^be Open Gourt
A MONTHLY MAGAZINE
2)crotc& to tbe Science of IReUoion, tbe IRellaion of Science, anb tbe
Bitension ot tbe IRellGious parliament 1IC)ea
Editor: Dr. Paul Carus. At.»rint , i ^ C. Hbgblbr.
Assistant Editor: T. J. McCormack. Jtssocxaies. ^ ^^^^ Carus.
VOL. XIV. (no. 12) December, 1900. NO. 535
CONTENTS :
Frontispiece. Friedrich Max Mueller.
On Greek Religion and Mythology. — Monsters. — Minor Deities. — Asklepios
and His Apostle Apollonius of Tyana. — Tartaros. Profusely Illus-
trated from the Monuments and Statuary of Classical Antiquity.
Editor 705
Cornelius Petrus Tiele. In Commemoration of His Seventieth Birthday.
With Portrait of Professor Tiele, Hitherto Unpublished. By Morris
Jastrow, Jr., Professor in the University of Pennsylvania . . , 728
Friedrich Max Milller. (1823-igoo.) Biographical and Philosophical.
Thomas J. McCormack 734
The Rev. W. W. Seymour on the Prehistoric Cross. With Illustrations.
Editor 745
The Chinese Altar of Burnt Offering. With Illustration of the Temple of
Heaven. Communicated 752
The Paris Peace Congress and the Transvaal War. Yves Guyot .... 756
The Child. A Poem. Alex. F. Chamberlain, Ph. D 757
Dr. Carus' s History of the Devil 759
Eros and Psyche. With Illustrations from Thorwaldsen and a Reproduc-
tion of the Eros of Praxiteles 760
Hume's Enquiry Concerning Hu?nan Understanding. With Reproduction of
Portrait of Hume by Sir Joshua Reynolds 762
Reincarnate. A. Poem. Lillian C. Barnes 763
Book Reviews 764
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The Open Court
A MONTMI.Y MAGAZINK
Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and
the Extension of the Religious Parliament Idea.
VOL. XIV. (NO. 12.
DECEMBER, 1900.
NO. 535
Copyright by The Open Court Publishing Co., 1900.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY
BY THE EDITOR.
M
MONSTERS.
OST of the monsters with which the Greek heroes contend are
the same as in the folklore of all nations, — dragons. In ad-
GORGONEION.
Ancient face of the Gorgon Medusa.
dition, we have many-headed snakes, wild boars, the Minotaur or
man-bull, the Chimera or goat-fiend (reminding us of the Ass)'rian
7o6
THE OPEN COURT.
goat-demons), and above all the Gorgon Medusa, whose head is
used as an amulet to drive away evil spirits according to the logic
that devils must be driven out by Beelzebub, the chief of devils.
The Assyrians placed statues of the disease-spreading South Wind
at their south entrances, because they believed that if the South
Wind devil saw his own picture he would be frightened away at
the sight of its ugliness.
Homer speaks of Medusa's head as a frightful monster in the
Under World (A 634 and A 36). Other authors^ mention its evil eye
Medusa Rondanini.
A later and more beautiful representation. (Glyptothek, Munich.)
and gnashing of teeth. It is stated that no one could look at its
face without being horror-stricken. Its mere aspect was blood-
curdling and petrified the beholder with fear.
Gorgo,'^ the daughter of the two sea-monsters, Phorkys and
Keto, lived on the island Sarpedon in the Western ocean, near the
realm of the dead and not far from the beautiful garden of the im-
mortals. She expected to become a mother by Poseidon, when she
Hes. Scut., 235; see also Apollodorus II., 4, 27
Vopyoj or Pop-yuJc, also Fopya and Topyofrj.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.
707
was killed, according to the Athenian version, by Athena (hence
called the Gorgon-slayer, yopyo<f>6vos:), and, according to the Argivian
Pegasos Led to Water '
Relief in the Palace Spada. (E. Braun, .-hil/'ke Basrclic/s, pi. I,
B. D., p. 300,)
version, by Perseus, the conqueror.'-^ From the wound Pegasus,
the winged horse, and Chrysaor, the golden man, were born. On
1 Pegasos originated from the blood of the Medusa (Gorge) and served several heroes of the
solar type as a steed. He opened with a stroke of his hoof a spring on Mount Helicon called
Hippocrena or Horse-spring (Paus., 9, 31, 3), which was afterwards r^ garded as the well of poetic
inspiration. Pegasos, as the symbol of poetry, is a modern idea, not found in the classics.
2 n£p<reu9, literally the " the destroyer," viz., of the monster, from nip^av.
7o8
THE OPEN COURT.
some monuments the soul is represented escaping in the shape of a
diminutive human figure.
It will be noticed that the oldest representations of the Medusa
are both frightful and ugly, but with the advance of Greek art the
iiiHHaiiiiiiiiBilittiiiMli
'I f-'itiitJiMi'^^gAi
The Deliverance of Andromeda by Perseus.
Archaic representation. Pegasos springs from the blood of the Medusa.
(After Benndorf, Metopeti vo7i Sclinunt, pi. I.)
terrible is transfigured by beauty and changed into a fascinatinj
form of awe-inspiring grandeur.
MINOR DEITIES.
There are innumerable minor deities that deserve mention :
Pan, the god of the shepherds ; Seilenos and Satyrs, the servants of
Dionysos; river gods, Nymphs and Naiads, or water spirits; Dryads
or oak-tree spirits; Oreads or mountain spirits; Iris, the rainbow,
I iiiM.i-,K A ' <]■ Akezzo.
The monster slain by Bellerophon. (Now at Florence.
Hellekophgn Slaying the Chim.kra.
(A terra-cotta statue of Melos, now in the British Museum.)
7IO
THE OPEN COURT.
who serves as a messenger of the gods ; Ganymede, the Phrygian
youth whom Zeus selected for his cup-bearer; Hymen, the god of
marriage ; Eos, the goddess of the dawn ; the winds of the four
quarters; Eris, the goddess of quarrel; the Harpies or death angels
who snatch away children from their mothers; the Sirens^ or Greek
Loreleis who tempt the seafarer to approach the cliff on which
tliey are seated ; Momos, the god of comedies ; Komos, the god of
jollity; Asklepios, the god of medicine and healing; Hygeia, the
goddess of health ; Tyche or Fortune, the goddess of good luck ;
Nike, the goddess of victory; Nemesis, the goddess of vengeance,
retribution, and punishment ; Kairos, a personification of oppor-
Iris, the Messenger of the Gods.
Hymen.
tunity; Thanatos and Hypnos, death and sleep; Morpheus and
Oneiros, slumber and dreams ; the Centaurs, who were half-horse
and half-man; and Castor and Pollux, the twins, called the Dios-
The figure of Nike has become the artistic prototype of the
Christian angels. The idea of a divine messenger or ayyeXos was
1 The Sirens were originally the souls of the dead, as will appear further on.
2 The Dioscuri were the sons of Leda and Zeus. The story goes that Zeus approached Leda
as a swan and that she bore the twin gods in an egg. One of them, Castor, was mortal ; the other,
Pollux, immortal. When the former died, the latter did not want to live without his twin-brother.
So he requested their father to allow him to die for his brother and to let them share alternately
in the boon of immortality. They represent morning and evening stars, being the same planet
and making their appearance alternately.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.
7"
common to all the ancient nations and the appellation bo7ius angelus
occurs in pagan inscriptions. The best protecting angel of emper-
ors and kings \vas Nike, the goddess of Victor}', and we find her
frequentl}' represented by their sides and on the hands.
The Hebrew ^vord for angel *?;»?^ {inaldch') also means "mes-
senger" and is used in its original sense in the old Testament
Ganymede, the Phrygian Boy.
Carried up to Olympos by the eagle of Zeus
(Marble statue by Leochares, Vatican.)
to denote men sent out on errands and ambassadors of kings.
Malach Jahveh ("^n": "N'P'5), i. e., messenger of JH\'H means angel,
as the word is now used.
All these divinities found more or less representation in art
according to the needs of practical life.
712
HE OPEN COURT,
ASKLEPIOS AND HIS APOSTLE APOLLONIUS OF TYANA
Asklepios^ was not a god in the days of Homer but only a
skilful physician, the disciple of Chiron the wise Centaur. Being a
'I'iHHMhiilnH
The Nike of Paionios. (After Treu's Restoration.)-
healer, however, he grew in importance and a number of contra-
dictory legends sprang up concerning him, one told by the author
1 Better known in English under his Latinised name ^sculapius.
2 See Treu, Olympia, p. 182 ff., cf. Roscher, 39, p. 341.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.
713
Vase-picture in red. (After Elite cermn , I., 91.)
^r^^^^isis^y
Angels at the Bed of a Dying Man.'
Relief on an Etruscan Cinerary of Volterra. {Arch. Zt,if., 1846, pi. 47.)
IThe angel of death stands at the head of the bed, sword in hand, the bonus angelus grasps
the hand of one of the survivors, either comforting him or pledging him to remain faithful to the
memory of the deceased. It was customary in Rome for the oldest son and principal heir to inhale
the last breath of the dying person and so to inspire, as it were, his soul, as Virgil says (Aen. IV.,
684I extrejnuni halitum ore legere.
714
THE OPEN COURT
of the Homeric hymn XIV, another by Pindar, and a third one by
Pausanias.^ One thing is clear, however, that many Asklepian
priests were skilled physicians, and it would seem even that several
of their temples were used as hospitals and sanitariums.
The Asklepian priests, however, though there is reason to
credit them with considerable knowledge of medical skill, were at
the same time healers of the soul. They demanded continence,
propriety, and faith in the saving grace of their tutelary god ; and
Kairos.
Personifying the moment of luck and success. -
{Arch. Ztg., 1875, pi. I. B. D., II., 772.)
an inscription over the entrance of the temple of Asklepios in Epi-
dauros reads : "None but the pure shall enter here."
An inscription discovered on the southern slope of the Acrop-
iPausanias tells us the Epidaurian version, stating that Koronis, the daughter of King Phle-
gias, visiting Epidauros on the northeastern coast of Argolis, bore a child to Apollo, and fearing
her father's wrath, exposed it on the mountain slope where it was found by the goatherd Ares-
thanas and educated by Chiron. Aresthanas at once knew the divinity of the baby, whom he
called Asklepios. because when he lifted it up a light streamed from it as bright as a flash of
lightning.
2 Kairos walks on winged wheels and holds a pair of balances in one hand and a razor in the
other, for, says the Greek proverb, the decision lies on "the edge of a razor" (eTri JvpoO ax/i^s,
cf. Homer, K., 173). The relief shows a young man "taking fortune by the forelock." An old
man standing behind Kairos extends his left arm, but too late ; he has missed his chance ; and
repentance (fxeravoia) turns her head away weeping.
ON GREEK RELIOION ANM) M\ 'IHOLOGV.
715
ASKLEPIOS, OR JiSCULAPIUS.
(Now in Florence.)
1 Judging from a coin of Pergamon (published in Baumeister's Z)^«-6>«;i/^^, p. 138;, archjeol-
ogists believe that this statue represents the type of the statue made by Phyromachos for the
^sculapius temple of Pergamon. Cf. B. D., 139.
7l6 THE OPEN COURT.
olis at Athens records a prayer of Diophantos addressed to Askie-
pios, which reads as follows : ^
" Save me, and heal my grievous gout, O blessed and most mighty presence,
I adjure thee by thy father, to whom I loudly pray. No one of mortals can give a
surcease from such pangs. Thou alone, divinely blessed one, hast the power, for
the supreme gods bestowed on thee, all-pitying one, a rich gift for mortals. Thou
art their appointed deliverer from pain."
Asklepios is not addressed as a god, though he is invoked as a
divine presence, and his common designation is Son of God {filius
lit'i) and saviour (o-wriys). A legend reports that once when Askle-
pios had resuscitated a man and prevented his descent into the
realm of death, Zeus slew him with his thunderbolt at the request
of Hades, the grim god of the Under World.
The greatest representative of Asklepios, however, ApoUonius
of Tyana, was a man who for some time in the history of our re-
ligious evolution appeared as a powerful rival of Jesus of Nazareth,
aspiring to the honor of being worshipped as the Saviour of man-
kind.
It is perhaps not an accident that Tyana is a town of Cappa-
docia, not far from Tarsus, the birth-place of the Apostle St. Paul.
Asia Minor was the region in which the religious fermentation that
permeated the classical world from the days of Alexander the Great
was strongest ; and we have reason to believe that ApoUonius was
as pure-minded and earnest as his countryman Paul. Philostratos,
a courtier of the literary circle of the Empress Julia Domna, com-
piled the life, of this pagan saint, his main sources being the ac-
count of Maximus of ^Egae, for several years a fellow-philosopher
of the Tyanian while both were pursuing the ascetic life of the
Pythagorean brotherhood, and the wondrous tales of Daneis of
Nineveh concerning the travels and adventures of ApoUonius. The
similarity of many of these stories to the miracles of Jesus excited
in the early days of Christianity the jealousy of the Christian monks,
as a result of which all the works of this pagan saint were destroyed,
and we know his personality only from the distorted reflexion of it
in the book of Philostratos, from the caricatures of Lucian and
Apuleius, and finally from the incidental remarks of ancient authors,
and the strictures of the Church Fathers.
Men of sober judgment, among them Dio Cassius the histor-
rian, believed in some at least of the miracles of ApoUonius, and
the Christians, among them Origen,^ do not as a rule deny them.
1 See Prof. Augustus C. Merriam's interesting article " yEsculapia as Revealed by Inscrip-
tions " in the May number of Gaillard's Medical Journal (Vol. XI., No. 5).
1 Contra Celsum. VI., 41.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MVTHOI.OGV. 717
Eusebius of Cassarea takes Hierocles to task for giving preference
to Apollonius over Jesus, in respect of the former's having lived a
more exemplary life as well as having performed more numerous
and better attested miracles. The same author quotes approvingly
a sentence from Apollonius embodj'ing his confession of faith.
Eusebius says :
"Even the well known Apollonius of Tyana, whose name is upon all men's
lips for praise, is said to write much in the same strain in his work on sacrifice
about the first and great God.
" There is one Highest God above and apart from the lower gods. Beyond
the reach of the contaminating world of sense as he is, nothing apprehensible by
any organ of sense, neither burnt offerings nor bloodless sacrifices, can reach him,
not even unuttered prayers. He is the substance of things seen, and in him, plants,
animals, men. and the elements of which the world is made, have life and exist.
He is the noblest of existences, and men must duly worship him with the only
faculty in them to which no material organ is attached, their speculative reason.'
TARTAROS.
The realm of the dead was supposed to be underground. It
was called Hades (the invisible) or Tartaros ; but both names, es-
pecially the former one, are also used to denote the God of the
Under World himself. The dead live there as mere shades or blood-
less specters, watched by the terrible Kerberos, a dog with three
heads.
The idea that the living could commune with the dead was
quite prevalent in Greece and led to necromancy and psychomancy,
a branch of sorcery which had for its object the conjuring of the
ghosts of the deceased for the purpose of making them proclaim
oracles or prophecies.
The souls of the dead were conceived sometimes as winged
heads, sometimes as fleeting shadows or images of the personali-
ties of the deceased, both conceptions being of Egyptian origin.^
The former can be traced to the notion of the Ba, the soul as con-
sciousness pictured as a hawk with a human head, the latter to the
Ka, i. e., the spirit of a man in a dream-like form of body at the
time of his death. The so called tomb-sirens, found in great num-
bers in Greek cemeteries, were originally intended as representa-
tives of the souls of deceased persons.
The god Hades is also called Pluto, and being the owner of
all the uncounted underground treasures, is at the same time the
god of wealth. The queen of the dead is Persephone, whose ab-
1 Birds with human heads also figure in Assyrian mythology.
7i8
THE OPEN COURT.
duction by Pluto is a favorite subject of decoration on Greek sar-
cophagi.
Access to the Land of the Shades was deemed possible in the
Funeral Siren.'
Found in Athens. (After a photograph, B. />., p. 1644.)
west of Europe near the pillars of Heracles, the present Gibraltar.
Odysseus visited the place and after him .^neas. Psyche descended
1 This form of the sirens preserves most closely the Egyptian type of the ba, the hawk with a
human head representing the soul of a deceased person. Their original significance, it appears,
was soon lost and the sirens were believed to be supernatural beings of transcendent beauty
lamenting the dead. DioHorus Siculus informs us that at Hephaistion's incineration wooden
sirens contained the singers who sang the dirges (xvii, 115). Later on the sirens were represented
standing as winged virgins with birds' feet, According to Homer's Odyssey, they are antique
Loreleis whose enchanting voices signify peril and lead to death.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY,
719
through, a cavity in the wild mountain recesses of the Taygetos in
Lacedaemon, called the breathing-hole of Tartaros.
The rivers of the Under World are the Styx (the heinous
stream), the Acheron (the river of woe), the Kokytos (the waters of
wailing), and the Pyriphlegethon (the floods of fire). Charon ferries
the shades across the Styx, provided they have been properly buried
Front View of the Divine Dove.'
Ancient bronze figure found at Van, commonly called Semiramis, but apparently a
form of the goddess Istar who was worshipped under the form of a dove.
(After Lenormant, Vhistoirc dc V Or.. Vol. IV., p. 124 and 125.)
Rear View of the Divine Do\
and on payment of a fee, the smallest coin being sufficient, which
was placed in the mouth of the dead. The souls drink of the waters
of Lethe or oblivion, and lead a most monotonous, dreary life, with
the exception of ^ the great criminals who are tortured according to
1 The artistic conception of a bird with a human head was not wanting in Western Asia, but
the significance of these figures is not as yet definitely determined.
720
THE OPEN COURT.
their deserts. Tantalos suffers hunger and thirst with water and
fruits in sight; Ixion is forged on a fiery wheel; Sisyphos rolls up
hill a big boulder which always slips down again ; Tityos, the giant
who made an attempt to assault Leto, is lacerated by vultures :
and the Danaides try to fill a leaking vessel.
The descent of the souls of the slain suitors is dramatically
described in the last book of the Odyssey:
" But Cyllenian ' Hermes called out the souls of the suitors ; and he held in
his hands a beautiful golden rod, with which he soothes the eyes of men when he
wishes, and raises them up again from sleep. With this indeed he drove them,
moving them on; and they whirring followed. As when bats in the recess of
a divine cave flit about whirring, when one falls from its place off the rock, and
they cling to one another : so they went together whirring, and gentle Hermes led
them down the murky ways. And they came near the streams of the ocean and
W¥M:-m'
^^0
Greek Skeleton Dance. Silver Cup Found at Boscoreale.
the Leucadian rock,- and they went near the gates of the Sun, and the people of
dreams: and they quickly came to the meadow of Asphodel, where dwell the
souls, the images of the dead."
Death is never represented by Greek artists as a skeleton,
which is the customary conception of the Middle Ages. Skeletons
appear on Greek monuments, for instance on the beautiful silver
mug found in Boscoreale, where the skeletons of poets and sages
admonish the toper to enjoy the fleeting moment, for soon his body
will be laid in the grave Death is commonly conceived as the twin
brother of sleep, a calm youth who might be mistaken for Eros,
the god of love, were it not for the absence of the bow and arrows
as well as for the inverted position of the torch of life in his hands.
1 So called after the mountain Cyllene in Arcad
2 The cliff of wliiteiiirg bones.
/hich was sacred to Heitnes.
ON GKKKK RKl.lGION AND MVTHOI.OCn
721
The idea of death is so closel}' connected with the deities of
life that almost all of them are represented in some way by their
relation to the world underground, in which capacity they are called
chthonian.i Thus we have a chthonian Zeus, a chthonian Aphro-
dite, a chthonian Dionysos, a chthonian Hermes, and even a chtho-
nian Eros.
The Etruscans regarded death as a terrible demon, an ugl}'
monster, carrying a weapon of slaughter in his hands. But this
belief was considerably modified under the influence of Greek civi-
lisation, and later monuments change the Etruscan god of death
into a Nike-like divinit}- with a sword, who is accompanied by the
good angel, acting as a comforter of the bereaved family.
The Goddess Istar.
Bas-relief in the British Museur
(Lenormant, V., p. 259.)
Charon Ferrying Lovers
Across the Styx.
Greek Scarabseus. (After Wiese-
ler, Denkm., II., 870.
B. D., 379.)
The eleventh book of the Odyssey is devoted to a description
of Odysseus's visit to the realm of the dead. Circe, the bewitching
nymph of the island in the sea, had advised Odysseus to consult the
blind prophet Tiresias who had passed into the Land of the Shades,
and to sacrifice a black ram and a black ewe to Pluto and Per-
sephone. But before our hero sets sail, one of his companions,
Elpenor, falls from a roof and dies.
Odysseus describes his adventures in these words :
" The ship reached the extreme boundaries of the deep-flowing ocean ; where
are the people and city of the Cimmerians, covered with shadow and vapour, nor
does the shining sun behold them with his beams, neither when he goes towards
the starry heaven, nor when he turns back again from heaven to earth ; but perni-
cious night is spread over hapless mortals. Having come there, we drew up our
Xi?ovio?, belonging
the earth, or being related to the Nether World.
722 THE OPEN COURT.
ship ; and we took out the two sheep ; and we ourselves went again to the stream
of the ocean, until we came to the place which Circe mentioned. There Perimedes
and Eurylochus made sacred offerings; but I, drawing my sharp sword from my
thigh, dug a trench, the width of a cubit each way ; and around it we poured liba-
tions to all the dead, first with mixed honey, then with sweet wine, again a third
time with water; and I sprinkled white meal over it. And I much besought the
unsubstantial heads of the dead, [promising, that] when I came to Ithaca, I would
offer up in my palace a barren heifer, whichever is the best, and would fill a pyre
with excellent things ; and that I would sacrifice separately to Tiresias alone a sheep
all black, which excels amongst our sheep.
" But when I had besought them, the nations of the dead, with vows and pray-
ers, then taking the two sheep, I cut off their heads into the trench, and the black
blood flowed : and the souls of the perished dead were assembled forth from Erebus,
[betrothed girls and youths, and much-enduring old men, and tender virgins, hav-
ing a newly grieved mind, and many war-renowned men wounded with brass-tipped
spears, possessing gore-smeared arms, who, in great numbers, were wandering
about the trench on different sides with a divine clamour ; and pale fear seized upon
me.] Then at length exhorting my companions, I commanded them, having skinned
the sheep which lay there, slain with the cruel brass, to burn them, and to invoke
the gods, Pluto and dread Persephone. But I. having drawn my sharp sword
from my thigh, sat down, nor did I suffer the powerless heads of the dead to draw
nigh the blood, before I inquired of Tiresias. And first the soul of my companion
Elpenor came ; for he was not yet buried beneath the wide-wayed earth; for we
left his body in the palace of Circe unwept for and unburied,' since another toil
[then] urged us. Beholding him, I wept, and pitied him in my mind, and address-
ing him, spoke winged words : ' O Elpenor, how didst thou come under the dark
west ? Thou hast come sooner, being on foot, than I with a black ship.'
" Thus I spoke; but he groaning answered me in discourse, ' O Zeus-born son
of Laertes, much contriving Odysseus, the evil destiny of the deity and the abundant
wine hurt me. Lying down on the roof of the palace of Circe, I did not think of
descending backwards. Having come to the long ladder, I fell down from the top ;
and my neck was broken from the vertebrae and my soul descended to Hades.
Now, I entreat thee by those who are [left] behind, and not present, by thy wife
and father, who nurtured thee when little, and Telemachus, whom thou didst leave
alone in thy palace ; for I know, that going hence from the house of Pluto, thou
wilt moor thy well-wrought ship at the island of ^aea : there then, O king, I ex-
hort thee to be mindful of me, nor, when thou departest, leave me behind, unwept
for, unburied, going at a distance, lest I should become some cause to thee of the
wrath of the gods : but burn me with whatever arms are mine, and build on the
shore of the hoary sea a monument for me, a wretched man, to be heard of even
by posterity ; perform these things for me, and fix upon the tomb the oar with
which I rowed whilst alive, being with my companions.'
"Thus he spoke; but I answering addressed him : 'O wretched one, I will
perform and do these things for thee.'
" Thus we sat answering one another with sad words ; I indeed holding my
sword off over the blood, but the image of my companion on the other side spoke
many things. And afterwards there came on the soul of my deceased mother,
1 It is a well-known superstition, that the ghosts of the dead were supposed to wander as long
as they remained unburied, and were not suffered to mingle with the other dead. Cf. Virg. Mn.
vi. 325, sqq. Lucan. i. II. Eur. Hec. 30. Phocylid. IVu/i gf). Heliodor. ^th. ii. p. 67.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.
723
Anticlea, daughter of magnanimous Autolycus, whom I left alive, on going to sa-
cred Ilium. I indeed wept beholding her, and pitied her in my mind ; but not even
thus, although grieving very much, did I suffer her to go forward near to the blood,
before I inquired of Tiresias. But at length the soul of Theban Tiresias came on
holding a golden sceptre, but me he knew and addressed :
" ' O Zeus-born son of Laertes, why, O wretched one, leaving the light of the
sun, hast thou come, that thou mayest see the dead and this joyless region ? but go
back from the trench, and hold off thy sharp sword, that I may drink the blood and
tell thee what is unerring.'
"Thus he spoke; but I retiring back, fixed my silver-hilted sword in the
Siren Taken from a Tomb.
Later conception. Now in the
Louvre. Bouillon Musee, IIL,
Bas-relief 6. B. D., 1645.
Herakles Plucking the Apple of
THE HeSPERIDES.
sheath ; but when he had drunk the black blood, then at length the blameless
prophet addressed me with words :
" 'Thou seekest a pleasant return, O illustrious Odysseus; but the deity will
render it difficult for thee; for I do not think that thou wilt escape the notice of
Poseidon, who has set wrath in his mind against thee, enraged because thou hast
blinded his dear son (Polyphaemon the Cyclops). But still, even so, . . . thou
mayest return to Ithaca, although suffering ills . . . but thou wilt find troubles in
thine house, overbearing men, who consume thy livelihood, wooing thy goddess-
like wife, and offering themselves for her dowry gifts. But certainly when thou
724 THE OPEN COURT.
comest thou wilt revenge their violence . . . but death will come upon thee away
from the sea, gentle, very much such a one, as will let thee die, taken with gentle
old age; and the people around thee will be happy: these things I tell thee true.'
" Thus he spoke : but I answering addressed him : ' O Tiresias, the gods them-
selves have surely decreed these things. But come, tell me this, and relate it truly.
I behold this the soul of my deceased mother, she sits near the blood in silence, nor
does she dare to look openly at her son, nor to speak to him. Tell me, O king, how
she can know me, being such a one.'
"Thus I spake; but he immediately answering addressed me: 'I will tell
thee an easy word, and will place it in thy mind ; whomsoever of the deceased dead
thou sufferest to come near the blood, he will tell thee the truth ; but whomsoever
thou grudgest it, he will go back again.'
" Thus having spoke, the soul of king Tiresias went within the house of Pluto,
when he had spoken the oracles : but I remained there firmly, until my mother
came and drank of the blood ; but she immediately knew me, and lamenting ad-
dressed to me winged words :
" ' My son, how didst thou come under the shadowy darkness, being alive? but
it is difficult for the living to behold these things ; [for in the midst there are mighty
rivers and terrible streams, first indeed the ocean, which it is not possible to pass,
being on foot, except any one have a well-built ship.] Dost thou now come here
wandering from Troy, with thy ship and companions, after a long time? nor hast
thou seen thy wife in thy palace ? '
" Thus she spoke ; but I answering addressed her, ' O my mother, necessity led
me to Hades, to consult the soul of Theban Tiresias. For I have not yet come near
Achaia, nor have I ever stept upon my own land, but I still wander about . . . tell
me the counsel and mind of my wooed wife, whether does she remain with her son,
and guard all things safe ? or now has one of the Grecians, whoever is the best,
wedded her ? '
" Thus I spoke; but my venerable mother immediately answered me: 'She
by all means remains with an enduring mind in thy palace : and her miserable
nights and days are continually spent in tears ... I perished and drew on my fate.
Nor did the well-aiming, shaft-delighting [goddess], coming upon me with her mild
weapons, slay me in the palace.' Nor did any disease come upon me, which espe-
cially takes away the mind from the limbs with hateful consumption. But regret
for thee, and cares for thee, O illustrious Odysseus, and kindness for thee, deprived
me of my sweet life.'
"Thus she spoke; but I, meditating in my mind, wished to lay hold of the
soul of my departed mother. Thrice indeed I essayed it, and my mind urged me
to lay hold of it, but thrice it flew from my hands, like unto a shadow, or even to
a dream : but sharp grief arose in my heart still more ; and addressing her, I spoke
winged words :
" ' Mother mine, why dost thou not remain for me, desirous to take hold of
thee, that even in Hades, throwing around our dear hands, we may both be satiated
with sad grief ? Has illustrious Persephone sent forth this an image for me, that I
may lament still more, mourning ? '
" Thus I spoke ; my venerable mother immediately answered me : ' Alas ! my
son, unhappy above all mortals, Persephone, the daughter of Zeus, by no means
deceives thee, but this is the condition of mortals, when they are dead. For their
nerves no longer have flesh and bones, but the strong force of burning fire subdues
1 Artemis.
ON GRKEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOCIV. 725
them, when first the mind leaves the white bones, and the soul, like as a dream,
flittering, flies away. But hasten as quick as possible to the light ; and know all
these things, that even hereafter thou mayest tell them to thy wife.'
"There then I beheld Minos, the illustrious son of Zeus, having a golden
sceptre, giving laws to the dead, sitting down ; but the others around him, the king,
pleaded their causes, sitting and standing through the wide-gated house of Pluto.
' ' After him I beheld vast Orion, hunting beasts at the same time, in the meadow
of asphodel, which he had himself killed in the desert mountains, having an all-
brazen club in his hands, forever unbroken.
■'And I beheld Tityus, the son of the very renowned earth, lying on the ground ;
and he lay stretched over nine acres ; and two vultures sitting on each side of him
were tearing his liver, diving into the caul : but he did not ward them off with
his hands ; for he had dragged Leto, the celebrated wife of Zeus, as she was going
to Pythos, through the delightful Panopeus.
" And I beheld Tantalus suffering severe griefs, standing in a lake: and it
approached his chin. But he stood thirsting, and he could not get any thing to
drink ; for as often as the old man stooped, desiring to drink, so often the water
being sucked up, was lost to him ; and the black earth appeared around his feet,
and the deity dried it up. And lofty trees shed down fruit from the top, pear trees,
and apples, and pomegranates producing glorious fruit, and sweet figs, and flourish-
ing olives : of which, when the old man raised himself up to pluck some with his
hands, the wind kept casting them away to the dark clouds.
"And I beheld Sisyphus, having violent griefs, bearing an enormous stone
with both [his hands] : he indeed leaning with his hands and feet kept thrusting
the stone up to the top : but when it was about to pass over the summit, then
strong force began to drive it back again, then the impudent stone rolled to the
plain ; but he, striving, kept thrusting it back, and the sweat flowed down from his
limbs, and a dirt arose from his head.
"After him I perceived the might of Hercules, an image; for he himself
amongst the immortal gods is delighted with banquets, and has the fair-footed
Hebe [daughter of mighty Zeus and golden-sandaled Juno]. And around him
there was a clang of the dead, as of birds, frighted on all sides ; but he, like unto
dark night, having a naked bow, and an arrow at the string, looking about terribly,
was always like unto one about to let fly a shaft. And there was a fearful belt
around his breast, the thong was golden : on which wondrous forms were wrought
bears, and wild boars, and terrible lions, and contests, and battles, and slaughters,
and slayings of men ; he who devised that thong with his art, never having wrought
such a one before, could he work any other such. But he immediately knew me
when he saw me with his eyes, and pitying me, addressed winged words :
" 'O Zeus-born son of Laertes, much-contriving Odysseus, ah! wretched one
thou too art certainly pursuing some evil fate, which I also endured under the
beams of the sun. I was indeed the son of Zeus, the son of Saturn, but I had in
finite labor ; for I was subjected to a much inferior man, who enjoined upon me
difficult contests : and once he sent me hither to bring the dog, for he did not think
that there was any contest more difficult than this. I indeed brought it up and led
it from Pluto's, but Hermes and blue-eyed Athene escorted me.'
"Thus having spoken, he went again within the house of Hades. But I re-
mained there firmly, if by chance any one of the heroes, who perished in former
times, would still come ; and I should now still have seen former men, whom I
wished, Theseus, and Pirithous, glorious children of the gods; but first myriads
726
THE OPEN COURT,
of nations of the dead were assembled around me with a divine clamor; and pale
fear seized me, lest to me illustrious Persephone should send a Gorgon head of a
terrific monster from Orcus. Going then immediately to my ship, I ordered my
companions to go on board themselves, and to loose the halsers. But they quickly
embarked, and sat down on the benches. And the wave of the stream carried it
through the ocean river, first the rowing and afterwards a fair wind."'
The Greeks clung to life and thus the shade of Achilles says to
Odysseus (in the eleventh book of the Odyssey'): "I would prefer
to be the serf of the poorest and most destitute man on earth than
to rule in the Under World over the departed dead." But even in
the days when the Homeric songs were collected and reduced to
The Garden of the Hesperides.''^
Vase-picture. (Gerhard, Ges. AbJi., pi. II.)
the shape in which they are now, a more optimistic view of death
began to take hold of the minds of the people.
The belief in the happy condition of the good and the deserving
was introduced at an early date from Egypt. The Egyptian " Sech-
nit Aahlu," the abode of bliss, was changed into "Elysium" or
the Islands of the Blessed, which were supposed to be situated
1 Trans, by Buckley, Bohn's Library.
2 Atlas carries the stellar dome ; Phosphoros, the morning star, and Helios (perhaps Selene)
sweep across the heavens. The Hesperides in various postures (here seven in number) surround
the tree with the golden apples, which are watched by the dragon. Herakles descends with club
in hand.
ON GREEK RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 727
in the West, in the regions of the Old World where the sun sets.
Minos, Rhadamanthys^ and ^Eakos are the judges who admit the
worthy and condemn sinners to be confined in Tartaros.^
In the West, too, is situated the garden of the Hesperides,
i. e., the Maids of Evening, who guard the tree of life with its im-
mortality-giving apples.
It is noteworthy that only the shade of Heracles is in Hades ;
he himself lives in Olympus. Some elect men do not go down to
Hades, but are transferred to the Elysian fields where they abide
in a transfigured state without ever tasting death. Proteus proph-
esies this enviable fate to Menelaos, the husband of Helen :
"But for thee, O noble Menelaos, it is not decreed by the gods to die, and
meet with thy fate in horse-pasturing Argos ; but the immortals will send you to the
Elysian plain, and the boundaries of the earth, where is auburn-haired Rhadaman-
thys ; there of a truth is the most easy life for men. There is nor snow, nor long
winter, nor ever a shower, but ever thus the ocean sends forth the gently blowing
breezes of the west wind, to refresh men ; [such will be thy fate] because thou pos-
sessest Helen, and art the son-in-law of Zeus! " — Odyssey IV, 561 ff.
All these n^yths have lost their significance for us, but to the
Greek mind they were aglow with life and inspiration, and replete
with noble thoughts.
The idea of the death of the soul and the notions of its fate in
the Land of the Shades exercised a powerful influence over the
moral conceptions of the people. Says Plato :
"When a man is confronted with the thought that he must die, fear and care
overcome him concerning things which before he did not mind ; for the myths, so
called, about Hades, how the wrong-doer will be punished there, so long ridiculed,
then cause his soul to turn back."
^'E—si6dv Tig f};rr ij rov olea^ai re'/.Evdyaeiv^ naepx^Tai avro 6(og
Kal (PpovtIq TTEfH div £fiTrpocrdti' o'vk daijtf ol te yap 7.Ey6jiEVOL fivdoi TTEpl
Tuv hv a6oi\ coQ Tov ivdai\E (KSiKi'/oavra 6eI ekeI 6i6uvai 6iKr/v, KarayEAuu
EVOl TEUq, TOTE 6// aTpEfOVCLV aVTOV Tl/V lj>VX''/>'.
—Plato, /)e rep., I, 33od.
Greek religion had its serious aspects and was taken seriously
by the Greeks. The moral teachings of the Greek sages show us
the depth of their religious sentiments.
iThe word Rhadamanthys also betrays Egyptian origin. As A-ahlu changed to Elysium, so
the words Ra of Amenti, i. e., the god ruling in the Nether World, were Hellenised into Rhada-
manthys.
2 Homer speaks of Elysium and Rhadamanthys, while Hesiod following the Cretan version of
the legend makes Kronos the ruler in the Islands of the Blessed.
CORNELIUS PETRUS TIELE.
IN COMMEMORATION OF HIS SEVENTIETH BIRTHDAY.
BY MORRIS JASTROW, JR.
THERE are few institutions of learning which can boast of so
large an array of famous scholars as the venerable Univer-
sity of Leiden. It points with pride to Scaliger, Scholten, Boer-
haave, Cobet, Dozy, Kuenen, and many others who were great men
as well as great scholars — men who made a permanent impress
upon the course of scholarship, without whom the world would be
poorer in thought and less advanced in knowledge. Professor
Tiele, who celebrates his seventieth birthday on the i6th of De-
cember, igoo, belongs to this group. His presence in the Leiden
faculty sheds lustre upon the institution, and he stands to-day a
living witness to the fact that the University of Leiden continues
the traditions of the past. Born in a village on the outskirts of
Leiden in 1830, he came to Amsterdam in 1856 to pursue theolo-
gical, linguistic, and historical studies. Upon graduating, he
entered the active ministry and after serving in some smaller
places, was called to the charge of a congregation in Rotterdam in
1873. He remained there till 1877, when he was elected to a chair,
first of Theology, and then of the History and Philosophy of Reli-
gion at the University of Leiden. Since that time he has remained
identified with that institution, becoming a most influential mem-
ber in its council, honored with the rectorship, training a large
number of pupils, and unfolding a remarkable literary and schol-
arly activity.
Such are the few and simple facts of a life which is full of
notable achievements in the domain of science. The late Max
Muller, Tiele, and Albert R^ville, — the latter his senior by a few
years, — constitute a distmguished trio of exponents of a new
CORNELIUS I'ETRUS TIELE.
729
branch of investigation — the historical study of religions. Strange
as it may seem, it is only within this century that scientific meth-
Professor Tiele in His Study.
From his latest, unpublished, photograph.
ods have been applied to the investigation of religious phenomena.
The patient gathering of facts and the interpretation ofthese facts
730 THE OPEN COURT.
in the light of the actual course taken by a particular religion — the
two chief axioms of the historical method — marked a new depar-
ture in scholarly activity which will always be associated with these
three men. Early in his career, Tiele foreshadowed his peculiar
adaptability for researches within the domain of religious history.
In 1864 his first larger publication appeared, dealing with Zoro-
astrianism.^ This monograph established his reputation as a scien-
tific worker of the first order. It reveals the thorough learning,
the sympathetic spirit, the keen insight into the workings of the
religious instinct, and the philosophical grasp which characterise
all of Professor Tiele's writings. It also shows the fine literary
touch and the graces of a polished style, which make the products
of his pen, even through the medium of a translation, delightful
reading, quite apart from their intrinsic value. This work was
followed five years later by the first part of a more ambitious un-
dertaking on the comparative history of the Egyptian and of the
Semitic religions. ^ In 1872 this important achievement was com-
pleted. Its recognition as the standard work on the subject was
emphasised by the appearance of a French translation in 1882 in-
troduced to the French public by a preface from the pen of Albert
Reville, in which the importance of the work is well set forth. Suf-
fice it to say that to-day, after twenty eight years of incessant re-
searches and vastly enriched material, Tiele's history still retains
its position as a profound and suggestive contribution, which in its
main points represents the established data of scientific investiga-
tion.
Previous, however, to the appearance of this French trans-
lation, Tiele's reputation had passed beyond the borders of his na-
tive land. In 1876, he published a general manual of the History
of Religions down to the domination of the universal religions
which in 1877 appeared in an English garb,^ and in 1880 in a
French translation,^ and a few years later in a German translation.
These publications are far from exhausting Tiele's activity during
this first part of his career. Numerous articles, dealing either with
the method of the historical study of religion or with some special
points in one or the other of the many religions which at different
times engaged his attention, appeared in the scientific or literary
1 Z>? Goiisdienst von Zarathusira (Haarlem, 1864).
2 French translation by G. Collins under the title Histoire conipar^e des ancicnnes religions de
I'Egypie et des feuples Seiiiiiigues (Paris, 18H2J.
Z Outlines of the History 0/ Religion [Eng. translation, London, 1877].
4A second edition was published in 1885.
CORNELIUS PKTRUS TIELE. 731
periodicals of Holland — notably the Theologischc Tijdschrift and de
Gids — France and Germany. He found time in the midst of his
special studies to make a thorough study of the cuneiform sources
for Babylonian and Assyrian history, and produced in 1885 ^ by far
the best work on the subject and which to-day would merely re-
quire some supplemental chapters, embodying the additions to our
knowledge of the early history of Babylonia and some modifica-
tions in the presentation of the later periods, to be as useful as it
was fifteen years ago. It is to be hoped that the distinguished
Professor will find the leisure to do this, for among younger schol-
ars there is none who has shown himself to possess the faculty of
writing history in the degree which Tiele manifests. Several vol-
umes of sermons and addresses were also published by him between
1870 and 1885, as well as a volume of poetry which passed into a
second edition. When a new edition of the Encyclopcedia Britannica
was called for, it was to the Leiden professor as the recognised
most eminent authority on the subject that the English editors
turned for the important article on "Religion" — forming quite a
monograph by itself.
It is characteristic of the unabated activity of the man that at
a time when most scholars begin to look forward to some years of
rest from arduous labors, Tiele undertook two tasks of vast dimen-
sions,— the one the preparation of an extensive work on the His-
tory of Religion in Ancient Times Down to the Days of Alexander the
Great, the second the acceptance of the invitation of the Trustees
of the Gifford Lecture Fund to come to Edmburgh and deliver
two courses of lectures on the Elements of the Science of Religioti.
The first volume of the large history of religion appeared in 1893,2
the second a few years later. His first course of Gifford Lectures
was delivered in 1896, the second in 1897. On both occasions he
was greeted by large and enthusiastic audiences, and it is generally
admitted that the two volumes embodying these lectures^ consti-
tute one of the very best of the Giffford publications. In these two
publications Professor Tiele sums up in a measure the results of
his life's work, the history affording him an opportunity to supple-
ment his earlier publications by embodying the results of recent
researches, while in the Gifford lectures he enunciates and elab-
'^ Babylonisch-Assyrischc Geschichte (Gotha, 18S5).
2 A German translation by G. Gehrich under the title Geschichte der Religion im Alter thum
bis auf Alexander den Grossen (Gotha, 1895).
^Elements of the Science of Religion. Vol. I., Morphological. Vol. II., Ontological. (Edin-
burgh, 1897-1899.)
732 THE OPEN COURT.
orates the general principles which are to serve as a guide in the
study of religion, and likewise expresses his own mature views on
some of the fundamental problems involved in the study.' These
Gifford lectures thus have a permanent value, and whatever the
results of further special researches may be, Tiele's latest publica-
tion will retain its place as an introductory manual, indispensable
to any student of the history of religion.
When he began his career, the field of investigation which he
chose had not yet found recognition in the University curriculum.
As a result of his labors and those of the small band of co-workers,
there are at least three countries in which provision has been made
for the study, — at the four universities of Holland, in Paris, and in
a number of American universities, — notably Chicago and Cornell,
— while in England the establishing of the Hibbert and Gifford
Lectures is an outcome of the enlarged interest in the historical
study of religions, through the quiet but effective labors of such
men as Cornelius Petrus Tiele. No wonder then that scholars in
all parts of the world are uniting to do him homage on his ap-
proaching seventieth birthday. His splendid career forms an in-
spiration to younger men, and no less attractive than Tiele the
scholar, is Tiele the man. A charming personality, made addition-
ally attractive by innate modesty and extreme kindness of disposi-
tion, he is the natural center of any circle which he enters. Be-
loved by "town and gown," his beautiful house in Leiden, presided
over by Madame Tiele — herself a rare hostess — is a gathering place
for the best that the city holds. At the International Oriental Con-
gresses, he is singled out by the choice of his colleagues for special
honors. His students become his loving disciples who regard their
master as their firmest friend. Occupying, besides his chair at the
University, the superintendence of the preparation for the ministry
of the young men belonging to the "Remonstrant" section of the
Protestant Church — which corresponds in a measure to the ad-
vanced Unitarian Church of England and America, — he has ex-
erted a profound influence on the religious thought in his own
country. Deeply interested in all that concerns Holland, his voice
has often been uplifted to promote national ideals. His services
to science and to education have been recognised by his sovereign,
who on the occasion of her throne-ascension in i8gg capped the
precious decorations bestowed upon him by granting him the rank
of "Chevalier" of the Orange-Nassau order, — the highest honor in
her gift for a scholar.
1 See a review by the writer in The Neui Worhi (1899, PP- .VS-S^z)-
CORNELIUS PETRUS TIKLK. 733
A man of broad scholarship will generally be found to be a
man of broad interests. Professor Tiele therefore counts among
his friends, artists, litterateurs, statesmen, as well as the scholars in
all professions, and not only in his own country, but in France,
Great Britain, Germany, and Italy. He has received honorary de-
grees from the Universities of Bologna, Dublin, and Edinburgh,
and learned societies in all parts of the world have conferred hon-
orary membership upon him. Full of honors, he stands at the
threshold of three score and ten with unabated vigor of mind and
body. He may be seen any fine morning riding through the streets
of Leiden on horseback, and presenting the appearance of a man
in the fifties. A year ago he contemplated accepting an invitation
from the American Committee for Lectures on the History of Re-
ligions to deliver courses of lectures in the prominent cities of the
Ignited States, and he declined merely on the score that he could
not afford to take leave of absence for three months from his teach-
ing duties. Young at seventy, he is full of plans for the future
which in the interest of science it is earnestly hoped that he will be
enabled to carry out.
FRIEDRICH MAX MULLER.
BY T. J. MCCORMACK.
WITH the death of Friedrich Max Miiller, on October 28th of
this year, one of the most notable personages of the aca-
demic world passed from the stage of history. We say "stage"
advisedly, for Max Miiller's career was in more senses than one
histrionic, in the best sense of that word, and there was hardly a
moment of his life that he did not stand prominently and conspic-
uously before the public notice. To the unlearned world at large,
he was the personification of philological scholarship, — a scholar-
ship which he knew how to render accessible to his public in inimit-
ably simple and charming style. There was no domain of philoso-
phy, mythology, or religion, that he left untouched or unmodified
by his comprehensive researches, and the Science of Language,
which is the greatest scholastic glory of the German nation, would
appear, judging from his books alone, to have received in him its
final incarnation and Messianic fulfilment. There was no national
or international dispute of modern times, ever so remotely con-
nected with philological questions, but his ready pen was seen
swinging in the thick of the combat, and his Sanskrit roots made
to bear the burden of a people's destiny. He was the recipient of
more academic honors, orders, titles, royal and imperial favors,
perhaps, than any other scholar since Humboldt, and he bore the
greatness that was thrust upon him with the grace and dignit}' of
a born aristocrat. Many were the pummellings he received from
the hands of his less favored but more plodding colleagues ; yet
their buffets of ink but served to throw his Titanic figure into
greater relief, and to afford him an opportunity by his delicate,
insidious irony to endear himself still more to his beloved public.
Apart from his great and sound contributions to the cause of learn-
1-RIEURICH MAX MUELLER. 735
ing and thought, which none will deny, Max Miiller's indisputably
greatest service was to have made knowledge agreeable, — nay,
even fashionable, — and his proudest boast was that when deliver-
ing his lectures on the Science of Language at the Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle street was thronged with the crested carriages of
the great, and that not only "the keen dark eyes of Faraday,"
"the massive face of the Bishop of St. David's," but even the
countenances of royalty, shone out upon him from his audiences.
Friedrich Maximilian Miiller was born in Dessau, Germany,
on December 6, 1823. He was the son of the well-known German
poet Wilhelm Miiller, the great-grandson of Basedow, the reformer
of national education in all Germany, and the grandson of a
Prime Minister to the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau. His environment
was thus, from the start, one of the highest culture, and he re-
ceived through its advantages a thorough education, especially in
music, in which he was very proficient. At Leipsic, where he at-
tended the famous Nicolai School, and afterwards the University,
he lived in the musical house of Professor Carus, father of Prof.
V. Carus, the translator of Darwin, where he gained the friendship
of Mendelssohn, Liszt, David, Kalliwoda, Hiller, and Clara Schu-
mann. Here, and afterwards at Berlin, Paris, and London, he made
the acquaintance of the great notabilities of the day, among whom
were numbered Riickert, Humboldt, Burnouf, Froude, Ruskin,
Carlyle, Faraday, Grote, Darwin, Emerson, Lowell, and Holmes.
It was the Orientalist Burnouf that encouraged him to pub-
lish the first edition of the Rig-Veda, — a labor which brought him
to England in 1846 and which he completed twenty five years
afterwards, having laid in the meantime the foundation of his
career and become a fellow of Oxford, an incumbent of two pro-
fessorships, and curator of the Oriental Works of the Bodleian
Library. His edition of the Rig Veda, his History of Ancient San-
skrit Literature, and his Six Systems of Indian Philosophy are the
works on which his technical reputation stands. Of that enormous
and meritorious undertaking, the translation of the Sacred Books of
the East (49 vols.), he was the editor, but personally translated only
the Upanishads, the Vedic Hyrnns, the Dhammapada and some of the
Mahayana texts. His numerous other writings, on the Science 0/
Language (2 volumes, 1861-1864), the Science of Thought (2 vol-
umes, 1887), the Science of Religion (6 volumes, Hibbert and Gifford
Lectures, 1870-1892), important as they are, were rather popular
and expository in their nature and devoted to the presentation of
his own personal philosophy, which to the very end of his life he
736 THE OPEN COURT.
propagated and defended with uncommon ardor and success. In
all these works we read Max Muller the philosopher and theorist,
not Max Muller the philologist. In fact, he expressly disclaimed
being a philologist in the pure technical sense, and boldly hailed
himself as the protagonist of a new science, — the Science of Lan-
guage, which was to him but a means to an end, "a telescope to
watch the heavenly movements of our thoughts, a microscope to
discover the primary cells of our concepts." And whatever im-
press he left upon the thought of his time, will have come from
these works. In addition to this, he was the apostle and guide
of the great public in the domain of linguistic science, and he ranks
with Huxley and Tyndall as a shaper of popular scientific thought.
Two of his little books. Three Introductory Lectures on the Science
of Thought and Three Lectures on the Science of Language, together
with the essay Persona, were published in the first numbers of The
Open Coitrt and afterwards appeared in book form. These books
sum up in elegant and terse manner his philosophy, and we shall
devote a few words to them after we have dwelt more at length on
his interesting personality.
PERSONAL REMINISCENCES.
Max Miiller's career as a scholar and philosopher was indis-
solubly connected with his career as a man, and his thought and
his controversies in the latter half of his life were all colored by
his dominant ambitions. In his delightful reminiscences, entitled
Auld Lang Syne-, published two years before his death (New York,
Scribner's), Professor Muller has himself told many stories which
are illustrative of the high estimation in which he was held by the
world. One circles about the import of a witty letter of Darwin's,
whom he had combated on the ground that language formed an
inseparable barrier between brute and man. Romanes regarded
the letter as an instance of Darwin's "extraordinary humility."
Professor Muller saw in it more of humor than humility, and mod-
estly deprecates the notion that he should ever have been thought
guilty of considering it as a trophy. We think that neither Romanes
nor Muller has read the letter aright. The following is the text:
Down, I^eckenham, Kent, 15th Oct., 1875.
My Dear Sir ; —
I am greatly obliged to you for so kindly sending me your essay, which I am
sure will interest me much. With respect to our differences, though some of your
remarks have been rather stinging, they have all been made so gracefully, I declare
FRIEDRICH MAX NrUELLER. 737
that I am like the man in the story who boasted that he had been soundly horse-
whipped by a Duke.
Pray believe me, yours very sincerely,
Charles Darwin.
In his Recollections of Royalty, he tells of an amusing incident
that nearly prevented his compliance with an invitation to dine
with the King of Prussia at Potsdam, together with Humboldt.
" But a curious intermezzo happened. While I was quietly sitting in my room
with my mother, a young lieutenant of police entered, and began to ask a number
of extremely silly questions — why I had come to Berlin, when I meant to return
to England, what had kept me so long in Berlin, etc. After I had fully explained
to him that I was collecting Sanskrit MSS. at the Royal Library, he became more
peremptory, and informed me that the police authorities thought that a fortnight
must be amply sufficient for that purpose (how I wished that it had been so!), and
that they requested me to leave Berlin within twenty-four hours. I produced my
passport, perfectly en regie ; I explained that I wanted but another week to finish
my work. It was all of no avail, I was told that I must leave in twenty-four hours.
I then collected my thoughts, and said very quietly to the young lieutenant, 'Please
to tell the police authorities that I shall, of course, obey orders, and leave Berlin
at once, but that I must request them to inform His Majesty the King that I shall
not be able to dine with him to-night at Potsdam.' The poor young man thought
I was laughing at him, but when he saw that I was in earnest he looked thunder-
struck, bowed, and went away. ... It was not long, however, before another police
official appeared, an elderly gentleman of pleasant manners, who explained to me
how sorry he was that the young lieutenant of police should have made so foolish
a mistake. He begged me entirely to forget what had happened, as it would seri-
ously injure the young lieutenant's prospects if I lodged a complaint against him.
I promised to forget, and, at all events, not to refer to what had happened in the
Royal presence."
The young professor returned from Sans Souci in the carriage
with Humboldt :
"I could not resist telling him [Humboldt] in strict confidence my little ad-
venture with the police lieutenant, and he was highly amused. I hope he did not
tell the King; anyhow, no names were mentioned."
He was on intimate terms also with the Crown Prince Fred-
erick. He writes of their meeting at Ems, in 1871 :
" At Ems the Prince was the popular hero of the day, and wherever he showed
himself he was enthusiastically greeted by the people. He sent me word that he
wished to see me. When I arrived, the antechambers were crowded with High-
nesses, Excellencies, Generals, all covered with stars and ribands. I gave my card
to an A. D. C. as simple Max Miiller, and was told that I must wait, but I soon
saw there was not the slightest chance of my having an audience that morning. I
had no uniform, no order, no title. From time to time an officer called the name
of Prince So-and-So, Count So-and-So, and people became very impatient. Sud-
denly the Prince himself opened the door, and called out in a loud voice, 'Maxi-
milian, Maximilian, kommen Sie herein ! ' There was consternation in the crowd
as I walked through, but I had a most pleasant half-hour with the Prince."
73^ THE OPEN COURT.
In 1888, Max Miiller and the Crown Prince were again at
Ems, but their meeting on this occasion was frustrated :
" The Crown Prince had sent me word that he wished to see me once more ; but
his surroundings evidently thought that I had been favoured quite enough, and our
meeting again was cleverly prevented. No doubt princes must be protected against
intruders, but should they be thwarted in their own wishes ?"
Not to mention his having won sixpence from the Prince of
Wales at whist, Professor Miiller was the recipient of many other
distinguished favors from the English Royal family, notably from
Prince Leopold, who during his stay at Oxford always reserved
for the great philologist some of his ancient and rare Johannis-
berger, from the famous crue of Prince Metternich.
" Once more the Prince was most kind to me under most trying circumstances.
I was to dine at Windsor, and when I arrived my portmanteau was lost. I tele-
graphed and telegraphed, and at last the po tmanteau was found at Oxford station,
but there was no train to arrive at Windsor I efore 8 30. Prince Leopold, who was
staying at Windsor, and to whom I went in my distress, took the matter in a most
serious spirit. I thought I might send an excuse to say that I had had an accident
and could not appear at table; but he said : 'No, that is impossible. If the Queen
asks you to dinner, you must be there.' He then sent round all the castle to fit me
out. Everybody seemed to have contributed some article of clothing, — coat, waist-
coat, tie, shorts, shoes and buckles. I looked a perfect guy, and I declared that I
could not possibly appear before the Queen m that attire. I was actually penning
a note when the 8 30 train arrived, and with it my luggage, which I tore open,
dressed in a few minutes, and appeared at dinner as if nothing had happened.
"Fortunately the Queen, who had been paying a visit, came in very late.
Whether she had heard of my misfortunes, I do not know. But I was very much
impressed when I saw how, with all the devotion that the Prince felt for his mother,
there was this feeling of respect, nay, almost of awe, that made it seem impossible
to tell his mother that I was prevented by an accident from obeying her command
and appearing at dinner."
PHILOSOPHICAL.
To Max Miiller the problem of the origin of language was the
problem of the origin of thought, and in the researches of the Sci-
ence of Language were contained for him in nuce the solutions of
the Science of Thought. Language, for him, was petrified reason,
the geological record of human thought, as well as its living ve-
hicle. He admires above all its simplicity: ^
"If we have, say, eight hundred material or predicative roots and a small
number of demonstrative elements given us, then, roughly speaking, the riddle of
language is solved. We know what language is, what it is made of, and we are
thus enabled to admire, not so much its complexity as its translucent simplicity.'
But whence these roots? Here is the delicate question.
1 The following quotations are from Max Miiller's Three Introiluetory Lectures on the Science
of Thought, piiblifhed by the Open Court Pub. Co.
FRIEDRICH MAX MUELLER, 739
"There are three things that have to be explained in roots, such as we find
them :
1. Their being intelligible^, not only to the speaker but to all who listen to him ;
2. Their having a definite body of consonants and vowels ;
3. Their expressing general concepts."
In the explanation of these three characteristics, the solution
of the problem lies. The sounds of nature, even those emitted by
man as a part of nature, are in themselves unmeaning ; they are
physical phenomena merely. And this is also true of the emotional
interjections of rational human beings: they are mere puffs of
wind, individual in their significance, and standing on the same
level with the botv-ivo7i' of the dog.
" It was Professor Noire who first pointed out that roots, in order to be intelli-
gible to others, must have been from the very first social sounds. — sounds uttered
by several people together. They must have been what he calls the clamor con-
comitans, uttered almost involuntarily by a whole gang engaged in a common
work. Such sounds are uttered even at present by sailors rowing together, by
peasants digging together, by women spinning or sewing together. They are
uttered and they are understood. And not only would this clamor concomiians be
understood by all the members of a community, but on account of its frequent
repetition it would soon assume a more definite form than belongs to the shouts of
individuals, which constantly vary, according to circumstances and individual ten-
dencies."
But the most difficult problem still remains. How did those
sounds become signs, not simply of emotions, but of concepts?
For all roots are expressive of concepts ; our intellectual life is all
conceptual. How was the first concept formed?
" That is the question which the Science of Thought has to solve. At present
we simply take a number of sensuous intuitions, and after descrying something
which they share in common, we assign a name to it, and thus get a concept. For
instance, seeing the same color in coal, ink, and in a negro, we form the concept
of black ; or seeing white in milk, snow, and chalk, we form the concept of white.
In some cases a concept is a mere shadow of a number of percepts, as when we
speak of oaks, beeches, and firs, as trees. But suppose we had no such names as
black, and white, and tree, where would our concept be ?
"We are speaking, however, of a period in the growth of the human mind
when there existed as yet neither names nor concepts, and the question which we
have to answer is, how the roots which we have discovered as the elements of lan-
guage came to have a conceptual meaning. Now the fact is, the majority of roots
express acts, and mostly acts which men in a primitive state of society are called
upon to perform ; I mean acts such as digging, plaiting, weaving, striking, throw-
ing, binding, etc. All of these are acts of which those who perform them are ipso
facto conscious ; and as most of these acts were continuous or constantly repeated,
we see in the consciousness of these repeated acts the first glimmer of conceptual
thought, the first attempt to comprehend many things as one. Without any effort
of their own the earliest framers of language found the consciousness of their own
repeated acts raised into conceptual consciousness, while the sounds by which
740 THE OPEN COURT.
these acts were accompanied became spontaneously what we now call conceptual
roots in every language."
These results quite agree with the psychological conclusions
of Professor Mach (see The Open Court for June of this year, p.
348, "The Concept"), who regards concepts as bundles of direc-
tions for performing definite activities, and conceptual names and
sounds as the keys that unlock the impulses to these activities : the
whole resting on the conscious repetition of actions.
Professor Noir^ emphasises another feature of the process.
He thinks that "true conceptual consciousness begins only from
the time when men became conscious of results, of facts, and not
only of acts. The mere consciousness of the acts of digging, strik-
ing, binding, does not satisfy him. Only when men perceive the
results of their acts — for instance, in the hole dug, in the tree
struck down, in the reeds tied together as a mat — did they, accord-
ing to him, arrive at conceptual thought in language."
Such, then, is the origin of the one hundred and twenty con-
cepts to which the eight hundred roots of the Indo-European lan-
guages are reducible. "These one hundred and twenty concepts
are the rivers that feed the whole ocean of thought and speech.
There is no thought that passes through our mind, or that has
passed through the minds of the greatest poets and prophets of
old, that cannot directly or indirectly be derived from one of these
fundamental concepts."
And these thoughts, "the whole of our intellect, all the tricks
of the wizard in our brain, consist in nothing but addition and sub-
traction," in nothing but combination and separation. But what
is it that is combined and separated?
We shall forego the metaphysical discussion of the possibility
of sensation and experience which Max Miiller interpolates at this
stage of the development of his theory, and shall jump immediately
to the point at issue, — his enunciation of his celebrated doctrine of
the identity of language and thought. He says :
"How aethereal vibrations produce in us consciousness of something, how
neurosis becomes ssthesis, we do not know and never shall know. But having the
sensations of light or darkness within us, what do we know of any cause of dark-
ness or any cause of light ? Nothing. We simply suffer darkness, or enjoy light,
but what makes us suffer and what makes us rejoice, we do not know, — till zee can
express it.
"And how do we express it ? We may try what we like, we can express it in
language only. We may feel dark, but till we have a name for dark and are able
to distinguish darkness as what is not light, or light as what is not darkness, we
are not in a state of knowledge, we are only in a state of passive stupor.
FRIEDRICH MAX MUELLER. 74I
"We often imagine that we can possess and retain, even without language,
certain pictures or phantasmata ; that, for instance, when lightning has passed be-
fore our eyes, the impression remains for some time actually visible, then vanishes
more and more, when we shut our eyes, but can be called back by the memory,
whenever we please. Yes, we can call it back, but not till we can call, that is, till
we can name it. In all our mental acts, even in that of mere memory, we must be
able to give an account to ourselves of what we do, and how can we do that except
in language? Even in a dream we do not know what we see, except we name it,
that is, make it knowable to ourselves. Everything else passes by and vanishes
unheeded. We either are simply suffering, and in that case we require no language,
or we act and react, and in that case we can react on what is given us, by language
only. This is really a matter of fact and not of argument. Let any one try the
experiment, and he will see that we can as little think without words as we can
breathe without lungs."
By words, however, Max Miiller means signs. "All I maintain
is, that thought cannot exist without signs, and that our most im-
portant signs are words."
" How is it, I have been asked, that people go through the most complicated
combinations while playing chess and all this without uttering a single word ? Does
not that show that thought is possible without words, and, as it were, by mere in-
tuition ? It may seem so, if we imagine that speech must always be audible, but
we have only to watch ourselves while writing a letter, that is, while speaking to a
friend, in order to see that a loud voice is not essential to speech. Besides, by long
usage speech has become so abbreviated that, as with mathemathetical formulas,
one sign or letter may comprehend long trains of reasoning. And how can we im-
agine that we could play chess without language, however silent, however abbrevi-
ated, however algebraic ? What are king, queen, bishops, knights, castles, and
pawns, if not names ? What are the squares on the chessboard to us, unless they
had been conceived and named as being square and neither round nor oblong ?
" I do not say, however, that king and queen and bishops are mere f/a»ies.
" There is no such a thing as a mere name. A name is nothing if it is not a
nomen, that is, what is known, or that by which we know. Nometi was originally
gnome^i, from giiosco to know, and was almost the same word as notio, a notion.
A mere name is therefore self-contradictory. It means a name which is not a
name; but something quite different, namely, a sound, a /lain s I'ocis. We do not
call an empty egg-shell a mere egg, nor a corpse a mere man ; then why should
we call a name without its true meaning, a mere name ?
"But if there is no such thing as a mere name, neither is there such a thing
as a mere thought or a mere concept. The two are one and inseparable. We may
distinguish them as we distinguish the obverse from the reverse of a coin ; but to
try to separate them would be like trying to separate the convex from the concave
surface of a lens. We think in names and in names only."
We are now in a position to grasp his view in its full import.
The entire fabric of the mind is identical with the fabric of human
speech, and the whole history of philosophy reveals itself but as
the natural growth of language.
"Reason ... is language, not simply as we now hear it and use it, but as
has been slowly elaborated by man through all the ages of his existence on earth-
742 THE OPEN COURT.
Reason is the growth of centuries, it is the work of man, and at the same time an
instrument brought to higher and higher perfection by the leading thinkers and
speakers of the world. No reaso7i zuithoiit lajignage, no language zvitJioul
reason. Try to reckon without numbers, whether spoken, written, or otherwise
marked, and if you succeed in that, I shall admit that it is possible to reason or
reckon without words, and that there is in us such a thing, or such a power or fac-
ulty, as reason, apart from words."
Such, in epitome, is Max Miiller's famous doctrine of the Iden-
tity of Language and Thought, — a docrine in which he is supported
by a long line of illustrious predecessors.^ It is not our purpose
in this place to offer any criticism of its general tenability. This
has been done, in part, by the editor of this magazine in two essays
in The Motiist, to which readers desirous of more details are re-
ferred.^ It merely remains for us to remark that Max Miiller's
theory, which it is sometimes difficult to grasp precisely in its
critical points, is now held, even by those who admit the intrinsic
truth of his assertions, only with great modification. His definition
of thought is upon the whole arbitrary and made pro domo. The
barrier between man and animal is not so impassable as he liked
to imagine, and the tendency of recent thought in comparative
psychology has swerved from his position. But the beauty of style,
the wealth and breadth of learning, the controversial skill with which
he advocated his doctrine are undeniable, and the controversies to
which his zealous championing of his cause led have advanced the
cause of truth immeasurably. And this, he avers in an impersonal
moment, is his whole concern :
" You say I shall never live to see it admitted that man cannot reason without
words. This does not discourage me. Through the whole of my life I have cared
for truth, not for success. And truth is not our own. We may seek truth, serve
truth, love truth ; but truth takes care of herself, and she inspires her true lovers
with the same feeling of perfect trust. Those who cannot believe in themselves,
unless they are believed in by others, have never known what truth is. Those who
have found truth, know best how little it is their work, and how small the merit
which they can claim for themselves. They were blind before, and now they can
see That is all."
And again :^
"Scholars come and go and are forgotten, but the road which they have
opened remains, other scholars follow in their footsteps, and though some of them
retrace their steps, on the whole there is progress. This conviction is our best re-
svard, and gives us that real joy in our work which merely personal motives can
never supply."
1 See the article " My Predecessors " in his Three Lectures on the Science of Language. Chi-
cago : The Open Court Publishing Co.
2 " The Continuity of Evohition," The Monist, Vol, II., p. 70 ; " Prof. F. Max Miiller's Theory
of the Self," The Monist. Vol. VIII., p. 123.
'■'Contributions to the Science of Mythology, Vol. I., p. viii.
IKIEIJKICH MAX MUELLER. 743
The cause of true religion also is under great obligation to the
labors of Prof. Max Miiller. The very spirit of his motives in pub-
lishing translations of ihe gxedit Sacred Books of i he East can have
been productive only of good.
"I had a secret hope that by such a publication of the Sacred Books of all
religions that were in possession of books of canonical authority, some very old
prejudices might be removed, and the truth of St. Augustine's words might be con-
firmed, that there is no religion without some truth in it, nay, that the ancients,
too, were in possession of some Christian truths. . . . We may well hope that a
study of the Sacred Books of the East may produce a kindlier feeling on the part
of many people, and more particularly of missionaries, towards those who are
called heathen, or even children of Satan, though they have long, though ignor-
antly, worshipped the God who is to be declared unto them ; and that a study of
other religions, if based on really trustworthy documents, shall enable many people
to understand and appreciate their own religion more truly and more fairly. Just
as a comparative study of languages has thrown an entirely new light on the nature
and historical growth of our own language, a comparative study of religions also, I
hoped, would enable us to gain a truer insight into the peculiar character of Chris-
tianity, by seeing both what it shares in common with other religions, and what
distinguishes it from all its peers."
And he lived to see his hopes realised by the marvellous trans-
formations of the religious attitude wrought by the Parliament of
Religions of our World's Fair.
As to his personal belief, which is not easy to grasp in its pre-
cise details in his works, ^ we may say generally that Professor Max
Miiller was a Vedantist. He was a believer in the Brahman doc-
trine of the atman, or soul-in-itself, the monad soul; he believed
in a "thinker of thoughts," a "doer of deeds," a Self within the
person, which was the carrier of his personality, and a Self with-
out, which was the carrier of the world, "God, the highest Self";
and these two Selves are ultimately the same Self : Tat tvatn asi,
That art thou, as the Brahman said.
These views of his have received full discussion in the article
of Dr. Carus before referred to.^ How deeply they entered his be-
ing and with what little modification they might have been trans-
formed into the opposing theory of modern psychology, is appar-
ent from the following beautiful passage quoted from Persona (see
Vol. I. of The Open Court, pp. 505 and 543 ) :
"We are told that what distinguishes us from all other living beings is that
we are personal beings. We are persons, responsible persons, and our very being,
our life and immortality, are represented as depending on our personality. But if
1 Compare, for example, the remark of the Pferdebiirla, in the delightful essay of that name
in the D-utsche Rundschau for 1897: " Max, du bist vielleicht auch noch ein Gottesfabler. . . .
Max. ein ganz Freier bist du immer noch nicht."
2 The Monist, Vol. VIIL. p. 123.
744 THE OPEN COURT.
we ask what this personality means, and why we are called persoiice, the answers
are very ambiguous. Does our personality consist in our being English or German,
in our being young or old, male or female, wise or foolish ? And if not, what re-
mains when all these distinctions vanish ? Is there a higher Ego of which our hu-
man ego is but the shadow ? From most philosophers we get but uncertain and
evasive answers to these questions, and perhaps even here, in the darkest passages
of psychological and metaphysical inquiry, a true knowledge of language may
prove our best guide.
' ' Let us remember that fci-soiia had two meanings, that it meant originally a
mask, but that it soon came to be used as the name of the wearer of the mask.
Knowing how many ambiguities of thought arose from this, we have a right to ask:
Does our personality consist in the persona we are wearing, in our body, our
senses, our language and our reason, our thoughts, or does our true personality lie
somewhere else? It may be that at times we so forget ourselves, our true Self, as
to imagine that we are Romeo and Juliet, King Lear, or Prince Hamlet. Nor can
we doubt that we are responsible each for his own dratnatis persona, that we are
hissed or applauded, punished or rewarded, according as we act the part allotted
to us in this earthly drama, badly or well. But the time comes when we awake,
when we feel that not only our flesh and our blood, but all that we have been able
to feel, to think and to say, was outside our true self; that we were witnesses, not
actors; and that before we can go home, we must take off our masks, standing like
strangers on a strange stage, and wondering how for so long a time we did not per-
ceive even within ourselves the simple distinction between pcrso>/a and pcrso?ia
between the mask and the wearer.
"There is a Sanskrit verse which an Indian friend of mine, a famous Minister
of State, sent me when retiring from the world to spend his last years in contem-
plation of the highest problems:
' I am not this body, not the senses, nor this perishable, fickle mind, not
even the understanding ; I am not indeed this breath ; how should I be this
entirely dull matter? I do not desire, no, not a wife, far less houses, sons,
friends, land, and wealth. I am the witness only, the perceiving inner self,
the support of the whole world, and blessed.' "
* *
And now the great philologist himself has passed away; his
Self also has been merged in the All-Self, creature in creator. The
fulness and purport of his life are such as have been granted to
few; his mission has been fulfilled to the utmost; and it was with
this consciousness that he departed. As Tacitus said of Agricola,
"Let us dwell upon and make our own the history and the pic-
ture, not of his person, but of his mind. . . . For all of him that
we follow with wonder and love remains and will remain forever
in the minds of men, through the endless flow of ages, as a portion
of the past."
REV. W. W. SEYMOUR ON THE PRE-
HISTORIC CROSS.
BY THE EDITOR.
THE late Rev. William Wood Seymour has devoted a stately
volume^ to an exposition of the significance of the cross in
tradition, history, and art, reviewed by us some time ago in The
Open Court, ^ and we believe it will be of interest to reproduce here
some of its passages on the pre-Christian cross, with the accom-
panying illustrations.
"At Castione, near the station of Borgo San Donino, between
Earthen \'essels Found at Castione.
(From De Mortillet's Le Signe de hi Cro/'x.)
Parma and Piacenza, there is a mound upon which is a convent.
Originally that mound was the bed of a lake which was filled with
relics of this ancient people; among them are earthen vessels, and
upon the bottoms of some were rudely engraved crosses, as repre-
sented in the accompanying engravings.
"At Villanova, near Bologna, one of their burial-places has
been discovered. More than one hundred and thirty tombs have
been examined. They are carefully and symmetrically constructed
of boulders, over which the earth has accumulated. Within each
1 ne Cross in Tradition, History, and Art. New York : G. P. Putnam's Sons.
2Vol XIII., No. I.
746
THE OPEN COURT.
sepulchre was a cinerary urn containing calcined human remains,
and sometimes half-melted ornaments. The urns were shaped like
two inverted cones joined together, the mouth being closed with a
little saucer. Near the remains of the dead were found solid double
cones with rounded ends on which crosses were elaborately en-
Cylinder. Heads of Cylinders.
Cylinders found at Villanova. (From De Mortillet's Le Signe dc la Croix.)
graved. In the vases of double cones around their partition was a
line of circles containing crosses.
"There is another cemetery at Golasecca near the extremity
of Lago Maggiore. A number of tombs have been opened; they
belong to the same age as those of Villanova, that of the lacustrine
habitations.
Accessory Vase Found at Golasecca.
(From De Mortillet's Lc Signe de la Croix.)
" 'That which characterises the sepulchres of Golasecca, and
gives them their highest interest,' says M. de Mortillet, who inves-
tigated them, 'is this, — first, the entire absence of all organic rep-
resentation; we found only three, and they were exceptional, in
tombs not belonging to the plateau; — secondly, the almost invari-
RKV. \V. W. SKVMOUR ON THE PRE-HISTORIC CROSS.
747
able presence of the cross under the vases in the tombs. When
one reversed the ossuaries, the saucer lids, or the accessor}' vases,
one saw almost always, if in good preservation, a cross traced
thereon. . . . The examination of the tombs of Golasecca proves in
a most convincing, positive, and precise manner, that which the
terramares of Emilia had only indicated, but which had been con-
firmed by the cemeter}' of Villanova, — that above a thousand years
-3^
OSSUARY Found at Golasecca.
(From De Mortillet's Lc Signc dc la Croix.)
before Christ, the cross was already a religious emblem of frequent
employment.' "^
"The most ancient coins of the Gauls were circular, with a
cross in the middle. That these were not representations of wheels,
as has been supposed, is evident from there being but four spokes,
Ancient Gaulish Coins.
(From Gould's Citrt'ous Myths.)
placed at right angles ; and this symbol continued when coins of
the Greek type took their place. The coins of the Volcae Tecto-
sages, who inhabited the region now known as Languedoc, were
stamped with crosses, the angles of which were filled with pellets.
The Leuci, who lived in the country of modern Toul, used similar
devices. A coin figured in the Rivtie des Numisfnatiques, 1835, bears
1 De Mortillet, Le iigne de la Croix avant le Christianisnie, Paris, 1866. Chap. III., pp. 98-127.
Gould, Afyths, Vol. II., pp. 103-105.
748
THE OPEN COURT.
a circle containing a cross, whose angles are occupied by chevrons.
Some of the crosses are surrounded by a ring of bezants, or pearls.
Near Paris, at Choisy-le-Roy, was found a Gaulish coin, the ob-
verse bearing a head, the reverse a serpent coiled around the cir-
cumference, enclosing two birds; between them is a cross with
pellets at the end of each limb, and pellets occupying the angles.
Similar coins have been discovered in Loiret and elsewhere. About
two hundred coins were discovered, in 1835, at Cremiat-sur-Yen,
near Quimper, in an earthen urn with ashes, in a tomb, showing
that the cross was used in Armorica, in the age of cremation.
"In 1850, S. Baring Gould exhumed at Pont d'Oli, near Pau,
the ruins of an extensive palace, paved with mosaic. The prin-
cipal ornamentations were crosses of dif-
ferent varieties. The pavement of the
principal room was bordered by an ex-
quisite running pattern of vines with
grapes springing from drinking vessels in
the centre of the sides. Within were cir-
cles composed of conventional roses, in
the middle a vast cross, measuring nine-
teen feet eight inches by thirteen feet.
The ground work of white was filled with
shell and other fish, and in the centre
was a bust of Neptune with his trident.
The laborers exclaimed, 'C'est le bon Dieu,
c'est Jhus.^ It may have been of post-
Christian times, but, from the examples
already given, Mr. Gould believes the
cross to have been a sign well known to
the ancient Gauls, and that this was their
work."^
"According to enthusiastic Irish antiquarians, their cave, or
rather subterranean mound, temples are more ancient than any
other ecclesiastical remains in Great Britain. One of the best
known is that of New Grange, near Drogheda, in the county of
Meath. It is formed of vast stones covered with earth. The ground
plan is cruciform, about eighty feet in length by twenty-one in the
transverse. The height of the gallery, at the entrance about two
feet, gradually increases until it becomes nine. The temple ap-
Cross, with Bust of Nep
TUNE. Found Near Paris.
(From Gould's Curious
Myths. )
1 Gould, Myths, Vol. II., pp. 76-86. An able writer in the Edinburgh Review thinks that Gould
has been misled by the tresul, or trident, and that the figure is that of Proteus, not Neptune.
Vol. CXXXI.,p. 335.
REV. W. W. SEYMOUR ON THE PRE-HISTORIC CROSS.
749
pears to have been dedicated to Thor, Odin, and Friga.^ Valiancy
considered the inscriptions, in Ogham and symbolic characters,
the most ancient in Ireland. He translated that on the right of the
long arm of the cross, 'The Supreme Being,' or 'Active Principle.'
On the same side, thrice repeated, are characters of a somewhat
like import, signifying 'The Great Eternal Spirit.' On the 'cover-
ing stone' of the east transept is, 'To the great Mother Ops,' or
'Nature.' In front of the head of the cross is 'Chance, Fate, or
Providence.' On the north stone of the west transept is, 'The
ntmi
r^
Sepulchral Monument at New Grange, near Drogheda.
(From Higgins's Celtic Druids.)
sepulchre of the Hero,' on a stone on the left of the gallery are
'men, oxen, and swine, probably signifying the several species of
victims sacrificed at this, temple in honor of universal Nature,
Providence, and the names of the hero interred within.' Valiancy
supposes that this tumulus was erected towards the close of the
second century.^ If not pre-Christian, it is at least the work of
men who knew nothing of Christianity. "^
1 Wright, Louthiana, p. 15.
2 Valiancy, "Col. Rel. Hib.," Vol. II., p. 221, quoted in Higgins, Celtic Druids, p. xliii.
3For full description see Fergusson's Rude Stone Monuments.
750
THE OPEN COURT.
It is very strange that our author, the Rev. W. W. Seymour,
believes that the discovery of Christ's cross on Calvary is histor-
ical. He reproduces four pictures from Veldener's Legendary His-
S. Helena in Jerusalem
(From Veldener's llic Le^n^ndary Histo)-y of the Cross.)
%^^^^\
[^
Mj/
v^rff
J^
11^ V^^^C
^^)sr^*.i
K^
WT^
^^J'
i^^
1^ ^
\>
CJ
Discovery of the Crosses.
(From Veldener's 'J'lic Lc\ifC)idary History of llic Cross.)
tory of the Cross which in themselves are interesting, and maintains
that the story itself as told in the legend is probable. There is no
REV. \V. W. SEVMOLiR ON THE PRE- HISTORIC CROSS.
751
need of refuting the legend or its various miracles ; be it sufficient
to say that contemporary authors of the Empress Helena know ab-
solutely nothing of the discovery, and that the cross supposed to
Test of the True Cross.
(From Veldener's The Legendary ///s/ory ot' llie Cross.)
S. Helena Deposits a Portion of the Cross in Jerusalem.
(From Veldener's The Legendary History of I lie Cross.)
have been discovered in the place and attested by miracles was
source of rich income to Cyril, a bishop of Jerusalem.
THE CHINESE ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING/
Communicated.
ON the southeast of the Altar of Heaven in Peking, at the dis-
tance of an arrow's flight, stands the Altar for Burnt Sacrifices.
It is in the form of a large furnace faced with green porcelain, and
it is nine feet high. It is ascended on three sides — east, south and
west — by a green porcelain stair-case. Ever since the Chinese re-
ceived the knowledge of the art of glazing in the fifth century they
have been able greatly to improve the appearance of buildings by
the use of colored tiles and colored bricks.
The bullock is placed inside the furnace altar upon a substan-
tial iron grating, underneath which the fire is kindled. Through a
door for the ashes on the north side, if I remember rightly, the
grate may be seen, and I remember noticing the charred bones of
the bullock over and under the grating. But they are better seen
by the observer from the top by ascending one of the stair cases.
The three stair cases are probably all used by those who carry the
bullock, a male of two years old, the best of its kind and without
blemish. The furnace is called in Chinese liau-lu, "furnace of
the fire-sacrifice."
At 4.45 A. M. the emperor on the occasion of the sacrifice puts
on his sacrificial robes and goes to the south gate of the outer wall
which encircles the south altar. He dismounts from his «/<?«, as
the imperial sedan is called, and walks to the yellow tent on the
second terrace of the altar. He has mounted the altar on the south
side, first ascending nine marble steps and then walking across the
first terrace. He mounts nine more marble steps to the yellow
tent. Leaving the yellow tent there are nine more steps to the
upper terrace. He advances to the north and kneels on the cen-
tral round stone. Just at this moment the fire of the burnt sacrifice
1 By J. E. in the China Review.
THE CHINESE ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING.
753
is kindled "to meet the spirit of Shang-ti (God)" as the language
is. The emperor then proceeds to burn incense to Shang-ti and
to each of his ancestors, whose tablets are arranged in wooden
huts on the northeast and northwest portions of the altar.
The altar on this upper terrace where the offerings are arranged
754 I'HE OPEN COURT.
before the tablets is ninety feet wide. He kneels before Shang-ti
and burns incense to his ancestors, and while he kneels three times
and makes nine prostrations, bundles of silk, jade cups, and other
gifts are presented, and the musicians play the ancient melody
called King-ping-chi chang.
When the Jewish hii^h priest entered the holy place he bore
the names of the children of Israel on the breast-plate on his heart.
The breast-plate is the pu-kwa of the Chinese, a square embroidered
cloth worn over the heart with emblematic figures upon it. The
archaeological connexion of X\\& pu- kwa vQxXh. the breast-plate can-
not be questioned by any reasonable critic. But the Chinese idea
of the high priest unites royalty with priesthood, and belongs to
the patriarchal age rather than to the specially Mosaic institutions.
The brazen altar was in the wilderness placed in the court in
front of the tabernacle. It is also called in Scripture the altar of
burnt offering. Dr. E. P. Barrows in his Biblical Geography and
Antiquities, p. 507, London edition, says it was "a hollow frame
of acacia wood, five cubits square and three cubits high, with horns
at the four altars." The Chinese altar of burnt offering is, I be-
lieve, a cube in shape and nine feet each way. It is therefore much
larger than the Hebrew altar. It is built of hewn stones, is faced
with green bricks and is ascended by steps. Thus disagreeing from
the Mosaic requirements ii^ belongs altogether to the prae Mosaic
religion of the world. The account in Exodus xxvii. 4, 5, says,
"Thou shalt make for it a grating of net-work of brass, and upon
the net shalt thou make four brazen rings in the four corners
thereof, and thou shalt put it under the ledge round the altar be-
neath, that the net may reach half way up the altar." Dr. Barrows
continues: "Some have supposed that this grate of net- work was
placed within the altar as a receptacle for the wood of the sacrifice.
But in this case it could not well have been sunk half way down,
and besides it contained the rings for the staves by which the altar
was borne, a decisive proof that it was without the altar. Of those
who adopt this latter view some, as Jonathan in his Targum, make
the grate horizontal."
No rings are needed for a fixed altar, because it is not intended
to be carried. The servants whose duty it is to carry the slain
bullock from the slaughter-house on the east side of the altar at
some distance, convey it by means of shoulder poles. Judging by
the size of the Chinese altar the bearers and their fellow-servants
would mount the altar by the east, west, and south steps at the
I Ex., XX. 25.
THE CHINESE ALTAR OF BURNT OFFERING. 755
same time, and lay the animal down on the iron grate in the man-
ner seen at a funeral when, in perfect order and decorous silence,
the bearers let down the coffin into a newly-opened tomb. The
officers having charge of this duty wait for the emperor. When
he kneels they can see him do so on the northwest in the center
of the high altar. They give the signal, and the fire is kindled by
the door on the north side just below the grating. There seems
no reason then why we should not explain the grate mentioned in
Exodus as corresponding to the Chinese grate in the Altar of
Heaven.
The Mosaic net-work was probably inside and outside of the
altar. In Peking it is only inside. This suits the meaning of the
biblical word "beneath." The brass or copper used was produced
in Arabia Petraea. In China iron is much more abundant than
copper, and consequently iron has always been employed. Iron
is mentioned in that part of the Book of History which belongs to
the Hia dynasty, B. C. 2000. The sole use of the grate is to hold
the victim in the burnt sacrifice and afford free passage for heat
and draught. The grating of Exodus was not only so used but was
also employed outside for ornament and possibly as a support for
the feet and hands of the Levites ministering at the altar. The
place of the grate was half way up the altar, both within and with-
out.
MISCELLANEOUS.
THE PARIS PEACE CONGRESS AND THE TRANSVAAL WAR.
In one respect, at least, the International Peace Congress is superior to the
Inter-Parliamentary Conference. The rule of the latter is to avoid questions of
current interest, and to keep more to the vague, abstract, and theoretical side of
things. The International Peace Congress, on the contrary, has a section whose
business it is to study questions of the day ; and the Permanent International
Peace Committee, whose headquarters are at Berne, draws up an annual report on
the events of each year, which is signed by the Committee's honorary secretary.
Monsieur Elie Ducomman.
This year, for instance, three questions were submitted to the Congress : the
Transvaal, China, and Finland.
It was to be expected that the Transvaal question would call forth the greatest
show of feeling. Egged on by their English friends, Mr. Philip Stanhope and Dr.
Clark, etc., almost all the friends of peace on the continent allowed themselves to
be carried away over the question of the Transvaal. These English gentlemen are
naturally the declared enemies of Chamberlain and the present Conservative Cabi-
net, and what they did was to involve their international friends on the Continent
in a sort of anti-ministerial manifestation which in reality was out of place any-
where else than in England.
The resolution they proposed in the Congress was conceived in such violent
language that, even with a reporting committee composed entirely of Boerophiles,
and an assembly of delegates, myself excepted, probably all Boerophiles too, it
was judged expedient to tone down the wording considerably.
What I did in the reporting committee was to go through the facts and discuss
their bearing in detail. I showed how, in his dispatch of the 29th of November,
1889, Lord Derby told the Boers that if they desired to discuss the suzerainty
question they must not dream of modifying the Convention of 1881. Indeed, Ar-
ticle 4 of the Convention of 1884 clearly proves the maintenance of England's
suzerainty; while Article 14 assigns to her the responsibility for the liberty and
security of all foreigners residing in the Transvaal.
I showed by the murder of Edgar what interpretation the Boers gave to the
principles of justice; but the retort of all the members of the Congress was:
IThe present little article by M. Yves Guyot, ex-deputy and ex-minister of France, and editor
of the Steele, is published as a piece of interesting evidence of the difficulties under which even
a Peace Congress may laboi- in its efforts to attain a just and unbiassed settlement of interna-
tional difficulties. It may be noted, also, that M. Guyot was the only distinguished publicist on the
side of England in the Transvaal war. — Ed.
MISCELLANEOUS. 757
" Kruger asked for arbitration, and Chamberlain refused it." From original docu-
mentary evidence I proved that for Kruger the arbitration proposal was only put
forward in order to secure the annulment of the Conventions of 1881 and 1884, and
consequently could not be accepted by the English government; finally, I read
Kruger's proposal made on the ninth day of the Bloemfontein Conference (June,
1899).
" President Kruger said in conclusion :
" ' Give me Swaziland, the indemnity due for the Jameson raid, and arbi-
tration in return for the franchise. Otherwise I should get nothing.'
"These points cannot be separated.
" On the gth of June, Dr. Reitz drew up proposals relative to the arbitra-
tion, but reserved to each country the right to withhold and exclude the points
that seemed too important to be submitted to arbitration,
"What was the meaning of these reservations? And, moreover, in the
constitution of the Committee, the third arbitrator, acting as umpire, was to
be a stranger ; he it was who would decide."
I hate war. So, when I realised the seriousness of the situation, I proposed
what would have been a modus vh-endi, liberal in its provisions and honorable to
both sides: viz., "Autonomy for the mining districts." Mr. Chamberlain then in-
formed me by a letter that this had already been proposed by the English govern-
ment in 1896 and again at Bloemfontein in 1899. On each occasion the Boers
refused to entertain the proposal.
The only conception of liberty possessed by Mr. Kruger and his partisans was
that which permitted the Uitlanders to be oppressed and spoiled ; and I foresaw
that if the President of the Transvaal continued his shuffling policy, England
would ultimately be forced to go to war. A bull-dog may for a time disdain the
snarlings and snappings of a mongrel, but sooner or later he becomes exasperated,
turns on the mongrel and breaks its back.
This I said in my protest yesterday before the Congress, and I added : " You
speak of arbitration ; what arbitration ? on what point ? Ought it, for instance, to
have recognised the right arrogated by the Boers to continually violate the Con-
ventions of 1881 and 1884 ? "
I did not expect ray words would have sufficient power to displace the major-
ity. I may hope, however, that they contributed to the milder modification of the
original resolution. What is more significant is the rejection to-day of a vote rela-
tive to maintaining the independence of the Boer Republics. The chairman.
Monsieur Richet, took care to insist upon the statement that there were no Anglo-
phobes present at the Congress, which was perhaps saying rather too much. At
any rate, the discussion was a great success, and I could speak without being inter-
rupted.
Paris, October, 1900. Yves Guyot.
THE CHILD.
Thou, little Child, art Beast and God,
Past and Futurity ;
Thou tread'st the paths our Fathers trod,
The paths our Sons shall see.
758 THE OPEN COURT.
Thine is the Dross of that long Climb,
The still-remembered Past ;
The Golden Age thou know'st sometime
Throughout all Life shall last.
The Savage sees but with thy Light,
The Sage no wiser is ;
Thou hold'st the Phantoms of the night.
The day's Realities.
Thou art the Father of the Man,
The Brother of the Race ;
Thou mirror'st the Barbarian,
Thou hint'st the Angel's grace.
The Genius is the Eternal Child,
Fleck'd with the Race's sin ;
The Poet sings his "wood-notes wild, '
Born of thy childish din.
By Avon's stream thy Fancy knew
Through all men's Souls to move ;
And with thy Heart, "the blessed Jew "
Turns all the world to Love.
The Prophet still must tell thy Dreams,
The Teacher pupil be ;
And all our deepest Knowledge seems
But Wisdom caught from thee.
.The Hero, in thy Faith, still strives
To reach the Blessed Isles ;
At Heaven's gate our human lives
Repeat their Baby smiles.
O helpless Child, thy coming wrought
The miracle of Man ;
Through thee were Love and Pity taught
The Beast put under ban.
And Woman ! Nature cast her form
Upon the self-same mould,
That thou, amid life's Stress and Storm,
Should'st linger to grow Old.
Man, treading in the steps of them,
Shall Gentler, Sweeter be.
Till every Home is Bethlehem
Without its Calvary.
MISCELLANEOUS.
759
O mighty Child, 'tis Science names
Thy Kingdom upon Earth,
And, with the Son of Man, proclaims
The Greatness of thy Birth.
Now Priest and Man of Science bow
Before thy face ; the Clod
Touches Divinity, and thou
Instinct with All, forshadow'st God.
Alex. F. Chamberlain, Ph. D.
Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
THE HISTORY OF THE DEVIL.
Under fthe title of The I/istory of the Devil a)id the Idea of Evil from the
Earliest Times to the Present Day} Dr. Paul Carus has recently collected in
systematic and unified form the numerous papers and essays which for several
years past he has either published in The Open Court and The Motiist or delivered
as independent lectures before .various audiences on the history and folklore of
demonology and the philosophy of good and evil. From the point of view of con-
tents and illustrations, this book is probably the most exhaustive popular presenta-
tion of the subject that exists. The enumeration of the illustrations alone would
take up several pages of The Ofen Court, and they have been drawn from every
period of history, from the monuments and archaeologic remains of antiquity as
well as from the pictorial and sculptural records of mediaeval and modern times.
Not a phase of the figured conceptions of the ideas of good and evil in their devel-
opment among any of the thinking nations of humanity has been omitted, and the
panoramic survey of demonologic forms which is here marshalled before our bodily
vision is, in the vividness and enduring qualities of its impression, far beyond any-
thing that portrayal by words could hope to equal.
And the breadth of pictorial representation is only surpassed by the plenitude
of the sources from which the text has been drawn, — the scientific and historical
literature of several millenniums. Starting with a brief philosophical discussion
of the ideas of good and evil, we are introduced to the subject of devil-worship and
human sacrifices among savage tribes (with their survivals among the modern na-
tions), and from thence to the demonolatry and related religious conceptions of the
ancient Egyptians, Accadians, and Semites (Assyrians and Babylonians). The
dualism of the Persians is next considered, following which the important Israelitic
period is treated. Brahmanism, Hinduism, and Buddhism are all rich in demon-
ologic lore, and some sixty odd pages are devoted to their exuberant conceptions.
Then under the caption of "The Dawn of a New Era," that period of abnormal
religious unrest and fermentation which is marked by the Gnostic, Apocryphal,
and Apocalyptic literature of the Alexandrian and Western Asiatic empires is por-
trayed,— an influence which extended to the time of Jacob Boehme. To early
Christianity, the demonologic notions of Jesus and his Apostles, the eschatology of
the Jews, and the Hell of the early Church, forty pages are consecrated.
Reverting in a lengthy chapter to "The Idea of Salvation in Greece and
1 Chicago: The Open Court Pub. Co.; London: Kegan PauL Trench, Triibner & Co. igoo.
Large Svo, 500 pages, 311 illustrations. Cloth, S6.00 (30s.).
- 760
THE OPEN COURT.
Italy," which was so influential in forming present Christianity, the author pro-
ceeds to the interesting demonology of Northern Europe, and thence through the
miracles and magic of savages to the period of the " Devil's Prime," the wonderfu
and incredible history of witchcraft, the Inquisition, and the no less shocking
witch-persecutions of the age of the Reformation. Lastly, Dr. Carus has portrayed
at length the part which the Devil has played in verse and fable, concluding with a
philosophical dissertation on the nature of good and evil, the role of science in
clarifying our religious conceptions, the standard of ethics, and the idea of God.
The nature of his views on these questions is sufficiently familiar to the read-
ers of The Open Court to dispense us from entering into a detailed exposition, and
it only remains for us to add a word as to the letter-press and handsome exterior
dress of the work. The publishers have spared neither pains nor expense in this
regard, and the broad margins, large type, fine paper, tinted illustrations at the
beginnings and ends of chapters, and the black and red binding illuminated with a
cover-stamp from Dore, all combine to make the work a veritable Mition de luxe.
EROS AND PSYCHE.
The readers of The Open Court will doubtless recall with pleasure Dr. Carus's
modernised version of the Greek fairy-tale of Eros and Psyche, which appeared in
The Shepherdess of Loves.
(Frieze by Thorwaldsen.)
The Open Court for February and March of this year, together with Thumann's
deservedly-famed and genuinely classical illustrations. This story has now been
MISCELLANEOUS.
761
published in book form, in a sumptuous style, quite befitting its inward beauty of
thought and sentiment. Mr. E. Biedermann, a German-American artist, has made
for it a cover-design of classical conception ; the text has been printed from large
Pica type on specially-manufactured Strathmore deckle-edge paper; while the
largest of the illustrations have been reproduced
on separate sheets with ornamental borders. By
its elegant appearance and its mythologically reli-
gious character the work will be peculiarly appro-
priate as a Holiday gift-book.'
Dr. Carus, in the philosophical preface which
he has written for the book, has not failed to take
advantage of the opportunity to introduce addi-
tional illustrations from classical sources, includ-
ing the Eros of Praxiteles, which we here repro-
duce, and the Sale of Cupids of Thorwaldsen.
His preface deals with the ethical and mytholo-
gical significance of the tale, in which he sees the
religious life of antiquity reflected more strongly
than in any other work, not excepting the poems
of Homer and the Tlicogony of Hesiod. He con-
trasts the story of Eros and Psyche with the folk-
lore tales of the Teutonic races, which also depict
the popular attitude toward the problems of life,
especially toward that problem of problems, — the
mystery of death and the fate of the soul in the
unknown beyond. Wholly apart, therefore, from
its intrinsic romantic interest, the book possesses
a deep moral import, being the solution that the popular spirit of the greatest in
tellectual nation of antiquity gave of the interrelation of love, birth, and death
The Eros of Praxiteles.
Torso found in Centocelle ; now
in the Vatican.
The Sale of the Cupids.
Frieze by Thorwaldsen.
Says Dr. Carus: "The redactor of Eros and Psyche, as here retold, has brought
' ' out the religious and philosophical Leihnotiv with more emphasis than it pos-
" sesses in the tale of Apuleius. By obliterating the flippant tone in which their
" satirical author frequently indulges, and by adding a few touches where the real
" significance of the narrative lies, he believes that he has remained faithful to the
\ Eros and Psyche. A Fairy-Tale of Ancient Greece. Retold After Apuleius. By Paul Carus.
Illustrations by Thumann. Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Co.; London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Triibner & Co. 1900. Pp., xv, 99. Price, Si. 50 (6s.).
762
HE OPEN COURT.
• spirit of the ancient Marchcn, and thereby succeeded in setting in relief the seri-
' ous nature of the story and the religious comfort that underlies this most ex-
' quisite production of human fiction." /'.
HUME'S ENQUIRY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING.'
Following Descartes's Discourse on Method, The Open Court Pub. Co. has
issued, as the second philosophical classic of their Religion of Science Library,
4 5:V
David Hume.
(1711-1776.;
Scottish Philosopher. (After the painting by Sir Joshua Reynolds.)
David Hume's Enquiry Concernin,ir Human L/nders/andin,if. Other philosophi-
cal classics, like Kant's Prolegomena, are to follow, and it is hoped that the series
\An Enquiry Concerning Human Unde, standing. By David Hume. Reprinted from the
edition of 1777. With Hume's Autobiosraphy and a letter from Adam Smith. Chicago: The
Open Court Pub. Co. 1900. Pages, 180. Piice, 25 cents (is. 6d.;.
MISCELLANEOUS. 763
will thus eventually form a consecutive and comprehensive course of philosophical
reading in the great original works of philosophy, which are far less bulky in size
and more attractive as to matter than is generally supposed.
The present volume, which upon the whole is easy and entertaining reading,
is an unannotated reprint, merely, of the Enquiry Concerning Human Under-
standing, made from the posthumous edition of 1777, together with Hume's
charming autobiography and the eulogistic letter of Adam Smith, usually prefixed
to the History of England, but deserving of wider circulation. These additions,
with the portrait by Ramsay, which forms the frontispiece to the volume, render
the picture of Hume's life very complete. The volume has also an inde.x.
With the great public, Hume's fame has always rested upon his History of
England, — a work now antiquated as history and remarkable only for the signal
elegance and symmetry of its style. This once prevalent opinion, however, our
age has reversed, and, as has been well remarked,' "Hume, the spiritual father of
Kant, now takes precedence over Hume, the rival of Robertson and Gibbon." It
is precisely here, in fact, that Hume's significance for the history of thought lies.
With him modern philosophy entered upon its Kantian phase, became critical and
positivistic, became a theory of knowledge. For the old "false and adulterate"
metaphysics he sought to substitute a "true" metaphysics, based on the firm foun-
dations of reason and experience. His scepticism— and of scepticism he has since
been made the standard-bearer — was directed against the old ontology only, and
not against science proper (inclusive of philosophy). "Had Hume been an abso-
lute sceptic, he could never have produced an Immanuel Kant. . . . The spirit of
the theoretical philosophy of Hume and Kant, the fundamental conception of their
investigations, and the goal at which they aim, are perfectly identical. Theirs is
the critical spirit, and positive knowledge the goal at which they aim. To claim
for Kant the sole honor of having founded criticism is an error which a closer
study of British philosophy tends to refute." -
Of Hume's purely philosophical pieces the present book and the Enquiry Con-
cerning the Principles of Morals are, in their precise, lucid, and engaging style,
the most representative and the most elegant. The Enquiry Concer>ting the Prin-
ciples of Morals will be published in a succeeding number of the Religion of Sci-
ence Library (having the portrait here reproduced for its frontispiece), and together
these two pieces will afford an exact and comprehensive knowledge of Hume's
philosophy. /«.
REINCARNATE.
From sky to sky a silent land,
Through which an idle river flows,
Upon its banks, on either hand.
The purple iris blows.
The sunlight faints in languorous stream.
The sunlight fades in empty air —
1 Alfred Weber, History of Philosophy , New York, 1896.
2 Weber, loc. cit., pp. 419-420.
764 THE OPEN COURT.
A long, slant, timeless, yellow gleam,
On all, and everywhere.
A long, slant, timeless, yellow ray,
On which I look, in which I sow —
What seed, O Soul, that fills to-day
With ghosts of Long Ago ?
With ghosts of old Egyptian sand
Where Nilus oozes home to sea,
With half-built pyramids, that stand
And frown through time on me ?
For was I slave, or was I king,
I only, wondering, startled, know
(Let long, slant suns be quivering)
Such lights were long ago, —
Were long ago, and crept and twined
About my soul, and coiled and curled.
When in some dead Deed out of mind
I won or lost a world.
L. C. Barnes.
Pasadena, Cal.
BOOK REVIEWS.
Whence and Whither : An Inquiry Into the Nature of the Soul, Its Origin, and
Its Destiny. By Dr. Paid Cams. Chicago: The Open Court Pub. Co.
1900. Pages, viii, 188. Price, cloth, 75 cents (3s. 6d.).
The present booklet is the latest utterance of the editor of The Open Court
upon the crucial problems evoked by the conflict of science with the conceptions of
the traditional religions. His attitude is reconciliatory. While an energetic sup-
porter of the monistic psychology, which has been termed by some of its advocates
as a psychology without a soul, while thoroughly aware of the gravity of the
charges that have been made against the old-fashioned dualistic conception of the
soul as a metaphysical thing-in-itself, and conscious that modern science demands
a thorough-going revision of our religious views, he still insists that the facts of
man's soul-life remain the same as before, and that the new psychology is not a
psychology without a soul, but a psychology zuith a neiu interpretation of tJic
soul. He says : "The soul, it is true, can no longer be regarded as a mystical be-
' ing, as an entity, or an essence, — a something in itself, possessed of certain qual-
' ities, and endowed with faculties : the soul is not that which feels and thinks and
•acts, but is the feeling itself, the thinking itself, and the acting itself; and the
' faculties, so called, are simply various categories under which the several sets of
' psychical functions may be subsumed.
"There is as little need for the psychologist to assume a separate soul-being,
' performing the several soul-functions, as there is for the meteorologist to assume
MISCELLANEOUS. 765
"a wind-entity, which, by blowing, produces a commotion in the air. According
" to the positive school, the commotion in the air itself is the wind. But though
" we deny the existence of a metaphysical wind-entity, winds blow as vigorously as
" they ever did ; and why should the soul of the new psychology be less real than
" the soul of the old psychology ? "
The personality of man, according to Dr. Carus, does not lose its significance
because modern science has been so successful in analysing its composition ; and
the unity of this personality, which is commonly denominated the soul, does not
disappear because it has been discovered that man's psychical life is not a compact
unit, an atom, or a monad. The soul is a composite existence; yet being an or-
ganism, it is possessed of unity. As an organism it is subject to change, but it is
not for this reason incapable of growth, of expansion, of advancement, and eleva-
tion.
" The main fact of man's psychical activity is the continuity of his soul, for
" this is the ultimate basis for the identity of a man's personality through all the
■' changes of his development. The continuity and identity of each soul are condi-
" tions which beget the feeling of responsibility, and thus force upon man the ne-
" cessity of moral conduct."
The first questions of psychology, therefore, are the IVhoice and the IV/iither
of the human soul. And upon the solution of these questions rest the answers to
the main problems of life : " What shall we do ? " " How shall we act ? " "What
aims shall we pursue ? "
These answers Dr. Carus has inductively formulated in five chapters entitled
(i) The Nature of the Soul; (2) The Mould; (3) Whence? (4) Whither? and (5) Is
Life Worth Living ? The reader will find here the latest results of biological and
psychological research employed for the clarification of the great problems of life.
1^-
Sketches of Tokyo Life. By Jftkichi Inouye. Price, 75 cents. Chicago : The
Open Court Pub. Co.
The book, as the title indicates, briefly treats of those aspects of Japanese life at
Tokyo that seem to be most attractive to foreign visitors, such as the story-teller, the
actor and the stage, the wrestler {sumo), \.\ie geisha (singing and dancing girl), the
fortune-teller, the firemen, and the jinrikisha-men. Though written in English,
the book is a genuine Japanese production ; the printing, the binding, the doubly-
folded paper, the cover-page design, the illustrations from blocks (of which there
are a good many), and lastly the author himself — being all Japanese. Its English
reads exceedingly well, and there is no doubt that the book will prove very enter-
taining to English readers as it presents many of the quaint aspects of Oriental
life. It will form an appropriate Holiday present. T. S.
Shadowings. By Lafcadio Heaj-n. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. igoo. Pp.,
268.
Mr. Lafcadio Hearn has recently given us another collection of short writings
dealing mainly with things Japanese, but also containing some of his meditations
on more or less "ghostly" topics, for which he has a decided fe7icha)it. The
book may be considered to a certain extent as a continuation of In Ghostly Japan,
and hence its title Shadoijuiiigs.
766 THE OPEN COURT.
The " Stories from Strange Books" which constitute the first part of the work
are retold after old Japanese authors whose writings are deeply imbued with the
popular superstitions and modes of thought of their time. The second part com-
prises three articles on "Semi" (cicada) accompanied with five illustrations, on
"Japanese Female Names," and on "Old Songs," shedding some light on the emo-
tional, literary, and esthetic side of Japanese life. The third and last section is
devoted to the author's own "Fantasies" about certain dreamy, umbrageous, and
horror-inspiring subjects, — very proper material for the exercise of mystic and
poetical imaginations.
Among other subjects, " Readings from a Dream-book" beautifully brings out
the author's philosophy, in which we can trace some Buddhistic thoughts. The
book as a whole is very interesting reading, not only to those who love things
Oriental, but to those who reflect and philosophise on human life generally. T. S.
Dr. John Martin Vincent, Associate Professor in Johns Hopkins University,
thinks that the attractions of the wonderful natural scenery of Switzerland are
rivalled almost by its peculiar political institutions, and he avers that to the roman-
tic interest in the dramatic portions of its history "there has succeeded a deeper
curiosity regarding the political experience of the mountain republic." To the
American reader especially this subject is replete with comparisons. The Swiss
federation is similar to our own federal union ; the cantons resemble our states.
The experiments of the Swiss, therefore, in direct popular legislation, in the nation-
alisation of railways and industries, and in all the other great social and economic
questions of the day, are calculated to afford instructive lessons to Americans ; and
Professor Vincent's book. Government in Sivitzerland, published in the Citizens'
Library of Economics, Politics, and Sociology, deserves wide reading. (New York:
The Macmillan Co. 1900. Pages, 370. Price, $1.25.)
We have to note another number of the Citizen's Library of Economics, Poli-
tics, and Sociology. The new book treats of Political Pa)-ties in the United States
I'rom 1S46 to 1861, and is one of those works which will contribute greatly to the
clarification of popular party prejudices, if it is so fortunate as ever to be read by
persons who share the mechanical party-beliefs. The position taken by its author,
Mr. Jesse Macy, Professor of Political Science in Iowa College, is "that in each
State where Democracy is far enough advanced to give rise to political parties the
form of organisation is determined by the political institutions," and that in the case
of America the peculiarities of the American party system have been determined by
the peculiarities of American institutions. He attributes the decline of the old
Federal party to the fact that it was un-American in the form of its organisation,
and then traces the development of the party system as differentiated into Whig
and Democrat. Lack of adjustment between party machinery and public opinion
led to the disruption of these two parties and to the Civil War. Since that war,
there have been two distinct periods of party history, the first beginning with the
withdrawal of the troops from the Confederate States in 1877, which, according to
Mr. Macy, is emphatically the abnormal period of our party history, armies being
substituted for party organisations, and supporting these organisations. It was at
this juncture that the spoils system reached its perfection, and the control of the
party organisations passed into the hands of professional managers devoted to "spe-
MISCELLANEOUS. 767
cial interests in more or less conscious conspiracy against the people." (New York:
The Macmillan Co. igoo. Pp., viii, 333. Price, $1.25. )
Full reports of the papers and proceedings of the fourth International Congress
of Psychology, held in Paris this year, may be obtained from M. Felix Mean, 108
Boulevard Saint Germain, Paris.
The issues of 'Jlic Ribclot (a reprint of poetry and prose for book lovers,
chosen in part from scarce editions and sources not generally known) for September
and October are: (i) Svc7id and His Brethren, a tale by William Morris, and (2)
a critical study of Ernest Dozuson, by Arthur Symons. (Thomas B. Mosher.
Portland, Me. 5 cents each.)
The September number of the A'evne de inctaphysiqite el dc morale is de-
voted entirely to the Paris Congress of Philosophy, and the reader will find in its
two hundred odd pages full reports of the proceedings and abstracts of the papers
of the Congress. The Re-riw de metaphysique et de 7norcde is one of the most
progressive of technical philosophical periodicals and deserves encouragement for
its furtherance of liberal philosophical studies.
The Jewish Publication Society of America, which issued the translation of
Graetz's excellent History of tJie Jezcs, has secured the American rights to Dr.
M. Lazarus's well-known book on the Ethics of Judaisiyi, which now makes its
appearance in English translation from the pen of Henrietta Szold. Dr. Lazarus,
w^ho is now in his seventy-sixth year and was for a long time professor in the Uni-
versity of Berlin, is highly esteemed for his labors in the broad field of Jewish eru-
dition, and his work may be regarded as the fairest and most purely objective state-
ment of Judaism that exists. (Pages, 309.)
The Reformed Evangelical Church of Florence, founded in 1S26 under the
protection of the Prussian government and the oldest of the Protestant institutions
of the renowned Italian city, has found its historian in its French pastor, M. Tony
Andre. The main services of this center of evangelism in Florence are held in
French, but auxiliary services are also held in German and Italian. The book con-
tains thirty-three illustrations, and will doubtless find readers among former and
future members of the Florence congregation. (Florence : Imprimerie et Librairie
Claudienne, 51 Via dei Serragli. Price, 4 francs.)
The Librairie L. Cerf, 12 Rue Sainte-Anne, Paris, has announced the publi-
cation of a new review of the philosophy of history, entitled Revue de syyithisc
historique, the purpose of which is to affiliate and unify the various provinces of
historical research and to exhibit the joint product of the investigations of these
domains in the light of the history of philosophy and of science. The chief sub-
jects which will be discussed are the theory of history, its principles and methods,
the determination of the function of sociological research, historiography, instruc-
768 THE OPEN COURT.
tion in history, the psychological interpretation of history, the psychology of na-
tions, etc. There will also be departments for reviews of all books in any way
connected with historical subjects, departments of notes, discussions, and bibliog-
raphies. The editor is Dr. Henri Berr, the author of a thoughtful work entitled
L'aveuir de la fhilosophic, reviewed in The Ofen Co//r/ for January, igoo. The
list of contributors comprises many of the most distinguished names of France, not
to speak of representatives from Great Britain, Germany, and America. (Bi-
monthly, 17 francs per annum.)
The Grand Duchy of Finland in the struggle it is now waging for the preser-
vation of its autonomy against the Russian government has found an able and im-
passioned advocate in the person of W. van der Vlugt, Professor in the University
of Leyden, who has written in French a brochure of two hundred and eight pages
entitled The Fintiish Conflict from a Legal Point of Vieiu. The little book is
one of a series called Editions de Vhninanite 7iouvelle (Schleicher, Paris). L 'hiima-
nite noui'elle, after which the series is named, is one of the most liberal and pro-
gressive monthly reviews of France ; it is international in its character and devoted
to the sciences, literature, and the arts. The scientific editor is M. A. Hamon
and the literary editor, M. V. Emile-Michelet. This review is recommended to
persons desirous of keeping in touch with international thought from a French
and continental point of view.
THE OPEN COURT
A MONTHLY MAGAZINE
VOLUME XIV
CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
LONDON AGENTS:
Kegan Paul. Trench, Trubnkr & Co., Ltd.
1900
Copyright by
The Open Court Publishing Co.
1900
INDEX OF VOLUME XIV.
MAIN CONTENTS.
PAGE
Andriessen, Hugo. Nirvana. A Poem. From the German of E. Eckstein. . 569
Angels and Demons, Evolution of, in Christian Theology. R. Bruce Boswell 4S3
Arreat, L. Congress of the History of Religions and the Congress of Bourges 700
Barnes, L. C. Reincarnate. A Poem 763
Bonney, Florence Peoria. An Ancient Sarcophagus. A Poem 375
Bonney, Hon. C. C, Inaugurator of the Parliament of Religions. Paul Cams 4
Bonney, the Hon. C. C. The Principles of Tlie Opoi Court, i. — The New
Year. A Poem, 54.
Boswell, R. B. Evolution of Angels and Demons in Christian Theology 4S3
Brown, Roscoe C. E. The Constitution and "The Open Door" 95
Buckley, G. W. A Study of Jesus from the View-Point of Wit and Humor. . 158
Buddhism, The Breadth of. Teitaro Suzuki 51
Buddhist Convert to Christianity, A 303
Buddhist Missionaries to America, Shall We Welcome ? With Editorial Re-
ply. M. L. Gordon 301
Candlin, The Rev. George T. The Associated Fists 551
Carus, Dr. Paul. The Hon. C. C. Bonney, the Inaugurator of the Parliament
of Religions. 4. — The 0.\ and the Ass in Illustrations of the Nativity. 46.
— Eros and Psyche. Retold after Apuleius. With Illustrations by Paul
Thumann. 65. — Expansion, but not Imperialism. 87. — China and the
Philippines. 108. — Comment on Eros and Psyche. 119. — Popular ]\Iu-
sic. 122. — Religion in Fairy Tales. 184. — The Seal of Christ. With
Illustrations from the Religious History of Antiquity, Mediaeval and Mod-
ern Times, and with Supplementary Matter on the History of the Cross.
229. — Signets, Badges, and Medals. Illustrated. 284. — The Friar. A
Soog. Music by O. H. P. Smith. 305. — The Old and the New Magic.
Illustrated. 333, 422. — Mind-Reading in the Nursery. With Diagrams.
502. — The Principle of "Like Cures Like" in Greek Legend. With Illus-
tration. 509. — On Greek Religion and Mythology. 513, 577, 641, 705 —
Cross, Rev. W. W. Seymour on the Prehistoric. 745.
Chamberlain, A. F. The Child. A Poem 737
Child, The. A Poem. Alex. F. Chamberlain 737
China, Correspondence on. A Chinaman 365
Chinese Altar of Burnt Offering. From the China Rcviezc 752
Chinese Education. Communicated 694
IV THE OPEN COURT.
PAGE
Christian jMissions and European Politics in China. G. M. Fiaraingo 689
Comte, A New Work on. Thomas J. McCormack 364
Concept, The. Ernst Mach 348
Congress of the History of Religions an^ Congress of Bourges. L. Arreat. . . . 700
Constitution and " The Open Door," The. Roscoe C. E. Brown 95
Continuum, Notion of a. An Essay in the Theory of Science. E. Mach. . . . 409
Converse, Dr. C Crozat. American War Songs in
Conway, Dr. Moncure D. The Idol and the Ideal of the French Republic. 9.
— James Martineau, With Portrait. 257. — The International Arbitration
Alliance. An Address Read Before the Peace Congress, Paris, 1900. 683.
Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler. With Five Portraits, Diagrams of
Astronomical Systems, and Facsimile Reproductions of Early Astronomi-
cal Instruments. Ernst Krause (Carus Sterne) ... 385
Cross in " Japanese Heraldry," The. N. W. J. Hayden 124
Cross, Rev. W. W. Seymour on the Prehistoric. Paul Carus 745
Cui Bono ? A Poem. Ellis Thurtell 509
Democratic Christians and the Vatican, The. G. M. Flamingo 475
Dutcher, E. W. Invocation. A Poem 564
Earth, The Struggle Regarding the Position of the. With Several Portraits of
Galileo, and Reproductions of Tito Lessi's Painting of Milton's Visit to
Galileo and of a Photograph of Galileo's Tomb in Firenze. Ernst Krause 449
Edmunds, Albert J. Gospel Parallels from Pali Texts. 114, 246, 358. — The
Penitent Thief. 628.
Eleusinian Problem, Certain Aspects of the. Charles James Wood. 618, 672.
Eros and Psyche. Retold after Apuleius. With Illustrations by Paul Thu-
mann. Paul Carus. 65, 129.
Et-os and Psyche, Comment on. Paul Carus 119
Expansion, but not Imperialism. Paul Carus 87
Flamingo, Prof. G. M. The Democratic Christians and the Vatican. 475. —
Christian Missions and European Politics in China. 689.
Fists, The Associated. George T. Candlin 551
Freeth, Pierce C. , The Home of God. A Poem 370
French Republic, The Idol and the Ideal of. Moncure D. Conway 9
Friar, The. A Song. Words by Paul Carus. Music by O. H. P. Smith. . . . 305
Gauss, E. F. L. The So-called Mystery Plays. Illustrated 415
Gordon, M. L. Shall We Welcome Buddhist Missionaries to America ? With
Editorial Reply 301
Gospel Parallels from Pali Texts. Translated from the Originals. Albert J.
Edmunds. 114, 246, 358.
Greek Religion and Mythology. Paul Carus. 513, 577, 641, 705.
Hall, The Re/. J. Cleveland. Life After Death. A Comment on Hoffmann's
Story of Tante Fritzchen 123
Hayden, N. W. J. The Cross in " Japanese Heraldry " 124
Home of God, The. A Poem. Pierce C. Freeth 370
Homo Alalus. A Poem. L. L. Rice 512
Immortality. A Poem. J. Leonard Levy 253
Immortality. A Poem. Solomon Solis-Cohen 639
Immortality, The Curve of. Mathematical Analogy to Death and the Resur-
rection. A Septuagenarian. Appendix 320
Immortality, The Curve of. T. J. McCormack 314
%
INDEX. V
I'AGE
Inquiry, The Unshackling of the Spirit of. A Sketch of the Hi<5tory of the
Conflict Between Theology and Science. Ernst Krause (Cams Sterne) 607, 659
International Arbitration Alliance, The. An Address Read Before the Peace
Congress, Paris, 1900. Moncure D. Conway 683
International Congresses at the World's Exhibition at Paris, in igoo, 'J"he. . . . 120
Invocation. A Poem. E. W. Dutcher 564
Jackson, Prof. A. V. Williams. Zarathushtra. Illustrated 366
Jastrow, Morris, Jr. C. P. Tiele. His Seventieth Birthday 728
Jesuits and the Mohammedans, The. From the Frank/itr/ci- Zciluui^r 179
Jesus from the View-Point of Wit and Humor, A Study of, G. W. Buckley. . 158
Kant a>id Spencer. A Criticism. Robert Stout 437
Koran, Rhyme and Rhythm in the. Daniel C. Rankin 355
Krause, Dr. Ernst (Cams Sterne), Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler.
With Five Portraits, Diagrams of Astronomical Systems, and Facsimile
Reproductions of Early Astronomical Instruments. 385. — The Struggle
Regarding the Position of the Earth. With Several Portraits of Galileo,
and Reproductions of Tito Lessi's Painting of Milton's Visit to Galileo and
of a Photograph of Galileo's Tomb at Firenze. 449. — The Unshackling
of the Spirit of Inquiry. A Sketch of the History of the Conflict Between
Theology and Science. 607, 659.
Language. Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Ernst Mach 171
Laughlin, Prof. J. Laurence. Criticism of Tolstoi's Moitey 221
Leuba, Prof. James H, The Psychology of Religion 251
Levy, Rabbi J. Leonard. Immortality. A Poem 253
Life After Death. A Comment on Hoffmann's Story of Tante Fritzchen.
J. Cleveland Hall 123
'■ Like Cures Like," the Principle of, in Greek Legend. Paul Cams 509
Maas, Dr. Ernst. The Tomb of Vibia. Illustrated 321
Mach, Prof. Ernst. Names and Numbers. 37. — Language. Its Origin, De-
velopment, and Significance for the Development of Thought. 171. — The
Concept. 348. — The Notion of a Continuum. An Essay in the Theory
of Science. 409. — The Propensity Toward the Marvellous. 539.
Magic, The Old and the New. Illustrated. Paul Cams 333, 422
Mahayana, The. With Illustration. Teitaro Suzuki 569
Martineau, James. With Portrait. Moncure D. Conway 257
Marvellous, The Propensity Toward the. Ernst Mach 539
McCormack, Thomas J. The Year Zero. A Brief Study in Chronology. 32. —
John Bernard Stallo. American Citizen, Jurist, and Philosopher. 276. —
The Curve of Immortality, 314. — Madame Clemence Royer. With two
portraits. 562. — Friedrich Max Miiller (1823-1900). Biographical and
philosophical. 734.
M'Creery, J. L. The Monk. A Poem 317
Mind-Reading in the Nursery. With Diagrams. Paul Cams 502
Money. Leo N. Tolstoi. Translated from the Russian by Paul Borger 193
Monk, The. A Poem. J. L. M'Creery 317
Muller, Friedrich Max. (1823-1900.) T. J. McCormack 734
Miiller, Prof. Max, Hindu Prayers for. Quoted from L/lcrcdKre 251
Music, Popular. Paul Cams 122
Mystery Plays, The So-called. Illustrated. E. F. L. Gauss 415
Mythology and Religion, Greek. Paul Carus 513, 577, 641, 705
VI THE OPEN COURT.
PAGE
Names and Numbers. Ernst Mach 37
Nativity, The Ox and the Ass in Illustrations of the. Paul Carus 46
New Year in China, The. Arthur H. Smith 43
New Year, The. A Poem. Charles Carroll Bonney 54
Nirvana. A Poem. From the German of E. Eckstein. Hugo Andriessen . . 569
Open Court and Lcar'cs of Grass, 7'Jic. W. H. Trimble 439
Peace Congress and the Transvaal War, The Paris. Yves Guyot 736
Philosophical Association, The Western 304
Rankin, Daniel C. , Rhyme and Rhythm in the Koran 355
Reincarnate. A Poem. L. C. Barnes .... 763
Religion in Fairy Tales. Paul Carus 184
Religions, The International Congress of the History of. Jean Reville 271
Religion, The Psychology of. James H. Leuba 253
Reville, Albert and Jean. With Portraits 313
Reville, Prof. Jean. The International Congress of the History of Religions 271
Rice, L. L. Homo Alalus. A Poem 512
Royer, Madame Clemence. With two portraits. Thomas J. McCormack. . . . 562
Sarcophagus, An Ancient. A Poem. Florence Peoria Bonney 375
Seal of Christ, The. With Illustrations from the Religious History of An-
tiquity, Mediaeval and Modern Times, and with Supplementary Matter on
the History of the Cross. Paul Carus 229
Septuagenarian, A. The Curve of Immortality. Mathematical Analogy to
Death and the Resurrection. Appendix 320
Signets, Badges, and Medals. Illustrated. Paul Carus 284
Smith, Dr. Arthur H. The New Year in China 43
Solis-Cohen, Solomon. Immortality. A Poem 639
Stallo, John Bernard. Citizen, Jurist, and Philosopher. T. J. McCormack. . 276
Sterne, Carus (See Krause).
Stout, Sir Robert. Kant and Spencer. A Criticism 437
Suzuki, Teitaro. The Breadth of Buddhism. 51 — The Mahayana. 569.
Tante Fritzchen's Last Hour. A Sketch by Hans Hoffmann 22
The Open Court, The Principles of. C. C. Bonney i
Thief, The Penitent. Albert J. Edmunds 628
Thurtell, Ellis. Cui Bono ? A Poem ■ 509
Tiele, C. P. His Seventieth Birthday. Morris Jastrow, Jr 728
Tolstoi, Count Leo N. Money. Translated from the Russian by Paul Borger 193
Tolstoi's Money, Criticism of. J. Laurence Laughlin 221
Tomb of Vibia, The. Illustrated. Ernest Maas 321
Trimble, W. H. ^lie Open Court and Lea2<es of Grctss 439
War Songs, American. C. Crozat Converse 1 1 1
Wood, Rev. Charles James. Certain Aspects of the Eleusinian Problem, 618, 672
Year Zero, The. A Brief Study in Chronology. Thomas J. McCormack. ... 32
Zarathushtra. Illustrated. A. V. Williams Jackson 366
BOOK REVIEWS, NOTES, CORRESPONDENCE, ETC.
Abbot, Francis Ellingwood. World Unity in Religion and Religious Organi-
sation 192
Allen, John G. Topical Studies in American History , . 186
Altgeld, The Hon. John P. Live Questions 255
Andre, M. Tony. The Reformed Evangelical Church of I'lorence 767
Annual Report for 1897, Board of Regents Smithsonian Institution 384
Annual Report Gen'l. Mgr. Buddhist Schools in Ceylon, for iSgg 384
Bergson, Henri. Lc Rirc: Essai snr la s/\>>iiJicalio?i (hi coniiqiic 378
Berr, Henri. L'a-.'oiir dc la philosop/iic 61
Bibelot Series 190, 320, 767
Biological Lectures, Marine Laboratory of Wood's Holl, Mas.s 383
Blondel, Georges. D)-a7ne de la Passion 448
Bonney, The Hon. C. C. World's Congress Addresses 575
Boutroux, M. Emile, He Vidcc dc loi naturcUe dans la scioicc cl la philo-
sophic co7itemporaincs 63
Bradford, Gamaliel The Lesson of Popular Government 126
Brainerd, Eveline Warner. Quaint Nuggets. Sixth vol. of Nugget Series. . . 511
Brunschvicg, Dr. Leon. Introduction a la I'ie de r esprit 575
Campbell, William T , A. M. Observational Geometry 636
Candlin, Dr. George T. His article on the "Boxers" 576
Carus, Dr. Paul. Kant and Spencer. 186. — History of the Devil. 759. —
Eros and Psyche 760. — Whence and Whither. 764.
Carus, Dr. Paul, official delegate to the Religious and Philosophical Congresses
of the Paris Exposition, 1900 448
Chase, The Hon. Charles H. Elementary Principles of Economics 443
Chautauqua System of Jewish Education 44S
Clark, Dr. John Bates. The Distribution of Wealth ; A Theory of Wages,
Interest, and Profits 573
Colaw, John M., and J. K. Ellwood. (i) A Primary Book of School .\rithmetic.
(2) An Advanced Book of School Arithmetic 704
Conway, Dr. Moncure D. Solomon and Solomonic Literature. 316. — Life
of Paine. 575.
Cope, E. D. Syllabus of Lectures on Vertebrata 128
Dantec, Felix Le. Latnnrckiois et Darici)iiens, Discussion de g/tel(/nes
the'ories sur la formation des especes 377
Dewey, Prof. John. The School and Society 564
Dodel, F. W., M. D. Reqiiiescat! 191
Dole, Charles F. The Theology of Civilisation 382
Dresser, Horatio W. Voices of Hope, and Other Messages from the Hills. . . 189
Durand (de Gros), M. A^ouvelles recherchcs snr V F.sthetique et la Morale . . 378
Dutt, Romesh C. The Civilisation of India 447
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Vlll THE OPEN COURT.
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PAGE
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X THE OPEN COURT.
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