to Agriculture. Hartford, 1854.

Chorlton, Wm., American Grape Grower's Guide. New York, 1856.

The Cold Grapery. New York, 1853.

Cole, S. W., American Fruit Book. Boston, 1849.
Coleman, Henry, European Agriculture. Boston.
Country Gentleman. Albany (published weekly).

Dana, S. L., Muck Manual. New York, 1856.

Davy, Sir H., Agricultural Chemistry. London, 1827.

Davy, John, Ionian Islands. London, 1842.

De Bow, J. B. D., Industrial Resources of South and West. New Or
leans, 1852.

. Review. New Orleans.

Decandolle, N. P., Physiologic Vegetale. 3 vols. Paris, 1832.

Dempsey, G. D., On the Drainage of Districts and Lands. London, 1854.

Don, George. General System of Gardening and Botany. 4 vols., 4to.,
London, 1838.

Donaldson, Treatise on Clay Lands and Loamy Soils. London, 1854.

Donovan, Michael, Treatise on Domestic Economy and Wine Making.
London, 1830.

Downing, A. J., Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. New York, 1853.

the same, revised by C. Downing. New York, 1857.

Du Breuil. Cours ElSmentaire d'Arboriculture. Paris, 1857.

Elliot, F. R., Fruit Book. New York, 1854.

Western Fruit Book. New York, 1859.

Ellis, Robert, Chemistry of Creation. London, 1850.
Encyclopaedia Americana. Philadelphia, 1834.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 8th edition, Edinburgh, 1852-60,
English Cyclopaedia. London, 1854.

XIV BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE.

Fentwanger, Lewis. Fermented Liquors. New York, 1858.

Fitch, Asa, Report on the Insects of the State of New York.

Flint, C., Agriculture of Massachusetts. Boston, 1858.

Floy, M., Guide to Orchard and Fruit Garden. New York, 1852.

Forsyth, Wm., Culture and Management of Fruit Trees. London, 1802.

French, Art of Distillation and Manufacture of Liquors. London, 1657.

Gardener's Chronicle. 19 vols., London, 1841, continued,

Gardener's Monthly. Philadelphia, 1859. continued.

Gardener's Monthly Volume. London, 1849.

Genesee Farmer. Rochester, N. Y. (published monthly.)

Gmelin, Leopold, Handbook of Chemistry. 12 vols., London, 1848-58.

Graham, Thomas, Elements of Chemistry. 2 vols., London, 1858.

Gray, Asa, Manual of Botany. New York, 1858.

Systematic and Structural Botany. New York, 1858.

Guide to Importers and Purchasers of Wines, with a Topographical Ac
count of all the known Vineyards in the World. London, 1828.

Hannan, John, Economy of Waste Manures. London, 1844.
Harris, Joseph, Rural Annual, 1857, 8, 9. Rochester, N Y.
Harris, T. W., Report on the Insects of Massachusetts injurious to Vege
tation. Cambridge, 1841.

Hoare, Clement. Treatise on the Grape Vine. New York, 1850.
Homans, J. S., Cyclopaedia of Commerce. New York, 1858.
Hooker, Journal of Botany. 4 vols., London.
Horticulturist, 1846-1859.
Movey, C. M., Magazine of Horticulture.

•Jacques, Geo., Practical Treatise on Fruit Trees. Worcester, 1849.
•Johnson, Geo. W., The Gardener. 3 vols., London, 1849.

Dictionary of Modern Gardening, edited bv Landreth.

Philadelphia, 1857.

Principles of Practical Gardening. London, 1845.

Johnston, James P. W., Lectures on the Applications of Chemistry and
'Geology to Agriculture. New York, 1858.

Chemistry of'Common Life. 2 vols., New York, 1855.

Notes on America. 2 vols., Boston, 18 — .

Johnson, S. W., The Culture of the Tine. New Brunswick, N. J., 1806.
Jullien, Topographic de tous les Vignobles'connus. Paris, 1816.

Kendrick, Wm., New American Orchardist. Boston, 1848.
Kollar, "V,, Treatise on Insects injurious to Farmers and Gardeners. Lon
don, 1840.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE, XV

Lswlrey, M. C., Chimie applique"e a la Viticulture et & 1'CEnologie. Paris,

1857.
Liebig, J,, Complete Works. Philadelphia, 1856.

Letters on Modern Agriculture. New York, 1859.

Liebig and Kopp, Annual Report on the Progress of Chemistry and the

allied Sciences. London, 1847-1850.
Lindley, Theory and Practice of Horticulture. 2d edition, London, 1855.

the same, edited by A. J. Downing. New York, 1852.

Loudon J. C., Encyclopaedia of Gardening. London, 1850.

Gardener's Magazine. 16 vols.

Manures, Practical Treatise OB. Society for Diffusion of Useful Know
ledge. London, 1830,

McCulloch, Remarks on the Art of Making Wine. London, 1817.
Mclntosh, Charles, Book of the Garden. 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1855.
McMahon, Bernard, American Gardener's Calendar. Philadelphia, 1859.

the same, Philadelphia, 1806,

McMullen, Thomas, Hand-book of Wines. New York, 1853,
Meteorological Observations made in the State of New York from 1826

to 1850. Albany, 1855.
Meteorological Register, State of New York.
Miller, Philip, Gardener's Dictionary. Large folio, 1759.

the same, 4 vols., folio, 1807.

Morewood, Samuel, Essay on Meliorating Liquors. London, 1824.
Mulder, C. J., Chemistry of Wine. London, 1857.

Chemistry of Animal and Vegetable Physiology. Edin
burgh, 1849.

Muspratt, Sheridan, Chemistry applied to Arts and Manufactures. Glas
gow, 1858.

Natural History of the State of New York. 19 volumes, Albany.
Neil, Patrick, Practical Fruit, Flower and Kitchen Gardener's Com
panion. New York, 1856.
N orthern Fruit Culturist.

Odart, Comte, Ampelographie Universelle. Paris, 1854.
Manuel de Vigneron.

Patent Office Reports. Washington, D. C., 1837-1858.
Pereira, Jonathan, Treatise on Food and Diet. London, 1844.
Perzoz, Nouveau Systeme de Culture de la Vigne, Paris.
Philosophical Magazine (Tilloch's). 97 vols, London, 1798, continued.
Prince, W. R., Treatise on the Vine. New York, 1830.

Treatise on Horticulture. New York, 1828.

Pomological Manual, New York, 1832.

XVi BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GRAPE CULTURE.

Quarterly Journal of Science and Art. 30 volumes, London, 1816-1830.

Redding, Cyrus, History and Description of Modern Wines. London,

1S51.

Reemelin, C., Vine Dresser's Manual. New York, 1856.
Register of Rural Affairs. Albany, L. Tucker, 1855-1859.
Rendu, Ampelographie Franchise. Paris, 1857.
Rural New Yorker (weekly). Rochester, N. Y.

Schenck, P. A., Gardener's Text Book. Boston, 1852.

Schow, J. F., Earth, Plants and Man. London, 1852.

Silliman, B., American Journal of Science and Art. New Haven, Ct..
1819-1858.

Smeed, Wine Merchant's Manual. London, 1828.

Skinner, John S.. Journal of Agriculture. 3 volumes, New York, 1848.

Speechly, William, Treatise on the Culture of the Vine, and the forma
tion of Vineyards. 4to., London, 1790.

the same, 8vo., 1821.

Solly, Edward, Rural Chemistry. Philadelphia, 1852.

Somerville, Mary, Physical Geography. Philadelphia, 1853.

Stockhard, Julius C., Chemical Field Lectures. London, 1858.

Spooner, Alden, The Cultivation of American Grape Vines. Brooklyn,
1846.

Thayer, Albert, Principles of Agriculture. London, 1845.
Thomas, J. J., Fruit Culturist. Buffalo, N. Y., 1847.

the same, New York, 1857.

'Transactions American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia, 1789.
'Transactions of Society for Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures.

London, 1783-1850.

Transactions of New York Agricultural Society. Albany, 1842-1858.
'transactions of New York Institute. Albany, 1841-1858.
Transactions of Royal Horticultural Society of London. 8 vols. 1824-

1840.

Tucker, L., Register of Rural Affairs. Albany, 1855-1859.
Tall. Jethro. Horse Hoeing Husbandry. London 1829.

Ure, Andrew, Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines. New York,
1857.

Dictionary of Chemistry. Edinburgh, 1824.

Watson, American Home Garden. New York, 1859.

Webster, Encyclopaedia of Domestic Economy. New York, 1856.

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER I.

NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE TINE.

PROFANE history reaches not back to the time when
man first planted a vineyard and made wine, and
when we leave the sacred records, its first culture is
shrouded in allegories, myths and fables.

The native country of the vine cannot be well ascer
tained. It occurs wild in Greece, Italy and even in*
the south of France. In Hingrelia, Georgia and the
regions between Caucasus and Ararat and Taurus, it.
flourishes in extreme vigor and great abundance..
And that it is indigenous to America, also, there can
be no doubt, the apocryphal stories about its intro
duction by Sir W. Raleigh to the contrary notwith
standing.

Records of its culture are found in most of the

poems and sculptures of antiquity. The shield of

IT

18 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

Achilles represented a vine-gathering, and Herodotus
and Theophrastus speak of the culture of the vine in
Egypt; and on the very oldest Greek tombs are
found pictures representing the vine harvest. Pliny
enters fully into the natural history of the vine, and
describes a variety with berries shaped like the
finger,* while the second book of Yirgil's Georgics
forms no mean treatise on practical viticulture.

The generic name of the vine (vitis) is derived, ac
cording to some authors, from the Latin vincire to
bind ; according to others it comes from were, to bend,
alluding to the flexibility of its branches. Both these

* Most of the authors who have noticed this variety, suppose it to
have been lost, but we have received from John Kolber, Esq., of New
York, slips of a vine imported by him from Hungary, the fruit of
which is described as being an inch and a half long and half an inch
in diameter — a form which might easily be described by an imagina
tive writer as resembling a finger. In fact the native name is KecJcse,
csocs or Goats teats — an idea similar to that of the old philosopher,
though not quite so elegant. We find also in several catalogues
grapes called finger-grapes — synonyms of which are Cornichon Blanc,
Cucumber Grape, Bee d'Oiseau (Bird's beak), Teta de Vacca (Cow's
teats), Doigts Donzelle, etc., etc. Mr. Kolber has made earnest and
praiseworthy efforts to introduce the hardier varieties of the vine from
the hills of Hungary, and we are happy to learn that thus far, the
results are exceedingly promising. It will take several years, however,
to decide whether or not any foreign variety can be grown with
success in this country, as most imported plants do well for a few
years.

NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 19

Latin words, however, are derived from a Greek word
signifying to bind. Dr. Whittaker, in a work published
in 1638, entitled, "The Tree of Human Life, or the
Blood of the Grape," expresses his opinion that the
name vinum is derived a m from its strength, or, per
haps quasi divinum, because it is a species of the tree
of life in Paradise.

The species of the genus vitis are numerous, though
botanists are not agreed as to the distinctive differ
ences, especially as between the European and Ameri
can sorts. In France, Chaptal, when Minister of the
Interior, caused 1,400 different varieties of the vine to
be collected in the garden of the Luxembourg, and
under his direction M. Champagny described as dis
tinct 550 different kinds. Four American species
have been usually numbered (some authors describe
eight), though the varieties, more or less distinctly
marked, probably exceed 300. To the number of the;
latter, however, there is no limit, as every seed mayi
produce a new variety.

The vine lives to a great age and attains a greafr
size. Pliny mentions a vine which had lived for 600*
years, and' in Italy, vineyards have continued in?
bearing for 300 years, while in some parts of that?
country, a vineyard of 100 years i& still accounted'
young.

Its size, whether we regard the European or Ame-

20 OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

rican varieties, is often very great. Speechly describes
and figures a vine trained against a row of houses in
Northallerton, Yorkshire, which covered a space of
one hundred and thirty seven square yards, and had
a stem three feet eleven inches in circumference at a
short distance from the ground. No work on the
grape vine would be complete without a mention of
the great Hampton Court vine, from which George
the Third once directed his gardener to cut one hun
dred dozen bunches of grapes, if so many were on the
vine, and present them to the players of Drury-lane
Theatre, who had greatly pleased him. The gardener
not only cut off this number, but sent word to the
king that he could cut off as many more without
entirely stripping the vine. This vine was planted in
1769 and has a stem fourteen inches in girth, one
branch extending nearly 200 feet.

In America, too, very large vines are to be found.
The following is clipped from the " Alta California!! :"

" At Monticito, four miles from Santa Barbara,
there is a grape vine, probably the largest in the
world. Its dimensions and yield would be incredible,
were it not that my informant is a man of veracity,
and he spoke from personal observation. It is a single
vine, the main stock being ten feet in circumference.
It is trained upon a trellis sixty feet in diameter.
My informant with another person counted 7000

NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 21

bunches, and the estimated yield was 18,000 pounds
of fruit. Can this be beaten ? The only thing
that surprised me in the relation of my friend was
that any person in Santa Barbara should have
displayed the energy necessary to build the trellis
for this noble vine."

In the " Horticulturist " for October, 1858, a vine
growing near Burlington, New Jersey, is described
as follows ; " In May last it was measured with the
following result : Two feet from the ground it mea
sured 6 feet, 2-J- inches in girth ; four feet high it is
about 6 inches less; it there divides into two branches,
the largest of which is 3 feet, 3 inches in girth, and
the smallest is 3 inches. The largest of the trees
which the vine covers is 10 feet in circumference at
two feet from the ground. The vine is very much
decayed, but still puts forth leaves and young shoots.
It has never borne a grape in the memory of a lady
now 98 years old and who has lived her long life
within sight, or nearly so, of this gigantic production,
and to whom it was a wonder in her youth. The
largest tree is a black oak, the others are black, or
sour gum. On pacing the circumference covered by
the branches, it was found to exceed 100 feet.

" This vine grows near a springy soil, or upland, its
roots, no doubt, penetrating to the water. May not
this teach us a lesson, to give the rootlets, wherever

22

OPEN AIR GRAPK CULTURE.

it is possible, access to a spring, or running water ?
It. may be a question, too, whether we do not cut our
vines too much. I have observed frequently in
England that a whole house was devoted to a single
vine, generally of the Black Hamburgh, and I think
they uniformly bore the finest grapes. To carry a
single vine over a large grapery would, of course, re
quire years of judicious trimming and management."

The bunches and berries also have been known to
attain a very great size. In the south of France
instances are known of bunches attaining a weight
of eight or ten pounds ; travellers in Syria mention
bunches weighing 17 Ibs. ; and we all remember the
enormous clusters which the Jewish spies brought
back from the promised land. Even at the present
day the grapes of Damascus frequently weigh 25
pounds to the bunch.

"With all the vigor and fruitfulness evinced by
such instances it is no wonder that the culture of the
vine should prove profitable and certain. At the
meeting of the Fruit Growers' Society for western
New York, held in the city of Rochester in 1859,
S. H. Ainsworth made some statements as to the
actual products of several vineyards, showing that
from $1000 to $1500 had been realized from an acre
of Isabella grapes. Mr. Hush, of East Bloomfield,
had 100 vines on one-third of an acre, from which he

NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 23

picked 4000 Ibs., which he sold for $500, or at the rate
of 12£ cts. per pound. None reported a less profit
than $500 per acre.

From the very first settlement of America the
vine attracted the attention of the colonists, and
efforts were made both to introduce the finer Euro
pean varieties and to cultivate the native sorts. Even
as early as 1564:, wine was made from the native
grape in Florida, though, of course, in small quantity.

The earliest attempt to establish a vineyard in the
British North American colonies was by the " Lon
don Company " in Virginia prior to 1620. By the
year 1630, the prospects were sufficiently favorable
to warrant the importation of several French vigne-
rons, who, it was alleged, ruined them by bad
management. Wine was also made in Virginia in
1647, and in 1651 premiums were offered for its pro
duction. On the authority of Beverley, who wrote
prior to 1722, there were vineyards in that colony
which produced 750 gallons a year.

In 1664:, Col. Richard Nicolls, the first English
governor of New York, granted to Paul Richards of
the city of New York the privilege of making and
selling wine free of all duty or impost, Richards hav
ing been the first to enter upon the culture of the
vine on a large scale. It was also enacted that every
person who should during the succeeding thirty

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

years set out a vineyard should pay to Richards five
shillings for every acre of vines so set out. We have
been unable, however, to find any account of his suc
cess or failure, and the probability is, that after a
short time the enterprise was abandoned. A gentle
man in Hoboken, also, had a fine vineyard which
after a little time fell into decay.

Beauchamp Plantagenet, in his "Description of
the Province of New Albion," published in London
in 1648, states that the English settlers in Uvedale
(now Delaware) had vines running on mulberry and
sassafras trees, and that there were four kinds of
grapes. "The first is the Tholouse Muscat, sweet
scented ; the second, the great fox and thick grape,
after five moneths reaped, being boyled, and salted,
and well -fined is a strong red Xeres ; the third, a
light claret ; the fourth, a white grape, creeps on the
land maketh a pure, gold-colored wine. Tennis Pale,
the Frenchmen, of these four made eight sorts of ex
cellent wine ; and of the Muscat, acute boyled, that
the second draught will fox (intoxicate) a reasonable
pate four moneths old ; and here may be gathered
and made two hundred tun in the vintage moneth,
and replanted will mend."

In 1683, William Penn attempted to establish a
vineyard near Philadelphia, but without success.
The same result attended the efforts of Andrew Dore

NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 25

in 1685, but after some years, Mr. Tasker, of Mary
land, and Mr. An til, of Shrewsbury, N.J., seem to have
succeeded to a certain extent. Mr. Antil wrote an
excellent article on the culture of the grape and the
manufacture of wine, which may be found in the first
volume of the " Transactions of the American Philoso
phical Society," published in 1771. In this article,
Mr. Antil describes only foreign varieties, from
which it is to be inferred that he cultivated them
chiefly, if not solely.

In 1769, the French settlers in Illinois made one
hundred and ten hogsheads of strong wine from
native grapes.

In 1793, Peter Legaux, a French gentleman, ob
tained of the legislature of Pennsylvania the incor
poration of a company for cultivating the vine. They
purchased a farm at Spring-mill, Montgomery county,,
thirteen miles from Philadelphia, on the Schuylkill..
For one year only were prospects favorable ; divisions,
and dissensions arose; the stockholders sold out in,
disgust, and the vineyard went to ruin.

At Harmony, near Pittsburg, a vineyard of ten;
acres was planted and cultivated by Frederick Rapp
and his associates from Germany. They afterward!
removed to another Harmony in Indiana, on the east?
bank of the Wabash, where they continued the culti*
vation of wine and silk for many years.
2

26 OPEN AIR GEAPE CULTURE.

A Swiss colony settled about 1Y90 in Jessamin
county, Kentucky, and raised a fund of ten thousand
dollars for the express purpose of forming a vineyard.
Their first attempts failed, they having cultivated the
foreign vine. In 1801, they removed to a spot which
they called Yevay, in Switzerland County, Indiana,
on the Ohio River, forty-five miles below Cincinnati.
Here they planted native vines and met with some
success. But, after forty years' experience, they con
sider our climate and soil inferior to those of Switzer
land, as they claim that they can there make a gallon
of wine from ten pounds of grapes while here twelve
pounds are required. Their vineyards have now, we
believe, nearly disappeared.

But the great turning point of vine culture in
America was when the Catawba grape was intro
duced by Major Adlum, of Georgetown, D. C., who
considered that in so doing he conferred a greater be
nefit upon the American nation than he would have
done by paying off the national debt.

We could have wished to give an accurate view of
the present state of the vine culture of this country,
but the best works which we have been able to con
sult are very imperfect in this respect, and we believe
that we have examined all the more important ones.
Want of time has prevented us from instituting a
special correspondence on this subject. We can

NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 27

therefore only say that it never at any period pre
sented a more flourishing aspect than it does at the
present day.

Of the future prospects of grape culture, of its
extent, and of its influences, it would be difficult to
speak. But we feel assured that, whether in the
form of wine or of fruit, the produce of the vine can
not fail to do much good in this country — not the
least of its benefits being that it will afford those with
small capital an easy and pleasant mode of securing
a competency.

Another point in this aspect of grape culture, and
one in which we have strong confidence and ardent
hope, is the employment which it promises to afford
to women. We are none of those who would desire
to see woman rendered independent of man, for we
well know to what a miserable condition man would
come if rendered independent of woman, and it is a
poor rule that will not work both ways.

But we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that there
are vast multitudes of women whose labor receives
no adequate remuneration — wrho make shirts at the
rate of five cents apiece, and then often get cheated
out of their pay. Now, if some of our large-hearted,
as well as large-worded, philanthropists would pro
cure a few acres of land in some proper locality, and'
after having it well trenched or subsoil ploughed^

28 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

would let it out in half, or even quarter acre lots to
industrious women with a view to their establishing
vineyard plots, we think that after the first two years
such an allotment of half an acre ought to yield
its tenant from $250 to $400 per year, from which,
after paying a good round rent, they might retain
more than they can now make at any other employ
ment within their reach. And let it not be said that
the culture of the soil is unsuited to the sphere of
woman. "VVe rather think that Eve was more of a
gardener than shirt-maker before she "brought sin
into the world and all our woe ;" and those who think
gardening unsuited to woman are referred to Lou-
don's remarks in the " Gardener's Magazine," where
lie recommends it to his fair countrywomen instead
of the ball-room and the dance.

"We shall not stultify ourselves with referring to
Indian and European savages, who make the women
do all the hard work, even though women are there
found equal to the roughest agricultural labor. But
in vine culture, after the first great effort has been
made to get the soil suitably prepared, there is really
little hard work to be done. Even hoeing does not
require more strength than washing and scrubbing ;
and pruning, trimming, and gathering the fruit are
not above the strength of our weakest females ; and we
promise them that if they undertake it they will soon

NATURAL AND CIVIL HISTORY OF THE VINE. 29

acquire the necessary health and strength. All that
we can say is that we hope ere long to see the experi
ment tried, and nothing would afford us greater
pleasure than to give a lecture on vine culture, with
experimental illustrations, to such a society of women,
and tell them all we know about raising good grapes ;
and we think we can point to others who are not
only competent but willing to assist in the good work
— thus rendering the objection that "women don't
know how " of no avail. But even if no such experi
ment should be tried, we feel confident that the
thousands of acres which will be devoted to vine cul
ture during the next few years will not be cultivated
without affording abundant work for women,

30 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER II.

SOIL* SITUATION AND ASPECT.

SOIL. — The vine will grow in almost any situation,
and reach a large size and exhibit luxurious vegeta
tion under conditions apparently the most unfavor
able ; but if healthy vines and fine fruit be desired, it
is necessary to choose a soil where the roots can ram
ble freely, find plenty of nutriment and be safe from
stagnant water and its accompanying cold, sour sub
soil. One of the largest vines in the country grows
in a swamp in !New Jersey, and a vine has been known
to grow vigorously from a cleft in an old wall twenty
feet from the ground. But these are by no means
examples to be imitated in practice where we have
the power of selecting the site of our garden or vine
yard, though they afford encouragement to the
amateur who is compelled to make use of an inferior
location.

The opinion of good grape culturists is that any
soil which will grow good Indian corn is suitable for
grapes. Others describe a soil adapted to the cul
ture of the vine as one which will grow good winter

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 31

wheat without the plants being thrown out of the
ground in winter.

Downing recommends a " strong loamy or gra
velly soil — limestone soils being usually the best."
And in another place he gives it as his opinion that
" all that can be said of a soil for grape culture is
that it be light, rich and dry." G. W. Johnson thinks
a light, sandy loam the best. And Buchannan, who
may be safely taken as the representative of the Cin
cinnati vine growers, recommends a dry, calcareous
loam with a porous subsoil. At the recent meeting
of the Fruit Growers' Society of western New York,
Dr. Farley stated that his best grapes had been
raised on a clay soil, and that in this matter his
opinion in regard to the soil best adapted to the cul
ture of grapes had undergone some change.

It will thus be perceived that the opinions of our
best horticulturists vary a little, but we believe that
this variation is mere adaptation to the different modes
of growth and training adopted by the various culti
vators. The purpose for which the grapes are raised
— that is whether for wine or for the table — ought
also to have a material influence in directing our
choice of a soil.

When the object is to manufacture wine, the vines
require to be kept within moderate bounds ; all rank-
ness of vegetation must be carefully avoided, and con-

,32 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

sequently the soil must be light, rich, porous and dry,
and if calcareous so much the better.

On the other hand, where high saccharine qualities
are not so much desired as abundance of grapes of
agreeable flavor, the vines will succeed better and pro
duce more certain crops if allowed a greater extent
of growth, and in this case they will bear a heavier
and richer soil — in some cases (as in growing Isabella
and Diana grapes for the table) even preferring a
clay soil well drained and cultivated and highly
manured.

That this view is correct may be easily proved by
referring to well-known examples both in Europe
and in this country. Thus in the Arriege in France
a rich wine like Tokay, is obtained from mountain
sides covered with large stones as if the cultivators
had left all to nature. In Italy and Sicily the best
wines are grown amongst the rubbish of volcanoes.
"Good rich soils," says Redding, "never produce
even tolerable wines."

On the other hand the rich Chasselas de Fontaine-
bleau table grapes are produced by vines planted in
cold and heavy soil, well manured. And he who
desires to find rich soil should examine the vine bor
ders of the English hot-house grape-growers. Allen,
one of our most successful grape-growers recommends
a border of the richest kind. So does Chorlton, and

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 33

such we believe to be the practice of all our success
ful cultivators of the grape under glass. The cele
brated vine at Hampton Court revels in the luxury
of an old sewer, and instances have come under our
own observation where the proximity of a vine to
a cesspool caused the production of large quantities
of most excellent grapes. In France, the application
of night-soil and sewerage to the vineyards has in all
cases injured the quality of the wine. That such
would have been the case, however, if the French
vignerons had acted upon correct principles in the
application of these powerful stimulants, we are
scarcely prepared to believe. And we have no doubt
but that by judicious management and a careful
observance of the laws of nature one of the greatest
achievements in vine culture may yet be effected, viz.,
the union of vigorous vegetation and stimulating
manures with the production of good wine. But so
far as present experience extends the soil for a vine
yard must be light and not too highly manured — and
in all cases whether the object of culture be wine or
table grapes the subsoil must be w^arm and loose.
Cold borders are very prejudicial to the roots of the
vine, and are supposed to be an efficient cause of the
shanking of the grapes. It would appear from an
inspection of the subjoined tables that this desired
warmth might be secured to the surface soil at least
2*

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

by plentiful addition of lime and any black mold or
charcoal.

Jlfaximum Temperatures of the various Earths
Exposed to the j$un. By Schublcr.

KINDS OF EARTH.

Maximum Temperature of the
superior layer, the mean tem
perature of the ambient air
being 77 degrees F.

Moist Earth.

Dry Earth.

Silicious sand, yellowish grey, ....
Calcareous sand, whitish grey, ....
Argillaceous earth, yellowish grey,
Calcareous earth, white, ... .....
Mold, blackish grey,

Degrees.
99.05

99.10
99.28
96.13
103.55
99.50

Degrees.
112.55
112.10
112.32
109.40
117.27
113.45

Garden earth blackish grey

Table of Retention of Heat. By Becgiierel.

.KIND OF EARTH.

Capacity for heat,
that of Calcareous
sand being 100.

Time required by 18 feet
cube of earth to cool
from 144.5 to 70.2, the
temperature of the sur
rounding air being 61 \2.

Calcareous sand,
Silicious sand,

100
95.6

Hours.
3.30
3.27

Argillaceous earth, ....
Calcareous earth,
Mold,

68.4
61.8
49

2.24
2.10
1.43

From these tables it will be seen that black mold
receives or absorbs heat most rapidly, but parts with
it -in the shortest space of time also, and that for

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 35

receiving and retaining heat, dark colored, calcareous
earth is by far the most efficient. Good silicious sand
comes next in order, and hence we conceive that a
soil composed chiefly of calcareous and silicious sand,
with a sufficient amount of charcoal or mold to give
it a dark color, would prove one of the best for
grapes.

Such are the general points deserving of considera
tion. Those desirous of studying more minutely the
influence of the chemical constitution of the soil
upon vines growing therein will find an interesting
and valuable resume of the subject in M. Ladrey's
"Chimie applique a la Viticulture," whose general
remarks on this point ara so much in unison with OUT
own experience and observation that we are tempted
to translate them.

" If now we examine the series of different soils
devoted to the culture of the vine in France and in
other countries, we shall find this plant cultivated in
soils the most diverse, not only as regards their
natures (nature evidently alluding to physical consti
tution — Trans.} — but also their chemical composition.
All soils appear suited to the culture of the vine, and
there are none, unless those absolutely barren, in
which this plant may not grow and develop itself.
Thus the vine requires but little fertility in the soil,
it covers a great space of land which would be

36 OPEN ATE GRAPE CULTURE.

unsuited to any other culture, and in order to give an
idea of this, we may cite the ancient regulations of
Provence which prohibited the planting of the vine
until inquiry had been made as to the sterility of
the soil, and the permission of the interidant of the
province had been obtained.

But if the vine can grow in all soils it behaves
very differently in each of them. In strong, argilla
ceous, rich soils, it will acquire a great vigor of vege
tation, the wood is largely developed, the product is
abundant ; on the contrary, in soils poor, light and dry?
the vine is less robust, more delicate ; it requires a
culture well contrived as to even the most minute
details, and the product is much less in quantity.

" In general, if in any locality the vegetation of the
vine be more rich as the soil is more fertile, we
^observe by the side of this result that the nature and
<quality of the product is consequently in an inverse
iratio. In heavy land the vine is well developed and
•furnishes abundant return ; in a light soil it gives less
and the product is of higher quality."

^SITUATION. — THE situation of a vineyard should be
elevated, but not too high, otherwise the vines will not
only be exposed to high winds and their concomitant
evils, but will also be subjected to a lower tempera
ture. On this latter point, but little is known — at

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 37

lea&t not enough to enable us in all cases to reconcile
the anomalies which occur. Enough is known, how
ever, to cause us to avoid the tops of hills and the
bottoms of valleys, and it may be worth our while to
consider a few of the principles which regulate tem
perature in these situations. During the night, the
cold air, being heavy, settles down into the valleys
and hollows, thus producing in such locations a
temperature several degrees lower than is found on
the sides of the adjacent hills. And no influence is
then at work to disturb this state of things, for the
earth itself is becoming rapidly cooled by radiation ;
and if a small quantity of the air should become
warmed by contact with it, it immediately ascends,
and cool air takes its place.

At daybreak, however, an agency is introduced
which reverses this condition of things. Then the
dense air in the valleys concentrates and absorbs the
heat of the sun's rays and increases their effect upon
the soil, which in turn imparts heat to the stratum of
air lying next it. This lower stratum of air being
warmed and consequently rendered much lighter than
the colder portion above it, it ascends, but as it rises
it also expands still more, which in some measure
compensates for the heat which it received from the
earth. The same process keeps going on until night
comes, when the lower stratum of air being no longer

38 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

warmed it no longer ascends, and the colder and
heavier air again accumulates in the valleys. Thus
it will be seen, that during the night the air in the
valleys is colder than that in other places, while the
reverse is the case during the day. The stillness of
the air in valleys and sheltered situations also con
tributes to this result in a remarkable degree.

Now it is obvious, that if for any fruit tree, the air
in the valleys should be sufficiently cold to kill the
buds, no orchard could t succeed. And if, on the
other hand, sufficient light and heat to ripen the fuit
could not be found on the hill-tops, such situations
also would be unavailable.

JSlor is the mere existence of such extremes of
temperature the worst evil. The destructive influ
ence of a hot sun upon frozen vegetation is well known,
and in low valleys, the circumstances are such as to
give the greatest effect to this adverse influence. For
not only are the plants chilled by the extra cold night-
air, they are also completely protected from the rays
of the sun, until it has attained a greater power than
it usually exerts at its first appearance upon plants in
more exposed situations. And then, owing to the
dense atmosphere through which they pass, the rays
strike suddenly with concentrated energy so as to
thaw the buds with a rapidity completely destruc
tive to their vitality. In such situations also, the soil

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 39

is usually very deep and rich, producing a vigorous
though succulent growth which is unable to with
stand the influences above detailed. All experience
bears out the practical value of these principles.
Thus, in Italy, where the country is undulating and
very much broken, all good wines are grown on the
hill-sides. Hence Virgil tells us

" denique apertos

Bacchus amat colles,"*

and modern experience bears out the ancient saw,
though it does not follow, however, that plains will not
produce good wine-making grapes, provided they be of
sufficient extent to obviate the evils just described.
The fine wines of the Gironde in France, and Chataux
Margaux, Lafitte and Latour, are grown on the plains.

ASPECT — EXPOSURE. — The aspect which is best
adapted to the growth of grapes will, of course, depend
upon influences, some of which at least, are liable to
vary, as the keenest and most destructive winds may
corne from different quarters in different places — a
very slight geographical change sometimes making

* The force of this saying is lost by adopting Mr. Bedding's trans
lation " Bacchus loves the hills." Davidson gives the whole, " Bacchus
loves the open hills" — which is better. But the true meaning
" Bacchus loves the open little hills" coincides perfectly with expe
rience and with the principles above set forth.

40 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

an important difference in this respect, owing to pe
culiar topographical features. Thus a range of hills
or a belt of woods, may so deflect the prevailing
winds, as to completely change the condition of two
localities situated within even a very short distance
of each other.

In general, it will be found necessary to secure pro
tection on the west, north and northeast. This may
be afforded either by natural local features, as by a
range of hills, or it may be derived from artificial
sources, as woods or fences. ~No defence is better
than a good belt of Norway spruce, and if they form
a crescent in which the vineyard is embowered, but
little danger need be apprehended from violent winds.
Even high fences, which may be single, double or
triple, afford aipr>le protection in ordinary cases, and
as trees, even of the fastest growing kind, take a con
siderable time before they give sufficient protection,
many will prefer the fence. WQ are therefore tempted
to extract from the " Horticulturist " for August,
1817, Downing's description of the method by which
Frederic Tudor, Esq., has converted the naked pro
montory of JSTahant into a luxuriant garden.

" To appreciate the difficulties with which this
gentleman had to contend, or as we might more
properly say, which stimulated all his efforts, we
must recall to mind that, frequently, in high winds^

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 4:1

the salt spray drives over the whole of Nahant ; that
until Mr. Tudor began his improvements, not even a
bush grew naturally on the whole of its area ; and
that the east winds which blew from the Atlantic in
the spring are sufficient to render all gardening pos
sibilities in the usual way nearly as chimerical as cul
tivating the volcanoes of the moon. Mr. Tudor's
residence there, now, is a curious and striking illustra
tion of the triumph of art over nature.

" Of course, even the idea of a place worthy of the
name of a garden in this bald, sea girt cape, was out
of the question, unless some mode of overcoming the
violence of the gales and the bad effect of the salt
spray could be devised. The plan Mr. Tudor has
adopted is, we believe, original with him, and is at
once extremely simple and perfectly effective.
•K-***-*-***

" It contests merely of two, or at most three parallel
rows of high open fences, made of rough slats or
palings, nailed in the common vertical manner, about
three inches wide, and a space of a couple of inches
left between them. These paling fences are about
16 feet high, and usually form a double row (on the
most exposed side, a triple row) round the whole
garden. The distance between that on the outer
boundary and the next interior one is about four feet.
The garden is also intersected here and there by tall

4:2 OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

trellis fences of the same kind, all of which help to
increase the shelter, while some of those in the inte
rior serve as frames for training trees upon.

" The effect of this double or triple barrier of high
paling is marvellous ; although like a common paling,
apparently open and permitting the wind a free pas
sage, yet in practice it is found entirely to rob the
gales of their violence and their saltness. To use
Mr. Tudor's words, * it completely sifts the air.' After
great storms, when the outer barrier will be found
covered with a coating of salt, the foliage in the
garden is entirely uninjured. It acts, in short, like a
rustic veil, that admits just so much of the air, and in
such a manner as most to promote the growth of the
trees, while it breaks and wards off all the deleteri
ous influences of a genuine ocean breeze, so pernicious
to tender leaves and shoots.'

vf •&•&##•£•&•*

"It is worthy of record, among the results of Mr.
Tudor's culture, that two years after the principal
plantation of his fruit trees was made, he carried off
the second prize for pears at the annual exhibition of
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, among dozens
of zealous competitors, and with the fruit most care
fully grown in that vicinity."

Of the necessity for shelter under circumstances far
less desperate than those at Nahant, no good horti-

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 43

culturist lias any doubt. Even the oak-tree has
been proved by a well directed series of experiments,
to be benefited by shelter in the comparatively mild
climate of England. For the rationale of the evil
effects of wind on. plants in general, we must refer
the reader to Lindley's " Theory and Practice of Hor
ticulture." The following cases are detailed by Hoare :

" Many instances might be circumstantially de
tailed of the injurious effects of wind upon established
vines during their summer's growth ; two, however,
of recent occurrence will perhaps suffice.

"On the eleventh of June, 1833, a strong wind
sprang up early in the morning from the west, and
increased in force till noon, when it blew quite a gale
and continued to do so throughout the day. It slack
ened a little during the night, and gradually de
creased in violence the next day, dying entirely away
in the evening.

"The effects of this wind on a vine of the White
Muscadine sort, trained on a wall having a western
aspect, were carefully observed. It had on a full
crop of fruit and a good supply of fine young bearing
shoots, and was altogether in a most thriving condi
tion. Such, however, were the injurious effects of
the wind in dissipating all the accumulated secretions
of the foliage, and then closing, almost hermetically,
its pores, and thereby totally deranging the vital

44 OPEN AIR GEAPE CULTURE.

functions of the plant, that although in the height of
the growing season, not the slightest appearance of
renewed vegetation could be discerned in any part
of its leaves, shoots or fruit, until the third day of
July, or twenty-two days afterward. It never pro
duced another inch of good bearing wood throughout
the remainder of the season, but lingered in a very
weak and sickly condition ; and the fruit which had
been previously estimated at ninety pounds' weight,
did not exceed fifty-five pounds when gathered, and
that of a very inferior description in point of flavor
and size of berry. Its leaves, also, having been thus
crippled, were shed prematurely a month before their
natural time, and hence the deficiency in the flavor
and size of the grapes.

" The other instance, which happened shortly after
ward, is still more decisive. On the 30th of August
following, about eight o'clock in the evening, a strong
wind began to blow from the southwest, accompanied
with heavy rain. At nine it blew violently, and con
tinued to do so until noon the next day. It then
slackened, and then veering to the northwest, died
away some time during the following night.

" The full force of this wind fell on a remarkably
fine black Hamburg vine, trained on a wall having a
southwestern aspect, and its effects were therefore
proportionately destructive. Many of the principal

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 45

brandies were torn so completely from their fasten
ings that their extremities swept the ground. The
bunches of fruit were knocked about, and portions of
them, as well as single berries, lay scattered on the
ground in every direction. On the fruit, however,
that survived the wreck, the effects of the wind were
remarkable. It must be stated that the wall on
which the vine is trained, is ten feet high, and is so
situated that to the height of about three feet from
the ground the wind had but little power over it, its
force being broken by an outer wall standing at a
little distance off in front of it. On the lower part of
the wall so protected, the grapes not having been
much injured, began to change their color and ripen
about the twentieth of September, and on the twelfth
of October every berry was perfectly matured, while
all those that remained on the vine above three feet
from the ground, were, on the first of November, as
green and hard as on the thirtieth of August, when
the high wind occurred. Shortly afterward these
began to change their color, and ultimately ripened
tolerably well by the first week in December. Thus,
solely through the effects of a strong wind, there
were to be seen at the same time, on the same
branches of this vine, and within nine inches of each
other, bunches of grapes, the lowermost of which
were perfectly ripe, while the uppermost were quite

46 OPEN AIR GRAPE GUI/TORE.

green and hard, and not within seven weeks of reach
ing the same state of maturity.

" These facts, which might be multiplied indefinitely,
sufficiently show the injurious effects of strong winds,
and the necessity of protecting vines as much as pos
sible from their destructive consequences."

But although there can be no doubt as to the evil
effects of wind storms, it must be borne in mind that
ventilation, and even motion, are essential to the
health and growth of the vine. Experiments made
by Andrew Knight, show that young trees tied to
stakes so as to prevent all motion, do not increase in
size as much as those left to the free action
of wind. Hence, perhaps, one reason why wire is to
be preferred to wood for the cross slats of trellises.
In the northern States, however, we in general have
wind enough for all useful purposes. But in view of
these facts, we would rest content with shelter out
side of the vineyard, and unless in very exposed situ
ations we would not deem it advisable to place either
trees or fences amongst the vines.

But while we can guard against wind and storms
by belts of woods or high fences, there are other in
fluences which we cannot thus alter. Chiefly among
these is the exposure of the sun's rays.

Exposure is, in general, derived from one or both
of two causes. First, the inclination of the ground,

SOIL, SITUATION" AND ASPECT. 47

and, secondly, its openness and freedom from over
shadowing influences. A wall is a good illustration
of the latter — the north side having a northern expo
sure, and causing fruit planted against it to ripen at
a much later period than that planted on the south
side, which has a southern exposure. The little
raised mounds or flower-beds, to be found in every
garden, exhibit the influence exerted by the inclina
tion of the earth — the vegetation on the south side
being usually some days earlier than that on the
north.

For vineyards, the best exposure is undoubtedly a
southern one, slightly inclined toward the east, or at
least fully protected from the west, and also from the
early morning rays. " It has often been observed
that woods or thick trees, buildings, high, broad
fences, or steep hills, on the east side of peach
orchards, protect the crop. Hence the erroneous
opinion, that it is the east winds which do the dam
age. It is the sunshine upon the frozen buds which
destroys them ; hence a clouded sky, after a clear
frosty night, by preventing sudden thawing, some
times saves a crop. Covering trees of rare kinds
with mats, to shade them from the morning sun,
after an intensely frosty night, might sometimes be
highly beneficial." (Thomas.)

In this connection, it may be proper to consider

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

the best direction for the trellises on which the vines
are trained. "We have often seen a north and south
direction advised under the idea that the vines thus
receive the sun's rajs for a longer time. But the
evils attached to this plan are great and insurmount
able. In the first place, the vines receive the full
force of the early morning sun which, striking the
young leaves while still cold, and it may be partially
frozen, is productive of the most injurious effects.
Then as the day progresses toward noon, the vines
are so shaded as not to receive the amount of heat,
which they would gladly enjoy at that time, while
toward evening again their excitability is greatly
increased and is kept up until the last moment, instead
of the exciting influence being quietly withdrawn as
it ought to be.

But if we give our trellis a direction from east to
west, instead of from north to south, the vines will
expose but a small surface to the first rays of the sun
which will thus warm them gradually, until it attains
its meridian splendor, when it will exert its full power
and then gradually decline until evening, when
everything will gradually cool down. Sudden
changes are thus avoided, and the full power of the
sun is secured in the ripening of the grapes.

Intimately connected with the foregoing subjects,
are the laws which regulate the influence of tempe

SOIL, SITUATION AND ASPECT. 4:9

rature upon vegetation. These are stated by M. De
Candolle, as follows :

1. All other things being equal, the power of each
plant and of each part of a plant, to resist extremes
of temperature is in the inverse ratio of the quan
tity of water they contain.

2. The power of plants to resist extremes of tem
perature is directly in proportion to the viscidity of
their fluids.

3. The power of plants to resist cold is in the
inverse ratio of the rapidity with which their fluids
circulate.

4. The liability to freeze, of the fluids contained in
plants, is greater in proportion to the size of the cells.

5. The power of plants to resist extremes of tem
perature is in a direct proportion to the quantity of
confined air which the structure of their organs give
them the means of retaining in the more delicate
parts.

6. The power of plants to resist extremes of tem
perature is in direct proportion to the capability
which the roots possess of absorbing sap less exposed
to the external influence of the atmosphere and the
sun.

From this it will be obvious that all rank growth
and succulent vegetation should be avoided where
the desired object is to obtain hardy vines.

3

50 OPEN ATE GRAPE CULTURE.

GIIAPTEE III.

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL AND FORMATION OF VINE
BORDERS.

HAVING selected a proper site for a vineyard, the
next step will be to prepare the soil for the reception
of the young vines. It is rarely if ever that ground
can be found in a condition fit to plant a vineyard
without thorough and extensive improvements, and
unless it be in proper order our hopes of success will
end in failure and disappointment.

In our remarks on soil it was stated that one abso
lute necessity is a dry subsoil. ~No other good quali
ties can compensate for the want of this, and in most
cases it is only to be obtained by thorough draining.

The first great evil obviated by thorough draining
is the existence of stagnant water beneath the sur
face. It is a saying amongst vine-dressers that " the
vine cannot bear wet feet." And nothing can be
more true. If the roots be exposed to stagnant water
they will become diseased and die off, thus giving
rise to weak and ill-ripened though sometimes succu
lent growth,, and hence causing the vine to suffer from

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 51

the attacks of disease and insects. The grapes, loo,
will not ripen well, but will remain sour and ill-fla
vored.

M. Gasparin gives the following observations with
regard to the influence which a dry or a moist soil
exerts upon the grape : " Other things being equal,
we obtain grapes which contain much sugar and lit
tle acid from vines grown in a dry soil ; more free
acid in a moist soil, and much acid, albumen and
mucilage with little sugar in a soil which is absolu
tely wet,"

Another advantage consists in the fact that well-
drained land always possesses a higher temperature
than that which is wet. This difference amounts to
10° to 12° Fah. and is accounted for by the rapid
absorption of heat by the water as it becomes con
verted into vapor. Daring this process, too, it is pro
bable that the nascent vapor robs the earth of a por
tion of the ammonia and gases which it would have
separated from the water and retained if it had actedj
as a filter and the water had passed off by the drains.
But however this may be, its effect on temperature*
is such that Johnson regards thorough draining as
equal to a change of climate.

But not only does draining enable the soil to filter-
all the water which descends upon it, retaining its-
ammonia, gases and even salts- ; it is probable that by

52 OPEN AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

these means the excrement! tious matters discharged
by plants, as well as other noxious bodies are washed
out of the subsoil or decomposed by contact with the
air which penetrates along with the water. In the
case of oxide of iron it is probable that a very
beneficial effect results from its conversion from the
protoxide to the peroxide by means of this influence.

But a change in the chemical constitution and
action of the soil is not the only effect of this opera
tion ; a no less marked alteration is produced in its
mechanical character — heavy lands being rendered
light, porous and permeable to the roots of tender
plants.

It is unnecessary here to give minute directions for
performing such a well-known operation, so we shall
merely refer our readers to some of the numerous
treatises on that subject. An excellent article on the
theory and practice of draining will be found in the
" Rural Annual " for 1859 published at the office of the
" Genesee Farmer," Rochester, N. Y.

"We may state, however, that in laying drains for a
vineyard, it should be borne in mind that after the
vines are planted it will be almost impossible to get
at the drains in case of accident, without serious
detriment to the plants. It will, therefore, be well to
construct them in the most substantial manner and
also to arrange them so that they will not lie imme-

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 53

diately under any of the rows of vines. If they are
between the rows it will not be so difficult to get at
them as if they lay directly beneath the plants.

The next great requisite in a soil for the culture of
the vine is depth. Ordinary soils of from eight to
ten inches are by no means deep enough. Twenty
inches is the least depth to be relied upon, and, if
very favorable results are desired, it should be made
three feet. The subsoil to this depth should be
thoroughly loosened, and, unless its quality is very
inferior, it may be well to mix it with the surface
soil — adding at the same time a good supply of
manure or compost. We are aware that some horti
culturists object to bringing up the subsoil, but we
incline to the belief that if it is of such a character as
to produce much injury, the site is unfit for a vine
yard. When the subsoil is light (except it be pure
sand) no harm can result. If it be pure sand, how
ever, it had better remain where it is unless a suffi
ciency of clay can be found to mix with it. If, on
the other hand, it be so clayey as to hermetically seal
up the vine borders, we should prefer to let it remain
under. But, if possible, a site should be selected
where a good depth of tolerable soil may be obtained
either naturally or by proper effort.

The advantages incident to depth in ordinary cases
consist in the roots being placed alike beyond the

54: OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

extreme heat of summer and the severe cold of win
ter. Consequently they do not suifer from drought,
and are able at once to enter upon their duties in the
spring.

For table grapes, we doubt whether the soil can
be too deep or rich — not meaning by the latter term,
however, saturated with undecomposed organic mat
ter. But observation leads us to doubt the propriety
of carrying these features to an extreme in the case
of closely-trimmed vines cultivated for wine. It is
true that the Western authors (Remelin, Buchannan,
etc. — some of them Europeans) advocate this depth
and richness. Bat, if our memory does not deceive
us, some of Mr. Longworth's tenants who have not
pursued the most thorough system of cultivation
have occasionally escaped evils to which their more
skillful and hard-working brethren have been ex
posed. And perhaps a solution of this mystery may
be found above, notwithstanding Mr. Longworth
naively tells us that he cannot believe that nature
ever favors the indolent. Our own experience in
this particular department is not sufficient to warrant
us in pronouncing a decided opinion on the subject;
but the principles of physiology would lead us to be
lieve that if the roots of vines are planted in a deep
and rich soil the branches must be allowed corres
ponding elbow room. If we desire to keep a vigorous

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL, 55

plant down we must starve and curtail its roots as
well as use the pruning-knife on its branches.

There are two methods of deepening a soil, viz : by
the subsoil plough and by trenching with the spade.
Both these operations are too well known to require
a minute description, though in regard to the latter
there are so many and such contradictory directions
given in books that we may be pardoned a few re
marks in relation thereto.

In order properly to trench a piece of ground the
directions given by Loudon are as explicit and judi
cious as possible. " Trenching is a mode of pulveriz
ing and mixing the soil, or of pulverizing and chang
ing its surface to a greater depth than can be done
by the spade alone. For trenching with a view to
pulverizing and changing the surface, a trench, is
formed like the furrow in digging, but two or more
times wider and deeper; the plot or piece to be
trenched is next marked oif with the line into parallel
strips of this width ; and beginning at one of these,
the operator digs or picks the surface stratum, and
throws it in the bottom of the trench. Having com
pleted with the shovel the removal of the surface
stratum, a second, third or fourth, according to the
depth of the soil and other circumstances, is removed
in the same way ; and thus, when the operation is
completed, the position of the different strata is

56 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

exactly the reverse of what they were before. In
trenching with a view to mixture and pulverization,
all that is necessary is to open, at one corner of the
plot, a trench or excavation of the desired depth, 3
or 4: feet broad, and 6 or 8 feet long. Then proceed
to fill the excavation from one end by working out a
similar one. In this way proceed across the piece to
be trenched, and then return, and so on in parallel
courses to the end of the plot, observing that the face
or position of the moved soil in the trench must
always be that of a slope, in order that whatever is
thrown there may be mixed and not deposited in
regular layers as in the other case. To effect this
most completely, the operator should always stand in
the bottom of the trench, and first picking down and
mixing the materials, from the solid side, should
next take them up with, the shovel, and throw them
on the slope or face of the moved soil, keeping a dis
tinct space of two or three feet between them. For
want of attention to this, in trenching new soils for
gardens and plantations, it may be truly said that
half the benefit derivable from the operation is lost."
A more expeditious method of mixing the soil,
and one which varies but slightly from the ordinary
system, consists in cutting down the bank in succes
sive sections so as to produce theoretically a series of
layers of soil and subsoil, but in reality a most inti-

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 57

mate mixture of the two. This is best accomplished
by opening a very wide trench — say from four to
six feet wide. Then throw the top spit off a bank of
the same width into the bottom of the trench so as to
insure the burial of all insects, seeds, and weeds ; cut a
width of from six to fifteen inches of the remaining por
tion of the bank completely down to the bottom, and
spread the soil so obtained in a thin layer over the
spit formerly thrown in. Then cut down another six
to fifteen inches in the same manner, proceeding thus
until the whole bank has been cut down and used to
fill up the trench. It will now be found that, with
the exception of the extreme top spit which is placed
at the bottom for very good reasons, the whole soil is
sufficiently mixed for all practical purposes.

Another mode of trenching — called bastard trench
ing — is thus described by a writer in the " Gardener's
Chronicle :" " Open a trench two feet and a half, or
a yard wide, one full spit and the shovelling deep,
and wheel the soil from it to where it is intended to
finish the piece ; then put in the dung and dig it in
with the bottom spit in the trench ; then fill up this
trench with the top spit, etc., of the second, treating
it in like manner, and so on. The advantages of this
plan of working the soil are, the good soil is retained
at the top — an important consideration where the

soil is poor or bad ; the bottom soil is enriched and

3*

58

OPEN AIK GK1PE CULTURE.

loosened for the penetration and nourishment of Ibhe
roots, and allowing them to descend deeper, they are
not BO liable to suffer from drought in summer ;
strong soil is rendered capable of absorbing more
moisture, and yet remains drier at the surface by the
water passing down more rapidly to the subsoil, and
it insures a more thorough shifting of the soil."

A method which we have sometimes adopted, and
which we think a saving of labor under some circum
stances, is as follows :

Let fig. 1. represent the plot of ground to be
trenched. Divide it into two equal parts by the line
a 5, and instead of wheeling the soil out of A r to the
rear of the plot, simply throw that from A out in front.

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 59

There can, of course, be no more difficulty in find
ing room for it there than there would be in obtain
ing a place for it in the rear. Then dig down the
bank B, and wTith it fill the trench A. B is now a
trench which may be filled from c ; c may be filled
from D ; D from E ; E from F ; and the filling of F
with the soil which was at first thrown out of A, will
make all even. The wheeling of the soil, which is no
inconsiderable item, is thus saved. It is evident,
however, that this plan is adapted only to small, or
at least narrow plots.

All the foregoing operations prove most beneficial
when performed in the fall. At that time the soil
should not be finely pulverized, but left in as rough
a state as possible so as to expose it thoroughly to the
action of the winter's frost and snow. It should be
also well mixed with a good dressing of well decom
posed stable manure, and any of those matters men
tioned in Chapter XI.

By these means, the ground will be thoroughly
enriched by spring, and will not consist of earth
mixed with fermenting masses of manure, than which
nothing can be more injurious to young plants. In
the following spring the land should be raked or har
rowed, so as to obtain a level surface of finely pulver
ized soil, and if it should be lightly forked over it
would be none the worse for it.

60 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

TERRACES. — From our directions for the selection
of a vineyard site, it will be seen that we prefer a gen
tle slope to the south or southeast. If this slope does
not exceed an angle of eight degrees, or a rise of one
foot in seven, it will be unnecessary to adopt any
peculiar system of arrangement. For a rise of one in
four it will be necessary merely to make very slight
terraces, the borders being made eight feet wide
and half the descent being taken up by the slope
given to them, will leave but twelve inches of a ter
race, which may be easily secured by a row of sods,
boards or stones, or even the earth beaten hard and
kept carefully dressed up. But when the inclination
of the ground much exceeds this amount, it becomes
necessary to form regular terraces which is best
-done as follows :

Find out the actual slope or inclination of the
.•ground, which is easily done by taking an eight-foot

Fig. 2.

board, and after laying one edge on the ground and
levelling the board, find the length of the perpendi-

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 61

cular which touches the surface beneath the other end.
Thus a d, fig. 2, being the surface of the hill,
and o the eight feet board with the level resting upon
it, e dj will be the rise in eight feet and e d, less the
slope given to the border will be the height of each
step or terrace. Having found this, the next step is
to cut a perpendicular face half the height of the pro
posed terrace at the foot of the hill and against it to
build a wall as high as may be required. This is best
formed of dry stone, though the bank is sometimes
left with a good deal of slope, and sodded, the sods
being pinned to the face of the bank with stakes until
the roots have penetrated sufficiently to hold. The
sods for this purpose should not be cut square, but dia
mond form, so that the face of the bank would pre
sent the appearance shown in fig. 3. But sods are

Fig. 8.

objectionable from the fact that they not only keep
the air moist in the vicinity of the vines, but also
abstract a good deal of nutriment from the soil, and
unless kept neatly mown present a very bad appear-

OPEX AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

ance. In default of good stone we think that sun-
dried brick would make a very good wall. The
earth of which they are made should be mixed with
straw, well worked and made into blocks.

It is probable that in well-drained terraces such
walls would last well if protected with a coping of
boards or straw secured with good clay in the man-
ner shown in fig. 4, so as to shed the rain.

Figure 4,

Having built this wall, the next step is to fill up
behind it, and level off a border of suitable width —
say 6 or 8 feet. To do this it will be necessary to cut
down a perpendicular face the same height as before,
when another wall must be built, and the same pro
cess repeated.

A writer in the third volume of the " Gardener's
Magazine" proposes to train the vines on trellises

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 63

lying on the surface of the slopes as shown in figure 5.
Trained in this manner, grapes are said to have

Figure 6.

ripened well in England. "We would prefer the
vertical trellis, however, and give the illustration,
more to show what has been proposed than as an
example to be followed. So many times have we
seen it proposed to incline trellises and train vines
horizontally, that we cannot refrain from quoting
Lindley's remarks upon this point.

" That training a tree over the face of a wall will
protect the blossoms from cold must be apparent,
when we consider the severe effect of excessive eva
poration upon the tender parts. A merely low
temperature will produce but little comparative in
jury in a still air, because the more essential parts
of the flower are very much guarded by the bracts,
calyx and petals, which overlie them, and, more
over, because radiation will be intercepted by the

64: OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

branches themselves, placed one above the other, so
that none but the uppermost branches which radiate
into space will feel its full effects ; but when a cold
wind is constantly passing through the branches and
among the flowers, the perspiration — against which
no sufficient guard is provided by nature — becomes
so rapid as to increase the amount of cold consider
ably, besides abstracting more aqueous matter than
a plant can safely part with. To prevent this being
one of the great objects of training trees, it is incon
ceivable how any one should have recommended
such devices as those mentioned in the ' Horticultural
Transactions,' II. Appendix, p. 8., of training trees
upon a horizontal plane; the only effect of which
would be to expose a tree as much as possible to the
effect of that radiation which it is the very purpose
of training to guard against."

All terraces should be well drained, and the drains
are best arranged by having a series of cross drains
parallel to the terrace, as seen in section fig. 4 and 5,
and emptying into a main drain which descends the
hill. These drains should be placed as in the figures,
taking care to leave the ground under the wall solid
and undisturbed. In forming terraces for vine cul
ture it is necessary to exercise care and j udgment, so
as not to bury the good soil and leave the poor soil
for the vines to grow in.

FORMATION OF VINE BORDERS. 65

YINE BORDERS. — The formation of vine borders in
gardens is a subject upon which the student will find
no lack of information, almost every successful
gardener attributing the superiority of his grapes to
some peculiarity in the construction of his borders,
and innumerable have been the paper conflicts waged
between the advocates of carrion, asphalte, ventilated
borders, etc., etc., and their opponents. The "car
rion" controversy has probably caused the shedding
of more ink than any of the others, the ultraists on
both sides being probably in the wrong. But,
after all, we regard the construction of proper vine
borders as no very difficult affair, and shall first give
our own views in the matter and afterward quote
those of other authors.

Of course in borders, as in other cases, it is neces
sary that the bottom be as dry as possible. This
being provided for, if the soil is a light mellow gar
den mold, we would rest content with trenching it
thoroughly, and adding liberal supplies of litter, well
decomposed manure, woollen rags, and especially
bones ; * and if in the bottom of each trench a good

* In the ordinary course of agriculture, where " quick returns," if
not " small profits " are an important element of success, bones when
used as manure cannot be too thoroughly pulverized. Indeed, it is
often profitable to reduce them to the most active form — that of a solu
tion — b/ means of acids. But for reasons to be hereafter stated, one

66 OPKN "AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

layer of brickbats, lime rubbish, and oyster shells be
laid, it will prove an advantage. A border prepared
in this simple manner will give good satisfaction
under any circumstances.

If the soil be heavy we would also make liberal
additions of sandy loam or saw-dust.

But if the location of the border is such that it can
not be well drained, we would remove all the soil to
the depth of 1 8 inches over the entire extent of the
border and fill up at least 12 inches of the space with
stones, brickbats, etc. Over this we would spread a
thin layer of straw or brush, and after building a wall
round the border 18 to 30 inches high, we would fill
in with a rich soil resembling in composition, that
described above. The earth on the outside might be
banked up to the wall, and either sodded, or merely
beaten solid.

In all such cases, it is evident that from the narrow
limits to which we are in general confined, the soil
ought to be of the richest kind ; and as it is nearly
impossible to renew it after the vines are once started,
this richness should be derived from materials calcu-

great advantage to be derived from the use of bones in vine borders
is the length of time during which they continue to act, and, there
fore, the largest and most solid should be selected and used without
being crushed or broken. This is no argument, however, against iha
additional use of bone dust.

FORMATION OF TINE BORDERS. 67

lated to give more than a mere temporary impetus
to the plants. The nature and action of manures will
form the subject of a future chapter, but we may here
state that bones, hair, woollen rags, leather clippings
and similar matters are by far the most suitable. For
the purpose of giving porosity to the soil, as wrell as
furnishing nutriment to the plants, nothing will be
found to equal chopped straw. Chaff, or sawdust
comes next in order, and from experiments which we
have made on the subject, we do not think the value
of the latter is half appreciated. To dead animals,
either whole or divided, we have never found any
objection, provided they were not placed in direct con
tact with the roots of the plant. No danger is to be
apprehended of the vine seeking them to its own
detriment. But this more properly pertains to the
subject of manures. "We will now give the manner
in which the most celebrated grape growers construct
their borders.

Miller (1759) recommends good mellow soil with
out any addition.

Speedily (1790) states in his work : "As the vines
in the hot-house at "Welbeck have been remarkably
fruitful and vigorous, I shall beg leave to recom
mend the same kind of compost mold which I make
use of there, viz. one-fourth part of garden mold,
(a strong loam) ; one-fourth of the sward or turf from

68 OPEN AIE GKAPE CULTURE.

a pasture where the soil is a sandy loam ; one-fourth
of the sweepings and scrapings of pavements and hard
roads ; one-eighth of rotten cow and stable yard dung
mixed ; and one-eighth of vegetable mold from re
duced and decayed oak leaves. These are the several
and respective proportions. The sward should be
laid in a heap till the grass roots are in a state of
decay, and then turned over and broken with a spade ;
let it then be put to the other materials, and the
whole worked together, till the separate parts become
well and uniformly mixed and incorporated.

As the vegetable mold from decayed leaves can
not always be obtained, by reason that the leaves
require two years before they become sufficiently
putrid and reduced, it therefore may sometimes be
necessary to substitute some other ingredient in lieu
of this part of the compost ; wherefore it may not be
inexpedient to point out the proper succedanea.

Rotten wood reduced to a fine mold, such as is
often found under fagot stacks ; the scraping of the
ground in old woods, where the trees grow thick
together; mold out of hollow trees, and sawdust
reduced to a fine mold, provided it be not from wood
of a resinous kind, are in part of a similar nature
with vegetable mold from decayed leaves, but are
neither so rich nor so powerful, because the vegetable
mold receives a power by its fermentation.

FORMATION OF VINE BORDERS, 69

Abercrorabie directs the top slip of sand/ loam from
an upland pasture, one-third part ; unexhausted brown
loam from a garden, one-fourth part; scrapings of
roads free from clay, one-sixth part ; vegetable mold
or old tan, or rotten stable dung, one-eighth part;
shell marl, or mild lime, one-twelfth part. His bor
ders he recommends to be from three to five feet in
depth, and where practicable, not less than four feet
wide within the house, and not less than ten feet wide
without.

The vine borders at "Wishaw House, Lanarkshire,
in a cold and wet locality, are thus formed : Breadth,
12 feet, depth of soil 18 inches, under which is laid
a foot of hard clinkers, by way of drainage. The soil
used is that natural to the garden, which had for
years been under pasture, and is a remarkably strong,
rich brick-clayey loam, with no other preparation
than the addition of a moderate supply of stable ma
nure. In this soil the best grapes ever produced in
Scotland have been grown for the last three years.

A writer in the " Gardener's Chronicle" (1843, page
825) prepares his borders thus : The soil most suita
ble for a vine border is the surface spit from a field
of an old fertile loam pasture ; this should be collected
some time before it is required, mixed with a good
proportion of cow dung, and the whole turned over
at intervals, three or four times, and exposed to the

TO OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

action of the -weather. In preparing the border, the
old earth should be cleared away from the whole
space, to the depth of about two and a half feet, and
a main drain cut parallel with the length of the bor
der, at its extreme outer edge.

This should be at least two feet lower than the
bottom of the border, whether laid with concrete,
chalk or bricks, and the bottom of the border should
have a gentle inclination from the back to the drain.
To render this drainage more effectual, cut small
drains, placing drain tiles at their bottoms, at con
venient distances, to run in a slanting direction from
the back of the border into the main drain, the latter
being* six inches below them. A few turfs should

O

be laid over the tile drains with the grassy side down 5
the fresh soil may then be filled in, taking care to
keep the roughest part near the bottom.

Three cubic yards of compost are enough for each
vine ; this will admit of the border being ten feet
wide, or with forty-eight cubic feet, you may form it
only six feet wide in the first instance, and add six
feet more as the vines extend.

Roberts, the great advocate for carrion, gives the
following description of his border : " The compost
and manures I most recommend, and which I made
use of, are two parts the parings of a piece of old
pasture land, a strong loam laid up one year (or till

FORMATION OF VINE BORDERS. 71

the sward is half decomposed), in the form of a potato
hod, close covered in with soil, and never turned ; one
part, the turf with four inches of the soil, of a looser
texture laid up for the same period, and not turned,
as before ; an eighth part scrapings of the highways
formed from limestone, or other hard material ; and
the other eighth part, half decomposed horse or cow
clung. I am not an advocate for turning over and
mixing the materials promiscuously together, as, by
often turning, the compost becomes too solid, losing a
great portion of its fertilizing property by such re
peated intermixture ; and unless it be of a very sandy,
loose texture, the border will, in a few years, become
impervious both to water and to atmospheric air,
which are of incalculable benefit to the growth of the
vine. I would recommend the autumn, if the weather
be dry, to prepare to fill in your border.

"A month previous to filling your border, provide a
quantity of carrion, cattle dying by accident, disease,
etc., which I am sorry to say, has, of late years,
been too common an occurrence. If you have col
lected it some time before hand, have it cut into small
pieces and laid up in soil till the time of using. It
em-its a very nauseous effluvia, but this must be borne,
for this is the pabulum to produce the nectar of
Bacchus, When all is ready, and the weather favor
able, proceed at one end of your border, wheeling in

72 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

and mixing the materials in proportion as they stand
to each other in my previous directions, on no account
breaking the materials in mixing, but turn them in as
rough as possible, adding one good sized horse or cow
carcass to every ten or twelve square yards, using
caution, and not bringing it to the surface of the
border within one foot as its assistance is not wanted
the first year. What I have here recommended is
my practice adopted at this place, the result of which,
I dare presume to say, has surprised all, both gentle
men and practical gardeners, who have witnessed it."

Fiske Allen, one of the best American culturists
of the vine under glass, constructs his borders thus :

" If the soil is very poor, or unsuitable for the pur
pose, so as to require to be removed entirely, then
a compost prepared thus is recommended ; one-half
to be the top soil of an old pasture, one-quarter to
be bone, or some other strong manure ; one-eighth
oyster shells, or lime and brick rubbish ; one-eighth
rotten manure ; these articles thrown together in a
heap, and so to remain until decomposed and amalga
mated, when they should be placed in the border and
thrown loosely together. My borders having the
most slaughter-house manure, or whole bones of ani
mals in their composition still continue, as they ever
have done, to produce the best fruit and the largest
crops.

FORMATION OF VINE BORDERS. 73

" It is unnecessary to attempt to give rules for every
kind of soil. One must use his own judgment, and
make his border to consist, as near as can be, of the
above ingredients. He must bear in mind that, if
his soil is a stiff clayey loam, he must add freely of
such materials as will lighten and give permeability
to it. If the soil is light, sandy or gravelly, with the
manure should be added a proportion of clay or
clayey loam. The rich alluvion soil, abounding in
our western and southwestern States, will not require
any of these strong manures. If anything is requi
site to improve them, it must be shells, charcoal,
leaves, small stones, or gravel — such materials as
will loosen the soil."

But that the reader may not be discouraged by
these extravagant demands we quote the following
fj om Hoare :

"But if vines could not be planted with any pros
pect of success in any other situations than in bor
ders set apart for that purpose, but a very small quan
tity of grapes could be grown, compared with what
the country is capable of producing. Innumerable-
instances occur throughout the country, and espe
cially in towns and their suburban districts, in which,
walls, cottages, houses, and various descriptions of*
brick and stone erections present very favorable
aspects for the training of vines, but which neverther

4

74: OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

less are so situated locally, as to possess little or no
soil at all on the surface adjoining their sites; the
ground being either paved with bricks or stone, or per
haps trodden- so hard, as to be apparently incapable
of yielding sustenance to any vegetable production.

" In all such cases, however, if the ground adjoining
the site of the wall or building be opened to the
extent of eighteen inches square, and as many deep,
it will be sufficient to admit the roots of a young
vine, which must be pruned to suit that space. If a
wider and deeper space can be made, it will of course
be better ; but if not, that will do. After the sides
and bottom have been loosened as much as possible,
the vine may be planted and the hole filled up with
two-thirds of rich loamy earth, and one-third of road
scrapings, previously mixed well together, and if
necessary the surface covering, whether of stone,
brick, or otherwise, may be restored again to its for
mer state, provided a space about six inches square
be left open for the stem to swell in during its future
growth. Vines planted in such situations, will in gene
ral do well, although their growth will not be so rapid
as when planted under more favorable circumstances.

" In all cases where vines are planted against any
description of buildings, their roots push as soon as
possible under the foundations, being attracted thi
ther by the warm air which is there generated ; and

FORMATION OF VINE BORDERS. 75

such situations being also dry, from the excavations
which have been made, offer to the roots the same
protection from excessive moisture, as the substratum
of a well-prepared border. The same may be
observed of vines planted against walls, the founda
tions of which possess similar advantages, although
in a more limited degree. Hence the fact may be
inferred that vines planted in such situations, without
any previous preparation of the soil, will frequently
grow as luxuriantly, and produce as fine grapes as
those planted in rich and well-prepared borders.

" Indeed, it is hardly possible to plant a vine in any
situation in which it will not thrive, provided its roots
can by any means push themselves into a dry place,
and the aspect be such as to afford to its branches a
sufficient portion of the sun's rays to elaborate the
juices of the plant.

" The truth is, that the roots of the vine possess ani
extraordinary power of adapting themselves to any-
situation in which they may be planted, provided it
be a dry one.

" They will ramble in every direction in search of
food, and extract nourishment from sources apparently
the most barren. In short, they are the best caterers-
that can possibly be imagined, for they will grow,,
and even thrive luxuriantly, where almost every
cription of plant or tree would inevitably starve."

76 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER IV.

PLANTING.

PROPER AGE OF YINES FOR PLANTING. — Where
young vines have been raised from cuttings, in the
open ground, two years old probably is the best age
to select for planting out. Plants one year from the
cutting have rarely made sufficient roots to bear
transplanting well, and at a greater age than two
years the roots are so long that they generally receive
much mutilation in taking up — thus losing their
most fibrous and valuable part, viz., that at the ex
tremities. Of course older vines, carefully taken up
and as carefully planted, will come into bearing in
shorter time than younger plants, and thus give more
satisfactory results where expense is no objection.
But where a large number of vines are to be set out,
two-year old plants, as above stated, or one-year old
plants raised from eyes in the spring, and grown all
summer in the open air, have decided advantages on
the score both of economy and ease of planting.
Indeed, we should prefer plain cuttings, planted two
to each stake, to one-year old vines raised from cut-

PLANTING. 77

tings ill the open ground. Plants raised from eyes
in pots, early in spring, and transferred in summer to
their final location, do very well.

PJROPER SEASON FOE PLANTING. — The proper season
for planting depends much upon local circumstances
— soil and climate being chiefly to be considered. In
a few instances, were the soil is light and the climate
mild, it may do to risk fall planting, but under all
ordinary circumstances we should advise this opera
tion to be deferred till pretty late in the spring, and
this advice is founded upon the uniformly favorable
results which have attended this plan in our own
experience, as opposed to frequent want of success at
other times. Plants set out even early in the fall
rarely outstrip those planted in the following spring,
and when autumn planting is delayed much beyond
the fall of the leaf, the plants frequently fail if the
winters are severe.

The reason of this probably depends upon the fact
that the roots of all plants when vegetation is active,
are enabled to resist adverse influences which would
prove fatal to them when dormant. Thus the vine
when growing will revel in a degree of moisture
which would destroy it, or at least prove very injuri
ous during the winter months. ~Now the roots of all
trees are more or less injured by transplanting, and

78 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

incipient decay is apt to supervene unless the vitality
of tlie plant is sufficient to withstand it. If this
should occur when the plant is dormant, there is no
influence at work to resist the evil. But if such
injuries should be inflicted in spring, when vegeta
tion is just commencing, they are quickly and readily
repaired.

"With care vines may be transplanted even when
their leaves are well developed ; but under such cir
cumstances the vine, from its great evaporative
powers, makes a heavy draft upon the roots and is
rather impatient of removal after vegetation has made
some progress. We have had the best success, however,
when the plant was set out so late in the spring that
the buds were starting, but just before they were fully
burst. About this time the soil is getting gradually
warmer, and although it does not reach a sufficiently
high temperature to induce the formation of roots in
cuttings before June or July, still it is warm enough
to allow of the healthy action of the roots in a grow
ing plant.

In the above cases the vines were set out immedi
ately after being dug up. "Where it is necessary to
transport them any distance, it would undoubtedly
be better to take them up earlier, before the sap
begins to move. They need not be planted for some
time, but may be merely heeled in, as it is called,

PLANTING. 79

that is, placed in a shallow trench and well covered
with dry soil. A covering of straw or leaves in addi
tion will do no harm if the mice do not make it a
harbor.

DISTANCE APART. — The distance apart at which
vines should be planted will, of course, depend not
only upon the variety, but upon the object for which
they are set out. In Europe they are placed at all
distances from 30 inches to 30 feet. In the Ohio
vineyards, where they are usually fastened to stakes,
the plants are placed about four or five feet apart ; but
in the northern States, where vines are trained upon
trellises, we should prefer to set them out in rows 6
feet apart, and the vines standing 7 or 8 feet apart in
the rows. This distance enables us to keep the vines
close enough and short enough for all practical pur
poses, while it does not require more time to cover
the trellis than is absolutely necessary to bring the
vine into proper order for bearing. The rows are
also sufficiently far apart to allow of horse labor
being used — a considerable saving being thus
effected.

The number of vines required to plant an acre will
be seen from the following table, which has often
been published, but which it may be well to insert
here.

80

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

PLANTS TO THE

ACRE.

PLANTS TO THB

ACRE.

3 X

3

requires

4

,840

8

X

7

requires

788

4 X

3

u

3

,630

8

X

8

u

680

4 X

4

u

2

,722

9

X

7

u

691

5 X

4

a

2

,178

9

X

8

u

605

5 X

5

tt

1

,742

9

X

9

a

537

6 X

5

u

1

,452

10

X

7

tt

622

6 X

6

u

1

,210

10

X

8

u

544

7 x

G

u

1

,023

10

X

9

u

484

7x

7

u

888

10

X

10

«

435

MARKING OFF THE GROUND. — Where vines are set
out at from 4 to 6 feet apart and trained to stakes,
the following directions, taken from the "American
Philosophical Transactions," and frequently quoted
(generally without credit), are as good as any :

" Your squares being laid out, and having con
cluded how far your vines shall stand every way
from one another, in which every man is to please
himself, you stretch a line of proper length, and
stitch small pieces of red, blue, green, or any other
colored cloth, at such distance from each other as you
mean to plant the vines. I will suppose 8 feet,
because upon the most mature deliberation, I think
that the best distance for vines to stand in this coun
try, as I shall afterward show more fully. The line
being ready, stretch it along the head or upper part

PLANTING. 81

of your square, so that a rag appears at each corner,
drive down a stake at every rag. This done, move
your line down to the lower side of the square, which
is opposite to the first, and stretch your line along
that, having a rag at each corner, and drive down a
stake at every rag. Then turn your line the other
way up and down, and fasten your line to the upper
and lower outside stakes, so that a rag be at each
stake, and drive down a stake at every rag, and so on
from stake to stake, till the whole be completed. If
you have been careful not to disturb or move the
line, when you drove down the stakes, and have
driven them all on the same side of the line, your
square will be uniform, and the stakes near the
ground will range exactly every way."

Where the vines are trained to trellises, it is not
essential that they should be straight both ways as
when tied to stakes, it being necessary that the trel
lises be parallel and equi-distant only.

To make them so, a very good plan is as follows :
Prepare a rod, fig. 6, a few inches more than
twenty feet long, and having a small hole (a) bored
through one end, the» bore a similar hole (c) twelve
feet from the first ; one (5), 16 feet from the first ; and
one (d) 20 feet from the first. Having decided upon
the direction of the first row and divided it into
spaces corresponding to the distance the plants are to

4*

82 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

stand from each other, drive in stakes A A at each
end, and measuring off 16 feet, drive in other two,
B B. The heads of these should be made level with

Fig. 6.

iflie surface of the ground, and headless nails should
ifhen be driven into them — the two nails (A and B) at
(each end being exactly 16 feet apart. ISTow place the
Tod on one of the outside stakes, so that the nail will
pass through the first hole (a) and drive a peg into
the hole in the rod 12 feet from the end. With this
peg mark a curve (<?), and then placing the end (a) of
fhe rod on the stake B, mark another curve ( d) cross
ing the first by means of a pin passing through the
hole (d). A line (A D), drawn from A through the cross
ing of these curves will be perfectly square with the

PLANTING. 83

first row. Divide the lines (A D) into spaces equal to
the width of the rows, and the lines joining the cor
responding divisions will be the proper lines of the
trellises.

As many stakes or poles, 6 or 8 feet long, should be
provided as there are vines., and these should be set
at the points where the vines are to be placed before
the holes are dug. These stakes will serve during
the first two years and will save the tear and wear of
trellises as well as the interest on the investment,
besides relieving some of the hurry incident to the
work of the first spring, which is always more press
ing than that of any succeeding one.

DIGGING THE HOLES. — In digging the holes it will
be well to take up the stakes one at a time, and after
digging the hole to replace the stake, driving it
slightly into the soil at the bottom. By so doing the
centres of the holes, or at least the points where the
steins of the vines should come, will be easily kept,
whereas if all the stakes were removed before dig
ging the holes, it would be troublesome to get them
exactly right again. The insertion of the stake,
before planting the vine, not only aids us in this, but
prevents the possibility of injuring the roots by driv
ing a sharp stake through them, a thing which is
often done. The holes should be dug from 12 to 24

84 OPEN" AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

inches deep and about 3 feet in diameter, or as wide
as the distance to which the roots extend.

TAKING UP THE PLANTS. — When plants are pur
chased, this operation is generally left to the nursery
man who not unfrequently commits it to men who
care very little how it is done so that they get the
plants out of the ground. But when we reflect that
a small amount of care in taking up a plant will
often cause a difference of a year or more in its sub
sequent growth, it will be evident that the labor, time
and consequent interest on capital which will be ulti
mately saved by devoting a little attention to this
matter will more than pay for the few extra minutes
required.

In taking up a vine, or any plant, it is well to
^remember that the most efficient portion of the roots
is that which lies at the extreme ends — those minute
fibres or spongioles which have been aptly termed
$he mouths of the plant. In old vines, where the
j-oots extend to a great distance, these fibres are gene-
Tally left in the soil, and the plant presents but a few
smooth, fibreless, cord-like roots from which spongi
oles must be emitted ere the plant can derive any
nourishment from them.

But in young plants the roots have not yet extend
ed so far as to prevent their being easily taken up

PLANTING. 85

without any great loss, and here we have one reason
why we prefer young plants to old ones. A con
sideration of this fact will also lead us to follow out
each root to its termination and so secure all the
fibres possible. Where the plants have been started
in sandy, friable soil this is not a laborious task, but
where the soil is clayey and plastic, it is often a work
of considerable difficulty.

In any case, however, the purchaser should see
that the roots are taken up as completely and entirely
as possible, and it will also be well to prune all that
are bruised, broken, or diseased — taking such injured
parts off with a clean cut. As these injuries can
never be so well seen, or so well remedied as when
the plant is newly taken up, this is the best time to
attend to them ; and this forms another reason why
the purchaser should, if possible, give this matter hi?
personal supervision. They should then be dipped
in puddle made of good garden soil, stirred up with
water ; clay is frequently used for this purpose, and so
is cow dung, but very injudiciously. The former is
too tough and hard and prevents the formation of
young roots, while the latter (as it is commonly used)
is caustic and destructive to the tender fibres. We
have tried all three substances and are confident that
nothing will be found equal to good common soil.

If the nursery in which the plants have been raised

86 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

is on the same premises as the vineyard, the vines may
be either rolled up in coarse sacking, or, a few being
taken up at a time, they may be plunged in a pail or
tub filled with puddle. But if they are to be sent to
a distance, they should be packed in damp (not moist)
moss (sphagnum) or good clean straw, and either
made into light bundles or firmly packed in boxes.

The vines having been carefully taken up and the
holes properly prepared to receive them, the next
step is to set them out, and in doing this the follow
ing points require special attention :

1. That the roots be disposed in their new location
as nearly as possible in the same position that they
occupied before their removal.

2. That some fine, friable, mellow mold be placed
in immediate contact with the roots.

3. That no fresh manure or decomposing organic
matter be allowed to come in direct contact with the
plant under any circumstances whatever.

4. That the soil be firmly packed about the roots,
no air spaces being left. In doing this, however, do
not tread down the plant with your whole weight, as
you will thus be very apt to tear off some of the
roots, but work the soil in with your hand or a
pointed stick.

In general it will be well to insert the plants a
little deeper in the soil than they were previously,

PLANTING.

87

as, owing to the mutilation winch of necessity takes
place, a greater draught is made upon the roots for
moisture than they can support when thus shortened,
if they are placed near the surface. But this point
requires the exercise of discretion, and a good sub
stitute for deeper planting will be thorough mulch
ing.

As roots always spring from a bud or joint, and
rarely from the internode or portion between the buds,
the mode of propagation by which the plant has been
produced will exert considerable influence upon the
modus operandi of setting it out.

rig. 7.

In fig. Y is shown the proper disposition of the
roots of a young plant raised from a seed or from a
single eye. In this case the roots all proceed from
within a short distance of each other and from the
base of the stem. In setting out such a plant, the
better plan is to throw a shovelful or two of fine

88 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

mold on the bottom of the hole, so as to form 3.
conical heap, the top of which should be just at a
suitable height to support the base of the stem in its
proper position. Then, having placed the plant on
the top of this little mound, spread out all the roots
equally and naturally over its side and fill in with
pulverized soil, being careful to pack the soil firmly
around the roots, yet still leaving it mellow and
porous.

The soil ought to be raised some inches above the
surrounding ground, the amount depending upon the
size and depth of the hole dug. All filling- in is apt
to sink, and unless this is done, the plant may be
found after a few weeks to be too low. Some, how
ever, prefer to have the plant set in a hollow, claim
ing that a basin is thus formed which catches and
retains the rain. We would rather rely upon good
mulching for obtaining the requisite amount of mois
ture, but if this is dispensed with, and recourse had
to the former plan, we should prefer to have the hol
low or basin in the form of a ring around the edge of
the hole, leaving the stem surrounded with a little
mound which will shed the rain. The stem is thus
kept dry, and the moisture is guided just where it is
wanted, viz. : to the extremity of the roots. Figure
8 gives a sectional view of the soil so arranged.

"When vines have been raised from cuttings con-

PLANTING.

89

Fig. 8.

sisting of several eyes or joints, there will in general
be several layers of roots — the plants having the ap
pearance shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9.

In this case it will be necessary to proceed as
directed for plants from eyes in so far as the lower
layer of roots is concerned — the upper layers being
held up while this is done. After the first layer has
been properly covered, the next layer is laid on the
surface of the soil which covers the lower layer, and
after being properly disposed are covered in turn.

00 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

which process is repeated until all the roots are im
bedded in the soil.

Plants raised from layers in general demand a
treatment peculiar to themselves. If they have been
produced as in Fig. 44, page 176, they will, of course,
be set out in the main as shown in Fig. 7. But if
they have been raised in the open ground, and the
roots have been produced from several joints or buds,
it will be found that while the roots are not disposed
in regularly-ascending layers, yet that some are lower
than others — the whole, however, in general lying in
one plane which is greatly inclined to the surface of
the earth. For such plants it will in general be best
to dig a trench or oblong hole, and instead of raising
a heap in the centre to lay the soil in the bottom, so
as to form a regularly inclined bed. The plant being
placed on this bed of fine soil, the roots are all ar
ranged over it at once and covered in without farther
trouble.

In all these cases it will, of course, be necessary
that the stem of the plant be placed sufficiently near
to the stake which has been inserted in the hole to
allow of its being tied thereto without much bending
or wrenching, and if the weather be dry it will be
necessary to give the plants a good watering at the
time they are set out.

When plants are received in pots — having been

PLANTING. 91

grown therein from eyes or grafts — it is always best
after taking them out to remove a considerable por
tion of the soil, and spread out the roots. This is
necessary from the fact that the roots of plants grown
in pots form a series of spirals round the outside of
the ball (between the earth and the pot), and if set
out in the ground just as they are taken from the
pot, it requires a long time before the roots change
this habit and acquire a proper direction and healthy
condition. The plants should be well watered before
being taken from the pots, and they should be set in
fine, loose soil, being exposed to the air as little as
possible. After planting, it will, of course, be well
to be liberal with water, and liquid manure used in a
very diluted state will prove highly beneficial after
the first week.

Plants for setting out are usually obtained in pots
in June, July, or the beginning of August, and as it
frequently happens that at that time the earth and
air are so dry as to endanger the life of a young vine,
if treated as just directed, we have sometimes found
it advisable after receiving them from the nursery to
set out the pots (without removing the plants) in the
open ground, plunging them about two inches below
the surface of the soil, and leaving them there until
a few rainy days occur, when the pots are taken up
and the plants removed and properly set out.

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER V.

CARE OF THE VINES DURING THE FIRST, SECOND AND
THIRD YEARS.

THE roots of tlie vine having been properly cared for,
the branches may now be pruned. Unless where
very large and well-rooted vines have been planted
expressly for immediate bearing, all the secondary
shoots should be cut away and the main stem
shortened to an extent depending upon its cha
racter.

As usually received from the nursery, one or two
year old plants, if raised from cuttings, consist of a
short stem two to six inches long, one or two shoots
and a large quantity of spray or small twigs, consist
ing of the laterals of last year. If raised from eyes,
there will in general be but one shoot, with perhaps
a few laterals. Under any, circumstances the plants
ought to be cut back at planting to two good eyes, and
as soon as they have made a few leaves, cut off the
upper one as close as possible to the one left, taking
care, however, not to injure the base of the remaining
shoot, which ought to be kept tied up to the stake

CAKE OF THE VINES DUEING THE FIKST TEAK. 93

as fast as it shows symptoms of leaning over.* The

Fig. 10.

base of the shoot which is retained (that is, the point

* It is recommended by some respectable authorities, to allow the
young plants to remain untied during the first year, urging as a
reason that more vigorous stems will thus be obtained. But, although
the experiments of Knight have proved the advantage of bending and
motion to most young trees, yet the vine naturally seeks support
from surrounding objects, and will in most cases, receive more injury
from dirt, and abrasion by being blown about and rubbing upon the
ground than will balance the good derived from the motion imparted.

But as we may observe that the vine is adapted to cling, not to the
thick and stout bodies of trees, but to slender branches, it is obvious
that nature provides fully for sustaining the plant beyond the reach of
injury, without interfering with the action of the wind in producing
motion. Hence, in the construction of trellises and the choice of stakes,
it will be well to select flexible material, always provided it is strong
enough to avoid all danger of being blown down ; stout rods or poles
are therefore to be preferred to sawed lumber, and we may add they are
also cheaper. From the above facts we may also gather the reason why
wires are to be preferred to wooden slats in the construction of trellises.

94 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

at which it springs from the old wood) should be as low
down as possible — if even with the surface of the
ground, so much the better.

A plant such as we have described, is shown in Fig.
10 as it is usually received from the nursery. The
same plant properly pruned is shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11.

Many are afraid to cut back so severely, but it is the
only true method.

The object of leaving two eyes at first, is merely to
guard against accidents. If we could be insured
against them, the upper one would be better away.
Little else can be done during the first year than to
keep the ground mellow, loose about the plants and free
from weeds. The vine must also be tied up during
the season, and if a little liquid manure could be ap
plied to them while growing, it would prove of great
benefit. In applying this stimulant, it is necessary to
use it in a very diluted state, and if possible, just
before or during wet weather. "When applied during
very dry weather remove the surface soil to a depth

CAKE OF THE VINES BUKING THK FIRST YEAK. 95

of three or four inches, and give at least a pailful
to eacli plant, working the soil as little as possible,
lest it be converted into puddle. Such an application
will last for ten days during even very dry weather,
and will do more good than frequent sprinkling.

MULCHING. — But if abundance of grassy weeds,
litter, stable manure, or similar matters can be ob
tained, the best plan is to mulch the plants deeply
for at least three feet every way from the stem. Of
this process, A. J. Downing says : " Covering the soil
in summer is, in this country, one of the most valu
able aids to good cultivation ever put in practice. The
best mode of doing this is, by what is technically
called mulching. This consists in spreading over the
surface of the ground, so far as the roots of the tree
or plant extend beneath it, a layer of tan bark, saw
dust, barn yard litter, straw, salt hay, sea weed, or the
like, of sufficient thickness to maintain, as nearly as
possible, a uniform, state of temperature and moisture
for the roots. From an experience of some years, we
do not hesitate to say that mulching the surface of the
ground over newly-planted trees, is not only far bet
ter than any after-watering, but that, if the layer is
thick enough to keep the surface cool, it renders
water wholly unnecessary. In the case of bearing
fruit-trees, especially the more delicate kinds, as dwarf
pears, apricots, etc., mulching not only precludes the

ytJ OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

necessity of stirring the soil, by preventing weeds from
growing, but it conduces so much more to the health
of the tree, and the size and excellence of the fruit
than any other practice in horticulture, that the more
intelligent growers in the United States now consider
it indispensable in this climate."

In addition to these lucid directions, we would only
say that before applying mulch of any kind to a
young vine it will always be advisable to raise the
soil around the stem to the depth to which it is in
tended to lay the mulch, so as to prevent any of the
latter from coming in contact with the plant, as in this
case it might be productive of evil.

The annexed figure, 12, where the mulch is seen on
the surface of the soil, will illustrate our meaning.

Fig. 12.

LATERALS* are small shoots which spring from the
axils of the leaves (the point which they join the

* To these the French have given the name stipulaires, and it seems
to us that stipularics would be quite as good a term as laterals, and
more correct.

CAKE OF THE VINES DURING THE FIRST YEAR. 97

shoot). As these laterals absorb much of the nutri
ment which would otherwise go to the increase of the
stem, they should be carefully pinched out after they
have made one or two leaves. If removed before they
have made some growth, the bud at their base is very
apt to push, as it is called (that is, to grow), which
should be avoided, if possible.

Fig. 13 shows a young shoot of the current year
with a lateral (B) springing from the base of the leaf
L. This lateral should be pinched off at the cross line.

Fig. 18.

If removed entirely or too soon the bud (c) will be apt:
to push, and destroy our prospects for next season.

WINTER PROTECTION OF YOUNG VINES. — At the close'
of the season, the vines may either be bent down
and covered with earth in the manner usually
adopted for covering raspberries, or they may be left-
upright, and tied to the stakes, a. mound, of earth;

98 OPEN AIE GEAPE CULTURE.

being raised up around eacli such mound, being at
least 18 inches high. The soil of which it is made
should be taken from the centre of the rows, as, if we
take it from about the plants, we only cover the stem
to expose the roots.

Where the vines are left tied to the stakes, we pre
fer to leaving them unpruned. True, most of the
wood gets killed, but this is of little moment since it
is to be nearly all cut away at the spring pruning.

MANAGEMENT DUEING THE SECOND YEAE. — As soon
as the severe frosts of winter and early spring have
passed away, uncover the young vines, and if not
already pruned, cut them to a good bud within 9 to
14 inches of the ground. They should be shaded for
a few days from the sun and cold, which may be very
well done by sticking a shingle before each, though
two shingles placed so as to form an angle in which
the vine may stand, will be better. "We have now
arrived at a point where it will be necessary to
decide upon the peculiar system to be adopted in the
training of our vines. Instead, however, of describ
ing all the different modes of pruning and training
in this place, we shall give only that which we consi
der best adapted to the native American varieties and
leave the consideration of the others to the chapter
on general pruning and training.

CARE OF THE VINFS DUEING THE SECOND TEAK. 99

If the plants have made but a weakly, stunted
growth, it will be necessary to allow them another
year before proceeding to grow shoots for permanent
arms or branches. In this case but one shoot should
be trained up, which may be treated precisely as
directed for the first year. But if a cane of from 6
to 12 feet has been produced, we may safely proceed
to train up two canes which will serve for the future
aims of our vine. To do this, after cutting down the
first year's shoot as directed, remove all the buds
except the three uppermost, and as soon as these are
beyond danger of accident, rub off one if three

Fig. 14.

should still remain. The two shoots which are left
must be carefully trained up, the laterals being-

100 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

pinched out and any fruit blossoms which may
appear being removed.

The operations of the second year will be readily
understood from the inspection of Fig. 14, which
shows the young vine as it should appear at the close
of the first season. Here a is the wood of the old
cutting, with 5, the shoot which was cut back and
from which the young cane c d grew. As this
old wood is hard and cross-grained and cannot be
renewed, it will be well to add top dressing, suf
ficient to cover it up to the line a b. The buds, c <?,
are those which produce next year's shoots ; and the
buds at d d must be carefully removed.

The ground should be kept clean and mellow
during the season, and by the first or middle of
September the further growth of the canes should
be stopped by pinching off the ends — the wood
being much more thoroughly ripened when this is
done.

It will be necessary, or at least advisable, to lay the
vines down this season also and protect, not only the
old stem, but at least four feet of the young shoots.
The stakes may be removed, and during the fall or
early spring the trellises may be erected, for which
full directions are given in Chapter IX.

MANAGEMENT DURING THE THIKD SEASON. — The tre±-

CARE OF THE VINES DURING THE THIRD YEAR. 101

lises having been constructed in such a manner, that
the lowest slat or wire may be just below the base of
the second year's shoots, that is from 9 to 14 inches
above the surface of the ground, these two shoots
should be firmly, though not tightly, tied, in a hori
zontal position as shown in Fig. 15, and all buds

Fig. 15.

should be rubbed out except three on each arm (or
shoot) thus leaving six on each vine. Each of these
buds should produce a shoot which, if the ground has
been in good condition and the plants healthy and
properly set out, would reach from 12 to 25 feet
unless stopped, and as it is upon every se'cond one of
these that we depend for our next year's supply of
fruit, they deserve and will require great care and

102 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

attention in order that they may finally be of equal
strength and well ripened. Every second shoot
should be stopped when it has made a growth of
about two feet, and if any of the others should so far
outstrip their compeers as to reach the top of the
trellis much before them, they should be stopped
also, though except in the case of excessive growth
all the shoots had best be allowed to grow on until
the first of September, when they may all be stopped
at once, unless it be deemed best to allow the weak
est a few days' longer growth, in which case it is sur
prising how soon they will overtake their companions.

Stopping, or pinching, consists in breaking off the
end of a shoot, and its immediate effect is to arrest
the further growth of the cane, or at least its further
lineal development, for the time being. But although
no more leaves are immediately formed, those already
in existence perform their usual functions and the
whole energies of the plant are directed to the ripen
ing of the wood already produced. After a time,
one of the buds near the extremity of the shoot will
probably break and become the leader, when it
should be stopped in turn, this process being repeated
as often as any symptoms of vigorous growth are
exhibited. The result of all this checking is to lessen
the ultimate amount of wrood produced and to
improve its quality both as to ripeness and density.

Stopping furnishes us with an effectual means of

CARE OF THE VINES DURING THE THIRD TEAR. 103

equalizing the growth of our young canes — a most
important point, not only as regards the neatness of
their appearance, but the regularity with which the
fruit buds will break next season and the strength
with which they will shoot. But as the latter points
depends not only upon the size of the canes, but
their maturity, it is necessary that an equal growth
be kept up during the whole season. This is easily
accomplished as the stopping may fortunately be per
formed at any time.

The same directions as to the removal of laterals
and the clearing of the ground should be observed
during this as during former years. Greater care is,
however, required in the treatment of laterals when
raising fruit-bearing canes, as if by too close pinch
ing we should cause the buds which are found at the
base of the leaves and upon which we depend for
our next year's fruit to push, our prospects would be
materially injured. A good rule will be, never to pinch
out the laterals, and stop the main cane at the same
time ; and if the vines show a very vigorous growth
of wood, to allow the laterals to make two leaves
before stopping them. If the vines are weakly, we
may stop the laterals as soon as they appear, as in
this case, the main shoot makes sufficient draft upon
the roots, to keep all other growth in abeyance.

104:

OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER VI.

MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES.

AT the close of the third season we ought to have
a vine such as is shown in Fig. 16, consisting of a
stout, strait, clean stem, 9 to 14 inches high, from the

Fig. 16.

top, or head of which springs two horizontal arms,
each bearing two well ripened canes, 8 to 10 feet long.

MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING- VINES. 105

and two smaller shoots of from two to five feet.
The two canes ought next season to produce 3 to 5
Ibs. of fruit each, and their proper care during the
winter is worthy of our best efforts.

WINTER PROTECTION OF THE FRUITING CANES. — As
the vines have now assumed their permanent form
and size (unless it should be deemed advisable after
the lapse of a few years to remove each alternate
vine and so double the extent of trellis allotted to
the remainder), it becomes important to settle upon
a systematic course of procedure in order to facilitate
our operations, and this remark applies to their pro
tection during winter as well as to every other pro
cess connected with them. Of the advantage, we
had almost said necessity, for winter protection there
can be no doubt. Some extensive cultivators, at a
late meeting of the Western ~N. Y. Fruit Growers
Society stated, that they would have made $100 per
day for the time spent in covering their vines if they
had done so in the fall of 1858.

One gentleman asserted that he had lost thousands
of dollars by neglecting it — and there is probably no
point in the whole range of grape growing upon
which cultivators are so thoroughly agreed as this.
The mere laying down the vines on the ground, cover
ing them with snow, laying boards or brush upon or

5*

106 OPEN ATR GRAPE CULTURE.

against them have all been found materially to
increase the next year's product and to improve its
quality. But these are clumsy expedients, incapable
of systematic application and unfit for adoption on a
large scale.

Where vines are trained to trellises in the manner
which we have just described, it has been asserted by
many that it is impossible to lay down the horizontal
arms so as to cover them, owing to the rigidity of the
old wood, and in order to avoid this it has been pro
posed to leave the head of the vine so low down that
the arms shall lie on the surface and be always co
vered with earth. To this method there are many
objections. The berries are soiled with every rain,
clean culture is rendered more difficult, and the sur
face roots thrown out by the arms cause a succulent
.growth during moist weather, which suffers during
•the succeeding drought. But if the vines are bent
down every year, little difficulty need be appre
hended on this score, and if the following plan be
adopted, vines may be bent sufficiently, even when
they have become old and rigid.

The method which we have proposed, is to place
the trellis 8 to 12 inches in advance of the vine, the
stem being brought forward beneath the first slat or
rail, and tied up as usual. The accompanying figure
(17) explains this better than words can express it, and

MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES.

107

Fig. 17.

it will be readily seen that very little bending is
required, and even that is so distributed over the

Fig. 18.

108 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

whole stem that no injury can result. E"o practical
objections that we are aware of exist to this method.
Before bending down the stem, the vine should be
pruned. This consists in cutting off the long shoots
to a length of four feet (the first season), and the
alternate short ones to the lowest good bud. The vine
so pruned is shown in Fig. 18. Then the stem,
having been bent down, it will be easy to fold the
flexible young canes so as to lie compactly to
gether, as shown in Fig. 19, when they may be

n

II n

Fig. 19.

covered with earth. The soil for this purpose must
Ibe light and sandy, and should be so disposed that
"water will not penetrate to the vines. If light soil
•cannot be had, the vines may be pegged down and
^covered with the branches of evergreens, though it
iis improbable that these could be obtained in suffi
cient quantity to protect a large vineyard. Leaves
or straw would answer, though they might harbor
mice, which would soon destroy the vines.

The vines should be left covered as long as possible,
but must be exposed before the buds begin to push
in the spring. No particular day of the month can

MANAGEMENT OF FKUITING VINES. 109

be given, the date varying with the locality and the
season. The best mode of determining the point is to
uncover some of the vines as soon as the cold weather
has passed away. If they are swollen and ready to
push, it is time to tie the vine to the trellis. If they
seem still dormant, leave them a little longer. The
later the vines can be made to push the better, as they
not only escape late frosts, but their excitability seems
to be so accumulated and intensified by such retarda
tion that their after growth is much more vigorous
than it would otherwise have been.

After the vines have been properly tied to the
trellis, and the ground raked, or hoed level (all work
on it being avoided when it is wet, however), nothing
should be done until the buds have burst so as at least
to show their vitality and strength. Then go over
the vines and rub off all buds which show themselves
on the upright stem and horizontal arms and disbud
jthe canes so as to leave six good buds, and no more,
on each. By doing this at this early period, the
strength of the vine is thrown into the buds which
remain, and they consequently push with increased
vigor. The lowest good bud on the short spurs must
also be left, all the others being removed.

As soon,, aft the Blossoms skow themselves, and
before they have'i expanded, it will be necessary again
to go over the vines and stop or pinch all the shoots

110 OPEN AIR GEAPE CULTURE.

which show fruit, at the same time removing all the
blossoms except two or three clusters on each shoot.
This will not only serve to keep the vine within
bounds, but it will cause the fruit to set much better
than it would do if this course were not pursued. In
a former section, we alluded to stopping with a view
to the ripening of the wood and the training of the
vine, and the directions there given apply equally to
our action as regards the shoots from the short spurs
— they being designed to furnish the bearing canes
for next year, to replace those which are now fruiting^
and which will be entirely cut away at the next winter
pruning. But other reasons also induce us to stop the
fruit-bearing shoots, and as the whole subject of stop
ping, and its detrimental substitute, summer prun
ing, is one of vital importance to the grape vine, we
cannot do better than preface our remarks by quoting
the physiological laws upon which it is based, from
Lindley's " Theory and Practice of Horticulture."

"Nature has given plants leaves, not merely to
decorate them or to shade us, but as a part of a won
drous system of life quite as perfect as that of the ani
mal kingdom. It would be of no use for a plant to
suck food out of the earth by its roots, unless there
was some place provided in which such -£00-% consist
ing principally of water and mucilage;; could bo
digested and so converted into the matter which

MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING TINES. Ill

maintains the health of the individual. The stem can
not do this: firstly, because it is a mere channel
through which fluids pass; and, secondly, because
many plants have no visible stem, as in the instance of
the primrose ; and yet in all such cases the plant feeds
and must digest its food. It is to the leaves that this
important office is assigned, and to enable them to
execute it God has formed them with wisdom no less
infinite than has been displayed in the creation of man.
The leaves have veins through which their fluids pass
and cells in which they are held while digesting,
myriads of little caverns through whose sides respira
tion is maintained, a skin to guard them from the air,
and pores for carrying off perspiration. A leaf is, in
fact, both stomach and lungs ; and to destroy it is to
do the same injury to a plant as would be effected in
an animal by the destruction of the parts to which
those names are given. Of this WG may be certain,
that neither taste, perfume, color, size, nor any other
property, can be given to a plant except through the
assistance of the leaves ; and that the more numerous
these are, the larger and the more luxuriant, so, within
certain limits, will be all that a plant is capable of
forming. Strip the leaves off a tree, and no more
wood will appear until the leaves are restored ; feed
its roots in the hope of thus compensating for the loss
of its leaves, and the stem will be filled indeed with

112 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

watery matter ; but the latter will collect in the inte
rior until it forces its way through the bark, and runs
down in putrid streams, as happens to the rnulberry-
tree when it is incessantly stripped for silkworms,
and as occurs to trees whose leaves are continually
destroyed by a noxious atmosphere. Strip the ripen
ing grapes of their green garments, and no color or
sweetness will be collected in their berries. Rob the
potato of its foliage and you will seek in vain for
nourishment in its tubers ; and so of all things else.
On the other hand, leave the mulberry, the vine and
the potato uninjured, to the genial influence of the
sun and the air, and the dews of heaven, and wood is
formed in the one case, sugar and color in the other —
and flour, the staff of life, in the last, and these pro
ducts will all be in exact proportion to the health and

abundance of the foliage '4 -,

" But although the general rule is to allow as many
leaves to remain on a tree as can be kept in health,
yet there are circumstances which justify their re
moval, and, indeed, render it necessary. For example,
when a tender tree is trained to a wall, a great object
with the gardener is to secure ripe wood ; for unless
he does this, the frost of the succeeding winter may
destroy the branches, or the buds may be so imper
fectly formed as to produce feeble shoots the ensuing
season. To attain this object, those leaves must be

MANAGEMENT OF FKTJITING VINES. 113

removed which prevent the sun from striking upon
the branches to be ripened, the effect of this being to
stop the rapid growth of the branches and to consoli
date their tissue, in consequence, partly, of the exces
sive perspiration, and partly of the rapid digestion of
the sap, which is thus induced \for the rate of digestion
and perspiration in a healthy plant, is in proportion
to the quantity of light and heat to which it is ex
posed. Hence the removal of those shoots which in
summer overshadow that wood of the peach-tree
which is intended to be preserved another year, is
useful ; there can be 110 doubt, however, that as few
shoots as possible should be thus removed. Another
case in which the removal of the leaves is justifiable
occurs in the vine. In this plant the fruit is borne
near the base of the lateral shoots, which wrill, if un
checked, go on lengthening and producing leaves to a
considerable distance. Now all the food of such a
lateral shoot is obtained from the main branch, which,
however, is only capable of furnishing a certain
quantity. If the lateral shoot is allowed to grow un
checked, it will consume its portion of food in the
production of many leaves and some grapes ; and the
more there is of the former, the less will be the
weight of the latter. But if the shoot is stopped after
having formed two leaves, all that quantity of food
which would have been consumed in the production

114: OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

of other leaves is applied to the increase of size in the
grapes, and the two leaves that are left ; while on the
other hand, the general crop of leaves on the vine will
be amply sufficient to prepare those secretions which
are to give flavor, color and sweetness to the grapes.
This will, perhaps, be better explained by the annexed
diagram.

" Let the line a g represent a lateral vine g

branch, bearing fruit at B, and leaves at c d ef. /.

Suppose six ounces of sap are destined to sup
port this lateral a g^ during the summer ; it
is evident that, if equally distributed, each d
leaf and branch will receive one ounce of sap
as its proportion. But if e f g are removed,
it is obvious that the three which remain will
have two ounces each, or double the supply. a

" Why, then, it may be asked, not remove c and d
also ? because, in that case, B, the bunch of fruit,
would have the whole six ounces of sap to itself. The
reason why this should not be done is this : if all the
leaves 011 the lateral are removed, there will be no
force left upon it wherewith to attract from the main
branch the food that belongs to it; for the power
which the parts of the plants possess of attracting
fluid is in proportion to the amount of their perspira
tion. Now leaves perspire copiously, but the grapes
themselves scarcely at all ; whence their gradual con'

MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 115

version from a substance of the texture oi a leaf into
a mass of pulp. In the instance of vine pruning,
the great object is to leave on the laterals just as
much force as may be required to secure for the
bunches the food that is intended for them, and at
the same time to deprive the laterals of the means of
expending that food uselessly in the production of
leaves instead of fruit."

In applying the above to the culture of the grape
in this country, however, we are inclined to believe
that the direct access of the sun to the w^ood or fruit
is not necessary to their perfect ripening. And our
readers must also observe that, although in the illus
tration at the close of the paragraph, Dr. Lindley
alludes to the " removal " of the leaves, yet from the
remarks immediately preceding it, wre gather that he
is no advocate for " summer pruning," but for u stop
ping." By summer pruning we mean the removal
of large quantities of leaves and shoots — a practice
which is quite common throughout the country.
Often arid often have wre seen loads of such matter
cut away under the pretence of " letting in the sun
and air to the grapes." Now if these summer prim
ers would only observe that all the finest bunches
grow and ripen under the shade of the leaves, they
would cease their senseless efforts and rest content
with merely breaking off the ends of the shoots.

116 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

That grapes will not ripen well, and that vines will
not be healthy under a dense mass of matted foliage,
we freely admit. But this is not an evil to be reme
died by the knife. In this case, most emphatically,
prevention is better that cure.

When we reflect that the amount of organizable
matter which can be furnished by any vine is limited,
and also that all rank and succulent growth is prejudi
cial to the production of fruit, we can readily appre
ciate the advantage of directing the sap to the pro
duction of fruit, rather than wood and leaves. But
we must also remember that every ounce of organiz
able matter which is embodied in leaves or stem, is
so much capital invested, and is no more to be thrown
away than the stock of the moneyed capitalist, which
only brings in two per cent., even though his neigh
bor, on a different investment, receives ten.

The leaves are the laboratories in which the sap is
prepared for the nourishment, not only of the fruit,
but of the wood, and the more of them we have the
better, provided we do not invest too large an
amount of our available capital in their production,
just as some of our farmers invest all their capital in
land, and leave themselves nothing with which to
work it.

Another evil attendant upon summer pruning, is
the sudden and violent check which it gives to the

MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 117

plants. The roots being excited into vigorous action
by the enormous draft made upon them, find them
selves suddenly without a channel through which
their unelaborated product can find vent ; the balance
of product and supply is upset and the fruit is filled
with crude, ill-digested sap, thus causing it to be
unripe and ill-flavored. But by early stopping the
shoots, and thus preventing the further production of
leaves and wood, we render summer pruning, that is,
the removal of superabundant leaves and wood, unne
cessary ; no sudden check is given to the vines, the sap
is fully elaborated as fast as it is supplied, and the
fruit receiving an extra supply of properly prepared
sap (which would otherwise have gone to the produc
tion of wood and leaves) is enlarged in size and
improved in flavor.

That the leaves are the great agents in the elabora
tion of sap, was fully proved by the experiments of
Hales, who forced orange flower-water into the vessels
of a vine, with a view to impart its flavor to the fruit.
The experiment was unsuccessful as to its ostensi
ble object, but not as to its concomitant results ; for he
traced the flavor through the stem and branches to
the leaves, but no further ; there it was decomposed,
and doubtless returned to the wood and fruit in the
form of sap.

In a few weeks, or perhaps days, after being

118 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

stopped, the last bud on all these shoots, will, no
doubt, burst and form a leader, which will grow nearly
as vigorously as if the terminal bud had not been
removed. It will, therefore, be necessary to go over
all these vines again as soon as the fruit is set, and
repeat the same operation. At this time, also, the
fruit should be thinned, which, for vineyard culture,
consists in the removal of all weak, ill-formed
bunches, some even recommending the removal of
the lower part of all the bunches.

When, however, extra fine bunches are desired,
we prefer the plan usually adopted in hot-house
culture, which consists in removing at least one
half the berries from every bunch — the largest and
finest being, of course, left. This operation is best
performed when the grapes are the size of peas, but
by many it will be deemed too minute and laborious
an operation for vineyard practice..

While doing this, it will also be proper to remove
or extirpate all shoots which either have not fruit,
or are not wanted for next year's canes..

During the growing season it will be necessary to
look over the vines, at intervals of two or three
weeks, stopping the fruiting shoots, removing suck
ers, and pinching out laterals at the second eye. The
ground should also be kept loose and mellow, and all
the operations of the vineyard be 'carried on, with as

MANAGEMENT OF FRUITING VINES. 119

little trampling on the borders as possible. Indeed,
if the expense be not an objection, we would lay
down boards or planks, supported by suitable stakes
or posts, and forming a walk along the front of each
trellis, so as to allow all the work of the vineyard
being performed without a foot being set upon the
soil.

120 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER VH

SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES.

THE future management of the vines will consist in
training up, each year, a shoot from the intermediate
spurs, and cutting out entirely the cane which has borne
the fruit. The cane which was trained up last year, will
this year produce a crop, while, from the spur left in
cutting out the former cane, is trained up a shoot for
the following year, and so on ad in/finitum.

As the peculiar pruning necessary is a subject of
vital importance to success in grape culture, we will
give a consecutive condensed description of it, illus
trated by proper figures.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 20 shows a section of the horizontal arms, at
the end of the third season. A is the cane which has

SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES. 121

been trained to the top of the trellis. B the shoot
which was stopped when two to four feet long. Just
before laying down the vine for winter protection, A
is cut to about a length of 4 feet, and B is cut away
at the cross-line, or just above the first good bud.

As the force with which the buds push, depends a
good deal upon their number relatively to the size of
the vine, it is absolutely necessary to cut off A to 4
feet or less, and rub out several of the buds which
appear on it. If, in addition to this, all other buds
except one from each of the spurs, B, be removed, we
could scarcely fail to train up a good cane from B,
even though none but latent buds were left.

Fig. 21.

Next season the figure is reversed. Here B is the-
young shoot of last year, while A, which carries the
six shoots upon which the fruit grew, is cut off at the
cross-line. B is shortened this year to 5 or 6 feet,
and disbudded as before — one or two more buds;
being left on, as the vine is growing stronger.

6

122

OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTUKE.'

At the base of A, below the cross-line, will appear
intermediate little buds — some of them quite promi
nent. The best of them must be taken, and no fear
need be entertained of getting a good cane from it,
if all the unnecessary buds are promptly extirpated.

If, however, we allow shoots to grow all over the
vine we will probably fail to get any cane at all.

The following season, the shoot proceeding from A

Li

Fig. 22.

is fruited, and B is cut off at the cross-line. This
stage of its progress is shown in Fig. 22.

23.

SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES. 123

In Fig. 23 is shown the vine at the end of the sixth
season. By this time, the spurs will have become
hard, and if allowed to remain much longer, it will
be necessary to renew the whole vine, as is done in
the Thomery system (see Appendix). It will, there
fore, be well to allow a bud to push from the base
of B, if one should show itself, as there most likely

Fig. 24.

will. In this case, Fig. 24 will represent B as it will'
appear at the close of the season, when the entire-
spur must be cut off with a fine saw, at the cross line,,
and the wound carefully pared smooth and coated,
with a solution of shellac in alcohol.*

* " Take a quart of alcohol and dissolve it in as much gum shellac as
will make a liquid of the consistence of paint. Apply this to the
wound with a common painter's brush ; always paring the wound'
smoothly first with a knife. The liquid becomes perfectly hard;
adheres closely, excludes the air perfectly, and is affected by no
changes of weather; while at the same time its thinness offers 0.0

124 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

The shoot a is cut off at the line, as shown, or just
above the lowest good bud. ]SText season, B will
appear as shown in Fig. 20, and the same routine as
that first described much be again gone over.

If we should be unable to obtain the shoot a at the
time it is wanted (which, however, will not happen
once in twenty times), we must leave the old spur
and obtain a shoot from the base of last year's fruit
ing cane.

After a number of years (say six to ten), it may be
found advisable to extend the vines. This may be
done either by removing every second one, or by
raising the trellis.

In the latter case it will be best, in order to secure
an equal distribution of the sap, to lay down two
courses of horizontal arms and allow the vertical, or
bearing canes, to extend only half-way up the trellis.

The proper arrangement for this, is shown in Fig.
25, where it will be seen that the horizontal arms of
every second vine are extended both ways, so as to
cover double their usual space. The stem of the
centre vine is carried up to the middle of the trellis
and arms from it laid down, of the same length as the

resistance to the lip of the new bark that gradually closes over the
wound. If the composition is kept in a well-corked bottle, suffi
ciently wide mouthed to admit the brush, it will always be ready for
use and suited to the want of the moment." — Downing.

SUBSEQUENT MANAGEMENT OF THE VINES. 125

lower ones. The fruiting canes are produced and
treated in the manner just described.

Fig. 25.

In order to effect the change, the lower arms may
be extended by laying down the outer fruit canes of
last year and pruning their junction with the old wood
so as to leave a continuous rod. To produce the
upper arms, however, it will, we think, be found best
to cut the vines down to the ground and train up new
stems, arms and verticals. The loss of time incurred
will be more than repaid by the increased vigor
and health of the vine.

That the general system of culture here laid down

126 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

is the best for all ordinary purposes, we are firmly
convinced. The extent allowed to the vine during
its first few years, is amply sufficient for the produc
tion of an abundant crop, while at the same time the
vine is so far kept within bounds, that every bud is
pushed with vigor. And this will be found to be one
of the most important points connected with the
proper training of the vine. For when the balance
between the vital forces of the plant and the extent to
which it is allowed to extend, is greatly disturbed, as
exemplified in the opposite extremes of stake train
ing and total neglect, nothing but debility on the
one hand, and the inordinate production of wood to
the exclusion of fruit on the other, can result.

PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 127

CHAPTER Yin.

GENERAL THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING AS AP
PLIED tO THE GRAPE VINE.

IN the preceding chapters we have given minute
directions for that particular system of pruning and
training, which we believe to be best adapted to our
native grapes. It is now our purpose to detail those
general principles which apply to all modes of prun
ing and training, and to describe a few of those pecu
liar systems which have been founded upon them.

I. The first principle upon which all correct prun
ing, whether of the vine or any other tree, must be
based, is that the sap always tends to the extremities
of the branches.

From this, it follows that unless the balance be
tween the roots and branches of the vine be care
fully and accurately adjusted, all the lower portion
of the old wood will become devoid of spurs or bear
ing shoots, and unless the portion of the wall or trel
lis over which it is trained is otherwise occupied, the
space will be left practically vacant.

Experience has also shown that there is no practi

128 OPEN AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

cal limit to this law — that is, that the distance to
which the sap may be propelled exceeds any limits to
which it is ever necessary to carry it.

" If the shoots of the vine are trained along a con
siderable extent of wall, the branches spread out much
wider, and the berries attain a larger size. This
property of the vine, although known to experienced
gardeners, is not taken advantage of as it ought to be.
A vine might be trained horizontally under the cop
ing of a wall to a great distance, and by inverting the
bearing shoots, the spaces between the other fruit-
trees and the top of the wall could readily be filled
up, and if different vines were inarched to the hori
zontal branch, the south wall of a large garden might
be furnished with a variety of sorts from the stem
and root of a single plant, the roots of which would
not encumber the border in which the other fruit-
trees are growing. I have an experiment of this kind
now in progress in my garden. "Within a few years
past, I have gradually trained bearing branches of a
small black cluster grape, to the distance of near
fifty feet from the root, and I find the bunches every
year grow larger, and ripen earlier as the shoots con
tinue to advance.

" According to Mr. Knight's theory of the circula-
lation of the sap, the ascending sap must necessarily
become enriched by the nutritious particles it meets

PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 129

with in its progress through the vessels of the albur
num ; the wood at the top of the tall trees, therefore,
becomes short-jointed and full of blossom buds, and
the fruit there situated attains its greatest perfection.
Hence, we find pine and fir-trees loaded with the
finest cones on the top boughs, the largest acorns
grow on the terminal branches of the oak, and the
finest mast on the high boughs of the beech and
chestnut; so, likewise, apples, pears, cherries, etc.,
are always best flavored from the top of the tree
But I suppose there are certain limits, beyond which
the sap would be so loaded with nutriment, that it
could not freely circulate."

The sap being determined so powerfully to the
extremities of the branches, the most unremitting
attention is required upon the part of the vine
dresser, so that the bearing shoots may be equally
distributed along the entire plant and an equal
amount of nutriment directed to each.

But if through negligent management the bearing
shoots or spurs are allowed to die out on the lower
part of the vine, it will be difficult, if not impossible,
to replace them.

By judicious pruning, the entire head of the vine
may be so reduced that there will be abundant nutri
ment for all the buds, and by promptly and carefully
stopping the more vigorous shoots, the sap may foe
*6

130 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

so directed to the weaker ones that no difficulty of
this kind need occur.

II. In tins connection, we may consider a rule —
which is laid down as a principle, however, by most
arboricultural authorities — the buds are developed
with greater vigor upon a branch which is cut short,
than upon one which is left long.

This is true, but must be accepted with limitations.
If there be two shoots springing from the same stem,
one being pruned short and the other long, the buds
on the long branch will be developed witl; the great
est vigor. If, however, the shoots be upon different
stems, the buds upon that which is pruned most
•closely will push most strongly.

This we might anticipate, from the fact that there
is more root power (if we may use the expression) to
.•a given number of buds. But experiment would ]ead
TUS to believe that if the lower buds are removed so
rthat the same number of eyes are left on both, the
longest would have the advantage — at least at first.

But as sap moves with greater difficulty through
'old than through young wood, the shortest shoot soon
overtakes its companion and outstrips it. This prin
ciple is well exemplified in the rampant growth of
those suckers which spring from old vines near the
ground. They will frequently grow twenty or thirty
feet in a season, while the strongest shoots at the

PRUNING GKAPE VINES. 131

extremities of the old branches do not exceed from
five to eight.

Upon these principles is founded the rule which
directs us to cut back plants which have made a
weak growth, or have become old, gnarled and hard,
so that they may throw up strong, vigorous shoots.

III. The sap supplied by the roots must be elabo
rated by the leaves, before it is fitted for the forma
tion of wood or fruit, and the development of the
roots is in direct proportion to the increase of leaves.

From this, it follows : 1st. That it is injurious to
remove the leaves from the plant, with a view to
ripen the fruit by the admission of sun and air (this
point has been fully discussed, page 110, et seq).

2. That during the first two years' growth of the
plants, the production of leaves should be encouraged
as much as possible, so as to aid in the development
of roots. Hence the plants should be carefully tied
up, so as to preserve the leaves clean, active and unin
jured, and abundant light and air should be furnished,
BO that they may be able to perform their part with
efficiency. This being the case, it may be asked why
we advise the stopping of the laterals which certainly
form leaves, and hence must increase the growth of
the roots. Two reasons may be given for the practice
either of which are ample. The first is that it is not
the leaves, per se> which do good, but their action on

132 OPEN AIR GEAPE CULTURE.

the sap, to effect which, they must be supplied with
air and light. Now, if the leaves on the laterals are
allowed to grow, they crowd the foliage at the base
of the plant, so that many of the leaves are partially
shaded, while if these laterals are prevented from
growing, the sap which would be absorbed by them
goes to the elongation and enlargement of the main
stem, by which the leaves are disposed over a greater
surface and consequently maintain a more vigorous
action. And, as during the first two years at least,
the production of canes well ripened in their whole
length, is no object, seeing that they are all to be cut
away at the winter pruning, the vines should not be
stopped, but should be allowed to grow to the end of
the season. For as the roots require a certain degree
of warmth to enable them to grow, and as the earth
as in the best condition as regards temperature, just
:at the close of the growing season, it is best to main-
itain a vigorous action in the roots at that time — a
.time when they can make the most of it.

The second reason is, that the sap, as before stated,
flows most vigorously through stout, free-growing
shoots. Now, by removing the laterals, we increase
the vigor of the main stem as well as its size, and
hence not only obtain an enlarged, but a more
suitable channel for the sap to flow in. The conse
quence is, that a well trained shoot will far exceed the

PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 133

aggregate of the same shoot and its laterals, if it be
neglected during its growth.

IY. The more the sap is impeded in its course, the
less vigorous will be the shoots produced, but the
greater the tendency to bear fruit. This is exempli
fied in the pear-tree, where the branches are bent in
order to produce fruit buds, and also in the common
practice of bending the canes of the vine into bows
and spirals, so that the buds may burst equally and
produce fruit.

Y. Whatever tends to diminish the vigor of the
shoots and to force the sap into the fruit, enlarges
the size and improves the flavor of the latter.

Upon this law depends the practice of summer
pruning, which has been fully discussed in a previous
chapter. And as it is necessary not only to diminish
the vigor of the shoots, but to force the sap thereby
saved into the fruit, the object of destroying all fruit
less shoots (in bearing vines) is obvious, as well as
the necessity of attending to the health of the roots.

Such are the general principles which should regu
late the proper pruning of all trees; though they
have been expressed chiefly with reference to the
vine. In pruning with a view to the production of
fruit, however, it is necessary to know the peculiar
fruit-bearing habit of the plant under consideration.
Thus upon the peach, fruit is always borne upon tho

134 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

last year's shoots ; the pear bears its fruit upon spurs
which have been formed during the previous year,
upon old wood, and the fruit of the vine is always
borne upon shoots of the current year, these shoots
proceeding from either last year's shoots, or wood,
which is much older. The last assertion is one which
conflicts with the statements of most of our pomolo-
gists, and therefore it is incumbent upon us to give
some evidence of its truth. Thus, Barry says:

" It must be observed, that the grape vine pro
duces its fruit on shoots of the current year produced
from eyes on the previous year's wood."

Du Ereuil is more positive, and states that shoots
which accidentally spring from old wood never pro
duce grapes. His words are : " Dans la vigne, les
grappes sont attachees sur des bourgeons naissant sur
les sarments formes pendant 1'ete precedent. Les
bourgeons de"veloppe"s accidentellement sur le vieux
bois ne portent jamais des grappes."

We were rather surprised at this assertion, as it
appeared to contradict our own observation. But
lest it might be that the shoots which we had in view,
had been produced by the remains of last year's
rubbed out buds, we carefully watched a piece of old
wood during one season, so as to assure ourselves
that no buds had sprung from it between certain
marked points. Next season the head of this old

PRUNING GKAPE VINES. 135

. •

vine was pruned so severely as to cause several
shoots to issue from the previously barren wood.
Two 'of these bore fruit.

In performing this experiment, we kept carefully
in view the difficulties attendant upon bringing it to
a successful result, and although we succeeded in
getting fruit from only two out of nine shoots, still,
this was sufficient to establish the point. In perform
ing it, care will be necessary to prune with sufficient
severity to force the buds out of the barren wood,
and yet to leave sufficient head to draw up the sap
and prevent the too vigorous growth of the shoots
after they are formed ; otherwise the blossoms may
change to tendrils. This experiment does not sug
gest any newer or better mode of pruning the vine,
but it throws new light upon the laws which govern
the formation of fruit buds, and exemplifies the fact
that they are formed where the vital forces of the vine
are so balanced that there is sufficient vigor and
material to form fruit, and yet not so much rampant
growth as to rob the blossoms of their necessary
nutriment and convert them into tendrils.

That they are so convertible, every cultivator is
aware, for it often happens that the hopes of the
unskillful vine-dresser are disappointed — his fine
show of blossom buds, turning out nothing but ten
drils.

136 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

"We believe the converse of this was first shown by
Knight, from whose papers we make the following
extract: "Every bunch of grapes commences its
formation as a tendril, and it is always within the
power of every cultivator to occasion it to remain a
tendril. The blossoms are all additions, the forma
tion of which is always dependent upon other agents ;
and if any considerable part of the leaves be taken
off the branch prematurely, or if the vine be not sub
jected to the influence of the requisite degree of heat
and light, the tendrils will permanently retain their
primary form and office ; and it is very frequently
observable, when much of the foliage of fruit-trees
has been destroyed, by insects, or when the previous
season has been cold and wet, that blossoms are
not formed at all, or are feeble and imperfect, and
consequently abortive. * • • •

" The tendrils of the vine, in its internal organiza
tion, is apparently similar to the young succulent
shoot and leaf stalk of the same plant, it is abun
dantly provided with vessels, or passages for the sap,
and it is alike capable of feeding a succulent shoot or
a leaf when grafted upon it. It appears, therefore,
not improbable, that a considerable quantity of the
moving fluid of the plant passes through its tendrils ;
and that there is a close connection between its vas
cular structure and its motions."

PKUNHSTG GRAPE VINES. 137

The various systems of vine pruning which have
been founded upon these general principles, may be
classified according to the part of the vine from which
the fruit buds are produced. Thus, if we suppose A

Fig. 26.

to be a shoot of last year ; B a spur two years old, and
o a branch three years old, then we may by judicious
pruning obtain fruit, first from the plump buds a a
on the young cane A ; secondly from the buds 5 c
near its base ; thirdly from the buds e which will be
found at its junction with the spur B ; and fourthly
from buds situated at /", that is at the junction of the
spur B with the branch c. In the latter case, how
ever, if the spur B is old and has borne several shoots
like A it will req aire some skill and very favorable

138 OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

circumstances to procure fruit from the buds at f.
But if B be always kept short, and no shoots be al
lowed except from its base, no difficulty of this
kind will arise. Following this arrangement, then, we
have:

I. The long-rod renewal system.

II. The long-spur system.

IU. The short, or secondary -spur system.

IY. The close-cut, or primary spur system.
This system of classification we believe to be the
only true one, although wre are not aware that it has
been adopted by any preceding author. Each of
these four systems is not only distinct, but it may be
adapted to almost any system of training, while none
of them can be well combined in the same vine, un
less the power of the roots is greatly in excess over
the extent of the branches. Suppose, for example,
on a vine with a well balanced head, a few long rods
are left. No buds will start from the base of the
spurs. But if all parts are treated alike, the eyes will
break equally and in general will be all fruitful. The
facility with which this principle may be explained
and enforced is greatly increased by a clear and sys
tematic classification, such as we have given above,
and most authors have been aware of the importance
of such a classification ; but if the reader will com
pare the attempts of Loudon, who depends in his

PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 139

classification, not only upon the system of pruning,
but of training; of Mclntosh, whose three systems are
" the spur," " the long-rod," and " the irregular "
forms; of McPhail, who has the " fruit-tree method ;"
"the spurring-in system" and " the long-rod sytem ;" of
Yon Babo, who has " head pruning," " limb prun
ing," "frame pruning," and several sub-varieties
named after the localities in which they have been
adopted ; and most of our American authors, who have
simply the renewal and spur methods, with that given
above, we think he cannot but give his preference to
the latter. And as all systems of pruning with which
we have ever met may be easily referred to one or
the other of our four classes, we will describe them in
detail and give a few illustrations of each, as derived
from the practice of our best growers.

I. The long-rod or renewal system is generally
attributed to Clement Hoare, who adopted it in his
" Practical treatise on the Cultivation of the Yine," and
as he has not seen fit to give the credit of it to prior
authors, most of his readers have awarded it to
him. But it is substantially the " new method " of
Switzer; the alternate system of Speechly, and the
" new and experimentally proved superior method"
of Keclit. It is certainly very old, though it is still
commonly called the " new method."

The system which we have adopted as the best for

140 OPEN AIR GEAPE -CULTURE.

vineyards and gardens in the northern States where
our native vines are cultivated is substantially the
system explained by Hoare. The system pursued in
Ohio and in many European vineyards, is also a
modification of the long-rod system, but as we pro
pose to give a full account of Ohio vine culture
amongst our examples of American vineyard prac
tice, we need not dwell upon it here.

The following are a few of the most elegible modi
fications which have been proposed :

Mr. John M earns, in the Horticultural Transactions,
(vol. iv.) describes a system which is not only well
adapted to the hot-house culture of the vine, but is
one of the best with which we are acquainted where
it is desired to fruit quickly, a great variety of grape
vines in a small place. This method is as follows :

" My method of managing vines is in some respects
different from any other with which I am acquainted ;
by it I have never failed, for the last eleven years, to
obtain invariably the same luxuriant crops, although
I have never allowed above one-third of the bunches
which showed themselves to remain on the vine ; and
each succeeding crop has been as uniform as if the
branches had been placed, artificially, over the whole
roof. I have no doubt but, under the same treat,
ment, the vines will continue to be equally produc
tive for any length of time. The shoots are so vigor-

PKUNESTG GKAPE VINES. 141

ous that their girth is, generally, at the end of the
season, from an inch and a half to an inch and three
quarters. The branches, in their most luxuriant
growth, never appear in any confusion, even to those
who are but little skilled in the cultivation of grapes,
and the method is so simple, that it may be described
with the assistance of figures, so as to be perfectly com
prehended by any person in the least acquainted with
the nature of the vine. I have never deviated from
it since I planted the vines in the spring of 1806.

" My vines were planted two feet and a half apart,
and being watered to settle the earth round their
balls, I headed them down to within a foot of the soil,
as here represented.

Fig. 27.

"I only allowed one shoot to proceed from each
plant the first year ; rubbing off all the others before
they had completely burst into leaf, the uppermost be
ing the one I retained. In the course of the summer I
watered them with soft pond water, as I found they
wanted it, and frequently with drainings from the
farm-yard, and with soap suds, when I could procure
any.

" During the first summer, the vines made quite as

142 OPEN AIK GEAPE CULTUEE.

much progress as I could have expected, and their
different degrees of vigor were nearly in proportion
to the state of the roots when planted. When the
leaves had fallen in the end of the year, I cut them
down to the second or third eye, when they had this
appearance. (Fig. 28.)

Fig. 23.

u In the beginning of the succeeding February, I ex
cited them gradually into action by a little fire heat,
and when the buds were ready to burst I rubbed all
off but the two finest on each plant ; the strongest of
these I intended to furnish bearing wood for the
lower half of the roof for the following year. The
most feeble of the two was cut down to the second or
third eye, at the end of the season, and at the same
time the strongest shoot was reduced to eight
feet, being the length of the lower half of the rafter.

Whilst they were growing during the second sum
mer, I kept the shoots regularly trained upward, di
vesting them of tendrils and laterals. I only allowed
the strongest of the two leading shoots to run about
three, four or five joints beyond the middle of the

PEUNING GEAPE VINES.

roof (where I intended to cut them at their winter
pruning), according to the vigor of the different
shoots ; and then I pinched off their tops, in order to
strengthen the eyes for the ensuing season. The
weaker shoots I only suffered to run about three four,
or five feet, according to their strength, and I then
pinched off their tops, never allowing them to push
above two or three eyes from the same place, during
the remainder of the season, without pinching them
back ; and then retaining only a single eye, unless I
found it necessary, in consequence of the vigor of the

Fig. 29.

vine. I kept the laterals stopped back also to the first
leaf, At the fall of the leaf, I cut the leading shoots

14:4: OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

at the middle of the rafter, and the lower one at the
the eye, as is here represented. (Fig. 28.)

"The preceding sketch represents four separate
vine-plants, at the end of the second season after
they had been planted, when the strongest shoot had
been headed down to the middle of the rafter D, and
the weakest shoot to c.

In the third season, I carefully preserved the upper
most shoot from the end of my bearing branch at D,
as a leader to furnish the upper part of the rafter
with bearing wood for the next year; and I also
trained upward the leading shoot from the bottom
spur c, which I intended should become the bearing
branch for the lower half of the roof in the follow
ing season. I was careful that none of the tops of
these leaders should meet with accident, till they had
reached their destination for the season — that was
about three or four joints beyond where they were
intended to be cut down, to the winter pruning. All
the buds on the bottom spur c, were rubbed off,
except the leading one. As I bore in mind the neces
sity of a bottom spur to produce a succession shoot
from the bottom in the following year, which was
necessary to the regularity of the system I contem
plated, I selected one of the most convenient buds
for iny purpose, from the bottom of the old stems, all
of which were now putting out several buds ; but I

PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 145

suffered none except the selected one, to remain long
after it had made its appearance. The management
of the young shoots of the year was, in this and the
following seasons, the same as I have before detailed.
" In the autumn of this, the third season, the lower
half of the house was furnished with a crop of ripe
grapes upon the wood of the preceding year, and
parallel to it on each vine grew a young shoot,
intended to bear the lower crop the next year ;
whilst the upper half of the house had single shoots
trained from the end of the bearing wood, which
shoots were also to bear a crop the next year ; and
besides these, a third shoot on each vine had been
trained from the bottom bud, which I had not
removed, and which were about four feet in length,
having been treated as the weaker shoots in the
second year's management, which I have described,,
and to which they were similar. When this half
crop was gathered and the leaves had dropped, I cut
off the top leaders level writh the uppermost wire of'
the house to which they were tied, and the lower
leaders level with the middle of the roof (the top,
and bottom leaders, or bearing wood for the next sea
son, being each eight feet long), and the bottom or
weak shoot, above described, wras cut down to the
second or third eye, as the lower shoot had been cut
in the preceding winter. All the spurs of the lowe>

146

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

Fig. 30.

PRUNING GKAPE VINES. 14:7

part of the shoot, which had now reached the top of
the house and had borne the crop of grapes, were
cut clean out. The following was the appearance of
the same four vines, after they had been pruned in
the third winter, when they were in a state to pro
duce their full crop in the following season. (Fig. 30.)

In the fourth summer a full crop was produced
both in the upper and lower half of the house ; the
longer shoot D bore its bunches on the upper half of
its length, and it was not suffered to extend itself by
a leading shoot ; the shorter shoot c bore its bunches
on its whole length, and extended itself by a leading
shoot to the top of the house ; the spur E wTas suffered
to become a shoot, extending a few joints beyond half
the length of the rafter, and from the bottom of the
old wood a weaker shoot, as before, was trained, to
become the foundation of the lower shoot of the
next season. In the pruning season, D, which had
become the longest branch in tlie previous winter,,
was entirely cut away from the bottom ; the shorter'
branch c, which had now become the longest, was,
stripped of its spurs on its lower half of the old wood,
and its upper half was left for bearing ; the extended
spur E, became the lower bearing branch, and the
weak shoot F (Fig. 31.) at the bottom,, was reduced to.
a spur, to furnish the lower wood for the next year.

The following figure represents the plants after.

148

OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

Fig. 81.

PRUNING GKAPE VINES. 149

being pruned the fourth season, the sides being
reversed.

TTith this alternation of pruning, the system has
been continued to the present time, and may con
tinue as long as it shall be desirable to have the house
in bearing.

During the last four years, I have stopped the
bearing branches at the bunch, instead of the next
joint above it, which is the usual practice ; for I
found that the fruit did equally well and it divested
the branch of an incumbrance, while it allowed a
much larger portion of light to come into the house,
together with a more free circulation of air among
the fruit and young wood.

1 blind all the eyes on each fruit spur as soon as
they push, except the uppermost, which I retain to
draw up the sap to nourish the fruit. I never suffer
them to push above a joint or two, before I pinch
them back, always cautiously retaining an eye. By
constant stopping, the eyes soon increase to a large
cluster, when I frequently find it expedient to pinch
out a great part of them with my finger nails, unless
I see danger of its exciting my next year's fruiting
eyes to burst prematurely. I am particularly cau
tious that nothing shall happen to injure the leaf that
accompanies the bunch, for if that is lost, the fruit, of
course, will come to nothing.

150

OPKN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

During the summer I inspect the vines regularly
every morning ; seeing that the ends of my leaders

Fig. 82.

are in their proper places, and not obstructed ; pick
ing off tendrils and stopping the laterals above the

Fig. 83.

first leaf, on my next year's bearing wood, tying
down fruit spurs carefully, and stopping any shoot
that may have sprung from the ends of them; as

PRUNING GRAPE VINES.

151

well as other shoots that may come out from the pre
viously stopped laterals.

Fig. 32 shows a simple method of training wines
to a trellis formed of light stakes or a couple of

Fig. 81

wires. If trained on the plan shown in Fig. 33
neither stakes nor trellises will be required.

II. The long-spur system is that upon which old
vines are trained, and consists in cutting the young

152 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

wood the previous year, back to three or four eyes,
all weak shoots and dead wood being removed.

Sir J. Paxton, in the " Gardener's Chronicle " for
1842, gives the following directions for pruning
vines on the spur system. The cut there given (Fig.
34) has been often reproduced, but in general it has
been so reduced that the character of the shoots is not
clearly seen :

" It represents a portion of the vine when pruned
in autumn, on the spur system, with short rods of
five or six eyes each, left at convenient intervals on
the oldest branches throughout the vine. The per
pendicular main shoots should not be less than two
feet apart, and when pruning them no useless eyes
should be left, that is, no eye should be allowed to
remain but where a shoot is desired in the following
season. By attending to this, the vine will not have
to develop (as is usually the case), an immense quan
tity of superfluous branches ; and although the ope
ration may appear a tedious one at the time of prun
ing, an immense saving of labor and time may be
effected at a busier period in the spring, and the
quantity of fruit may be easier regulated in propor
tion to the strength of the vine. If this is attended
to, nothing will be required in the summer but
securing the young fruit-bearing shoots to the wall,
and shortening them to one joint above the bunch

PRUNING GKAPE VINES. 153

as soon as the fruit is set, excepting the leading
shoots, which should not be stopped until the lower
part is ripened ; otherwise the main eyes for the next
season may be induced to grow prematurely. In
autumn the young wood from the spurs is shortened
back to one, or at most, to two eyes, and the terminal
shoots in proportion to their strength ; but for the
strongest wood, from eight to twelve eyes will be found
as many as will break well.

u When commencing to train a young vine in this
manner, the side branches should not be brought to
the horizontal position at first, but lowered gradually
as the number of suitable branches for upright stems
are obtained ; by this means they acquire strength
faster than if trained horizontally at first."

It is obvious that this system is nearly the same as
the long rod, or renewal system — the difference being
that instead of taking several of the upper buds on
each young cane, we use only one and have a great
many canes or spurs.

The only real advantage to be derived from it (so
far as we are able to judge), and that upon which its
distinctive features is founded, is that the buds from
which the next year's crop is to be obtained are
always well ripened. "We would, therefore, prefer it
to the first system, where the vines are tender, or the
climate unfavorable, and deem it of sufficient impor-

7*

154

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

tance to give in detail a method of treating the spurs
during a series of years.

Fig. 85.

Fig. 35 (A) shews a portion of a young cane which
may either form part of the vertical branches on a
trellis, or the single stem of a young vine. The first
season of fruiting, the tendrils should be cut oif and
the buds thinned to from six to ten inches apart,
depending upon the vigor of the variety ; and so that
they will be alternately on different sides of the cane,
thus leaving the buds on each side from 12 to. 20

Fig. 36.

inches apart. Not more than four or five buds should
'be left on a cane during the first season.

PRUNING GRAPE VINES.

155

At the close of the first season, after the leaves
have fallen, the cane will present the appearance
shown in Fig. 36. Here A is the main cane; BIS the
Bhoot produced by the buds on Fig. 35 ; and o is a bud
at the base of this shoot. Prune the shoot B to one
plump bud, as shown in the figure and allow the bud
c to push and form a shoot ; stopping it, however, as
soon as it has made a few leaves.

Fig. 87.

Next season we will have the shoot D, (Fig. 37) with
several nice, plump buds, and the old spur B, with its
shoot which bore fruit last year. Cut D back to one
or two eyes, and cut B away entirely. The buds on D
will push and bear fruit, and a bud will, no doubt,
push from the base to form the spur for next year.

Fig. 38 shows the next winter pruning. From
this description, it is obvious that we must, each
year, have eyes to produce, not only fruit, but a

156

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

young cane, which will form the spur for next year.
If we depend for this spur upon last year's fruiting

Fig. 88.

shoots, our spur will soon become so long, and our
vine so encumbered with old wood as to be quite
unmanageable, unless we adopt the system to be next
•described :

III. Here we depend for our fruit upon buds pro
ceeding from the base of last year's fruiting shoot,
this fruiting shoot being borne upon a spur attached
'to the main branch. This is the system of pruning
;adopted at Thomery, and as no good description of
it is be found in any American publication with
which we are acquainted, we give the very full and
•lucid account by H. Dubreuil — a translation of which
may be found at the close of the volume.

IY. In the short-spur, or Thomery system, the
fruit-bearing shoot proceeds from a spur on the main

PRUNING GRAPE VINES. 157

branch, which although short, is still a spur. Theory,
however, would lead us to suppose that it might just
as well proceed from the juuction of last year's
fruit-bearing shoot with the main branch.

158 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTEE IX.

WALLS AND TRELLISES THEIR INFLUENCE AND CON
STRUCTION.

ALTHOUGH the influence of the various forms of
walls, trellises and stakes upon the growth and matu
rity of the vine depends somewhat upon the system of
pruning and training pursued in connection with
them, still, it cannot be doubted but that their forms
and the materials of which they are made also exert
an influence which is by no means to be disregarded.

In this country, walls devoted to the culture of the
vine have not been used to a sufficient extent, to
afford reliable data as to the benefit to be derived from
them. Many single vines, however, are trained on
the ends of houses and along board fences, and from
a careful examination of several such examples, we
are inclined to believe that in exposed situations the
erection of cheap walls would pay well, even in vine
yards.

"When vines are judiciously trained in front of
brick walls and at a few inches' distance from them,
the grapes uniformly ripen sooner than those on

WALLS ATSTD TRELLISES. 159

exposed trellises. The wood also is more perfectly
matured, and this, during a succession of years, exerts
a considerable and favorable influence on the vine.

The effect of walls doubtless depends upon two
causes, one being the higher temperature produced
by the radiation from the surface of the solid wall,
and the other being the protection from wind and
storms which such a structure affords.

That the latter point is one of material importance,
we are well satisfied, for however essential ventilation
may be to the healthy growth of the vine, all violent
winds and cold blasts are to be studiously avoided.

A striking instance of this is to be seen in the gar
den of a gentleman of this city. Several vines are
there trained along the east side of a high board fence,
and although the same judicious and systematic care
is given to all parts of the vines, yet the finest fruit is
uniformly found a foot or two below the top of the
fence. Now when we remember that on all open
trellises the finest grapes are found at the top, since
all trees produce the best fruit at the extremities of
the branches, we must attribute no mean effect to the
protection afforded by the fence, since the boards of
which it is composed can scarcely be supposed to
retain and radiate much heat, and its height (about
eight feet) is not sufficient to include the limit to
which vines may be judiciously carried.

160 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

" The actual temperature to which a tree trained
upon a wall facing the sun is exposed is much higher
than that of the surrounding air, not only because it
receives a larger amount of the direct solar rays, but
because of the heat received by the surrounding
earth, reflected from it and absorbed by the wall
itself. Under such circumstances the secretions of
the plant are more fully elaborated than in a more
shady and colder situation, and by aid of the greater
heat and dryness in front of a south wall, the period
of maturity is much advanced. In this way we suc
ceed in procuring a Mediterranean or Persian sum
mer in these northern latitudes.

" When the excellence of fruit depends upon its
sweetness, the quality is exceedingly improved by
such an exposure to the sun ; for it is found that the
quantity of sugar elaborated in a fruit is obtained by
an alteration of the gummy, mucilaginous, and gela
tinous matters previously formed in it, and the quan
tity of those matters will be in proportion to the
amount of light to which the tree, if healthy, has
been exposed. Hence the greater sweetness of plums,
pears, etc., raised on walls from those grown on
standards. It has been already stated that an
increase of heat has been sought for on walls by
blackening them, and we are assured in the i Horti
cultural Transactions ' (III. 330) that, in the cultiva-

WALLS AND TRELLISES. 161

tion of the grape, this has been attended with the
best effects. But, unless when trees are young, the
wall ought to be covered with foliage during the sum
mer, and the blackened surface would scarcely act,
and in the spring the expansion of the flowers would
be hastened by it, which is no advantage in cold, late
springs, because of the greater liability of early
flowers to perish from cold. That a blackened surface
does produce a beneficial effect upon trees trained
over it is, however, probable, although not by
hastening the maturation of the fruit ; it is by raising
the temperature of the wall in autumn, when the
leaves are falling, and the darkened surface becomes
uncovered, that the advantages are perceived by a
better completion of the process of growth, the result
of which is the ripening the wood. This is indeed
the view taken of it by Mr. Harrison, who found the
practice necessary, in order to obtain crops of pears
in late seasons at Wortley, in Yorkshire (see ' Hort.
Trans.' III. 330 and YI. 453.) It hardly need be
added that the effect of blackening will be in propor
tion to the thinness of the training and vice versa."
— Lindley.

The articles referred to by Lindley, being short
und practical, it may be well to transcribe them.
Henry Dawes writes thus to Sir Joseph Banks : "I
take the liberty of communicating to you my remarks

162 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTUKE.

on a garden wall, on which I have been making
experiments at Slough. It faces the south, and
against it, about the middle, a young grape vine is
trained. Two years ago I covered a portion of the
wall with thick black paint. The vine was divided
into two equal parts, one half was trained on the
painted, and the other on the plain wall. The sea
son was so unfavorable last year, that scarcely any
out-door grapes came to perfection ; but those in the
blackened part of the wall were much finer than those
on the plain part. This year the success of my expe
riment has been complete. The weight of fine
grapes gathered from the blackened part of the wall
was 20 Ibs. 10 oz., while the plain part yielded only
7 Ibs. 1 oz., being little more than one-third of the
other. The fruit on the blackened part of the wall
wras also much finer, the bunches were larger and
ripened better than on the other half ; the wood of
the vine wras likewise stronger and more covered with
leaves on the blackened part.

" It is a generally known fact, that a black, unpo
lished surface absorbs more rapidly than other colors
the sun's rays, and thereby becomes sooner heated.
It is equally well known that surfaces which absorb
heat more quickly, part with it more easily when the
source of heat is withdrawn, and cool quicker. In
the summer time, when the days are long, the wall

WALLS AND TRELLISES. 163

will be more intensely heated under the blackened
surface, and the night (or time of cooling) being short,
it may not have returned to the temperature of the
air, before it is again subjected to an increase of heat.
If the time of cooling were long enough, that part of
the wall under the blackened surface, might become
actually cooler than the part not blackened, and thus
the extremes of heat and, cold be greater than when
the wall was left with its usual surface. In the sum
mer time, however, the wall is not only more in
tensely heated, but probably retains a great portion
of the heat during the night.

" Horticulturists will decide which of these two
causes is efficient in producing the effect I have
stated, or whether both may not cooperate ; it is not
for me to presume to do so, though I should be
inclined to think, that in this climate, the intensity
had more influence than the uniformity."

Chas. Harrison, gardener at Wortley Hall, York
shire, gives the following directions for blackening
walls :

" When the leaves have fallen in the autumn, I take
the earliest opportunity to loosen the tree from the
wall and to prune them ; the wall is then colored
with coal-tar, mixing with every gallon of the tar one
pint of linseed oil, in order to prevent it having a
shining surface when dry. It is more necessary to

16i OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

make this addition in the hotter parts of the kingdom
than it is here, but even here it is essential in hot
summers, for when the sun shines strongly on the
wall with a shining black surface it has appeared to"
me to scorch those shoots which touch the wall ; but
this does not happen when the color is rendered
opaque by the mixture of the oil as recommended.
If the wall has not been previously colored, I give it
a second coat as soon as the first is dry. In laying
on the color care is taken that the liquid is not
sprinkled upon the trees, for it would close up the
pores of the wood and consequently do injury.

"After the wall is colored I allow the trees to
remain loose from the wall until the coal tar has set
(unless strong winds prevail, in which case I secure
the main limbs and branches to the wall), in order
that the shoots may not be damaged by coming in
contact with it before it is dry. When the wall has
become moderately dry, I nail the trees to it. A
wall of sound bricks will not require recoloring
more than once in ten years. Coal tar being very
cheap, a wall of considerable extent may be colored
for a trifling sum. Any dark-colored paint will
answer the same purpose, but it is far more expen
sive, and requires renewal more frequently.

" The dark color, absorbing the rays of the sun, the
wall acquires at least ten degrees of heat more than

WALLS AND TRELLISES. 165

the walls not colored, as directed ; thus affording
great assistance in maturing the buds upon fruit-bear
ing shoots, so that the trees may be productive. In
'cold and wet seasons, without such aid, I should not
have been able to obtain ripe buds upon fruit-trees
under my care. This I have had ample proof of by
the unfruitfulness of those trees which are against
walls not colored, at the same time that trees against
colored walls were abundantly fruitful. The wall
being colored is also a preventive of insects harboring
in it and also tends to keep it dry.

" The growth of young trees is much promoted by
the coloring and they are sooner brought to a supply
of fruitful buds."

In all cases in which vines are trained in front of
walls or fences, it is important that a space of from
six to twelve inches be left between the wall and the
trellis to which they are fastened. If trained directly
to the wall, the vine will not only be subject to mil
dew, but ventilation will be materially interrupted.
The bunches also, are liable to injury when lying
against the surface of the wall.

Walls may, of course, be constructed of any mate
rial, brick, stone or concrete. Brick is probably the
most suitable material, though, as plain walls can be
rapidly and cheaply built of concrete, it is probable
that it might pay to erect them on an extensive scale

166 OPEN ATE GRAPE CULTURE.

in some parts of the country. In the celebrated
Thomery vineyards, the walls are built of clay with
a cap of thatch. It is probable that walls built of
well made sun-burnt bricks would last a long time
and answer a good purpose if properly protected by a
cap or eave of board or straw.

But, for all practical purposes, our reliance for vine
yard training, in the present state of our experience,
must be upon properly arranged trellises. We will,
therefore, give what we consider the best mode of con
structing them.

If the vines have been planted two years previously
at distances of eight feet in the rows and the rows six
feet apart, the first step to the erection of the trellises
is to set up a post between each vine and slightly in
advance of the rows, so as to facilitate bending the
vines for winter protection.* These posts may be of
such size and material as the vine dresser may pro
cure. Cedar, chestnut, locust or oak make the best,
and a good size is four inches deep (across the rows)
and three inches thick. They should stand from seven
to nine feet out of the ground and be sunk not less
than two and -si half feet — if three feet, all the better.
The two posts at the ends of the rows must be placed
so that they cannot be drawn inward. Yarious de
vices for effecting this are shown in Figs. 39 and 40.
* See page 107.

WALLS AND TRELLISES.

107

One consisting simply of a piece of plank nailed
across the post so as to afford a broad surface to lie
against the earth. The other is secured by a brace,

Fig. 89.

Fig. 40.

which rests against a large stone sunk below the sur
face.

The posts having been set in a straight line and
reduced to a proper height, the next step will be to
nail two strips of wood, one along the top and the
other at from 9 to 14 inches from the ground, or just
at such a height that the head of the vine-stems

168 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

(from which the horizontal arms spring) may reach
its upper edge when laid against it. If the trellis is
over seven and a half feet high, it will be well to nail
a third slat, equidistant between the two, though it
is not absolutely necessary. The next step is to
divide the spaces between the slats into equal parts
of about 15 inches each. Thus if the trellis be seven
and a half feet high, and two slats (the lower one ten
inches from the ground) we would divide into five
spaces of 16 inches each. If nine feet high with three
slats (the lower one twelve inches from the ground)
we would divide each of the two spaces into three
divisions of 16 inches each. Then take No. 12-16
annealed iron wire, twist a good loop on the end, and
having slipped it over a stout nail driven into the end
post, draw the wire along the posts, attaching it to
each with a small staple wrell driven in until the last
is reached, when the wire may be twisted round a
nail or pin and the loose end secured by a staple.

Yarious devices have been proposed for drawing
the wire tight and adjusting it for contraction and
elongation according to the temperature, as is done in
the construction of fences. But we are satisfied that
there is no necessity for this, as the wire can be
drawn over a stretch of eight feet tight enough for all
practical purposes, while it will always be loose
enough to allow of any contraction that can take

WALLS AND TRELLISES.

169

place. The truth is, that the wires do not require to
be so very tight ; even if they do have a little motion
from the wind, it is not productive of any injury.

Our method of putting up the wire is as follows :
We first provide a pair of strong wooden pincers
such as those shown in Fig. 41, the handles of which
are at least 30 inches long, and having a piece of stout
sole leather tacked over the jaws.

Fig. 41.

Then having secured one end of the vine to the first
post and uncoiled the roll, laying it on the ground,.

8

170 OPEN AIE GKAPE CULTURE.

in front of the posts to which it is to be fastened we
grasp it between the leather jaws of the pincers and
step slowly back, straining it as much as possible un
til we are past the second post, when an assistant
fastens it firmly with a small staple and we are again
ready to step back to the next. By means of this
contrivance, the wire can be laid on as tightly and
smoothly as possible, for all the kinks are taken out
by passing it through the leather jaws of the pin
cers, which should be well greased. It is necessary
to go into the field provided with several sets of
leathers, as they soon wear out, but are easily re
newed. They should be at least three inches broad,
so as to straighten out the wire thoroughly.

That wire is better than wooden slats there can be
no doubt. It is less in the way, the vines cling to it
more readily and the appearance is vastly superior.
A pound of No. 12 wire will stretch across three
posts (24 ft.) so that a trellis 8 feet high with two
wooden slats and five wires, each 14 inches apart, will
require 1-flbs., which, at eight cents per lb., will cost
about 13 or 14 cents. As the cost of the wire is con
siderable, some cultivators do with less. Dr. Under
bill's trellises are seven feet high with only three wires,
and we believe no slats. But we prefer the arrange
ment just described, as we can thus tie in each shoot
conveniently and regularly,, and the wires at 14 inches

WALLS AND TRELLISES.

171

are none too close to have a bearing shoot on each.
When wire cannot be conveniently had, the follow
ing is a good mode of putting np a rough trellis.

Set the posts as usual, and provide a number of
slender split poles (hoop poles) and also a sufficient
number of wire staples made of strong wire (No. 6
or 8 hard). Then secure the poles or slats to the
posts by means of the staples, the ends of the poles
being made to lap over each other so that two may
be fastened by one staple. The accompanying figure
(42) will explain this better than words can describe.

Jig. 42.

If the staples are a little less than the poles, thelatte1"
will be held very firmly. Nails will not answer, an,
they are apt to split the poles, and we are inclined <*•
think that, for ordinary slats, staples would be bette>-
than nails on this very account. If made square and
light, they need not be unsightly, and the cost is not
very great.

No directions- need be given for the construction of

172

OPEN A1K GKAPE CULTURE.

arbors, or those ornamental trellises usually erected
in gardens, as their form and arrangement will vary
with the taste of the possessor.

A very neat, simple and efficient support for a single
vine trained on the spur system is shown in Fig. 43.

Fig. 48.

It might be constructed so as to be removable when
the vine is laid down for the winter. It has even
been proposed to have a hinge at the foot of the trel-

WALLS AND TKELLISES. 173

lis arid lay down trellis and all. But this would be
very injudicious.

Stakes are frequently used in vineyards, and also
in gardens, but do not present any feature which is
not more immediately connected with the subject of
training, than with that of the present chapter.

The materials of which trellises, etc., should be
made, will as often be governed by local circum
stances as by any other consideration. As before stated,
cedar, chestnut, locust and oak, are to be preferred
for posts, and any tough, light and straight-grained
wood for slats. The posts may be charred, where
they enter the earth, though we should prefer to soak
them for an hour or so in boiling coal tar. This may
be readily done in a large pot, or caldron, set up in
the field over a temporary furnace. It will of course
be wise to give the whole structure a couple of good
coats of paint, especially the wire.

The height to which trellises may be carried,
depends upon two circumstances — the extent of their
shadow and the influence of high training upon the
vines. The latter point has been sufficiently dis
cussed, under the head of pruning and training, and
we find that at a distance of six feet no ordinary trellis
will, in latitudes suited to the culture of the grape,
shade its neighbor during the growing season. At
other times, shade is not at all inj urious. We had

174: OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

prepared extensive tables, giving the distance to
which shadows will be thrown by trellises of various
heights, at different seasons of the year, and in dif
ferent latitudes ; but oinit them for the above rea
sons.

The only limit which we would set to the height of
a trellis, wrould be our ability to prune the vines and
gather the fruit, with the aid of a light stool. Lad
ders are too unwieldy and involve too much labor,
except for a few vines.

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 175

CHAPTER X.

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE.

YOUNG vine plants may be raised from seeds, eyes,
or cuttings, or by layering or grafting, all which
modes are in common practice, though some are only
adapted to peculiar circumstances and objects. "We
shall give a few practical directions for each.

LAYERING. — This is the mode in which large, thrifty
vines may be most rapidly obtained ; but it is by no
means adapted to general use, where large quantities
are required.

To procure a young vine by layering, we take a
cane of the preceding year, having a well advanced
shoot ; and about the middle of June, or first of
July, cut it half through, as shown in Fig. 45. It is
then bent down and pegged into a hole, about three
or four inches deep. It should be well watered, and
the application of a little mulch, consisting of long
litter, new-mown grass, weeds, or any similar matter,
will prove of much service. Roots will soon push,
and at the proper time for transplanting, it will have
formed a -fine healthy plant. Larger and stronger

176

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

vines, which, will in some cases bear the succeeding
season, maybe obtained by layering older and stronger
shoots ; but the most healthy and, we believe, the
most vigorous, plants will be produced by follow
ing the directions just given.

Instead of one plant, several may be obtained from

Fig. 44

the same layer, if it be simply buried its wrhole length,
as in Fig. 44. Roots will start from each joint, and
consequently each joint will form a plant. But where a
single plant is wanted, the method shown in Fig. 45
will give the finest results.

If very fine plants are wanted, in a short time, the
best method is to sink a six-inch (or larger) pot in
the ground and layer the shoot in it. This is best
done by first making a hole in the ground, sufficiently
large to receive the pot ; then by running the loop

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE.

177

end of a doubled cord through the hole in the bot
tom of the pot, and passing a stick through the loop

Fig. 45.

or double, it will be easy to tie the shoot in any
desired position. The whole process will be readily
understood from an inspection of Fig. 46 ; and we
much prefer this plan to pegging down the shoot,
or laying on bricks or weights, as pegs are rather
uncertain when used in pots, and bricks take up too

much room to the prejudice of the roots.

8*

178

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

The young plant should be detached from the
parent vine in about five or six weeks after layering,
and may then be set out in its proper location. As
this will be about the latter part of July, or the first
of September, the vine will have plenty of time to
become well established, and make good roots before
winter sets in ; and it will form a strong plant, capa
ble of throwing up two permanent canes or producing
a specimen bunch of fruit, during the succeeding sea
son — provided, of course, that the variety propagated
is of a vigorous and prolific character. An Isabella
vine, layered in this manner in an eight-inch pot,
threw up, next season, two canes, one twelve and the
other sixteen feet. Another, treated in the same
way, bore sixteen bunches of fine fruit.

In several instances, we have used common four-inch
^semi-tubular tile, instead of flowerpots, and with excel
lent results. They have the advantage of cheapness ;
•but, in other respects, the flower-pot is to be preferred.
In some cases, the shoot is drawn through the hole in
the bottom of the pot ; but although we have tried
this in one or two instances, we have not found it
either convenient or satisfactory.

A bearing shoot, layered in a good sized pot, or in
a common water-pail, may be made to produce a
well- rooted plant, which will perfectly ripen several
bunches of fruit .the same season, even after being

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE.

179

removed from the parent plant. This forms a very
elegant and ornamental object ; but, except as a matter
of curiosity, such a process is worthless. In rare
instances, perhaps, specimen bunches might be grown

Fig. 48.

out of doors, and perfected in the house, thus avoid
ing numerous evils to which the finer varieties of the
vine are subject in this climate. In all cases, it is
essential that the layer be kept moist and warm. As

180 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

the earth does not seem to be warm enough to induce
the formation of roots, before June, it has occurred to
us that very early and strong plants might be pro
duced by inserting the pot (Fig. 46) in a slight hot
bed. A few barrow loads of manure would answer
every purpose ; and by producing roots thus early,
strong specimen plants might be procured more
easily than by any other method.

It may be well here to state that wood of any age
from the oldest gnarled stems to the succulent growth
of the current year will root if properly treated.
We have always found, however, that the best and
healthiest roots always spring from the junction of
the old wood with the current year's growth.

It is recommended upon good authority (with
which we in general coincide) to separate the plants
from the old vine at least by the end of September,
mnless previously removed. In the case of some
^varieties, however (Diana, e. g.) this will not always
.-answer, as roots are produced with such difficulty that
^wo years are often required to make good plants.

CUTTINGS. — Where large quantities of young plants
-of the common varieties are required, this is one of
the cheapest and easiest methods of procuring them.
Where wood is plenty, each cutting may consist of
several buds or joints, as in Fig. 47. In ordinary cases,

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 181

however, a length of three buds is sufficient, and we
have grown very good plants from cuttings of only
one joint in length — that is, having two buds. Indeed,
the latter make by far the nicest and cleanest plants,
and though not quite so strong at first as those from
a greater number of eyes, yet we question if in the
long run they would not prove quite their equals.

Fig. 47. Fig. 43.

Cuttings to be good should be of thrifty, well
ripened, close jointed wood — long reedy canes and
spindling twigs being alike to be avoided. The best
cuttings are those which have the base of the shoot
attached, and this may be either as in Fig. 47, where
the cutting has been cut away close to the old wood ;
or it may be a mallet cutting, as it is called, where a
small section of the two-year-old wood is left, as in
Fig. 48.

The proper time for procuring cuttings is at the

182 OPEN AIR GRAPE CDLTCRE.

regular fall or spring pruning. The cuttings may then
be preserved in a cool cellar, either buried in mode
rately dry sand or simply laid on the floor and covered
with straw or leaves. Excessive dryness or damp
ness are equally to be avoided, and the temperature
should be low though never sufficient to freeze the
fluids in the cutting. In this state they should be kept
until the middle or end of April, as nothing is gained
by setting them out at an earlier period. Indeed,
we have found those which had been well preserved
during the winter and set out in May do quite as
well if not better than any others. In some experi
ments we used the previous year's wood, cut from the
vines when the young shoots had grown two inches,
and yet in this case they grew finely and made strong
plants. But of course this is not an example to be
imitated except where it is desired to procure scions
of some particular variety, and the opportunity for so
doing occurs only at the period indicated. Such cut
tings should be set out as soon after being cut off as
possible, and if the weather be dry and warm, shad
ing, watching and watering will all be necessary.

In planting cuttings it is best to choose a plot of
rather sandy soil (heavy soil will not do) ; trench it
deeply, mixing it with manure thoroughly rotten and
converted into a Hack mold. (Any decomposition
going on in the soil will ruin the cuttings.) Then

PEOPAGATIOX OF THE VINE. 183

plant the cuttings in rows twelve to eighteen inches
apart and six to eight inches apart in the rows. They
may be planted either in holes made by a dibble or
laid in trenches made by the spade — the earth from
the next trench being used to fill up the trench in
which the cuttings are placed. Some authors direct
us to place them perpendicularly, but we have always
obtained the best results when they were placed as
shown in Fig 49. In placing them, always be careful

Fig. 49.

to have the end bud which is out of the soil upper
most, and be careful that the end be cut with a slant,
the same as that in the figure, so that it will not throw
the rain on to the bud as in that case it may cause it
to rot. In long cuttings the upper bud should be
left about three inches above the surface of the soil,
so that it may not be covered by the coat of mulch,
which it is well to apply. Short cuttings must be
inserted more deeply, but in all cases the bud should
be uncovered unless in very late planting. We aro
aware that many advise the bud to be covered, but
our own experience has been uniformly against it.

184: OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

Neither should several buds be left above the sur
face, as they can do no good and require constant
watching, as it is important for reasons to be here
after detailed that only one shoot should be allowed
to grow. With cuttings of four or more buds, a very
good rule is to place the second bud even with the
surface of the ground. In this case the cutting should
be turned one-fourth round from its position in
Fig. 49 so that the two upper buds may lie one on
each side.

Another mode of planting cuttings is to make a
hole with a dibble, and after inserting the cutting
about two-thirds its length, bend it over and peg it
down, as shown in Fig. 50.

Fig. 50. Fig. 51.

Fig 51 shows a method of inserting cuttings which
we have practised with success. As it is well known
that a cutting will grow, no matter which end is stuck
in the ground, a scion is taken containing at least
three buds, and after bending it into a semicircular

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 185

form, both ends are inserted in the ground, leaving
the middle bud above the surface. As soon as this
bud begins to grow, it will be supplied with nutri
ment from botli ends and will make rapid progress.
The plants produced by this method are very strong
and if designed to remain where they are first set
out they give very certain and satisfactory results.
But they do not transplant well.

The following plan described in Miller's " Gar
dener's Dictionary" is one which we have tried with
success : " Having an Iron bar of an Inch or more
in Diameter, a little pointed at the End, they there
with make a Hole directly down about three Feet
and a Half deep ; then, being provided with an Instru
ment they call a Crucciala, having a Handle of
Wood like that of a large Auger and the Body of
Iron four Feet long and more than half an Inch in
Diameter, at the End of which there is a Nich some
thing like a half moon, they after twisting the End
of the Cutting, put it therein, and force it down the
Bottom of the Hole, where they then leave it, and
afterward fill up the Vacancy with fine sifted Earth
or Sand ; observing to tread the Earth close to the
Plants, which otherwise (unless it be stiff Land) is
often inclinable to be Loose and Dry, especially if
Eain does not soon follow their Planting ; and it is
incredible how many Yines three Persons can in

186 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

this Manner plant in one Day, viz., upward of two
thousand."

In our own practice we simply make a deep hole,
insert the cutting, fill up with dry sand and give a
liberal supply of water. By inserting the cutting as
deeply as here advised it is placed beyond reach of
drought, though the lower portion rarely throws out
roots unless the soil be very favorable.

EYES. — Where the aid of a hot bed or propagating
house can be obtained, eyes afford an easy and rapid
mode of multiplying vines. They are usually cut
about two inches long, containing only one bud, and
are started in February or March in pots or boxes
filled with a mixture of sand, leaf-mold, and soil.
The buds are either buried half an inch deep or
placed even with the surface of the earth, according

Fig. 52. Fig. 58.

to the ideas of the operator, and generally form strong
plants, which may be set out in the open ground in
June or July. Figs. 52 and 53 illustrate the position

PBOPAGATION OF THE VINE. 187

of the cutting in relation to the soil. This method
of propagating requires skill and great care and is
seldom employed except by professional men.

GRAFTING is seldom employed in the case of those
common varieties which are easily raised from cut
tings or eyes. Diana and Delaware are, however,
sometimes raised by this method, and to the amateur
it is one of the most important processes, as by this
means a new and rare variety can be fruited some
years before a young plant would come into bearing.
Loudon gives the following directions for performing
the operation :

" Cleft grafting the vine is shown in Fig. 54, in
which a is a bud on the scion, and 5, on the stock,

Fig. 64.

both in the most favorable position for success. The
graft is tied and clayed in the usual manner, except
ing that only a small hole is left in the clay opposite

188 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

the eye of the scion, for its development. In graft
ing the vine in this manner when the bud (5) on
the stock is developed, it is allowed to grow for ten
or fourteen days, after which it is cut off, leaving
only one bud and one leaf near its base to draw up
sap to the scion till it be fairly united to the stock.
The time of grafting is when the stock is about to
break into leaf, or when it has made shoots with four
or five leaves. By this time the sap has begun to flow
freely, so that there is no danger of the stock suffer
ing from bleeding; though, if vines are in good
health and the wood thoroughly ripened, all the
bleeding that takes place does little injury."

Hoot-grafting the vine is also frequently practised.
For this purpose, saddle-grafting is most suitable, the
scion being properly secured to the stock with waxed
cloth or paper.

Lindley, in the " Gardener's Chronicle," states that
the great secret of success in grafting the vine is to
keep the scion dormant until the stock has so far
developed its leaves and shoots as to be beyond the
reach of danger from bleeding. His directions are
as follows :

" Shorten the branch or shoot at the winter prun
ing, to the most eligible place for inserting the graft.
The graft should be kept in sufficiently moist soil till
the time of performing the operation, and for a week

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 189

previous in the same temperature as that in which
the vines to be operated upon are growing. When
such portions of the latter as are shortened for receiv
ing the grafts have made a bit of shoot, graft as you
would other fruit-trees, taking care, however, to pre
serve the shoot at the top in claying, and till the buds
on the scions have pushed, then shorten it back.
Inarching may be performed at any time after the
vines have started, so far as not to bleed."

Speechly, however, names the middle of March as
the best time for grafting the vine in the open air ;
and his directions are so lucid that we offer no apo
logy for quoting them :

" In general, vines should be grafted about three
weeks before they begin to break into bud.

"Upon small stocks, not more than one inch in
diameter, cleft grafting will be found the most pro
per ; but upon larger stocks, whip grafting is to be
preferred.

" In both methods, much care should be taken in
fitting the scion and stock together, and the operation
should be performed with great exactness.

"When the stock and scion are well fitted
the graft should be fastened with the strands of bass
matting, and should then be covered with clay in the
usual way.

" Yines do not harmonize with so much freedom as

190 OPEN AIR GKAPE CULTCJKE.

commoner fruit ; for though the scion will sometimes
begin to push in a few weeks, yet it will frequently
remain in a dormant state for two or three months ;
and during this period it will be necessary to strip the
stock of all the shoots it may produce, as soon as
they appear ; and, in order to preserve the scion in a
vegetative state, it will be necessary to keep the clay
moderately moist, which may easily be effected by
wrapping it round with moistened moss, and keeping
the moss constantly sprinkled with water.

" When the scion has made shoots five or six inches
long, the clay and bandage should be carefully taken
off; and the clay may be removed without injuring
the graft, when it is in a moist state.

" Yines will frequently prove successful by both the
above-mentioned methods, but still the most eligible
way of all, seems to me, to be that of grafting by
approach. Indeed, I have seldom known any plants
miscarry, that have been grafted in this way. "Now
in this case, it is necessary to have the plant, intended
to be propagated, growing in a pot. Strong plants
that have been two or three years in pots are to be
preferred, but plants from the nursery may be potted
and grafted in the same season, if brought into a hot
house or vinery ; for the great warmth of either will
generally cause plants, brought out of the open air,
to push with vigor, and to form new roots, which will

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 191

support the plant, and greatly facilitate its forming a
union with the stock.

" I have constantly had fine grapes, and the grafts
have made good wood, the first season, by every
method of grafting, but particularly by the last. In
which it is obvious that the graft has a double sup
port, viz. : from the stock, as well as from the plant in
the pot.

" In this method it will be necessary to let the clay
and bandage remain two or three months after the
graft has formed a union ; for if taken off at an
earlier period, the grafted part of the plant will be
very liable to spring from the stock.

" The pot should be plentifully supplied with water
till the month of August, when the graft should be
separated from the plant in the pot. Two or three
inches of wood below the bottom of the graft may be
left, but should be taken clean off at the next winter's
pruning."

Grafting is a common practice in the vineyards of
France. Chaptal's directions are as follows :

" Having selected a healthy stock, it is, just when
the sap is beginning to flow, taken off with a clean
cut an inch or two below the surface of the ground.
The upper portion of the stock, which must be per
fectly free from knots, is split evenly down the centre
and pared quite smooth within, of a sufficient size for

192

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

the reception of the scion. The latter is pruned to three
eyes in length, having the lower part cut in the form
of a wedge, commencing about an inch beneath
the lowest eye, and gradually tapering to the bottom.
It is then inserted as far as the lowest bud into the
cleft of the stock : the second bud is level with the
surface of the ground, which is drawn close around
it, and the uppermost is quite above the soil. Great

Fig. 55.

care is necessary in adjusting the scion, that its bark
may touch that of the stock in every possible point.
" The whole is then bound round with a pliable osier

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 193

which retains the scion in its proper place. The
best season for grafting the vine is just when the
warmth of spring sets the sap in motion, and it should
be performed when the sky is cloudy, with the wind
blowing from the southeast or southwest. "Whenever
a northerly wind or great drought prevails, it is
better to delay the operation ; a burning sun or cold
wind would arrest the course of the sap by drying up
the vessels at the point of union. Neither is it
advisable to graft in rainy weather, because the
water will trickle down into the incision, and pre
vent the union between the scion and stock. The
best time for taking off the grafts is in a dry day
toward the end of autumn, when the sap is still.
They should be cut off with a portion of the old wood
adhering, which will assist in preserving them until
wanted for use. They should be plunged two or
three inches deep in damp sand, and kept in a cool
cellar, where neither heat nor frost can penetrate..
Twenty-four hours previously to being used, they
should be taken up, and that part which had before;
been in the sand should be laid in water."

He, moreover, states that " the vine is thus grafted
with so much facility, and the union between scion,
and stock is so perfect, that no plant appears more-
adapted for this mode of propagation."

We have never met with an example of budding.
9

194 OPEN AIR GBAPE CULTURE.

as practised on the grapevine. The following process,
which is described as budding in the " Gardener's
Chronicle " for 1844, is in reality a species of grafting :
" Bud about the first week in March, or as soon as
the sap begins to rise. Cut an eye about three inches
in length, having attached as much wood as you can
get with, it ; at each end of the eye cut off about a
quarter of an inch of the upper bark, making the
ends quite thin. Next measure off the exact length
of the bud on the bark of the vine intended to be
budded, and make a niche slanting upward at the
upper part ; and another slanting downward at the
bottom. Then take the piece neatly out, so that the
bud may fit nicely in, and by making the niche, as
stated above, each end of the bud is covered by the
bark of the shoot. Bind the bud firmly round with
matting, and clay it, taking care, however, that the
clay does not cover the eye of the bud. Then tie it
round with moss, and keep it constantly damp, and
as the sap rises in the vine the bud begins to swell.
When the vine commences to push out young shoots,
take the top ones off, in order to throw a little more
sap into the bud, and as you perceive it getting
stronger take off more young shoots, and so continue
until you have taken off all the young shoots. Bud
ding can only be performed where the long-rod system
is practised, as in that case you have the power of con-

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 195

fining the sap to the bud, which will grow vigorously.
As soon as you perceive this, cut the vine down to
the bud. Budding has the advantage over graft
ing of not leaving an unsightly appearance where the
bud was inserted. A bud likewise grows more luxu
riantly. Allow the matting to remain until about
the month of September."

Mr. Knight was accustomed on some occasions to
employ two distinct ligatures to hold the bud of his
peach-trees in its place. One was placed above
the bud inserted, and upon the transverse section
through the bark ; the other, which had no further
office than that of securing the bud, was employed
in the usual way. As soon as the bud had attached
itself, the ligature last applied was taken off; but the
other was suffered to remain. The passage of the*
sap upward was in consequence much obstructed,,
and buds inserted in June began to vegetate strongly
in July : when these had afforded shoots about four-
inches long the remaining ligature was taken off to*
permit the excess of sap to pass on ; and the young-
shoots were nailed to the wall. Being there properly*
exposed to light, their wood ripened well, and afford
ed blossoms in the succeeding spring.

Might not the principles here indicated be applied'
with advantage to the foregoing method of budding;
(grafting?) the vine?

196

OPEN AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

A method which partakes partly of grafting and
partly of inarching is shown in the annexed figure.
Fig 56. Here the graft is covered with soil which

Fig. 56.

supports it in the same manner as a cutting, while at
the same time it receives nutriment from the stock.

SEED HYBRIDIZATION. — Young vines are never raised
from seed, except for the production of new varieties ;
but, as this subject is deservedly attracting very
general attention at present, a few practical hints
thereon may prove acceptable.

Ever since Bacon observed that Ct The compound
ing and mixture of plants is not found out, which,
nevertheless, if it be possible, is more at command
than that of living creatures, wherefore it were one

PROPAGATION OF THE TINE. 197

of the most noble experiments touching plants to
find this out ; for so you may have a great variety of
plants and flowers yet unknown. Grafting doth it
not ; that mendeth the fruit, or doubleth the flower,
but it hath not the power to make a new kind," it
has been the constant endeavor of good gardeners to
improve the qualities of domestic plants by judicious
mixtures of varieties.

Bradley, we believe, was the first who undertook
to produce hybrid plants ; but since his day, it has
been attempted by almost every celebrated horticul
turist.

The limits of hybridization amongst plants have
never been thoroughly ascertained, although it is a
subject of deep importance. For in the animal king
dom we know that while cross breeding (or intermix
ture of varieties) has been productive of the best
results, hybridization, or muling has been successful
in but very few instances, at least so far as practical
good is concerned. ISTow whether the different spe
cies of the vine, as mils vinifem, vitis labrusca, vitis
cordifolia, etc. are so far removed from each other
as to produce mules by their intermixture, or whe
ther they are varieties and will freely cross-breed, has
not yet been fully determined.

To examine this subject, however, with sufficient
fullness to be useful would far exceed our limits.

198 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

Neither can we enter upon a discussion of the
claims of the rival theory of Van Mons. We shall
therefore rest content with a few practical directions.

Speedily, who was probably the first to attempt
the improvement of vines by cross-breeding, directs
us to bring the flowering branches of the two kinds
of vines into close proximity — they being, of course,
in the same stage of maturity.

]STo very superior varieties followed his attempts,
however ; and this is not to be wondered at, as it is
probable that branches might be entwined a thou
sand times without effecting the result aimed at;
for no means are taken to bring the pollen of the dif
ferent ilowers into contact with the stigma of the
others, and although we have no reasons to doubt the
possibility of super-fcetation, (seeing it is well-known
to occur in the higher animals) yet no means are
here taken to produce even this.

J. Fiske Allen, one of our most successful grape
growers and the originator of some new and excel
lent varieties, gives the following directions upon this
point.

" The applying the pollen, or farina of one variety
to the pistil, or stigma of another, is the surer method
of proceeding to obtain new sorts in the shortest
time ; and this is called hybridizing.

To do this properly, the bunch should be thinned

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 199

of three-quarters of the buds ; the lower part should
be cut away entirely (immediately before inflores
cence), the strongest buds always being left.

Observe them closely, and as soon as the flowers
open, with sharp scissors clip the anthers, being care
ful not to injure the pistil; with a soft brush, apply
the pollen from the kind to be used in impregnation ;
or the whole bunch which is to furnish the pollen may
be cut from the vine and gently rubbed or applied to
the bunch, by frequently striking them together on
every side. This should be repeated several days,
until it is evident that the fruit is all impregnated ;
a fresh bunch with the pollen in a suitable condition,
must be had at each operation.

" The pollen must be dry and in a falling condition,
to be fit for the purpose. If your vines are so
situated that a branch to be acted upon can be
brought into contact with the branch of another kind,
and the bunches interlaced, this will be a good
method of proceeding — cutting away the males part
of the blossom from the kind that is to ripen the seed
for the new kinds."

Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59.

" Fig. 57 is a magnified representation of the bud

200 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

of the grape. Figs. 58 and 59 show the blossom.
The change from the bud to the blossom is usually
rapid, and takes place about thirty to forty days after
the shoot appears in the spring which bears the fruit.
This bud, which forms the blossom, consists of a
covering, or cap, and the embryo berry with five
anthers, which, when the time for inflorescence has
come, is raised, or lifted, by the anthers, and the
wind blows this cap free.

" The third is the blossom or embryo grape, with
the anthers clipped and deprived of their farina ; on
the top of the embryo is the pistil ; upon this is to be
placed the farina, or pollen of the male plant ; when
this is done, impregnation takes place, and the em
bryo rapidly swells off. If the operation has not
been effectual, the berry will remain as it is. When
the grape has attained one-third or one-half its size,
it remains stationary two or three weeks, and at this,
time it is perfecting the seed. "When this is done,
the fruit begins growing again ; thus it appears the
seed will vegetate, even if the fruit does not ripen
sufficiently to be eatable."

London's directions for saving and sowing seed are
as follows : " Grapes for seed should be permitted to
remain on the plant till the fruit is perfectly mature,
and the seeds are of a very dark brown color. They
should be separated from the pulp, and preserved till

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. 201

February or the beginning of March. They should
then be sown in pots filled with light fresh mold, and
plunged in a moderately warm hot-bed ; they will
come up in from four to six weeks, and when the
plants are about six inches high, they should be
transplanted singly, into forty-eights, and afterward
into pots of a larger size. Water gently, as circum
stances require, allow abundance of light and air,
and carefully avoid injuring any of the leaves. Cut
down the plants every autumn to two good buds, and
suffer only one of these to extend itself in the fol
lowing spring. Shift into larger pots as occasion
requires, till they have produced fruit. This, under
good management, will take place in the fourth or
fifth year, when the approved sorts should ,be
selected, and the rest destroyed, or used 'tis stocks on
which to graft or inarch good sorts."

202 OPEN AIK GKAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTER XL

MANURE.

Manure* may be defined to be anything added to
the soil to increase its fertility, whether by mechani
cal or chemical action. Substances serving the first
purpose have been alluded to under the head of soils.
The latter will now occupy our attention.

In a former chapter sufficient practical directions
were given for the preparatory enrichment of the soil
and for the annual top-dressing of the borders ; it will
now be our object to consider in detail the character
of the nutriment required by the vine ; the sources
whence it may be derived ; the various modes of its
application ; and its effects upon the plant.

It is a well-established fact, that unless the soil in
which any plant is placed contains all the elements
necessary to the formation of such plant, no healthy
growth can ensue. Hence our first step must be to
inquire into the chemical constitution of the grape-
Tine, or at least of its ashes, those elements which

* QUERY. — To what extent was Jethro Tull's idea of horse-hoeing,
as a substitute for manure, anticipated by those who first used the
word manure (manwuvrer — to work with the hand), before it was em
ployed to express the addition of matter to the soil, with a view to
inci'-ase its fertility"? One old English author speaks of the Com
monwealth of England as 'being " gouerned, administered, and
manured by three sorts of persons," £tc.

MANURE.

203

are dissipated during combustion being abundantly
supplied from the atmosphere.

The following are a few of the most reliable analy
ses which have been published :

Dr. Emmons found the wood of Vitis Ldbrusca
(Isabella ?) to contain : Water, 40.26 ; dry matter,
59.74; ash, .98.

Full-sized leaves of Catawba, picked June 2d :
Water, 72.388; dry matter, 27.612; ash, 2.138.
Per centage of ash calculated on dry matter, 7.746.

Leaves of Catawba grape picked June 2d. An
alysis of ash :

Carbonic acid 3.050

Silicic acid 29.650

Sulphuric acid 2.062

Phosphates 32.950

Lime 4.391

Magnesia 1.740

Potassa 13.394

Soda 9.698

Chlorine 0.741

Organic acid 2.250

5.926

An analysis of wood and bark of wild vine gave

Wood.

Bark.

Potassa

20 84

] 77

Soda

2.06

9 27

Chlorine . . ..

0 02

0 40

0.23

trace

Phosphate of lime

15 40

5 04

1.20

5 04

54.83

32.22

17 33

39.32

Magnesia .

4 40

0 80

Silex

2 80

14.00

0.00

30.00

2.20

1.70

100.21

100.86

The following tabulated analyses by Crasso <&?
Walz explain themselves :

204

OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

Drollingen Vines, with
leaves.

SSSS :KS : 8 ;§5S8S

T-< co r-i as o i-i • eo • i-I oi o» T-! 10

i— ( CO • C^

S §

o »

!

Reisling Vines, with
leaves.

T-I CO rf «O CO «0 • T-l -T-ICOCOCOaO
CO T-I »O t- T-I CO • •* • O CO <O t- «O

«O t- M1' "*° O r-l • CO • O (N O r-I I—

§ S

1 ^

Cleven Vines, with
leaves.

•«* O <M r-l COt- • ••* . OT-lb-t-O
OCSIt-CO O CM • 16 •r-l!?4rH<yilO

t-Ot-HtO Or-( • CO • r-< C-J -r-i T-H -^"
Ol rH CO

§ s

1 °'

Small Burgundy Vines

lOJO^t-Tfi-ICS) -1CO11O
T— l -^ O t-» iQ rH OO 'COCS1O

O (M

<=» s

—Ash of Wood.

§ eo

Green Grapes — Ash of

O -t-CSiOiO-H iCt->O

Tfl • O iQ 5C Tf O COGS1O

§ c^

Seed.

§3 I^ooooc, O^JH . . . . .

§ oi

Blue Grapes — Ash of
Seed.

S :SS^!S^ ££§ : : : : :

^ jgcdc'dcsi od^ | | | j j

S £

1 *

Green Grapes — Ash of

O» S3 CO >O t- T-H CO r-lt-O

GO O 1— Tj< CS 1O 00 t-lOO

o 55

Skin.

o T-I -i-i •* r-i o eo o ff» »o

•^ C?^ T-*

§ 3

1-1

1

Blue Grapes — Ash of

lOCO-r^fMT-ICDOO OitOt-
«0 T-H CO 0 T-I t- TP -*Tj<0

« g

•

o

Skin.

•* CM T-I

o co

Ripe Green Grapes —

•^SO-r-'lOOOOV OGO1^ • • •
^. 0 r-l CS -* CO 00 t-rHO • • •

8|

Ash of Juice.

g CS) 0 CO 0 0 T* OCNt-j • • • •

1 ^

Ripe Blue Grapes —
Ash of Juice.

S§gS§SS ^SS : : : :
TH T-! co co d d co ^T-*^' ; ; ; :

S §

§ *

-*CSIb--^C01OMI COOO5 • • •

0 0

Ripe Blue Grapes-
Ash of Juice.

>o o co tjl o o 10 TH <M' «o •

CD TH • ' *

1 ®

Unripe Blue Grapes —

COCOOh-COffl • O5 O C5 CO • • •
COCO<M<Ml-00 -T^l-OiCO • • •

8 S

Ash of Juice.

«O O O CO O O -OOr-iiO •

§ d

2

I)

•

1

••••£> o- •§

: ': : ;§ : ; ; ; :«*• i §

; . : s • • • • • s ° • • "

ja"

H

I

•

1

g* : ; : :•-•- v co
£o :-1 : L:l|ll?

*- «-2^ : :'G^^^ s'g

It^l is:2l?!?^

- lllil^lllljl

f«illflll|ffftll

o o •£ « « £'5 ^— — •= -c ~ -c j= J3
BkaB^SMemnKSEpHOiPkPiOO

Total
Percentage of A

MANURE. 205

Such being the normal constituents of the vine
and of its fruit, and the latter being, in almost all
cases, removed from the soil in which it was pro
duced, it is obvious that a process of exhaustion must
be constantly carried on, which, if not counteracted,
must, in a short time, perceptibly reduce the crop.

The means by which the matter thus removed
from the soil is restored, are of three kinds : First,
the action of the plants themselves, or of man upon
the subsoil ; secondly, rain ; and thirdly, by the direct
addition of the requisite elements, through the agency
of man and animals.

Although the soil has, to a certain extent, the
power of separating salts and gases from the water
which passes through it, the drainage water still re
tains a certain proportion of valuable matter,* and
consequently the subsoil also becomes saturated to a
greater or less extent with these same elements.
Hence one of the effects of trenching is not only to
bring up unexhausted soil to the surface, but to return
those matters which had previously been washed out
of the upper soil by the rains. The plants themselves
occasionally bring up some of this matter, sending

* A series of valuable analyses and experiments upon this point ap
peared lately in the transactions of the Highland (Scottish) Agricul
tural Society, which the reader who desires to pursue this subject
would do well to consult.

206 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

down roots deep into the subsoil if it is open and
porous.

Rain is another important source not only of am
monia and gases, but of mineral matter. We quote the
following from Lindley's "Theory of Horticulture:"

" The researches of chemists have shown that all rain
water contains ammonia, a compound of hydrogen
and nitrogen, and thus the source of the nitrogen
absorbed by plants was explained. But it lias also
been shown, especially by M. Barral, that other sub
stances upon which plants feed are contained in rain
water to a much greater amount than was suspected.
This observer was led, during six months of 1851, to
examine minutely the water collected in the rain
gauges of the Observatory of Paris. His mode of
investigation is declared by Messrs. Dumas, Bous-
singault, Gasparin, Regnault, and Arago, names fore
most in French science, to be free from all objection,
and to bear the most counter trials to which they
could expose it. M. Barral states, that although the
quantities of the following substances varied in dif
ferent months, yet the monthly average from July to
December, inclusive, was as follows :

"SUBSTANCES IN A CUBIC METRE OF RAIN WATER.

GRAMMES. GRAINS.

Nitrogen, ..^ *s *»***;f «y>i» *^ . 8.36 = 129.
Nitric Acid, 19.09 = 294.

MANURE. 207

GRAMMES. GRAINS.

Ammonia, .... i'"*1''!' 3.61 — 55.7

Chlorine, 2.27 = 35.

Lime,. .,- . £$K$ &£&*&&& . 9.48 = 100.

Magnesia, . .^J^.- , * > , .. 2.12= 32.7

" He did not ascertain whether all these substances
are contained in rain water collected at a distance
from towns. But Dr. Bence Jones found at least
nitric acid in rain water collected in London, at
Kingston in Surrey, at Melbury in Dorsetshire, and
far from any town at Clonakelty, in Ireland. If we
assume that M. Barral's averages represent what
occurs on an English acre, the quantity of such sub
stances deposited on that extent of ground may be
safely estimated as follows :

" The average depth of rain which falls in the neigh
borhood of London is well ascertained to be about
twenty-four inches per annum. This is at the rate of
87,120 cubic feet, or 2,466 cubic metres of rain water
per acre ; and this, according to the proportions per
cubic metre in the preceding table, would afford anu-
ally of —

Nitrogen, . . . ^, , . *- v ,£•>- 45^ Ibs.

Nitric acid, ^ "; ^ -4|. ^5,;?-- 103 "

Ammonia, 19J "

Chlorine, , 'T * " ••- '" R^J^SJ'? 12 J "

Lime,.' ' . •"; ; . '-'-' .'•™-'*ilfi:*s&\i*. ''•' 35 "

Magnesia. ..'... 11 "

Amount total per acre, 227 "

208 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

" Of these substances, the three first are of the
utmost importance, on account of their entering so
largely into the indispensable constituents of the food
by which vegetable life is sustained. The quantity
of ammonia thus ascertained to exist, is about what is
expected in two hundred weight of Peruvian guano ;
and bountiful nature gives us, moreover, nearly one
hundred and fifty pounds of nitrogenous matter
equally suited to the nutrition of our crops."

But although nature is thus liberal in supplying the
necessary wants of her children, man desires returns
rather more extensive than is merely necessary for
the good of the plant. He therefore adds directly to
the soil those matters which contain proper nutriment
for the vine. In doing this, however, it is not neces
sary to follow very accurately any recipe founded upon
the analysis of the vine, provided we obtain sufficient
of those elements which are most wranted. If we only
spread a liberal table, the vine will select its own
food.

Of all applications to the soil, none deserve more
confidence than well rotted barnyard manure ; from
time immemorial it has been the staple reliance of
the gardener and farmer and few are the instances in
which its judicious application has been known to
fail.

That it may do good and not harm, however, when

MANURE. 209

mixed with the soil in which plants are growing, it is
necessary it be thoroughly rotten. However much
may have been written about the waste incurred by
allowing manure to decompose, it is a well know fact
that thoroughly decomposed manure is beneficial to
most plants, while decomposing or fermenting ma
nure is frequently prejudicial. This probably arises
from the fact that all bodies while undergoing decom
position exert a catalytic action on any organized
matter in contact with them. Thus decomposing
manure directly tends to produce rot in the roots or
other parts of plants with which it comes in contact.

The proper time for the application of manure to
a vine border has been a subject of much discussion.
Our plan is to apply it as a top-dressing in the fall
and fork it in in the spring. It thus serves to keep the
border warm and the soluble portions are washed
down amongst the roots of the vine by the winter
snow and rain, thus reaching it in a most effectual
manner. To assist this process, the border should be
loosened with a fork before the manure is laid on.

Of all the substances entering into the composi
tion of a manure heap none have a better influence
upon vines than bones. In the formation of a border
they are of essential utility, affording for a long period
a constant source of nutriment. The avidity with
which the roots of the vine seek such a depot of food

210 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

may be easily seen by placing a large porous bone
amongst the roots of a vine. In a few months it will
be literally covered with rootlets which have sought
it out and find their nutriment in its recesses.

Leather, hair, horns, hoofs, woollen rags and other
animal offal possess a similar action to bones. They
all possess the valuable property of lying undecom-
posed in the soil for long periods, yet yield readily to
the disintegrating action of plant roots. Hence,
while they afford abundant and valuable nourish,
ment to the vine, it is not surfeited by them as this
nutriment must be wanted and sought before it will
be given up.

Ashes of wood, whether fresh or leached are a
powerful manure for the vine, and probably contain
all that it requires. Leached ashes may be applied
as a top dressing in almost any quantity with excel
lent effect, but a more cautious use must be made of
fresh wood ashes, they being much more powerful
and caustic. Coal ashes have hitherto been deemed
utterly worthless, and are usually thrown into the
street. To some soils, however, particularly those
which are too heavy, they are a very useful addition,
and as they are a powerful absorbent, there is no
doubt that if mixed with night soil, or some similar
matter, they would prove an excellent article — more
lasting, and consequently better than night soil by

MANURE. 211

itself. They should never be thrown away, however,
as they contain lime, iron and minute, though appre
ciable quantities of alkalies, soda usually predomi
nating. It is also quite possible that they contain
minute traces of phosphates, though in no analysis
with which I have met is it mentioned. Where the
coal has been burned at a high temperature the
alkali is in general reduced, and the metal volatilized.

The dung and urine of animals forms a powerful
manure. The solid excrements of all these are best
mixed with some absorbent, as plaster, charcoal,
burnt clay, etc. ; or thoroughly decomposed in con
tact with vegetable matter, as straw, leaves, etc.
The liquid and soluble portion may be used as liquid
manure, or may be poured over the fermenting dung
heap.

The dung of birds, as hens, pigeons, etc., and also
guano, form a very convenient and most excellent top
dressing for vine borders, but are better when applied
as liquid manure during the growing season.

An excellent manure may be made as follows:
Sink a hole in any convenient part of the premises
and fill up with saw-dust. On this pour all the
urine that can be obtained from time to time, and
keep closely covered with a broad cover.

When sufficient has been added, or when the smell
becomes offensive, remove the cover and place a pile

212 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

of charcoal, burnt clay, coal ashes, or other absor
bent on top of it, and allow it to lie for a few weeks.
At the end of that time, a mass of matter will have
been produced almost equal to guano.

Road scrapings form a good top dressing for most
soils. Hoare considers them unrivalled for the grape
vine, and such was the opinion of Speedily, who tells
us: "The dust, or dirt, from roads, consists princi
pally of the following particulars: first, the soil of
the vicinity ; secondly, the dung and urine of horses
and other animals ; and thirdly, the materials of the
road itself when pulverized. Yarious other matters
may be brought by winds, and by other means, but
the foregoing may be deemed the principal. The
first of the above articles is brought to roads by the
wheels of carriages, and the legs of horses and other
animals ; the last is the worst part of the materials,
as the dust and scrapings of roads, made and mended
with soft stone that grinds fast away, is much infe
rior in its vegetating quality to that which is collected
from hard roads. On the whole, however, this in
gredient of compost from the roads is unquestionably
in general of a fertile nature, which may be attri
buted in part to the dung, urine, and other rich ma
terials, of which it is composed, and in part to a kind
of magnetic power, impressed upon it by friction and
its perpetual pulverization.

MANTJEE. 213

"The nature of this road earth ought to be duly
considered, when used in the vine compost, and its
proportion adjusted according to its quality. In a
sandy country it will naturally abound with particles
of sand, and long and continued rains will, of course,
wash away its best parts. High winds, too, in dry
weather, will as certainly deprive it of its lightest
and finest parts, especially when roads lie on emi
nences, or enjoy an open exposure. Those materials
from roads are therefore preferable, which are pro
duced from an inclosed track in a low situation
Pavements, however, and hard roads, produce the
best sulture of all. The compost is much better
when collected in a moderate dry state, than when it
is either very wet or dusty. If scraped off the road
in a wet and soft state, when it is become dry it will
be hard and cloddy, and will require time to bring it
to a proper condition.

" When, thus circumstanced, the best way of recover
ing it is to give it frequent turnings in hard, frosty
weather."

Dead animals may be used in a vine border if
placed sufficiently far from the roots to allow of their
being decomposed, before the roots reach them, as
previously remarked.

Any decaying matter IB a border is very detri
mental.

2M OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

Charcoal is one of the best additions to any soil.
It should be well burnt, however, and free from all
smell of creosote, as this substance is rather prejudi
cial to the roots of the grape vine, although it seems
to agree with some plants; (chiefly alliaceous, for
which soot is a specific). On this account, when
used for drainage in pots, it should be reburnt.

I am informed by one successful grape culturist
that unless this precaution of reburning is taken with
most charcoal, it is rather prejudicial to the roots of
young vines in pots than otherwise. I have found,
however, that if well sprinkled (it need not be satu
rated) with putrid urine and allowed to lie for some
time, it loses its injurious qualities and retains abund
ant nourishment, which is gradually given off to the
roots of the plants as they require it. "When used as
a compost for enriching a vine border it had always
better be saturated with night soil or urine. Even
brick rubbish, if so treated, becomes of great value.

Most of these solid matters are best added to the
soil in the original formation of the border. This is
especially the case with the primings of the vine,
than which nothing can be more valuable. If added
when the border is first formed, it will not only fur
nish nutriment for the vine, but will tend to keep the
soil open and porous. For our established vines, there
fore, it will be best to depend upon liquid manure

MANURE. 215

and autumn top dressing of stable manure, and all
solid matters may go to the formation of new vine
yards, "of which we suppose there will in general be
an annual addition. But where no new borders are
being formed, it would be well to open trenches
between the rows of vines, in which such matters
might be buried. If this were done immediately
after the vintage, the roots would recover the same
season from any wounds they might receive, and the
ultimate gain would greatly overbalance any tempo
rary injury. In doing this, it will of course be best
to enrich but a small extent of border each year and
do it thoroughly, so that it may afford a supply
during many succeeding seasons.

LIQUID MANURE. — Of all the forms in which manure
can be applied, the liquid manure is the most conve
nient and the most effective. ~No garden or vineyard
should be without a tank of this article, as its judi
cious application will often enable us to mature a
fine crop under very unfavorable circumstances, its
great advantage consisting in the immediate results
obtained ; though this very quality, renders it a
dangerous article in the hands of those who do not
thoroughly understand its proper application. To
prepare and preserve liquid manure, two tanks with
good covers should be made in some convenient spot.
Iii small garden s> barrels, such as are used for

216 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

hydraulic cement, will answer — larger establishments,
of course, requiring something more capacious. They
should be filled with chamber and kitchen slops and
soap suds, the latter being generally added warm.
On the large scale, when horse, cow, and other ma
nure can be obtained, it may be mixed with water and
added to the contents of the barrels. Hen manure
is one of the most valuable additions. Two barrels
should be used, so as constantly to have some of the
manure thoroughly decomposed.

After standing for a week or ten days, it will be fit
for use, and may either be applied to the surface of
the border, or what is far better, introduced by means
of subterranean drains or channels. These may con
sist simply of long wooden boxes, bored full of small
holes and sunk about twelve inches beneath the
surface, or of common horse shoe tiles placed in a
similar position. Under any circumstances, it must
have a tube at one end rising up to the surface,
through which the liquid may be poured and which
may be closed on the approach of winter so as to
exclude frost. In very small gardens, it may prove
sufficient to sink one or two flower pots in the border.
These, being filled with the liquid manure, it will
soak down amongst the roots without the possibility
of loss by evaporation from the surface of the ground.
The pots should, of course, ordinarily be kept covered.

MANURE. 217

Liquid manure is such a powerful agent, that there
is only one season of the year at which it can be ap
plied ; that is from the time the first leaves are well
developed until the fruit is fully formed. During
this period a very weak solution may be applied in
large quantities once or twice a week. The culturist,
however, must remember that the solution must be
weak — say one pailful of the contents of the barrels
to six or ten pails of water, according to the strength
of the original liquid.

To prepare extemporaneous liquid manure ready
for application to the borders or drains, dissolve two
or three ounces of guano in a gallon of rain water,
and allow to stand some time, stirring occasionally.

The principles which govern the application of this
useful and powerful agent, are so clearly set forth by
Dr. Lindley, in the last edition of his " Theory of
Horticulture," that we cannot do better than quote
from him.

"In order that the full effects of liquid manure
should be felt without injury, it is indispensable : 1,
that it should be weak, and frequently applied ; 2,
that it should be perfectly clear ; 3, that it should be
administered when plants are in full growth. If
strong, it is apt to produce great injury, because of
the facility with which it is absorbed, beyond the
decomposing and assimilating power of plants. If
10

218 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

turbid, it carries with, it in suspension a large quan
tity of fine sedimentary matter, which fills up the
interstices of the soil, or, deposited upon the roots
themselves, greatly impedes their power of absorp
tion. If applied when plants are torpid, it either
acts as in the case of being over strong, or it actually
corrodes the tissues.

" Let the manure be extremely weak ; it owes its
value to matter that may be applied with consider
able latitude ; for they are not absolute poisons, like
arsenic and corrosive sublimate, but only become
dangerous when in a state of concentration. Gas
water illustrates this ; pour it over the plant in the
caustic state in which it comes from the gas-works,
and it takes off every leaf, if nothing worse ensues.
Mix it with half water — still it burns; double the
quantity once more — it may still burn, or discolor
foliage somewhat. But add a tumbler of gas water
to a bucketful of pure water, no injury whatever
ensues ; add two tumblers full, and still the effect is
salubrious, not injurious. Hence it appears to be
immaterial whether the proportion is the hundredth
or two hundredth of the fertilizing material.

" Manuring is, in fact, a rude operation in which
considerable latitude is allowable. The clanger of
error lies on the side of strength, not of weak
ness.

MANURE. 219

"To use liquid manure very weak and very often is,
in fact, to imitate nature, than whom we cannot take a
safer guide. This is shown by the carbonate of am
monia, carried to plants in rain, which is not under
stood to contain, under ordinary circumstances, more
than one grain of ammonia in 1 Ib. of water ; so that
in order to form a liquid manure of the strength of
rain water, 1 Ib. carbonate of ammonia would have to
be diluted with about 7,000 Ibs. weight of water, or more
than three tons. Complaints which have been made
of guano water and the like are unquestionably refer
able to their having been used too strong.

"It must be borne in mind: 1, That liquid manure
is an agent ready for immediate use, its main value
depending upon that quality ; 2, that its effect is to
produce exuberant growth ; and 3, that it will con
tinue to do so as long as the temperature and light
required for its action are sufficient.

" These three propositions, rightly understood, point
to the true principles of applying it ; and if they are^
kept in view, no mistakes can well be made.

"With fruit, the period of application should be
when the fruit, not the flowers, is beginning to swell.
Nothing is gained by influencing the size or color of'
the flower of a fruit tree; what we want is to increase
the size or the abundance of the fruit. If liquid
manure is applied to a plant when the flowers aro

220 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

growing, the vigor which it communicates to them
must also be communicated to the leaves ; but when
leaves are growing unusually fast, there is sometimes
a danger that they may rob the branches of the sap
required for the nutrition of I lie fruit; and if that
happens, the latter falls off. There, then, is a source
of danger which must not be lost sight of. No doubt
the proper time for using liquid manure is when the
fruit is beginning to swell, and has acquired, by its
own green surface, a power of suction capable of
opposing that of the leaves.

"At that time liquid manure may be applied freely,
and continued from time to time as long as the fruit

O

is growing. But at the first sign of ripening, or even
earlier, it should be wholly withheld."

The action of manure is even now very far from
being thoroughly understood. When modern chem
istry was first applied to agriculture, it was supposed
that the great object of manure was merely to afford
food for plants. But it was afterward found that
other conditions were of equal importance, and that
the advantage of many manures arose from their me
chanical influence upon the soil. At Lois Weedon
in England, excellent crops of wheat have been raised
by thorough cultivation, without the application of
manure, and the same principle was advocated by
Jethro Tull in 1731, whose famous system of horse

MANURE. 221

hoeing husbandry consisted simply in deep ploughing
and thorough pulverization of the soil.

But while the mechanical condition of the soil
exerts a most important influence on the growth of
plants, there can be no doubt that unless all those
elements of which a plant is composed, exist in the
soil, or are derivable from other sources, healthy
vegetation is impossible. Tull's farm finally failed to
yield fair crops, notwithstanding large expenditures,
on the mechanical part of the process, and the same
result is said, to have attended the rigorous applica
tion of his principles elsewhere.

If the action of manures in general, is but imper
fectly understood, still less does its influence upon
the vine and its products, seem to have been reduced
to known laws. In France the use of manure has
been productive of evils so great as to induce the
company of wine merchants, and vineyard proprie
tors, to condemn the use of azotized manures entirely.

On the other hand, the vine-dressers of Thomery,
who produce the beautiful Chasselas de Fontainebleau
grapes, use rich manures in liberal quantities. In
general, it will be found in this, as in other cases,
that a middle course is best. If the border has been
purposely prepared in the first place, a vigorous
growth will have been secured, while it \vas necessary
that the vine should produce abundant wood, and

222 OPEN ATK GKAPE CULTURE.

when, after four or five years, the fruit is applied to
the manufacture of wine, all rankness of growth will
have disappeared. If, in after years, the vine should
show symptoms of debility, it will be easy to supply
it with nourishment, by means of liquid manure ; and
if ample means are provided for keeping the roots
very dry during the ripening process, so that we can
regulate the period over which the effects of such
application shall extend, we are inclined to believe
that no evil results will follow.

M. Ladrey suggests that -but one portion of the
\ineyard be manured at one time, and that the wine
from the part so treated be kept separate from the
rest, until the evil influence of the manure has disap
peared. It is obvious, however, that if we could
avoid entirely any loss, of even a part of the vineyard,
it would be desirable.

In this, however, as in all other matters, we must
keep steadily in view the fact, that all rank vegeta
tion exerts an injurious influence, not only upon the
fruit product of the current year, but on the wood
upon which our next year's crop depends.

In his " Nouveau systeme de la culture de la vigne,"
Persoz attempts to avoid the evils incident to the
ordinary mode of the application of manure, by add
ing to the soil those matters which tend to produce
wood, and those which favor the production of fruit,

MANURE. 223

each at the appropriate time. His formulae are as
follows.

Six pounds bone dust; three pounds leather clip
pings and other animal refuse ; (blood, horns, hoofs,
etc.) and one pound gypsum, making in all ten pounds
to be added to each square yard of border. This is
done in the spring before the buds have pushed.

As soon as the young shoots are well advanced, he
manures each square yard with eight pounds silicate
of potassa, and two pounds of the double phosphate of
potassa and lime. Silicate of potassa he procures by
fusing fifteen parts of quartz sand with ten of potassa
and two of charcoal.

The double phosphate of potassa and lime is pre
pared, by adding 18 Ibs. of sulphuric acid to 24 Ibs.
of calcined and pulverized bones. This, after being
well stirred, is diluted with water, allowed to stand
for three days, treated with hot water and filtered.
Carbonate of potassa is then added, until the liquid
is slightly alkaline, and it is then evaporated in a cast
iron vessel, roasted at a red heat, mixed with the sili
cate, and the whole reduced to powder.

A vine manured by Persoz with 0.5 kilogr. of sili
cate of potassa, 1.5 of phosphate of lime and potassa,
and an equal weight of dried blood and goose dung,
put forth in one year a shoot 11 metres in length, and
yielded on nine shoots twenty-five bunches of grapes,

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

while a similar vine, which was not manured, produced
a shoot only 4.6 metres long, with only four or six
blossoms, which faded away before their full devel
opment. — LIEBIG AND KOPP : Annual Report.

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 225

CHAPTER XII.

DISEASES AND INSECTS.

WE confess we have had very little experience in
the matter of diseases and insects affecting the grape
vine. Our native varieties are so vigorous and hardy
that disease rarely affects them, and during the grow
ing season they push with such rapidity, that the loss
of a few leaves destroyed by insects is scarcely felt.

But we are aware that it is not always so, and we
shall therefore give as full an account as we can
obtain of the formidable pests to which the grape
grower is exposed.

When growing in the open air in a suitable soil,
and with a good exposure, the only two diseases to
which the grape vine is liable, are mildew and
the rot. The former appears in whitish spots on the
surface of the leaves and wood, and when examined
with a simple lens of 25 inch focu's, shows a net-work
of fungus with its sporules.

For this, as well as for the red spider, no remedy
has been found equal to sulphur, the use of which for
this purpose has been known from time immemorial.

10*

226 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

To apply it, use may be made either of a common
dredger fixed to the end of a pole, or of a pair of
bellows with a contrivance for admitting a small
quantity of sulphur into the stream of air. Or it
may be mixed with water and the foliage syringed
therewith. But the most efficient method is that
proposed by Dr. Price, who was the first to suggest
pentasulphide of calcium for this purpose.

This compound is prepared by boiling 30 parts by
weight of caustic lime with 80 parts by weight of
flowers of sulphur, suspended in a sufficient quantity
of water ; heat is applied until the solution has ac
quired a dark red color and the excess of sulphur
ceases to dissolve. The clear solution is drawn off,
and after being diluted with 20 times its bulk of
water, may be applied to the vines by means of a
rsporige, brush or syringe.

Where flowers of sulphur is used, it should have a
tfew drops of ammonia added before it is applied to
rth-G foliage, as the sulphurous acid with which it is
saturated (derived from its combustion during dis
tillation) is always iujuiious to leaves and young
shoots.

The rot has rarely troubled our northern vineyards,
though it is the great bane of vine culture in Ohio.
We are inclined to believe that if vines are planted
in soil,, dry or well drained and not too rich, and bo

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 227

allowed to extend themselves moderately, but little
need be apprehended from the rot.

Dr. Asa Fitch has found upward of thirty different
insects which prey upon the grape vine, but with the
exception of the red spider, and occasionally the rose-
bug, they do not injure the vine materially.

The red spider (acarus tellarius) of which we give
a cut (Fig. 60), we have found, not only under glass,

Fig. 60.

but on vines in the open air. It is a small, reddish-
colored insect which it requires a sharp eye to detect.
For this, as for mildew, sulphur is a specific, and we
are always safe in giving our vines a good dusting of
this substance, so as to prevent any injury which
might arise from either source.

The rose-bug has never troubled us much. It
nearly destroyed Dr. Underbill's vineyards at one
time, however, and we therefore give his account of
the matter in his own words.

" Several years since, when my vineyards were

228 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

smaller than at present, I found the rose-bug a
formidable enemy. They appeared on the vines
when they were in blossom, or just as the blossoms
were falling off and the young grapes forming, and
devoured them wTith the greatest avidity. This feast
continued from eight to twelve days, or, until the
cherries on the trees in the vicinity began to ripen,
when they with one accord flew to them, for a
change of diet, I presume, or from some other cause.
I was quite familiar with the habits of the caterpil
lar, and had been in the practice of clearing them
from my orchards in the spring, before they had
destroyed scarcely a leaf. This I did not consider a
great or difficult matter, for they were enveloped in a
web early in the morning, and one man in a few
days was able to clear many hundred trees, by twist
ing them off, web and all, with a basket, and care
fully placing them under his foot. The rose-bug,
however, did not, like the caterpillar, make its
appearance in clusters or webs, but in small numbers
,at first, and scattered through the vineyards, increas
ing rapidly every day. Though taken from the vines
•on the trellis every morning, they continued to mul
tiply till the eighth or twelfth day, when they
suddenly left for the cherry-trees, as before stated.
I was at a loss at first to know where they came
from, till .at length I discovered the ground perfo-

DISEASES AND INSECTS. 229

rated with numerous holes, through which they made
their way to the surface.

" I observed, when they first appeared on the
vines, they were so feeble as to be unable to fly
even for a few yards. Having surmounted all other
difficulties, I was determined not to be defeated in
the vineyard cultivation of the grape by this insect,
and consequently resorted to the following means for
their destruction. I directed my men to take each a
cup, with a little water in it, and go through the
vineyards every morning, removing every bug from
the vines ; and this was done quite rapidly by
passing the cup under the leaf, and merely touching
it, when the bugs instantly dropped, and were re
ceived in the cup containing the water. "When the
cup was full, they were soon destroyed by pressing
the foot upon them on a hard surface. After all of
them had been taken off, on the following morning
there were ten on the vines where we had found but
one ; and the succeeding morning, after having been
removed as before, there were one hundred where
there were but ten, and so on. I was not discouraged,
however, and directed my men to persevere in the
work of destruction, and we should thus perhaps
prevent the formation of another progeny for the
next season, for it is very easily shown that they do
not migrate to any great distance; and by thus

230 OPEN AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

destroying the present race, I am convinced that we
insure ourselves from their further depredations to
any injurious extent. When a person of some energy
has cleared them from his vineyard or garden, he is
pretty certain to enjoy the benefit of his labor an
other season as well as the present, though he may
have a few from his less resolute neighbor. Pursu
ing the course I have mentioned, I very soon lessened
the rose-bugs so much that they gave me very little
trouble.

" I also tried ploughing my vineyards just before
winter set in, so as to expose to the weather the
insect in the larva state, which will certainly destroy
all the young tribe that have not descended below
the reach of the plough. For two years past the
number has been so small, that I have omitted this
process for their destruction."

HASTENING THE MATURITY OF TIIE GRAPE. 231

CHAPTER

METHOD OF HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE.

SEVERAL methods have been proposed for causing
grapes to ripen at an earlier period of the season than
usual, or in localities where they would not other
wise ripen at all. The most successful, and, on the
large scale, economical, mode of effecting this is un
doubtedly by means of glass houses, either with or
without fire heat. A description of these is beyond
the limits assigned to this work, though we may, per
haps, be allowed briefly to describe two devices of
this nature, by which a few bunches may be matured
at small expense and with very little trouble.

" More than twenty years ago, a market gardener
at Bath published a plan of ripening grapes under
common hand-glasses. He planted the vines in a
soil composed in great part of lime rubbish ; placed a
glass over each plant, taking out half a pane in its
summit through which the leading shoot of the vine
protruded itself, and grew in the open air. The
bunch or bunches of grapes remained within the
hand-glass, and -enjoyed the advantages of protection

232

OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

from cold winds, dews, and rains during the night,
and of a high degree of confined solar heat during
the day." — LOUDON.

Mr. Maund, editor of the " Botanic Garden," em
ploys the following method of obtaining a few
bunches : " Although my experiment is not yet com
pleted, I cannot omit mentioning to you its success.
Grapes grown on open walls in the midland counties
are rarely well-ripened ; therefore, I provided a small
glazed frame — a sort of narrow hand-glass — of the
shape shown in the annexed outline, to fix against
the wall, and inclosed in it one branch of
the vine with its fruit and foliage. The
open part, which rests against the wall, is
13 inches wide, and may be of any length
required to take in the fruit. The sides
are formed of single panes of glass, seven
inches wide, and meet on a bar which
may represent the ridge of a roof, the ends
inclosed by triangular boards, and having
Fi«-61- a notch to admit the branch. This was
fixed on the branch a month before the vine came
into flower. The consequence was, the protected
branches flowered a week earlier than the exposed.
The frame was not fitted closely to the wall, but in
some places may have been a quarter of an inch from
it. The lateral branches being shortened before it

HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. 233

was fixed, it did not require removal, even for prun
ing, because I adopt the long-rod mode of training,
which is peculiarly adapted to my partial protection
system.

"The temperature within the frame is always
higher than that without, sometimes at mid-day even
from 20 to 30 degrees. By this simple protection, I
find grapes may be ripened from three weeks to a
month earlier than when wholly exposed, and this
saving of time will, I believe, not only secure their
ripening well every year in the midland counties,
but, also, that such advantage will be available in
the north of England, where grapes never ripen on
the open walls. I should have told you that the
cold nights of spring have caused almost all the
young fruit to fall off during the flowering season,
excepting where it was protected.

" To hasten the maturity of grapes grown in the
open air, means may be taken to throw them early
into a state of rest. On the 20th of September prune
the vine as you would in the month of December,
taking off all the leaves and grapes, ripe or unripe,
and shortening all the branches to one, two or three
eyes at most. The following spring it will push its
buds a few days before any of the neighboring vines
pruned in winter. Train it as carefully all the sum
mer as though you were certain it would ripen its

234: OPEN AIK GRAPE CULTURE.

crop of fruit. Pursue the same system annually,
pruning the tree always between the 20th and 30th
of September, and in the course of seven years you
will be rewarded for your patience and expense with
half a ripe crop in most summers, and a whole ripe
crop in warm summers." — LOUDON.

The following method of hastening the maturity of
grapes on open walls, was communicated to the Horti
cultural Society of London, by Mr. Thos. Fleetwood :
"Before the vines are out of flower, he brings each
bunch into a perpendicular position by a thread at
tached to its extremity, and fastened to a nail in the
wall, carefully confining the young branch with the
bunch thereon, as close to the wall as possible. The
period of blossoming is preferred for this operation,
because the bunch at that time takes a proper posi
tion, without injury.

By this practice the bunches are kept so steady
that the berries are not bruised by the action of the
wind, and being fixed close to the wall, they receive
such additional heat, that they ripen a month earlier
than when left to hang in the usual way."

But of all the plans which have been proposed,
perhaps the simplest and most efficient is ringing,
girdling or breaking. It has been employed for
many years in France, although it is there conceded,
that it injures the quality of the wine produced. For

HASTENING THE MATURITY OF TIIE GKAPE. 235

table purposes, however, the grapes seem to be im
proved both in size and appearance.

The French method is shown in Fig. 62. Here
the annular incision is made just below the fruit
bunch at the time of flowering. A pair of pincers
with a double pair of semicircular jaws, makes both
the upper and lower incision at once, when the bark is
easily removed by the finger nail.

The following are the details of an English practi
tioner :

"The vines are generally cultivated upon the
Hoare system, or, as it is called, the long rod system'
but they are not so cultivated in every case, for.
sometimes an old bearer is spurred back to one or
two buds, to carry its crop another year. My vines
are very strong, and the rods or branches stand at

236 OPKN AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

least three feet, or even three feet six inches, distant
from each other, when winter pruned. This allows
just sufficient room for the fruit-bearing laterals and
a young rod to come up between every two bearers.
This young rod, of course, to be the bearer of laterals
the following year :

"Thus no vines cultivated on any other system are
so capable of being rung, without the disadvantage
of killing or losing the future useful part of the tree,
because on Hoare's long-rod system, the whole of
the previous years, bearers will have to be cut entirely
away.

"The very right time to perform the ringing is
just after the berries are all set, or have attained the
the size of No. 2 shot, or small peas. In ringing, cut,
with a sharp knife, clean round the branch between
two joints. Or, if you are going to ring the laterals
carrying the fruit, leave either two or three buds and
leaves beyond the main stem, and make the ring just
in the middle, between the third and fourth leaves,
or joints. As I said before, make two cuts clean
through the bark, quite down into the wood, one inch
apart, and remove the bark clean away, all round
the branch or lateral. By this means, if you are in
the habit of spur pruning, the hinder buds are left all
right, to spur back the following year. If you prune
upon the long-rod system, you may ring the rod just

HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE. 237

wherever you please — the whole branch, if you like —
as the rung part will have to be cut away entirely
after the fruit is gathered.

"The ringing is performed just the same on an old
whole branch as in that of the young lateral carrying
one or two bunches. I have repeatedly rung old
branches, that have been carrying from twenty to
thirty bunches of grapes, with the same good effect ;
only it has been such branches that I have intended
to cut away entirely the following autumn : of
course, thinning out the berries of the bunches, and
the bunches too, if excellence be aimed at, is of
the utmost importance. The process of thinning this
cannot be too early attended to. I always begin as soon
as the fruit is fairly set, and continue to remove all
inferior berries, and, with a good pair of scissors and
clean fingers, using my eyes to see what I am about,
so as not to injure the berries by handling and maul
ing them.

"By thus practising ringing, I have produced for
the last twelve or fourteen years, grapes, out of doors,
that have puzzled many a tyro and others too.

" Our indefatigable editors have both watched my
progress in vine culture for years. My grapes have
many a time puzzled the late Mr. Elphinstone, when
he was gardener to the late speaker of the House of
Commons, now Lord Eversley, although I used to

238 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

compete against him, with both indoor and outdoor
grapes, at our Hampshire horticultural show in No
vember.

" As a matter of course, I had read of ringing fruit
trees, etc., but it never struck me to put the same
into practice until about fourteen years ago, when my
attention was called to it in an amateur friend's gar
den, Mr. Frampton, glass and paint merchant of this
city. I happened to walk in and look at some vines
to which he was paying great attention at that time.
This was in the month of September, and here I first
saw the ringing process of the vine. Seeing a few
bunches of the Blade Hamburg so large in the berry,
and all ripe, I began to inquire into the particulars,
when Mr. Frampton kindly showed me where the
branches were rung, and that the ringing was the
cause of their being so very large and so early. I
then wanted to know whence Mr. Frampton obtained
his information, when he showed it to me in the
< Penny Cyclopaedia,' from the pen of Professor
Henslow/' — Thos. Weaver, Gardener to the Warden
of Winchester College.

[It is quite true that we have watched for some
years, with great interest, the experiment upon ringing
vines carried on by Mr. Weaver, and we can authen
ticate his statement of the mode of ringing and its

HASTENING THE MATURITY OF THE GRAPE.

230

results. It must not be done in. that petty timid
manner hinted at by a contemporary. There must be
a ring of bark perfectly removed ; the cuts being
made boldly down to the very young wood, or albur
num, and every particle of bark, inner and outer,
must be removed between the cuts. (See Fig. 63.)

m

Fig. 63.

This drawing represents, faithfully, the rung part
of a rod at the close of autumn, and shows how the
removal of the band of bark checked the return of the
sap, and how, in consequence, the rod above the

MO OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

removed band increased in size beyond that portion
of the rod below the band.

The effect upon the berries was, in every instance,
to advance their early ripening a fortnight, and to
about double the size and weight of the berries, when
compared with those grown on mining branches of
the same vine. !N"or was the color and bloom of the
berries diminished ; indeed, so excellent were they,
that we have seen them exhibited deservedly by the
side of grapes grown under glass, and they were sold
in November, at Winchester, for half-a-crown a
pound.

Hinging the branches of fruit-trees, to render them
fruitful, was practised in France, and recommended
there in print, about a century and a half since.
There are various letters upon the subject in the
early volumes of the " Horticultural Society's Trans
actions," and in one of them (vol. 1, page 107),
published in 1808, Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston, gives
full directions for ringing the grape vine. He tells
the result, in these words : " I invariably found that
the fruit not only ripened earlier, but that the ber
ries were considerably larger than usual, and more
highly flavored." — Editor of the Cottage Gardener.']

CAKE OF OLD VINES. 241

CHAPTER XIY.

CARE OF OLD VINES.

THERE are scattered through the country numerous
old vines of large growth and great age, which have
been trained upon trellises, through trees, against the
sides of houses and on arbors, without much skill or
attention. These well deserve good culture, and the
owners would gladly bestow it if they knew how.
For their benefit, a few hints in this direction may
not be out of place.

Such vines have in general either been left entirely
to themselves, or trained wholly on the long-spur
system, no new wood except these spurs being kept
from last year's growth to supply the wants of next
year, and the strength has thus been thrown to the
ends of the stems, leaving them barren for a great
distance from their base.

Yines in this condition, if of good origin, may, by
judicious management, be speedily made to bear
large crops of excellent fruit, as their roots are large
and powerful, and fully competent to supply nutri
ment to a large crop of grapes.

11

242 OPEN AIR GKAPE CULTURE.

If the stems are tolerably well supplied with bearing
spurs, it may be advisable to take good care of such
of these as we can find, and where there is a barren
spot, to train a young shoot over it from the nearest
bearing spur. Upon this young shoot spurs may soon
be made, which will bear admirably.

But, in almost all cases, the better plan will be to
gradually renew the whole vine, as strong, vigorous
shoots, when once laid in for main branches and well
supplied with bearing spurs or canes, will last for a
long time and give satisfactory results with far less
labor than is required by an old and straggling vine.

This change had better be effected gradually, a
portion of the old wood being retained until the
young shoots come into bearing, so that we need not
be entirely deprived of fruit during its progress.

Commence, then, at the spring or winter pruning,
and remove all the wood that can be well spared,
keeping only a few of the best main branches, and
cutting the spurs on these very close, leaving not
more than one eye to each.

This severe pruning will cause the vine to throw
up numerous strong shoots, or suckers, from near the
roots. Two or three of the "best of these must be
selected and trained to stakes, away from the trellis
or arbor, so as to give them all the light and air pos
sible; the laterals which start from these must be

CAKE OF OLD YINES.

243

pinclied at the third leaf, and they should be stopped
about the middle or end of September. All other
shoots from the base of the vine, as well as all useless
or barren shoots on other parts, must be carefully re
moved as fast as they appear, so as to throw as much
as possible into the canes we had selected.

Next season, these canes must be disbudded and
laid in as follows : Having removed all laterals and
tendrils and tied them firmly to the trellis, as shown
in Fig. 64, commence at the first good bud from the

Fig. 64.

base, which leave, and then remove all the buds for a
space of from 14 to 20 inches. Between 14 and 20
inches we will certainly find a good bud on the

244: OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

upper side of the cane (as it is tied to the trellis),
which must be kept, and all the buds on the next
equal space, removed in the same manner. So pro
ceed until you have laid in ten or a dozen buds on
each cane, when it should be cut off. We will now
have two or more horizontal arms, each of which will
throw up from 5 to 6 vertical canes of a strength
sufficient to bear fruit next year, and the same num
ber of short shoots which will form spurs for next
year's bearing canes. But in order to make sure of
this, we must prune the old vine very severely, in
deed, and if we could make up our minds to do with
out fruit for one year and cut it all away, we would
be gainers by it in the end. But in any case, all
fruit must be removed from our new wood, as the
stems will have enough to do to cover the trellis
without bearing a crop of grapes.

Next year, the canes Z>, &, J, &, £, will bear a full
crop of fruit, and shoots must be trained up from the
spurs, a, a, &, a, a, a, to take their place at the winter
pruning. The whole management will now be the
same as that previously described for vineyards.

If it be preferred to train up the vine on the spur
system, the buds at a, a, a, a, a, a, should be removed
when the cane is disbudded the first season, and after
having borne once on the long-rod system, the canes
Z>, &, &, 5, £, will be well provided with shoots by cutting

CAKE OF OLD VINES. 245

back on which good spurs may be formed. These spurs
should be distributed along the canes at a distance
of 14: to 20 inches on each side, and may be managed
individually, as described in Chap. YII.

The height to which spur-bearing canes may be
carried is, perhaps, without limit, if they are properly
treated and the vines have sufficient root power.
But in practice, we do not think that it will be \vell
to have them longer than 6 to 8 feet. They are thus
kept within bounds, and any one which may become
barren is more easily renewed than if they are of
greater length.

Where the vines are managed on the long-rod sys
tem, we would never have the canes over 6 feet long,
and if only 4J- to 5 feet, so much the better.

Thus, if we desired to cover a wall or trellis fifteen
feet high, we would have two tiers of arms carrying
spur-bearing canes each 7 feet long, or three tiers
carrying long-rod or renewal canes.

Before proceeding to renew an old vine, it may be
well to manure it thoroughly, either by a good top
dressing in the fall, liquid manure during the grow
ing season, or by digging a trench about six feet from
the roots and filling it with good compost, bones, etc.

An excellent plan for feeding an old vine is to
make a basin about six inches deep round its roots,
with boards, against the outside of which sufficient

246 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTLKK.

heavy soil lias been placed to make it water-tight.
Then, during the growing season, let this basin be
filled with soap-suds every washing day — mixing
them with chamber slops, etc. During the winter, it
should be filled with leaves and prunings, over which
a little earth may be thrown to keep the wind from
blowing them about, and preventing an unsightly
appearance. If the roots of the vine are so near
the house as to be unsightly when treated in this
manner, the basin might easily be provided with a
light board cover neatly painted. It might be
requisite to form it in two parts, having notches
through which the stem of the vine can pass.

That a good manuring will often cause a vine
which has been previously unfruitful to bear abun
dant crops, is well known. We have now in mind
an instance of a vine which after remaining barren
for many years suddenly became quite fruitful from
chickens making a roost of the trellis on which it
grew.

TO PRESERVE GRAPES. 24:7

CHAPTER XV.

TO PRESERVE GRAPES.

ALTHOUGH He who " has made everything beauti
ful in his season," no doubt designed grapes to be
used while fresh, yet, though we cannot preserve the
exquisite flavor of newly -gathered grapes, we may,
nevertheless, prolong their season, if not in its full
excellence yet with sufficient attraction to make it
worth while.

"With proper care, grapes may be kept until
Christmas, and at that time will command a price
which would not be paid for fresh fruit during the
height of the grape season.

As yet, the preserving of the fruit seems to be but
little understood, and although we have kept grapes
until January in a very palatable state, and we have
tasted others which have been tolerably preserved
until March, we must acknowledge that none of these
attempts quite came up to our desires, however much
others might have praised the result. The truth is,
that grapes in March will never be very severely
criticised under any circumstances. They are too
much of a rarity for that.

248 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

Although the foreign grapes which are imported,
packed in sawdust, are said to be gathered before
they are fully ripe, we believe that this plan is not
suited to our native varieties. They should always
be fully ripe before they are gathered, and this should
be done on a clear, dry day before they have been
touched with frost. The bunches should be carefully
examined, none but the first-rate ones selected, and
they must be scrupulously freed from all dirt, such as
leaves, spiders' webs, insects, etc. All decayed or
unripe berries must be removed with a pair of sharp
scissors (merely pulling them off will not do) ; and
they should be exposed to the air (but not the sun)
for a few hours before being packed away. In one
case where, after the grapes were gathered, the
weather became damp before they were put up, we
know them to have been placed in a moderately
warm oven for rather more than five minutes, and
the result was very good.

The following are a few of the methods which have
been recommended :

1st. Procure some fine, dry sawdust (avoiding that
from resinous or scented wood), and pack the grapes
in a box or barrel, in layers, being careful to have
sufficient between the bunches to prevent their
touching. Bran is sometimes substituted for saw
dust.

TO PRESERVE GRAPES. 249

2d. Wrap each bunch in fine, clean dry paper,
and put away in layers in boxes.

3d. Take a good box and place a layer of cotton
batting on the bottom; on this place a layer of
grapes, then a layer of batting and so on, until the
box is full, wrapping each cluster in thin paper.
Some omit the paper.

4th. Seal up the ends of the stems with wax, and
suspend them in a cool, dry and dark room, looking
them over occasionally and removing unsound berries
and bunches.

The French suspend their bunches by the lower
ends to a little hook (gee Appendix). Some cultiva
tors, however, cut away the fruit-bearing branches
and preserve the grapes attached to them.

It has been advised to immerse the stems of the
bunches in wine, before the fruit is used ; but as they
are always dried up and incapable of transmitting
fluid, we have found it better to immerse the whole
bunch in cold water for half an hour or so. This
restores the plumpness of the berries and removes
some of the foxy flavor which is apt to tinge our
native grapes when long kept.

Jl*

250 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CHAPTEE XYI.

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES.
BLAND.

Synonyms — Bland} s Madeira, Bland1 s Pale Red,
Blanks Fox, Blanks Virginia, Carolina Powel,
Red Bland, Red Souppernong. Where this grape
will ripen well it is valuable on account of its fine
flavor. It is, however, confined to the most southern
and favorable localities, of which we take cognizance
in this work, rarely ripening north of the Hudson, al
though Elliot states that, in 1820, it was well grown
,asid ripened in Kew Haven, Connecticut, in sandy
soil.

-Said to have originated in Virginia, discovered by
Col. Bland, who presented cuttings to TV". Bartrem,
the botanist, and also to Samuel Powel, Esq., after
whom it was in some cases named.

Bunches shouldered, long, loose. Berries round or
slightly oblate, medium size, pale red when ripe,
juicy, sweet sprightly flavor, very little pulp. Foliage
pale green, smooth and delicate.

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GKAPES. 251

CANADIAN CHIEF.

This grape is claimed to be a native of New Jersey ;
but our best pomologists are of opinion, that if a
native, it is at best but a seedling, from some foreign
variety.

The bunches are large, berries medium, green or
faint amber, and the flesh tender.

In Canada it is said to be perfectly hardy and to
ripen well in the open air. Grape-growers in the
United States have sometimes found that it is apt to
be winter-killed, and that it mildews badly.

CATAWBA.

This is the great wine grape of the South. It was
first introduced by Major Adlum, of Georgetown,
D. C., and has been subsequently patronized by N.
Longworth, Esq., the father of American wine culture.

Bunches medium size, loose, shouldered. Berries
large and round or very slightly oval. Skin rather
thick, pale red in the shade, deeper red in the sun,
and covered with a lilac bloom. Juicy, sweet,
musky. Should be allowed to hang till fully ripe.
Downing states, that unless fully ripe it is more
musky than the Isabella. Prince, on the other hand,
says, that when fully ripe it is quite musky. Our
own experience leads us to think that it is more
musky when ripe than when unripe.

252 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

CLINTON.

It is generally believed that this grape originated
in western New York. It is extremely hardy and
productive, but as a table fruit we regard it as
scarcely worthy of cultivation. It is said to ripen
several days before the Isabella, but until well
touched with frost it is uneatable. As a wine grape,
however, it is said to be unequalled, amongst those
grapes which ripen, where the Catawba fails to come
to maturity.

Bunches medium or rather small, shouldered, com
pact. Berries small, round, black, thick bloom,
juicy, acid and astringent.

CONCORD.

Though by no means a fine grape, the Concord is
valuable from its quality of ripening ten days or so
ibefore the Isabella, and consequently maturing in a
large range of country where that grape fails. It is
•very vigorous, hardy, and productive. C. Downing
'describes it as follows :

'" Bunch rather compact, large, shouldered. Berries
large, globular, almost black, thickly covered with
bloom. Skin rather thick, with more of the native
pungency and aroma than the Isabella, which it re
sembles, but does not quite equal in quality. Flesh
moderately juicy, rather buttery, very sweet, with
considerable toughness and acidity in its pulp."

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 253

The Concord grape becomes more foxy the longer
it is kept, hence two persons, one of whom ate the
fruit fresh from the vine, and the other obtained it
only after it had been gathered some time, might
form very different ideas as to its quality.

* DELAWARE.

This fine grape, which promises to stand in the
front rank of our hardy native grapes, is said to have
originated in New Jersey, whence it was carried to
Ohio, and falling into the hands of A. Thompson,
has been thence distributed pretty widely amongst
fruit-growers. Some German vine-dressers have sup
posed it to be the Traminer, while others have thought
it the Resling, but we believe our best pomologists
are agreed that it is a native. The following descrip
tion is by C. Downing :

" Bunch small, very compact, and generally shoul
dered. Berries smallish, round when not compressed.
Skin thin, of a beautiful bright red or flesh color,
very translucent, passing to wine color by long keep
ing. It is without hardness or acidity in its pulp, ex
ceedingly sweet but sprightly, vinous, and aromatic,
and is well characterized by Mr. Prince, as our high
est flavored and most delicious hardy grape."

DIANA.

A seedling of the Gatawba raised by Mrs. Diana

254: OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

Crehore, of Boston, and named after her by the Mas
sachusetts Horticultural Society. Next to the Isabella
and Catawba, the merits of this vine are perhaps the
best established of any we have. It is a vigorous
grower, a productive bearer, and extremely hardy.
The bunches are large, the berries but slightly less
than the Catawba, and of about the same color, per
haps a shade darker when ripe. The flavor is very
superior, and even before being fully ripe is still quite
good, and is esteemed by some, as even then supe
rior to the Isabella. Another excellent quality con
sists in the ease with which the fruit may be kept
for winter use.

t- "• ^ - ,;

ELSINBOROUGH.

A fine though small table grape, found near Elsin-
borough, Salem Co., New Jersey, and first introduced
by Dr. Hillings. It is hardy and productive, and
worthy of more general cultivation than it has re
ceived. Bunches medium, loose, shouldered. Berries
small, round, black and covered with a blue bloom.
They have generally but two seeds and are free from
pulp or musky taste.

Different authors have different modes of spelling
the name of this grape. Thus it is called Elsinburg,
Elsinburgh, etc. We prefer to spell it in the same
manner as the village from which it takes its name

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 255

KING.

This is a new grape which sprung up accidentally
in a garden in the northeastern part of this city, and
is supposed to be a seedling of the Clinton, which it
resembles very much both in habit and foliage ; the
fruit, however, being of a green or yellowish hue in
stead of black. We first saw it in bearing, in the fall
of 1857 and thought so much of it as to procure cut
tings. The fruit was brought before the Fruit-growers
Society in 1858, and named by them in honor of Win.
King, by whom it was introduced. It appears to be
as hardy as the Clinton, and as the flavor is much
superior it cannot fail to prove a valuable acquisition.

HARTFORD PROLIFIC.

A hardy, vigorous and productive variety which
originated in Connecticut, and matures in latitudes
where the Isabella and Catawba fail to ripen.
Bunch large, shouldered, compact. Berry large,
round, with thick black skin covered with bloom.
Sweet, juicy and acid, but with a good deal of the
native perfume. Ripens ten days before the Isabella.
The berries have sometimes been found to fall from
the bunch as soon as ripe, leaving a number of unripe
berries. Lately, however, this difficulty has been
lessened by superior cultivation.

256 OPEN AIR GEAPE CULTURE.

HERBEMONT.

This is one of the grapes recommended by the
American Pomological Society, as promising well.
There is so much discrepancy in the descriptions by
various authors, that we confess some doubt as to the
identity of the varieties described. We quote the fol
lowing from C. Downing : " This is the most rampant
grower of all our hardy grapes, and under favorable
circumstances yields a fruit of surpassing excellence,
with which the nicest detector of foxiness, thickness
of skin, toughness or acidity of pulp, can find no
fault ; north of Philadelphia, it needs a warm expo
sure or favorable season for the full development of
its excellences. In our village, under the care of a
lady, it has not failed for many years to give a most
abundant crop of perfectly ripened fruit, and without
protection has not suffered at all from winter-killing.
A very old vine in Baltimore, which had never
before failed to produce abundantly since its first
bearing, had, last winter, when the mercury fell to
19° below zero, all its young wood killed; but ordi
narily in that latitude and further south, it is an
unfailing bearer and particularly fitted for those
6i 'ii them latitudes that are liable to injury from late
frosts in spring and early frosts in autumn, as it flow
ers very late and ripens its fruit early. Its leaves in

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 257

autumn are the last to yield to frost, remaining per
fectly green and vigorous after all others have
withered and fallen ; consequently, it has often an
amount of unripened wood, which should be cut off
before winter.

" Bunch very large and exceedingly compact,
shouldered. Berries below medium, round, dark
blue, or violet, covered with a thick, light bloom.
Skin thin, which is filled with a sweet, rich, vinous
aromatic juice, of so little consistence that it cannot
be called flesh.

"LKNOIR, LONG-, DEVEREAUX, AND THURMOND. —
Under the above names, grapes much resembling in
character the Herbemont, are grown in the southern
States, and we have hitherto considered them synony
mous of it ; but our southern friends claim that Lenoir
is a distinct variety, and much earlier than any of the
others, and also that at least some of the others are
distinct. The matter is now under investigation, and
we must wait the result before deciding."

I SAB ELLA .

The popular account of the origin of this vine, is
that it was a native of South Carolina, which being
brought to the North and introduced to the notice of
cultivators by Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, the wife of George
Gibbs, Esq., was named in honor of that lady. It has,

258 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

however, been attempted to throw some doubt upon
this history — not, perhaps, as to the facts themselves,
but as to their accounting for the origin of the Isa
bella grape — some pomologists claiming that it is a
widely distributed and well-known native species,
while others assert that it is a well-known European
variety.

But be this as it may, it is certainly one of our
most prolific and vigorous varieties, and is thus far
more widely cultivated at the North than any other
with which we are acquainted. Nor is this preference
misplaced, as it excels all others which have been
fully tested, both in the amount and in the certainty
of the crops produced. When quite ripe, the flavor
also is excellent, and the pulp almost disappears.
Few realize this condition, however, as the fruit is
generally gathered long before it is ripe. The follow
ing description is by A. J. Downing :

" Bunches of good size, live to seven inches long,
rather loose, shouldered. Berries oval, pretty large.
Skin thick, dark purple, becoming at last nearly
black, covered with a blue bloom. Flesh tender,
with some pulp, which nearly dissolves when fully
mature ; juicy, sweet, and rich, with slight musky
aroma."

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 259

LOGAN .

This is a new grape which is recommended by the
American Pomological Society as promising well. It
ripens about the first of September; is black, sweet
and good. Bunches and berries large.

A. Thomson, Esq., of Delaware, Ohio, describes it
as follows : " It is a black grape, ripening before the
Catawba, and preferred to the Isabella, and is believed
to be a wilding of Ohio ; hardy, vigorous ; wood
short-jointed and compact ; distinct in wood and foli
age, productive, and probably the earliest hardy
grape of fair quality in cultivation, and will ripen its
fruit several degrees further north than the Isabella
and Catawba."

EARLY NORTHERN MUSCADINE.

With regard to this grape, the most contradictory
accounts have been published. Some pomologists
speak of it in high terms, and by others it has been
as fiercely condemned. A gentleman, in whom we
have every confidence, assures us that wherever he
has introduced it it has given satisfaction, and we
believe that he has no peculiar interest in this par
ticular variety. Our own experience is not sufficient
to warrant us in giving a decision, and we therefore
append a statement by Messrs Lewis and Brainard,

260 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

agents for the Shaker Society. We have, however,
tasted wine made from this grape, which gave pro
mise of much excellence. We have under cultiva-
vation a vine procured direct from New Lebanon,
and expect ere long to satisfy ourselves in regard to
its merits.

" THE EARLY NORTHERN MUSCADINE,

"A Shaker /Seedling,

Of which the accompanying plate is a fac-simile of
the cluster, ripens 15th of September ; light amber
color, medium size; delicious flavor, many say
unsurpassed.

"This excellent grape, the subscribers affirm,
ripens nearly a month earlier than the Isabella in the
same latitude ; is perfectly hardy for the northern
climate ; a sure and constant bearer ; if properly and
judiciously pruned, bears enormously ; not subject
to mildew, slightly fibrous in pulp, and has often
been pronounced, by competent judges, superior in
its season, to the Isabella or Catawba in their season,
either as a table or wine grape. Its characteristic is
peculiarly that of a summer fruit ; and wine made
from it, simply with the addition of sugar, has been
often pronounced by hundreds superior to the best
Sicilian light twines, which it somewhat resembles ;

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 261

and very high prices have frequently been offered

and refused for it, by those who were acquainted with

its merits from actual use.

"Prof. J. P. Kirtland, M.D., of Cleveland Medical

College, a correspondent of the ' Ohio Farmer/ of

Cleveland, Ohio, Nov. 7, 1857, made the following
remarks r £ During the last three weeks, we have

amused ourselves in treating, perhaps, a hundred indi
viduals to specimens of the Northern Muscadine,

Catawba, Diana, Clinton, Isabella and Winslow seed
ling. Four in five (or four-fifths) of these persons
have decided the Northern Muscadine to be the best
in that list.'

"The subscribers affirm that twenty-five years'
trial of this grape, in connection with about forty
other kinds of our best modern, foreign and domestic
grapes, give the Muscadine a large superior margin
of profit. In short, its merits only need to be known
to be appreciated, however much it may have been
demerited by pomologists entirely unacquainted with
its quality. It has taken premiums in several fairs in
the United States, and has never, in our knowledge,
been condemned by those who have raised it and
tasted it fresh from the vines, or wrhen properly kept,
though it is not a long-keeping variety ; but in this
respect, is like all our choicest summer fruits.

" The best recommendation for this grape is, that

262 OPEN AIR GEAPE CULTURE.

all who have ever raised the genuine Northern Mus
cadine, speak well of it, while it is constantly
sought after where best known, in preference to all
other varieties, notwithstanding some pomologists,
unacquainted with it, have decided against it for
reasons best known to others than to the suscribers.

" Multitudes of spurious varieties have been sold
for this grape.

"JESSE LEWIS, & ) A , „
"D. C. BRAINARD. f ASt&<

REBECCA.

Described by the Committee on Native Fruits, of
the American Pomological Society, as follows :

" Tlie Rebecca originated in the garden of Mr.
E. M. Peake, Hudson, !N. Y., about eight years ago.
Mr. Peake's garden is in one of the thickly settled
streets of the city, and nearly the usual size of a lot,
perhaps one hundred by one hundred and fifty feet
deep. Between the house and the street there is a
small flower garden. It was here that the original
vine grew. Mrs. Peake was about making some
alterations in her flower-beds, and this vine being in
the way, her garde-ner advised her to dig it up, as it
was only an 'old wild grape.' But disliking to
destroy it, she removed it with her own hands, and
planted it very carelessly in the garden, back of the

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 203

house, in a very poor and cold clay soil. Here the
vine made slow progress, but continued to increase
in size until the third or fourth year, when it produced
a few clusters of small white grapes. These appeared
to possess so much merit, and were so much better
than had been expected, that pains were then taken
to feed and nourish it, and prune it into shape, and it
soon well repaid all the labor bestowed upon it. It
grew vigorously, making shoots ten or fifteen feet
long, and bore abundant crops of the most delicious
grapes, until at the present time it has reached the
top of the house, and covers a trellis ten feet wide
and twenty-five feet high, loaded with fruit.

"Bunches medium size, about six inches long, very
compact, without shoulders ; berries medium size,
obovate ; about three quarters of an inch in diame
ter; skin thin, greenish white, becoming of a pale
amber color at full maturity, covered with a thin white
bloom ; flesh very juicy, soft and melting, and free
from pulp ; flavor rich, sugary, vinous, and brisk,
with a peculiarly musky and luscious aroma, distinct
from any other grape ; seeds small, two to four in
each berry ; leaves scarcely of a medium size, about
seven inches long and seven in width, very deeply
lobed and coarsely and sharply serrated ; upper sur
face light green, slightly rough; under surface
covered with a thin, whitish down ; nerves promi-

264 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

nent ; petioles rather slender." (See report of Sixth
Session of Am. Pom. Soc.)

TO KALON.

Some pomologists have characterized this variety
as a very poor bearer, while by others it is highly
recommended. At the sixth session of the Pomologi-
cal Society it elicited considerable discussion.

C. Downing speaks of it as follows : " This fine
grape has been but little disseminated in consequence
of the general supposition, that is was very much
like, if not identical with the Catawba, from which
it is entirely distinct in wood, foliage and every
characteristic of the fruit. It is a vigorous grower,
foliage very large, abundant, and much less rough
than Catawba, or Isabella, and the alse of the leaves
overlap each other differently from any other with
which we are acquainted.

" Bunches large and shouldered. Berries varying in
form from oval to oblate, very dark in color and pro
fusely covered with bloom. Its fruit when ripe is
sweet, buttery and luscious, without foxiness in its
aroma, or any toughness or acidity in its pulp. It is
perfectly hardy, and with good treatment in deep,
rich, pervious soil, it is an early and abundant bearer ;
with indifferent treatment it is a poor bearer. It
ripens a little earlier than the Isabella."

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GKAPES. 265

It is one of the seven varieties recommended by
G. Downing for general cultivation, but it is not
recommended as even promising well by the Pomo-
logical Society.

UNION VILLAGE.

A fine black grape, said to resemble the black
Hamburgh very much. It is a vigorous grower,
hardy and productive. A little earlier than the Ca-
tawba or Isabella. Recommended as promising well
by the Pomological Society.

NEW VARIETIES.

New varieties of grapes may be raised by the me
thods formerly described. Most of those so produced
will of course prove worthless, being seldom equal to
the parents. But occasionally a fine variety will
reward our efforts and afford ample compensation for
a thousand failures. Amongst those who devote
their attention to the raising of new kinds may be
mentioned, J. Eiske Allen, Esq., of Salem, Massachu
setts, and Dr. Talk, of Flushing, Long Island. O. T.
Hobbs, Esq., of Randolph, Pa., also informs us that
he intends to devote his entire nursery to the produc
tion of new kinds of fruits and flowers, making the
hardy native grape a specialty. He has already
produced two new varieties which are said to be of

12

266 OPEN AIR GRAPE CULTURE.

considerable excellence, viz. the Kitchen grape and
the North America, both seedlings from the Franklin
grape, which is also a variety first brought forward
by Mr. Hobbs.

LISTS OF SELECT GRAPES.

BY THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. — For
general cultivation. — Catawba, Concord, Delaware,
Diana, Isabella. Grapes ivhich promise well. — Herbe-
mont, Logaii, Hebecca, Union Tillage.

LIST BY C. DOWNING. — Catawba, Isabella, Diana,
Delaware, Kebecca, To Kalon, Concord.

Our own views are that the Isabella is the most re
liable grape for general cultivation at the ISTorth.
By proper culture, both the Isabella and Catawba may
be grown much further north than they are usually
found, and it is possible that amongst our new varie
ties some may be found to excel there. The Diana is
now pretty well established, and is a most excellent
variety, and we would by all means encourage a trial
of the Delaware, which gives great promise. For a
garden, we should choose Isabella, Diana, and Dela
ware with the Catawba when it will ripen. It would
also be well to plant a Clinton where the exposure
is not sufficiently good to warrant the planting of

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 267

a better variety. The Clinton is a hardy grape which
\vill mature where other kinds will not, and although
the fruit is not eatable in our estimation, yet it makes
good wine. The King grape, however, seems to be
quite as hardy as the Clinton and the quality pro
mises to be equal to many of the more celebrated
kinds.

Where the vines we have named will not succeed,
we would plant Concord, Northern Muscadine and
Hartford Prolific in preference to any other kinds,
and under any circumstances we confess to a pen
chant for variety, as it is often found that the good and
bad qualities of any particular grape, are confined to
certain localities, so that by extending our selection
we may gain an experience which will enable us to
avoid the evil and to obtain the good.

TABULAR DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE

NATIVE GRAPES.

The following catalogue makes no pretensions to originality, the descriptions
given being in general those published by the originators of the variety, where such
descriptions were procurable. The numerous blanks occurring in the tables will
show at a glance the extreme imperfection of the descriptions usnally published.
Instead of giving such an account as would enable us to recognize the variety or to
appreciate its real qualities, most so-called descriptions consist merely of a string
of eulogies. The reader will observe that sometimes (for want of more definite in
formation), we have described the flavor as "good," "pleasant," etc., although
such a description is no description at all, not only because tastes differ so much as
to what is good, but because there probably never was a grape which was not thought
by its originators to excel everything else. We give their statements merely for
what they are worth.

In many cases we have been able to give the name and nothing more. If by so
doing, however, we can lessen in a slight degree the further increase of synonyms,
the space thus occupied will not be wasted. There are certain names which seem
to occur to every one who has or thinks he has a new variety and the bantling
straightway receives a name which has probably served half a dozen before it.

270 DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF NATIVE GRAPES.

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REMARKS.

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FOR.

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®'2aDdM^2 ^ 5

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

IT is still a disputed question whether or not it is
possible for good wine to be manufactured in the
United States. Daniel Webster, whose high intel
lectuality did not detract from his fondness for the
pleasures of the table, declared that we could never
hope to make good wine on this continent, and that
it \vould always pay us better to raise corn, cotton,
etc., for export, and buy our wines and silks. On the
other hand, the following letters from President
Jefferson to Mr. Adlum would seem to establish the
fact that, even at an early day, wine had been made
in this country of more than ordinary quality :

EXTRACTS OF LETTERS FROM MR. JEFFERSON, LATE PRESIDENT OF
THE UNITED STATES.

Dated October 1th, 1809.

u While I lived in Washington, a member of Congress from\
your State (I do not recollect which) presented me with two<
bottles of wine made by you, one of which, of Madeira color,-,
he said was entirely factitious ; the other, a dark red wine,
made from a wild or native grape, called in Maryland a Fox
grape, but very different from what is called by that name iiii
Virginia. This was a very fine wine, and so exactly resembling
the red Burgundy of Chamberlin (one of the lest crops) that on,
a fair comparison with that, of which I had very good on the-

281.

282 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

same table, imported ly myself from the place lohere made, the
company could not distinguish the one from the other. I think
it would be well to push the culture of that grape, without
losing our time and efforts in search of foreign vines, which it
will take centuries to adapt to our soil and climate.'*

Dated April 20th, 1819.

" The quality of the bottle you sent me before satisfies me
that we have at length found one native grape inured to all
the accidents of our climate, which will give us a wine worthy
the best vineyards of France. When you did me the favor of
sending me the former bottle, I placed it on the table with some
of the beet Burgundy of Chamberlin, which I had imported
myself from the maker of it, and desiring the company to point
out which was the American bottle, it was acknowledged they
could perceive no difference."

Dated April 11, 1823.

" I received successively two bottles of wine you were so
kind as to send me; the first, called Tokay, is truly a fine wine,
of high flavor, and as you assure me there was not a drop of
brandy or other spirit added to itr I may say it is a wine of a
good body of its own. The second bottle, a red wine, I tried
when I had good judges at the table ; we agreed it was a wine
one might always drink with satisfaction, but of no peculiar
excellence. Speaking of brandy being added to the wine, he
says it is never done but by the exporting merchants, and then
only for the English and American markets, where, by a viti
ated taste, the intoxicating quality of wine, more than its flavor,
is required by the palate."

Now Mr. Jefferson and his friends were no doubt
accustomed to drink good wines, and we think their
opinions valuable, although at the same time it must
be confessed that they were not very extraordinary

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 283

judges, or they would have detected a difference
between the French and American wines. The
question of superiority may sometimes be disputed
even by good judges, that of identity never.

Good wine has also been made in the south of
England, as the following extract from Barry's work
on wines will show, and as it contains some practical
notes on wine-making, we give it entire :

"The vineyard of Painshill is situated on the south side of a
gentle hill ; the soil a gravelly sand ; it is planted entirely with
the two sorts of Burgundy grapes : the Auvernat, which is the
most delicate, but the tenderest ; and the Miller grape, com
monly called the black cluster, which is more hardy. The first
year T attempted to make red wine in the usual way, by tread
ing the grapes, then letting them ferment in a vat till the hulls
and impurities formed a thick crust at the top, the boiling
ceased, and the clear wine was drawn off from the bottom.

" This essay did not answer; the wine was so very harsh and
austere, that I despaired of ever making red wine fit to drink.
But through that hardness I perceived a flavor something like-
some small French white wines, which made me hope I shouM!
succeed better with white wine. That experiment succeeded'
far beyond my most sanguine expectations ; for the very first-
year I made white wine^ it nearly resembled the flavor of cham
pagne, and in two or three years more, as the vines grew
stronger, to my great amazement, my wme had a better flavor'
than the best champagne T ever tasted. The first running was
as clear as spirits, the second running was ffiil de perdrix, and'
both of them sparkled and creamed in the glass like champagne.
It would be endless to mention how many good judges of wine
were deceived by my wine, and thought it superior to any
champagne they ever drank ; even the Duke de Mirepoix pre
ferred it to any other wine. But such is the prejudice of most
people against anything of English growth, I generally found it
most prudent not to declare where it grew till after they

284 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

passed their verdict on it. The surest proof I can give of its
excellence is that I have sold it to wine merchants for fifty
guineas a hogshead ; and one wine merchant, to whom I sold
five hundred pounds' worth at one time, assured me he sold
some of the best of it from 7s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per bottle.

" After many years' experience, the best method I found of
making and managing it was this : I let the grapes hang till
they got all the maturity the season would give them. Then
they were carefully cut oif with scissors and brought home to the
vine barn in small quantities, to prevent their heating or pressing
one another ; then they were all picked off the stalks, and all the
moldy or green ones were discarded before they were put upon
the press, where they were all pressed in a few hours after they
were gathered ; much would run from them before the press
squeezed them, from their own weight one upon another. This
running was as clear as water and sweet as syrup, and all this
of the first pressing, and part of the second, continued white. The
other pressings grew reddish, and were not mixed with the best.
As fast as the wine ran from the press into a large receiver, it
was put into hogsheads and closely bunged up. In a few hours
one could hear the fermentation commence, which would soon
burst the casks if not guarded against by hooping them strongly
with iron and securing them in strong wooden frames and the
heads with wedges. In the height of the fermentation I have
frequently seen the wine oozing through the pores of the
staves.

" These hogsheads were left all the depth of winter in the
cool barn to reap the benefits of the frosts. When the fermen
tation was over, which was easily discovered by the cessation
of noise and oozing — but, to be more certain, by pegging the
cask — when it would be quite clear, then it was racked off into
clean hogsheads and carried to the vaults, before any warmth
of weather could raise a second fermentation. In March the
hogsheads were examined. If they were not quite fine, they
were fined down with common fish glue, in the usual manner ;
those that were fine of themselves were not fined down, and all
were bottled about the end of March, and in about six weeks

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE, 285

more would be in perfect order for drinking, and would be in
their prime for above one year; but the second year the flavor
and sweetness would abate and would gradually decline, till at
last it lost all flavor and sweetness, and some .that I kept sixteen
years became so like old hock that it might pass for such to one
who was not a perfect connoisseur. The only 'art I ever used
to it was putting three pounds of white sugar-candy to some of
the hogsheads, when the wine was first tunned from the press,
in order to conform to a rage that prevailed to drink none but
very sweet champagne.

" I am convinced that much good wine might be made in
many parts of the south of England. Many parts are south of
Painshill, many soils may be yet fitter for it, and many situa
tions must be so, for mine was much exposed to southwest winds
(the worst of all for vines) and the declivity was rather too
steep. Yet with these disadvantages it succeeded many years.
Indeed, the uncertainty of our climate is against it, and many
fine crops have been spoiled by May frosts and wet summers.
But one good year balances many disappointments.

" Captain St. Pierre, who has established a great colony of
vignerons in South Carolina, and carried there three years ago
above three hundred vignerons from different parts of Europe,
was with me several days before his departure, was charmed
with my vineyard, and he had cultivated vineyards many years
in France. He was very happy at my giving him all the cut
tings of my vineyard, as he found it Tery difficult getting the
right sort, and though his plantations are about the latitude of
33°, he has not the least doubt of having excellent wine there,
which, if he has, must be of infinite service to this country."

Still more recently Mr. Longworth lias succeeded
in the manufacture of fine champagne wines, which
we believe are valued as high as any, except the very
finest brands of foreign wines.

Wine is the fermented juice of the grape, and pure
wine should contain nothing else. When sugar and

286 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

spices are added, and exist in the fluid as such, the
product is no longer wine, but liqueur or cordial.
Some have, however, extended this principle so far
as to assert that any addition to the juice of the
grape, either before or after its fermentation, robs it
of its claim to the name of wine ; but to this we
cannot subscribe. If we by any process could pro
duce a fluid identical in its chemical and physical
properties with the juice of the grape, we could no
doubt make good and real wine therefrom. And if
so, then surely the addition of any ingredient which
may be required to bring the juice up to the quality
and composition of a good wine-making must, cannot
have any but a good effect, and must produce a real
wine.

Now the juice of the grape varies in composition
from several causes. The variety of grape, the cli
mate in which it is produced, the character of the
soil in which it grows, the nature of the manure with
which it has been nourished, the mode in which it
has been pruned, its exposure to sun and air, and
many other influences, all modify the character of the
must, and consequently of the wine produced there
from. In almost every locality we are confined to a
few varieties of grapes, and as the climatic condi
tions are also in a great measure beyond our control,
we must depend upon judicious pruning, manuring
and cultivation for the production of the best grapes
for the manufacture of wine. In former chapters we
have detailed the peculiarities of vine-dressing as
adapted to the producing of wine-making grapes;

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 287

but we may "be excused for briefly recapitulating
them.

Must for wine requires to be highly saccharine,
and although the wines manufactured from Ame
rican grapes have not yet shown much inorganic
matter (potash salts) in their composition, yet the
best wines in Europe are made from grapes contain
ing an extra quantity of these matters. In order,
therefore, to the production of a good wine, it will
be requisite to produce grapes not only thoroughly
ripened by A HOT SUN ACTING ON THE LEAVES, but they
should also contain the juices and inorganic salts in
large amount.

With a view to this, it will be necessary in the
fall, and shortly after the vintage, to lightly fork in a
dressing of bone-dust, guano or hen manure ; and on
the fall of the leaf, and before any frosts set in, the
border should be covered with the fallen leaves
raked together and mixed with stable litter or clean
ings. This will protect the roots from the severity
of our winteis, and. enable them to sustain the draft
made in spring by the branches at an earlier date
than they otherwise would.

In the spring, after the wreather has become settled,
the border should be very lightly forked over and
the long litter removed ; the rest may be mixed with
the surface soil.

The vine having been properly pruned, must be
allowed to break its ~buds, as it is termed, and push
out the young stems until those which promise best
can be clearly distinguished.

288 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

As soon as the leaves are formed, liquid manure
may be applied if the number of vines cultivated will
permit of it, and this application of liquid manure
may be continued until after the middle of July. It
should then cease for the season. Meanwhile, as
soon as the young shoots are well formed, all the
weakly ones should be rubbed off, carrying the pru
ning recommended in former pages to even a greater
degree of severity than there noted.

By these means the grapes will be obtained ripe
much earlier and of a higher (not stronger) flavor.
The importance of having the grapes ripe early will
be appreciated when we consider that, other things
being equal, the heat and dryness of the season in
which they ripen will be the measure of the per
fection of the grapes, at least in this latitude. JSTow,
in 1858, the mean temperature of August was 69°
Fahrenheit, while the mean temperature of Septem
ber was only 61°, and as the amount of rain which
fell in each month was equal, the grapes which were
ripe by the beginning and middle of September were
much richer in saccharine and other wine-making
elements than those which were produced in the cool
and damp atmosphere of September and October.

From the foregoing observations it will be evident
that in preparing must for wine we must pay par
ticular attention to the quality of the grapes and the
circumstances under which they were raised. Thus,
in Cincinnati, no sugar is added to the juice of the
Catawba ; it is fermented just as it comes from the
press. But in more northern climes, not only does

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 289

the juice of the Isabella and Clinton require sugar,
but that of the Catawba stands in need of it, in order
to make, not a sweet but a full-bodied wine, which
will bear keeping.

In the manufacture of wine from the grape, the
first process is to carefully pick over all the grapes,
rejecting those which are unripe, rotten, mildewed,
or imperfect in any other way. The rejection of the
stems will depend upon the character of the wine
desired. If retained, they impart a roughness to the
wine, which some admire ; and it is claimed by some,
that the tannin of the stems helps to preserve the
.wine. The grapes are then to be mashed, which is
easily done with the hands if in small quantity. In
the large way it is performed by passing the grapes
between rollers armed with pins. On a smaller scale,
a beetle or stamper, armed with pins, may be used ;
and where but a few are prepared (as for domestic
purposes) the hands alone can perform the work. A
gentleman of this city has devised a very useful and
efficient machine, in which, by passing the grapes
between rollers covered with india-rubber, the juice
is expressed and separated from the husks without
bruising the stems or seeds.

If prepared in the ordinary way, the must may be
allowed to ferment either before or after the juice has
been separated from the seeds and husks. Ferment
ing the husks and seeds gives a roughness and harsh
ness to the wine as well as a higher color. For the
finest wines the juice only is fermented.

This is effected by simply allowing the juice to
13

290 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

stand in casks filled three-fourths full. Fermentation
speedily sets in; the saccharine matter becomes con
verted into carbonic acid, which escapes, and alcohol,
which remains in combination with the fluid, and
gives it the character of wine. At first the fermen
tation is very violent, but after a time it moderates,
when the casks should be filled up, lightly bunged,
and kept during winter in a temperately cool apart
ment. In spring it should be carefully drawn off,
either by means of a syphon or through a hole bored
into the cask some distance above the bottom, so as
to avoid disturbing the lees. After this, fermentation
should be avoided as much as possible, which is best
effected by a low temperature and the exclusion of
oxygen. It is generally considered best, we believe,
to leave the wine at least one season in the cask into
which it has been drawn off. In some cases it is kept
for years in the " wood," as it is termed.

Wine can of course be made of any kind of grape,
though in and around Cincinnati the Catawba is
altogether preferred. Tolerable wine has been made
of the Isabella, and in the hands of Dr. Underbill it
has proved of superior excellence for this purpose.
But for all northern localities we think the Clinton
promises to be the wrine grape. When carefully
pruned and thinned, so as to get fair bunches instead
of the load of little sour trash usually seen, the
Clinton grape is peculiarly rich in saccharine and
saline matter. Of its wine-making qualities Nicho
las Longworth speaks as follows in a letter to " The
Horticulturist :"

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 291

" I believe I advised you that the must and wine of the
Clinton grape differed from any I have ever seen. The must
weighs very heavy, indicating a large quantity of saccharine
matter ; the wine, fully fermented, acid and weighing but little,
and indicating but little spirit. Of the grapes you sent last
spring I made two kinds of wine. One part I pressed as soon
as worked, and put at the rate of seventeen ounces of sugar to
the gallon of must ; the other I worked and left to ferment in
the skins before pressing, arid put no sugar. The first is a beau
tiful dark red, which I have never seen equalled, arid very clear.
It has no sweetness and is rather dry, but of fine flavor. The
other is clear, very dark red, and more acid, but of fine flavor.
I deem that in our warmer latitude the must will have more
sugar, and will make a valuable red wine, an article we have
not at present.

" I am very desirous of giving the grape a further trial, and
shall esteem it a favor if you will engage and send me from two
to five bushels of grapes, and let them be as ripe as possible.
I shall also be pleased to get from two to five thousand cut
tings. I will next spring graft a dozen roots with this grape,
and the next season guarantee to have grapes enough to test
how they will suit our climate, as 1 have had grafts grow the
first season from ten to thirty feet, and often bear some fruit the
same season."

The following letter, received from a lady whose
wine we can testify to be of very superior excellence,
contains directions slightly different from those in
ordinary use, and in some respects perhaps superior.
We give it in her own words, which it may be but
justice to say, were not originally intended for pub
lication :

" After the grapes are gathered, pick carefully from the clus
ters all the good ones. Wash these, being careful not to mash
the seeds (we had a little machine for this purpose that turned

292

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE,

with a crank), Have ready a perfectly sweet cask, that has a
hole, about an inch in diameter, bored in one side near the bot
tom ; fit into this hole a stick from six to eight inches long, with
a hole bored from end to end of sufficient size to let the juice
flow freely through it. Stop this hole tightly with a plug ; as
the grapes are mashed, pour the juice, skins, pulp and all, into
the cask. When all are in, cover closely with four or five
thicknesses of woollen blankets ; let it remain in this condition
until fermentation has advanced sufficiently to cause the grapes
or must' (as I believe wine-makers call it) to rise to the top and
begin to crack open, the cracks being filled with little yeasty-
like bubbles, which will be probably in from four to eight or
ten days, according to the temperature of the weather. Now
have ready a perfectly clean barrel, purified with sulphur; put
into a pail ten or twelve pounds of sugar, take out the little
plug, and let the juice on the sugar. As you fill the pail, stir
the sugar occasionally from the bottom, so as to dissolve enough
of it to make the juice sufficiently sweet. If the sugar should
all dissolve before the juice is all drawn out, of course put in
more. When the barrel is full, put the bung in lightly, so as to
give it a chance to ferment. The little cups you ^speak of were
used more as an experiment than a necessity ; when those were
used, the bung was fitted in tight and a small hole made in the
bung, and a tin tube inserted in it, rising from the bung, the
long end being in the bung, and the short end in a little tin cup
filled, and kept full of water, care being taken to keep the bar
rel always full ; but, as I said before, this was not necessary.
After the juice had been barrelled, as above described, let it
stand till some clear, cold day in February. Then draw off the
juice and put it in another barrel, care .being taken to have it
perfectly clean and well fumigated as the first was; save a pail
ful, and when all has been drawn off, stir into this pailful the
whites of ten or twelve eggs, beaten to a froth, as you would
for cake. When well stirred, pour this in the barrel with the
rest. After being well incorporated with that in the barrel,
bung it up tightly, and for two years 'touch not, taste not,
handle not,' and as much longer as you can resist the tempta-

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

tion, as it improves from 25 to 50 per ee-nt. in qnality every year
it is suffered to stand. The barrels should be kept in a dark
cellar.

"The above contains all the most important particulars of the
doctor's process of making wine, to the best of my recollection.
Jt will answer very well where one only desires to make a
little for his own use ; but would hardly answer on a large
sci.le.

"Fumigating the barrels with a sulphur match destroys any
musty or unpleasant smell which the barrel may have, and is
done by melting flowers of sulphur or roll brimstone in an iron
vessel on the stove ; making a swab by rolling a rag around the
end of an iron rod, saturate the rag with the melted sulphur
as you roll it around ; stick the other end of the rod into a
good sized potatoe, and set fire to the rag or swab ; hang it in
the barrel at the bung-hole, the potatoe will prevent it dropping
down in the barrel."

The following recipes for currant wine are perhaps
more useful than appropriate. They have been col
lected from various reliable sources, and it is probable
that few will regret their insertion

CURRANT WINE.*

Three varieties of currants are employed in making wine —
white, red and black ; but the two first are most common. The
wines from the white and red sorts differ a little from each
other in color, also in flavor. With proper management they
are capable of producing a wine analogous to the lighter wines
of the grape, according to Dr. MacColloch, " not easy to be
distinguished from the Colares of Portugal, which although not
in the first class, is certainly superior to most of our domestic
wines." A 'principal defect in currant wine, as commonly made,

* Copied from Webster's " Encyclopaedia of Domestic Economy.'"

294: THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

arises from too small a quantity of the fruit being used, and of
course too much sugar and water. On this account, and from
the imperfect fermentation, these wines are usually too sweet ;
and from a natural bad flavor in the husks, which are often kept
in the must, a mawkish taste is introduced. By increasing the
quantity of the fruit, which is generally used only in the same
proportion as in gooseberry wine, and avoiding the use of the
husks, the flavor and quality of the wine are materially im
proved.

At present only sweet wines are generally made from cur
rants ; but dry wines may also be fabricated from this fruit by
the method already pointed out ; for these the fruit should be
ripe.

Brisk wine may also be made, and then a proportion of unripe
fruit should be introduced. The use of tartar, likewise, Dr.
MacColloch is of opinion, would be advantageous, and would
correct a defect not uncommon, that of having an ammoniacal
taste. Another improvement has been put in practice with
success, not only in making currant wine, but in all those wines
produced from fruits of which the flavor is either bad or which
have little or no flavor ; this is by boiling the fruit juice pre
viously to fermentation. From this treatment many tasteless
fruits acquire a flavor, and many bad flavors are converted into
agreeable ones. This is particularly remarkable in the case of
the black currant, which, though harsh in its natural state,
acquires by boiling a powerful and to most persons an agreeable
flavor. Wine made from this fruit in a raw state has no par
ticular property, whereas that of the boiled may be, by careful
management, brought to resemble some of the best of the sweet
Cape wines. The boiling must not be too long continued, as
this degree of heat tends to coagulate and precipitate the fer
ment, and thus render it ineffective. Some artificial ferment is
generally necessary with boiled juice. Great care must be taken
in separating the stalks, and if the skins and solid matter are
fermented in the vat, they must not, at all events,, be introduced
into the casks. Many persons put the pure juice into the casks
at once, strained, without any previous fermentation in the vat.

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 295

RECIPE FOR WHITE CTORANT WINE.

Bruise forty pounds of the fruit in a tub of the capacity of
fifteen or twenty gallons, and add to it four gallons of water.
Stir the whole well, and squeeze till the pulp is thoroughly sepa
rated from the skins; leave these materials at rest for about
t \velve hours, and then strain them through a canvas bag or
fine hair sieve, and pass one gallon of fresh water through the
marc. Dissolve thirty or twenty -five pounds of white sugar in
the juice thus obtained, and make up the whole quantity by an
addition of ten gallons and a half of water. The proportion of
sugar here given is for a brisk wine ; if a sweet wine is required,
there must be forty pounds of sugar. "White sugar is recom
mended as much the best. If moist sugar be used, somewhat
more will be necessary. The must being now prepared, the
fermentation and subsequent treatment must be exactly the
same as for gooseberry wine, and the reader may therefore refer
to that recipe.

If brandy is to be added, it should be added toward the end
of the fermentation in the cask. For the above quantity some
will put in a quart of brandy alone ; others mix it with honey.

Whether the wine should be racked off from the lees at the
end of six months, put into a cask for six months longer before
it is bottled, or be suifered to remain the whole time in the lees,
must depend upon the state of the wine according to the prin
ciples explained above. The bottling should be carefully
attended to.

ANOTHER RE0IPE.

White currants, nine gallons ; white gooseberries, one gallon ;
white sugar, twenty-five pounds; white tartar, an ounce; bitter
almonds, two ounces; water, nine gallons; brandy, one gallon.

MR. CORNELI/S RECIPE FOB MAKING RED CURRANT WINE.

Bruise eight gallons of red currants with one quart of rasp
berries. Press out the juice, and to the residuum, after pres-

296 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE.

sure, add eleven gallons of cold water. Add two pounds of
beet-root, sliced as thin as possible, to give color, and let them
infuse, with frequent mixture, for twelve hours ; then press out
the liquor as before, and add it to the juice. Next dissolve
twenty pounds of raw sugar in the mixed liquor, and three
ounces of red tartar in fine powder. In some hours the fer
mentation will commence, which is to be managed according to
the details for gooseberry wine and the principles we have
stated previously. "When the fermentation is completely over,
add one gallon of brandy ; let the wine stand for a week, then
rack off, and let stand for two months. It may now be finally
racked off, bunged up in a cask, and set by in a cool cellar for
as many years as may be required to ameliorate it.

BLACK CURRANT WINE

May be made in the same manner, using six gallons of black
currants, three gallons of strawberries, twenty -five pounds of
raw sugar, four ounces of red tartar, ten gallons of cold water,
and three quarts of brandy.

ELDERBERRY WINE.

The elderberry is well adapted to the production of wine. Its
juice contains a considerable portion of the principle necessary
for a vigorous fermentation, and its beautiful color communi
cates a rich tint to the wine made from it. It is, however,
deficient in sweetness, and therefore demands an addition of
sugar. There are several methods of making this wine; the
following are some of the most approved recipes:

Take one gallon of ripe elderberries and one quart of damsons
or sloes, for two gallons of wine to be made ; boil the fruit in
about half the quantity of water till they burst, breaking them
frequently with a stick. Strain the liquor and return it to the
copper. To produce eighteen gallons of wine, twenty gallons
of this liquor are necessary, ancl for whatever quantity the
liquor falls short of this, water must be added to make up. Boil
this, together with fifty-six pounds of coarse moist sugar, for

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 297

half an hour, and it is to be fermented in the usual manner
when sufficiently cool, and then is to be tunned or put into the
cask. Put now into a muslin bag a pound and a half of ginger,
bruised, a pound of allspice, two ounces of cinnamon, and four
or six ounces of hops; suspend the bag with the spice in the
cask by a string, not long enough to let it touch the bottom ; let
the liquor work in the cask for a fortnight, and fill up in the
usual manner. The wine will be fit to tap in two months, and
is not improved by keeping like many other wines. Elderber
ries alone may be used.

ANOTHER METHOD.

Elderberries, ten gallons; water, ten gallons; white sugar,
forty-five pounds ; red tartar, eight ounces ; fermented with
yeast in the usual manner. When in the cask, ginger root,
sliced, or allspice, four ounces; bitter almonds, three ounces;
suspended in a bag, may be allowed to infuse in the liquor when
it is fermenting ; they are then to be removed. Brandy may
be added or not. When the wine is clear, which will be in
about three months, it may be drawn off from the lees and bot
tled. The spices may be varied according to taste.

BLACKBERRY WINE.

To one quart of juice two quarts of water and three pounds
of sugar. The berries to be mashed cold, and the juice ex
pressed and strained. The sugar dissolved in the water and
strained. The whole then mixed in kegs and placed in a cool
cellar. The bung-hole to be left open until fermentation has
nearly ceased, then closed tight and left standing until the en
suing April, when it should be carefully drawn and bottled.

STRAWBERRY OR RASPBERRY WINE.

Bruise and press out the juice of either fruits ; pour on the
marc seven gallons of water ; infuse for twelve hours and press
out the liquor. Add this liquor to the juice, and mix them with

13*

298 THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE,

six gallons of cider. Dissolve in the mixture sixteen pounds of
raw sugar and three ounces of powdered red tartar, and then
set it to ferment in the usual manner. Pare the rinds of two
lemons and of two oranges, and together with the juice throw
them into the fermenting tub, and take out the rinds when the
fermentation is over. Three gallons of brandy may be added.
In making raspberry wine, a gallon of white and red currant
juice should be added, and an equal quantity of water left out.

ORANGE WINE.

Seville oranges are used for this purpose ; they are best in
March. For eighteen gallons of wine half a chest of oranges are
required. Pare the rinds from about a dozen, or two dozen, as
more or less of the bitter will be agreeable. Pour over this a quart
or two of boiling water, and after letting this stand for twelve
hours, strain off the water, which extracted much of the essen
tial of the oranges. Take the peel off entirely from the
remainder of the oranges, squeeze the juice through a bag or
sieve, and put it into a cask with about forty-five pounds of
white sugar or fifty -five of the best moist sugar. Soak the pulp
in water for twenty-four hours, and after straining this, add it
to the cask. Repeat this several times till the cask is full. Stir
the whole well with a stick till the sugar is dissolved, then set
it to ferment. The fermentation is slower than with currant
wine, but may be heard hissing for several weeks. When this
subsides, close the bung-hole, and proceed as in the case with
gooseberry wine. Some add brandy. The wine requires to be
kept in the cask a year before it is bottled.

GINGER WINE.

Dissolve eighteen or twenty pounds of sugar in nine and a
half gallons of boiling water, and add to it ten or twelve ounces
of bruised ginger root. Boil the mixture for about a quarter
of an hour, and when nearly cold add to it half a pint of yeast,
and pour it into a cask to ferment, taking care to fill the cask
from time to time with the surplus of the liquor made for that

THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE. 299

purpose. When the fermentation ceases, rack off the wine, and
bottle it when transparent. It is a common practice to boil the
outer rind of a few lemons together with the ginger destined
for the wine, to impart to the wine the flavor of lemon peel.

CURRANT WINE.

Gather the currants when fully ripe ; press and measure the
juice ; add two-thirds water, and to each gallon of that mixture
put three pounds of Muscovado sugar (the cleaner and drier the
better; very coarse sugar, first clarified, will do equally well);
stir it well until the sugar is quite dissolved, and then tun it up.
Do not let the juice stand over night before mixing; or at least
not so long as to ferment.

Make rather more than to fill the casks, so as to fill them up
after drawing off the wine.

Lay the bung lightly on the hole, to prevent flies, etc., from
creeping in. In three weeks or a month after making, the bung-
hole may be stopped up, leaving only the vent-hole open, until
the wine has done working, which will be about the latter end
of October. It may then be racked off into other clean casks ;
but some persons prefer letting it stand on the lees until spring,
as it thus acquires a stronger body and is in a great measure
divested of that sweet, luscious taste peculiar to made-wine.
It may without damage stand two years on the lees.

When it is to be drawn off, bore a hole at least an inch above
the tap-hole, a little to the side of it, that it may run clear off
the lees.

APPENDIX I.

EXAMPLES OF AMERICAN VINEYARD PRACTICE.

THE OHIO SYSTEM OF VINEYARD CULTURE.

THIS is merely a modification of the French and German
methods, having been generally introduced by vine-dressers
from those countries. It is, we believe, now generally giving
place to the trellis system of culture, which seems to be better
adapted to the habit of our native vines. Vines and even vine
yards may be found around Cincinnati, which are trained dif
ferently from the method here described, but nevertheless, the
following is what is known as the Ohio system.

The ground having been properly prepared, the vineyard is
set out either with cuttings or rooted plants, generally the
former. In setting out cuttings, holes about two feet deep are
made with a stilt or dibble, shod with iron, and after inserting
two cuttings in each, the holes are filled in with sand which is
washed into immediate contact with the cuttings by means of
water. During the first season, the vines are allowed to grow
at random, the ground, however, being kept clean and mellow.

In the spring of the second season the vines are pruned, which
is done by removing all the wood made by the young cutting,
and also all the roots which spring from the cutting, within
several inches of the surface. Fig. 1 shows the young plant.
The soil being removed, the roots e, e, e are cut oft' close to the

301

302

APPENDIX I.

Fig. 65.

stem, the shoots a 5 are cut clean out, and c is cut down to one
«eye, which should be as near the old wood as possible, and if on
iit, so much the better. During the second year the vines are
ttreated nearly the same as the cuttings were during the first
;yaar, and the spring pruning is also the same.

During the third summer, three or four shoots are trained up
and carefully tied to stakes; laterals are pinched out and the
shoots stopped in .September.

During the fourth year, the vines are allowed to bear on the
spurs produced by cutting back the shoots of the previous
season to six or eight inches. These spurs of course throw up
fruit-bearing canes, which during the fifth season are tied to
stakes in bows, so as produce a crop of grapes, and at the winter
pruning the bows are cut away, their place being filled next
season by a fresh cane trained up for the purpose during the pre
ceding summer.

APPENDIX I.

303

The following figures will illustrate this fully : Fig. 66 shows
the vine in the fall of the fourth year ; H is the head of the

Fig. 66.

vine, B the arms or thighs, as they are sometimes called ; and
a, 6, c, d are the canes which bore fruit last year; 5 and c are
cut off to one good bud, and a and d, after being shortened, are
formed into bows and tied to stakes, so that the vine in the spring
of the fifth year presents the appearance shown in Fig. 67.
The bow will now yield a liberal crop of grapes, and a few
bunches will be obtained from the shoots springing from the
spurs 5 and c, though they must not be allowed to bear much,
as it is desired that they should grow strong and vigorous so as
to form the bows for next year. If the vines are strong, they
may be allowed to bear more, and other spurs are sometimes
allowed to grow from the arms where the vines will bear it.

304

APPENDIX I.

Fig. 6T.

'The arms themselves are renewed every few years, so as to get-
rid of all the old gnarled spurs, by training new shoots from the
spurs e e.

APPENDIX I. 305

DR. UNDERBILL'S VINEYARDS AT CROTON POINT.

The following account of Dr. Underbill's Vineyards is taken
from the k' Country Gentleman " of September 25th, 1856.
Since that account was published, Dr. Underbill has greatly
extended his vineyards, and is thus enabled to devote more of
his grapes to the production of wine without lessening the
quantity of fruit sent to New York market.

" The readers of our papers have long been familiar with the name of
Dr. Underbill as a grower of Isabella and Catawba vines, and lovers of
well ripened and carefully marketed grapes in New York city, as the
most extensive producer of this fruit in its vicinity. He began to plant
the varieties named, or at least the former of them, about twenty-five
years ago, having previously made some unsuccessful attempts at grow
ing foreign sorts without shelter ; and he has been untiring in his subse
quent efforts to attain the best mode of cultivation in every particular,
from the first setting of the slip, to the productive maturity of the plant in
the vineyard. He is now in possession of nearly a hundred acres of land,
of which upward of forty are in grapes, or, with the addition of adjoin
ing vineyards belonging to his brother, there are more than fifty acres in
all, to the sale of plants and the marketing of fruit from which Dr. Under
bill gives his undivided attention.

" Croton, or Teller's Point, as it was formerly called, juts into the
river fully half its width, dividing Haverstraw bay above from the Tappaiii
Zee below. The stream from which it has received the name it now
generally goes by, falls into the Hudson on the south — what is left of it:
after being dammed and drained off for the benefit of New York city.
The extreme point of the little peninsula turns downward, commanding iu,
this direction one of the finest river views among the many beautiful ones^
for which the Hudson is justly famous. Here, once in Revolutionaryr
times, was fired a humble cannon at the Vulture in the bay below — scar
ing her from her anchorage, and leaving Andre without means of safe>
escape from the plot he was projecting with the traitorous Arnold. The
soil is nearly a pure gravelly sand, underlaid at a depth of twenty or
thirty feet with clay, and bordered here and there at the river's edge-

306 APPENDIX I.

with alluvial deposits- Occasionally the upland is slightly loamy, but for
the most part entirely sand, as above described.

" Dr. Underbill plants his vineyards either in spring or fall as may be
convenient, setting the vines seven feet apart, in rows six and a half feet
from each other. This will take about one thousand to the acre. In his
position as to climate and weather, he thinks the question of the inclina
tion of the land immaterial, though further north he would prefer an
eastern or southern exposure, or one varying near these points. He has
found it best to place the rows so that the prevailing summer winds may
have free course through them — contrary to the European practice, in
which circulation of the atmosphere is avoided, chiefly on account of the
frequency of cold storms. He has found that here it is beneficial, pre
venting mildew and promoting the healthiness of plant and fruit.

" In the number of plants to the acre his practice is also widely diver
gent from that in Germany and about Cincinnati— where twenty-five
hundred is an ordinary thing. By placing" them at greater distances he
is enabled to 'secure a crop the first year,' as he remarked — if not of
grapes, of something else between the rows, and as the vines do not bear
until the third summer this is a matter of some importance. They are
also taken care of much more easily, as horses can be employed to culti
vate the ground, where only men could otherwise be admitted, and,
finally, he thinks the yield quite as good and great, as can be produced
from more plants on the same space. In fact, in ten years, if the vines
crowd at all, or the land is too rich, he sometimes finds it expedient to re
move every other vine in the rows, thus leaving only five hundred to the
acre. One man, according to his mode, cares for six acres — at least four
times as much as he could do on the German plan. Dr. Underbill is op
posed on the most stringent principles to allowing any of his land to lie
waste and idle, and by obtaining two crops from it before the grape
becomes large enough to produce, compels the vineyard to pay while it
is being made, though after the vines begin to yield he entirely excludes
every other species of vegetation.

" To adapt the ground as nearly as possible to the exact wants of the
grape, has been the subject of many and long experiments with Dr.
Underbill. During his first trials he expended a great deal on artificial
fertilizers, but further experience has taught him to increase the produc
tiveness of his soil from the resources of his own farm. This he fully
coincides with us in believing to be the true principle for every farmer to
act upon. It would be a lesson worth the studying for most farmers to
see the economy he displays in preserving all farm manures of whatever
kind. He has no fences on his farm — his horses, cows and oxen being
stabled the year round. The leaves upon the woodland are raked up in
autumn to serve as bedding, and it is found that they pack of their own
Teight so as to occupy far less room than would be supposed,, while they

APPENDIX I. 307

answer the purpose admirably, as well as form a valuable constituent in
the resultant manure. An apartment of moderate size serves to contain
a sufficient quantity to last nearly or quite the whole twelve months.
Every drop of liquid manure, from stables and styes, and brought bj
drains from the house and out-houses, is collected in cisterns. In it, pre
viously to being pumped out for use, Dr. Underlain dissolves potash, in
the proportion perhaps of one hundred weight to thirty hogsheads —
which is thought to have the effect of making the manure more active, as
well as being cheaper than ashes, in supplying the necessary ingredients
abstracted by the crops from the soil. A cheap and coarse kind is
bought at three and a half or four cents a pound.

'•We should here devote a few words to the compost heaps we have
passed here and there, in our walk over the place. These Dr. Underhill
begins, say with a stratum of the alluvial deposits from the river side,
followed by one of horse or cow manure or both, then one of the soda
from along the roads, paths, etc., then the alluvia again, and so on. After
thev reach some height and when the manure cisterns chance to be full,
a man perforates them here and there with a crowbar, and the liquid is
brought in a cart and put on, hogshead after hogshead, till the whole is
saturated. They are made amply broad enough for a cart track, ex
tended to any length, and as they slowly settle down carried higher- and
higher by additional layers till six or eight feet above the ground. The
same pile accumulates the manures of nine months or so. and receives four
or five thorough wettings. The value of a compost heap thus prepared, in
comparison with its cost, as would be readily conjectured, is very great

" In the preparation of the ground for his vineyards, Dr. Underhill thinks
that thorough ploughings answer every purpose. In one case, he had had)
the earth trenched with spades, to the depth, we think, of three spits, butt,
the effect produced was of too little increased benefit to pay for the ex
pense, which was, if we recollect, in the neighborhood of four hundred
and fifty dollars per acre. He adds a dressing of clay to render the soil;
more firm, and prevent its feeling so quickly the changes in the tempe
rature of the atmosphere, and absorbing the rains so rapidly as to drench1)
and chill the roots. A less quantity will answer every purpose than^
might be apprehended — in pretty thorough trials he had found three or
four hundred loads sufficient on an acre of his rather coarse, gravelly
sands. In one experiment he had spread a vineyard of about six acres
with 5,000 loads of alluvia and 3,000 of clay ; but it proved too rich and'
heavy.

" The vines are permitted to bear the first crop on a temporary trellis-
of stakes driven into the ground and connected by a single wire. The
permanent trellis is then erected by putting in firm chestnut posts about
seven feet high, and running along them a couple of wires for the second1
crop, and a third one near the top the subsequent season. The wire used'

308 APPENDIX I.

is from number 10 to 12. We have not the space nor the necessary ac
quaintance with the subject to describe at length Dr. Underbill's method
of pruning. It is progressive, that is, different for each of a succession
of years as a vine grows older, until it finally reaches maturity. The
chief object kept in view, of course modified to meet particular circum
stances, is to depend on this year's growth of wood for next year's growth
of fruit. The ground is thoroughly ploughed once in the spring, and the
spaces dug between the vines ; after this the harrow and cultivator are
depended on to keep the soil loose and free from weeds, until the fruit
begins to change its color — when no one is permitted to go between the
rows until the picking begins. By thus employing horses and imple
ments, the expense is very much less than on the German plan of merely
spading and hoeing.

" When the fruit is formed in June, as much as three-fourths to four-
fifths of it are cut away — only the small remaining fraction being suf-
ered to ripen. Thus, and by a careful system of pruning, the strength
of the plant is economized, and wholly devoted to the end of com
pletely maturing the juices which form both the vine and the fruit,
and adding particularly to the size and sweetness of the latter. Every
effort has been made to subject the main vitality of the plant to the one
purpose of producing the best fruit rather than the most wood ; and by
these efforts, by careful pruning, and proportioning the quantity of fruit
ripened to the capabilities of the vine, Dr. Underbill estimates that he has
succeeded in adding much to the strength of the plants themselves, to the
excellence of the fruit they bear, and in making the period of its maturity
earlier from season to season, so that there is an average difference of at
least twelve days between the time of the ripening of the grapes now and
that when he commenced his efforts 25 years ago. This appears to be no
inconsiderable advantage in favor of vines from his grounds ; inasmuch as
we see no reason why the same causes which operate to produce this
earlier period of ripening in his vineyards, should not also have a similar
effect on cuttings grown from them with the same care to the age of set
ting out. He has plants for sale at the age of two, three, and we think
also four years old, as purchasers may prefer. About one third of tlio
vineyards are Catawbas, the remainder Isabellas— the latter of which has
been found the surest for a crop, though it is very seldom that either falls
short, and we understood that for many years past, Dr. Underbill had not
experienced a single entire failure. The present season has been, on the
whole, a cooler one than the average — according to his expectations,
based as he told us, upon the fact that every tenth year regularly proves a
cold one — at least he knew such to have been the case for certainly sixty
years back, and had no doubt it would continu3 so. The crop is very
good, however, the berries and bunches being especially large. We saw
some Isabellas that entirely exceeded in these respects anything we have

APPKNDIX I, 309

seen before— here ani there a cluster that must have been very nearly a
pound in weight — and, although none were ripe enough to taste, we could
easily credit Dr. UoddrhUTs a.-Huraac3s that they would soon prove as
luscious as they then looked.

"The doctor is rightly very particular that none shall go to market
until they are fully ripe. He sa vs it requires a good deal of experience
and judgment to determine when they are ready for market. He expected
to begin picking about the 15th, and he generally continues the marketing
season for about two months. During this period he engages a store in
New York, Avhere his grapes are all disposed of, with the exception of
those retailed at confectionery and other stores through the city, and
consumed at the hotels. His lowest wholesale price is fifteen cents per
Ib. ; by the basket to families, sixteen ; and when less than a basket is
sold, twenty. One point which we should not omit to note, inasmuch as
it is one in which fruit-growers are far too generally negligent and regard
less of their own interest, is the care and nicety with which Dr. Underhill
prepares his fruit for market. We have seen his particularity in respect
to the entire ripeness of all that are picked ; and every bunch of the vast
number he sells is looked over, and the defective berries cut out by hand,
so that not one may be left which a child two years old might not eat
with impunity. Then, put up in new and neat baskets, they present an
attractive appearance, which goes a great way in winning the heart — or,
perhaps, we should rather say, inciting the appetite of the purchaser.

" When Dr. Underhill commenced, a good many years ago, he was the
first and only one in the business, and could only command about five
cents a pound for his fruit. He has not endeavored to retain this mono
poly, but is always happy to explain everything he knows to any inquirer,
and justly thinks that the more good fruit he can induce others to grow,
the more public attention will be brought to the luxury, or indeed the
necessity of the article, and the greater will be the consequent request
for it. How just were these calculations, is shown in the ample demand
that now exists for all he can grow at three times the price at which he
started. We trust that he will not give up his present purpose of some
time presenting to the world the system which his long and careful, and,
we may add, profitable, experience has matured.

" There are several other points which we had it in mind to speak of
at some length, connected with Dr. Underhill's agricultural and horti
cultural practice. The extent of the present paper will compel us to be
very brief.

" Several lessons may be derived by every farmer from what has been
already written. He has seen how our friend economizes all his manures,
and how he has discovered the secret not only of constantly increasing
the fertility of his lands, but of adapting the crop grown to the wants of his
nearest market, and thereby obtaining very much greater profits than the

13

310 APPENDIX I.

old farm routine could in any way be made to yield. How he has proved
the vineyard rules received from European authorities far from being best
adapted for his situation and circumstances, and thought out, and woi^ked
out by experiment, a system for himself. How he has created a new de
mand with the public, while he was himself supplying it, and how
scrupulous he always is that every product he sells shall be superior of
its kind and put up in the best style. It is self-evident, we think, that not
one of these particulars is immaterial to the farmer who would succeed
well in his business.

"Another which we wish to bring forward, is the way in which Dr. Under
bill contrives, in almost every process, if we may quote a homely proverb,
to "kill two birds with one stone." Where he has dug the deposits of
vegetable and alluvial matter by the water's edge, for manure, a very
little extra labor has transformed the ugly excavation into a fish pond; a
water gate admits the fish from the river but will not let them out, and
through the same channel the rising and falling tide prevents the lakelet
from lying stagnant. The pond not only supplies fish, but plums — the
trees being planted over it at an angle of perhaps forty-five degrees to pre
vent the ravages of the curculio, while it is also bordered with pears and
quinces, and thus the land dug out and removed is not only made to yield
a crop of fruit where it is put as manure, but another over the hole it left
behind. The forests are cleared out and seeded with orchard-grass, and
the leaves falling in autumn are taken away for use, as we have seen, as
well as that they may not smother the turf where they fell. Sods are
required for the manure heap, and paths and roads tastefully, and here
and there quite picturesquely threading the woods and climbing the river
banks, are laid out and kept in order to yield them, as well as to furnish
delightful drives and walks. It may abate somewhat from the romance
of the beautiful, thus to find the useful ever lurking under its mantle, but it
certainly brings it within the reach of many who now fancy it something
beyond or above them, as well as places it in a new light to not a few,
who are in the habit of considering themselves far too practicality seek it
Utile dulci is Pr. Underbill's motto/'

APPENDIX I. 311

JUDGE CONKLIN'S VINEYARD ON LONG ISLAND.
From the Country Gentleman.

" The facts in the following description were derived from a memoran
dum prepared by Judge Conklin at our request, which, together with a
personal examination of the vineyard, will enable us to show the actual
results of his mode of cultivation.

" The first experiments were made with the foreign varieties ; they grew
vigorously and fruited uniformly well, especially the chasselas or sweet
water, producing full crops of fine grapes for several years. After experi
menting with them four or five years, they began to fail in maturing their
fruit, which was supposed to be owing to the severity of the climate on
this island. A subsequent trial of three or four years more proved this
to be the case, after which the open field culture of all the foreign varie
ties was given up as useless.

"In the meantime a few cuttings of the Isabella which were planted
began to produce some fruit, which appeared to be a pretty good substi
tute for the more delicately flavored foreign varieties, and from the date
of this discovery the vineyard was commenced.

"SITUATION AND SOIL. — The grounds are located at Cold Spring Bay,
around which the hills are steep and abrupt, leaving but a narrow slope
of arable land between their wooded declivities and the shore ; beyond
these wooded hills, which rise from a quarter to half a mile, are fine culti
vated table lands. Below the woods, on a western slope, lies the oldest
part of the vineyard, and beyond the woods on the table land, lies the
more recently planted portion. The soil, like most in this part of the is
land, is light and porous, composed of sandy mold and a large proportion
of gravel, containing small stones from the size of a pea to three inches
in diameter, mostly of polished quartz. Some spots are quite alluvial to
a considerable depth, formed by the action of the rain descending from
the hills; other portions approach the quality of soil called light loam,
which is esteemed best for all general purposes ; the under stratum is ex
tremely porous, full of coarse gravel and small stones, with layers of sand
but no clay. On account of the steepness of the declivity, some of the
ground required to be terraced, the descent being so great as to wash
both soil and seed into the harbor during the prevalence of heavy rains.
The most abrupt portion was so barren that after it was terraced it ap-

312 APPENDIX I.

peared like mere banks of gravel and dead earth. In this place it required
a long time to establish the vines; the rays of the sun beat down in the
afternoon almost vertically during the long and severe droughts with
which we were visited for several years; but after continued watering
and mulching, they were at length established, and are now loaded to
their utmost capacity with fruit.

u The foregoing remarks upon the soil are applicable only to that por
tion of the vineyard upon the side-hill; the soil of the part situated upon
the table lands is of good quality for farming purposes. The table lands
about this vicinity are full of gentle swells or eminences, which are more
or less gravelly or porous in the substratum; such places as these have
generally been selected by the judge for his vineyards, not that they were
supposed to be more suited to the vine than the lower or more level parts,
but because they were less capable of sustaining other vegetation.

" The first planting of much extent was made in 1830, from vines of one
year's growth, purchased of Col. Alden Spooner, of Brooklyn, who fur
nished a thousand at six cents apiece; these were planted upon the best
portion of terraced ground, which was prepared by ploughing in such a
manner as to throw the furrows down hill, and then finished by hand
labor. A part of the terraces were made ten feet wide, but as the opera
tion was found laborious, the remaining ones were made only eight feet ;
no particular pains were taken in forming banks.

" The original surface being a sward, the sods were placed on the out
side of the terraces to sustain the banks. They soon covered them with
gra s, which has since needed no further attention excepting to mow it
once or twice a year. The vines were planted six feet apart, with a locust
post between each, and then four lines of No. 12 wire were strained and
fastened firmly upon the posts,' beginning two feet from the ground and
setting the wires one foot apart ; the posts, therefore, require to be six
feet high, which is the usual height throughout the vineyard.

" The vines have not been subjected to the rigid system of pruning
practised by many; they were trained somewhat fan-shaped upon the
trellis and rather sloventy pruned for many years. The plough was freely
used, seldom allowing the ground to get hard and weedy. This vineyard
bore uniformly for many years, yielding great crops of grapes, which
commanded a fair price in market.

"In a few instances of late, it has been prostrated for a year or two
from the effects of enormous bearing. This was the case last year, but it
is now loaded with fruit. The vines which were placed upon the widest
terraces have been much the most productive, showing that it would have
paid better if they had all been of one width.

"A few of the vines purchased of Col. Spooner were planted on the
more level part of the ground ; these also succeeded well, but not so uni
formly as those placed on the terraces. About the same time, one hun-

APPENDIX I. 313

dred three year old vines were purchased at the Parraentier garden in
Brooklyn at 37J cents per vine; these were also puf upon the lower
grounds, and were six feet apart each way, planted very deep and the
earth gradually filled in around them. The subsoil was almost entirely
composed of small stones and gravel without a particle of clay, or even
loam, to be seen. They grew rather slow at first, but soon got established,
and are yet bearing full crops, failing however oftener than most of the
vines planted at a greater distance apart. The next portion were planted
near these rows running north and south, eight feet apart and six feet apart
in the rows ; these were set out at an ordinary depth in the ground, and
treated in the same manner as the foregoing, and the vines have yielded
good fruit more uniformly than any of the preceding ones. Another piece
was planted in the midst of winter, during a season of mild weather, while
the frost was out of the ground ; hardly a vine failed, and they have borne
largely with few exceptions.

u The last piece, comprising about three acres, was planted on a good
strong soil, not heavy, but snfficicnlly loamy for most purposes; which
was previously occupied by locust timber grown from seed that had been
BO much injured by the grub that it was deemed good policy to substitute
a vineyard.

" The vines promised much, and have borne pretty well, but have fallen
short of anticipations, owing perhaps to peculiarities of the season, which
have been marked for the last few years. They were set in rows running
north and south ten feet apart, and the vines eight feet apart in the rows.

" No difficulty was found in subduing the locusts ; a contract was made
with a laborer to dig each tree out, removing the soil and extracting the
entire root from a circle of the diameter of a cart wheel. This work was
performed in the winter at a shilling a tree ; the ground was then ploughed
and planted with corn; the following year a line was designated for each
row of grape vines ; the ground was then ploughed to the width of four or
five feet along these rows, throwing the furrows out until a considerable
trench was found, while workmen followed with suitable tools and cut.
away all interfering roots. This operation gave space for the row of grape •
vines on clear ground, with but little necessity for removing much earth •
by hand for their reception ; the remaining roots in the middle of the rows
were soon got rid of by the subsequent ploughing after planting the vines.

"• Failures have occurred occasionally, owing to several causes, some of
which might have been avoided ; among these may be mentioned the rose •
bugs; these came in such quantities, after several years, as to entirely de
stroy the crops for one year, before their existence was hardly suspected.
After this they were caught by carrying small pans of water along the
rows, and shaking them into it ; a gentle agitation being sufficient. For
two or three years they were very troublesome, and required constant
looking out for ; they were got under, however,- and little trouble has ,

314 APPENDIX I.

since arisen from that quarter; a few yet linger around and make their
appearance each year, but a sharp lookout is kept, and they usually do
little damage.

"Excessive bearing is a common cause of failure, perhaps the most gene
ral; it is one of the peculiarities of the vine to set enormously with fruit
when strong and vigorous ; the tax upon its maturing such a load often
produces complete prostration ; sometimes it will show its effects the first
year — indeed this is often observable in the sour, shrivelled" mass of unri-
pened fruit.

;t It will frequently happen that the vines will go on and mature the pre
sent crop, but they are sometimes so completely prostrated that they re
quire two years to get restored. Pruning thoroughly in the winter, rub
bing off all superabundant shoots, and cutting off a large portion of the
clusters of fruit in the summer, are the proper remedies.

" Excessive rains during the months of May and June have been more
destructive than any other cause, especially when accompanied with
unusually cold weather about the time of blossoming and setting. Two
years nearly the whole vineyard failed from this cause ; all over the most
retentive and best portions of ground, the young shoots that were about
putting forth blossoms, turned black and sour within a few days after one
of these heavy rains, and the crop, which until that time promised to be
a fair one, was ruined, leaving a small yield upon the highest knolls.

"Another cause of partial failure is, perhaps, not so obvious, yet not
less sure in its effects ; we allude to certain peculiarities in the atmos
phere during some seasons, which seem to be very uncongenial to the
growth and maturing of our best fruits ; probably these effects are felt
more or less all along the Atlantic coast. They have forced us to
abandon the culture of the old Virgalieu Pear, and the White Chasselas,
and other hardy foreign grapes, while all began to feel its influence here
at the same time, and it has nearly vetoed the Newtown Pippin, and many
other apple-trees are exhibiting like effects in a less degree. The indica
tions are the same upon both pears and apples; they exhibit a rusty
coat, cracked open, and are hard and bitter where these black spots
exist. On the Newtown Pippin they are more obvious on the northeast
side of the tree, the fruit often being quite fair on the southwest side,
while on the opposite side it is nearly worthless.

"The judge states that whenever a Newtown Pippin bears a crop of
good fruit — which it does occasionally — his vineyard yields a large crop,
such being the case this year. The trees are growing in various places
among the vines, and are full of fine-looking apples — everything in the
shape of an apple seems to be fully developing, and so of the vines. And
vice versa, whenever the fruit fails of wholly maturing on these trees, there
is a very marked, tardy and imperfect development of the clusters of
prupes; la,tterly these coincidences have been very deeided. The judge

APPENDIX I. 315

has resorted to training on arbors, which, he thinks, if properly managed,
is by far the most certain mode of obtaining fine fruit, as there is much
protection effected from the cold winds by the overshadowing leaves, for
the fruit always hangs underneath.

" He thinks eight feet not sufficiently far apart for the vines, and has
removed several hundred, leaving a space of sixteen feet between the
vines, with a design to train horizontally along the trellis. This mode
fully answers his expectations ; it gives fine fruit, and it will fully equal
the others in quantity after one year.

There is scarcely any limit to the capabilities of a vine, the roots
always keeping pace with the top. When they are dwarfed by constant
pruning, the roots are circumscribed in proportion, and consequently
draw their supplies from comparatively small space ; in severe drought
such vines feel its effects very sensibly. The judge says this idea was
very much impressed upon him in observing the roots of the vines re
moved in his vineyard, while at the same time some large bearing vines
of the same age, growing on trees where full scope was allowed, had
roots of twice the size and length.

"The stock of young vines for planting for the last 20 years has been
raised from cuttings taken from the vineyard.

"No. 12 Pennsylvania wire is used; and we noticed that instead 01
being fastened on to the posts with staples or naDs in the usual manner, a
cut is made with a small saw, and a turn taken around the post with the
wire, drawing it up as snugly as possible into the cut ; the wire requires
forcing in a little with the hammer.

" The first part of the vineyard has had no new wire yet, except when,
from accident the old was broken and required repairing. It looks as-
though it might last ten years longer. Smaller wires have been used,/
but they do not answer as well. If any change was made, it should be
for the size larger.

"The judge uses the common manures collected about the farm-yard,
applying them in moderate quantities as best suits his convenience — chips
from the wood-pile, and even shingle shavings,, have been applied in large
quantities during the prevalence of severe drought, with beneficial results,
which have extended to subsequent seasons.

"He ft now cultivating the Catawba, but not very extensively, and
does not consider it quite so- certain in maturing, and finds it more diffi
cult to propagate.

" Eight or ten more native varieties are now under trial."

;16 APPENDIX i.

VINEYARD OF 0. McKAY, NEAR CANAXDAIGUA, K Y.

From the Horticulturist.

" Some time ago, you may remember, you invited me to communicate to
you such facts for publication as I might have met with in grape culture
that would be likely to be of interest to the public.

" I had then recently planted one acre of Isabella grape vines, pretty
nearly after the manner you had advised in the columns of the ' Genesee
Farmer.'

" The piece of ground planted is twenty rods in length by eight in
width, and was planted five years ago last spring, in the following man
ner : About the first of May I gave the land, which i? gravelly loam, a very
deep ploughing — as deep as possible without the aid of a subsoil plough.
I then measured it off into eight strips, or lands running lengthwise, their
direction being from north to south, 15 degrees east, and ploughjd these
lands separately — leaving the dead furrow in the centre of each, desig
nating the places for the rows — breaking up the yellow subsoil by
repeated ploughing, through the centre of each to the depth of nearly
two feet. I then went into these trenches with a stout team and scraper
and excavated holes a rod apart still deeper than I had ploughed, about
six feet wide and eight in length, leaving the subsoil taken from them in
the intervening spaces.

" All this time I had my eye upon a drove of cattle (some eighty
head), which had died in this town the previous March and April, while
performing a pilgrimage from the far West to the New York market.
These I procured of the proprietor, and had them cut into pieces of con
venient size, and hauled to the field and placed in the holes prepared for
their reception. There being one hundred and sixty holes, a jialf of a
carcass was placed in each. This being done, the holes were filled about
half full of good surface soil ; upon this I distributed as equally as pos
sible among all the holes, sixteen heavy loads of decayed leather sha
vings, from a currier's shop, the accumulation, as I was informed, of about
twenty years. A, sufficient quantity of surface soil was thrown upon
these, and thoroughly incorporated with them, to fill the holes rather
more than level with the surface of the ground. Now about a bushel of
well rotted stable manure, taken from under a stable, well mixed with

APPENDIX I. 31 7

about the same quantity of charcoal dust, from an old coal pit, -was
spaded into each place designated for the reception of a vine.

" I then procured of Eiwanger and Barry, good strong two year old
vines, with which I planted one half of this ground ; and the other half I
planted with layers of the previous year's growth, without a particle of
top to any of them — each consisting simply of a short section of a vine
of the previous year's growth, with one bud and a few small roots
attached to it.

'• These vines have had no other manuring since they were thus planted,
excepting about two bushels of leached ashes forked in around each vine
last season, and about one quart of plaster applied to each the season
before. They are trained on trellises running from north to south, eight
feet high, made of chestnut posts (for want of cedar), five inches square
at the bottom, and two and a half by five inches at the top, set eight and
a quarter feet apart, with strips of one and a half inch stuff, two and a
half inches wide, nailed from post to post, eighteen inches above the
ground, and at the top of the posts. Between these, three tiers of No.
14 iron wire are drawn, dividing the space equally between the wooden
strips, and secured to each post.

" These trellises are now completely filled with good, strong, bearing
wood ready for use next season, much of which is over three quarters of
an inch in diameter, and large portions of it are now apparently ripe. I
allowed these vines to bear only about seven pounds each, last season ;
though they were set for full three times that quantity. I rubbed off
every alternate bud on all the vines last season ; and after they were
set for fruit, I took off half of it. My fruit was mainly sold to dealers in
Elinira, and retailed by them at fourteen cents per pound, by the side of
Isabella grapes, cultivated near Penn Yan, at twelve and a half cents.
One dealer, Mr. H. H. Richards, afterward informed me that he sold
fifty-three pounds of my grapes in one evening at fourteen cents, and
but three pounds of the shilling grapes. Do you suppose those dead car
casses had anything to do with this ? I do.

" Last spring, before these vines commenced their growth, I measured
some twenty-five or thirty of them, taking them 'as they run,' and I
found but very few of them to measure only ten inches in circumference.
Nearly all measured over a foot around the body, several of them fifteen
inches, and one seventeen inches. But why did not those dead cattle and
leather shavings kill them ? Surely it is a marvel that they did not ; for I
have repeatedly dug down to the bones within the past two years, and
have always found them completely surrounded with a net-work of living
fibrous grape roots — not dead ones ! I am allowing these vines to bear
this season just half of what they set for, after a severe autumnal prun
ing ; and I estimate the present crop at 3,200 pounds, or 20 pounds to the

13*

olo APPENDIX I.

vine, notwithstanding the hail storm on the 4th of July destroyed at least
1.000 pounds.

" My grapes last season commenced making their first turn on the 1st
day of September, and the entire crop was ripe before the 30th. This
season they commenced turning red on the 20th of August, and at this
time (September 7th) more than 1,000 pounds are making the second
turn. In fact, I have seen Isabella grapes offered for sale in Rochester, in
the month of October, not as ripe as these are.

" I will not say positively that my fruit is equal in flavor to that pro
duced by more seemly fertilizing materials, for that would hardly seem
possible ; but I will send you a sample of it as soon as I consider it ripe,
that you may have an opportunity to judge for yourself. One thing I
have remarked in regard to these vines ; no insects of any sort have dis
turbed them, except that three or four of the vines, the year they were
planted, were dug out by dogs in their nocturnal attempts at a premature
resurrection of those dead carcasses ! Mildew has never affected them,
although, from their remarkable luxuriance of growth, I have expected to
encounter much trouble from this most patience-trying scourge of the
vineyard.

41 1 have adopted the plan this season of mulching my vines with spent
tan. I applied it early in July, having kept the vines thoroughly culti
vated previously ; I shall cover the entire vineyard with it next season
about one inch deep. I have always ploughed between the rows to the
depth of five or six inches, to within a foot of the vines. To enable me
to do this without disturbing the roots, I have practised pruning off all the
lateral surface roots, to the depth of five or six inches, thus throwing the
vines, to use a familiar phrase, upon their ' taps.' To this practice, I
believe, ought to be attributed any exemption from mildew, far more
than to any or all things else. I observed this same practice prevailed
in Dr. Underbill's vineyards at Croton Point, though I am not aware that
the doctor has ever given the fact to the public. If he has not, of course
it is because he forgot to do so ; or he may have thought it would not be
of much interest to the other cultivators of the grape. One fact is wor
thy of note : Dr. Underbill has experienced no difficulty from mildew for
quite a number of years past, and his vines are very old ; whereas when
his vines were young, he says he was much troubled with its presence.
Now, all who know anything about grape culture, well know that old
vines, with ordinary culture, are far more subject to this difficulty than
young ones. To my mind, this proves that the doctor is older than he
once was, as well as his vines, and that he has not grown old to no pur
pose.

" In conclusion of this already too long article let me say : if you do
not like the samples of grapes sent, suppress this account of their origin

APPENDIX I. 319

and culture, for they are the argument I must rely upon in defence of my
mode of grape culture. If this argument fails to produce conviction, I
will yield the point; but if you like them you may give me a hearing in
the columns of the 'Horticulturist,' if you choose to do so, that others
may learn by what strange means good fruit may be produced, in spite
of the abuse so profusely heaped upon ' dead carcasses ' by those who
never take the trouble to give them a patient trial."

APPENDIX II.

CULTIVATION OF THE VINE UPON TRELLISES (EN
TREILLE) IN NORTHERN AND CENTRAL FRANCE,
ACCORDING TO THE NEW METHODS IN USE AT
THOMERY.*

THE table grape cultivated in the open air acquires often in
Central, and with greater reason in Northern France, only an
imperfect maturity and mediocre quality, for want of proper
and sufficiently prolonged heat during the summer. The vine
starts with vigor, but its growth is too much prolonged, and
the ripening is not completed by the first cold weather of the
autumn ; for it is only when the sap channels cease to feed the
clusters that the grape begins to ripen. This prolonged vegeta
tion is also the reason why the shoots are but imperfectly
formed, or matured by the August heat, and why the vintage
of the next year is less abundant. To avoid this cause of fail
ure, the vine is disposed in the form of a trellis, upon walls
placed so as to enjoy the best exposure, and soils are chosen of
a light or medium nature, which are easily drained arid
warmed ; lastly a series of operations is applied to the vine,
the result of which is to maintain it in a state of moderate
vigor, and above all to diminish the period of its yearly vege
tation. The trellis of the Chateau of Fontainebleau was the
first which, in its culture, taken as a whole, best fulfilled the

* The first trellises at Thomery were established about 120 years ago by a culti
vator named Charmeux, grandfather of the present M. Baptiste Rose Charmeux.
He built the first wall for the purpose, leaving in the centre, according to a condi
tion imposed upon him, a gate for the passage of the chase.

APPENDIX II.-

321

conditions which we have just indicated, and it has been
chosen for a model by all the authors who have written
upon the cultivation of the vine en espalier. This trel
lis, 1,500 yards in length, was put up nearly a century ago,
and was restored about the year 1809 under the direction of
Monsieur Lclieur. But long before the last named period, the
inhabitants of Thomery, a village five miles distant from Fon-
taineblean, were adopting entirely this method of culture. They
found in it so much advantage that they finished by covering
with walls intended for the vine the greatest part of the terri
tory of the Commune.

This culture at the present time extends over more than
3,200 acres, and produces on an average a million kilogrammes
of grapes. It is the delicious produce of these trellises which
are sold at Paris under the name of Chasselas de Fotitainebleau
Fig. 68. Encouraged by their success, these intelligent husband-

322

APPENDIX II.

men have continued to perfect their processes, and the greater
part of their trellises are at the- present time arranged and main
tained much better than those of Fontainebleau. The reader,
however, would be in error should he believe that the success
of this method at Thomery is due to the soil, to the climate, or
to the exposure of this locality being particularly suitable to
the vine. The soil through most of the commune is of a clayey
nature, and retains a slight dampness unfavorable to the quality
of the grape. The ground is generally inclined to the north
east, and, lastly, the neighborhood of the forest, by which the
commune is surrounded on one side, and that of the Saine, by
•which it is bounded on the other, maintain a humid atmosphere
very injurious to the vine.

It is chiefly to the skill of the cultivators that we must
attribute such happy results. We shall, therefore, describe the
mode of culture practised by them, and recommend it for the
climate of the centre and the north of France.

FOKM TO BE GIVEX TO THE TiiKLLiSEs. — The form the most
commonly adopted until quite lately has been that of a simple

liliMlttiili

Fig. 69.

horizontal branch (en -cordon horizontal simple), Fig. 69. It is
the best form for allowing the action of the sap to spread

APPENDIX II. 323

equally toward all points of the plant, and at the same timo
it occupies without loss of space all the surface of the wall.
But these cordons, or arms, must be subjected to certain con
ditions.

First. The two arms should present exactly the same length,
or else it will be seen that the longer arm will absorb the
greater part of the sap and soon destroy the shorter. More
over, the shoots which these arms bear should spring only
from the upper surface and at regular intervals of from seven
to eight inches.

Second. The entire length of the arms developed by the same
stock should not pass certain limits, for if they are permitted,
as is often the case, to attain a length of from 32 to 48 feet,
the sap tends principally toward the extremities, the shoots
growing upon these points are too vigorous, while those nearer
the origin of the arms become feeble and finally wither. It is
much more profitable to increase the number of stocks against
the walls, and to concentrate the action of the sap in a less extent
of branches. In light soils and to varieties of ordinary strength,
an average length of 52 inches is given to each one of the arms
(or cordons) of the same stock. This, in very fertile soils, may
be increased to 66 inches. With respect to very hardy varie
ties, as the Frankenthal, a length of from 78 to 97 inches is
allowed. That adopted at Thomery is commonly 93 inches.

Third. The same stock should not bear many cordons one
above the other, for the sap tending principally to the upper
cordons, those beneath will remain weak.

Fourth. In many gardens may yet be seen vines fixed to the
upper part of walls against which are trained different sorts of
fruit trees. This is a very bad arrangement. If the cordon is
placed in the most favorable condition for ripening the grape,
that is 19 inches lower than the coping of the wall, the foliage
of the vine shadows the trees trained below and condemns from
11 to 15 inches of their tops to complete sterility. Moreover,
they deprive these trees of the influence of the rains and dews
of summer. If, in order to avoid these inconveniences, the
cordon is placed above the coping of the wall, it is only with

324: APPENDIX II.

great difficulty that the clusters, no longer protected, arrive at
maturity. It is better, then, entirely to abandon this arrange
ment, to demote a certain space of wall to the vine, and to pro
ceed in such a manner that this shall be entirely covered. This
is what has been done for the trellis of Fontainebleau, and those
of Thomery, by means of the following forms.

HOBIZOXTAI, COEDOX OF TnoMEEY. Fig. *TO. — Each vine-
stock taken by itself presents exactly the arrangement of
the simple horizontal cordon. That which constitutes the
Thomery system is the position of the cordons with regard
to each other. The wall is covered from summit to base with
cordons of the same length placed one over the other, and sup
plied by vine stocks planted at regular distances.

To construct this trellis we first determine the distance to be
preserved between each cordon. As the space is to be filled by
shoots which spring from the upper surface of the cordons, it
should be such that the shoots may reach a development suffi
cient to maintain the requisite degree of .strength in the vine,
without, however, passing the upper cordon, for it would, in
that case, be shaded too much. Experience has shown that a
distance of from 17 to 20 inches is, in the greater number of
.cases, sufficient, and that to this height the shoots may be
'deprived of their buds without diminishing the strength of the
wine. This distance, may, however, be augmented for very
.hardy varieties in very fertile soils by from 4 to 6 inches.
Monsieur Felix Malot has established at Montreuil a trellis, the
cordons of which being placed at a distance of only 15 inches
from each other, render it necessary to stop the shoots as soon
as they have attained that length. The sap from the roots
being concentrated in a smaller space, he obtains, in general,
larger bunches ; but this detracts from the strength of the vine
and the duration of the trellis, and the growth of the grapes
occupying a longer period, they do not ripen so well. The cul
tivators of Thomery prefer smaller bunches more equally ripened.
It will next be proper to decide the height of the wall, that we
may know the number of cordons to be erected. Supposing
that, like almost all those of Thomery, this wall is 8^ feet in

APPENDIX II.
Fig. 70.

325

326 APPENDIX II.

height,* by dividing this number by 17 inches (the distance of
the cordons from each other), we obtain just six inches. The
first cordon being established at 15 inches from the ground,
we shall then be able to place upon oar wall five cordons.

As to the distance to be preserved between the stocks, that
is necessarily determined — first, by the length to which the
two arms are to be allowed to grow ; and secondly, by the
number of cordons one above the other. Let us suppose this
number to be five, and the total length of the two arms to be
8 ft. 10 in. To know the distance sought, divide the total length
by the number of cordons : we obtain 20.12 inches, which we
have adopted for our figure. At Thomery, where the cordons
have only a length of 88.8 inches ; the stocks are planted at
internals of seventeen inches. It might happen that the wall
for the trellis might be less than 8| feet in height, and that the
number of cordons being reduced from five to three, the dis
tance between the stocks will then be 33.99 inches. But an
interval so great exposes the trellis to a degree of growth
prejudicial to the ripening of the grape ; in that case it
would be better to diminish the length of the cordons from 8 1
to 5.87 feet, and the distance between the stocks will then be
19.76 inches. It may also be that the wall will be more than
8,7 feet in height, and in order to increase the number of cor
dons it becomes necessary to place the stock at less than 20.12
inches; for example, to 9.88 inches if the wall affords space
for ten cordons. Should this distance be too small to allow the
roots to draw from the earth the sustenance necessary for the
support of ten cordons, in order to remedy this inconvenience
the length of the cordons is slightly increased for a trellis of
ten cordons to from 103.08 inches to 62 inches, the stocks
remaining at the distance of 15 inches from each other. How
ever, as this increased length of the cordons has an unfavorable

* M. Du 13reuil has had his drawings made to an accurate scale, but although
our figures are exact transfers from his cuts, the relations of the French and
English measures is such as to preclude our giving a useful scale in English feet.
The same reason has obliged us to introduce numerous fractions — a feature whicb
we did not feel at liberty to avoid by violating the accuracy of the translation.

APPENDIX IT.

327

influence over the vigor of the branches and the quality of their
products, we recommend in preference that the following pro
cess be employed.

It consists in planting on the side of the wall which is to

Fig. 71.

receive the trellis only the number of stocks sufficient to form
five cordons, at the most. As to the other five cordons,
if the height of the wall requires ten, they should be established
by means of stocks planted on the other side of the wall, and
which may pass to the front through holes pierced in the wall
at each point where a cordon is desired (Fig. 71). When the vines
have grown through the wall, the opening should be closed with
clay in order to avoid injurious currents of air. The cordons
fovmed. in this manner are preferred by the cultivators of Tho-
mery for the lower cordons of the trellis. They have remarked
that the vines planted on the shady side of the wall present a
stronger growth than the others, doubtless because the soil is
less dried by the heat of the sun, and that the greater part of
their stems escapes the action of the solar rays. Should these
vines form the upper cordons, the size and abundance of their
leaves would injure those below. In placing them, on the con
trary, on the lower part of the trellis, their too great growth
is diminished, and their clusters nearer the ground are subject
to a more elevated temperature, by which their ripening i?
hastened.

This ingenious method may also be used for trellises composed
of five cordons, but which are placed in a soil so dry and

328 APPENDIX II.

scorched that the distance of 20 inches between the stocks is
not sufficient to allow the roots to gather from the earth the
nourishment required. This distance must then be increased,
without however augmenting the length of the cordons.

When the position to be given to the cordons is properly de
termined, the plan of their arrangement is traced upon the wall.
Begin by indicating at the foot of the wall from A to j (Fig. 70)
the point from which each shoot should spring, and from that
point draw a vertical line.

At the point A, this vertical line ceases at the height of the
first cordon at 15 inches from the soil ; at the point B, 83.08
inches ; at the point c, at 50 inches, and as far as the point E,
where the line of the first cordon ceases at 86 inches from the
soil. From thence a second series of lines is commenced simi
lar to the first, and we proceed in this manner to the end of the
wall. It then only remains to trace, touching the top of each
vertical line, the course to be taken by the cordons from
right to left, and to indicate where each of them is to cease —
that is to say4 at 52 inches from each side of the main stalk.
After the conclusion of this operation, the vines are planted in
the manner which we intend to describe.

HORIZONTAL COKDOX or OHARMEUX (Fig. 72).— The arrange
ment which we have just explained is that which was at first
generally adopted for the Thomery vines, and is that which is
still employed for the trellis of Fontainebleau. But it was not
long before the cultivators of Thomery remarked that this
method presented an important inconvenience. During the
formation of the cordons, an entire arm of each stock is shaded
by the upper cordon, while the greater part of the opposite arm
escapes this unfavorable influence. The result is an inequality
of growth between these two arms, and it becomes necessary to
employ certain processes, often unavailing, to maintain a pro
per equilibrium of growth between the two arms from the
main stalk. To obviate this difficulty, in 1828, M. Charmeux,
senior, invented a new description of horizontal cordon, which
has been adopted by akiiost all the cultivators of Thomery for the
trellises which they have since erected. The plan is as loilows:

APPENDIX II.

329

330 APPENDIX n»

The distance between the superposed cordons, the length
of the latter, and the distance between the stocks, is the
same as in that of the horizontal cordon of Thomery. The
Charmeux cordon differs only in the order in which the
stalks successively put forth the cordons forming the trel
lis. Thus, in the Thomery cordon, the first stalk (A, Fig. 70),
produces the first lower cordon; the second stalk (B) the
second cordon, and thus to the highest cordon of all, in such
a fashion that the whole number of stalks form, from one
extremity of the trellis to the other, a succession of distinct
btcps. On the contrary, in the cordon of Charmeux, (Fig. 72),
the first stalk (A) furnishes the first cordon, the second (B) the
fourth, the third (o) the second, the j£/£/i (E) the third, to com
mence again by the (irst cordon, and continue in the same man
ner to the end of the trellis.

The design of this trellis upon the wall is made as easily as
for the preceding arrangement.

The desired purpose of this contrivance is completely attained.
Not only the cordons are not unequally shaded, during the first
years of their growth, but they completely escape this influence
until the age of about five years. If then they are subjected to
this shade, it is equal for both arms, and is brought first to bear
upon the ends of each cordon in such a manner as to moderate
their growth to the advantage of the bearing shoots nearest to
the main stalk.

VERTICAL COKDON. — This disposition, to which, absurdly
enough, the name of " palmette" has been given*, has been applied
to the trellises of Fontainebleau to a small extent for about forty
years, and ten years later to some trellises at Thomery. The fol
lowing is the principle. The vines, planted 39.37 inches apart,
are allowed to develop a, single stalk, which rises vertically to
the top of the wall. This stalk presents on each side a series
of branches irregularly disposed. The shoots annually developed
from these are trained obliquely in the space by which each
main stalk is separated.

This system of is susceptible many improvements. It is
evident, for example, that the interval of one metre (39^ inches)

APPENDIX II.

which separates each main stalk, is too great when the shoots
are trained obliquely and not perpendicularly from the main
stalk upon which they grow, as is the case in the trellis of
which we have spoken. Moreover, the irregularity with which

Fig. T3.

the branches are distributed upon the stalk causes an unequal
distribution of sap, and its determination to certain points, whe
ther of superabundance or scarcity, resulting in the destruction
of the shoots less favorably situated.

VERTICAL CORDOX WITH ALTERNATE SHOOTS (Fig. 78). — M.
Rose Charmeux has brought this new arrangement to perfec
tion in the following manner. He plants the stocks at a dis
tance of 28 inches one from the other ; then he regularly distri
butes the shoots on each side of the stem, making them spring
alternately every 10 inches in such a manner that they may be
separated by an interval of 20 inches on the same side of the
stem. We shall find, in discussing the method of pruning, how
perfect regularity in this recpect may be obtained.

332 APPENDIX II.

The trellis thus arranged presents the following advantages.
In scorched and dry soils, the stocks and the horizontal branches
arranged in the manner previously described suffer much from the
heat of the sun, from which they are very imperfectly shaded by
their leaves. In the trellis with alternate shoots the main stalks
are completely covered. These cordons may therefore be usefully
employed in dry soils. Besides, these cordons are suitable for
the most confined space, since they require only 28 inches.

But this vertical cordon cannot be conveniently applied
against a high wall, for as the sap tends toward the top of the
plant, the shoots toward its base become feeble and languishing.
We have remarked this fact at Fontainebleau, where the wall
which supports these cordons is 13 feet high. It is our opinion
that the main stem should not be allowed to exceed 80 inches. If
the wall is higher, the following modification (Fig. 74) may be
used, equally due to M. Rose Charmeux. For a wall 13 feet high
the stocks are planted only every 14 inches ; then the stalk of
each is allowed to rise alternately to 66.4 inches and to 13 feet ;
but the latter commence to bear shoots only directly above the
point where the first cease — that is to say at 66.4. In this
manner the wall is completely covered and the cultivator has
not to dread the destruction of the lower shoots.

The trellis with vertical cordons which we have just de
scribed is simpler and more easily formed than those with
horizontal cordons ; but experience has shown that its produce
is less abundant, since for an equal surface it offers a smaller
number of branches.

M. Rose Charmeux, struck by the advantages offered by the
simplicity of this arrangement, has attempted to render it as
fruitful as the horizontal cordons. He completely resolved the
problem in 1828 by means of the following modification, which
gives for the same surface of wall a greater number of shoots,
and consequently a greater number of clusters. As this new
arrangement is at once more simple, and more easily obtained
than the others, and as it may be accommodated to walls of all
heights, we recommend it to the exclusion of other plans, and

Pig. 74.

we shall choose it to study in detail the method of cultivation
and pruning suitable to trellised vines.

334 APPENDIX II.

CULTIVATION OF TRELLISED VINES, ARRANGED
WITH VERTICAL STEMS (CORDONS) BEARING OP
POSITE SHOOTS.

•

IN this new arrangement (Fig. 75) the vines are planted
at the foot of the wall every 14 inches. The wall, whatever be
its height, is horizontally divided into two equal parts. The
first vine stops at half the height of the wall. The second is
allowed to reach its summit, and thus continue in this manner
alternately to the extremity of the wall. The reader will observe
that the shorter vines bear shoots from about 12 inches above
the soil to their tops, and the taller begin to bear shoots only on
leaving the lower half of the wall. t These pairs of shoots are 10
inches distant from each other. This arrangement offers all the
advantages presented by the form shown in Fig. 74 ; that is to
say, that in consequence of the length of the main stem fur
nished with shoots, these last are maintained in equal growth.
Moreover, the new form grows more shoots for the same sur
face than is shown in Fig. 74, and more even than the horizontal
cordons. If, however, the wall is only 39 inches high, all the
vines may be made to rise regularly to its summit. But in that
case they should be placed at intervals of 28 inches and should
be furnished with branches from 12 inches above the soil to the
top of the wall.

Let us now turn to the labor necessary to the establishment
of such a trellis as the one described above.

WALLS PROPER FOR THE TRELLIS. — The vine arranged in ver
tical cordons accommodate themselves to walls of all heights.
At Th ornery the gardens are subdivided by bearing walls
parallel to each other and separated by a space of from 40 to
46.^ feet. They may, however, be placed nearer to each other,
but in that case the earth between will be too much shaded,
and cannot be turned to account These bearing walls are only
85 inches high, and were built many years after those of inclo-
sure ; that is to say, when the young vines which it is intended
they shall support, have been carried thence by many successive

APPENDIX II.

335

Fig. 75.

336

APPENDIX IT.

layerings (coucfiages). Thus the interest of the capital employed
in these constructions is economized. Some of the cultivators
of Thomery have also constructed a sort of counter espalier —
that is to say, a lesser wall opposite the principal bearing wall,
in masonry 45 inches high and 6 to 8 inches thick. Only one
of these little walls is placed 100 inches in front of the principal
walls the most favorably situated. In this manner they derive
every possible advantage from their best exposures.

This subdivision of the inclosures not only enables the culti
vator to obtain a larger harvest, but it likewise offers the
advantage of diminishing the currents of air, concentrating the
heat by the radiation, and thus hastening the ripening of the
grape.

It has sometimes been attempted to use for trellises the walls
by which terraces are supported. The superfluous moisture of
the soil draws to the bottom of the wall and injures the vine stalks.
For almost every other kind of fruit-tree very projecting copings
oifer more inconveniences than advantages, but for the vine the
case is different. On the one hand, these copings take place with
those movable fruit-houses which we have recommended for cov
ering espalier trees in order to preserve them from the chills of the
spring ; and on the other, they shelter the vine from the mois
ture of the rains and dews, which results in a more active vege
tation and a more prolonged development, injurious to the
ripening of the grape. Finally, these projections preserve the
clusters from the first cold weather of the autumn, and thus
delay the time of gathering and facilitate their preservation.
All the walls of Thomery are finished by tile copings. Their
projection is greater in proportion to the height of the walls,
being 14 inches for walls of 156 inches, 12 inches for those of
117 inches, 10 inches for those of 100 inches, 8 inches for th'ose
of 80 inches, and 5| inches for the little walls of the counter
espalier. In the last case they are inclined only from one side.

The walls thus built are white, being covered with lime. This
color at Thomery has given the most satisfactory results.

When the method of construction allows, smooth finished walls
(palissage a la loque\ should be used; we may then' dispense

APPENDIX II. 337

with the trellis. But the great quantity of plaster required
by this arrangement renders it too expensive to be used
beyond a certain distance from Paris. We must have
recourse to frames, and for the form of trellis of which we are
speaking, they should be erected in the following manner :

A series of galvanized iron wires (No. 14) are extended along
the wall. Upon these wires laths are fastened every 12 inches,
and to these laths the main stem of each vine is trained alter
nately to half the height and to the summit of the wall.

EXPOSUKE OF THE WALLS. — The trelHsecl vine demands an
exposure at once as dry and as warm as possible. In the north
and the centre of France this double condition is best fulfilled
by a southeast exposure. A southern exposure is doubtless the
warmest, but the trellises with such an aspect also receive too
directly the damp winds and rains of the southwest. The culti
vators of Thomery use the side of their walls exposed to the
west and to the southwest, but gather from thence grapes of the
second or third quality only.

PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. — On the different modes of pro
pagation to be chosen for a trellised vine, we would offer the
following observations. Slips or cuttings propagated from
layers are often used in forming trellises. When intended for a
permanency, they are planted in the manner which we will
proceed to describe. They begin to bear fruit only in the
fourth year. They should be used only in the absence of
the layers themselves, for whose first fruit we are not
obliged so long to wait. The layers, or as they are called at.
Thomery, the clievelees, are generally to be preferred, for when-
they are transplanted with care, and their roots are not dried by
exposure to the air, their vegetation during the first years is
more vigorous, and thus time is gained. Two sorts of layers
are used — uncovered layers and layers in baskets. The unco
vered layers (Fig. 76) are freed from all the earth which
surrounds them, when they are planted for a trellis. When
planted with care, they will begin to bear at the end of. three
years. The basket layers (Fig. 77) are prepared in the follow
ing manner. In the spring is made an osier basket (D) of an.

15

338

APPENDIX H.

Fig. 76.

oval form and 12 inches long by 10 inches broad, and having a
depth of 10 inches. These baskets should be made of green
osier, that they may remain intact during a year. When the
proper time for making the layer has arrived, the shoots to be
operated upon being before chosen, a hole is pierced in the bot
tom of the basket at the point A, by which the shoot enters;
each basket is then placed at a depth of 6 inches in the soil,
and they are then filled with earth of good quality, to which
has been added a portion of vegetable mold. Lastly, the top
of the shoot is then cut in such a manner that only two buds or
germs are left above the soil, and the whole is sustained by a
prop. The operation is terminated by taking off all the buda
on that part of the stem situated between the mother branch
and the basket. This suppression is necessary to prevent these
buds from absorbing the sap in their development at the expense
of the layer. During the summer the two buds on the layer

APPENDIX II.

339

freely develop themselves, and put forth abundant roots, so that?
at the end of the year the layer is ready for use. The whole is-
then taken up and the layer hardly suffers at all from the sepa
ration from the parent stalk. This undoubtedly is the best,
method of propagation, and is that which is preferred at Tho-
mery. Unhappily, on account of the expense attending the
transportation of the basket layers, the cultivator is often com
pelled to use the unprotected layers, or chevelees.

GKAFT. — As to the graft, this mode of propagation, or multi
plication, is employed for trellised vines only as an exception,,
and in circumstances analogous to those which render this
operation necessary in ordinary vineyards. We have in the
preceding part of this volume described the graft " en fente,

340

APPENDIX II.

Couture'1'' as one of the best for the vine. If. however, a
cTievelee may be used, it is to be preferred to any other for the
purpose. It is planted near the vine, and the operation is con
ducted in the same manner as for the graft.

The great advantage of the cJiwelee is that it bears fruit the
following summer.

An essential precaution, and one which is equally applicable
to the three methods of propagation above mentioned, is the
proper choice of the shoot intended to furnish the graft, the
cutting or the layer. The shoot should have borne fruit during
the year, and should be strong and in a healthy condition. The
clusters should have been such as to exhibit in the highest
degree the distinguishing qualities of the variety which it is
desired to cultivate. Before the grapes are gathered, the shoots
which appear the best suited for this purpose should be marked.

PLANTATION AND PBOCESS OF BEDDING OE LAYING THE
TEELLISED VINE. — First Year. — The superabundant moisture
with which the soil is always impregnated during the winter is
especially injurious to the roots of the newly-planted vine; it
causes them to decay. The end of the winter, when the earth
is drained sufficiently, is the time which should almost always be
chosen for planting. There is no exception to this rule, but
for dry and scorched soil like that of central and southern
France. In such ground it is better to plant at the beginning
of winter. The following is the process employed for layers in
boskets :

If the land to be used is new, or if it has not lately been tho
roughly cultivated, it should be dug during the winter to a
depth of 32 or even so deep as 39 inches, if the soil is pebbly.
The soil thus spaded up should extend to within 53.2 inches of
the base of the wall. In the preceding chapters we have
already spoken of the necessity that the soil should be such as
to conduce to the health of the plants which it is intended to
support. Such a soil is particularly essential to the vine. It
may even be advisable, after the first spading mentioned, to
carry it to a depth of 48 inches, and to widen it to an extent
of 89 inches. The permeability of the soil should also be

APPENDIX II. 34:1

increased by the mixtures of earth already described, and the
earth in all cases should be richly manured.

When the land is thus prepared, in the spring, a trench is
opened 17 inches deep in dry, 20 inches deep in wet soils.
The outer edge of this trench is 28 inches from the wall. The
earth taken from it is deposited on each side. Vegetable mold,
or compost, mixed with earth, is then spread over the bottom.
In this trench the baskets containing the layers are placed.
Should the soil be very dry the trench may be opened at
39 inches from the foot of the wall, instead of 28. A greater
length of the stem is then bedded before it reaches the wall, and
the roots, spread over a greater space, will more easily find the
portion of moisture which they require. The space to be left
between these layers is of course determined by that which it is
intended shall be left between the vertical cordons upon the
wall. If the cordons are intended to be 14 inches distant one
from the other, the layers are separated by an interval of 28
inches, as after they have been laid, each layer should furnish
two branches at the foot of the wall. A number of layers
might be planted equal to the number of sterns supporting the
cordons, which are intended for the wall ; but in that case they
would be separated by a less interval, and would, as it were,
starve each other. Moreover, the number of layers being
greater, the expense would be increased.

It will, then, be more advisable to proceed in the manner just
described ; at all events, in those cases where the wall being
only 39 inches in height, all the stems are to extend to the
top.

When the stalks from the layers are separated at the base of
the wall by an interval of 28 inches, the number of basket layers
planted is equal to that of these stalks. If the first process is
adopted, the layers are planted at the point A (Fig. 78), in the
centre of the space by which the stalks against the wall are
divided one from the other. In the second case, the layers are
placed at the point A, in front of each of the points indicated
by B.

The layers are planted in the following manner : From each

342

APPENDIX II.

Fig. 78.

layer composed of two shoots, the least vigorous one is sepa
rated. The roots which issue from the basket are left un
touched, provided that they are not broken, or dried by exposure
to the air. This being done, at the bottom of the trench, and
on that side which is farthest from the wall, a hole is made 6
inches deep and a little larger than the basket which it is
intended to receive. In each of these holes a basket is placed
in such a manner that the end of the shoot which it contains is
turned toward the wall. That and the basket should be 10 inches
below the level of the soil. A little notch is then made in the

APPENDIX n. 343

upper edge of the basket on that side nearest the wall, so that
the shoot may be easily turned in the required direction. Then
on that side of the trench nearest the wall, and in front of each
basket, is made a smaller trench, as is shown in the figure at D,
3 inches deep and 10 inches long. In this the shoot is carefully
laid, and it is filled with earth mixed with vegetable mold up to
the level of the soil. The first trench is partly filled with the
earth which was taken from it, mixed with vegetable mold.
This operation is performed in such a manner that the trench is
left empty to the depth of 8 inches, that the layer is buried to
the depth of 10 inches, and that the top of the basket is covered
by a bed of earth 2 inches in thickness. The operation is con
cluded by cutting off the shoot, as it leaves the earth just above
the bud E, or that which is nearest the ground. The sap being
thus concentrated upon a single bud, it attains a more vigorous
development, and that part of the shoot which is buried, puts
forth more roots, which pierce the bark with greater ease, in
proportion as the leaf-buds from which they spring are nearer
to the light. The end of the shoot above the earth is fixed
upon a stave or prop 39 inches in length, and the remainder of
the earth taken out of the trench is piled up on each side in the
form of a shelving bank. The result of this last arrangement is
to retain a greater degree of moisture in the neighborhood of
the newly-planted shoot during the summer.

When the cultivator has no layers in baskets at his disposal,
and is obliged to content himself with uncovered layers or even
with cuttings, they should be planted in the same manner as
the basket layers, only care must be taken to place the earth
firmly around the cheveUes and especially around the cuttings,
and all that part which is under ground should be surrounded
with earth which has been considerably enriched.

We will now proceed to describe the attentions demanded by
this plantation during the next summer. When the bud E is
developed, it is fixed upon the prop. As soon as it has attained
a length of 20 inches the top is cut off; next the premature
twigs which are thus developed are removed when they are
4: inches in length. The result this operation is to increase

APPENDIX II.

the size of the stem by limiting the evolution of the antici
patory shoots, and to accumulate in a small space all the nutri
tive juices taken up by the roots. It also promotes the increase
of the roots along the newly interred layer. No bunch of
grapes is allowed to remain on this shoot for fear of weakening
it. The whole plantation should also receive two or three dress
ings in the course of the year. They should be applied, if possi
ble, after rather a smart shower of rain, and when the earth has
slightly drained. If the soil is light and dryness is to be appre
hended, the trench and the little ditch should be covered with
a bed of manure 6 inches in thickness, besides that which has
already been applied, and finally, the trench is filled with the
earth banked up on each side. After this operation, the whole
appears like Fig. 78.

SECOND YEAR OF THE PLANTATION. — Toward the end of
February, the shoot developed during the preceding year is cut
at A (Fig. 79), above the three buds nearest to the base, then it

is attached to a prop 53 inches long which replacas the first.
"When the shoots have attained a length of 6 inches the
laterals are pinched out, so as to preserve only the shoots
from the three buds just described. These shoots are fixed
upon a prop in proportion as they grow longer. They are
not allowed to exceed the prop by which they are supported,
and the process of nipping oif the buds is continued. Should

AJM'KNDIX IT.

345

the shoots on the props be very vigorous, two clusters, at the
most, should be left upon each, and should be treated in the
manner which we will explain in the proper order. The same
attentions are bestowed as in the preceding summer, and then
a light dressing in November. The result then obtained is
shown in Fig. 80.

Fig. 80.

THIRD YEAR. — Relaying. — In good weather in the first of
March, or, if in the South, in the a'ltumn, the layers must be
examined in order to know if they have put forth shoots suffi
ciently large and vigorous to be relaid. If uncovered layers,
and still more, if cuttings have been plante-d, the cultivator will
be obliged to wait till the following year and even to the year
after to repeat the process of bedding or laying. The roots on
the previously bedded shoot will not be sufficiently numerous,
they would injure in their development the new layer which it
is intended to put down, and the future health of the stalk des
tined to be placed against the wall would suffer. In that case
only the two finest shoots of the young stalk should be pre
served. These are cut to a length of only 6 inches, and upon
these only a single shoot is preserved during the summer.
Should they not be strong enough for relaying in the following
year, the same operation is repeated. The stalks obtained from
layers in baskets may almost always be rebedded from the third
year. In that case the following method is employed. A

15*

346

APPENDIX II.

trench 24 to 30 inches deep, according as the soil is more or
less exposed to dampness, is opened at the foot of the wall, and
is made wide enough to reach the young vines (Fig. 81). The

Fig. 81.

earth round the young vines is loosened with care until they
iturn naturally of themselves into the trench, in the hottom of
-which they are then placed in the manner shown by Figs. 81
rand 82, that is to say, if each principal vine stalk is intended to
'.produce two stalks to be trained on the wall (Fig. 82), the two

APPENDIX II.

347

most vigorous shoots should be preserved, and they should he
earned obliquely toward the wall, and from two stalks at the
points B. If, on the contrary, it is intended that each principal
stalk shall furnish but one stalk for the wall (Fig. 83), only

Fig. 88.

the finest shoot is preserved, which is buried in the trench and
directed toward the wall at the point B, where it is intended to
be trained. In both cases the shoots are covered as far as the
foot of the wall by a bed of mixed soil and vegetable mold
about 4 inches in thickness (Fig. 83). The trench is then filled
with part of the earth which was taken from it, and the re
mainder is heaped up in a shelving bank at a distance of 40
inches from the wall, in order to preserve the moisture in the
neighborhood of the newly laid vines, and thus facilitate a
plentiful development of roots.

The upper extremities of the buried shoots are fixed at the
base -of the uprights of the trellis. These shoots are cut so as
to preserve only the three buds nearest the base. This opera
tion being concluded, the trellis presents the form shown in
Fig. 81.

If the plantation of layers or cuttings has been in a trench at
a distance of 40 inches from the wall instead of 28 inches, they
must he brought to the foot of the wall only after a third lay
ing, otherwise we should be obliged each time to cover too
large a part of the shoot, which, as we shall see further on, will

348 APPENDIX II.

prevent them from properly taking root, and so injure the
strength of the vine.

If this method of planting for the trellised vine is compared
with that used in the majority of gardens, it will be seen that
it is very different. In fact, the vines are almost always planted
directly at the foot of the wall, and the only pa.'t buried is that
which was originally below the soil ; so that the vine, the roots
of which ramify with great difficulty, cannot, when thus,
planted, develop new radical organs upon the stems below the
soil. It puts forth roots with great difficulty, it is long in
recovering from its transplantation, and its vegetation is never
vigorous.

On the contrary, by adopting the mode of cultivation used at
Thomery, which we have just described, the vine is placed
under much better circumstances. The first year there is
buried, besides the stem first covered with roots, 10 inches of
the shoot, which during the two or three years preceding the
relaying, covers itself with vigorous roots. Two or three years
after this, 14 inches of the shoot are again laid, which in a little
while is completely covered with roots. Each stalk intended
for the wall is then provided with an underground stem 44
inches in length, bearing through all its length numerous and
wigorous roots, which give to the vine more strength and hardi-
mess than is possible when the method of which we spoke first
>is used. When uncovered chevdees, or those in baskets are
used, the cultivator may be tempted to lay at once a length of
-ehoot sufficient to bring the upper end directly to the foot of the
wall, a length, for instance of 24 inches. This is a very bad
plan, for the stems do not properly take root only upon the 12
to 14 inches nearest to the upper ends, because the woody
and cortical fibres which run down from the buds to produce
roots are not sufficiently numerous to put forth roots enough,
and they pierce the bark at the same time that they meet the
soil. It is desirable to lay only 14 inches at the most, if it is
intended that the underground stalk shall be fully provided with
roots throughout its whole extent.

OF PRUNING ADOPTED JFOR THE VERTICALLY TEEL-

APPEN7DIX II.

340

USED VINE WITH OPPOSITE SHOOTS. — CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FRAME. — First Tear. — The shoots having been laid and brought
to the foot of the wall, the buds are watched in their first deve
lopment to see that they are not harmed by caterpillars, snails,
or other destructive insects. When the three shoots have
attained a length of about 6 inches, the stipulary shoots

Fig. 84.

(A, Fig. 84), which often grow by the side of the shoots properly
so called, are taken away. Then, when they are about 12 inches
long, we begin to break the tendrils which uselessly absorb the
sap. This breaking of the tendrils is continued through the
period during which the length of the shoot increases, and
should be put in force while the tendrils are yet so soft that
they may be easily broken. That is also the time which should
be chosen to begin the formation of the stalk intended to be
trained upon the wall. The following is the method then
employed :

Let us suppose that one of these young stalks is represented
by Fig. 84. From the three stalks which have been preserved,
one is chosen having a leaf 12 inches above the ground. Let us
suppose in our figure that this is the second shoot on leaving

350

APPENDIX II.

the ground, and that the leaf aforesaid is situated opposite the
second cluster. This cluster is taken off and the shoot is cut
immediately above this leaf, as in B, Fig. 85. The top of the two

Fig. 85.

other shoots is then removed in order to hinder them from too
great a growth to the detriment of the shoot upon which it is
intended to operate. We may then proceed to train it upon the
frame. The shoot under treatment is placed in a vertical posi
tion, and the two others are attached at an angle of forty-five
degrees. A premature stipulary shoot will be seen immediately
to spring from the axil of the leaf of the cut shoot (A, Fig. 85).
This shoot should be broken when only an inch or two in
length, so that the bud B at the base of this shoot is forced to
develop itself. Before lonjj this bud gives birth to a shoot

Fig. 86.

APPENDIX II.

351

(A, Fig. 86), which is allowed to grow, and which is trained
vertically. These young main stalks require no other care dur
ing the summer, so far as the frame is concerned, than the
complete suppression of all the premature stipulary shoots

Fig. 87.

(A, Fig. 87), or of premature shoots commonly so called, as also
of the tendrils. Upon each shoot should be left only the clus
ters o and D and the primitive leaves. These attentions should
be given each year to all the shoots preserved.

Second Year. — The stems operated upon in the manner just
described present the appearance of Fig. 88. They are then
subjected to the second pruning. The two shoots (B) are com
pletely taken off by cutting the first at A. Then the premature
shoot c is cut at D immediately above the bud situated near the

352

APPENDIX H.

Fig. 88.

base. During the following summer this bud develops itself as
well as the germs immediately below it upon the secondary shoot,

Fig. 89.

APPENDIX II.

353

indicated by the letters EE, which is called the spur (talon).
The number of buds on the spur may be three or four. But
two buds on the spur, one on each side and one at the top of
the shoot, are preserved. The produce of the buds E E is entirely
removed. This last operation is performed as soon as the shoots
from the spur have attained a length of 4 inches. When the
remaining shoots are fastened to the frame, the young vine
presents the appearance of Fig. 86. When the centre shoot (B)
puts forth, as it increases in length, a leaf above that point
where the first pair of lateral shoots is attached, it is cut above
this leaf at the point A, as in the preceding summer, in order to
obtain from the axil of this leaf a new shoot for the formation
of a second pair, which must be treated in the same manner.
The two lateral shoots are subjected to the same operation.
Third Year. — In the following spring each stem on the walls

Fig. 89.

presents the appearance of Fig. 89. The shoot A is cut at the
point B, in order to obtain the same result as in the preceding
year. As to the branches o, they are cut near their base in
order to form the two first coursons or double branches shown

354

APPENDIX H.

Fig. 90.

in Fig. 90. The same development takes place during the sum
mer below the point B, as well as the same operation upon the
new terminal shoot. The product of the buds D is removed.

Fourth Year. — Fig. 90 shows the result of the operations
performed during the preceding years. The same method of
pruning is practised one year after another until the trellised
vine has covered the space for which it was intended, when it
presents the appearance shown in Fig. 74.

All that we have just said applies to those stems which rise
to half the height of the wall. Those which extend to its top
grow more rapidly during the first years. During the summer,
after the layering by which they have been brought to the wall,
two shoots are left upon each of the three first shoots. The

APPENDIX II.

355

following year, at the winter priming, the strongest of the three
shoots resulting from thence is chosen ; the two others are
taken away and the remaining one is cut at 20 inches above the
point where it is attached to the frame. In summer it is allowed
to retain but three buds, which give place to three new shoots.
The best of these is again chosen and extended also to 20 inches.
The same process is repeated till the vertical stalk reaches the
point where it is intended to support lateral branches. Then
the same series of operations is employed as in the 'first case.

This method of forming the main stalks has this advantage,
that each pair of lateral branches being separated by a regular
interval of 10 inches and by a knotty place at the point of
attachment of the successive extensions, the course of the
sap is arrested below every one of these knots and thus obliged
to act with the same intensity on all the lateral branches of the
same stalk. Such is not the use in the vertical cordons which
are more rapidly formed, as they are more extended at each
pruning.

CAKE NECESSARY TO THE LATERAL BRANCHES. — First Year. —
The essential principles of pruning the lateral branches are the
following : In the case of the vine, the clusters are attached to

V1' Fig. 91.

shoots proceeding from the branches of the preceding summer
(Fig. 91). The shoots accidentally developed on the old wood
never bear grapes (Fig. 92).

The further the buds are removed from the base of the
branch, the more fruitful are the shoots to which they give rise.

356

APPENDIX II.

Hence it appears that the shoots should be left entire, or be
left very long. But in that case we immediately encounter the
following inconveniences. Thus, if the shoot ia the Fig. 93 is
cut in B, the buds o and B are the only ones which will be

Fig. 93.

Fig. 94.

developed, and we shall have in the following year the result
shown in Fig. 94. If, then, we trim the shoot at the points
A and B (Fig. 94), we shall have two new shoots produced at the
top of the shoot B. Continuing to trim in this manner the lateral
branch or immediate support of the young shoot increases in
length each year from 4 to 6 inches, and thence results great
confusion through the whole extent of the trained vine, and
moreover, a progressive enfeeblement, or, as it were, starvation,
of the new shoots, and, consequently, an immediate diminution
of fruitfulness.

On the other hand, if the shoot in Fig. 93 is cut so as to

APPENDIX II. 357

preserve only the bud A, this bud is so near the old wood that
the shoot produced from it will bear no grapes.

It will be best, then, to cut this shoot (Fig. 93) as short as
possible, to hinder the lateral shoot from increasing in length,
but in such a manner, however, as to preserve a bud far enough
from the old wood to produce grapes. Experience has shown
that in order to attain this double end, the shoots from varieties
of only a slight or average degree of strength should be cut
above the two buds the nearest to the base, one of these two
being that bud which, hardly visible, is on the base of the
shoot itself — that is, just where it springs from the stalk (Fig.
93). Two new buds are developed, and in consequence, two
new shoots. The branch will then present the appearance
shown in Fig. 95.

The shoot A has borne clusters during the summer. The
shoot B is too near the old wood to have produced anything.
It is called the shoot of replacement — that is to say, it is that
intended to undergo the next pruning. For that, almost all
the old wood is cut from the top of the spur. Then the
shoot B is cut above the two buds nearest its base. During the
summer two new shoots are thus produced, and each year the
same method of pruning is repeated, so as to allow the old
wood to increase as little as possible in length, and keep the
fruitful shoots as near as possible to the direct channel of the
sap. Such is the method of pruning applied to the branches
intended to bear grapes for the table.

There are, nevertheless, varieties so hardy that, should they
be subjected to this process, no fruit, or very little, would be

358

APPENDIX II.

obtained. The different varieties of muscats, the Frankenthal,
and others which we have noted in our list, are of this descrip
tion. For these, the shoots should be left a little longer. They
are cut off below the third bud. This difference does not result
in increasing the length of the lateral branches. In fact, such
is the strength of these vines that three shoots are obtained
from each lateral branch. That from the top, which generally
bears the clusters, is the one preserved, then that at the base,
intended to undergo the next year's pruning. The intermediate
one is suppressed. The same-operation is each year repeated.

DISBUDDING THE LATEEAL BRANCHES OK OOUESONS. — When the
coursons are cut so as to preserve but two or three buds, it will
often happen, nevertheless, that a larger number will be deve
loped. Only two, at the most, should be left at each point.
The shoot A (Fig. 96), nearest the old wood, is preserved as a
shoot of replacement, together with that farthest from the same

Fig. 96.

APPENDIX II. 359

point B. The latter generally bears the clusters. There are,
however, two cases in which but a single shoot should be left
on the courson. First, when none of the shoots of the courson
bear clusters ; then a single shoot, that from the base, is useful
as a shoot of replacement. By the others being suppressed, the
remaining one becomes stronger and will yield finer fruit in the
following year.

Second. When the two shoots of the courson both bear clus
ters, which occasionally occurs in very fertile years. As it is
advisable to leave only two small clusters or one large one to
be supported by each courson, as we will presently explain, a
retrenchment will be necessary. In this case, the shoot from
the base only is preserved, and it will become at the same time
a fruit-bearing shoot and a shoot of replacement. In conse
quence of this retrenchment the shoot in question will acquire
more strength, it will bear better grapes, and the new shoot
will afford the finest products of the following year.

The proper time for putting in practice these different trim
mings, is, as soon as the young clusters make their appearance
upon the shoots, that is to say, when they are about 10 inches
long. We must repeat what we have said concerning the cut
ting of the shoots — that there should be left upon each one of
the shoots preserved only the clusters and the primitive leaves.
Then all the supplementary shoots and: the tendrils should be
removed as soon as they appear.

PINCHING THE SHOOTS. — The buds on the shoots of the vine,
as on those of other trees, should often be pinched back. The
end of this operation is to prevent the shoots from confused
growth, to diminish the growth of some of the shoots to the
profit of feebler ones, and finally to favor the development of
the grapes by enabling them to profit by the sap, which would
otherwise pass to the shoots which would spring from the buds
destroyed.

In order to obtain these different results the buds on the
shoots should be pinched off as they develop themselves to the
length of from 16 to 20 inches, and their extremities only
should then be cut.

360 APPENDIX II.

MANNER OF FASTENING THE SHOOTS IN SUMMER. — The shoots
of the vine are fastened in order to prevent their being broken
by the wind, and in general this fastening should be twice prac
tised upon the same shoot. The first fastening is made when
the shoots have attained a length of about 12 inches. Then the
shoots are but slightly compressed in the rush which serves as
a ligature. Otherwise, in growing, they would break them
selves.

Fifteen days after this first fastening, we proceed to the
second, or recollage, as it is called by the cultivators of Tho-
mery. At this time the shoots are tied as close as is necessary
to arrange them conveniently. This process of fastening should
be successively made for the different shoots of the same vertical
main stalk, and by beginning with the most vigorous we may
equalize their strength. The shoots of the vertical cordons
should be inclined at an angle of forty-five degrees.

EEXEWAL OF THE COURSOXS. — We have seen that in spite of
the care which has been taken to keep down the spurs by an
annual trimming, to the shoot nearest the base, they will always
increase a little in length, and the shoot which they bear will
diminish in vigor in proportion as they are removed from the
point where the spur or lateral branch is attached to the
cordon or vertical main stalk. In order to remedy this incon
venience, the shoots which sometimes grow at the base of the
spurs are carefully preserved, whatever may be the age of

Fig. 97.

APPENDIX II. 361

the spurs from which they spring. Then, of the two upper
shoots, that which bore the worst cluster is suppressed. The
following year the spur is cut at A, Fig. 97, and the shoot B
is cut ahove the two lowest germs or eyes in order to form a
new courson or spur.

REPLACEMENT OF THE SPUES (COUESONS). — Sometimes also cer
tain spurs disappear entirely or are not developed where they are
expected, and in either case spaces are left which it becomes
necessary to fill. This accident may be remedied by the graft.

CAEE OF THE GRAPES. — It is in particular the intelligent
labor bestowed upon the grapes from their first appearance to
their maturity to which the cultivators of Thomery are
indebted for their success. The following are the processes
adopted :

SUPPEESSION OF THE SuPEEFLUOUS BUNCHES. — Too large B,

quantity of grapes upon the vine produces the same result as a
superabundance of fruit upon other trees. A great quantity of
grapes are gathered, but the clusters and the berries are small,
and the vines are enfeebled for the following year. If the neces
sary retrenchments are made, the same result in weight is
obtained, and the grapes are larger, better flavored, and com
mand a higher price.

TmiraiNG THE BUNCHES. — "When the berries have attained the
first stages of development, it will be proper to thin them..

362 APPENDIX II.

"With" a straight, pointed pair of scissors we cut from each
bunch — first, all the abortive berries; and secondly, those in
the middle of the bunch, together with some of those which,
although on the outside, are too much crowded. If the
bunches are very long, as is often the case with young and
vigorous vines, the point of the bunch (A, Fig. 98) must also
be removed, since the berries which it bears would be slow
in ripening. The result of this thinning is, that, other things
being equal, the grapes are ripe fifteen days earlier, the berries
are a third larger, and those intended to be kept through the
winter will keep better.

The thinning practised at Thomery is performed by women,
and is applied to at least half the harvest — that is to say, 500,000
kilogrammes of chasselas.

GATHEKIXO THE LEAVES. — At the time when the thinning
takes place should also be applied the first epamprement, or
picking off the leaves. At first only the leaves turned toward
the wall and those more or less broken or distorted are removed.
"When the berries begin to look transparent, a second epampre
ment takes place. A few leaves on the front of the vine are
then removed in situations where the foliage is thick ; but the
leaves which shelter the branches, the parasol^ are preserved
with care. Finally, when the berries are entirely cleared, and
begin to turn yellow, the leaves which shadow them are
removed. If they are exposed earlier the berries will harden
and cease to increase in size. The bunches thus uncovered are
exposed alternately to the dew and the sun, by the action of
which they acquire that beautiful pale yellowish brown which
distinguishes the chasselas of Thomery.

Black grapes require particular care in this respect. The first
removal of the leaves should not take place till the grapes are
completely colored.

These successive strippings of the leaves from the vine result
in progressively arresting the annual growth of the vine, a long
time before it would otherwise cease. The fruit, therefore,
sooner begins to mature, and will be completely ripe by the first
cold weather.

APPENDIX II. 363

PKOTECTIONS. — The very projecting copings which we have
recommended for trellised vines are insufficient, if the wall is
more than 80 inches high, to protect the grapes from the damp
ness of the atmosphere. It will then be advisable to place a
movable pent-house at about half the height of the wall after
the last gathering of the leaves in the middle of September.
This pent-house should project about 20 inches.

ANNULAR INCISION. — Kefer to page 234 for the description of
this operation, intended to hasten fifteen days the ripening of the
grape, and which will increase also fully a third the size of the
berry.

RENEWAL OF THE TKELLISKD VINE. — The trellised vine,
attended in the manner we have described, will bear fruit for
more than fifty years. But there comes a time when the suc
cessive renewal of the spurs produces upon them so many
knots that tile circulation of the sap is interrupted. The vege
tation becomes languishing, many of the coursons wither, and
the vertical stems themselves finally perish. "When this state
of decrepitude first manifests itself, the cultivator proceeds to
the renewal of the vine. All the vertical stalks are cut at about
8 inches above the soil (Fig. 99). This trimming concentres the
action of the sap upon this point, and so develops a certain
number of shoots. During the summer the most vigorous are
chosen and the others removed. The following year the
reserved shoot is cut above the third bud, and the same care
before described is applied to the three resulting shoots. Then
the process is continued as for the establishment of a young
vine. To assure its success, it is well to remove, from the time
when the shoots are suppressed, as much earth as possible from
the foot of the trellis without injuring the roots of the vine, and
we should apply abundance of manure, which should be covered
with a bed of new earth nearly equal in thickness to that
removed. When the trellis to be renewed is in a state of
advanced decrepitude, and when a certain number of vertical
stalks are completely withered, and the regularity of the whole
is lost, we proceed in a different manner. Each vertical stem
is cut off, as we have said, above, and those which are dead

364

APPENDIX II.

Pig. 99.

removed. During the summer the two most vigorous shoots on
each vertical stalk are preserved, and they are allowed to grow
to the top of the wall. The following year there is taken away
from the foot of the trellis as much earth as possible, ahout
16 inches, taking care not to harm the old roots. The earth is
hollowed out, completely as it were isolating the base of each
vertical stalk. Then they are laid at the base of the trellis pre
viously arranged for their reception. As each one leaves two

APPENDIX II. 365

shoots, and as this number is more than sufficient to furnish the
required number of vertical stalks, we preserve only the proper
number, choosing the most vigorous for our purpose. These
stalks and shoots are finally extended on the ground by means
of wooden hooks, in such a manner that the new shoot directed
toward the wall leaves the ground at exactly that point where
the new vertical stalk should rise. A bed of manure, 3 inches
in thickness, is then spread, and the rest of the hollow is filled
with new earth. All these vertical stalks will develop with
exceeding vigor during the year, and will then be managed like
those of a new plantation. "We saw thus renewed, in 1848, a
trellis more than eighty years old, belonging to M. Eose Char-
meux. The operation was attended with no difficulty, and its
success was complete.

It will readily be perceived that by the aid of this renewing
process the duration of the trellised vines is almost indefinite,
and it will seldom be necessary to replant. The cultivators of
Thomery have a proverb, " He who plants an espalier is not
there to take it away." This mode of a renewal may be applied
to an old trellis more or less regularly disposed in horizontal
cordons, which it may be desirable to replace by vertical ones.
The process in such a case is as follows :

In the spring each cordon is cut immediately above the spur
(eourson) nearest the base (Fig. 100). During the summer two

Fig. 100.

shoots are preserved upon each spur and allowed to grow freely.
The following year the ground at the foot of the trellis is dug

366 APPENDIX II.

out as we have explained. Then the foot of each vertical stem
is deeply laid bare and laid down horizontally so that the
extremities of the shoots are connected to the foot of the wall
at each of those parts were it is intended they shall form new
vertical stems. The rest of the process is conducted in the
manner already described.

CULTURE OF TABLE GRAPES IN THE OPEN AIR

VENT).

The table grape is also cultivated in the open air,* but the
climate of Paris is the extreme limit of this culture. The
vines are arranged upon espalier and then managed as before
described. They are even sometimes trained upon poles or
stumps, and the method pursued is then the same as for the
ordinary vineyard.

At Thomery the interval which separates each inclosure is
used in the following manner: Espaliers are established
parallel to the walls. The first is at 80 inches' distance, and
the others are separated by an interval of 8 ft. 6 in. These
espaliers are sustained by a trellis similar to that on the
wall. They are supported on wooden posts, or, as is better, on
those of schistose stone, analogous to slate. These posts are
placed at a distance of 5 ft. 4 in. one from the other. Some
times for these posts are substituted iron uprights fixed in
prisms of sandstone placed in the ground. In this case the
wooden cross-pieces may be replaced by lines of iron wire
which pass across the uprights. The main stems of the vine
form upon this frame a series of little vertical cordons like
those just described. These espaliers are, moreover, planted
with the same care as the trellised vines, and are treated in the
same manner.

The interval of 8 ft. 6 in. which separates each espalier
is occupied by a row of vines on poles, propped up as in the

* " Open air " is here used not in contradistinction to vines protected by glass,
but those simply protected by walls and copings as just described.

APPENDIX II. 36T

ordinary vineyard, and subjected to the same method of cultiva
tion. These poles, separated by an interval of 53 inches, rise to
a height of 13 inches above the soil, so that the rain may not
cover the grapes with mud.

In the same climate, the same variety of grape supported on
a pole is always inferior to that cultivated upon a wall. The
grapes from the pole vines are always worse than those from
the centre espalier.

The earliest varieties only should be cultivated in this man
ner, since the temperature of the centre espaliers is always
lower than that of the espaliers.

CULTUEE OF TABLE GRAPES IN SOUTHERN FRANCE.

In the south of France the greater warmth and dryness of the
climate hastens to a great extent the annual vegetation of the
vine, and the ripening of the fruit is accomplished without its
being necessary to increase the warmth of the atmosphere arti
ficially, or to moderate and even to arrest the growth of the
vines. Hence the vine grows most vigorously and the choice
varieties of table grapes which are native to these regions have
a much greater development than those which belong to the
centre and north of France. Finally, these varieties require
less pruning in order to produce grapes. These different con
siderations give rise to the following modifications in processes
of grape culture for those regions.

First. The vine should be placed on espaliers, single or
double, the supports of which should be like those already
described. In all cases the walls of the garden which have the
warmest exposure should be devoted to the vine, and for these
walls should be selected the latest varieties.

Second. The vines should be planted before winter, as if
planted later they suffer much from tho dryness of the spring.

Third. As the vine grows with much more strength in the
south than in the north of France, whether on account of the
climate, or the nature of the varieties peculiar to that region, it
is necessary that they should be planted at a greater distance

868 APPENDIX II.

one from the other. For the vertical cordons, with opposite
lateral shoots, it will be proper to leave an interval of 24 inches
between each cordon instead of 14.

Fourth. The coursons of those varieties analogous to the chas-
selas, on account of their strength are cut so as to leave two
buds as we have explained, but all those which grow with more
strength are cut so as to leave three buds.

Fifth. The operation of thinning the clusters is as efficacious
in the south as in the north, but removing the leaves would be
much more injurious than beneficial. Only the leaves which
cover the clusters are to be taken off, and those only at the time
when the grapes are perfectly transparent.

Sixth. The vine in the south being stronger than in the north,
a third more clusters than the amount previously specified are
allowed to remain upon the vine.

DISEASES OF THE VINE — DESTRUCTIVE ANIMALS AND IXSECTS.
— The diseases of the vine have been already referred to, and
we will confine ourselves at present to the consideration of the
destructive animals and insects, which especially attack the
trollised vino.

Birds, and particularly sparrows, thrushes, grossbeaks and
black-birds are the great enemies of the trellised vine. "Wfien
these birds do not n*y in large flocks and descend in great numbers
upon one place, they occasion little mischief, and the cultivators
of Thomery adopt no precaution against them. Nets undoubt
edly would be a good defence, but their price prevents their
being employed over a large surface.

M. Orbelin, of St. Maur, near Paris, has contrived, as a
defence against birds, little mirrors with a double face, of a very
moderate price, and the result, up to the present time, has been
very satisfactory. In the spring the first young shoots are
often devoured by snails or slugs. Their size, their slow pro
gress, and their habit of taking refuge in the chinks of the wall
or behind the trellis, and of coming out in the morning or
during the rain renders their destruction easy.

The Icermes, known also under the name of gall insect, be
longs to the genus coccus, and particularly attacks the peach

APPENDIX II.

369

and the vine. When it has acquired complete development
toward the end of May, it presents the following appearance :
The male (A, Fig. 101) appears in the form of a little multipede

Pig. 101.

or woodlouse covered with white dust. The female appears
like a little brown shell, B, adhering very firmly to the branches
of the trees. About this time the males impregnate the females
and die. The females lay their eggs directly, and the eggs

16*

370

APPENDIX IT.

remain surrounded with a little mass of white down, and cov
ered with the dried body of the female, who expires as soon as
they are deposited. These eggs hatch rapidly, and the insects
issue from the shell which covers them, toward the end of June,
to the number of more than a thousand. Hardly visible to the
naked eye, they spread themselves over the surface of the
leaves and young shoots, and destroy them by piercing their
epidermis and absorbing their fluids.

Toward the month of November, when the leaves fall, the
kerrnes abandon them and fix themselves on the branches,
choosing in preference, where the trees are en espalier, the side
next the wall, where they remain torpid through the winter,
appearing like little brown stains. In the mouth of April they
change their skins, rapidly increase in size, and give birth to a
new generation.

The measure-worm is the larva of a moth, which in the
spring greatly injures the vine by devouring the young shoots
as they are put forth. It is difficult to find it, as it has the
form and color of a little dried stick. It carries on its ravages
during the night, and it is then that the cultivators of Thomery,
armed with lanterns, seek it out and destroy it.

GATHERING AND PRESERVATION — FRESH GRAPES. — The grapes
should be gathered only when perfectly ripe. The longer the

.Fig. 102.

APPENDIX II. 37 1

vintage is delayed in the centre and north of France, the higher
is the flavor of the grape. The first frosts of autumn, to which
it is very sensitive, should however be anticipated. The gather
ing should take place in a dry time. Each cluster should be
taken by the stem, and detached by means of the pruning
shears.

As the grapes are gathered they are deposited in little bas
kets lined with vine leaves and fern. These baskets arc
arranged on what is called a crotchet, or sort of hod, shown in
Fig. 102, which can be carried by one man to the storehouse, or
to the place where the grapes are packed for market.

The following is the manner employed each year in the pre
servation of a great quantity of grapes by the cultivators of
Thomery :

First, a certain portion is retained on the trellis to the latest
possible moment. They choose the clusters from the two upper
cordons of the walls having a southern exposure. These grapes
are the least watery, and consequently the least susceptible to
cold. They guard them by sheltering them with leaves of
fern, and even with straw matting, and thus preserve them
until Christmas. The grapes which they wish to preserve still
later they treat in the following manner: Those which they
wish to retain till May are chosen from the poles, or the coun
ter espaliers. The bunches are taken which have been subjected
to the thinning process and which are formed of the largest and
least crowded berries. They are cut a little before they are
completely ripe — that is to say, from the 25th of September to
the 15th of October. The grapes intended to be kept only till
March, may be taken from the espaliers, and are gathered from
the 1st to the 15th of November.

The place where the grapes are kept is generally some room
or building connected with the house, and especially devoted to
this use. Shelves about 30 inches wide, placed one over the.
other, cover the walls from floor to ceiling. In the middle of
the room, and 30 inches distant from the lateral shelves, ano
ther series of shelves rises to the ceiling. These shelves are
composed of a frame of wood filled up with a grating of iron

372 APPENDIX II.

wire. It is upon this grating, which is covered by a slight
layer of very dry straw, that the grapes are spread. They
should often be inspected, and the berries which begin to decay
should be removed by the scissors.

A storehouse on this plan presents the following inconve
niences. Heat must often be introduced in order to defend it
from the winter's cold, and the result is an injurious change of
temperature. On the other side, the accumulation of moisture
makes it necessary that it should be aired from time to time,
and produces the same result in an inverse mode. Finally, if
the currents of air produced by this ventilation are too great,
the grape dries, shrivels, and loses, if not its quality, at least
its commercial value. We think, then, that it is better to use
the storehouse a description of which the reader will find at
page 685 of the second part of this work. It will be necessary
but to change the arrangement of the shelves, and also to use
chloride of calcium with precaution, for fear of shrivelling the
grapes.*

When it is necessary to preserve only a small quantity of
grapes, the same storehouse will serve at once for grapes and

* The reference here is to the *•' Cours Elementaire d'Aboriculture," from which
tthe present account of the Thomery system is translated. M. Du Breuil there gives a
ivery full and accurate description of a room or house for preserving fruit of all
;kinds ; the principal features of which are the provision of means whereby the
ifra.it is kept at an equable temperature, free from all pressure produced by the
^fruits pressing upon each other, and free from dampness. The latter point is
•att.-uned by keeping a vessel of chloride of calcium in the house — a substance
which must not be confounded with cftloride of lime, which would quickly destroy
the fruit. This caution is not unnecessary, as it is only a few years since a writer
in the " Horticulturist " recommended chloride of lirne for the purpose ; having, no
doubt, used this term under the impression that it was simpler than the word cal
cium. Chloride of calcium may be purchased cheaply, or it may be made by dis
solving chalk or lime in hydrochloric acid. It must be evaporated to dryness, and
calcined at a red heat ; after it has become moist by exposure to the air in the
fruit room, it loses its power of absorbing moisture, and must be again dried and
calcined, but after lundergoing this process it is as good as new. Most cellars in
American dwellings maintain a very equable temperature during winter, and it
has occurred to us, that a small wooden press, made air tight, shelved and kept
dry by means of chloride of calcium, would form no bad substitute for Du Ikeuil's
u Fruiterie." We hope to try it next season.

APPENDIX II.

373

other fruits. The grapes should then be spread on shelves by
themselves, or can be arranged in the following manner, which
has the advantage of economy of space. Each bunch should
be suspended by the point on a little hook of iron wire in the

Fig. 1Q8.

form of an S (Fig. 103). Thus attached, they will be less liable
to decay, because the berries will have a tendency to fall apart

Pig. 104.

374 APPENDIX II.

from each other. The bunches are then suspended by the upper
hook of the S, around hoops hung one over the other (Fig. 104),
and themselves suspended from the ceiling of the room, and
moved up and down by little pulleys. If we should wish to pre
serve a larger quantity of grapes, we may, for the sake of
economizing space, substitute for the hoops wooden frames in

the form of sashes, as shown in Fig. 105. These sashes are
furnished with rods, separated from each other by an interval
of 4 inches, and having on one side 'little points intended to
receive the hooks by which the clusters are suspended. These
sashes are hung from the ceiling in such a manner as to fill the
entire space, and like the hoops, move up and down. However,
the grapes thus preserved wither and lose more of their quality
than those preserved upon shelves.

DRIED GRAPES — RA.ISIXS. — The large proportion of saccharine
principle which the grapes of the south generally contain, ren
ders it easy to dry and preserve them. They have thus become
the object of special attention and considerable commerce for
some countries in the south of Europe where are cultivated the
varieties best adapted to this purpose. We have noted the most
desirable of these varieties in our list. Malaga, Calabria, Egypt,

APPENDIX II. 375

and Roquevaire in Provence are the principal places devoted to
this culture. Zante in particular is distinguished for the Corinth
grape, or currant.

The process most commonly employed for the preparation of
raisins is the following :

When the fruit approaches maturity, the stem of the bunch is
twisted, and the leaves are removed in part from the branch in
order to expose the grapes to the influence of the sun's rays, in
order to favor the action of the essential principles and diminish
the superfluous moisture. The grapes are gathered at the
proper time, and the spoiled berries are carefully removed.

After which the clusters are left upon hurdles exposed to the
sun for one day. The next day a boiling ley is prepared from
the ashes of the burnt vine cuttings, to which are added some
handfuls of lavender, rosemary or other aromatic herbs. A
bunch is plunged three times in succession into this ley. If the
berries are slightly cracked, the ley is strong enough, but if
they are much cracked, it is too strong. When it is properly
prepared it is allowed to cool and settle ; it is then strained
through a linen cloth and a second time placed over the fire.
When it boils, each bunch is dipped into it three times in suc
cession. They are then spread on the hurdles, which are
exposed to the sun during the day and taken into the house at
night. The raisins are commonly completely dried at the end
of two or three days.

The Zante grapes undergo a different treatment. They are
cat some days after they have attained their complete matu
rity. They are deposited on hurdles very close together, or on
cloths placed in the full sun. When the berries preserving the
pedicle begin to be detached from the main stalk, they are
lightly beaten with little sticks, in order to hasten this result.
They are then passed through a sieve in order to separate them
from the stems, and lastly subjected to the action of a fan or
winnowing machine, in order to remove the dust and rubbish.

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