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OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS
By
SIEGRIED MAIA HANSEN UPTON, A. M.
Teacher in the Horace Mann School, Teachers College,
Columbia University
Published by
Slrariipra (HoIUqp. CHolumbia MnirttrsiU^
NEW YORK CITY
1914
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PREFACE
Little has been written on open-air schools during the past
few years. By consulting the rather full bibliography in Chap-
ter IX, which has been compiled to date, it will be found that
most of the contributions on this subject appeared not later than
1910, which in a large measure are summed up in Ayres' "Open-
Air Schools." All these earlier books and articles devoted them-
selves mainly to questions of equipment, the problem of keeping
children warm out-of-doors, or to a few statistics relative to the
physical and mental gain found in open-air classes. The articles
of the last three years have dealt with details along these same
lines.
From the beginning of the experiment instruction in open-air
schools has been conducted in general as in indoor schools, the
main difference being in the arrangement of the program of
study. The first few years showed remarkable results due in
part, no doubt, to the enthusiasm, optimism, and energy which
accompany any new movement, especially one so radical as the
open-air school. During the past two years there has been a
period of trying out and of seeking a normal pace with, as
already suggested, few new contributions.
The purpose of the present article is not to review the begin-
ning years, so adequately treated in the book by Ayres, but
rather to supplement this early fund of information by personal
observation and study of the outdoor school movement as it is
working out at present, and particularly to suggest ways of
applying the measuring rod to the open-air school in order that
we may know much more definitely than we do now how valu-
able this new work is and how it compares with that usually
found indoors. Such a study seems called for as the author
finds that the present tendencies are to conduct a slightly modi-
fied indoor school in the open air. A movement of such promise
and importance to anemic, weak, and even normal children
deserves more attention of a scientific kind than it has already
iii
333874
iv Preface
had. We must bring this outdoor movement into proper per-
spective to learn better how great a contribution to educational
progress it has been. We must discover also how better to
adapt our methods of instruction to outdoor needs and, if we
discover anything of value, to ask if its good is limited to out-
door conditions or if it may also be helpful in improving the
indoor school. The open-air school with its new environment
and novelty offers special inducements for scientific experiment
of this kind and should prove an inviting field for applying the
methods of the educational psychologist. Only by such means
will we know much more about this new kind of school than
we did during the first few years of its existence.
The historical survey in Chapter II has been given solely for
purposes of comparison in the later chapters.
SiEGRiED Maia Hansen Upton
Horace Mann School
Teachers College
Columbia University
New York City
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. Introduction 1
II. Historical Sketch 5
General 5
The Charlottenburg School 6
Open-air schools in Italy 9
The Horace Mann School 11
III. Organization of typical open-air schools including
observations based on personal visits 13
IV. Open-window rooms 35
Special points noted when visiting open-window
classes 36
V. Points in controversy concerning open-air schools 39
VI. Suggested experiments for modification of indoor methods
TO suit outdoor conditions 43
VII. Some tests for determining the efficiency of the methods
of open-air schools 47
Physical tests 47
Tests relative to conduct 49
Mental tests afforded by school records 49
Mental tests suggested by psychologists 50
VIII. Special tests for third grade pupils 52
Some third grade tests presented in detail 54
IX. Bibliography 60
TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD
Vol. XV MAY, 1914 No. 3
OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS
INTRODUCTION
In the education of to-day the problem of fundamental im-
portance is the physical welfare and efficiency of the child.
The child who is in poor health is, as a rule, found to be back-
ward in school studies, not because of defective intelligence but
because of underfeeding, organic weakness, or incipient disease.
Along with the present tendency to discover and correct physi-
cal defects has arisen the movement for more outdoor life for
the young child. How can the physically debilitated child get
more outdoor life and still meet the requirements of compulsory
education laws? Instruction in the open air is the answer to
the problem.
For this outdoor school work those children are selected who
are physically unfit to remain in the ordinary indoor school
room or to benefit by its instruction.
It has been known for some time that delicate and tuberculous
children and adults become stronger and in many cases get well
out-of-doors while they become weaker and die indoors. The
one fact open-air schools have established is that sickly children
are made healthier and stronger in this new environment.
It would be cheaper in the end, as well as more humane, for
every city to provide free open-air classes with food, warm
clothing, medical aid, and a teacher for every group of twenty
children, thereby producing strong healthy bodies able to com-
139] [1
: 2 -
2 Teachers College Record [140
bat disease, and active minds finding interest and pleasure in
useful occupations, than to go on with the present partially suc-
cessful school system and in the end spend more money year
by year on courts, judges, jails, free food, municipal lodging
houses, hospitals, asylums, charity organizations, and the rest
of the modern means of trying to deal with mental, moral, and
physical incompetents.
About three per cent of the entire school population need
outdoor treatment. The Fourth International Congress of
School Hygiene, held at Buffalo, New York, August 25-30, 1913,
is responsible for the statement that " Nearly a million tuber-
culous children or children strongly disposed to tuberculosis are
attending our public schools and there is hardly accommodation
for 1,500 to receive instruction in the open air." It thus be-
comes a question not of whether a city can afford to establish
open-air schools but rather one of whether it can afford not
to establish them. Without open-air classes money must be paid
by the school community for educating children who through
early death must be counted as a complete loss to it in the
end. It has been and always will be true that the competent
persons of a community must carry every ounce of the burden
of those who are incompetent. The growing percentage of in-
competents in our large cities is appalling.
At present we cannot say that open-air school life will cure
tuberculosis as this disease is often apparently cured in child-
hood to crop out again from the ages of twenty to thirty years.
The following-up of the life histories of these cases can be
the only means of proving the full value of the outdoor " cure."
The whole open-air school movement got its chief impetus
through the efforts of various societies interested in the preven-
tion of tuberculosis which started and financed this work until
results were assured and the public became interested. Wher-
ever school instruction was needed in connection with these
open-air classes the local school board usually furnished the
teacher and paid her salary. In many cities these societies now
feel that the school board should assume full charge and ex-
pense of the open-air school so they can turn their attention to
other much needed social services.
141] Open-Air Schools 3
The idea of the out-of-door movement is not modern. Cen-
turies ago the need for more outdoor life for young children
and the value of outdoor education were advocated and urged
by the great educators of that time. The ideas of time-honored
as well as present-day writers upon this subject are suggested
by the following quotations :
" Come with me, my son. Let us go into the open. There,
through Nature, you shall see that which God has been doing
since the beginning and that which He is continuing to do."
Comenius
" Why in place of dead books, should we not open the living
book of Nature? To teach youth is not to inculcate a mass of
words, phrases, sentences, and opinions gathered from authors ;
it is, to open for him, by means of things, understanding and
judgment."
Comenius
" The city becomes the charnel-house of the human species ;
at the end of a few generations the human race perishes or
degenerates. It becomes necessary to renew it and it is always
the country that furnishes the new life. Send your children
then where they may live in the midst of fields, in order, so to
speak, that the life within them may be regenerated, in order
that they may find again the vigor that was lost in the unhealthy
air of a thickly populated place."
/. /. Rousseau
" It is especially during the first years of life that air and sun
benefit the constitutions of children ; they penetrate the soft and
deHcate skin by all the pores, they affect especially young bodies,
leaving upon them traces which are ineffaceable."
/. /. Rousseau
" Up to twelve years the child should be out-of-doors in
order to cultivate his senses."
/. /. Rousseau
" Learn from the school of life and experience. Traverse the
fields and other grassy places, visit the trees and the plants,
compare them with the books of ancient authors who have
written concerning them, and take home with you whole hand-
fuls of them. When the weather is unfavorable, instead of
herborizing visit the apothecary, the chemist and the druggist,
and carefully consider the fruits, the roots, the leaves, the seeds,
and the gums."
Rabelais
4 Teachers College Record [142
" Of all the flowers, the human flower is the one which has
the greatest need of sunshine."
Michelet
" The artisans of ancient Greece always saw whichever object
of art they were working upon out-of-doors; it was to fit into,
to be surrounded by the universe, so to speak, Grecian art,
philosophy, morals, and government were modelled in the open,
and there they had their being and found their expression.
Every phase of fortune of the state and of the family took place
out-of-doors, — whether marriages or funerals, victories or de-
feats, triumphs or losses."
D'Annunzio
II
HISTORICAL SKETCH
In Charlottenburg, a suburb of Berlin, there opened in 1904
a new type of school to which the Germans gave the name of
" Open-Air Recovery School." The object of this school was
to give children who were physically debilitated an opportunity
to be taught and to recover their health at the same time.
These children could not keep up with the work of the regular
school and yet they were not so mentally deficient that they
were fit subjects for instruction of the kind given to subnormal
children. The treatment consisted of an outdoor life, plenty
of good food, strict cleanliness, warm and suitable clothing, and
school work modified in kind and reduced in quantity to suit
the new conditions.
The first session of the Charlottenburg school was one of
three months during which time the children had increased
rapidly in weight and strength and many had been entirely
cured of their ailments. Though these children had spent less
than half as much time on their school subjects as the pupils
in the regular school they had not fallen behind them in their
progress; in some cases they even surpassed them. This of
course was a more astonishing fact than the physical gain. These
gratifying reports aroused throughout Germany and in neighbor-
ing countries much enthusiasm and as a result many other open-
air schools were established.
In 1907 London opened its first open-air school where again
the results were as remarkable as in Germany. Immediately
other open-air schools were begun in various parts of England.
In 1908 the first open-air school in the United States was
started in Providence, Rhode Island. A little later in the same
year, a " School of Outdoor Life " was established in one of
the parks of Boston. In January of the same year New York
143] 5
6 Teachers College Record [144
began an open-air school on an abandoned ferry boat. Chicago
and other cities soon followed with outdoor schools.
The following table shows how this movement has grown in
the United States:
Number of cities having
School year open-air schools
1907-1908 3
1908-1909 7
1909-1910 IS
1910-1911 32
1911-1912 44
A few details of several typical schools will be of interest.
The Charlottenburg School
For several years careful medical inspection in Germany
revealed the fact that among the many children who were back-
ward in their studies some were in a debilitated state owing
to anaemia, others from various ailments in incipient stages.
Educators and school physicians then devised this new plan of
an open-air recovery school. The school was modeled upon the
idea of employing such methods and having such surroundings
as would improve the mind and cure the body at the same time.
A suitable place for the school was found in a large pine
forest on the outskirts of the town. The sum of $8,000 was
voted for erecting suitable wooden buildings. Five main build-
ings were erected, three of them being plain sheds 81 feet long
and 18 feet wide. One of these three was completely open on
the south side and closed on the other sides and could accommo-
date 200 children. The other two sheds contained five class-
rooms and a teachers' room; these buildings being closed in on
all sides, provided with heating arrangements, and only used for
instruction in very cold or stormy, windy weather. In the class-
rooms were simple tables and chairs of different sizes and
heights. The last two of the five buildings were large sheds,
open on all sides, fitted with tables and benches where the
children could work and eat during rainy and bright sunny days.
Before admitting to the school the children chosen for the
experiment the teeth of each child were examined and put in
order, as otherwise they would not have derived the proper
benefit from their food.
145] Open- Air Schools 7
The children arrived at school a little before eight in the morn-
ing and upon reaching school each child received a bowl of soup
and a slice of bread and butter. The classes began at eight with
an interval of five minutes after every half hour of teaching.
The instruction was reduced to the most necessary subjects and
was never given for more than two consecutive hours. At ten
o'clock each child received one or two glasses of milk and a
slice of bread and butter. After this the children could play,
do manual work, or read. Meanwhile this same process in
the reverse order was carried on with other children who had
played, read, or done manual work during the first two hours.
Dinner was served at half past twelve and consisted of meat,
vegetables, and soup. After dinner the children rested for two
hours ; absolute quiet being required. At three o'clock there
was served a lunch of bread, milk and jam. The rest of the
day was devoted to informal instruction and play such as:
1. Excursions in geography, history, and nature study.
2. Practical problems in arithmetic related to gardens, houses,
and so forth.
3. Gardening and digging.
4. Drawing, measuring, building.
5. Fashioning of tools and apparatus.
6. Making of pottery, weaving.
7. Making simple garments, hemming towels and sheets used
in the school.
8. Washing dishes and towels.
9. Assisting in cooking and serving of meals.
10. Care of human and animal life.
At a quarter of six the last meal was given consisting of
soup, bread and butter. After this the children returned home.
The children were carefully watched by the school physician,
attention being principally directed to the condition of the heart,
blood, and lungs, color of the skin, and eyes, and muscular and
flesh development. At the end of every two weeks the children
were carefully weighed and measured and their condition com-
pared with that noted upon entrance to the school.
At the outset ninety-five children were chosen. The school
8 Teachers College Record [146
soon increased to one hundred twenty students, then to two hun-
dred fifty.
The school year at Charlottenburg begins in April and lasts
until Christmas, the months of January, February, and March
being given as vacation. Because the school week and school
day are longer than in the ordinary schools the teachers are
paid a bonus.
The educational results were considered remarkable. All of
the teachers agreed in noticing the mental alertness of the
children during the hours of teaching. No less important were
the improvements noted in the moral tone of the children. Their
behavior in regard to cleanliness, order, self-help, punctuality,
and good temper was due quite as much to the fact that during
all of their waking hours they were kept from the influences
of the street.
England and Germany are considering the advisability of hav-
ing a constant interchange of indoor and outdoor teachers so
the open-air methods may be made known and become popular
in ordinary schools.
Other schools founded in Germany, England, and in Switzer-
land followed in most particulars the features of the school
at Charlottenburg. As time has gone on such modifications
have been made in the Charlottenburg plan as would better suit
the environment of the school, the climate of the country, and
the physical conditions of the children.
The German open-air schools are called Waldschulen from
their location on forested land. Each German city that started
such a school located it in the midst of woods and fields outside
the city. The results of such a practice are bound to be better
than in America where the majority of the open-air schools
are located in the midst of the noisy city, on roofs of buildings,
in courts, or down on the ground surrounded by un sodded play-
ground areas which turn every wind that blows into a cloud
of dust. England and Switzerland have followed Germany's
lead in locating the schools in open woodland with adjacent
sunny fields for playground space. These countries have con-
sidered the important and subtle influence of forest and field
upon the aesthetic and emotional nature of children.
147] Open- Air Schools 9
Open-Air Schools in Italy
The pleasant climate of Italy has made possible the develop-
ment of a different type of open-air school. It is essentially
an outdoor excursion school rather than an outdoor school
with a fixed home as the Waldschule in Charlottenburg. It is
the indoor school brought outdoors by modifying instruction so
that it can be carried on by many excursions to points of edu-
cational value and interest in the vicinity.
The development of this type of school work in Italy was
favored by the poor housing of the schools with its attendant
evils of poor ventilation and light. Many of the schools are
located in ancient buildings not fitted for school purposes. This
outdoor school movement grew out of the summer colony
schools of Italy with their well-known satisfactory results and
the remarkable success of the Charlottenburg experiment gave
to it added encouragement. According to an Italian report
summer colony schools were started in Florence, Italy, in 1853,
Ziirich, Switzerland, in 1876, and in Frankfort-on-Main, Ger-
many, in 1878. This points to Italy as the first country to value
an outdoor school life, for part of the year at least. The most
famous of the outdoor vacation schools started in Padua, Italy,
and were known as " Ray-of-Sun Schools." The name attests
to the value placed upon sunshine. The only building these
schools made use of was a tent-like structure open on all sides.
The distinct feature about the open-air school today in Rome
is that at any time of the day and year an indoor class can
turn itself into an outdoor class. The nature of the work
and the kind of lesson determines whether the class shall leave
its indoor room and adjourn to the sunny roof or to the school
yard, or go on an excursion. After one class gets through with
the roof another is free to go there, thus making it possible
for each class to benefit a part of each day by outdoor instruction.
In preparing lessons the teachers are cautioned to keep in
mind the following points:
" Knowledge of local geography should be gained intuitively.
Regular assignments in the subject should be more objective,
more direct, and more natural, developing the powers of ob-
10 Teachers College Record [148
servation and reproduction. In this way, by exciting the spirit
of criticism, the mind will become more active.
" Geometry too should become a practical study using all
existing forms (barns, houses, towers, streets, avenues, and so
forth) for observation, study and measurement.
"Lessons in history should have as a starting point some
monument or some relic of the past pertinent to the subject
in hand. The educational value of such instruction is extraor-
dinary."
A folding-portable combined desk and chair has been the
special feature of the Italian contribution to the successful hand-
ling of the open-air school problem. This piece of furniture is
light, compact, convenient, and easily handled. It consists of a
combined seat and desk, held together by a framework, which is
easily folded into a compact form about 4 inches thick, 18 inches
wide, and 2}i feet long. The size depends upon the age of
the pupil. It is fitted with straps to attach it to the child's
back in the manner of a knapsack. On excursions each pupil
carries his own portable desk and chair without any fatigue
whatever. Drills are given to train the children to detach, unfold,
set up, fold, and attach these desks in the shortest space of
time. When not in use they are stacked in the corridors of the
school building.
Because of these folding-portable desks and chairs any indoor
school can turn its classes into the open and there continue to
give any sort of a lesson which calls for the use of desk and
chair. Fitted with this portable school furniture the pupils in
the high school, as well as those of the lower schools, can make
good use of roofs, playgrounds, parks, and excursions.
The problem of making a school or class excursion really bene-
ficial to each member of the group has been solved by the
invention of this folding-portable desk and chair. Formerly the
children have not gotten as much from seeing things first hand
as they should; in fact, much of the excursion work seemed of
doubtful value. The details in handling an excursion which are
helped by the folding-portable desk and chair are:
1. How to keep the children from becoming fatigued.
2. How to maintain discipline.
149] Open- Air Schools U
3. How to manage so all of the children give full attention to
the point in hand.
4. How to manage to teach the whole group at the same time.
5. How to enable the pupils to take notes and write down obser-
vations and impressions.
6. How to maintain on an excursion the spirit of work and
earnestness shown by the class when in the classroom.
The Horace Mann School
The Horace Mann School of Teachers College, Columbia
University, New York City, represents another type of
outdoor school, namely, that developed in the midst of a busy,
noisy city and situated on the roof of the school building. This
is a very successful school and is representative of what can
be done in surroundings not so ideal and quiet as those of the
forest schools of Germany. The Horace Mann School is also
in the forefront in experimenting to see what can be done to
make the outdoor problem a success and to overcome its dis-
advantages. The open-air classes in the Horace Mann School
are located on the roof. The children who make up the classes
were chosen because they were nervous, or irritable, or anaemic,
or undernourished. There are at present two open-air class-
rooms, one having 8 second-grade and 16 third-grade pupils,
the other being made up of 15 fourth-grade children. There
is also an open-window room of fifth- and sixth-grade pupils.
The open-air rooms are of concrete and steel structure, the
walls being concrete. Each room is closed on three sides only,
the south side being entirely open with a drop curtain to close
that side in time of storm. There is a slanting roof which is
higher on the south side. (See Figs, i and 4.) There are win-
dows in the upper half of the north side of each room which may
be opened or kept shut according to the weather ; there are
also a few such windows in the east and west walls, besides sky-
lights in the ceilings. The pleasant and cheerful appearance of
these rooms is due quite as much to the admission of light
through these large skylights as to that from the sides of the
room. Figure i shows the room occupied by the second-
and third-grade pupils, the third-grade pupils working at their
12 Teachers College Record [150
desks under the direction of their regular teacher while the
second-grade children are at the right in the picture about to
have a lesson from the assistant. Figure 4 shows the fourth-
grade room. The floors are of wood. Indoor toilet rooms
are provided and also an indoor room where children may go
to get warm if necessary in exceptional cases. There are mov-
able desks and chairs which make it possible easily to clear the
floor space for games and exercise. There is also an open space
on the roof for play and recreation. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) De-
tails in reference to the organization of the Horace Mann open-
air rooms will be given in later chapters.
Ill
ORGANIZATION OF TYPICAL OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS
INCLUDING OBSERVATIONS BASED ON
PERSONAL VISITS
The phrase " open-air school " appUes to all school rooms
situated in the open air, and fully exposed to the air on one
or more sides, providing merely shelter from wind and rain.
There is no artificial heating, the temperature of the room always
being that of the open air. An " open window " room is one
which is usually heated artificially in winter and supplies fresh
air and cold temperatures through open windows, there being
no entire side of the room fully exposed to the air from floor
to ceiling.
It is not the purpose of this chapter to collect facts which
are fully treated in the books mentioned in the bibliography but
to add to the material already given in these books some
observations based upon personal visits to a number of
open-air schools. In connection with this chapter it will
be well to read some of the standard books already published
on this subject such as " Open-air Schools " by Ay res where
the organization of the older open-air schools is fully explained.
" Open-air Crusaders " by Kingsley will also be of service.
Rooms
In the Ethical Culture School of New York City the open-air
classes are located on the southern half of the roof of the regular
school building. This roof space is enclosed by walls on the
north, east, and west, and roofed over. By means of doors and
windows the east side can be made open. The south side is
open. Two-thirds of the entire space is divided into four class-
rooms, the partitions between the classrooms being made by
means of canvas drops, movable blackboards and screens ; the
rest of the space makes up passage ways and a play area. The
151] 13
14 Teachers College Record [152
arrangement is such that the whole area can be cleared and used
as play space or, when desired, made into one large classroom.
The special feature of the Ethical Culture open-air school
is a flexible grading plan. The method of handling the subjects
of study, the grading of the pupils and the arrangement of
the roof space all lend themselves to the carrying out of this idea.
The arrangement of rooms in the Horace Mann School has
already been described on pages 11-12.
The open-air school of Montclair, New Jersey, is in a one-
room army tent. The south side is left open, the other sides
can be open or closed as desired. Being situated on the ground
just north of an old school building the sun does not reach
the tent for any length of time, making it seem cold and damp.
The kitchen, bathroom, and eating and sleeping quarters are
situated on the second floor of the old school building. More
was done for the children in this tent and better care was taken
of them than for any other open-air class of poor children I
saw.
The Carmine Street School of New York City is located on
the roof of the public baths. The room is large, very light,
bright, and cheerful. It has the most attractive situation of any
open-air room in New York City. There are windows on each
side, small ones to the east, while on the south, west, and north
the whole sides are taken up by great windows reaching from
the ceiling to the floor. Each window is divided into three
sashes, which makes it possible to throw up the lower two.
The amount of window space that is open depends upon the
state of the wind and weather. There are heating coils on the
west side. There is a small play space on the open roof, with
toilet rooms, and kitchen close at hand. The desks face the
west; through the windows before them the children can
see an attractive stretch of sky broken by the tops of trees grow-
ing in the adjacent park.
There could hardly have been chosen a more unfortunate
location for two open-air class rooms than is found in Public
School 33 of New York City. The school building itself is one
of the oldest ten in New York City. Since there were reasons
why the roof could not be used, the Commissioner of Parks and
153] Open- Air Schools 15
Public Playgrounds permitted the school to hold two classes,
from 9 in the morning to 3 in the afternoon, under the covered
space belonging to the playground to the south of the school
building itself. Canvas partitions enclose each room on three
sides, making the rooms very drafty and cold, which is the
result in every case where these substitutes for walls are used.
The playground is a constant source of choking dust, as well
as noise. On days when parochial schools have holidays
and the public schools are in session the noise from the play-
ground makes teaching impossible. At three o'clock the teach-
ers and pupils must leave as their permit for the use of the
space ends at that hour. Steamer chairs, books, and clothing
are moved into the school building. As the desks are too heavy
for the children to carry, and as the janitor says his contract
does not read for the carrying back and forth of the furniture
of these classes, they are left behind.
The tuberculous children treated by Bellevue Hospital which
overlooks the East River are housed on a ferry boat, called the
" Southfield " which is moored to the pier adjoining the hos-
pital grounds. A great deal has been said by various writers
concerning the wonderful fact that for open-air schools almost
any sort of a discarded building could be utilized, even an old
disused ferry boat. There is much that is picturesque, it is
true, about the Southfield. It is different, many windowed,
circular walled, and informal. In winter, however, it is very
cold and windy, and in stormy weather its decks cannot be
used; neither is it conveniently arranged. As an informal struc-
ture it serves its purpose very well. Its great advantage is its
location on the waterfront with freedom from dust and noise,
two elements which are so difficult to eliminate in an open-air
school in a large city.
The Fourth International Congress of School Hygiene, held
at Buffalo in August, 1913, in a set of resolutions presented to
the United States Government has petitioned the government
" To place at the disposal of the various States of the Union
as many of the discarded battleships and cruisers as possible,
to be anchored according to their size in rivers or at the sea-
16 Teachers College Record [154
shore, and to be utilized by the respective communities for open-
air schools, sanitorium schools, and hospital-sanitoria."
In the Phebe Anna Thorne Open-Air Model School for Girls
at Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, an open-air class of fifteen normal
pupils is located in a detached one-story building, facing
south, constructed of wood and glass after a Japanese model.
The four sides are open whenever the weather permits, though
on stormy days, one or all of the sides can be closed by means
of glass screens. The class room opens upon a large uncovered
platform eight feet by thirty-six feet which is used for gymnas-
tics, etc. The dressing rooms, dining room, and kitchen are
in an adjacent cottage. Each day the siesta is taken on the
broad piazza of this cottage. The school is conducted by the
Department of Education of Bryn Mawr College. Each year
a new class will be started until there are seven classes in all,
each class to have its separate building of the kind described
above.
Many other open-air classes were visited. A general criticism
of the outdoor rooms seen must be that about half of them
are gloomy, dirty, and non-aesthetic. Open-air rooms are not
favorably located unless the sun can shine into them for the
major part of the day. The sun is a great sterilizing agent and
the children have gone out-of-doors to get more sunshine, and
more cold fresh air.
On the whole, tents are sunless, gloomy, and bare, and they
will probably continue to be so, for in order to make them water
tight a heavy outer covering of canvas must be stretched to
extend well over the tent on all sides thus shutting out direct
light rays. There is great need for solving the light problem in
the open-air rooms. An extra high opening on the south will
aid in doing this, also an arrangement of studio windows will
help. In the regular indoor rooms the walls and ceiling are
generally so colored as to reflect light to the best advantage.
In the gloomiest of the open-air rooms seen the walls were
either dark gray or brown.
In a city the open-air rooms should be located as far away
from street noises as possible. Flapping canvas partitions should
155] Open- Air Schools 17
be replaced with firm solid walls which would not only stop a
noise nuisance but stop drafts as well.
For a city roof school the best room type I have seen is
that of the Horace Mann School; for the country a building
patterned after the Phebe Anna Thorne School at Bryn Mawr,
Pennsylvania.
Floors
There is need for keeping the feet warm. Most open-air
classes have either tile or cement floors which are very cold.
There is need for wooden floors, especially where the equipment
is meager and in weather not severe enough for sitting-out bags
to be used. In a number of schools comfort and physical wel-
fare are sacrificed for the major part of the day in order that
the floor space may be used for occasional games and play. The
tendency to use movable desks and chairs, light enough in weight
for the child to handle so that the floor may easily be cleared,
is a reason why individual wooden platforms are not more gen-
erally provided. Individual wooden platforms, with sides
boarded in, would protect the feet from drafts and assist in solv-
ing the sitting-out bag problem in those schools having tile or
cement floors.
Equipment
Desks. In most cases the desks used were the same as those
for the indoor classes. In the public schools of New York City
they are the oldest and worst of the discarded indoor kind of
a previous period. Where space is limited they are usually mov-
able so the room can be converted into resting or play room as
required. In smaller towns where there is plenty of playground
the open-air rooms have the same kind of fastened-down desk
and chair found in indoor rooms. In the Ethical Culture School
the desk is replaced by a swinging arm attached to the chair
which can be pulled toward the pupil or pushed aside at will.
In a small drawer fitted below the chair seat a few of the
most needed books and papers can be kept. In all classes visited,
where the desks were pushed aside to provide play space and
replaced at the end of the period, the work was done quickly and
efficiently. In some schools the teacher paid no attention to the
question of the position of desks and chairs with regard to the
18 Teachers College Record [156
direction of light rays. Some classes had their backs to the
light, others faced it. One teacher wanted to have the room
look informal and in order to carry out this feeling she per-
mitted the children to sit as they pleased. Some sat in the sun,
facing west ; others sat in the sun, facing north ; and still others
sat in the shade, staring into the bright southern sky.
Chairs. Chairs should have solid backs to protect the chil-
dren's backs. Most of the chairs seen had open slat backs.
Severe, deep-seated colds may be due to unprotected backs. In
the Phebe Anna Thorne School at Bryn Mawr the seats and
backs of the chairs have twice the usual width. This gives the
children greater freedom of movement and protection.
Steamer chairs. In all classes visited a period of rest fol-
lowed the noonday meal. In one school of normal children it
took the form of silent reading. In most schools, where the
children tried to sleep, the angle of the steamer chair was purely
a personal matter with each child. A few preferred a nearly
horizontal position, the majority tried to sleep and rest sitting
up. Those children who were sitting up were very restless, felt
cold about the shoulders, and on severe days constantly evinced
a desire to cover up the head by creeping into the sitting-out
bags. One school physician realized that real rest comes best
when in a horizontal position and in his school the steamer
chair was folded and laid on the floor, a blanket placed upon
it, making a protected and comfortable bed. Wrapping himself
in another blanket the child found no difficulty in falling asleep.
In this class only one child was too nervous to rest quietly; he
was given a space away from the others where he might move
about undisturbed. Horizontal canvas cots are also sometimes
used. (For further details see Ayres.)
Clothing
Boys' suits are heavier and warmer than girls' dresses and for
this reason boys are better clothed to resist cold winds and low
temperature than girls. Fifty per cent of the girls in open-air
and open-window classes wear cotton and linen dresses all the
year round. Depending upon the severity of the weather, the
usual extra wrap worn by these girls is a sweater. Girls from
poor homes wear woolen dresses and regular winter overcoats.
157] Open- Air Schools 19
Of the girls who wear cotton dresses and those who wear
woolen ones, the former get chilled more quickly, appear colder,
and have more colds than the latter. It is worthy of note
that the ones wearing cotton dresses have warmer undercloth-
ing than many of those wearing woolen dresses. It would
seem that the wearing of cotton and linen dresses in cold weather
should be prohibited in these schools.
The sweaters furnished by the home are not nearly as warm
as those especially designed for outdoor classes. These sweaters
are grey in color, very rough and hairy on the outside making
them thicker than the ordinary kind. At the same time they
are light in weight and pliable. A whole suit consisting of
toboggan cap, gloves, sweater, and jumper can be gotten all in
the one color. (See Fig. 2.) The manufacturers are now
making a model of a new sweater long enough to come well
below the knee, thus doing away with the use of the jumper
where sitting-out bags are used. '
The Parka. In the matter of garments especially suited to a
cold and variable climate the Horace Mann School feels that
it has found a solution in the " Parka." This is an outside gar-
ment fashioned after the lines and principles of the outside
upper garment of an Eskimo. (See Figs, i and 3.) It is
made of very closely woven khaki. " For a garment that has
no warmth in itself it is the warmest garment I have ever seen,"
is the general comment of those who have used it. The special
advantages of the Parka are due to its being very light, to its
not hindering the free and usual movements of the body because
of its pliability, and to its keeping all of the body heat from
escaping. If too much energy is expended in keeping the sur-
face of the body warm most of the benefits of being out of
doors are lost. Under the Parka can be worn one or two or no
sweaters, enabling the wearer easily to accommodate the amount
of his clothing to the mildness or severity of the weather. The
Ethical Culture School has followed the Horace Mann School
and adopted the Parka. The Parka is manufactured and sold
by the Rogers Peet Company of New York City.
Some schools feel that the clothing that the home provides
to bring the child to school is sufficient for wear in the open-air
20 Teachers College Record [158
rooms with the frequent exercising given there. Breakfasting
in a warm room, and then running or walking to school mean
that by the time the children arrive at their open-air room they
are very warm, resulting in the desire to take off their out-
side wraps, even on very cold days, rather than to put on any-
thing extra such as a sitting-out bag. Mittens and caps are
taken off and sweaters and coats unbuttoned. By ten o'clock
the reaction has set in and the teacher has to remember to give
directions for getting on more clothing, using mittens and sitting-
out bags. If in cold weather this was done at the end of fifteen
minutes it would prove more beneficial than at the end of an
hour. As a rule the average child would not take it upon him-
self to put on more clothing, if not urged to do so. In some
schools instruction is given in the necessity of keeping the body
at an even temperature and of co-operating with the teacher on
this important point.
In one school visited the teachers went to another extreme.
They had been told of the evil effects of sitting still with the
body in a state of perspiration, so when the half hour play
periods come orders are given to take off all outside wraps
and leave them on the chairs. On a windy day, with the ther-
mometer at 40 degrees Fahrenheit, twelve girls, ranging in ages
from nine to thirteen years, stood still rubbing their cold hands
and trying to shrink into themselves so there would be less of
them to feel cold. Finally one of them got a ball and threw it
to each of the others in turn while they stood in a row. When
it comes to open-air treatment of this kind it is reduced to
" the survival of the fittest " scheme of a former age.
Gloves. For the same sum of money woolen gloves or woolen
mittens can be bought. The fingers are much freer in the
gloves. There is some difference of opinion as to which is
the warmer, some contending that the fingers are just as warm
separated as they are when together as in a mitten. Children
seem to dislike wearing mittens more than wearing gloves. It
appears to be easier to handle materials, write and pick up things
when the glove is worn than when the hand is covered with
a mitten.
159] Open- Air Schools 21
Footwear. The kinds of foot covering worn over the shoes
are felt overshoes, felt lumberman's boots, lambskin overshoes,
and arctics. The lambskin overshoes have the fur inside, making
a shoe much too warm for any but very cold weather. In
many places they are being discarded as they have a tendency
to make the feet tender and over-sensitive to cold. The felt
lumberman's boots are very satisfactory, protecting the leg to
the knee, and having for use in wet weather an overshoe of
rubber. In some classes each child had been furnished with
arctics at $1.35 per pair which were not giving the warmth or
the wear of felt overshoes at half the cost.
Sitting-out bags. The kind used in most of the schools visited
was made of a brown, pliable, hairy, felt-like cloth bound with
tape and fitted with snap fasteners. It is slit to the knee
in front in order to facilitate getting in and out of it. The
foot end of the bag has an outside covering of khaki reaching
half way to the knees. When adjusted the bag is pulled well
up under the arms and fastened close around the waist and
up the front. The small of the back needs the protection which
the bags can give, yet in any class where the teacher is not
vigilant one half of the bags will be on the floor even on the
coldest days.
The cost of the sitting-out bag described above depends upon
the size of the child. The smallest bag costs $5.50, the largest
$7.50. Home made bags cost much less. Dr. Thomas S. Car-
rington in an article in the Survey, April 23, 1910, tells how to
make an inexpensive sitting-out bag.
Some teachers consider the sitting-out bag cumbersome and
it is certain that most of these bags are very dusty. One father
wrote the school principal that he wished his child to be trans-
ferred to an indoor class because the dust from her sitting-out
bag filled her lungs and kept her awake at night. That night
the open-air teacher sent the bags home to be beaten by the
parents. After this experience the father withdrew his appli-
cation for removal.
Food
The value of nourishing and frequent meals in improving the
condition of underfed and undernourished bodies has been re-
22 Teachers College Record [160
peatedly demonstrated by records and charts. Up to within a
year it was thought impossible even to consider carrying on
the open-air work without feeding, but experiments and com-
parisons carried on in New York City for the past year tend
to show that though the greatest gain in weight is gotten where
the children are fed, a steady, small gain was made where no
school feeding was carried on. As the winter of 1912-1913
was not a severe one, and as an experiment covering one year
only cannot be conclusive, more data should be collected on this
point before the fact can be established. The winter of 1913-
1914 was an unusually severe one and the records for that winter
should prove interesting.
In winter extra demands are made on the body by the fre-
quent exercising necessary in keeping up the bodily temperature.
This is a strain for underfed bodies. The majority of open-air
classes are for anemic children and those disposed to be tuber-
cular who come from homes where the food is not the best
fitted for body upbuilding. Home conditions among the poor
have proven one of the drawbacks in carrying on the work.
The school nurses and the teachers of these children have learned
the necessity of finding out the home conditions, resulting in
visits which have revealed that the usual meal is bread and
cofifee. Among the foreign born the coffee has either whiskey
or brandy put into it. This abnormal diet is quickly detected
as it results in a high temperature and an excessively high pulse.
Teachers and the school physicians realize the importance to
tubercular and anemic children of a wholesome diet. In the
schools where the food problem has been satisfactorily solved it
has been due to the willingness of a local charity organization
to defray the expenses. In many cases after the society has
borne the expenses for two or three years it refuses to continue
its support. At this point, in some cities, the question of feeding
during school hours has been dropped; in others, as in New
York City, the home has been asked to furnish a lunch or to
pay ten cents a week which will provide a daily lunch of crack-
ers and milk (two crackers and a very small cup of milk). It
has been left to the discretion of the teacher whether the milk
be heated or not in cold weather. It does not seem very prob-
161] Open- Air Schools 23
able that the school will provide these children with free food
however badly they may need it because such procedure would
bring the demands for '' no favoritism " down upon the school
board.
The teachers of open-air and open-window classes have found
it necessary to have mothers' meetings in regard to food, cloth-
ing, and sleep. Demonstrations have been given to show how
to prepare simple and nourishing meals, emphasis being placed
on the lesser cost and the greater nutritive value of the meals
prepared at school over those given in the home. In Italian,
Irish, and Syrian communities it was found necessary to teach
the mothers the food value of the various vegetables and to
demonstrate the best methods of preparing them. Among these
peoples the chief and constant article of diet was either
spaghetti, potatoes, or white bread, according to nationality. The
children from these homes were suffering from chronic consti-
pation and at first had to be coaxed and taught to eat soup,
turnips, carrots, squash, spinach, beets, and brown bread. Mont-
clair, New Jersey, has done more toward solving the food prob-
lem than any other town. It has an excellent cook who prepares
the food according to the best known rules for variety, method,
quantity, and nutritive and heat values. In this school the fol-
lowing recipe for bread has proved its function of curing con-
stipation. The recipe will make two loaves. It is better when
it is old.
2 cups bran (ordinary bran — loose — not in packages).
2 cups white flour.
2 cups graham flour.
I level tablespoonful salt.
I cup raisins or nuts.
I tablespoonful lard or good drippings.
I teaspoonful baking soda dissolved in i tablespoonful hot water.
Equal portions sour milk and molasses. About i^ cups of each
will be required.
Batter should be thick, but not too thick to drop from spoon.
Bake slowly i^ hours. Put a basin of water underneath bread
when it is baking and the crust will not be hard.
Cost
Where the child is fed and provided with a warm clothing
equipment the cost of educating and caring for him in open-air
24 Teachers College Record [162
schools is nearly three times as great as in the ordinary school.
The tendency at present is to experiment on no feeding and no
extra clothing; in such cases the cost is reduced somewhat. In
many schools the children pay a small sum each day which
covers the cost of the food eaten.
The prices of various articles of clothing used in outdoor
schools can be found by consulting Ayres' " Open-air Schools."
Size of Classes
In order that outdoor classes be successful it has been demon-
strated that they must be small, not over twenty pupils to a
teacher. The necessity of looking after the child's health as well
as his studies necessitates this limitation. It is thus seen that
outdoor classes are much smaller than indoor classes. In the
same school system which provides a teacher for twenty anemic
pupils, whose parents are willing to permit or even may have
requested open-air instruction, the regular indoor teachers are
struggling in a more or less poorly ventilated room with fifty
children some of whom are as anemic and nervous as the twenty
but whose parents are afraid of the cold air. In a class of from
fifteen to twenty-five pupils each child is bound to get more
individual instruction than in the larger indoor classes. The
outdoor rooms of the public schools of New York City have
from three to eight grades, a grade often being represented by
one or two pupils. This means practically individual attention.
Children who have been backward for years are brought up to
grade by this means.
Program of Studies
Although outdoor pupils spend less time on school subjects
than normal school children they have not fallen below them
in their school records. To meet outdoor conditions, as well as
the physical and nervous state of the pupils, it is necessary to
have a reduced time schedule. The German plan of reducing
formal instruction to two hours a day has not been carried
out in most American schools.
School programs will be found in Ayres " Open-Air Schools,"
and in the Reports issued by superintendents of the various
cities where open-air schools have been established.
163] Open- Air Schools 25
Methods of Teaching
It is generally conceded that those methods of teaching which
make foa- constant changing from work to play and from
rest to recreation are best suited to open-air instruction. When-
ever possible those features of a lesson are sought which can
be turned into a game or which can be carried out in an activity
of some sort.
As the Horace Mann open-air classes are located on the roof
at some distance from the regular indoor classrooms, they have
felt the necessity of making themselves known to the rest of
the school. One of the most interesting plans adopted was to
post now and then, on the bulletin board in the main hall of
the school, an illustrated notice of the weather conditions on
the roof.
Writing with gloves on has been found beneficial to the
subject of penmanship. The thickness of the gloves caused
the child to find it difficult to grip pencil or pen in a firm
enough grasp to cramp the muscles ; the results have been a
free arm movement, — this was quite contrary to the general
expectation. (See Fig. 4.)
In the open-air classes the motivation in English, arithmetic,
history, geography, and nature-study seems more natural, more
related to the social life of the child than in the indoor classes
having the same subject matter; there seem to be more prob-
lems that force themselves upon the child for his solution than
occur in an indoor life. This point in itself would appear the
most significant one in the value of open-air over indoor in-
struction.
New ideas and methods of teaching will come in time from
the accumulated experiences of open-air instructors who are
experimenting with their material. At present many teachers
are simply holding indoor classes in the open air as far as
method of teaching is concerned. In Chapter VI this topic will
be considered at greater length.
Recreation
The amount of time given to play and to directed exercise in
different schools varies greatly, not only in time but in kind.
Some schools have a five-minute supervised dance or gymnastic
26 Teachers College Record [164
period at the close of each twenty-five-minute recitation, with the
usual fifteen-minute recess in the middle of the morning when
something to eat is taken. Other schools have each day a ten-
minute recess for free play, two ten-minute breathing exercise
periods, and one forty-five minute sleeping period.
The greatest amount of daily recreation noted in any of the
schools visited consisted of two thirty-minute periods for prac-
ticing and playing co-operative games, such as baseball, basket-
ball, and football ; one half-hour rest period ; and one forty-
minute period the first half of which was devoted to lunch, the
rest to listening, in a warm room, to a story read by one of
the teachers.
Social Phases
The open-air school especially lends itself to developing social
co-operation and helpfulness. During the lunch period a few
children each day may take their turn in waiting upon and in
looking after the needs of the others. Motivation here is of a
direct and imperative kind. A few serve the majority because
by so doing all do not have to expose feet and legs to the colder
air of the room by getting out of their sitting-out bags. During
luncheon a child will tell a story. Here the motive for drill in
oral English appears plainly to each child.
Health Precautions
As the experiences in open-air procedure accumulate certain
special facts in hygiene are being noted. When a child becomes
a little chilly and needs external heat to warm him it has
been found that unless he takes off all extra outdoor clothing
while in the house it results in bronchitis. The use of various
kinds of foot-warmers and of soapstones has been found to be
detrimental in the majority of cases. If because of poor cir-
culation or an anemic condition the pupil needs extra stimulus
to keep up his circulation it has been proven that a few special
short gymnastic exercises are more beneficial than application
of external heat by means of soapstones or footwarmers. The
best methods of quickly warming the fingers, toes, legs, arms,
and chest by physical exercise have developed some new and
interesting gymnastic movements. Certain games have been
1-' ■S
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O o
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o s
165] Open- Air Schools 27
found to be especially eflfective in developing lung capacity,
straightening the back, and giving muscular coordination and
poise.
The following are some good corrective games and exercises
now in use :
(a) For lung development
1. Blow up an imaginary paper bag. In bursting the
blown-up bag, arm and back muscles are brought
into play.
2. Blow off all the seeds on an imaginary dandelion.
3. Smell of an imaginary rose, first closing one nostril,
then the other.
4. After the floor has been washed and dried have the
children lie on the floor flat on their stomachs, the
class being divided into two groups facing each other.
A pingpong ball is placed in the middle of the space
between the two groups. The game is carried on by
blowing the ball. Any one who has to touch the
ball forfeits for his side. This game is splendid for
the back and neck muscles as well as for developing
lungs and expanding chest. This is a good exercise
for spring and fall months. The others are especially
fitted for winter.
(b) For muscles of the arm, leg, back, and so forth
1. Pick up imaginary snow. Round it into hard snow-
balls. Throw them.
2. Stand on tiptoes, reaching up as far as possible in
order to lift the body and place the chin on an imag-
inary bar. This exercise is called " lifting your own
weight." After each trial it releases the blood and
sends it rushing through the body. It is an excellent
exercise for warming the body and correcting the
harm done by a cramped sitting position.
3. One of the best exercises known for warming the
fingers is to tap sharply into the palm of one hand
with the fingers of the other. In this exercise the
finger tips should be held together firmly or the blood
will not be forced into the ends of the fingers.
28 Teachers College Record [166
4. Put the hands on the hips. Balance on one foot. Point
forward and downward with the toes of the other
foot. Bend the knee pulHng the leg up as high as
possible without losing balance. Then kick forward
vigorously. This exercise will send the blood into
the toes. It is better in its results and more lasting
than the use of soapstone and footwarmers.
(The last three exercises are especially designed for
keeping the body warm in cold weather.)
5. The rhythm of the multiplication tables can be utilized
in the arm and leg exercises of the usual gymnastic
drill.
6. In the free play time the pupils love to hang from
the swinging rings and walk on the balance bars
and on chalk lines, unconsciously gaining poise and
grace.
Those children who have had at home coffee, brandy, whiskey,
and beer show the effects of these stimulants by an alarming
pulse rate, fever, sleeplessness, and restlessness. As these con-
ditions were especially found among the children who were suf-
fering from tuberculosis it was sometime before the school physi-
cians and nurses learned that the home and not the disease
was largely to blame for these symptoms. Even after the
parents have promised to mend matters, lapses occur. Plenty
of wholesome food furnished at school, instruction to mothers,
and co-operation on the part of the child are all essential to
the success of this work.
When the children in open-window and open-air classes get
colds they are very deep-seated, prolonged and stubborn ones,
A record of these colds reveal
(a) That girls get more colds than boys.
(b) That girls who wear cotton or linen dresses get more colds
than girls who wear woolen ones.
(c) That some of the mothers let their children go out of doors
in winter after taking a hot bath,
(d) That children who by nature have hot skins cannot stand
drafts or sudden cold weather without getting severe
167] Open- Air Schools 29
colds. They are not, on the whole, fit pupils for out-of-
door classes.
(e) That the children of the very poor sleep either in rooms
which have no windows or in rooms the windows of
which are kept closed, thus making these children more
susceptible to colds.
(f) That the children of the very poor need baths and a thor-
ough rubbing of the skin in order to get the skin in con-
dition to react properly to the fresh cold air.
(g) That children who suffer from constipation get colds more
readily than those who do not.
Health Results of Open-Air Treatment
In tabulating the results achieved in the various open-air
schools certain of them are constant and others appear variable.
Formerly, one of the first rules laid down for the guidance of
those about to start such a school was that warm clothing, much
sleep, frequent exercise, frequent and nourishing meals, and
shelter from winds and storms were absolutely necessary to carry
out the outdoor scheme. It still remains true that the more
carefully these points are followed the more successful the
results become, but it has been demonstrated that gain has been
made even in those classes where no extra feeding, little exercise,
a limited clothing equipment, and heavy drafts are found. Con-
stant factors in open-air school life are the gain in weight,
strength, chest expansion, hemoglobin, and physical activity. An-
other point that has shown the advantage of the outdoor over
the indoor class is the matter of fatigue. It does not seem to
make any difference whether arithmetic is taught at nine o'clock
or at twelve, the children appearing to do equally good work
at any time of day. In those cases where an afternoon nap
was formerly indispensable, at the end of six months in the
open-air class these children not only no longer needed naps
but they gradually got to the point where they could not sleep
in the afternoon. They were not fatigued enough. We are told
by teachers and advocates of open-air instruction that there is
no doubt that these pupils have healthier appetites, sleep much
better, and are more alert and vigorous mentally than when they
began in the open-air class. Since these teachers hold mothers'
30 Teachers College Record [168
meetings in which they urge open windows in the bedrooms,
and a change in diet, laying stress on the injurious effects of
coffee and alcoholic stimulants and begging for their discontinu-
ance, there should be taken into consideration the fact that if
the same crusade had been started when these same pupils were
in indoor classes there would at that time have been an improve-
ment in sleep and appetite.
The New York City public schools have chosen certain indoor
classes of normal children for purposes of comparison with the
corresponding outdoor grades. These indoor classes are called
" control " classes. The conditions in these control rooms are
as nearly as possible the same as in the outdoor classes with
the exception of the outdoor feature. Each child who is ad-
mitted to an open-air class has a card allotted him on which a
record is made of his age, sex, color, nationality, height, weight,
per cent below weight for height, haemoglobin, chest measure-
ments, physical defects (tonsils, enlarged glands, adenoids, poor
posture, etc.), condition of teeth, chest, grade, and scholarship.
From time to time subsequent examinations are made and the
results recorded on his card, and at the end of the year a final
examination is made. On the back of the card a weekly record
is kept of his weight. Each child who enters a control class
has a card which is exactly similar and on which his record for
the year is kept. Some interesting facts have been brought
out. The easiest record to make and to plot on a chart
is that of gain or loss in weight. For each pupil week by week
and month by month such records have been kept. In the out-
door classes these records have been a valuable asset for they
have been used as the great argument in favor of open-air work.
Each pupil in these classes has gained steadily, some more, some
less, from the beginning of school in September until the begin-
ning of spring. The average gain is one-half pound per child
per week. When the child was at school he gained in weight,
when at home for more than three days he lost. During each
vacation there was a decided loss in weight which made the line
on the chart give a sharp downward angle. From the middle
of March on to the end of school in June the loss of weight
begins and the charts generally, without exception, show a down-
ward curve. These charts have been most carefully kept in
169] Open-Air Schools 31
classes of very poor, underfed children. Just how much of
the gain in weight is due to an extra meal and how much to
fresh air is not known. In considering the gain in weight the
normal gain for any age due to growth has been allowed for.
The loss of weight during the spring months is never enough
by June to put the child at the same weight that he had in Sep-
tember when he entered school. How much of this difference
is the natural one due to a change to lighter clothing has not
been determined.
Hemoglobin tests have also been made. Those records which
tell the history of the child's home condition, health, habits,
school progress, and personality are the most valuable ones kept
so far. To get even these facts is difficult. Even in those
schools where the clientele is such that it is possible to send out
questionnaires only a small percentage of them are answered and
returned. In some schools the information can be gotten only
by the visits to the homes by the teacher, the school nurse, and
the social worker. Beginning with the Twelfth Annual Report
of the New York City Public Schools (1910) scientific charts
and tables have been printed each year showing the results of
the open-air school work. In few other school systems are the
results of their open-air school work tabulated so systematically
for general distribution. The New York City charts showing
the relation between the control and the outdoor classes with
regard to increase and decrease in hemoglobin; gain in weight
of the control, outdoor feeding, and outdoor non-feeding classes ;
and the relation of anemia to poverty are all very interesting.
Final conclusions should not be drawn until experiments have
been carried on for a period of five years at least. It is only
by careful experiments that real knowledge of the results of
outdoor instruction can be gotten.
In the Horace Mann School tests such as the following have
been reported •} " Two third-grade classes, as similar as it was
possible to have them, were compared for a period of six months.
One class was an outdoor class, the other a regular indoor class.
The two classes were compared in respect both to physical im-
provement and mental improvement, with the following results :
'For further details see "Effect of Outdoor and Indoor School Life on the Physical and
Mental Condition of Children" by Harold Brown Keyes, M. D. Report, Fourth Inter-
national Congress on School Hygiene, Buffalo, Augtist, 1913.
32
Teachers College Record
[170
Physical Improvement, 1912-13
Average age at beginning of tests
Duration of tests
Average gain in —
Weight
Height
Girth of chest
Girth of chest expanded
Breadth of chest
Depth of chest
Lung capacity
Strength, right arm
Strength, left arm
Strength, upper back
Strength, chest
Indoor
Outdoor
8 yrs. 6 mos.
6 mos
1.6 kg.
2.6 cm.
1.3 cm.
1.5 cm.
0.9 cm.
0.0... .
8.0 cu.
1.4 kg.
1.4 kg.
2.0 kg.
2.8 kg.
or 3.5 lbs.
or 1.0 in.
or 0.5 in.
or 0.6 in.
or 0.37 in.
m
or 3.0 lbs.
or 3.1 lbs.
or 4.4 lbs.
or 6.2 lbs.
8 yrs. 4 mos.
6 mos.
1.7 kg. or 3.7 lbs.
2.8 cm. or 1.1 in.
1.8 cm. or 0.74 in,
1.7 cm. or 0.7 in.
0.2 cm. or 0.07 in.
—0.4 cm. or —0.13 in.
5.9 cu. in.
0.8 kg. or 1.7 lbs.
2.1 kg. or 4.5 lbs.
2.0 kg. or 4.4 lbs.
3.2 kg. or 7.0 lbs.
" Indoor class improved more in four of these measurements.
Outdoor class gained more in six of these measurements. Classes
gained the same in strength of back. Outdoor class gained more
in height, weight, and girth of chest."
" We had wondered if the eyesight of the outdoor children
would suffer any from added exposure to sun and the necessity
of looking at blackboards and books on which sun might shine.
In no case did we find any defect coming on during the term
such as would be shown with Snellen test type.
" A record of contagious diseases was kept during the year.
In the three outdoor classes there were five cases of contagious
diseases; in the indoor classes there were fourteen cases of con-
tagious disease. Again in this case it is only fair to keep in
mind that there were more children in the indoor classes and
therefore more opportunities for contagious disease. If these
cases are reduced to percentages the record of outdoor children
shows that 12.5% had contagious disease while 17.9% of indoor
children had contagious disease. Another very significant point
is that no contagious diseases ' went through ' an outdoor room
as happened in one of the indoor rooms. This seems to me to
be in itself a powerful argument in favor of outdoor schools."
Mental tests indicating progress in the usual school subjects
were also given. From the outline below it will be seen that
" in formal English the third grade outdoor class not only had
higher averages than the indoor class but improved 20% whereas
171]
Open- Air Schools
33
the indoor class improved only 13% during the year." In arith-
metic the outdoor class improved 26% against 6% for the
indoor class.
Mental Improvement, 1912-13
Number of
pupils
Average
Dec.
May
Improve-
ment
In formal English:
Open air
Indoor
In arithmetic:
Open air
Indoor
18 in Dec.
12 in May.
^22 in Dec.
,27 in May.
fl4 in Dec.
^22 in May.
r28inDec.
[24 in May.
Per cent
> 37
. 35
48
69
Per cent
57
48
68
75
Per cent
20
13
20
6
It is the ambition and practically the pledge of the teacher
of open-air classes to be able to put a child at any time into
the indoor class of his grade and have him go on there as
well as if no change of class had been made. The majority of
the pupils of an open-air class are put indoors at the end of
one year, but in those cases where the child's condition has
not shown enough improvement a second and even a third year
is allowed in the outdoor class. The gain in the second year
is greater from the start, not only in weight but in mental
attitude and interests. Some very satisfactory cases have been
followed up in the indoor classes which have shown the value
of two or three years out-of-doors. These children were formerly
way below age, staying two years in a grade, indifferent to
school, and having no interest in continuing any kind of school
work. After the outdoor period these same pupils ranked well
toward the top of the indoor class, which fact gave them such
pleasure and confidence that by earnest work they were soon
beyond their normal grade.
Many schools have begun with one open-air class and have
then added a new one each year until the eighth grade has been
reached. The problem of getting started and equipped has often
occupied the attention of the teachers to the exclusion of any
34 Teachers College Record [172
real mental testing to show what really has been accomplished
from month to month and year to year. If the class could
keep up with the corresponding indoor grade, have more play,
and no homework the experiment was considered successful and
worth the extra cost.
Teachers
The teachers of open-air classes should be keen, resourceful,
sympathetic, careful of all the little things, and quick to notice
the symptoms of children. More depends upon the right teacher
than upon the other advantages of the school, such as feeding,
extra clothing, and weather.
The services of a physician, trained nurse, and dentist are
necessary for at least part of the time.
Such remarks as the following testify to what teaching in
the open air has done for the teacher : " No teacher who has
taught in the open air will ever want to go back to indoor work."
"At night I am not tired and * dragged out ' as I used to be, yet
when I go to bed I fall right away into a sound, refreshing
sleep." The results for the pupils are bound to be better when
the teacher has lost that nervous irritability which comes from
confinement for long hours in a badly ventilated, overcrowded
room. The outdoor teacher has more energy and strength to
prepare lessons and material for her class. At a recent meeting
of the open-air teachers of New York City public schools the
supervisor said that the teachers of a city system should be
looked after as well as the pupils. The appalling percentage of
tubercular cases is about as true of teachers as of any other
class of workers. It looks as if in the future the teachers who
need outdoor treatment will be instructors chosen for the open-
air classes.
IV
OPEN-WINDOW ROOMS
" Open-window room," " fresh air room," " low temperature
room," and " cold air room " are all different names for the
same kind of room, namely, one where the windows are kept
open and where artificial heating is used only in severe weather.
In some of these rooms the whole south wall is given over to
window space from ceiling to floor, the windows being so
hinged and fitted with cords and pulleys as to enable them to
be raised flat against the ceiling. These windows have not
proven to be an entire success, however, as in stormy weather
they have to be wholly closed. Rooms having windows on one
side only have fewer drafts than corner rooms. On the other
hand corner rooms have some desirable features that the others
do not have; they permit of a more even flow of air through
them and all parts of the room can be kept at a more uniform
temperature. If winds and storms make it necessary to close
the one side, the other can be kept open. Windows that swing
from side to side on a pivot, and that can be so adjusted as
to let in air and at the same time throw off the wind seem to
be the best solution to the draft problem reached as yet.
John H. Van Pelt, an architect of New York City who is
much interested in open-air school architecture, believes that
the best window for such a school is one which is divided into
three sashes. Each of these sashes he would hang by pivots in
the middle of both sides ; in time of driving rain the middle sash
of each window at least could be open at a slant, the top of
the sash to swing inward and the bottom of it outward and
down. He also suggests that a glass marquise hung over the
windows would admit light and yet in time of storm keep out
rain and snow.
Professor Frederic S. Lee in an article on " Fresh Air " in
the Popular Science Monthly of April, 1914, makes the follow-
173] 35
36 Teachers College Record [174
ing interesting statement in reference to drafts : " Keep room
air in motion. . . . Air in motion promotes efficiency. Ac-
custom yourselves to drafts, and especially to big drafts. A
small blast of cold air directed against a small area of warm
skin may do harm, but the larger the current the more the
harm gives way to benefit. Air of constantly uniform tempera-
ture is monotonous and debilitating. An occasional and con-
siderable cooling, a flushing of the room by a sudden large
inrush of outside air is, like a cool bath, stimulating."
In large cities open-window rooms will probably be more
popular than open-air rooms because of the small expense to
install them and the ease with which such rooms can avoid
extremes of temperature, provided the disadvantages of the
open-window room can be remedied by careful experiment. It
is easier for the open-window room to fail than for the open-air
room because of the difficulty in regulating drafts and in keep-
ing the same temperature in all parts of the room. In general
open-window rooms must have drafts in order to regulate the
temperature, but unfortunately these drafts are usually small
blasts of air rather than the large currents which Professor
Lee believes to be so helpful. All this can be avoided in open-air
rooms where the small drafts are absent and where the large
currents of air can sweep the entire room. The biggest problem
of the open-window room is this question of drafts.
When one makes a change, to go from one extreme to another
has its value. Indoor rooms may be considered as being at
one extreme and open-air classes at the other. The disadvan-
tages of indoor rooms are more likely to be remedied by chang-
ing to open-air rather than to open-window rooms. Open-
window rooms seem more to favor the tendency to get back
into the ruts of indoor classroom practice than do open-air rooms.
In open-air rooms one must radically change certain methods
of procedure while in open-window rooms one can exist with
indoor methods.
Special Points Noted When Visiting Open-Window Classes
One morning when the outside thermometer registered 38
degrees F. two open-window rooms in a small city were visited.
175] Open- Air Schools 37
The sun shone brightly and the air was cold and dry. The
warmth in these rooms was noticeable at once, and, on looking
at the thermometers, one read 67 degrees, the other 68 degrees ;
the windows were nearly closed and yet most of the children
were bundled up in sweaters. The teachers had no notions
as to which were the best temperatures for open-window rooms.
One said that she felt sure that the windows of her room were
not opened early enough in the morning. On questioning the
janitor it was learned that the windows were only raised ten
minutes before the teacher was expected to reach school in the
morning.
In the Horace Mann School the school physician feels that the
temperature in the open-window room should not go below 50
degrees F. When that temperature is reached the heat is
turned on automatically. Down to that point the room tempera-
ture is that of out-of-doors, — varying from it not over two
degrees at most.
One school that wanted to start an open-window room found
that before it could get children for the room it had to promise
the parents that the children would not have to sit in drafts.
The principal solved the difficulty by having window screens
measurmg eighteen inches in height covered with cheesecloth.
The windows were usually kept open to the height of the screens.
At times the whole ventilating system of the building was thrown
out of order by these open screened windows as evidenced by
the necessity of covering with cheesecloth the outlet register
in order to break the strong drafts that blew down it. It
thus appears that satisfactory devices for avoiding drafts in
open-window rooms are difficult to find.
The question of clothing for use in open-window rooms has
not been satisfactorily solved. Some rooms are allowed to get
as cold as the lowest outdoor temperature, others can hardly be
called cold air or low temperature rooms. The lower the tem-
perature the more clothing must be provided. Chicago found,
even with the thermometer at zero, " that whatever clothing
would safely bring the children to school was more than enough
for protection in the open-air classrooms where games were fre-
quent." Some teachers are trying this winter whether army
38 Teachers College Record [176
blankets folded about the legs will serve as ample covering.
The children in the open-window room of the Horace Mann
School have had two and three winters in the open-air room on
the roof and thus have brought sitting-out bags along with them
which are being used. The only complaint that their teacher
has made in regard to the sitting-out bags is that they are
cumbersome and she cannot get over the feeling that much
time is wasted in getting in and out of them.
Some open-window classes are given a lunch at recess of
hot soup or cocoa and a sandwich. The children chosen for
these rooms are mostly nervous, anemic, and undernourished.
The rooms visited have not been in existence long enough to
show what method is good and wha^t should not be done, or
to demonstrate any special gain by the pupils. However, in
comparison with the regular indoor classes there is a difference
that is noticeable. The pupils of the open-window classes are
quieter, have a more restful attitude, and give a quicker brain
response. The indoor classes in the same school give the feel-
ing at once of nervous tension not only in the lessons but in
keeping order. The teacher of the Horace Mann open-window
room says that her pupils are more sane and wholesome in their
attitude than any class she has taught. Their memories are
so good and their interest is so keen that they do not need the
drill usually given indoor classes nor will they accept a slow
rate of progress in their studies. They seem to have an in-
satiable mental appetite.
V
POINTS IN CONTROVERSY CONCERNING OPEN-AIR
SCHOOLS
Many questions have been raised in connection with open-air
and open-window rooms. Among important questions to be
answered definitely, inchiding those in controversy, are the fol-
lowing :
1. Are the physical benefits derived from open-air experi-
ments lasting? Are the sick children cured permanently or are
their ills merely temporarily arrested?
2. Are the mental benefits lasting? Are they progressively
continuous, or are they the result of over-stimulated interests
and excitement due to the novelty of the new conditions and
surroundings ?
3. Is a city justified in spending in open-air school experi-
ments three times as much money per child as is necessary
indoors in order to educate a few sickly children and in neglect-
ing the majority of normal children?
4. Is it fair to compare the results of open-air schools with
the regular schools when we recall that the children in the
open-air schools are taught in small classes of about twenty and
are well-fed, well-poised, well-rested, well-aired, and little
fatigued, while the children in the regular schools must work
in classes of fifty, or even seventy, to one teacher, in poorly
ventilated rooms, with less satisfactory conditions in reference
to food, clothing and rest? Indoor school conditions are not
at all as favorable as those in the open-air schools,
5. Are we using the best and most economical methods of
presenting school material in our regular school classes if it
is true that in the open-air schools pupils seem to be especially
benefited by changes in the ordinary methods of instruction and
by short periods of instruction? Does a shorter day with
intensive work as found in indoor schools accomplish as much
177] 39
40 Teachers College Record [178
or more than the outdoor ten-hour day found in Germany
with frequent periods of recreation interspersed between short
recitation periods?
6. Does the open-window school accomplish as much as the
open-air school? Could the ordinary school be easily trans-
formed into an open-window school and get better results than
now?
7. To what extent does low temperature, and the stimulation
due to it, explain the success of the open-air school?
8. Is moral deficiency a condition that would be benefited by
open-air school treatment?
9. Can we have open-air upper grade and high school classes,
or are we limited principally to the primary grades? Can the
more advanced school subjects be adapted to treatment in open-
air schools?
ID. Is open-air school work proportionately more beneficial
in the elementary grades than in the later years?
11. Is it worth while in America to have a ten-hour day for
the open-air school as in Germany?
12. Will children who have spent years in an open-air school,
and who appear to be advanced enough and well enough physi-
cally to return to ordinary school conditions, be able to return
to the regular school room, or will their earlier open-air training
tend to unfit them from going on successfully with their work
in the indoor school? Will the methods of the ordinary school
room, which are so intensive, put such a child at a great dis-
advantage ?
13. Will children who have been brought up in an open-air
school tend in after life to follow out-of-door occupations ? Will
they be handicapped if they undertake indoor pursuits?
14. Should the period of rest and sleep provided in many
open-air school programs come before or after luncheon?
15. Should we have an open-air class where children may go
who have whooping cough?
Mr. Frank J. Bruner, of Chicago, in an article in the Pro-
ceedings of the National Education Association for 191 1, brings
up a number of interesting points which show that there are
still other important questions to be answered in connection
with the cause of the success of open-air schools. He states
179] Open-Air Schools 41
that repeated experiments prove that weak, anemic, and tuber-
cular children and adults are benefited by living out-of-doors
but are made worse and even sicken and die by being confined
in heated school rooms, bedrooms, and living rooms.
While the above fact has been demonstrated, the reason why
this is so is difficult to find. It is not alone because the open-air
is purer than the air indoors. This is shown by the following
experiments which are here very briefly stated :
(a) Carbon dioxide. Careful experiments have proven that
only under extraordinary conditions is the amount of carbon
dioxide in a classroom, lecture room, or living room sufficient
to affect in any detectable manner the physiological processes or
the mental work of an individual.
(b) Oxygen and ozone. Pure air does not mean that the
air shall be rich in oxygen and ozone. More oxygen does not
necessarily mean more vitality. Even a slight percentage over
the normal of oxygen or ozone is injurious to lung, throat,
and nose.
(c) Anthropotoxins. By experiments on animals it has been
proven that organic matters thrown oflf by respiration are not
responsible for the devitalization of the air.
(d) Humidity. The result upon the body of varying per-
centages of humidity has not been worked out long enough to
prove any definite theory. Concerning the physiological eflFects
of high and low humidity on temperatures ranging from sixty
to seventy-two degrees Fahrenheit we know little or nothing
definitely; the only result known to be true at present is that
the higher the percentage of humidity the lower the tempera-
ture should be for comfort.
In summing up the results of experiments on the effects of
stale, confined air. Professor Frederic S. Lee, in an article in
the Popular Science Monthly for April, 1914, reaches this con-
clusion : " That the evil effects exerted upon human beings
by air that has become vitiated by human beings result not from
a lack of oxygen, not from an increase of carbon dioxide, not
from the presence of an organic poison, not from any chemical
features of such air acting through the lungs on the tissues, not
in any manner from the rebreathing of such air, but solely from
the physical features of excessive heat and excessive humidity
42 Teachers College Record [180
interfering with the proper action of the skin in regulating
bodily temperature. The problem of bad air has thus ceased
to be chemical and pulmonary, and has become physical and
cutaneous."
In view of these experiments, Mr. Bruner concludes that the
success of the open-air school is not due to pure air alone.
He has sought, therefore, those other factors which must be
prominent in explaining the success of this type of school.
He finds them to be as follows:
(a) General freedom
(b) l^ack of restraint
(c) Feeding
(d) Rest and sleep.
Mr. Bruner's interesting observations suggest to us a large
field for investigation. Since the pure air alone is not so
important as we had thought, we are led to experiment to
verify Mr. Bruner's conclusions and to see if there are still
other factors that explain the success of the open-air schools.
We must ask also if the indoor schools would be far more suc-
cessful if we introduced there greater freedom, lack of restraint,
feeding, and periods of rest and sleep. If so, then the open-air
movement will have made a great contribution to our methods
of carrying on indoor instruction. To test this it will be worth
while to try indoors the full open-air program, with its short
instruction periods interspersed with rest and recreation; like-
wise to try an intensive indoor program out-of-doors. This
will soon show us whether the open-air or something else is
the vital factor in the outdoor movement.
Mr. Bruner also found that the chief air-polluting agents
in cities are:
(a) Dust
(b) Soot
(c) Gases from factories and chimneys
(d) Bacteria, as well as noxious gases, arising from waste
products such as ashes, garbage, and sewage.
With urban conditions such as these the necessity of experi-
ment is urged to see if the open-air schools situated in the
country, preferably in the woods, are more successful than those
in the city.
VI
MODIFICATION IN INDOOR METHODS OF INSTRUC-
TION TO SUIT OPEN-AIR CONDITIONS
In order that the open-air school work may be carried on
most effectively, it seems desirable to suggest certain modifica-
tions in our indoor methods of instruction in order that there
may be no handicap to the student of the open-air school. These
modifications will be most necessary in cold weather when the
problem of keeping the child warm and free from exposure
is the most important one. The location of the open-air school
may likewise cause a modification in certain methods. If the
open-air room is situated on a noisy street certain changes in
methods are necessary which need not be considered for an
open-air room in a quieter location.
In general, during the winter months, all recitations and class
exercises must be of much shorter duration than those given
in the indoor school. This is brought about by the necessity
of giving the pupil frequent periods for relaxation and for
keeping up an adequate circulation of the blood.
The following suggestions are made:
I. In the cold months of the year the open-air pupil is
handicapped in all written work on account of the heavy cloth-
ing and outside wraps which he must wear. Written exercises
of all kinds including his computations in arithmetic may thus
sufiFer somewhat. During the winter, it seems advisable, there-
fore, to replace careful writing with the pen or pencil by some
form of writing that will exercise the larger muscles of the
body and be less affected by the restricting clothing. A device
that suggests itself as serviceable would be to have the children
make much more use of a blackboard, either standing at the
regular blackboards or having an individual blackboard at the
disposal of each pupil. The top of the closed desk could easily
181] 43
44 Teachers College Record [182
be fitted with a blackboard on its lower side which could be
brought into service by merely raising the top of the desk.
In a large free hand the pupil could thus do a certain amount
of writing and calculating. Such a blackboard, two feet long
and one and half feet wide, would be very serviceable. In
using it the pupil would have the advantage of not being obliged
to lean over the desk as in the case of writing with a pen or
pencil.
I do not hesitate to suggest also the novelty of introducing
the typewriter, the operation of which would permit the student
to sit upright and have opportunity to exercise a number of
muscles that would be unused in the ordinary writing with a
pen. The activity required in typewriting would be especially
favorable in the cold weather. Investigations have already been
carried on by teachers of English which show that young chil-
dren can make more progress in English and in spelling by
the use of the typewriter than by the ordinary means of writing
by hand. The undeveloped muscles of young children always
cause handwriting to be a slow tedious process. The type-
writer has the advantage of emphasizing legibility and accuracy.
Mistakes stand out very prominently. As classes progress it is
one of the most important ways to emphasize the value of good
form in writing. In no other way does proper paragraphing
and punctuation stand out so boldly. The typewriter would
also serve nicely in spelling tests from dictation, and as a means
of taking notes of any kind which might be given by the teacher.
The combination of the typewriter with the blackboard above
mentioned would no doubt do away with some of the present
disadvantages of the open-air methods. The typewriter should
be especially useful if the open-air scheme is extended to the
higher classes, including the high school, where written work
plays so prominent a part. It is here the intention, however,
to recommend it for the elementary classes as well. If the above
blackboard and typewriter plan is not feasible it will be well
as a general principle during the winter months to modify meth-
ods of instruction, so as to avoid as far as possible the necessity
of long detailed exercises involving much writing.
In the fall and in the spring, when the weather is warm, the
183] Open-Air Schools 45
children could have ample exercise in the usual handwriting.
It is not meant by the above suggestion to do away with hand-
writing, but only to make it possible to do in cold weather work
that otherwise might be slighted.
2. In general, in the open-air school, methods of exercising
pupils orally should be increased and emphasized. This can be
applied in practically all subjects including arithmetic, spelling,
geography, and English.
Such exercises as singing and gymnastics can be considerably
increased in an open-air curriculum, and can best be given by
frequent repetitions between the regular classes rather than
by single assignments per day, as is the usual practice in the
indoor school.
3. In a subject like English, oral exercises, including oral
reading and dramatic representation, can well be increased. In
geography, map drawing at the blackboard and modeling can be
given more prominent parts. The geography work may be aided
also by excursions to points of geographical interest in the
vicinity of the school. The same excursions are also helpful
in connection with the work in history. The excursion idea
should be much more developed in American open-air schools
than it has been up to the present. In Italy the excursion is
the chief feature of the open-air school. This is much more
possible in Italy, however, than in America due to the milder
climate. Lessons in civics, in fine arts, in current events, and
in industries are thus possible, through visits to public places,
galleries, court rooms, public institutions, factories, public works,
and so forth. The boys in the Italian schools are provided with
the combination portable chair and desk which may easily be
carried on the back and set up in any convenient place out-of-
doors. In this way the Italian teacher can establish his school-
room temporarily in a public park or before some noted public
monument. So far as American conditions are concerned, such
excursions would have to be confined principally to the fall
and spring months, except in the south and southwest.
4. Especially in the open-air school, the use of the stereopticon
and the moving picture as a means of instruction will be valu-
able. Such devices will be especially serviceable for open-air
schools in noisy districts.
46 Teachers College Record [184
5. A subject like nature study should be carried on only in
the fall and spring months when the work can be done out-of-
doors. Gardening is a subject which may well be emphasized
for the open-air pupil.
6. In arranging the curriculum it is very important to make
such an adjustment that the cold months of the year will be
used most effectively for those subjects which can best be taught
during that time. The out-of-door scheme will probably result
in favoring, even for a private school, a forty-week school year.
If children remain in excellent health through the out-of-door
experiment there is less reason for the long vacation. A forty-
week or a forty-five week school year should be no hardship
if the open-air school proves to be what we have a right to
expect.
The open-air curriculum especially favors the introduction of
modern foreign languages by the direct method of instruction.
VII
SOME TESTS FOR DETERMINING THE EFFICIENCY
OF THE METHODS OF OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS
It is very desirable to test the efficiency of the open-air school
especially in comparison with the regular indoor school. It is
especially valuable to know in what particulars the pupils of
the open-air schools are in advance of the regular pupils. To
determine these matters physical and mental tests should be
given frequently to classes of the same age and grade in both
indoor and outdoor schools. To be of greatest value the tests
should be given to children of the same average state of health
in both schools. It will not be especially helpful to test invalids
in an open-air school and to compare these results with normal
children in the indoor school. So far as possible it is necessary
that the groups of children to be compared start at about the
same place with respect to age, grade, development, and health.
These tests to be of value should be applied to large numbers
of pupils.
Physical Tests
1. Gain in weight. Is it more for the outdoor pupil than that
normally expected in a growing child? Gain in weight may
be taken as an index of one's nutrition. Comparison of indoor
with outdoor pupils should be of much value in this test.
2. Lung capacity. As this is a test of vital capacity it will
be especially important for pupils who have been more than a
year in an outdoor school.
3. Examination of the blood to show gain in hemoglobin.
Especially favorable results should be found here in the case of
open-air pupils. Outdoor pupils who are fed in school should
be compared carefully with those outdoor pupils who are not fed.
4. State of the organs of digestion. The frequent periods for
light nourishment in many of the open-air schools make this an
interesting test. Also keep a record of appetite.
1851 47
48 Teachers College Record [186
5. Tests of hearing, of sight, and of the other special senses.
The test of hearing will be important for all pupils in outdoor
schools situated on noisy streets. The test of sight will be
especially needed for outdoor pupils whose work has been done
to a large extent with the sun shining on their desks and books.
6. Tests for physical fatigue. An especially interesting test
in view of the numerous periods for rest afforded the open-air
pupils. Tests and continued observations for nervousness, irrita-
bility, ill-temper, and so forth.
7. Tests of posture.
8. Tests of movements, including quickness or rate, accuracy
or precision. Steadiness of motor control.
9. Tests of endurance.
ID. Tests of muscular strength, grip, and so forth.
11. Careful observation to indicate freedom from minor com-
plaints such as colds. Also a record of freedom from usual
children's diseases such as measles, scarlet fever, headaches,
indigestion, and adenoids. It is interesting to know whether or
not the increased health of open-air pupils gives them through
their greater resisting powers any immunity from these diseases.
Records should also be kept to show the relation between the
spread of contagious diseases in open-air and indoor classes.
12. Medical tests to see if outdoor children have any special
tendency toward troubles caused by exposure such as colds, rheu-
matism, sore throats, and tonsilitis.
13. Careful observations of bodily temperature, especially in
cold weather, would also be of value. Symptoms of chilliness
such as shivering, cold hands, chattering of teeth, and blue lips
should be carefully watched and noted. From observations in
various outdoor classes I believe that these matters are often
neglected or ignored by the teachers. I saw a number of chil-
dren who were so cold that they could not get any profit out
of their school work. Often children do not know when they
are too cold.
14. Record of sleep.
All of the above tests are rather simply carried out. The
book on " Mental and Physical Tests " by Whipple will be sug-
gestive in reference to accurate methods for conducting such
187] Open-Air Schools 49
tests. Pyle's " Examination of School Children " will also be
helpful in this connection.
Tests Relative to Conduct
It is important to know whether or not the wholesome life
in the open air has any marked influence on the conduct of
pupils. This amounts to asking whether or not physical condi-
tions in the ordinary schoolroom tend to favor misconduct. The
following tests seem to be worth attention :
1. A careful record in reference to obedience to the demands
of the teacher or to the demands of fellow students. A record
of each student's ability to get along in school with his fellow
pupils. The presence of disputes, quarrels, and so forth should
be carefully noted.
2. General good spirit toward work and willingness to do
things. Loyalty to teacher and school.
3. General attitude toward life and the world as exhibited in
cheerfulness, optimism, or their lack.
4. Record of cases of marked misconduct, such as stealing,
lying, willful destruction of property.
5. Record of improvement in morals. This will include items
not mentioned in paragraph 4, such as swearing, sexual dis-
turbances.
6. Tests of initiative, so far as this is testable.
7. Tests of alertness, wide-awakeness, and so forth.
Mental Tests Suggested by the Usual School Record
Children of approximately equal health, grade, and age in
both indoor and open-air schools should have their actual
progress tested as shown by the usual school marks in subjects
such as arithmetic, reading, spelling, geography, history, and
science. In a subject like arithmetic it will also be valuable
to test the work of both indoor and outdoor pupils in some
such special way as the Courtis test, or the Stone test. In Eng-
lish composition it would be valuable to supplement the tests
given by the ordinary school grades by some careful measuring
such as that possible by the scale developed by Professor Hille-
gas. Handwriting could likewise be measured in accordance
with the method of Professor Thorndike.
50 Teachers College Record [188
In addition to the tests in the ordinary school subjects above
mentioned, care should be taken to obtain adequate tests of
manual work, such as sewing, cooking, manual training, or
drawing. The results should be of interest as these subjects are
usually not taught out-of-doors under conditions as favorable
as those indoors. The tests in physical training will also be of
value as they will probably favor the outdoor pupil.
Mental Tests Suggested by Psychologists
A. Tests of Attention and Perception
1. Range of visual attention
2. Cancellation
3. Counting dots
4. Reading complicated prose
5. Simultaneous reading, and writing and so forth
B. Tests of Description and Report
1. Description of an object
2. Fidelity to report
C. Tests of Association, Learning, and Memory
1. Uncontrolled association
a. Part-wholes
b. Genus-species
c. Opposites
d. Computation
2. Mirror-drawing
3. Substitution
4. Rote memory
5. Logical memory
D. Tests of Suggestibility
1. Size-weight illusion
2. Progressive lines
3. Progressive weights
4. Illusion of warmth
E. Tests of Invention and Imagination
1. Ink blots
2. Linguistic invention
3. Word building
4. Interpretation of fables
189] Open-Air Schools 51
F. Tests of Intellectual Equipment
1. Size of vocabulary
2. Range of information
G. Tests for reasoning not included in above lists
H. Tests to show ability to understand the printed page.
Note. — For descriptions of these tests and directions for giving
them consult Whipple's " Manual of Mental and Physical Measure-
ments." For names, descriptions, and so forth, of instruments that
can be used for making these measurements see " Catalogue of Scien-
tific Instruments," C. H. Stoelting, North Green Street, Chicago.
VIII
TESTS FOR THIRD GRADE
I. Schoolwork tests
1. Arithmetic
2. Composition
3. Reading
II. Physical tests
1. Height
2. Weight
3. Test of strength
a. Of grip
b. Of back
c. Of legs
4. Tests of motor control
a. Tapping
b. Aiming
c. Tracing
5. Test of eyesight
a. For improvement
b. For strain c«i eyes from sunshine
III. Mental tests
1. Tests for accuracy and quality of apperceptive mass
a. From the reading book in use choose objects
and situations and have them described and
explained
2. Tests for attention and perception
a. Cancellation
b. Counting dots
c. Simultaneous adding
d. Column adding
e. Binet- Simon geometrical figures
52 [190
191] Open- Air Schools 53
3. Tests for association
a. Associated words such as page-book
b. Opposites
c. Memory
4. Tests of powers of discrimination
a. Size
b. Length
c. Weight
d. Warmth
e. Softness
f. Fineness of fibre
5. Tests for invention
a. Development of sentences
b. Completion of sentences
c. Word building
6. Tests for reasoning ability
a. Interpretation of fables
b. Jumbled up sentences (words to be rearranged
so they will not make sense)
c. Reprint, so each child can have a copy, a second
grade story read the year before leaving out
adjectives and an occasional verb and noun.
Tests like the above should be given at the beginning and
end of the school year, and midway between. Indoor classes
of the same grade should be given the tests at the same time in
order to make comparisons.
Among some of the standard tests especially suitable for third
grade pupils are the following. Others may be had from such
a book as Whipple's " Manual of Mental and Physical Measure-
ments."
54 Teachers College Record [192
Some Third Grade Tests Presented in Detail
Muscular Control Test
Maze. Draw with pencil a line between the walls of this
maze. Do not let the pencil touch either of the black printed
lines. Try to keep in the middle and draw as far as you can
until stop is said. Time i minute and 30 seconds.
193] Open-Air Schools 55
Cancellation
Striking out "A" tests
1. Draw a line through each A. Do not skip one. Time i
minute.
GWBTBVKIKSCSAUEBCIWVABZSMDUBKLWHKHYCGYGK
NANNCBVBSAKOIUPEKCXVGSTVRIWYBYGKHAZLPBYO
XAPYEXXHUFSBVDYDIAZLRSATZAZVFCOFSAIPTDOK
BBISKAKHXDYIUZRHVRZYSCIGECPOFKBICBMGFSDC
YHSRMVBLYICKZBMXFVBBIKUCBZLOGLVKGFMOATUN
SHOFHXIMKUXLDZKMRYRLVUWWKYEUVECSOUWBADEX
ALUAKRMSFTGXWLVGAOWBTPODXBNSFSFSWSDRSMPO
KBRIGAXZBZACKFBBEVWCGSWBMFEMXXOKRDIWGGBL
BTPNSKBACVTCSSRKUBURUDMZEWIZFESTMZEBWAFI
BKSGYHSLSFABTLTIUDXGAKROZYKOBHEAALPMLLKC
GVCWKKPTUYUGSTSSDWNKSIEICSNBTVADKANTKKPB
2. At the end of an hour after doing No. i, do the following
in the same manner as in No. i. Use this one to show
fatigue. Time i minute.
GAAQYEMPAZNTIBXGAIMRUSAWZAZWXAMXBDXAJZ
ECNABAHGDVSVFTCLAYKUKCWAFRWHTQYAFAAAOH
UOLJCCAKSZAUAFERFAWAFZAWXBAAAVHAMBATAD
KVSTVNAPLILAOXYSJUOVYIVPAAPSDNLKRQAAOJLE
AKNAAPLPAAAHYOAEKLNVFARJAEHNPWIBAYAQRK
UPDSHAAQGGHTAMZAQGMTPNURQNXIJEOWYCREJD
TXWAMQEAKHAOPXZWCAIRBRZNSOQAQLMDGUSGB
FUOFAAKYFGTMBLYZIJAAVAUAAACXDTVDACJSIUFMO
SNZMWAAAWHACAXHXQAXTDPUTYGSKGRKVLGKIM
JACINEVBGAOFHARPVEJCTQZAPJLEIQWNAHRBUIAS
YRQAQEAXJUDFOIMWZSAUCGVAOABMAYDYAAZJDAL
OYKFIUDBHTAGDAACDIXAMRPAGQZTAACVAOWLYX
WABBTHJJANEEFAAMEAACBSVSKALLPHANRNPKAZF
56
Teachers College Record
[194
Computation Tests
Counting dots. Draw a line through each dot counted. When
time is up put down your count in figures, i.e., 46. Time 30
seconds for each group.
D
Simultaneous adding. The teacher reads 3, 27, 35. The pupil
is to add i to each of the numbers and write results. Then he
must think of the numbers the teacher said and subtract 2 from
each one and then write the result. Then he must think of the
numbers the teacher gave and add 3 to each one and write the
result. Time 30 seconds for each operation.
1951
Open- Air Schools
57
Opposites
At the side of each word given below have the children write
the word that stands for the opposite. Each child should be
provided with a printed list of these words. Explain carefully
what is required before passing papers and do not use the same
words as are given on the lists when making explanation. One
half hour after column A has been done do column B. Tell
children to do all they can. If they cannot think of one to go
on to the next. Time 2 minutes for each column.
low
up
good
outside
quick
tall
big
loud
white
light
above
many
happy
false
like
rich
sick
glad
thin
empty
B
high
down
bad
inside
slow
short
little
soft
black
dark
below
sad
true
dislike
poor
well
sorry
thick
full
peace
Associated Words
(Part- wholes)
Write opposite the list of words given the names of the bigger
thing of which each word in the list is a part, as finger-hand.
Time i minute.
A
door (house, anything having a door)
pillow (bed, couch, and so forth)
letter (word, envelope)
leaf
button
nose
page
glass
58
Teachers College Record
[196
Ten minutes after giving list A, give list B. Time i minute.
B
book (page, cover, letter, and so forth)
tree (leaf, branch, and so forth)
room
toy-
name
boat
plant
fish
Tests of Discrimination
Montessori material can be used for this.
The Binet-Simon 1908 series of tests would also serve here.
Discrimination of Form
Give each pupil a sheet of forms like those below. Let him
study these figures for one minute. Collect the sheets and have
each child reproduce as many as he can remember. Let three
minutes be given for this reproduction, cautioning the pupils
to draw them as well as they can.
□ 0#C>HOOV#B
^AOnOO^OOo
<I>AO'&OA'S'[£]0
OASK^A^a ®^A
197] Open-Air Schools 59
Memory
For rote memory.
I. Words. — The teacher reads list A once slowly. As soon as
the teacher has finished the reading the pupil writes down as
many of the words as he can remember. Slip A is then collected
and the next list read. Time for each list, 3 minutes.
A
B
C
D
E
book
she
long
true
school
read
desk
green
break
teacher
one
black
arm
friend
book
bat
good
rich
knife
desk
doll
stone
rose
out
pen
play
ring
read
if
dress
add
sup
run
spell
bell
dish
word
2. Sentences. — The teacher reads each sentence separately
after which the pupils write down as much as they can remember.
Time allowed for each sentence, 3 minutes.
a. I have one head, I have two hands, I have ten fingers.
b. One and two are three, three and four are seven, five and
six make more than ten.
c. I sit in a seat, I read from a book, I write with a pencil.
d. I get up in the morning, I go to school, after school I
play, after play I go to bed.
Memory for ideas.
Read once to the class some story suitable to the third grade
but unfamiliar to the pupils. Have them reproduce as much
as they can remember of it. Divide the story read into as many
parts as it has words standing for ideas. Count the number of
ideas the children are able to reproduce and grade accordingly.
By dividing into ideas, the following is what is meant:
I 2 3 4 5
An Indian | once | chased | a squirrel [ into cloudland.
IX
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for delicate children. Journal of Outdoor Life, March, 1910.
New York City.
Talbot, Winthrop F. The Physical Basis of Attention. Address and
Proceedings of National Education Association, pp. 932-936,
1908.
203] Open- Air Schools 65
Taylor^ D. M. Bermerside Open-air School, 1910. School Hygiene,
2:507-13, 1911-
Thiel, Peter J. Die Waldschule in der freien Natur, eine padagogische
Notwendigkeit und Moglichkeit. Internat. Kongress f. Schul-
hygiene, Nuremburg, Vol. 2, pp. 346-352, April, 1904.
Thorndike, Edward Lee. Notes on Child Study. Teachers College,
New York.
Todd, John B., M. D. Fresh Air School Rooms and a New Method of
Testing Air for Dust. The Journal of the New York State
Teachers' Association, pp. 48-53, March, 1914.
Van P*elt, John V. The Architecture of Open-air Schools. Fourth
International Congress on School Hygiene. Transactions, Vol.
II, pp. 96-101. Buffalo, 1913.
ViDAL, A. and C. Robertson. (Delegates from Argentina.) El Aire
Libre de la Pedagogia Cientifica la Tuberculosis-Profilaxis
Escolar. Fourth International Congress on School Hygiene.
Transactions, Vol. II, pp. 154-165. Buffalo, 1913.
Watt, William E. Fresh Air for Average School Children. The Sur-
vey, pp. 866-869, March 5, 1910. New York City.
Whipple, Guy M. Manual of Mental and Physical Measurements.
Warwick and York, Baltimore.
Williams, Ralph P. Sheffield Open-air School. British Journal of
Tuberculosis, pp. 101-106, April, 1910. G. E. Stechert and
Company, New York City.
' — . Sheffield Open-air Recovery School. School Hygiene, Vol. I,
No. 3, pp. 136-143, March, 1910. School Hygiene Publishing
Company, 2 Charlotte Street. London, W.
WiNG^ Frank E. Report of Chicago's First Outdoor School and Its
Results. The Chicago Tuberculosis Institute, 158 Adams
Street. Chicago, November, 1909.
Wood, F. T. H. Darlington Open-air School. School Hygiene, 2:282-86,
1911.
Woodruff, I. Ogden. Fresh Air Schools in New York City. Fourth
International Congress on School Hygiene. Transactions, Vol.
II, pp. 80-91. Buffalo, 1913.
An Open-air School for Consumptives. The Barnsley experiment.
School Government Chronicle, 85:194-95; 216-17, I9ii.
Boston Outdoor School. Outlook, 95:603-604, 1910.
Boston Schools to have Open-air Rooms. The Survey, 23:244-248, 1909.
Ferryboats as Schools. The Survey, 22:798-799, 1909.
Open-air Schools in England. Progress, 3:278-279, 1908.
Open-air Schools. In United States Bureau of Education, Report, 1911.
Vol. I, pp. 142-143.
Open-air School Raises Attendance. The Survey, 27:1259-1260, 1911.
Open-air Treatment for Children. Outlook, 94:232-233, 1910.
66 Teachers College Record [204
Projet de Reglement des £coIes de Plein Air. Hygiene Scolaire, pp.
114-119, April, 1910.
The London County Council Open-air Schools. I*rogress, 2 :2i6, igo8.
Reports
Atnencan
Outdoor Schools. Issued by the Boston Association for the Relief and
Control of Tuberculosis. August, 1909. (A pamphlet of thirty
pages, containing accounts of the Providence and Boston
schools, the report of the Boston School Committee mentioned
above, and a bibliography.)
Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. The Phoebe Anna Thorne Open-air Model
School. October, 1913.
Chicago, Illinois. Chicago's First Outdoor School for Tuberculous Chil-
dren. Issued by the Chicago Tuberculosis Institute. Novem-
ber, 1909.
Montclair, New Jersey. Report of the Board of Education, 1912-1913.
New York City. Twelfth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of
Schools to the Board of Education, pp. 104-107, 19 10.
. Thirteenth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of
Schools to the Board of Education, 191 1.
. Fourteenth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools
to the Board of Education, 1912.
. Fifteenth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools
to the Board of Education, 1913.
Providence, Rhode Island. Report of School Committee, pp. 51-56, 1907-
1908.
. Report of School Committee, pp. 54-55, 1908-1909.
. Report of School Committee, pp. 24-26, 1910-1911.
'. Report of School Committee, pp. 20-21, 1911-1912.
Rochester, New York. Board of Education, Fifty-fifth Report, for the
years 1908- 1909- 19 10, pp. 9-22-24.
English
Bradford. Thackley Open-air School. Report of the Medical Inspector.
Bradford Education Committee, 1908.
Great Britain. Board of Education. Annual report for 1908 of Chief
Medical Officer. Special schools for defective children, pp.
107-19. Open-air schools, p. 121. London, Eyre and Spottis-
woode, Ltd., 1910.
. Annual Report for 1910 of Chief Medical Officer. Qosure
and exclusion from school, pp. 20-22. Special schools for blind,
deaf, physically defective, and eoileptic children, pp. 187-203.
Education of feeble-minded children, pp. 206-19. Open-air edu-
cation, pp. 221-31. London, Eyre and Spottiswoode, Ltd., 191 1.
205] Open- Air Schools 67
Halifax, County Borough of. Report on Bermerside Open-air Schools,
May 15 to October 14, 1909; April 25 to October 14, 1910.
London. County Council. Report of Medical Officer for 1909. Open-
air schools, p. 15. Exclusion of children, pp. 54-55 (tables,
diagrams). Special schools, pp. 69-93. London, printed by
Southwood, Smith and Company, Ltd., 1910.
. Education Committee. Open-air school, Bostall Wood
(Plumstead). Report of the Education Committee of the
Council submitting ... a report by the educational adviser
on experiments conducted in Germany in connection with open-
air schools, and ... a joint report of the medical officer and
the executive officer on the open-air school carried on in Bos-
tall Wood between 22d July and 19th October, 1907. London
printed for the London County Council by J. Truscott and
Son, Ltd., 1908, 27 pp., plates, diagrams.
Report of the Education Committee of the Council, sub-
mitting a Joint Report of the Education Officer and the Medical
Officer (Education) on the open-air schools, held at Birley
House, Dulwich, Montpelier House, Upper Holloway, and
Shrewsbury House, Woolwich, between the loth June and 31st
October, 1908. (London, 1909.)
Manchester. The Manchester County School for Town Children.
Fourth Annual Report, pp. 1-12, 1907.
Fifth Annual Report of Education Committee, pp. 50-54; 220-223, 1906-
1907.
Sheffield. Report of the School Medical Officer on the Open-air Recov-
ery School at Whitley Wood, December, 1909.
German
Elberfeld. Waldschule in Bergischen Lande. Verein fur Gemeinwohl,
Elberfeld.
Italian
Grilli, Gaetano. La Scliola AH' Aperto. Tipografia ditta Ludovico Cec-
chini, 191 1, Rome.
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Educational Psychology. Edward L. Thorndike, Professor of Educational
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{Cont\Hu*d on next page)
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Worship in the Sunday School. A Study in the Theory and Practice of Worship.
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$1.25.
The Theory and Practice of Teaching Art. Arthur W. Dow, Professor of Fine
Arts, Teachers College. Revised edition. $1.50.
A Bibliography on Educational Hygiene and Physical Education. Thomas Denisom
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The Old Testament in the Sunday School. A. J. William Mykrs, Ph.D. 141
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Idiocy and its Treatment by the Physiological Method. Dr. Seguin. 202 pages.
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The Constructive Interests of Children. Ernest B. Kent. 78 pages. Price $.50
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History of Education as a Professional Subject. W. H. Burnham and Henry
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Bibliography of Children's Reading. Franklin T. Baker. 129 pages. Paper
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Mental and Social Measurements. Professor Edward L. Thorndike. Revised
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Value of Science. H. Poincare, Member of Institute of France. Authorized
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TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETINS
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(Continued on next page)
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Teachers College Record
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME I— ipoo
No. I ' The History and Function of Teachers College — Papers by
January" Dean Russell and Ex-President Hervey. (Out of print).
No. 2, March Nature Study — Miss Carse and Professor Lloyd.
No. 3, May English. (Out of print).
No. 4 Syllabi of Education Courses — President Butler, Dean Rus-
September sell and Professors Monroe and Dutton.
No. 5, NoTcmber Hand Work. (Out of print).
No. I
January
No 3
March
No. 3
May
No. 4
September
No. 5, November
No. I
January
No. 3
March
N08. 3 and 4
May, September
No. 5
November
No. I
January
No. 3
March
No. 3
May
No. 4 1 September
No. 5
November
CONTENTS OF VOLUME II— 1901
Biology in the Horace Mann High School — Professors Lloyd
and Bigelow.
Geography in the Horace Mann School — Professor Dodge and
Miss KiRCHWEY.
Child Study — Sources of Material and Syllabi of College Courses
— Professor Thorndikb.
Syllabi of Courses in Elementary aiui Applied Psychology —
Professor Thorndikb.
Manual Training. (Out of print).
CONTENTS OF VOLUME III— 1902
Horace Mann School; Dedication Number — Papers by Presi-
dent Oilman, Professor Dutton and others, on Present-
Day Problems in Education. (Out of print).
Chemistry and Physics in the Horace Mann High School — Pro-
fessor WooDHULL. (Out of print).
Helps for the Teaching of Caesar — Professor Lodgb and Messrs.
HuBBELL and Little. (Out of print).
The Speyer School. Part I — Its History and Purpose — Dean
Russell, Professor McMurry and Mr. Burks.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IV— 1903
The Speyer School. Part II — Its Curriculum and its Relation to
Teachers College — Professor McMurry and Mr. Burks.
McUhematics in the Elementary School — Professors Smith and
McMurry. (Out of print).
New Methods of Teaching Modern Languages — Doctor Leo-
pold Bahlsen.
University Extension — Professor Sykes.
The Philosophy and Psychology of the Kindergarten — Dean
Russell and Professors Thorndikb and MacVannel.
(Continued on next page)
ADVERTISEMENTS
Teachers College Record
{Cottiinued)
Wo. X, January
No. 2
March
No. 3
May
No. 4
September
No. 5
November
No. I, January
No. 2
March
No. 3
Hay
No. 4
September
No. 5
November
CONTENTS OF VOLUME V— 1Q04
Music in the Schools — Professor Farnsworth and Miss Hoper.
The Curriculum of the Elementary School — Professors Duttom,
Pearson, Richards, Wood and Woodhull.
Experimental Work in Elementary Schools — Professor Mc-
MuRRY and others.
Syllabi of Education and English Courses — Professors Mac-
Vannel, Abbott, Baker and Sykes. (Out of print).
Kindergarten Education — Professor Runyan, Miss O'Grady
and Miss Mills.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME VI— 1905
Educational Psychology — Professors Ellis and Thorndikb.
School Hygiene — Professors Wood and Kinne, and Doctori
Jacobi, Weeks and Kerley.
City School Expenditures — Dr. Strayer. (Out of print). Re-
issued as No. 5 Teachers College Contributions to Educa-
tion, price $i.co, cloth bound.
The Educational Theories of Herbart and Froebel — Professor
MacVannel. (Out of print). Reissued as No. 4 Teachers
College Contributions to Education, price $1.00, cloth bound.
Some Fiscal Aspects of Public Education in American Cities —
Professor Elliott. (Out of print). Reissued as No. 6
Teachers College Contributions to Education, price $x.oo,
cloth bound.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME VII— 1906
No. I, January Elementary School Curriculum. First Grad^. (Out of print).
No. 2 Secondary School Curriculum. Part One. Language, History,
March Matliematics.
No. 3, May Secondary School Curriculum. Part Two. Science and Art,
No. 4, September Elementary School Curriculum. Second and Third Grades. (Out
of print).
No. 5, November Studies in the Teaching of English Grammar.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME VIII— 1907
No. I, January Elementary School Curriculum. Fourth and Fifth Grades.
No. 2, March Experimental Studies in Education.
No. 3, May Elementary School Curriculum. Sixth Grade.
No. 4, September Elementary School Curriculum. Seventh Grade. (Out of print).
No. 5, November The Industrial Improvement Schools of Wurttemberg.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX— 1908
No. I, January A Bibliography of Children's Reading. Professor Baker.
No. 2, March A Bibliography of Children's Reading (Continued).
No. I and No. 2 on Children's Reading have been reissued as one pamphlet,
125 pages, price 60c. The original separate No. i is out of print.
No. 3, May The Theory and Practice of Teaching Art — Professor Dow.
An enlarged and revised reprint of this, bound in boards, has been issued.
Price $1.50.
No. 4, September Educational Museums — B. R. Andrews.
No. 5, November Teaching of History — Professor Johnson. (Out of print).
{Continued on next page)
ADVERTISEMENTS
Teachers College Record
{Continued)
CONTENTS OF VOLUME X— 1909
No. I, January The Teaching of Arithmetic — Professor Smith. (Reprinted)
No. 3, March Studies in Secondary Education.
No. 3, May Domestic Science Equipment. Professor Kinne. (Out of print
in Record form)
No. 4, September The Making of a Girls' Trade School. Professor Woolman.
(Out of print in Record form)
No. 5, November Articles on Kindergarten Education. Professor MacVannel
and Miss Patty Smith Hill. (Reprinted)
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XI— 19 10
No. X The Teaching of Physical Science. Professor John F. Wood-
January hull.
No. 2, March Handwriting. Professor E. L. Thorndike. (Reprinted)
No. 3, May Nurses Education. Edited by Professor Nutting.
No. 4 Stenographic Reports of High School Lessons. Edited by Miss
September Romiett Stevens. (Reprinted)
No. 5 Studies in Educational Administration. Edited by Professor
November Strayer. (Out of print.)
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XII— 191 1
No. 1 Studies in Elementary School Practice. Edited by Professor
January Bonser. (Out of print.)
No. 2 The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic. Professor Henry Suz-
March zallo. (Out of print in Record form.)
No. 3, May Higher Girls' School of Prussia. Dr. C. William Pretttman.
No. 4, September Industrial Education. Professor Sykes and Professor Bonser.
(Out of print.)
No. 5, November The Teaching of Spelling. Professor Suzzallo. (Out of
print in Record form.)
No. I
January
No. 2
March
No. 3
May
No. 4
September
No. 5
November
No. I
January
No. 2
March
No. 3
May
*No.
No. 4
September
No. 5
November
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIII— 191 2
Comparative Experimental Teaching in Spelling. Professor
Suzzallo and Mr. Pearson.
Present Teaching of Mathematics in Germany. Professor
Smith with co-operation of graduate students.
Health Instruction in the Elementary School. Professor Wood
and Miss Rbesor.
A Scale for the Measurement of Quality in English Composition
of Young People. Professor Hillegas.
Number Games and Number Rhymes. Professor Smith, and
certain students of Teachers College.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIV— 1913
Educational Surveys and Vocational Guidance. Leonard
Righter and Robert J. Leonard.
Curriculum of Horace Mann Elementary School, Arithmetic,
Geography, History, and Music*
Curriculum of Horace Mann Elementary School, English,
Nature-Study, Industrial, Household and Fine Arts, Phys-
ical Education.*
and No. 3 reprinted in one volume. Separate numbers out of print.
Formal English Grammar as a Discipline. Thomas H.
Briggs, Ph.D.
Scale for Measuring Achievement in Drawing. Professor
Edward L. Thorndike.
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