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ZIbe  ©pen  Court 

A  MONTHLY  MAGAZINE 

2)evote&  to  tbc  Science  of  IReliaton,  tbe  IRelf aton  ot  Science,  anb  tbe 
Extension  ot  tbe  IReliGious  parliament  f  &ea 

Editor:  Dr.  Paul  Carus.  Associates:   |  m\ry  Ca^us^ 


VOL.  XXIIL    (No.  7.)  JULY,  1909.  NO.  638. 


CONTENTS: 


rAom 


Frontispiece.    The  Philosopher  Adrift.    Murato  Tanryo. 

Our  Own  Religion  in  Ancient  Persia..    Prof.  L.  H.  Mills 385 

Christianity  as  the  Pleroma.     (Concluded.)     Editor 405 

Hazing  and  Fagging.     (Illustrated.)     Editor 43° 

Some  Epigrams  of  Goethe.    Translated  by  the  Editor 438 

Mars  Dux  and  Mar(u)duk.    C.  A.  Browne 444 

Peacemakers  in  Trouble 445 

Professor  Mills  and  the  Parsi  Community 44^ 

The  Philosopher  Adrift 447 

Notes 447 


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Copyright  by  The  Open  Court  Publishing  Company,  1909. 


^be  ©pen  Court 

A  MONTHLY  MAGAZINE 

S)e\>otc&  to  tbe  Science  of  IReliaton,  tbe  IReltaf on  of  Science,  anb  tbe 
Extension  of  tbe  IReliGious  parliament  l&ea 

Editor:  Dr.  Paul  Carus.  Associates:   |  j^'^^y  Ca^us^^ 


VOL.  XXIIL    (No.  7.)  JULY,  1909.  NO.  638. 


CONTENTS: 


TAOm 


Frontispiece.    The  Philosopher  Adrift.    Murato  Tanryo. 

Our  Own  Religion  in  Ancient  Persia..    Prof.  L.  H.  Mills 385 

Christianity  as  the  Pleroma.     (Concluded.)     Editor 405 

Hazing  and  Fagging.     (Illustrated.)     Editor 43° 

Some  Epigrams  of  Goethe.    Translated  by  the  Editor 438 

Mars  Dux  and  Mar(u)diik.    C.  A.  Browne 444 

Peacemakers  in  Trouble 445 

Professor  Mills  and  the  Parsi  Community 44^ 

The  Philosopher  Adrift 447 

Notes 447 


CHICAGO 

Zhe  ©pen  Court  pubUsbing  Company 

LONDON :  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  Co.,  Ltd. 
Per  copy,  10  cents  (sixpence).   Yearly,  $1.00  (in  the  U.  P.U.,  5s.  6d.). 

Entered  as  Second-Class  Matter  Oct.  lo,  1890,  at  the  Post  Office  at  Chicago,  111.,  under  Act  of  March  3,1879. 
Copyright  by  The  Open  Court  Publishing  Company,  1909. 


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VOL.  XXIII.     (No.  7.)  JULY,  1909.  NO.  638 


Copyright  by  The  Open  Court  Publishing  Company,  1909. 


OUR  OWN  RELIGION  IN  ANCIENT  PERSIA. 

ZOROASTER   (ZARATIIUSIITRA)    AND  THE  BIBLE.* 
BY  PROFliS.Sok   MILLS. 

[This  essay,  in  its  original  form,  was  delivered  twice  as  a  public  lecture 
before  distinguished  audiences  in  Oxford  some  j-ears  ago.  It  was  soon  after, 
or  soon  before,  printed  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  Rcviezv  oi  January,  1894, 
also  in  its  shorter  form;  and  later,  with  the  consent  of  the  editor  of  that  review 
and  of  the  ciuthor,  it  was  translated  into  Gujarati, — whether  by  Mr.  Palanji 
Madan  or  not,  the  writer  is  not  now  certain,  though  he  is  under  the  impression 
that  it  was  this  scholar  who  translated  it.  He  had  previously  translated  the 
Gatha  portion,  that  is  to  say,  one-half  of  the  XXXIst  volume  of  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East  into  Gujarati  in,  say,  1889,  and  I  take  especial  pleasure  in 
expressing  my  acknowledgments  for  that  distinguished  piece  of  work  here,  in 
America,  where  the  translator  could  hardly  have  expected  that  his  name  would 
become  known.  That  translation  of  this  essay  into  Gujarati  was  published 
by  the  Trustees  of  the  Sir  J.  Jejeebhoy  Translation  Fund  of  Bombay  in  a 
large  edition.  The  late  very  distinguished  editor  of  the  Review  mentioned 
seemed  gratified  that  the  article  was  to  be  thus  reproduced  in  an  Oriental 
language,  and  he  also  later  gave  permission  to  the  author  to  insert  it  in  a  vol- 
ume of  Miscellaneous  Pieces  upon  Zarathushtrianism,  which  it  is  hoped  will 
be  soon  forthcoming.  (The  lecture  has  also  just  lately  been  translated  into 
Italian  by  a  talented  author  entirely  upon  his  own  suggestion  and  initiative, 
and  will  soon  be  issued  in  that  form.)  Those  who  may  happen  to  compare 
this  lecture  with  either  its  original  in  the  Reviezv,  or  in  its  Gujarati  translation, 
will  notice  at  once  that  it  is  somewhat  enlarged,  and  also  that  I  seem  to  have 
altered  my  opinions  to  some  degree  as  to  one  of  the  essential  points,  since  I 
delivered  the  piece  first,  and  since  I  gave  it  to  the  eminent  periodical.  This 
however  is  more  apparent  than  real,  although  I  have  certainly  felt,  and  some- 
what pointedly  the  necessity  for  putting  the  possil^lc,  or  probable,  independent 
origin  of  our  Jewish  immortality  in  a  clearer  liglit.  Readers  will  also  easily 
recognize  the  later  insertions,  which  may  be  printed  in  this  present  edition,  from 
the  diflference  in  the  stylistic  flow  of  the  language  as  a  later  and  to  some  extent 
a  more  pointed  animus  imparts  greater  pungency  and  vivacity  to  one's  mode 
of  expressing  oneself.] 


M 


ANY  interested  but  necessarily  hasty  readers  of  the  Zend  Avesta 
overlook  the  fact  that  in  the  ancient  documents  comprised 
under  that  name  we  have  works  of  many  different  ages ;  and  even 
scholars  eminently  endowed  with  the  critical  faculty  as  applied  to 

*  See  the  Nineteenth  Century  Rcviczi.'  of  Jan.  1S94,  ^lie  title  Zoroaster  hav- 
ing been  applied  to  the  article  by  the  Editor. 


3S6  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

other  specialties  sometimes  fall  into  a  similar  error,  and  ignore  a 
characteristic  which  the  Avesta  possesses  in  common  with  nearly 
all  other  writings  of  its  description ;  for  they  sometimes  turn  over  its 
pages  without  perceiving,  or  seeming  to  perceive,  that  from  leaf  to 
leaf  matter  comes  before  them  made  up  of  pieces  nearly  or  quite 
dissimilar,  and  sometimes  separated  as  to  the  dates  of  their  avithor- 
ship  by  many  hundreds  of  years.  They  are  accordingly  apt  to  make 
themselves  merry  over  absurdities  which  prevail  in  the  later  but  still 
genuine  Avesta,  as  if  they  were  peculiar  to  the  original  Zoroastrian 
writings.^ 

But  the  author  or  authors  of  the  earlier  Avesta  had  no  immediate 
or  certain  connection  with  the  superstitions  of  later  centuries ;  and 
as  to  these  cjuaint  myths  and  trivial  ceremonials  which  are  preserved 
in  the  later  Avesta,  are  we  not  apt  to  exaggerate  the  disadvantages 
which  they  bring  with  them?  How  can  their  presence  affect  the 
value  of  the  nobler  elements  in  these  relics  of  ancient  faith? 

We  are  pained  to  read  them,  but  analogous  superfluities  survive 
in  many  modern  systems.  And  indeed  some  of  the  later  passages  in 
the  Zend  Avesta  which  describe  the  battle  with  the  Demon  of  Putre- 
faction, and  which  might  seem  to  some  of  us  most  grotesque,  were 
hardly  superfluities,  for  they  showed  a  sanitation  which  it  would  be 
better  for  us  to  follov/  rather  than  condemn.-  In  tracing  the  follow- 
ing analogies,  which  for  brevity's  sake  I  take  for  the  most  part  from 
the  genuine,  but  still  later, ^  Avesta,  I  shall  leave  out  these  grotesque 
details  generally,  abandoning  them  as  rare  morsels  to  the  collector 
of  ancient  bits.  What  is  here  intended  is  to  call  attention  to  the 
little-known,  though  long  since  reported  fact,  that  it  pleased  the  Di- 

^  It  is  even  not  uncommon  to  speak  or  write  of  the  Avesta  as  if  it  were 
identical  with  the  later  Zoroastrianism,  the  revived  system  of  Sasanian  times, 
which  is  however  as  diiTerent  from  hoth  the  earher  and  the  later  Avesta  as 
the  lives  of  saints  are  from  the  New  Testament  records. 

^Consciously  or  unconsciously  they  anticipated  much  modern  theory  on 
tills  subject,  and  led  the  way  in  the  most  practical  of  all  sciences — disinfection. 

■'  The  original  and  earlier  Avesta  consists  of  the  Gathas,  the  original  hymns 
of  Zoroaster  and  his  immediate  associates  or  followers.  They  are  most  dis- 
similar to  the  rest  of  the  Avesta  and  still  more  so  to  the  apocryphal  Zoroas- 
trianism. They  were  carefully  translated  by  me  in  the  Sacred  Books  of  the 
Hast,  Vol.  XXXI,  so  long  ago  as  October  1887,  and  their  Zend,  Pahlavi,  San- 
skrit, and  Persian  le.\ts  were  edited  and  the  first  tliree  translated  by  me  with 
a  Conunentary  in  my  Study  of  llic  (id  I  has.  .some  650  pages,  1902-94  (F.  A. 
I)n)ckhaus,  Leipsic).  They  may  be  provisioncdly  placed  at  about  700  to  900 
B.  C. ;  but,  if  they  antedate  the  cults  f)f  Mithra,  llaoma  (Soma),  and  of  the 
sun,  moon,  etc.,  etc.,  all  of  which  they  totally  ignore,  they  must  be  centuries 
older.  The  remaining  parts  of  the  Avesta  are  of  different  ages,  say  from  600 
to  300  B.  C,  while,  as  in  the  case  of  every  other  ancient  book,  spurious  addi- 
tions of  an  indefinitely  later  origin  occur  here  and  there.  Some  writers,  while 
liolding  the  Gathas  to  date  at  about  700  B.  C,  put  even  vigorous  parts  at  a 
thousand  years  later,  quite  an  irrational  suggestion. 


OLIK  OWN    KICI.ICION    IN    ANCIKNT   i'KUSIA.  387 

vine  Power  to  reveal  some  of  the  fundamental  articles  of  our  Catholic 
creed  first  to  Zoroastrians,  though  these  ideas  later  arose  spon- 
taneously and  independently  among-  the  Jews ;  secondly  I  wish  to 
emphasize  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  this  independent  origin 
among  the  Jewish  tribes  of  the  Exile  ;  and  thirdly  I  wish  to  show  that 
the  Persian  system  must  have  exercised  a  very  powerful,  though 
supervening  and  secondary  influence  upon  the  growth  of  these  doc- 
trines among  the  Exilic  and  post-Exilic  Pharisaic  Jews,  as  well  as 
upon  the  Christians  of  the  New  Testament,  and  so  eventually  upon 
ourselves. 

After  this  brief  preface,  let  me  ])rocee(l  at  once  to  cite  the 
documentary  facts,  only  remarking  that  they  are  practically  uncon- 
tested by  any  persons  whose  views  are  worth  considering, — while 
the  original  passages  could  even  be  sufficiently  learned  by  any  apt 
scholar  in  the  course  of  a  very  short  time. 

To  begin  with  our  excerpts  from  the  Sacred  Book  of  the  Iranians, 
let  us  first  trace  the  connection  where  it  seems  least  obvious,  that  is, 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  Deity.  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Living  Lord,  the 
great  Creator  (or  possibly  the  Wise  One),  has  a  most  Bountiful,  or 
most  Holy  Spirit,  who  is  sometimes  identical  with  Him. 

Yasna  xxviii.  i : 

With  hands  outstretched  I  lieseech  for  the  first  blessing  of  Thy  most 
Bounteous  (or  holy)  Spirit.^ 

See  also  Yasna  i.  i  : 

I  invoke,  and  I  will  complete  my  sacrifice  to  Ahura  Mazda,  the  Creator, 
the  radiant,  the  glorious,  the  greatest  and  the  best,  the  most  firm,  who  sends 
His  joy-creating  grace  afar,  who  made  us  and  has  fashioned  us,  who  has  nour- 
ished and  protected  us,  who  is  the  most  bountiful  (the  most  holy)   Spirit. 

In  the  seven  Bountiful  (or  holy)  Immortals  (the  Amshaspends 
of  literature)  we  have  a  union  which  reminds  us  of  the  Sabellian 
Trinity  (Yasht  xiii.  82)  : 

We  sacrifice  to  the  redoubted  guardian  spirits  of  the  Bountiful  Immortals 
who  are  glorious,  whose  look  itself  has  power  (their  look  produces  what  they 
wish),  who  are  lofty  and  coming  on  to  help  us,  who  are  swiftly  strong  and 
divine,  everlasting  and  holy,  who  are  Seven,*  and  all  of  one  thought,  and  of 
one  word,  and  of  one  deed,  whose  thought  is  the  same,  whose  word  is  the 
same,  and  whose  deeds  are  the  same,  who  have  one  Father  and  Commander, 
Ahura  Mazda ;  each  of  whom  sees  the  other's  soul  revolving  good  thoughts, 
thinking  of  good  words,  contemplating  good  actions,  whose  abode  is  the  Home 
of  Sublimity  (or  Song),  and  shining  are  their  paths  as  they  come  down  to  us 
to  offering."' 

*  About  B.  C.  700-900  or  greatly  earlier. 

*  Literary  confusion — ;  the  word  should  be  six,  without  Ahura. 
°  Say  B.  C.  300-100,  or  — ? 


388  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

While  they  are  thus  unified,  Ahura  Mazda  being  included  within 
their  number,  they  are  yet  separate.  Vohu  Manah  is  the  divine 
benevolence,  the  good  mind  of  the  Deity,  likewise  alive  within  His 
saints,  and  later  personified  as  a  separate  archangel,  while  even  in 
the  Gathas  it  represents  the  holy  or  correct  citizen.  Asha  the  Vedic 
Rita,  is  the  divine  Order,  the  symmetry  and  perfection  in  the  ritual 
and  the  soul,  and  at  the  same  time  a  poetically  personified  archangel. 
Khshathra  is  His  sovereign  power  realized  in  a  kingdom  of  right- 
eousness, and  yet  also  poetically  personified.  Aramaiti,  our  piety, 
the  Active  mind,  the  inspiring  energy  of  the  Deity  first  thought  of 
as  the  "ploughing  of  agriculture,"  and  from  this  latter  called  the 
"earth"  in  both  Veda  and  Avesta,  as  against  the  theft-murder 
schemes  of  the  raiding  Turks.  She  is  also  in  figurative  conception 
God's  daughter,  and  this  even  in  the  Gathas,  where  the  only  other 
similar  relation  made  use  of  in  this  manner  is  that  of  "Father,"  for 
the  Fire  is  "God's  Son"  only  in  the  later  Avesta. 

She  is  also  implanted  within  the  minds  of  the  faithful  as  a 
divine  inspiration.  Haurvatat  is  God's  Perfection  as  consummated 
through  His  foregoing  Truth,  Love,  Power  and  Vital  Energy,  while 
the  name  is  borrowed,  or  promoted  from  the  Haurvatat  "wholesome- 
ness,"  i.  e.,  the  "success"  of  man.  It  was  God's  completeness  like 
that  of  man's  as  reflected  in  the  body's  health,  then  soon  perfected 
in  their  weal  of  soul  and  mind  as  well  as  of  body,  an  idea  evidently 
necessary  to  the  roundness  of  the  scheme ;  while  Ameretatat  is  their 
Immortality,  Death's  absence,  a  veritable  victory  over  it  began  in 
its  long  postponement  to  old  age  here,  which  last  was  indeed  the 
original  point  of  the  word,  but  continued  in  eternal  Deathlessness 
in  a  future  state. 

From  the  second  to  the  seventh  they  are  personified  thoughts 
sent  forth  from  the  mind  of  God  to  ennoble  and  redeem  His  people. 
That  the  general  description  of  such  an  important  conception  as 
this,  lying  as  it  does  at  the  logical  root  of  Zoroastrianism,  should 
have  become  known  to  the  Jews  of  the  Captivity  and  to  their  descen- 
dants before  the  date  of  some,  if  not  of  all,  the  Exilic  Prophets,  is 
scarcely  less  than  certain.  The  Greeks  themselves  heard  of  them, 
and  in  their  deepest  and  purest  sense,  before  the  date  of  Daniel ; 
see  the  invaluable  passage  in  Plutarch,  evidently  reproducing  the 
ideas  of  Theopompus,  also  cited  by  me  elsewhere.  If  the  priests  of 
Cyrus  conferred  to  the  smallest  degree  with  those  of  Ezra,  then  not 
only  the  Gnostics  felt  its  influence,  but  the  pre-Christian  and  Chris- 
tian theology.  And  in  the  Book  of  Tobit,  which  also  contains  prom- 
inently the  name  of  an  Avesta  demon,  we  have  an  allusion  to  these 


OUR  OWN   RELIGION   IN   ANCIENT  PERSIA,  389 

seven  Spirits  (chap.  xii.  15).  So  also  in  Zechariah  (iv.  10)  we  have 
the  seven  which  are  as  the  eyes  of  the  Lord,  and  which  run  to  and 
fro  throuj^hont  the  whole  earth ;  and  this  is  further  expanded  in 
Rev.  V.  6 : 

And  I  saw  in  the  midst  of  the  throne  a  lamb  standing  as  tlioiigh  it  had 
been  slain,  having  seven  horns  and  seven  eyes,  which  are  seven  spirits  of  God 
sent  forth  into  all  the  earth. 

How  sublime  this  all  becomes  when  we  look  at  it  in  the  light 
of  separate  unassisted  and  unarrested  growth. 

[Negative  arguments  drawn  from  the  absence  of  the  named 
"Seven,"  also  from  the  absence  of  the  name  of  Angra  Mainyu  from 
the  Inscriptions  are  the  mistakes  of  non-experts ;  as  each  is  equally 
absent  from  large  portions  of  the  Avesta,  and  no  inference  can  be 
drawn  from  their  absence  from  the  Inscriptions,  while  the  prom- 
inence of  the  ideas,  at  least  as  expressed  in  the  names  of  the  Ame- 
shaspends,  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  two  of  them  are  combined 
in  the  name  of  the  Emperor  Artakhshatra,  which  is  Asha  (Arsha) 
plus  Khshathra,  while,  as  I  have  just  noticed,  the  name  of  the  large 
Eastern  province,  which  we  call  Harachosia  (?sic),  or  Arachosien, 
is  purely  and  simply  Harauvati  on  Behistiin  and  on  N.  R. ;  that  is 
to  say;  it  is  the  Av.  Ha{u)rvatat,  Sanskrit  Sarvatati,  the  fifth  Ame- 
shaspend;  see  also  Arminiya,  adj.  Armenia,  which  recalls  Aramati, 
the  fourth  Amesha. 

Mithra  and  Anahita  too  seem  to  have  stepped  bodily  out  of  the 
Avesta,  while  the  Demon  Driij  under  the  other  Avesta  form  of 
drauga  =  draogha  =  "the  Lie,"  is  present,  but  occurs  most  prom- 
inently under  its  verbal  form,  etc.  Many  turns  of  speech  are  strik- 
ingly common  to  the  Avesta  and  the  Inscriptions. 

We  must  also  never  forget  that  the  Achgemenian  Inscriptions, 
while  extensive  as  sculptured  writings,  are  yet  necessarily  very 
circumscribed  when  regarded  as  "literature."] 

Then  as  to  the  attributes  of  God  more  definitely  considered.  He 
is  our  Creator  (see  above),  and  perhaps  also,  in  a  theological  sense, 
sovereign  (Yasna  xxix.  4)  in  S.  B.  E.  xxxi,  and  in  the  Gathas)  : 

The  Great  Creator  is  most  mindful  of  the  utterances  or  commands  which 
have  been  fulfilled  beforehand  hitherto  by  demon-gods  and  by  men,  and  of 
those  which  shall  be  fulfilled  by  them  hereafter.  He,  Ahura,  is  the  discerning 
arbiter,  so  shall  it  be  to  us  as  He  shall  will  (see  also  Y.  xxxi.  14').  He  is 
omniscient  (see  Y.  xxxi.  13,  14').  He  is  our  lazvgiver  (Y.  xxxi.  11')  and 
teacher  (Y.  xxxi.  5;  Y.  xxxii.  13*).  He  will  establish  a  kingdom  (Y. 
xxviii.  4').    It  is  for  the  poor  (Y.  xxxiv.  3").    "What  is  your  kingdom,  what 

"These  passages  may  be  placed  at  about  700  to  900  B.  C. 


390  THE  OPEN    COURT. 

are  your  riches,  that  I  may  become  your  own  in  my  actions  with  the  righteous 
order,  and  thy  good  mind,  to  care  for  your  poor?"  (Y.  liii.  9)."  O  Mazda, 
Thine  is  the  Kingdom,  and  by  it  Thou  bestowest  the  highest  of  blessings  on 
the  right-living  poor."  It  is  endangered,  and  yet  in  the  end  victorious.  It  has 
a  propaganda  (Y.  xxxi.  3).®  "With  tongue  of  thy  mouth  do  thou  speak, 
that  I  may  make  all  the  living  believers."  God  is'  our  friend,  protector, 
strengthener,  and  unchangeable  (Y.  xxxi.  7)."  "These,  O  Spirit,  mayst  thou 
cause  to  prosper.  Thou  who  art  for  every  hour  the  same."  He  is  our  Judge 
(Y.  xlii.  4).^  There  is  a  day  or  period  of  judgment  (Y.  xliii.  5,  6).  "Yea, 
I  conceived  of  Thee  as  Bounteous,  O  Ahura  Mazda,  when  I  beheld  Thee  as 
supreme  in  the  actions  of  life,  when,  as  rewarding  deeds  and  words.  Thou 
didst  establish  evil  for  the  evil,  and  blessings  for  the  good  by  Thy  great  virtue 
in  the  creation's  final  change.  In  which  last  changing  Thou  shalt  come,  and 
with  Thy  bounteous  Spirit,  and  thy  sovereign  power  (see  also  Y.  xliv.  19)." 

Then  as  to  the  description  of  Satan ;  while  criticism  casts  its 
doubt  upon  the  presence  of  Satan  in  the  serpent  of  Genesis,  we 
gather  from  the  Genesis  of  the  Avesta  that  the  Scriptural  reptile  may 
well  be  recognized  as  that  old  Serpent  the  Devil.  A  serpent  tempts 
in  Genesis,  and  the  consequence  is  sin  and  the  expulsion  from  Eden. 
In  the  Vendidad,  the  Evil  Spirit  opposes  every  good  object  of  crea- 
tion, and  the  implied  consequence  is  an  expulsion. 

Vendidad  i.    Ahura  Mazda  said  unto  Zarathushtra  Spitama: 

I,  O  Zarathushtra  Spitama,  made  the  first  best  place,  which  is  Airyana 
Vaejah ;  thereupon  Aiigra  Mainyu  (the  Evil  Spirit)  created  a  counter  crea- 
tion, a  serpent  in  the  river,  and  frost  made  by  the  demons.  ..  .The  third  place 
which  I,  Ahura  Mazda,  made  the  best  was  Moiiru  ;  thereupon  Angra  Mainyu 
(the  Evil  Spirit)  created  a  counter  creation,  which  was  backbiting  and  lust.  . . . 
The  fifth  place  which  I,  Ahura  Mazda,  made  the  best  was  Nisaya;  thereupon, 
in  opposition  to  it,  Angra  Mainyu  (the  Evil  Spirit),  full  of  death,  created  a 
counter  creation,  which  was  the  curse  of  unbelief.  . .  .  As  the  seventh  best  place 
I,  who  am  Ahura  Mazda,  created  Vaekereta. ..  .thereupon,  in  opposition  to  it, 
Angra  Mainyu  (the  Evil  Spirit),  full  of  death,  created  the  evil  fairy  who  clave 
to  Keresaspa.  . .  .  As  the  ninth  place,  I,  who  am  Ahura  Mazda,  created  Khnenta 
as  the  best.  ..  .thereupon  Aiigra  Mainyu  (the  Evil  Spirit)  created  a  counter 
creation,  the  inexpiable  deed  of  Sodomy"....   etc. 

These  memorable  fragments  must  have  struck  the  attention  of 
every  learned  scribe  who  heard  them ;  and  they  must  have  been  con- 
stantly repeated  in  greatly  varied  forms.  They  may  well  have 
hcl])(,'d  to  mould  Jewish  and  Christian  expressions. 

Then  the  Asmodcus  of  the  Book  of  Tobit  (iii.  8,  17)  is  positively 
the  Acshma-daeva  of  the  Avesta,  and  Aeshma  was  the  wrath-demon 
of  invasion  (see  Yasna  xlviii.  7,  etc.).  The  apparent  and  superficial 
variations  between  the  Zoroastrian  and  the  Jewish  conception  of  the 

"  Tliese  passages  may  be  placed  at  about  700  to  900  B.  C. 

'  About  500  to  300  B.  C. ;    so  certainly  in  its  main  prior  elements. 


OUU  OWN    KIJ.ICION    IN    ANCIl'.N T    IMsRSIA.  39 1 

relalion  Ijctwccn  llic  Deity  and  Satan  arc,  of  course,  to  be  expected, 
but  we  sbould  not  allow  tbeir  ai)])roxiniatini4  rest'nil)]ance  t(j  blind 
our  eyes  to  tlie  real  ditiference. 

[It  would  be  a  clumsy  history  of  philoso])hy  which  would  allow 
the  present  noble  monotheism  of  the  Parsis  to  cheat  us  of  the  specu- 
latively precious  element  of  dualism  as  it  exists  in  their  j^enuine 
writing's.  Whether  the  ideas  which  lay  at  the  root  of  the  doctrine 
of  dualism  were  true  or  false,  and  whether  the  Jewish  ])re-C"hristian 
thought  was  infected  with  them  or  not,  that  post-Christian  dogma 
was  filled  to  repletion  with  diabolic  demonism,  though  this  was  ob- 
viously still  und'M"  the  power  of  the  exorcising  Saviour,  and  therefore 
perhaps  not  an  item  within  a  true  Dualism  strictly  s])eaking"  in  the 
Zarathushtrian  sense ;  but  T  very  seriously  raise  the  question  whether 
the  Jewish  writers  of  the  (  )ld  Testament  earlier  or  late  at  all  really 
believed  that  their  JahicJi  lllohiin  was  (sic)  the  creator  of  either 
Satan,  or  of  I»aal,  or  of  any  of  the  Demon-Gods.  We  k'uow  indeed 
that  they  accredited  the  existence  of  these  latter  as  a  matter  only 
too  emphatically  real,  and  by  no  means  uninterruptedly  regarded 
them  as  being  altogether  creatures  of  the  imagination ;  see  the  fre- 
quent comparison  of  them  with  Jahveh  Elohim.  But  w'hen,  and 
in  so  far  as,  they  thus  believed  them  to  be  really  existing  beings,  in 
how  far  did  they  then  suppose  the  Jahveh  Elohim  to  have  been  their 
original  creator,  either  bringing  them  into  existence  as  being  holy 
in  their  nature  before  a  fall  like  Satan's,  or  causing  them  to  arise  as 
being  originally  of  evil  character?  The  question  is  very  serious. 
The  foolish  relief  otTered  us  by  the  doctrine  that  Jahveh  Elohim, 
as  God  the  Father,  was  not  responsible  for  the  fall  of  beings  whom 
He  foresaw  would  become  evil  when  He  created  them,  is  no  longer 
available,  and  could  not  have  long  continued  to  satisfy  any  sober- 
minded  sage.  But  if  the  leading  Jews  in  large  numbers  thus  in  due 
sequence  unconsciously  or  openly  rejected  the  view  that  God  created 
the  Evil  Gods  of  their  enemies — directly  or  indirectly,  in  any  shape 
or  chain  of  causality  or  responsibility  whatsoever ;  then  the  ancient 
Israelites  were  in  verity,  though  they  were  not  consciously,  dualists. 
not  far  indeed  from  the  type  of  Zarathushtra ; — they  held  to  the 
existence  of  a  Being,  or  Beings,  who  was,  or  who  were,  originally 
evil,  and  so,  to  an  original  evil  principle,  which  is  dualism — and  that 
dualism  remains  one  of  the  most  interesting  suggestions  which  have 
ever  been  presented,  and  one  indeed  which,  in  its  elements,  if  not  in 
its  detail,  is  still  unconsciously  but  largely  followed.^''] 

^  What  is  the  present  advancing  pessimism  (so  called)  but  the  recognition 
of  the  original  necessity  of  evil  co-existing  with  good?     The  Avesta  mereJy 


392  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

A  fall  of  man  is  included  in  the  successive  expulsions  above 
related,  but  we  have  also  in  the  original  Avesta  which  was  written 
still  earlier  than  the  Vendidad  a  fall  of  man,  or  of  spiritual  beings, 
distinctly  stated  (Y.  xxx.  3)  : 

Thus  are  the  primeval  spirits  which,  as  a  pair,  each  independent  in  his  ac- 
tions, have  been  famed  of  old,  as  regards  a  better  and  a  worse,  as  to  thought,  as 
to  word,  and  as  to  deed,  and  between  these  two,  the  demons,  or  their  worshipers, 
could  make  no  righteous  choice  since  theirs  was  deception.  As  they  were 
questioning  (in  their  hesitation)  the  Worst  Mind  approached  them  that  he 
might  be  chosen.  Thereupon  they  rushed  together  unto  the  Demon  of  Rapine, 
that  they  might  pollute  the  lives  of  mortals.® 

As  to  Sotcriology,  a  virgin  conceives.  It  is  not,  however,  to 
produce  Zarathushtra,  but  the  restoring  Saviour  of  the  latter  "age ; 
nor  does  she  conceive  without  seed  although  she  is  still  a  virgin. 
She  conceives  from  the  seed  of  Zarathushtra,  which  has  been  miracu- 
lously preserved. 

The  details,  which  show  a  gross  deterioration  from  Gathic  times, 
are  presented  in  their  rounded  form  only  in  the  Bundahish,  which 
is  perhaps  more  than  a  thousand  years  later  than  the  date  of  the 
original  passages  in  the  genuine  but  still  later  Avesta.  "Zarathushtra 
approached  his  wife  Hv6v....the  angel  Neryosangh  received  the 
brilliance  and  strength  of  that  seed,  and  delivered  it  with  care  to  the 
angel  Anahid,  and  in  time  it  will  blend  with  a  mother.  Nine  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  myriads  of  the  guardian  spirits 
of  the  saints  are  intrusted  with  its  protection"  (see  the  Bundahish, 
5*.  B.  E.,  vol.  V,  p.  T44).  It  is  preserved  in  the  Lake  Kasava  till,  at 
the  end  of  the  earthly  cycle,  a  maid  Eretat-fedhri  bathing  in  the 
lake  will  conceive  from  it,  and  bring  forth  the  last  Saoshyant,  or 
Saviour,  while  two  of  his  predecessors  are  similarly  engendered. 
These  several  items  are  likewise  present  in  a  scattered  state  in  the  an- 
cient but  still  comparatively  later  Avesta.   In  Yasht  xiii.  142,  we  read : 

We  worship  the  guardian  spirit  of  the  holy  maid  Eretat-fedhri,  who  is 
called  the  all-conquering,  for  she  will  bring  him  forth  who  will  destroy  the 
malice  of  the  demons  and  of  men." 

While  in  Yasht  xix.  92,  we  read  that 

Astvatcreta  (the  Saviour  of  the  Restoration)  will  arise  from  the  waters 
of  Kasava,  a  friend  of  Ahiu-a  Mazda,  a  son  of  Vispataurvi,  the  all-conquering, 

personified  what  so  many  of  us  now  accept.  Compare  even  the  snblatcd  dual- 
ism of  FiclUc  and  llcgcl,  whicli  flicy,  strange  I0  sa}',  may  have  derived  uncon- 
sciously Ihrougli  Sclielling,  Jacob  Bochmc,  and  the  Gnostics  from  the  Avesta. 
This  remark  is  suggested  by  one  of  Ilaug's,  and  confirmed  in  conversation 
with  a  leading  specialist.    The  passage  in  brackets  is  an  enlarged  note. 

"  B.  C.  700-900,  or  earlier. 


OUR  OWN    RKI.ICION    IN    ANCIENT   PKRSFA.  393 

knowing  the  victorious  knowledge  wliich  will  make  the  world  progress  unto 
perfection.'" 

y\n(l  in  Yasht  xiii.  62,  we  learn  that  9,999  spirits  of  the  faithful 
watch  over  the  seed  of  Zoroaster.^ ^  That  we  have  here  the  hope  of 
a  virgin-horn  Redeemer  admits  no  douljt.  Whether  such  intima- 
tions, repeated  under  various  forms,  came  from  the  hint  of  the 
Israelitisli  prophets  or  vice  versa  is  of  course  a  question,  but  that 
Zoroastrian  or  Mazda-worshiping  Magi,  if  they  came  from  the  East 
to  honor  the  virgin-horn  l)ahe  of  Bethlehem,  were  familiar  with 
them  is  certain.  And  as  they  expected  a  virgin-born  Saviour  them- 
selves it  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose  that  this  pious  hope  may  well 
have  lain  at  the  foundation  of  their  divine  call  to  discover  him  who 
was  born  "King  of  the  Jews."  Then  as  to  the  Temptation.  If  our 
r.ord  aporoached  that  great  event  in  the  spirit  of  wide  humanity, 
one  would  surmise  that  He  felt  some  sympathy  with  sages  who  had 
gone  before  Him  in  similar  signal  encounters ;  and  there  exists  a 
temptation  of  Zoroaster  of  which  He  may  have  known  through 
supcrnatiu'al  cognition,  and  to  which  for  color  that  of  Heracles,  for 
instance,  bears  no  comparison.  The  myth  containing  it  doubtless  ex- 
presses in  its  fragments  what  was  once  a  real  struggle,  which,  if  it 
in  any  sense  saved  Zoroastrianism,  was  one  of  the  world's  crises. 
Zoroaster  is  besought  by  the  Evil  One  to  abjure  the  holy  Mazdayas- 
nian  religion,  and  to  obtain  a  reward  such  as  an  evil  ruler  got  (Ven- 
didad  xix.  43)^": 

He  shouted,  and  shouted  forth  again,  he  Aiigra  Mainyu,  the  evil  spirit, 
who  is  full  of  death.  He  pondered,  and  he  pondered  widely,  the  demon  of  the 
demons,  and  he  thus  said,  he  who  was  the  evil-minded  Afigra  Mainyu,  "What! 
will  the  demons  be  assembled  in  an  assembly  on  the  top  of  Arezura,"  they  the 
wicked,  evil-minded?".  ..  .Tiiey  rushed  and  they  shouted,*"  they,  the  demons, 
wicked,  evil-minded,  and  with  the  evil  eye:  "Let  us  assemble  in  an  assembly 
on  the  top  of  Arezura,  for  born  indeed  is  He  who  is  the  righteous  Zarathushtra 
of  the  house  of  Pourushaspa.  Where  shall  we  find  destruction  for  Him?  He 
is  the  demon's  wounder,  He  is  the  demon's  foe.*  He  is  Druj  of  the  Druj 
(a  destroyer  of  the  destroyer).  Face  downward  are  the  Demon-worshipers, 
prostrate  is  the  death-demon,''  and  down  is  the  Draogha  of  the  lie." 

But  (Vend.  xix.  i)  a  rally  is  made.  Angra  Mainyu.  the  evil  spirit, 
coming  from  the  north  region  of  the  North,  orders  the  Lie-demon  to 
assault  and  slay  the  holy  Zarathushtra  now  no  longer  just  born  but 

*°  B.  C.  300-500 ;  but  the  repetition  of  this  myth  argues  its  long  previous 
growth  through  centuries. 

"  Compare  this  drivel  with  the  grandeur  and  simplicity  of  the  Gatha, 
S.  B.E.  xxxi,  pp.  1-194. 

''Say  about  30o(?).  The  footnote  signs  expressed  in  letters  refer  in  each 
case  to  the  corresponding  analogy  in  note  17. 


394  ''HE  OPEN    COURT. 

in  the  vigor  of  his  age.  The  assaiiU  is  at  once  repelled  hy  prayer, 
sacrifices,  and  the  fervent  recital  of  the  creed.  The  demon,  frus- 
trated, returns  to  Angra  Mainyu.     She  says: 

O  baneful  Evil  Spirit,  I  see  no  death  for  Him,  for  glorious  is  the  righteous 
Zarathushtra." 

Zarathushtra,  seeing  through  their  thoughts,  says  (within  himself)  : 

The  Demons  plot  my  death,  they,  evil-doing  as  they  are.^^ 

He  arose,  he  went  forth'  rninjured  by  their  plan  and  the  hardness  of 
their  words.     And  Zarathushtra  let  the  Evil  Spirit  know:^- 

O  evil-minded  Angra  Mainjai,  I  will  smite  the  creation  made  by  demons ; 
I  will  smite  the  Nasu  (putrid  demon)  ;  I  will  smite  the  evil  fair}'  (that  seduced 
the  early  sages),  till  the  Saviour  is  born  victorious  from  the  waters  of  Kasava, 
from  the  utmost  region  of  the  East.^^ 

And  Angra  Mainyu  answered,  and  shouting  as  he  spoke : 

Slay  not  my  creatures,^  holy  Zarathushtra.  Thou  art  Pourushaspa's  son, 
for  from  thy  birth  have  I  invoked"  (thee).''  Renounce  the  good  religion  of 
those  who  worship  Mazda.'  Obtain  the  reward^  which  Vadhaghan,  the  mur- 
derous (ruler),  gained. 

And  Zarathushtra  answered : 

Never  shall  I  abjure  the  good  faith"  of  those  who  worship  Mazda;  (no), 
let  not  my  body,  nor  my  life,^^    nor  my  senses  fly  apart. 

And  to  him  then  shouted  the  Evil  Spirit  of  the  evil  world : 

With  whose  word  wilt  thou  thus  conquer?  With  whose  word  wilt  thou 
abjure?     With  what  weapon  as  the  best  formed  wilt  thou  conquer  these  my 

creatures? 

And  Zarathushtra  answered : 

With  the  sacred  Haoma  plant,  with  the  mortar  and  the  cup,  with  the  word 
which  God  pronounced.'  With  these  my  weapons  (will  I  slay  thee),  they  are 
best.  With  that  word  shall  I  be  victor,  with  that  word  shall  I  expel  thee,™  with 
this  weapon  as  the  best  made,  O  evil  Angra  Mainyu.  The  most  bounteous 
Spirit  forged  it";  in  boundless  time  he  made  it;  and  the  Bountiful  Immortals 
gave  it,  they  who  rule  aright,  who  dispose  (of  all)  aright. 

And  Zarathushtra  chanted : 

As  the  higher  priest  is  to  (be  revered  and)  chosen,  so  let  the  lower  chief 
(be  one  who  serves)  from  the  righteous  order,  a  creator  of  mental  goodness, 
and  of  life's  actions  done  for  Mazda,  and  the  kingdom"  is  to  Ahura,  which  to 
the  poor  may  give  their  nurture.'"   • 

'■'  A  blessed  quarter. 

'^  First  aor.  mid. 

'''Other  translators  introduce  an  "if"  to  gain  a  ])cttcr  meaning,  "Not  if  my 
body,  nor  my  life,  nor  my  senses  tly  apart." 

'"The  te.\ts  cited  are  all  of  them  metrical,  hence  the  rhythm  of  the  render- 
ings. 


OUR  OWN  r1':i.k;i()n  in  anciI'-ni"  i'i:i<si.\.  395 

Here  \vc  may  well  iiiln)(lucc  the  closinj;-  verse  of  the  cha])ter 
(xix.   147):'' 

The  demons  shouted,  the  demons  rushed,  the  evil-doing  and  the  wicked; 
they  rushed  and  they  fled  to  the  hottom  of  the  place  of  darkness;  that  is,  of 
frightful  Hell." 

Few  Medo-Persian  subjects  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  being 
presumably  Maj^da-worshipers,  like  their  emperors,  here  lingering  in 
the  Persian  subject  city  soon  after,  or  long  after  the  Return,  could 
have  failed  to  know  this  striking  myth  ;  and  none  who  knew  it  could 
have  failed  to  tell  it,  if  creeds  were  at  all  discussed. 

The  religion  is  suhjectivc.  Holiness  is  prayed  for  as  well  as  the 
outward  reward   (Y.  xxviii.  Ti)  ;  and  Avesta  is  the  document  here: 

O  Asha,  Angel  of  the  Holy  Law,  when  shall  I  see  thee,  knowing  the 
Good  Mind  and  Ohedicnce,  and  finding  the  way  to  Ahura  (or  "Ahura's 
throne") ? 

We  now  come  upon  something  which  has  the  strongest  claims 
upon  our  attention.  Whereas  much  else  in  Zoroastrianism  may 
present  the  analogies  of  an  older  but  still  sister  religion,  we  have 
as  to  one  great  particular  what  all  must  acknowledge  to  be  in  a  spe- 
cial sense  a  prior  revelation  in  the  Persian  Bible.  I  fear  we  too  little 
realize  how  very  uncertain  the  doctrine  of  a  future  life  was  in  the 
minds  of  pious  Jews,  even  at  the  time  of  our  Lord.  The  Sadducees, 
as  we  understand,  believed  in  neither  "angel,  nor  spirit,  nor  resur- 
rection," and  the  Sadducees  shared  the  power  with  the  Pharisees ;  in 
fact,  they  seemed  to  have  possessed  greater  social  prestige,  and  several 
princely  high  priests  were  of  their  clique.  It  seems  to  many  of  us 
most  curious  that  the  sect  among  the  ancient  people  of  God,  which 
especially  claimed  the  title  of  purists  and  sticklers  for  the  ancient 
Pentateuch,  should  have  been  absolute  disbelievers  in  what  are  now 
widely  regarded  as  the  fundamental  principles  of  religion.  If  such  a 
state  of  things  existed  at  the  time  of  our  Lord,  when  both  the  doc- 
trine of  immortality  and  that  of  resurrection  had  long  been  familiar 
as  theories,  what  must  have  been  the  condition  of  opinion  on  these 
subjects  while  the  influence  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  which  these  doc- 

"For  detailed  analogies,  which  are  not  close,  recall  perhaps  *"'"the  ex- 
ceeding high  mountain";  """cried  with  a  loud  voice:  IMy  name  is  Legion"; 
'•'''"' \n  thou  come  hither  to  destroy  us?"  <^"'Dcath  and  Hell  shall  be  cast  into 
the  Lake  that  burneth";  ''""The  Holv  One";  '""was  led  up  into  the  wilder- 
ness to  be  tempted  of  the  Devil";  '^'"And  the  Devils  besought  Him."  etc.; 
"""I  know  Thee  Who  Thou  art";  <""A11  these  things  will  I  give  Thee  if 
Thou  wilt  fall  down  and  worship  me":  <^'"I  will  give  Thee  this  authority  ; 
"^'"Thou  shalt  worship  the  Lord  thy  God":  '""It  is  written";  '"'  Get  thee 
hence";  """The  sword  of  the  Spirit  which  is  the  word  of  God'  :  '"'"Him  only 
shalt  thou  serve";  """Then  the  Devil  leaveth  Him;"  "into  the  abyss." 


396  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

trines  were  not  distinctly  revealed  at  all,  was  as  yet  not  affected  by 
the  large  addition  to  canonical  Scripture  made  later?  And  first  as 
to  immortality  in  itself  considered. 

Heaven  and  Hell  were  chiefly  mental  states,  especially  in  the 
earliest  Avesta  (Y.  xxx.  4)  : 

The  two  spirits  came  together  at  the  first,  and  determined  how  life  at  the 
last  shall  be  ordered  for  the  wicked  (Hell),  the  worst  life;  for  the  holy  the 
best  mind  (Heaven). 

Rewards  and  punishments  are  self-induced  (Y.  xxxi.  20)  : 

And  this,  which  is  such  a  life  as  your  own,  O  ye  vile,  your  own  deeds  have 
brought  you  (Y.  xlvi.  11)  :  Cursed  by  their  souls  and  selves,  their  being's 
nature,  for  ever  in  the  Home  of  Lies  their  bodies  rest.^* 

In  Vendidad  xix.  30,  the  soul  is  met  on  its  arrival  after  death 
at  the  Chinvat,  or  Judge's,  Bridge  by  a  female  form  accompanied 
with  dogs,^"  and  in  Yasht  xxii.  we  learn  who  this  female  was.  It  was 
none  other  than  the  believer's  conscience.  The  figure  presents  the 
typical  features  of  female  attractiveness ;  she  is  beautiful,  she  is 
noble,  and  in  the  flower  of  her  youth.  "What  maiden  art  thou,"  he 
asks  her,  "who  art  the  most  beautiful  of  maidens  that  ever  I  have 
seen  ?"  And  she,  who  is  his  conscience,  answers :  "I  am  verily,  O 
youth,  thy  conscience,  thy  good  thoughts,  and  words,  and  deeds,  thy 
very  own."  But  he  asks  her,  "Who  hath  desired  thee  hither  with 
his  love,  coming  with  thy  majesty,  thy  goodness,  and  thy  beauty, 
triumphant  and  an  enemy  of  grief?"  And  she  answers:  "Thou  hast 
loved  me  and  desired  me  hither,  O  youth,  even  thy  good  thoughts, 
and  words,  and  deeds.  For  when  thou  sawest  idol-worship.  . .  .thou 
didst  desist,  chanting  the  Gathas,  and  sacrificing  to  the  good  waters 
and  to  Ahura  Mazda's  fire,  contenting  the  righteous  saint  who  came 
to  thee  from  near  and  from  afar.  It  is  thus  that  thou  hast  made  me, 
who  am  lovely,  still  more  lovely,  and  me  who  am  beautiful  hast  thou 
made  still  more  beautiful,  and  thou  hast  made  me  who  am  beatified 
still  more  beatified.  . .  .through  thy  good  thoughts,  and  words,  and 
deeds."  (Here  we  may  observe,  in  passing,  the  same  element  of 
pleased  surprise  which  we  have  in  the  sublimer  Matthew  xxv.  37; 
the  soul  is  incredulous:  "When  saw  we  Thee  a  hungered  and  fed 
Thee?"  and  the  answer  is,  "Thou  hast  fed  and  lodged  Me,"  so  here 
there  is  surprise ;  "who  hath  desired  thee  hither  with  his  love  ?"  And 
the  answer  is,  "Thou  hast ;  for  thou  didst  content^"  the  righteous  man 
coming  from  near  and  from  afar.")     As  the  soul  proceeds  further, 

"  The  earlier  Avesta.  "Sadducees"  were  named  from  one  Zadok,  but  the 
name  means  "just." 

"  Related  to  Cerberus. 

'^  The  later  Zoroastrianism  explains  "lodged  and  entertained." 


OUR  OWN   RELIGION    IN   ANCIENT   I'ERSIA.  397 

it  passes  the  Jiidgo's  Bridj^c  and  comes  before  the  golden  throne, 
where  the  Good  Mind  is  seated  (Vend.  xix.  31).  He  rises  to  meet 
the  soul,  and  welcomes  it:  "When  didst  thou  come  hither  from  that 
perishable  world  to  this  imperishable  world?"  and  the  saints  who 
have  passed  away  before  him  ask  him  the  same :  "How  long  was 
thy  salvation?"  Then  said  Ahura  Mazda,  "Ask  him  not  what  thou 
askest  of  that  cruel  way  which  is  the  dividing  of  the  soul  and  body" 
(Yasht  xxii.).  And  the  first  step,  as  he  advances,  places  him  in  the 
entrance  of  the  threefold  Heaven,  which  is  again  the  Good  Thought, 
and  the  second  step  places  him  in  the  Good  Word,  and  the  third  in 
the  Good  Deed.-^  Then  the  soul  passes  on  contented  to  the  souls  of 
the  saints,  to  the  golden  throne  of  Ahura  Mazda,  and  to  the  golden 
thrones  of  the  Bountiful  Immortals,  and  to  the  abode  of  Sublimity 
(or  Song),  even  to  the  home  of  Ahura  Mazda  and  the  other  Im- 
mortals-- (Vend.  xix.  33).  A  corresponding  evil  spirit  awaits  the 
wicked ;  a  hideous  female  is  his  conscience,  the  wicked  and  Aiigra 
Mainyu  mock  him,  and  he  rushes  at  last  into  the  Hell  of  evil 
thoughts,  and  words,  and  deeds. 

Few  scientific  theologians  will  deny  that  the  doctrine  of  immor- 
tality was  scarcely  mooted  before  the  later  Isaiah,  that  is,  before  the 
Captivity,  while  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures  are  one  mass  of  spiritual- 
ism, referring  all  results  to  the  heavenly  or  infernal  worlds.  As  to 
the  unending  futurity  of  the  Zoroastrian  heaven,  if  such  a  point  needs 
proof,  recall  the  epithets  which  describe  its  features;  "for  ever  and 
ever"  of  itself  sufifices.^^  And  this  phrase,  together  with  many  similar 
ones,  renders  it  incontrovertible  that  Ameretatat — Immortality — as 
one  of  the  six  personified  attributes  of  the  Deity,  did  not  represent 
long  life  alone,  but  never-dying  life. 

Corporeal  resurrection  seems  to  be  placed  after  the  reception 
of  souls  into  Heaven  as  if  they  returned  later  to  a  purified  earth. 

As  to  this  doctrine, — which  is,  properly  speaking,  as  of  course, 
not  identical  with  that  of  "inmiortality,"  but  which  may  be  fairly 
said  to  be  closely  associated  with  it, — aside  from  the  constant  im- 
plication of  it  throughout,  we  have  in  Fragment  IV,  "Let  Angra 
Mainyu,  the  evil  spirit,  be  hid  beneath  the  earth,  let  the  Daevas  dis- 
appear, let  the  dead  arise,  and  let  bodily  life  be  sustained  in  these 
now  lifeless  bodies."-*    And,  in  Yasht  xix.  83,  we  have  resurrection 

"  A  perhaps  misunderstood  echo  of  this  is  Rev.  xxii.  1 1 :  He  that  is  unright- 
eous, let  him  be  unrighteous  still ;  and  he  that  is  filthy  let  him  be  filthj'  still." 

"*  About  B.  C.  300. 

^  Discussed  by  me  elsewhere. 

"  These  passages  may  be  placed  within  three  centuries  B.  C. ;  the  date  of 
the  Gatlias  alone  is  fixed  at  700-900  B.  C. 


398  .  THE  OPEN    COURT. 

together  with  millennial  perfections.  "We  sacrifice  unto  the  Kingly 
Glory  which  shall  cleave  unto  the  victorious  Saviour  and  His  com- 
panions, when  He  shall  make  the  world  progress  unto  perfection, 
and  when  it  shall  be  never  dying,  not  decaying,  never  rotting,  ever 
living,  ever  useful,  having  power  to  fulfil  all  wishes,  when  the  dead 
shall  arise,  and  immortal  life  shall  come,  when  the  settlements  shall 
all  be  deathless."  Contrast  this  with  the  earlier  Scriptural  passages, 
void  as  they  are  of  any  genuine  statement  of  this  essential  dogma. 
Compare  these  then  with  statements  which  appear  after  the  return 
from  the  Captivity,  a  captivity  during  which  the  tribes  had  come  in 
contact  with  a  great  religion  in  which  the  passages  cited  describe  a 
predominant  tendency.  What  do  we  find  in  them?  First,  we  have 
the  jubilant  hope  expressed  by  the  later  Isaiah :  "Let  thy  dead  live, 
let  my  dead  body  arise.  Awake  and  sing,  ye  that  dwell  in  the  dust ; 
for  thy  dew  is  as  the  dew  of  herbs,  and  the  earth  shall  cast  forth  the 
shades."  And  then  the  full  statement  in  Daniel :  "And  many  of 
them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake,  some  to  ever- 
lasting life,  and  some  to  shame  and  everlasting  contempt."  And  yet 
God's  people,  as  we  have  seen  above,  had  not  fully  accepted  the 
meaning  of  this  language  even  at  the  time  of  Christ.  We  draw 
the  inference — the  religion  of  the  Jeivs  zvas  originally  Sadducaic. 

Such  then  are  the  historical  literary  facts, — uncontested  for  the 
most  part,  the  great  mass  of  them  (see  above),  and  also  incontest- 
able ;  and  this,  whatsoever  may  be  their  possible,  or  impossible, 
exterior  historical  connection,  or  disconnection,  with  the  Hebrew 
theology,  or  our  own.  The  points  deduced  from  them  clearly 
show  that  they  contain  the  very  most  essential  elements  of  "our 
ozvn  religion"  in  its  advanced,  if  still  formative,  condition,  from  the 
date  of  the  Captivity  or  before  the  time  of  Christ,  and  after  the 
Restoration  from  the  Exile.  Let  us  collect  the  points  for  our  con- 
venience from  the  copious  citations  made  above.  First  of  all  there 
was  A(r)sha  the  Holy  Law  of  Truth  as  to  thought,  word  and  deed, 
this  being,  however,  rather  a  universal  "persuasive  principle"  than 
a  "doctrine."  Next  to  this  was  God's  Unity;  then  His  Creationism 
of  all  Beings;  then  an  Angelic  Host,  of  1)i)lh  exalted  and  inferior 
Spirits  ;  then  His  Sovereignty — Divine  Oninipolcncc — which  includes 
Omniscience  \  then  His  Benevolence — God's  love — (His  justice  is 
included  within  the  first)  ;  then  His  inspiring  energy  (compare  the 
Holy  Ghost) — with  the  result  of  Universal  Weal,  for  the  Righteous ; 
then  Dcathlessness,  which  is  God's  Eternity  and  man's  hn mortality. 
A  Judgment  follows,  both  individual  and  general,  which  takes  place 
— first  in  the  judged  man's  soul,  then  in  everlasting  happiness  in 


OUR  OWN    KKi.lCION    IN   ANCIKNI    I'KUSIA.  399 

various  detail  ///  llciiicn,  or  upon  a  renewed  and  |)urifie<l  (.'arlli.  A 
Alillcniiiiiiii  of  terrestrial  Perfection  ensues  with  a  restorins^'  Saviour 
who  is  to  be  ''Vir<^iii  boiii,"  and,  i)erha])s  a  "Seventh  Heaven"  cor- 
responditii^"  to  the  Seven  Immortals.  I'^or  the  evil,  a  c()rres])()ndin,i,^ 
Hell  exists  in  equal  tirades,  with  the  most  ])ronounced  Satan  of  all 
literature.  These  are,  as  I  need  not  repeat,  the  vital  essentials  of 
our  own  relii^ion  as  it  existed  in  its  earlier  staj^es  in  the  Exilic 
period  during-  and  after  the  Cai)tivity,  and  before  Christ,  being 
conspicuously  manifested  in  the  orthodox  Pharisaism,  while  these 
elements  existed  in  the  Persian  documents  for  unknown  ])revious 
ages ;  sec  the  Veda  everywhere.-"'  It  can  now  be  more  plainly  seen 
why  I  used  the  exi)ression  "( )ur  (3wn  Religion  in  Ancient  Persia." 
Contrary,  however,  to  many  acute  and  able  searchers.  1  hold  that 
the  two  forms  of  this  same  religion  were  originally  each  of  separate 
origin;  see  again  above  and  below,— each  being  a  regular  spon- 
taneous and  parallel  development  from  unchanging  universal  laws, 
proving  the  original  Man-Lhiit}-,  and  strongly  sui)porting  the  view 
that  it  was  impossible  to  prevent  the  origin  and  develoiMnent  of 
similar  ideas,  entirely  aside  from  all  borrowing  of  them  from  one 
nation  to  another.  But  while  I  hold  that  these  parallel  views  arose 
from  "parallel  development"  having  been  caused  by  the  disastrous 
afflictions  of  the  Captivity,  I  lay  no  illogical  straw  in  the  way  of 
those  who  hold  to  the  view  that  the  doctrines  were,  under  God, 
taught  directly  to  the  Jews  by  their  Persian  protectors.  In  fact  I 
would  strenuously  repeat,  and  with  emphasis,  what  I  wrote  in  1894. 
viz.,  the  principle,  that  any,  or  all  of  the  historical,  doctrinal,  or 
hortative  statements  recorded  in  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament 
might,  while  fervently  believed  to  be  inspired  by  the  Divine  Power, 
be  yet  freely  traced,  if  the  facts  would  allow  of  it,  to  other  religious 
systems  for  their  mental  initiative : — that  the  historical  origin  of 
particular  doctrines  or  ideas  which  are  expressed  in  the  Old  or  the 
New  Testament  does  not  touch  the  question  of  their  inspiration, 
plenary  or  otherwise ;  that  for  instance  as  St.  Paul  freely  discloses 
his  mental  peculiarities,  and  (as  to  citations)  quotes  a  poet  of  his 
youth,  so  our  Lord  himself  also  reveals  a  mental  constitution,  and  to 
a  certain  degree  expressed,  as  all  others  express  them,  the  convictions 
and  enthusiasms  which  he  has  absorbed  from  earlier  associations. 
And  still  more  than  this,  unless  we  are  prepared  to  accede  to  a 
docetic  heresy,  doubting  the  very  reality  of  our  Saviour's  human 
nature,  every  sentiment  of  veneration  ought  to  induce  us  to  trace, 

^  Further  citations  on  the  contents  of  the  Vedas  will  be  given   later  in 
another  article  by  the  author  on  "Veda  and  Avesta." 


400  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

if  it  be  possible  to  trace  them,  not  only  the  fountainheads  of  His 
human  convictions  but  the  supplying  rills  of  His  expression.  If  we 
carefully  study  the  genealogy  of  His  body,  with  how  much  greater 
earnestness  should  we  examine  that  of  his  mind !  For  it  was  His 
thoughts,  humanly  speaking,  and  sometimes  His  earlier  ones,  which 
not  only  constituted  a  part  of  His  momentous  history,  but,  of  course, 
also  actually  determined  His  career.  In  the  source  of  His  thoughts, 
therefore,  the  great  motives  of  His  subsequent  history  are  to  be 
sought  for.  Recall,  for  instance,  what  I  also  have  just  alluded  to 
above  in  the  citations  as  to  the  recorded  experiences  of  the  Persian 
Saint ;  as,  for  instance,  He  was  gathering  up  his  resolves  for  such  a 
mental  scene  as  that  described  in  the  fourth  chapter  of  St.  Mat- 
thew's Gospel,  in  which  he  purposed  to  meet  in  one  decisive  encounter 
a  spiritual  power  which,  as  He  believed,  was  threatening  His  crea- 
tion, if  there  had  been  anything  memorable  of  a  similar  kind  in  the 
experiences  of  prophets  of  kindred  religions,  and  if  they  were  known 
to  Him  by  the  exercise  of  a  supernatural  insight-^  it  does  not  seem 
to  me  to  be  at  all  deniable  that  such  preceding  "temptations"  (as 
He  revolved  them,  with  all  that  they  signified)  influenced  Him.  If 
He  possessed  that  larger  intellect  which  could  see  over  the  trivial 
paraphernalia  of  superstition,  and  look  at  the  soul  struggling  in  its 
sincerity  for  spiritual  life,  and  for  the  spiritual  lives  of  many  who 
revered  it,  then  if  He  were  a  man  beyond  the  common  measure,  this 
must  have  moved  Him.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  to  be  a  very 
pious  act  to  search  diligently  for  everything  which  Christ  hallowed 
by  His  notice,  and  it  would  seem  a  very  mistaken  religious  senti- 
ment which  would  arrest  one  in  such  a  course. 

The  most  obvious  place  to  search  for  the  doctrines  and  opinions 
amid  which  our  Lord  grew  up,  has  been,  of  course,  the  Jewish 
literature  of  His  period,  and  of  that  which  preceded  His  appearance. 
This  has  been  examined  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  much  of  the 
greatest  interest  has  been  brought  to  light.  The  theologies  of  Egypt 
should  be  also  examined  as  well  as  those  of  Greece  and  Rome.  From 
India  we  have  what  seem  a  throng  of  rich  analogies  from  the  Bud- 
dhist Scriptures,  but  our  highest  authorities  upon  the  subject  are, 
or  were,  inclined  to  doubt  the  possibility  of  the  historical  later  con- 
nection. There  remains  then  this  ancient  Persian  theology ;  and 
here,  as  we  have  seen,  the  later  historical  connection,  amounts,  at 
one  stage  of  it  at  least,  to  historical  identity, — it  is  as  such,  I  be- 
lieve, universally  recognized.  Cyrus  took  Babylon,  say,  about  the 
year  539  B.  C,  and  with  it  the  Jewish  slave  colony,  whose  inhabi- 

^  See  the  Talmud  article  by  Dr.  Deutsch.     (Remains,  1874.) 


OUR  OWN   RELIGION    IN   ANCIENT  I'ERSIA.  40I 

tants  cuntiiuicd  to  be  Persian  citizens  till  the  Achiemenian  power 
broke.  Jeremiah,  forcseeini^-  this  future  invasion  of  the  dominant 
and  restless  Medo-Persian,  thundered  his  anathemas  against  his 
Semitic  Babylonian  oppressors  in  view  of  it;  the  "Kings  of  the 
Medes"  were  to  avenge  him,  and  in  due  course  did  so,  and  later 
sent  the  Jewish  people,  back  from  their  captivity,  rebuilding  the 
Holy  City  when  it  had  become  a  "heap,"  decreeing  also  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Temple,  the  later  Isaiah  speaking  in  most  astonishing 
terms  of  this  restorer.  The  Book  of  Nchemiah  discloses  further 
scenes  with  Persian  monarchs ;  section  after  section  of  the  Bible 
dates  from  their  reigns,  while  Magian"^  priests,  who  were  of  the 
religion  of  Cyrus,  came  later  to  do  honor  to  the  Son  of  Mary,  and 
one  of  the  last  words  uttered  by  Christ  upon  the  Cross  was  in  the 
Persian  tongue.-^  The  fact  that  Cyrus  may  have  coquetted  politically 
with  the  Babylonian  priesthood,  if  it  be  a  fact,  is  one  which  redounds 
somewhat  to  his  credit  and  corroborates  our  argument.  How  much 
better  that  he  should  show  some  respect  to  the  religion  of  his  fallen 
enemies  who  now  became  fully  acquiescent  in  their  submission, 
than  to  crush  them  all  wholesale  with  the  usual  skiughter.  Were  it 
even  true  that  he  was  accurately  depicted  upon  a  stele  as  present  at 
the  worship  of  one  of  their  chief  deities,  this  would  be  but  one 
proof  the  more  of  his  considerate  courtesy.  He  did  not  conquer  to 
annihilate. 

Whether  the  precise  form  of  Mazda  worship  present  on  the 
Inscriptions  was  that  of  Zoroaster  exactly  or  not  is  just  at  this  point 
of  our  inquiries  again  a  question  which  we  need  only  glance  at,  as  it 
is  of  little  moment.^^  It  seems  likely,  indeed,  that  it  was  an  especially 
original  form  of  Mazda  worship.  But  whether  this  were  the  fact 
or  not,  it  must  have  possessed  the  main  features  which  have  been 
more  or  less  preserved  to  us  in  the  Zend  Avesta.  The  word  Mazda 
(strictly  -dali),  meaning  "the  Great  Creator,"  or  "the  Great  Wise 
One,"  is  an  especially  well-adapted  name  for  God,  much  more  so 
than  our  own  name  for  Him,  being  the  name  used  for  Him  by  that 
great  Mazda  worshiper,  who,  under  the  providence  of  God,  deter- 
mined the  entire  later  history  of  the  Jewish  people.  For  had  Cvrus, 
the  Mazda  worshiper,  not  brought  the  people  back,  the  later  prophets 

"  The  word  "Magian"  is  with  little  douht  Avestic ;  the  Maga  was  "the 
Holy  Cause,"  occurring  repeatedly  in  the  Gathas ;  the  changed  suffix  u  in  Magu 
is  of  no  importance,  and  the  0  of  the  Avestic  niogliu  results  from  epenthesis, 
cf.  voliu  for  voIiH,  Sk.  tosh;  gh  also  =  Gathic  g.  Maga,  as  being  pre-Gathic 
by  centuries,  may  have  been  carried  down  to  Akkad  by  Turanians,  cf.  Y.  46,  12. 

**  Luke  xxiii.  43. 

^  See  my  remark  in  vol.  xxxi,  5".  B.  E.,  Introduction,  p.  30. 


402  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

might  not  have  spoken  at  Jerusalem,  nor  might  Jesus  have  been  born 
at  Bethlehem,  nor  taught  in  the  region.  Indeed,  the  influence  of  the 
Great  Restorer  and  his  successors  over  the  city  was  so  positive  that 
in  the  opinion  of  even  popular  religious  writers  Jerusalem  was  for 
a  considerable  period  after  the  Return  in  many  respects  "a.  Persian 
city."  Many  indeed  have  been  the  erroneous  statements  made  by 
well-meaning  tyros  in  Christian  pulpits,  as  by  myself  too,  once 
among  them,  with  regard  to  the  "impossibility"  of  all  later  connec- 
tions between  our  great  doctrines  and  analogous  truths  once  held 
by  nations  foreign  to  the  Jews  who  may  yet  have  been  brought  into 
connection  with  theili ;  and  the  fervent  novice  may  well  be  pardoned 
if,  in  his  first  sincere  efforts,  he  is  too  decided  in  a  negative  sense ; 
but  in  men  of  maturer  years  let  us  hope  for  better  things.  For 
surely — to  be  sentimental,  if  only  for  a  moment, — let  us  recall  that  the 
first  object  of  religion  next  after  the  suppression  of  unlawful  violence 
or  appropriation  should  be  the  suppression  of  inaccurate  statement, 
and  to  deny  without  any  effort  to  become  an  expert  what  every 
expert  knows  to  be  the  truth  is,  so  it  seems  to  me,  to  commit  a  crime 
in  the  name  of  Christianity  for  which  Christianity  will  be  one  day 
called  upon  to  account.  It  is  therefore  to  help  the  Church  against 
well  -  furnished  gainsayers,  and  to  re  -  establish  her  character  for 
conscientious  investigation,  that  Christian  specialists  in  Orientalism 
have  given  the  best  years  of  their  life, — to  save  the  endeared  religion 
which  once  inculcated  every  honorable  principle  from  continuing 
herself  to  be  the  victim  if  not  the  agent  of  that  most  sinister  of  equiv- 
ocations known  as  "pious  fraud. "^° 

My  procedure  is  thus,  I  trust,  now  clear  to  all.  The  connection  be- 
tween Persia  and  Israel  has  been  found  to  approach  identity,  as  was 
only  to  be  expected,  from  the  fact  that  the  two  nationalities,  if  indeed 
the  Jewish  could  really  be  called  a  nationality,  were  parts  of  the 
same  empire  for  close  on,  or  more  than  two(  ?)  hundred  years.  And 
this  being  a  fact  unqncsioned  a  posteriori,  so  the  doctrinal  analogies 
were  as  probable  a  priori  as  presuppositions,  as  ihey  have  been  proved 
to  be  historically  actual  through  our  Oriental  research.  And  with 
this,  note  the  unparalleled  expressions  of  theological  sympathy.  If 
we  have  found  a  pictorial  sculpture  representing  Cyrus  as  wor- 
shiping in  a  Babylonian  temple,  a  sort  of  political  manifesto, —  and, 
if  we  regard  this  as  showing  clearly  a  strong  leaning  toward  the 
Babylonian  Baal- worship,  what  shall  we  say  as  to  the  astonishing 
language  of  this  same  Cyrus,  with  that  of  Darius,  and  Artaxerxes 

""To   emphasize    such    a   point    should   be   hardly   our   secondary   object 
throughout  such  discussions  as  the  present. 


OUR  OWN   RELTGION   IN   ANCIENT  PERSIA.  403 

recorded  in  our  Bibles,  re-reading  also  what  the  Jewish  prophets  and 
historians  have  left  written  in  response  to  it. 

I  hardly  think  that  anything  of  their  kind  approaches  these  ex- 
tended statements  in  the  history  of  literature,  as  an  expression  of 
religious  identity  of  feeling  between  two  peoples  similarly  situated, 
or  even  more  closely  connected,  certainly  not  at  their  date ;  that  is, 
not,  when  all  the  other  circumstances  are  held  in  view.  Recollect 
that  the  Bible  is  beyond  all  other  documents  regarded  as  hyper- 
sacrosanct,  and  by  nearly,  or  quite  one-third  of  the  human  race, — 
even  skeptics  as  to  its  detail  acknowledging  harmoniously  its  un- 
speakable influence — then  re-read  attentively  what  the  Bible  records 
of  its  own  great  Jewish-Persian  emperors. 

This  then  is  our  view:  During  the  shock  and  sorrows  of  the 
Captivity  God's  people  turned  their  thoughts  from  earth  to  Heaven, 
- — just  as  we  often  do, — for  the  eventualities  had  proved  that  the 
temporal  rewards  so  persistently  promised  to  the  righteous,  had  in 
some  way,  and  for  the  time  being,  proved  illusory.  Then  came  their 
Deliverer  with  his  thronging  hosts,  and  with  a  change  in  their  im- 
mediate circumstances  which  might  well  have  reassured  them  that 
the  Psalmist  had  indeed  "never  seen  the  righteous  forsaken" ;  see 
above.  And  also  that  very  same  enormous  event,  which  might  well 
have  convinced  them  that  this  world  should  at  last  show  them  better 
times  as  a  reward  for  their  fidelity,  actually  itself  brought  with  it 
the  same  settled  and  worked-out  doctrine  of  another  life  which  the 
Jews  had  just  acquired,  but  which  had  been  believed  in  from  their 
birth  by  those  same  large  masses  recruited  from  all  parts  of  the 
Iranian  empire,  while  priests  of  this  Immortality  accompanied  every 
battalion,  or  made  many  groups  of  them  for  each  corps,  with 
an  illustrious  King  of  Kings  at  the  head  of  all  of  them,  who  never 
dictated  a  word  for  an  Inscription  without  attributing  every  victory 
to  the  "Life-Spirit-Lord,  the  Great  Creator,  Auramazda" ;  see  Ba- 
histun  and  elsewhere.  What  wonder  then,  as  I  have  already  implied, 
that  the  Jews  listened  to  the  unconscious  expressions  of  their  new- 
formed  friends,  whose  fire  altars  at  times  glowed  at  evening  every- 
where, and  that,  listening,  they  began  the  more  to  vye  with  these 
Persian  fellow-believers  in  the  hopes  and  fears  of  what  was  now  the 
common  Faith, — and  so  the  doctrine  grew.  While  the  more  con- 
servative party  amidst  the  Jews,  that  of  the  Zadokians,  (the  Saddu- 
cees)  clung  with  aristocratic  tenacity  to  the  old  simplicity,  and  op- 
posed this  growing  Zoroastrianism  of  the  masses ; — yet  the  new 
views,  adapted  as  they  were  to  appeal  to  the  feelings  of  an  afflicted 
humanity,  prevailed,  having  first  concentrated  themselves  in  a  sect 


404  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

wliich  termed  itself,  or  which  was  termed  by  its  indignant  prede- 
cessors Pharisees,  Farsees,  Persians,^'^  hardly  "separatists,"  "divi- 
ders,"^- So  that,  at  the  time  of  Christ,  it  could  be  said,  and  upon 
His  own  authority,  that  "the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  sat  in  Moses's 
seat,"  and  it  was  from  Him  "who  lived  a  Pharisee"  that  our  own 
future  hopes  were  chiefly  handed  down  to  us. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  matter  in  a  single  word,  I  would  say,  as 
if  speaking  from  the  orthodox  point  of  view,  that  while  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  are  unrivalled  in  their  maj- 
esty and  fervor,  constituting  perhaps  the  most  impressive  objects 
of  their  kind  known  to  the  human  mind,  and  fully  entitled  to  be 
described  as  "inspired,"  yet  the  greatly  more  widely  -  extended, 
and  as  to  certain  particulars,  long  prior  religion  of  the  Mazda  wor- 
shipers was  supremely  useful  in  giving  point  and  body  to  many 
loose  conceptions  among  the  Jewish  religious  teachers,  and  doubt- 
less also  in  introducing  many  good  ideas  which  were  entirely  new, 
while  as  to  the  doctrines  of  immortality  and  resurrection,  the  most 
important  of  all,  it  certainly  assisted  and  confirmed,  though  it  did  not 
positively  originate  belief. 

But  the  greatest  and  by  far  the  noblest  service  which  it  rendered 
was  the  quasi-origination  and  propagation  of  the  doctrine  that  "vir- 
tue is  chiefly  its  own  reward,"  even  in  the  great  religious  reckoning, 
and  "vice  its  own  punishment." 

The  time  is  now  past,  let  us  hope  for  ever,  when  the  Christian 
apologist  recoiled  from  recognizing  the  very  important  services  which 
have  been  rendered  to  the  holy  faith  by  peoples  foreign  to  the  Jews. 
And  surely  no  one  will  look  askance  at  the  happy  fact  that  not  only 
a  small  nation  to  the  west  of  the  Jordan  held  to  those  great  truths 
on  which  rest  our  hopes  beyond  the  grave,  but  that  the  teeming 
millions  of  Persia  also  held  to  them  in  successive  generations  long 
earlier  than  the  prophets.  These  considerations  entitle  their  ancient 
lore  to  our  veneration  and  investigation.  It  now  lies  open  not  merely 
to  tbe  laborious  specialist  but  to  the  intelligent  student,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  from  the  mass  of  human  energy  devoted  to  so  much 
that  is  trivial,  some  effort  may  be  spared  for  the  study  of  this  rich 
and  influential  monument  of  the  past  which  holds  such  a  conspicuous 
place  among  the  records  of  our  own  religious  history. 

"  The  modern  name  of  the  original  Province  of  Persia  is  Farsistan. 
**  It  is  bad  etymology  to  trace  words  to  an  abstract. 


CHRISTIANITY  AS  THE  PLEROMA. 

BY  THE  EDITOR. 

[concluded.] 

THE   PAGANISM    OF   ANCIENT   ISRAEL. 

WE  have  so  far  spoken  of  Judaism  as  a  known  quantity  and  have 
used  the  terms  "Jews"  and  "Gentiles"  in  their  traditional 
meaning  to  express  a  contrast  which  was  well  established  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era ;  but  Judaism  has  a  history.  For  the 
sake  of  understanding  how  the  new  faith,  though  it  had  to  be  Gentde 
in  character,  could  profit  by  becoming  affiliated  with  the  Jews,  we 
must  first  acquaint  ourselves  with  the  nature  of  this  remarkable 
people. 

Judaism  is  a  unique  phenomenon  in  history.  It  is  the  product 
of  contradictory  tendencies  which  have  been  hardened  in  the  fur- 
nace of  national  misfortune.  The  religion  of  the  Jews  combines 
the  universalism  of  a  monotheistic  faith  with  the  narrowness  of  a 
nationalism  which  localizes  God  and  regards  the  Jews  as  the  ekct, 
the  chosen  people.  Judaism  is  therefore  characterized  by  a  certain 
precocious  maturity.  At  a  time  when  monotheism  was  an  esoteric 
doctrine  in  countries  such  as  Egypt  and  Babylonia,  a  kind  of  philos- 
ophy of  the  educated  classes,  the  Jews  had  adopted  it  as  their  national 
religion.  Yet  the  revelations  of  this  one  and  sole  God,  of  the  creator 
and  ruler  of  the  universe,  were  thought  to  have  taken  place  in  a 
very  human  way,  and  bloody  sacrifices  were  still  offered  in  the  old 
pagan  fashion  at  the  altar  of  Jerusalem,  which  alone  was  declared 
to  be  the  legitimate  spot  to  approach  God.  Some  antiquated  and 
barbarous  institutions  such  as  circumcision  and  other  requirements 
of  the  so-called  Mosaic  law  were  enforced,  and  the  purity  of  Jewish 
blood,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Gentiles  as  impure,  was  vigorously 
insisted  on. 


406  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

The  history  of  Judaism  is  a  long  story  which  is  of  great  im- 
portance for  the  development  of  Christianity. 

We  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  religion  of  ancient  Israel 
was  quite  similar  in  belief  and  moral  principles  to  the  religions  of 
the  surrounding  Gentiles.  Yahveh  (or  as  the  name  is  now  errone- 
ously pronounced,  Jehovah)  was  worshiped  by  other  nations  before 
the  Israelites  began  to  pray  to  him ;  it  was  Moses  who  adopted  the 
Yahveh  cult  not  from  his  own  ancestors,  not  from  Abraham  or 
Jacob,  the  patriarchs  of  Israel,  but  from  Jethro  his  Gentile  father- 
in-law,  a  Kenite  priest  in  the  district  of  Mount  Horeb  in  the  Sinai 
peninsula. 

Israel's  God  Yahveh  was  not  very  different  from  other  gods. 
He  demanded  human  sacrifices  as  they  did  and  was  originally  the 
protector  of  his  own  people,  a  tribal  deity.  According  to  the  Bible 
the  Children  of  Israel  despoiled  the  Egyptians  at  the  express  com- 
mand of  Yahveh  and  slaughtered  the  inhabitants  of  conquered  cities 
in  his  honor  just  as  did  the  Moabites  in  honor  of  their  god  Khemosh. 
According  to  the  word  (i.  e.,  the  command)  of  Yahveh  did  Hiel  lay 
the  foundations  of  Jericho  in  Abiram  his  firstborn  and  set  up  the 
gates  thereof  in  Segub,  his  youngest  son  (i  Kings  xvi.  34),  while 
Jephthah  sacrificed  his  daughter  because  he  believed  that  Yahveh, 
the  God  of  Israel,  demanded  it. 

We  know  also  that  the  patriarchs  had  idols,  or  teraphim^  for 
we  learn  incidentally  that  Rachel  stole  the  images  of  her  father 
(Gen.  xxxi.  34).  Even  David,  the  hero  of  Israel,  had  such  statues 
in  his  own  house,  for  we  read  that  when  Saul  sent  messengers  to 
slay  David,  his  wife  Michal  helped  him  to  escape  by  placing  the 
figure  of  their  house  god-  in  his  bed  to  mislead  the  King's  mes- 
sengers (i  Sam.  xix.  12-17).  The  prophet  Hosea  (iii.  4)  men- 
tions the  use  of  these  idols,  the  teraphim,  together  with  the  Urim 
and  Thummim,  the  Ephod  and  the  Stone  Pillar,''  as  an  indispensable 
part  of  the  religion  of  Israel. 

Ancient  Israel  was  not  monotheistic.  Yahveh  was  originally 
one  god  among  other  gods  but  the  patriotic  Israelite  was  required 
to  worship  him  alone.     When  the  Israelites  were  saved  from  the 

*The  definite  article  is  used  CP^'T'^  which  proves  that  it  was  a  definite 
piece  of  furniture  in  tlicir  house,  not  an  idol  that  by  accident  happenf^d  to  be 
there. 


CHRISTIANITY   AS   THE    PLEROMA.  407 

power  of  Egypt,  Moses  glorified  Yahveh  in  a  hymn  in  which  he 
exclaimed:  "Who  is  like  unto  thee,  O  Lord,  among  the  gods?" 

There  are  many  passages  in  the  historical  books  which  imply 
that  it  is  deemed  quite  proper  for  Gentiles  to  worship  their  gods, 
but  the  Israelite  is  expected  to  worship  Yahveh  alone,  the  national 
god  of  the  people. 

Yahveh  was  worshiped  in  Israel  under  the  form  of  a  bull  even 
in  the  days  of  the  prophet  Elijah.  The  subject  is  incidentally  men- 
tioned in  Professor  Cornill's  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  p.  127, 
where  he  says :  "In  this  connection  the  fact  is  highly  noteworthy, 
and  yet  is  not  generally  given  a  clear  explanation,  that  we  do  not 
hear  a  single  word  of  rebuke  on  this  subject  from  the  prophet  Elijah. 
When  he  denounces  Baal  in  Samaria  and  Israel,  he  is  simply  advo- 
cating the  'calves  of  Dan  and  Bethel,'  the  only  customary  form  of 
worship  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  he  himself  did  not  attack  it. 
The  view  that  this  whole  species  of  worship  was  pure  heathenism 
and  the  worship  of  God  in  an  image  folly  and  absurdity,  is  first 
found  in  the  prophet  Hosea  and  is  an  outgrowth  of  prophetic  litera- 
ture." 

The  temple  of  Solomon  was  built  according  to  the  plan  of  the 
Phoenician  temples  by  Pliram,  a  Phoenician  architect,  and  no  objec- 
tion was  raised  because  a  pagan  built  the  temple  of  the  God  of 
Israel.  This  fact  indicates  that  in  the  times  of  Solomon  the  Phoe- 
nicians were  not  regarded  as  idolaters  by  the  Israelites.  Even  in  the 
days  of  Manasseh  in  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem was  still  in  possession  of  all  the  paraphernalia  of  solar  wor- 
ship (2  Kings  xxiii.  11). 

In  pre-Exilic  times  no  objection  was  ever  raised  to  intermarriage 
with  foreigners.  Moses  married  first  the  daughter  of  a  Kenite  and 
then  even  an  Ethiopian  woman,  which  is  commonly  interpreted  to 
mean  a  negress.  Solomon  was  the  son  of  a  Hittite  woman,  and  yet 
he  became  king  of  Israel.  Schrader  points  out  that  even  David, 
now  considered  the  national  hero  of  Israel,  was  not  an  Israelite  but 
a  Gentile.  It  is  a  fact  commonly  agreed  on  by  Old  Testament  schol- 
ars, and  Professor  Sayce  calls  attention  to  David's  appearance  de- 
scribed in  Samuel  (xvi.  12  and  again  in  xvii.  42)  as  red-haired 
and  of  a  fair  complexion.*  Schrader  thinks  that  he  belonged  to  the 
tribes  of  the  Cherithites  and  Pelethites  of  whom  his  bodv-guard  was 

*  The  authorized  version  translates  Sam.  xvii.  42  "ruddy  and  of  a  fair 
countenance."  But  the  Hebrew  word  '"^^"Sl  wliich  is  also  used  of  Esau  (as 
already  stated  by  Gescnius)  can  not  designate  a  ruddy  complexion  but  means 
"red-haired." 


408  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

composed.  The  etymology  of  Cherethites^  has  been  brought  into 
connection  with  the  name  of  the  Cretans  and  it  seems  probable  that 
they  together  with  their  kinsmen,  the  Aryan  Philistines,  must  have 
come  from  the  Greek  islands  in  the  ^gean  Sea.  This  would  prove 
David  to  be  an  Aryan  instead  of  a  Semite.  The  hostility  between 
Saul  and  David  was  not  purely  personal  and  it  is  noteworthy  that 
when  David  fled  before  Saul  he  sought  refuge  at  the  court  of  a 
Philistine  king.  The  historical  truth  which  Old  Testament  scholars 
discover  in  the  contradictory  stories  of  David's  life,  points  to  the 
fact  that  he  was  the  founder  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  which  is  mainly 
a  conglomeration  of  southern  clans  of  Edom,  among  them  Kaleb, 
Peresh  and  Zerakh.  Schrader  {Keiiinschr.  u.  d.  A.  T.,  p.  228)  says: 
"That  there  was  no  tribe  of  Judah  belonging  to  Israel  before  David, 
can  be  safely  concluded  from  Biblical  sources  alone.  Further  it  fol- 
lows that  in  prehistoric  times  Judah  did  not  stand  in  any  relation  to 
the  other  tribes."  David  was  first  chieftain  of  Kaleb,  his  capital 
being  Hebron.  After  a  conflict  with  the  kingdom  of  Saul,  Dav'd 
conquered  part  of  the  territory  of  Benjamin  incorporating  the  tribes 
Peresh  and  Zerakh.  They  were  formerly  regarded  as  belonging  to 
Benjamin  but  later  were  treated  as  Judeans. 

It  was  natural  that  later  redactors  with  their  tendency  to  repre- 
sent David  as  a  Judean  and  the  national  hero  of  Israel,  tried  to  con- 
ceal his  conflict  with  Benjamin.     Schrader  says  (ibid.,  p.  210)  : 

'Tf  the  development  of  the  monotheistic  doctrine  which  was 
proclaimed  in  Judah-Israel  in  the  name  of  Yahveh  must  be  assumed 
to  have  had  its  roots  in  the  center  of  civilization  of  Hither  Asia, 
then  the  purpose  of  the  patriarchal  legend, — if  it  pursues  at  all  an 
historical  purpose  besides  the  general  one  of  instruction — can  have 
been  only  to  lay  bare  the  threads  which  could  be  traced  back  to  them 
from  Judah.  It  is  not  the  ethnological  genesis  of  a  small  pure- 
blooded  nation  which  is  to  be  described,  but  the  growth  of  its  religion 
and  its  world-conception.  To  be  the  representative  of  this  world 
conception  Judah  ought  to  regard  as  her  ideal  calling, — although 
as  a  matter  of  fact  she  neither  did  nor  could  so  regard  it." 

THE  TEMPLE  REFORM  AND  JUDAISM. 

Monotheistic  tendencies  had  manifested  themselves  both  in 
Egypt  and  in  Babylon,  but  they  had  remained  limited  to  the  educated 
classes  and  had  not  affected  the  polytheistic  service  in  the  temples. 
Tn  l\gypt  at  ihc  timr  wlu-n  the  Tel  Amarna  'l\'i1)lcts  were  written, 

^'2.  Sam.  XV.  18. 


CHRISTIANITY   AS   THR   PLRROMA.  409 

the  monotheistic  reform  had  tried  to  influence  the  rehgion  of  the 
people  but  had  failed  utterly.  Conditions  were  more  favorable  mi 
Persia ;  there  it  was  a  success. 

We  can  not  say  how  much  Israel  was  influenced  by  these  move- 
ments, but  we  know  that  a  purer  and  deeper  conception  of  God  a? 
a  god  of  justice  had  been  prepared  through  the  prophets  who  de- 
nounced social  wrongs  as  well  as  the  abuses  of  religion  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  established  priesthood  and  aristocracy.  The  movement 
spread  among  those  who  were  zealous  for  a  purification  of  the  offi- 
cial worship  of  the  country  and  at  last  exerted  a  strong  hold  on  the 
more  intelligent  priesthood  of  the  capital.  The  result  was  the 
famous  temple  reform  of  the  year  621  B.  C.  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  date  of  the  birth  of  Judaism. 

The  temple  reform  was  a  compromise  between  the  prophetic 
party  and  the  Jerusalcmitic  priests.  The  prophetic  party  denounced 
worship  on  the  heights,  but  they  looked  up  to  the  holy  place  on  Mt. 
Zion  as  the  national  sanctuary  and  the  favorite  place  of  Yahveh. 
and  the  priests  of  Jerusalem  were  naturally  pleased  with  this  view, 
for  it  procured  for  them  a  religious  monopoly. 

The  prophetic  party  was  greatly  respected  in  Jerusalem  on  ac- 
count of  a  successful  prophecy  made  by  Isaiah  about  a  quarter  of  a 
century  before  the  temple  reform.  In  the  days  of  King  Hezekiah 
he  had  glorified  Mount  Zion  as  the  holy  place  of  Yahveh,  and  when 
the  Assyrians  in  their  campaign  of  702-701  threatened  Jerusalem  he 
declared  "that  the  Lord  had  founded  Zion  and  the  poor  of  his  people 
shall  trust  in  it"  (Is.  xiv.  32;  compare  also  2  Kings  xix.  31  ff.). 
Isaiah's  confidence  was  justified  by  subsequent  events  for  it  is  re- 
ported that  "the  angel  of  the  Lord  smote  an  hundred  four-score  and 
five  thousand,"*'  and  Sennacherib  raised  the  siege  and  went  home. 

It  is  true  that  Jerusalem  was  spared  the  horrors  of  pillage  and 
it  is  possible  that  the  appearance  of  a  sudden  epidemic  caused  the 
king  to  lead  the  army  home,  but  the  event  was  not  quite  so  glorious 
as  it  is  described  in  the  Bible  and  as  it  appeared  in  later  times  to 
the  imagination  of  the  Jews,  for  King  Hezekiah  remained  a  vassal 
of  Assyria  and  Sennacherib  had  carried  into  captivity  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants  of  Judea.  It  was  merely  the  salvation  of  a  rem- 
nant at  which  the  prophet  rejoiced,  and  Hezekiah  was  thankful  that 
he  did  not  suffer  the  terrible  fate  of  Samaria. 

Sennacherib's  account  of  this  same  expedition  is  also  preserved 
in  a  cuneiform  text  on  a  clay  cylinder  and  the  passage  referring  to 
Judea  reads  in  an  English  translation  thus: 

'2  Kings  xix.  35;  comp.  Is.  xxxvii.  2>^. 


4IO  THE  OPEN    COURT. 

"Six  and  forty  of  the  fenced  cities,  and  the  fortresses,  and  the 
villages  round  about  them,  belonging  to  Hezekiah  the  Jew,  who  had 
not  submitted  to  my  rule,  I  besieged  and  stormed  and  captured. 
I  carried  away  from  them  two  hundred  thousand  ond  one  hundred 
and  fifty  souls,  great  and  small,  male  and  female,  and  horses,  mules, 
asses,  camels,  oxen  and  sheep  without  number.  In  his  house. in 
Jerusalem  I  shut  up  Hezekiah  like  a  bird  in  a  cage.  I  threw  up 
mounds  round  about  the  city  from  which  to  attack  it,  and  I  blockaded 
his  gates.  The  cities  which  I  had  captured  from  him  I  took  away 
from  his  kingdom  and  I  gave  them  to  Mitinti,  king  of  Ashdod." 

The  preservation  of  Jerusalem  is  commonly  spoken  of  by  ortho- 
dox Christians  as  a  mysterious  event  and  a  wonderful  occurrence, 
but  the  main  thing  is  that  it  was  believed  to  be  a  miracle  by  the  Jews. 
This  belief  had  fatal  consequences.  It  made  the  Jews  overconfident  in 
their  faith  so  that  they  clung  to  their  cause  even  when  there  was  no 
hope  of  success ;  but  while  they  ruined  thereby  their  national  exist- 
ence, they  sunk  their  nationality  in  their  religion  and  developed  in 
this  way  into  an  international  people. 

The  confidence  that  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  were  impregnable 
because  Yahveh  would  not  suffer  Zion  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
Gentiles,  made  the  Jews  stubborn,  so  as  to  render  the  eventual  down- 
fall of  Judea  an  inevitable  necessity.  The  immediate  result  of  the 
fulfilment  of  this  prophecy  was  an  increase  of  power  for  the  pro- 
phetic party  in  Jerusalem  and  thereby  they  were  enabled  to  carry 
into  effect  their  momentous  plan  of  a  temple  reform. 

The  story  of  the  temple  reform  is  told  in  2  Kings  xvii-xviii,  and 
we  will  recapitulate  the  events  leading  to  it  in  Professor  CorniU's 
words  where,  on  page  81  of  his  Prophets  of  Israel,  he  says: 

"The  prophetic  party,  which  had  apparently  not  been  persecuted 
for  some  time,  must  have  kept  up  secretly  a  continuous  and  success- 
ful agitation.  The  priests  in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  must  have  been 
won  over  to  it,  or  at  least  influenced  by  it,  and  especially  nuist  its 
aspirations  have  found  access  to  the  heart  of  the  young  king,  who, 
from  all  we-  know  of  him,  was  a  thoroughly  good  and  noble  char- 
acter. 

"The  time  now  appeared  ripe  for  a  bold  stroke. 

"When,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah,  621  B.  C,  Shaphan 
the  scribe  paid  an  official  visit  to  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  the  priest 
ITilkiah  handed  to  him  a  book  of  laws  which  had  been  found  there. 
.Shaphan  took  the  book  and  immediately  brought  it  to  the  King,  be- 
fore whom  he  read  it." 

The  book  was  declared  to  be  gcnuino  and  on  the  l)asis  of  it  tlie 


CHRISTIANITY   AS   THE   PLEROMA.  4II 

religion  of  Jiidea  was  newly  regulated.  Professor  Cornill  continues: 
"Our  first  question  must  be:  What  is  this  book  of  laws  of  Josiah, 
which  was  discovered  in  the  year  621  ?  The  youthful  De  VVette,  in 
his  thesis  for  a  professorship  at  Jena  in  the  year  1805,  clearly  proved 
that  this  book  of  laws  was  essentially  the  fifth  book  of  Moses,  known 
as  Deuteronomy.  The  book  is  clearly  and  distinctly  marked  ofif  from 
the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch  and  its  legislation,  whilst  the  reforms  of 
worship  introduced  by  Josiah  correspond  exactly  to  what  it  called 
for.  The  proofs  adduced  by  De  Wette  have  been  generally  ac- 
cepted, and  his  view  has  become  a  common  possession  of  Old  Testa- 
ment research." 

The  priests  in  the  country  who  opposed  the  temple  reform  were 
treated  with  great  cruelty  (See  2  Kings  xiii.  20)  and  the  wizards 
and  witches  of  the  land  were  also  exterminated,  as  we  read  in  :? 
Kings  xxiii.  24: 

"Moreover  the  workers  with  familiar  spirits,  and  the  wizards, 
and  the  images,  and  the  idols,  and  all  the  abominations  that  were 
spied  in  the  land  of  Judah  and  in  Jerusalem,  did  Josiah  put  away, 
that  he  might  perform  the  words  of  the  law  which  were  written  in 
the  book  that  Hilkiah  the  priest  found  in  the  house  of  the  Lord." 

THE  BABYLONIAN  EXILE. 

The  temple  reform  established  the  supremacy  of  the  priestly 
party,  but  the  priests  were  poor  statesmen.  Believing  that  Yah-<-ch 
would  not  sufifer  the  temple  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
they  pursued  a  short-sighted  policy  siding  always  with  the  wrong 
party,  and  this  ended  in  a  most  deplorable  defeat.  Jerusalem  was 
taken,  and  the  aristocracy  of  the  people  together  with  all  their 
leaders,  the  educated  classes,  the  scribes  and  even  the  smiths  who 
could  work  in  iron  were  deported  into  Babylon.' 

This  fate  was  sufficient  to  destroy  any  nation,  but  it  did  not 
ruin  the  Jews.  Having  gained  the  conviction  by  the  temple  reform 
that  they  were  the  chosen  people  of  God,  the  exile  only  ser\'ed  to 
harden  them  in  the  furnace  of  tribulation,  and  so  Judaism  was  pr*:^- 
pared  for  the  part  which  it  was  going  to  play  in  the  further  develop- 
ment of  religious  ideas. 

When  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  deported  Jews  belonged  to  the 

upper  and  more  highly  educated  classes,  we  can  easily  understand 

that  their  ideas  of  monotheism,  which  in  those  days  constituted  an 

advanced  stage  of  free  thinking,  soon  became  with  them  a  mono- 

'  See  2  Kings  xxiv,  i4-f6. 


412  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

mania.  They  may  have  become  acquainted  with  Babylonian  mono- 
theists,  and  whenever  they  had  an  opportunity  to  discuss  religion 
may  have  claimed  that  their  God  was  the  only  true  God  and  that 
he  had  manifested  himself  in  their  literature.  One  thing  is  sure, 
they  now  interpreted  the  treasures  of  their  literature  in  the  spirit  of 
this  conviction,  and  their  priests  prepared  new  redactions  of  their 
old  books  in  the  light  of  the  new  faith. 

While  the  Jewish  conception  of  religion  was  rigorously  mono- 
theistic, for  Yahveh  was  regarded  as  the  only  true  God  of  the  uni- 
verse, the  creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  it  was  at  the  same  tim.e 
narrowed  down  to  a  most  egotistical  nationalism,  and  this  national- 
ism was  made  the  quintessence  of  their  religion. 

Every  nation  passes  through  a  phase  in  which  it  regards  itself 
as  the  favored  people  of  the  earth,  looking  with  contempt  or  pity 
on  all  others.  The  Greeks  called  the  non-Greeks  barbarians,  the 
Germanic  tribes  called  the  non-Germanic  races  Welsh,  the  Egyptians 
looked  upon  all  foreigners  as  unclean,  and  the  Chinese  are  possessed 
of  similar  notions  up  to  this  day.  Among  the  Jews  this  idea  was 
incorporated  into  the  fabric  of  their  faith,  and  thus  we  may  say  that 
while  Judaism  marked  a  progress  in  the  history  of  religion  it  must 
at  the  same  time  be  regarded  as  a  contraction  of  the  religious  sen- 
timent ;  instead  of  broadening  the  people,  it  restricted  and  limited 
their  horizon.  While  liberating  themselves  from  some  of  the  gross- 
est superstitions  of  paganism,  the  Jews  cherished  a  mistaken  and 
most  fatal  belief  in  their  own  preeminence  over  the  Gentiles. 

Their  adherence  to  this  notion  made  the  Jews  so  intolerable  to 
others  that  they  bore  the  cause  of  their  calamity  with  them  wherever 
they  went,  however  innocent  the  individuals  may  have  been  since 
they  imbibed  their  ideas  from  childhood. 

Whatever  wrongs  the  Gentiles  did,  the  Jews  gave  the  first 
provocation,  and  the  very  way  in  which  they  are  banded  together 
against  the  rest  of  the  world  made  them  naturally  the  "odium"  of 
the  human  race,  as  Tacitus  calls  them. 

It  is  easy  for  us  to  see  that  the  exclusiveness  of  the  Jews  was 
a  fault,  that  their  progressiveness  was  lamentably  cramped  by  the 
reactionary  spirit  of  a  most  Chauvinistic  tribal  patriotism,  but  this 
very  fault  rendered  them  fit  to  become  the  vessel  that  was  wanted 
to  hold  the  monotheistic  belief.  Without  their  superstition  of  the 
holiness  of  their  tribal  existence,  they  would  never  have  persisted 
as  Jews,  they  would  have  disappeared  among  the  nations.  In  order 
to  become  the  torcli-l)carers  of  the  light  of  monotheism,  their  faith 
had  to  be  hardened  into  a  nationalistic  religion  and  their  very  short- 


CHRISTIANITY   AS   THE   PLEROMA.  4I3 

coniinr;-  rciulcrcd  thcin  fit  to  serve  a  hij^hcr  ])iiri)(jse  in  the  history  of 
mankind. 

We  must  grant  (jnc  thing,  that  while  the  teiiiplc  reform  and  the 
subsequent  exile  hardened  the  national  character  of  the  Jews  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  Jews  remained  Jews  wherever  they  went,  the  per- 
sistence of  the  Jewish  race  ensured  ultimately  the  success  of  Chris- 
tianity as  a  world-religion. 

THE  DISPERSION. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  history  of  man- 
kind, and  in  its  way  quite  unique,  is  the  Dispersion  of  the  Jews. 
The  Jews  arc  the  only  people  of  antiquity  which  exists  still  and  has 
preserved  its  type,  but  the  Jewish  people  differ  from  all  other  nations 
of  the  world  in  this  one  particular  point  that  they  arc  a  people  with- 
out a  country.  Ancient  Judea  is  no  longer  Jewish,  the  Jews  live 
among  the  other  nations;  they  are  scattered  and  wherever  we  go  we 
find  Jews.  This  Dispersion  (or,  as  it  was  called  in  Greek,  Diaspora) 
has  been  an  object  of  awe  and  wonder ;  and  though  it  gives  the  Jews 
a  decided  advantage  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  it  has  been  re- 
garded as  a  curse  which  rests  upon  this  race  of  "rovers." 

We  are  so  accustomed  to  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  that  it 
scarcely  rouses  our  curiosity  any  longer,  and  I  can  not  discover  the 
slightest  scientific  attempt  to  explain  the  phenomenon.  The  best 
authorities,  both  Christian  and  Jewish,  accept  the  facts  in  the  tradi- 
tional interpretation  as  a  kind  of  mysterious  doom.  So  for  instance 
Professor  Sayce,  when  discussing  the  peculiarities  of  the  Jewish 
people  speaks  of  the  Babylonian  exile  and  the  world  exile  of  the 
Jews  as  the  two  great  national  calamities  of  the  race.     He  says : 

"The  Jews  flourish  everywhere  except  in  the  country  of  which 
they  held  possession  for  so  long  a  time.  The  few  Jewish  colonies 
which  exist  there  are  mere  exotics,  influencing  the  surrounding 
population  as  little  as  the  German  colonies  that  have  been  founded 
beside  them.  That  population  is  Canaanite.  In  physical  features, 
in  mental  and  moral  characteristics,  even  in  its  folklore,  it  is  the  de- 
scendant of  the  population  which  the  Israelitish  invaders  vainly  at- 
tempted to  extirpate.  It  has  survived,  while  they  have  peri,shed  or 
wandered  elsewhere.  The  Roman  succeeded  in  driving  the  Jew  froir 
the  soil  which  his  fathers  had  won ;  the  Jew  never  succeeded  in 
driving  from  it  its  original  possessor.  When  the  Jew  departed  from 
it,  whether  for  exile  in  Babylonia,  or  for  the  longer  exile  in  the 
world  of  a  later  day,  the  older  population  sprang  up  again  in  all  its 


414  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

vigor  and  freshness,  thus  asserting  its  right  to  be  indeed  the  child 
of  the  soil." 

Professor  Graetz,  the  best  Jewish  authority  on  Jewish  history, 
expresses  himself  thus  {Geschichte  der  Jnden,  I,  619-620)  : 

"At  the  cradle  of  the  Jewish  nation  was  sung  the  song  of  cease- 
less wandering  and  dispersion  such  as  no  other  nation  has  ever 
known,  and  this  dread  lullaby  came  to  fulfilment  with  terrible  literal- 
ness.  There  was  hardly  a  corner  in  either  of  the  two  dominant  em- 
pires, the  Roman  and  the  Parthian,  where  Jews  were  not  to  be  found, 
where  they  had  not  formed  a  religious  community.  The  border  oE 
the  great  Mediterranean  basin  and  the  estuaries  of  all  the  main 
rivers  of  the  old  world,  the  Nile,  the  Euphrates,  the  Tigris,  and  the 
Danube  were  peopled  with  Jews.  As  by  an  inexorable  fate  the 
sons  of  Israel  were  driven  farther  and  farther  away  from  their 
center.  But  this  dispersion  was  likewise  a  blessing  and  an  act  of 
providence.  It  sowed  abroad  the  seeds  which  were  destined  to 
bear  to  all  directions  a  nobler  God-conception  and  a  purer  civiliza- 
tion." 

Even  Karl  Vollers,  the  most  recent  liberal  writer  on  the  historv 
of  religion,  says  in  Die  Weltreligionen,^  that  "the  dispersion  {Dias- 
pora, Gola)  which  had  started  centuries  before  [the  breakdown  of 
the  Jewish  theocracy]  now  becomes  general,  and  down  to  our  ov/n 
days  forms  the  signature  of  the  history  of  the  Jews." 

Convinced  of  the  enormous  significance  which  the  fact  of  the 
dispersion  of  the  Jews  possesses  in  the  history  of  Christianity,  I  have 
given  the  problem  some  thought  and  I  have  come  to  the  following 
conclusion. 

The  name  Diaspora  or  Dispersion  is  misleading  because  it  sug- 
gests that  some  mysterious  cause  scatters  the  Jews  among  the  Gen- 
tiles. The  truth  is  that  the  Jews  scatter  no  more  and  no  less  than 
any  other  nationality,  but  while  all  other  nationalities  become  ac- 
climatized to  their  new  homes,  Jews  remain  Jews  wherever  they 
go.  The  problem  therefore  is  not  how  did  the  Jews  scatter,  but  how 
did  they  preserve  their  own  type,  and  the  answer  is  not  far  to  seek. 

Judaism  is  a  prematurely  acquired  belief  in  monotheism,  whicli 
means  that  the  Jews  had  adopted  monotheism  before  they  were  able 
to  grasp  its  significance. 

The  Jews  of  the  Exile  believed  that  there  was  but  one  God,  the 
creator  of  heaven  and  earth  and  ruler  of  the  universe,  and  that  thi? 
only  true  God  was  their  own  God  Yahveh ;  they  identified  him  in 
their  own  history   with  the  God-conceptions  which  their  dififerent 

*  Published  at  Eugen  Dictrichs  Verlag,  Jena,  1907. 


CHRISTIANITY   AS   THE   PLEROMA.  4I5 

tribes  had  held  at  different  times.  lie  was  the  Shaddai  of  Abraham, 
the  Elohim  of  the  patriarchs,  the  Zebaoth  of  Ephraim,  and  aljove 
all  he  was  Yahveh,  the  God  of  David  and  of  Moses.  All  these  names 
became  designations  of  the  same  deity. 

If  the  Jews  had  been  ripe  for  monotheism,  they  would  have  abol- 
ished the  barbarous  and  pagan  institutions  of  which  their  religion 
was  still  possessed,  as  for  instance  the  practice  of  offering  bloody 
sacrifices  to  God,  repeatedly  denounced  by  the  prophets.  Had  the 
Jews  been  sufficiently  matured  to  understand  the  moral  ajjplications 
of  a  belief  in  one  God,  they  would  have  seen  that  before  God  there 
is  no  difference  between  Jew  and  Gentile  and  that  the  chosen  people 
are  those  who  actualize  the  divine  will  in  their  lives.  This  incon- 
sistency of  the  Jewish  faith  which  combined  a  universalistic  breadth 
with  an  outspoken  and  almost  unparalleled  narrowness  pampered 
by  national  vanity,  rendered  it  possible  for  them  to  cling  to  some 
old-fashioned  institutions,  called  the  Law,  or  the  Law  of  Moses, 
which  was  kept  with  a  remarkably  punctilious  piety  that  would  have 
been  worthy  of  a  better  cause.  But  circumcision,  abstinence  from 
pork,  certain  rules  of  butchering,  a  rigorous  observance  of  the 
Sabbath,  etc.,  would  in  themselves  have  been  harmless,  had  not  their 
religion  at  the  same  time  become  a  belief  in  the  Jewish  nationalit\ 
which  established  a  line  of  demarcation  between  the  Jews  and  the 
rest  of  the  world.  Here  lies  the  root  of  the  tenacity  of  Judaism 
which  has  produced  that  most  remarkable  historical  phenomenon  of 
the  preservation  of  the  Jews  in  the  midst  of  the  other  nations,  a 
phenomenon  known  as  the  Dispersion. 

All  the  nations  scatter.  The  great  capitals  of  the  world  con- 
tain representatives  of  any  race  that  is  suft'ered  admittance,  but 
within  the  second  or  third  generation  these  strangers  are  being 
absorbed.  The  Jew  alone  resists  absorption.  He  remains  a  Jpw. 
The  newcomer  finds  his  coreligionist,  and  associates  with  him.  The 
circle  grows  and  a  synagogue  is  built. 

How  many  nations  have  sent  their  sons  into  Germany !  Think 
of  the  innumerable  French  Huguenots,  Italians  such  as  the  Cottas, 
the  Brentanos.  From  Scotland  came  Kant's  father,  and  Keith,  the 
famous  general  of  Frederick  the  Great.  Who  now  thinks  of  thei*- 
foreign  ancestry?     They  have  all  become  Germans. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  Germans  who  settle  in  other  coimtries. 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  etc.  The  traveler  comes  across  them  here  a^id 
there,  but  their  children  scarcely  know  whence  their  father  or  grand- 
father came. 

The  truth  is  that  the  children  of  every  nation  are   scattered 


4l6  THE  OPEN    COURT. 

among  the  other  nations.  Everywhere  there  are  people  who  go 
abroad  to  seek  their  fortunes.  There  is  everywhere  a  constant 
tendency  to  migrations  of  small  fractions  of  the  population  to  dis- 
tant countries  where  they  are  attracted  in  the  hope  of  improving 
their  condition.  That  the  Jews  are  not  assimilated  as  the  others, 
is  due  to  their  religion,  the  main  import  of  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  the  preservation  of  the  Jewish  nationality. 

Every  man  has  the  inborn  tendency  of  being  a  Hebrew,  i.  e., 
"a  rover."  All  human  life  radiates.  The  Jew  is  not  an  exception. 
He  simply  follows  the  general  rule,  but  he  at  the  same  time  preserves 
his  own  kind.  We  find  Jews  everywhere,  and  this  gives  the  im- 
pression that  they  are  scattered  all  over  the  world.  Not  having  a 
country  of  their  owai,  the  idea  naturally  originated  that  the  Jews 
have  become  scattered  because  they  no  longer  possess  a  country  of 
their  own,  but  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  antedates  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  and  would  be  the  same  even  if  Jerusalem  had  never 
been  destroyed. 

The  Jewish  dispersion  is  frequently  regarded  as  a  mysterious 
curse  that  has  befallen  the  race  because  they  have  rejected  the 
Saviour  and  crucified  Christ ;  and  this  romantic  conception  has  found 
a  poetic  expression  in  the  grewsome  legend  of  Ahasuerus,  the  "Wan- 
dering Jew,"  the  man  who  can  not  die.  This  occult  interpretation 
of  the  phenomenon  casts  a  glamor  of  mystery  upon  the  Jews  and 
makes  them  an  object  of  interest;  not  indeed  of  love,  but  of  awe. 
We  need  not  add  that  this  view  is  more  poetical  than  true,  for 
the  Jewish  dispersion  existed  before  the  crucifixion.  Horace  quotes 
a  proverb,  Credat  Judceiis  Apella,  viz. :  "Try  to  make  the  Jew  Apella 
believe  it." — which  implies  that  the  Jews  lived  among  the  Romans 
and  were  known  to  them  as  sharp  fellows  who  would  not  be  taken  in 
easily.  They  existed  not  only  in  Rome  but  all  over  the  Grseco- 
Roman  empire,  and  wherever  Paul  went  on  his  missionary  journeys 
he  found  Jewish  congregations,- — in  fact  he  himself  was  bom  in  th^ 
Dispersion. 

The  Jews  were  known  to  the  Gentiles  as  representatives  of  a 
rigorous  monotheism  ;  their  claim  that  they  were  the  worshipers  of 
the  only  true  God  was  reiterated,  and  their  literature,  written  with 
mysterious  characters  in  a  strange  tongue,  was  commonly  accepted 
as  a  verification.  The  ancient  ])agan  gods  had  lost  the  last  semblance 
of  authority  and  so  the  Jewish  protestation  that  they  were  idols, 
nonentities,  vain  conceits  of  an  idle  imagination,  was  willingly  be- 
lieved. 

Taken  all  in  all.  the  Jew  was  surrounded  with  a  mystery  which 


ciiKisriAxn  ^-  AS   riii-:  i'I.i;i<u.ma.  417 

nuuk'  it  v(.Tv  plausiijlc  that  some  secret  truth  was  hidilen  in  jiidaisni. 
The  strikiiii^"  characterisiics  which  (hstiiiL^uish  the  Jew,  called  for 
an  explanation  and  made  it  desirable  for  a  universal  relijj^ion,  which 
like  Judaism  was  monotheistic,  to  explain  their  existence  and  assign 
them  a  part  in  the  development  of  truth. 

This  work  was  done  h}'  St.  I'aul,  and  his  explanati(jn  was  the 
more  willingly  acce])ted  by  the  (jentiles  as  it  explained  also  the 
odium  in  which  the  Jews  were  held.  According  to  St.  I 'aul  the  Jews 
had  been  the  chosen  i)eople  of  God,  who,  however,  were  iiow  re- 
jected on  account  of  their  stubborn  attitude  toward  the  Gospel  which 
he  i)reached. 

There  existed  for  some  time  a  few  Jewish  colonies  which  were 
not  dominated  by  the  spirit  of  the  post-Exilic  reform.  We  name  the 
one  in  Elephantine  (or  jeb)  in  I'pper  Eg\pt  and  the  other  one  in 
Tahpanhes,  in  Lower  Egypt,  both  flourishing  communities  where 
of  late  interesting  monuments  have  been  discovered  ;  but  it  is  note- 
worthy that  none  of  them  survived.  Not  being  so  narrow-minded 
as  to  condemn  any  approach  to  the  life  and  habits  of,  and  inter- 
marriage with,  the  Gentiles,  they  disappeared  in  the  long  run.  They 
lacked  that  preservative  talisman  without  which  the  Jew  would  not 
essentiallv  differ  from  other  human  bein^-s. 


JEW   AND   GENTILE. 

Now  let  us  ask  what  were  the  objections  of  the  Jews  to  pagan- 
ism ? 

We  know  that  in  all  pagan  religions  a  belief  in  the  immorta'ity 
of  the  soul  was  dearest  to  the  jiious,  and  judging  from  an  ancient 
Babylonian  poem,  'Tshtar's  Descent  to  Hell,"  and  from  oihcv  indi- 
cations, we  must  assume  that  the  Babylonians  and  other  Gentiles 
tried  to  communicate  with  the  dead  in  some  way  after  the  fashion 
of  spiritualist  seances  by  professional  conjurors. 

These  mediums  of  ancient  times  are  called  in  the  Bible  "wizards 
and  witches,"  and  their  controls  ''familiar  spirits."  Against  this 
class  of  people  the  ire  of  the  exiled  Jews  seems  to  have  blazed  up 
most  furiously,  for  they  are  condemned  in  the  strongest  terms  in 
Deuteronomy  and  the  Deuteronomic  insertions  of  the  priestly  redac- 
tors. \\'e  are  told  again  and  again  that  they  were  expelled  from 
Israel  and  the  penalty  of  death  by  stoning  was  imposed  upon  them. 
And  yet  they  must  have  existed  in  ancient  times,  for  we  have  a 
graphic  account  of  the  witch  of  Endor  whom  Saul  visited.  Those 
verses  which  mention  the  expulsion  of  the  wizards  and  witches  by 


4l8  THE  OPEN    COURT, 

Saul  (i  Sam.  xxviii.  9-10)  are  perhaps  a  later  insertion  of  the 
priestly  redactor  in  order  to  explain  how  Saul  could  consult  a  witch, 
if  witches  were  not  tolerated  in  Israel.  The  account  itself  seems 
to  be  complete  without  these  lines,  and  it  would  then  appear  that  the 
king  made  no  secret  of  his  intention  to  seek  an  interview  with  the 
ghost  of  Samuel.  At  any  rate  this  custom  of  citing  ghosts  was  a 
great  abomination  to  the  Exilic  and  post-Exilic  Jew,  and  it  almost 
seems  as  if  the  leaders  of  the  exiled  Jews  who  gave  a  definite  shape 
to  Judaism  by  impressing  their  views  upon  the  rest  of  the  Jewish 
people,  omitted  on  account  of  their  aversion  to  a  ghost-conception 
of  the  dead,  all  references  to  a  future  life  from  their  sacred  litera- 
ture and  so  gave  the  impression  that  they  did  not  believe  in  immor- 
tality. It  is  difificult  to  say  what  the  Israelites  thought  of  the  soul 
in  the  times  of  Saul,  but  it  is  probable  that  then  they  shared  the 
views  of  their  neighbors,  while  in  post-Exilic  times  the  Jews  were 
opposed  to  the  immortality-conception  of  the  Gentiles. 

Now  we  know  at  the  same  time  that  the  Gentile  belief  in  im- 
mortality is  closely  connected  with  their  legends  of  the  God-man 
who  is  born  on  earth,  becomes  a  hero  and  a  saviour,  struggles  for 
the  cause  of  mankind,  and  is  slain  to  rise  again  from  the  tomb. 
All  this  was  as  much  of  an  abomination  to  the  Jew  as  was  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Queen  of  Heaven.  To  the  Jew,  God  was  God  and  not 
a  man,  neither  was  he  a  woman.  The  idea  of  a  mother  of  God,  a 
Goddess  mother,  or  even  a  Goddess  bride  was  to  them  so  senseless 
that  the  Hebrew  language  avoided  the  formation  of  the  female  form 
of  God. 

We  do  not  mean  to  defend  the  ancient  paganism  and  its  super- 
stitions, but  in  fairness  to  truth  we  must  say  that  many  accusations 
of  the  Jews  against  the  Gentile  conception  of  gods,  is  erroneous, — 
so  especially  the  proposition  that  the  Gentiles  worshiped  the  very 
statues  of  their  gods.     The  Psalmist  says: 

"The  idols  of  the  heathen  are  silver  and  gold, 
The  work  of  men's  hands. 

"They  have  mouths,  but  they  speak  not; 
Eyes  have  they,  but  tliey  see  not; 

"They  liave  ears,  but  they  hear  not; 
Neither  is  there  any  breath  in  their  mouths. 

"They  that  make  them  are  like  unto  them : 
So  is  every  one  that  trusteth  in  them." 

When  \vc  read  the  religious  hymns  of  ancient  Babylon  and 
Egypt,  many  of  wlu'cli  are  full  of  noble  inspiration,  we  receive  quite 


CHRISTIANITY   AS  THE   PLEROMA.  4I9 

another  impression  of  the  pagan  polytheistic  faith.  Tlie  statues 
of  the  gods  in  the  temples  were  not  deemed  to  be  the  gods  themselves, 
but  only  their  representative  images,  and  we  can  see  no  difference 
between  pagan  idolatry  so  called  and  the  use  of  icons  in  Christian 
churches.  But  this  is  a  side  issue ;  the  main  point  is  that  the  Jews 
were  opposed  to  the  worship  of  idols  including  the  making  of  statues 
and  images  in  any  form ;  they  were  further  opposed  to  the  idea  of 
a  God-man,  and  to  the  belief  in  immortality  such  as  was  held  by  all 
the  Gentiles.  These  ideas,  however,  reasserted  themselves  in  the 
Apocrypha  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  foundation  of  gnostic 
views  resembling  Christianity,  among  such  Jews  as  Philo,  Apollos 
and  finally  St.  Paul,  the  Apostle. 

The  contrast  between  Jew  and  Gentile  is  fundamentally  based 
upon  a  temperamental  difference.  The  Jew  wants  religion  pure  and 
simple ;  he  takes  monotheism  seriously  and  brooks  no  mediation  of 
intercessors,  no  mysticism,  no  allegorizing,  no  profound  and  ab- 
struse symbols.  The  Gentile  sees  the  divine  everywhere.  His  mono- 
theism is  no  rigid  Unitarianism.  He  is  a  dualist  whose  conception 
of  the  duality  of  things  is  explained  by  a  higher  union  and  thus  he 
formulates  his  belief  in  God  as  trinitarianism.  He  loves  art  and 
myth,  and  this  makes  him  appear  in  the  eye  of  the  Jew  as  an  idolator, 
a  worshiper  of  images.  He  seeks  God  not  only  above  the  clouds 
but  also  in  the  living  examples  of  heroes,  of  ideal  men,  of  the  great 
representatives  of  God  on  earth. 

This  same  contrast  of  the  two  attitudes  gave  rise  to  the  rigor- 
ously monotheistic  Islam,  but  as  there  are  Unitarians  among  the 
'Christians,  so  there  are  among  the  Moslems,  especially  among  the 
Sheites,  those  who  believe  in  a  second  advent  of  Mohammed,  of  a 
Mahdi,  or  a  saviour  of  some  kind ;  and  Behaism,  the  new  religion 
that  originated  in  Persia,  proves  that  the  idea  of  a  divine  Mediator 
is  still  alive  in  Mohammedan  countries. 

THE  JUDAISM  OF  JESUS. 

St.  Paul  speaks  of  Christ  as  the  Son  of  David  according  to  the 
flesh  and  follows  in  this  the  rabbinical  tradition  which  was  commonly 
established  at  the  time  of  Jesus.  David  was  the  great  hero  in  the 
history  of  Israel  whose  rule  marks  the  period  of  the  nation's  greatest 
glory.  In  the  times  of  their  oppression  they  longed  for  a  hero  who 
would  reestablish  the  kingdom  of  David  and  so  it  was  but  natural 
that  the  expected  Messiah  was  called  the  son  of  David.  But  though 
the  Messiah  w'as  so  called  there  is  no  reason  whv  he  should  ac- 


420  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

lually  belong  to  the  house  of  David.  The  house  of  David  had  died 
out  with  Zerubbabel,  and  if  there  were  any  of  his  family  left  they 
would  have  been  able  to  trace  their  genealogy  only  indirectly  to  the 
royal  house. 

The  genealogies  of  Joseph  preserved  in  the  New  Testament 
are  positively  impossible  and  obviously  of  a  late  date.  Even  if  they 
were  tenable  they  would  prove  nothing  of  the  descent  of  Jesus  on 
the  orthodox  assumption  because  Joseph  was  not  deemed  his  father. 
We  ought  to  have  had  a  genealogy  of  Mary. 

We  must  assume  that  in  the  days  of  Jesus  the  claim  of  his  disci- 
ples that  he  was  the  expected  Messiah  was  met  with  the  objection 
that  nothing  good  could  come  from  Nazareth  and  that  the  Alessiah 
must  be  of  the  house  of  David.  If  Jesus  could  by  any  genealogy 
have  established  the  claim  of  his  descent  from  David  it  vv^ould  cer- 
tainly have  been  recorded,  but  we  have  in  the  New  Testament  a 
passage  repeated  in  the  three  synoptic  Gospels  which  proves  the  very 
opposite,  viz.,  that  Jesus  in  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  people 
assembled  in  the  court  of  the  temple  disproves  the  idea  current 
among  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  that  the  Messiah  must  be  a  son  of 
David.  This  incident  is  repeated  in  Mark  xii.  35-37 ;  Matt.  xxv. 
41-46;  and  Luke  xx.  41-44. 

We  quote  the  shortest  report  according  to  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Mark  as  follows : 

"And  Jesus  answered  and  said,  while  he  taught  in  the  temple. 
How  say  the  scribes  that  Christ  is  the  son  of  David? 

"For  David  himself  said  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  The  Lord  said  to 
my  lord,  Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand,  till  I  make  thine  enemies  thy 
footstool. 

"David  therefore  himself  calleth  him  Lord ;  and  whence  is  he 
then  his  son?    And  the  common  people  heard  him  gladly." 

In  reading  these  verses  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  Psalm  ex  to 
which  Jesus  refers,  was  in  his  days  commonly  ascribed  to  David  and 
the  expression  "My  Lord"  was  interpreted  to  be  addressed  to  the 
Anointed  One,  the  Messiah.  In  claiming  the  dignity  of  Messiah, 
Jesus  refutes  the  popular  notion  of  a  Messiahship  which  was  con- 
stituted merely  by  descent,  the  aristocracy  of  blood. 

The  (|uestion  here  is  not  whether  the  Psalm  was  really  written 
by  David  nor  whether  the  point  which  Christ  makes  is  unanswerable. 
We  have  simply  to  note  that  by  this  argument  he  silenced  the  claim 
of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  which  they  must  have  made ;  for  if  this 
is  an  answer  to  a  point  raised  by  his  enemies  it  can  only  have  been 
the  proposition  that  no  one  else  but  a  descendant  of  David  ought 


CTIRISTIANITV    AS   THK    IT.KROMA.  421 

to  be  the  Messiah.  Tlie  answer  presupjxjses  that  jesiis  was  not  of 
the  family  of  David  but  that  while  he  did  not  claim  to  be  a  descendant 
of  the  royal  house,  he  yet  held  to  the  claim  of  Alessiahshii).  If  he 
was  after  all  called  the  son  of  David  by  his  adherents  and  by  the 
sick  who  sought  his  help,  it  was  only  because  in  po[)ular  i)arlance 
the  terms  Messiah  and  Son  of  David  had  been  identified. 

For  these  reasons  we  must  assume  that  Jesus  was  born  a  Gali- 
lean, a  child  of  the  people,  and  the  story  of  his  royal  descent  was  an 
afterthought.  It  was  attributed  to  him  in  the  same  way  as  five 
hundred  years  before  him  it  was  claimed  that  Buddha  was  the  son 
of  a  king. 

While  Jesus  was  probably  a  Galilean,  and  as  such,  though 
not  of  purely  Aryan  yet  of  Gentile  blood,  he  was  certainly  a 
Jew  by  religion.  He  sent  out  his  disciples  to  the  "lost  sheep  of  the 
house  of  Israel,"  and  adds  the  special  injunction  not  to  go  to  the 
Samaritans  nor  to  the  Gentiles  (Matt.  x.  5-6).  How  little  tenable 
it  is  to  interpret  this  as  a  temporary  measure  to  be  superseded 
afterwards  by  a  world  mission,  appears  from  verse  23  where  Christ 
declares,  "Verily  I  say  unto  you,  ye  shall  not  have  gone  over  the 
cities  of  Israel  till  the  son  of  man  be  come,"  which  can  only  mean 
the  second  advent  of  Christ  in  all  his  glory,  for  in  any  other  possible 
sense  the  first  advent  has  taken  place,  since  the  son  of  man  had  come 
and  was  speaking  to  them. 

According  to  Matt.  xv.  22  fif.  and  Mark  vii.  25  ff.  Jesus  refuses 
his  help  to  a  Gentile  woman.  She  is  called  a  Canaanite  in  the 
former  account  and  a  Greek  of  Syro-Phoenician  nationality  in  the 
other.  Jesus  says  to  her  that  "it  is  not  meet  to  take  the  children's 
bread  and  cast  it  to  the  dogs."  She  takes  his  harsh  answer  in  full 
recognition  of  the  superiority  of  the  Jews,  and  taking  up  the  same 
mode  of  expression  which  Jesus  uses  she  answers,  "Yet  the  dogs 
eat  the  crumbs  which  fall  from  their  master's  table."  Only  on 
account  of  her  great  faith  Jesus  yields  and  heals  her  daughter.  Luke, 
who  is  a  Gentile  himself,  omits  the  story. 

We  must  remember  that  the  Jews  called  the  Gentiles  "dogs" 
and  "swine"  and  we  may  very  well  interpret  Christ's  saying  (Matt, 
vii.  6),  that  that  which  is  "holy"  should  not  be  given  to  the  dogs, 
and  that  pearls  should  not  be  cast  before  the  swine,  in  this  same 
sense,  that  the  blessings  of  his  Gospel  do  not  belong  to  the  Gentiles. 

The  most  important  passage  in  which  Jesus  stands  up  for  Juda- 
ism is  contained  in  the  Sermon  on  the  ]Mount,  where  we  read : 

"For  verily  I  say  unto  you,  Till  heaven  and  earth  pass,  one  jot 
or  one  tittle  shall  in  no  wise  pass  from  the  law,  till  all  be  fulfilled." 


422  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

The  Greek  words  "jot"  and  "tittle"  denote  the  diacritical  points 
used  in  the  Hebrew  text,  and  so  this  saying  of  Jesus  does  not  only 
insist  on  the  law  in  the  letter  but  includes  the  most  unessential  parts 
of  the  letter  also.  One  could  not  express  himself  more  severely  as 
insisting  on  the  significance  of  a  literal  presentation  of  the  law  than 
is  done  here  in  a  word  ascribed  to  Jesus,  and  this  word  stands  in 
strong  contradiction  to  the  spirit  which  permeates  the  religion  of 
Jesus  as  it  is  commonly  understood,  especially  to  the  principles  in 
which  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  written.  In  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  Jesus  insists  that  the  spirit  is  the  main  thing,  and  according 
to  other  passages  he  would  abolish  the  letter  in  order  to  preserve 
and  insist  on  the  spirit  which  constitutes  the  purpose  of  the  law. 
But  if  this  passage  means  what  it  says,  the  fulfilment  of  the  law 
must  go  down  into  the  most  minute  details  which  is  insisted  on  so 
vigorously  that  the  law  in  its  very  letter  is  more  stable  than  heaven 
and  earth.  Heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away  before  we  can  expect 
a  relaxation  of  the  Mosaic  law.  The  parallel  passage  of  this  sen- 
tence is  found  in  Luke  xvi.  17,  which  reads  as  follows: 

"And  it  is  easier  for  heaven  and  earth  to  pass,  than  one  tittle 
of  the  law  to  fail." 

It  is  obvious  that  this  doctrine  is  contrary  to  the  interpretation 
which  had  been  established  in  the  Gentile  churches,  and  we  know 
that  it  was  vigorously  opposed  by  St.  Paul.  He  claimed  that  the 
law  had  been  fulfilled,  and  that  the  pagans  need  not  be  held  to  ob- 
serve the  details  of  the  Mosaic  law,  such  as  circumcision,  abstinence 
from  pork,  etc.,  and  yet  the  passage  is  unequivocal.  This  seems  to 
be  the  best  proof  of  its  genuineness. 

Texts  have  often  been  altered  to  conform  to  new  doctrines, 
and  so  we  are  justified  in  assuming  that  verses  which  incorporate 
an  older  but  rejected  view  represent  the  original  text  and  are  traces 
of  a  belief  that  is  no  longer  countenanced.  Only  by  some  inad- 
vertence were  they  suffered  to  remain  and  after  the  text  became 
too  sacred  for  alterations,  proved  a  stumbling  block  to  exegetics. 
Our  passage  is  to  all  appearance  such  a  relic,  the  character  of  which 
still  bears  witness  to  an  older  tradition.  The  severity  with  which 
the  preservation  of  the  Mosaic  law  is  insisted  upon  is  modified 
however  by  the  words  "Till  all  be  fulfilled." 

It  is  not  impossible  that  this  second  clause  in  the  sentence  "till 
all  be  fulfilled"  is  an  addition  made  by  a  Gentile  Christian  scribe, 
with  the  intention  of  softening  the  meaning  of  this  sentence.  Paul 
claimed  that  the  law  was  fulfilled  in  Christ,  and  for  this  reason  it 
need  no  longer  be  observed  by  the  Gentiles.     Paul's  arguments  ap- 


CHRISTIANITY   AS  THE   PI.EROMA.  423 

pealed  to  the  Gentiles  and  they  no  longer  felt  hound  to  ohey  the 
Mosaic  law,  so  the  scribe  by  adding-  the  clause  "till  all  be  fulfilled" 
reminds  his  readers  of  the  Pauline  doctrine  that  in  spite  of  the 
acknowledged  divinity  of  the  Mosaic  law  it  was  no  longer  in  force 
since  it  had  been  fulfilled  in  Christ ;  but  in  inserting  this  clause,  "till 
all  be  fulfilled,"  he  forgot  to  cancel  the  other  statement  which  it 
was  intended  to  replace,  "till  heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away ;"  and 
so  we  have  here  a  double  condition,  one  which  reflects  the  original 
meaning,  the  other  the  new  interpretation  put  on  it. 

Since  it  is  not  probable  that  these  passages  which  indicate  the 
Jewish  spirit  of  Jesus  were  later  inventions  because  the  Gentile 
Church  would  not  have  invented  these  sayings  and  would  not  have 
superadded  them  to  the  sacred  text,  the  opposite  must  b^'  assumed 
to  be  nearer  the  truth,  viz.,  that  the  original  Jesus  was  and  actually 
remained  a  Jew  in  his  religion  but  that  later  traditions  tended  more 
and  more  to  obliterate  his  Jewish  conviction  and  superadded  to  the 
traditional  text  sayings  of  a  more  cosmopolitan  character.  It  is 
noticeable  for  instance  that  the  only  important  passage  in  which 
Jesus  shows  the  intention  of  founding  a  universal  religion  is  an 
utterance  attributed  to  him  after  his  death  and  before  his  ascension, 
when  he  says  (Mark  xvi.  15),  "Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and  preach 
the  Gospel  to  every  creature." 

The  personality  of  Jesus  must  have  been  unusually  attractive 
and  sympathetic  especially  to  the  poor,  the  lowly,  the  oppressed  ; 
but  he  was  a  Jew  in  his  convictions,  and  had  he  not  been  a  Jew  he 
would  have  been  out  of  harmony  with  his  surroundings  for  cos- 
mopolitan ideas  would  scarcely  have  appealed  to  the  poor  Galilean 
fisher  folk. 

We  do  not  accept  the  theory  that  the  life  of  Jesus  was  a  myth. 
We  believe  that  he  was  a  real  person  and  that  ultimately  the  Gospel 
accounts  are  based  upon  fact.  Nevertheless  the  Gospel  story  is  not 
history,  it  is  strongly  colored  by  the  Christology  of  the  Church,  and 
the  modifications  which  the  original  story  underwent  are  the  com- 
munal work  of  successive  generations,  until  the  Gospel  assumed  a 
shape  that  was  generally  acceptable  to  the  majority  of  Christians. 
New  Testament  scholars  are  fairly  well  agreed  that  Mark  represents 
the  oldest  account  of  the  historical  Jesus.  It  presupposes  an  earlier 
Gospel,  the  so-called  Proto-Mark,  which  served  as  a  source  for  the 
three  synoptic  Gospels  and  is,  in  its  turn,  based  upon  still  older  docu- 
ments, the  Logia  and  other  personal  reminiscences  of  Jesus.  Matthew 
is  a  Judaizing  redaction  and  incorporates  additional  material,  while 
Luke,  being  compiled  from  other  sources,  was  adapted  for  the  use 


424  THE   OPKN    COURT. 

of  Gentiles."  The  fourth  Gospel,  however,  thong-h  it  may  incidcntallv 
have  incorporated  some  new  reliable  information,  is  upon  the  whole 
the  least  historical,  but  it  ranges  highest  in  its  philosophical  concep- 
tion. It  represents  the  final  stage  on  which  Jesus,  the  Messiah,  the 
son  of  David,  the  son  of  Man,  has  at  last  become  the  Christ,  the 
Logos,  the  Saviour. 

There  is  a  faction  of  Christianity  to-day,  as  there  always  has 
been,  who  would  discard  the  Christological  additions  and  go  back 
to  the  historical  Jesus,  but  their  procedure  seems  to  me  to  be  based 
upon  an  error.  Religion  can  never  be  founded  upon  historical  facts 
or  single  occurrences,  nor  upon  individual  characters,  but  must  al- 
ways rest  upon  eternal  truths.  It  is  not  the  life  of  Jesus  that  will  be 
helpful,  but  what  we  make  of  it ;  mankind  needs  a  Christ  and  thus 
each  successive  Christian  generation  has  interpreted  the  storv  of 
Jesus  in  the  spirit  of  its  highest  conception  of  Christ. 

Scholarly  investigations  into  the  Gospel  documents  to  determine 
the  facts  of  the  life  of  Jesus  as  to  his  actuality,  his  views,  his  race, 
his  character,  etc.,  may  be  of  archeological  interest,  or  may  even 
possess  historical  value,  but  they  are  absolutely  useless  for  religious 
purposes.  It  is  quite  indifferent  whether  Jesus  was  a  Jew,  or  Gali- 
lean, whether  a  Semite  or  an  Aryan,  and  it  is  also  of  very  little  con- 
sequence what  view  he  held.  Whether  rightly  or  wrongly,  the  fact 
which  we  have  to  deal  with  is  this,  that  to  Christians  Jesus  has  be- 
come the  Christ.  The  personality  of  Jesus  is  a  mere  thread  upon 
which  Christians  string  the  pearls  of  their  religious  interpretations 
of  ideals  of  manhood,  of  the  God-man,  of  the  deity  that  has  become 
Hcsh. 

Historical  investigations  of  the  story  of  Jesus  are  apt  to  disclose 
conditions  which  would  not  please  us,  for  it  seems  that  what  to  a 
modern  man  is  most  repugnant,  his  claims  of  being  able  to  drive 
out  devils,  is  historically  the  most  assured  fact  of  his  life.  But  what 
of  it?  Religion  lets  the  dead  past  bury  its  dead.  Jesus  is  gone,  but 
Christ  remains,  and  the  living  presence  counts.  The  religion  of  the 
Christians  has  for  good  reasons  been  called,  not  Jesuism  after  the 
name  of  Jesus,  but  Christianity  after  Christ,  the  ideal  of  humanity, 
which  is  nf)t  an  individual  being  but  a  superpersonal  presence,  not  a 
man  who  lived  and  died  at  a  certain  time,  but  like  the  Platonic  ideas, 
an  eternal  type,  the  ])rot()ty])e  of  the  highest  ideal  of  manhood.  And 
the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  prce.xistence  of  Christ  conveys  a  great 
truth,  for  this  ])rototype  is  eternal  with  God  ;  it  is  the  Logos  uncreate 

"Tli.'it   T.nkc   (|niitrs   I'luldliist    texts   as   "Scriptures"   has  l)ccn   proved   by 
Mr.  Allicrt  J.  I'ldniiinds  in  lii'\  KtiddliisI  ami  L'lirisliaii  (iospcls. 


CIIKISIlAXIl  ^     AS     llll'.    n.l-.KO.MA.  425 

and  witlioiit  end;  il  is,  \n  use  the  mystic  and  i)ri)fi)nnd  ^vniholisni 
of  dogmatic  Christianity,  (iod  the  Son  hei^ottcn  in  ah  eternity  by 
CiO(\  tlie  I'ather. 


CONCLUSION. 

Christianity  may  be  compared  to  a  composite  i)ortrait  as  made 
bv  Galton  who  photoj^raphcd  a  mnnlier  of  faces  l)elonj2^ing  to  a 
certain  class  in  sr.ch  a  way  as  to  l)rin,Q-  out  their  general  type,  taking 
only  short  exposures  of  every  individual.  They  must  be  so  posed 
that  the  noses  and  the  eyes  coincide  upon  the  sensitive  plate.  In  the 
composite  i)icture  which  r^'sults  therefrom  the  individual  differences 
disappear  while  the  common  features  come  out  strongly  and  produce 
a  new  portrait  which  is  the  ideal  type  of  all  its  component  factors. 

The  relation  of  Christianity  to  the  ancient  pagan  religions  is 
quite  similar  to  that  which  obtains  between  the  composite  photograph 
and  the  several  exposures  which  produce  it.  Every  faith  of  antique 
paganism  left  an  impression  more  or  less  dim  and  every  one  was 
repudiated  with  its  individual  traits.  Nevertheless  the  underlying 
principles  of  all  the  several  religions  which  were  mostly  the  same, 
remained  in  the  minds  of  the  j^eople,  and  they  produced  a  new  type 
which  was  impressed  upon  the  dualistic  world-conception  then  preva- 
lent. This  picture,  a  composite  of  all  the  previous  religions,  looked 
quite  unlike  each  single  one  of  the  originals  that  had  contributed  its 
share  to  the  f(~)rmation  of  the  whole,  and  yet  it  was  the  sum  total  of 
their  fusion. 

The  alliance  between  Christianity  and  Judaism  was  as  close  as 
childhood  by  adoption  can  be.  Christianity  entered  upon  the  inher- 
itance and  claimed  the  history  and  traditions  of  Israel  as  its  own, 
but  for  all  that  its  inmost  constitution  remained  different  from  Juda- 
ism. The  nature  of  an  adopted  child  will  not  be  that  of  its  foster 
father  but  will  keep  true  to  the  blood  of  its  own  parents.  The  s]iirit 
of  Christianity  was  Gentile  from  the  start  and  has  remained  so  in 
spite  of  the  great  influence  of  the  (^Id  Testament  Scriptures  upon  its 
further  development. 

It  is  difficult  to  appreciate  how  closely  the  fate  of  rivals  is  always 
interlinked.  Judaism  gave  to  Christianity  its  finishing  touches  and 
Christianity  incorporated  into  itself  much  of  Judaism,  yet  the  two 
have  most  fanatically  anathematized  each  other  in  the  ]iast.  In  one 
sense  Christianity  supersedes  the  ancient  paganism  and  in  another 
sense  the  ancient  paganism  reappears  in  a  new  form  in  Christian 
doctrines.     Yet  the   Church   Fathers  can   not  speak   of  the  pagans 


426  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

without  maligning  them  bitterly  and  imjustly.  It  may  be  literally 
true  that  the  bitterer  the  hostility  between  two  rivals,  the  more  similar 
are  tiiey  in  spirit ;  the  more  marked  the  contrast  is,  the  greater  must 
be  their  kinship.  This  statement  almost  appears  like  a  corroboration 
of  the  pantheistic  idea  of  the  identity  of  Brahma  in  all  things,  which 
makes  the  red  slayer  the  same  as  his  victim,  the  one  he  slays. 

When  we  speak  of  the  pagan  character  of  Christianity,  we  mean 
neither  to  disparage  Christianity  nor  to  deny  the  fact  that  its  appear- 
ance represents  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  world.  We  use  the 
term  only  to  bring  out  forcibly  the  truth  that  (in  spite  of  the  im- 
portant part  played  by  Judaism)  Christianity  is  in  all  its  essential 
doctrines  the  legitimate  result  of  the  religious  development  of  man- 
kind,— not  of  Judaism,  but  of  the  whole  world,  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
but  mainly  of  the  Gentiles,  i.  e.,  the  nations.  Instead  of  belittling 
Christianity,  we  must  raise  our  estimate  of  and  our  respect  for 
paganism,  which  was  neither  so  thoughtlessly  idolatrous,  nor  so 
immoral  as  it  has  been  commonly  represented. 

The  Jewish  contribution  to  the  development  of  religion  is  more 
negative  than  positive,  it  is  like  the  salt  that  gives  the  flavor,  but  the 
meat  was  furnished  by  the  Gentiles. 

Christianity  is  like  a  big  river  which  drains  an  enormous  terri- 
tory. It  has  not  one  source  but  innumerable  sources,  and  the  char- 
acter of  its  waters  together  with  its  course  depends  upon  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  whole  country,  not  upon  what  is  commonly  called  its 
source.  Yet  people  will  insist  on  calling  one  spring  of  the  whole 
system  the  source  of  the  river  as  if  that  alone  had  caused  its  exist- 
ence and  none  of  the  others  need  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Sometimes  it  happens  (as  for  instance  in  theMississippi-Mis- 
souri  system)  that  the  largest  stream  which  supplies  most  of  the 
water  and  has  the  longest  course  does  not  bear  the  name  of  the 
main  river,  and  the  same  is  true  in  the  history  of  Christianity.  The 
largest  supply  of  its  substance  and  also  the  most  essential  ingre- 
dients so  far  as  quality  is  concerned,  viz.,  that  portion  which  de- 
termines the  nature  of  its  doctrines,  is  not  furnished  by  Judaism 
to  which  its  origin  is  commonly  traced,  but  by  paganism ;  and  when 
we  pass  in  review  the  teachings  of  Jesus  himself,  as  recorded  in 
the  synoptic  gospels,  wc  can  discover  nothing  that  is  typically  Chris- 
tian. 

There  is  a  joke  told  by  Austrians  on  a  Magyar  who  is  said  to 
have  traveled  to  the  source  of  the  Danube  where  he  stopped  the 
water  so  that  for  a  little  while  it  would  not  flow,  and  with  a  mis- 
chievous twinkle  in  his  eye  he  exclaimed:  "What  a  surprise  it  will 


CHRISTIANITY   AS  THE   PLEROMA.  427 

be  to  the  people  in  Vienna  when  the  Danube  suddenly  runs  dry !" 
This  view  of  the  origin  of  rivers  is  not  unlike  the  current  inter- 
pretation of  the  history  of  Christianity  which  is  supposed  to  have 
received  all  its  momentum  either  from  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
or  the  death  of  Jesus  on  the  cross. 

The  spread  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  which  we  trace  in  its  con- 
tinuity in  ecclesiastic  history,  is  to  be  complemented  by  a  considera- 
tion of  innumerable  other  lines  of  thought  which  like  tributaries  of 
a  stream  have  become  merged  into  the  Christian  doctrines  and  have 
considerably  modified  them. 

We  shall  never  be  able  to  understand  the  nature  of  the  records 
of  the  life  of  Jesus  that  have  come  down  to  us,  unless  we  bear  in 
mind  how  they  were  altered  and  interpreted  from  the  standpoint 
of  these  later  additions,  how  they  were  redacted  to  remove  what  had 
become  obsolete,  and  generally  how  they  were  again  and  again  ad- 
apted to  the  new  requirements. 

Christianity  is  not  the  work  of  one  man,  but  the  product  of  ages. 
When  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  that  surround  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  were  for  the  first  time  in  history  united  into  one  great 
empire,  they  became  conscious  of  the  solidarity  of  the  human  race 
and  felt  the  need  of  a  universal  religion.  In  response  to  that  need 
answers  were  given  by  thinkers,  moral  teachers,  and  religious  leaders, 
whose  doctrines  were  more  or  less  echoed  in  the  sentiment  of  the 
large  masses.  These  large  masses  were  after  all  the  ultimate  court 
of  appeal  which  would  render  a  final  decision. 

Several  religions  originated  but  Christianity  alone  survived, 
because  it  contained  in  a  definite  form  what  vaguely  and  indefinitely 
was  slumbering  in  the  subconscious  sentiment  of  public  opinion. 
Christianity  had  gathered  up  in  itself  the  quintessence  of  the  past, 
and  presented  solutions  to  the  problems  of  religion  which  were  most 
compatible  with  the  new  conditions.  The  generations  of  the  first 
three  centuries  molded  and  remolded  the  Christian  documents  until 
they  acquired  a  shape  that  would  be  in  accord  with  the  prevalent 
view  of  the  times. 

The  subconscious  ideal  which  in  dim  outlines  animated  multi- 
tudes, consisted  of  the  traditional  religious  views  inherited  from  the 
hoary  past.  It  was  fashioned  by  the  old  religions  and  contained 
the  ideas  of  a  saviour,  of  the  God-man,  and  of  his  martyr  death, 
of  his  victory  over  all  ill  and  of  his  return  to  life,  of  forgiveness  of 
sins,  of  the  restitution  of  the  world,  of  a  golden  age,  a  millennium 
and  the  foundation  of  a  kingdom  of  God  on  earth.     Such  was  the 


428  THE  OPEN    COURT. 

demand  of  the  age.  and  A'irgil's  fourth  eclogue  is  one  instance  only 
in  which  this  sentiment  finds  a  ]Doetical  expression. 

At  the  same  time  all  the  fables  of  mythology  were  discredited. 
The  tales  of  Heracles,  and  of  Adonis,  of  yEsculapius,  and  of  Osiris, 
of  all  the  several  ancient  saviours,  were  no  longer  believed ;  they 
appeared  now  fantastical  and  had  become  untrue  and  unsatisfac- 
tory. A  real  saviour  of  historical  actuality  was  demanded.  It  is 
natural  that  some  people  expected  him  to  appear  on  the  throne  as 
the  restorer  of  peace  and  many  greeted  Augustus  as  a  divine  incar- 
nation, the  representative  of  God  on  earth.  But  his  successors  did 
not  come  up  to  the  expectations  of  the  people  and  Nero's  example 
alone  was  sufficient  to  overthrow  the  belief  in  the  divinity  of  the 
Emperor.  The  saviour  could  not  be  of  this  world,  he  had  to  be  a 
man,  and  yet  a  God,  not  of  secular  power,  but  king  of  a  spiritual 
empire,  a  king  of  truth,  and  so  the  personality  of  Jesus  became  more 
and  more  acceptable  as  the  true  saviour. 

The  ideal  which  constituted  the  demand  was  of  Gentile  manu- 
facture, and  Christianity,  its  fulfilment,  is  in  this  respect  Gentile  too, 
it  was  un-Jewish,  or  pagan.  But  being  such,  pagan  means  human ; 
it  denotes  what  is  typical  of  mankind.  The  pagan  world  ofifered 
some  positive  solutions  of  the  old  world-problem  and  Judaism  criti- 
cised them.  Judaism  represents  the  spirit  of  negation — albeit  a  much 
needed  and  wholesome  negation. 

We  grant  that  paganism  contains  many  objectionable  features 
and  so  the  Jewish  attitude  of  negation  is  justified.  Paganism  was 
weighed  and  found  wanting.  Christianity  then  renewed  the  old 
issues  but  made  them  pass  through  the  furnace  of  the  Jewish  con- 
demnation of  pagan  mythology.  The  result  was  that  the  same  old 
beliefs  were  so  thoroughly  transfigured  as  to  render  them  some- 
thing quite  new. 

Christianity  accepts  the  old  -pagan  world-conception  and  yet  it 
is  not  a  mere  repetition  of  the  old  paganism.  If  we  call  it  "paganism 
redivivns"  we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  it  remains  on  the  same  level 
of  primitive  superstitions.  It  is  the  old  paganism,  broadened  into 
universalism  and  purified  by  a  severe  monotheism.  The  old  religion 
was  thereby  liberated  of  its  most  obvious  faults,  of  narrowness,  of 
crude  literalism,  of  naive  naturalism,  and  other  childish  notions. 

The  God  of  evolution  works  by  laws  and  the  marvels  of  his 
dis])cnsation  can  be  traced  in  the  natural  development  of  affairs. 
Just  as  the  snowflake  exhibits  a  design  of  unfailing  regularity  and 
great  bcautv,  so  the  dcuouoncnt  of  historical  ■  events  takes  place 
according  to  an   intrinsic  necessity  which  gives  it  a  definite  direc- 


CHRISTIAN' nv  AS  Till-:  i'Li:K().\iA.  429 

tion,  and  whtii  at  the  scas(Jiiable  time  definite  aims  are  attained — 
aims  whieh  have  been  prepared  by  ])rece(hnj^  events — the  resnlt 
appears  like  the  work  of  a  predetermined  purpose.  Jt  is  an  im- 
manent teleoloi^v  which  dominates  the  world.  The  old  let^'ends 
natural!}'  ai)])ear  like  prophecies  which  in  Jesus  Christ  have  fcnuid 
their  fulfilment,  and  so  we  can  trul\'  speak  of  Christianity  as  the 
pleroma. 


HAZING  AND  FAGGING. 

BY   THE   EDITOR. 

OUR  university  authorities  sometimes  have  trouble  to  suppress, 
or  at  least  to  confine  within  reasonable  limits,  the  customs  of 
hazing  and  fagging.  Even  where  these  abuses  are  most  rigorously 
punished  they  turn  up  again,  and  like  weeds  prove  almost  ineradi- 
cable. The  truth  is  that  even  in  their  worst  excrescences  they  are 
less  virulent  forms  of  old  customs  which  centuries  ago  were  ob- 
served with  an  almost  religious  punctiliousness  that  would  have  been 
worthy  of  a  better  purpose. 

We  know  too  little  of  the  schools  of  classical  antiquity  and  of 
Babylon  and  Egypt  to  say  whether  these  venerable  nuisances  ex- 
isted there  also.  The  first  knowledge  of  them  dates  back  to  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  to  the  very  time  when  universities  became 
famous  and  well  established  organizations.  Hazing  in  those  days 
was  called  "deposition,"  and  fagging,  "pennalism."  It  is  strange, 
however,  that  both  customs  were  not  a  mere  outburst  of  youthful 
impertinence  but  regular  institutions  recognized  by  the  authorities 
of  the  university.  The  underlying  idea  in  both  was  that  the  new 
comer  to  the  university  was  an  untutored,  uncivilized  man,  who 
had  first  to  be  polished  before  he  could  become  a  regular  member 
of  the  university ;  moreover  before  he  would  taste  the  sweets  of  a 
student's  life  he  should  suffer  hardships.  This  principle  is  expressed 
in  the  following  Latin  lines : 

"Hisce  modis  variis  tcntatur  cruda  juventus; 

In  studiosorum  si  petat  esse  choro; 
Ut  discat  rapidos  animi  compellere  motus; 
Et  simul  ante  sciat  dulcia  dura  pati." 

[Tlirongh  these  several  methods  our  untried  j'outh  must  be  tested, 
If  of  the  students  the  ranks  they  would  desire  to  join. 

Readily  thus  they  acquire  command  of  the  spirit's  quick  motions, 
And  ere  they  taste  what  is  sweet,  learn  to  endure  what  is  hard.] 


HAZING  AND  TAGGING. 


^31 


A  German  verse  expresses  a  similar  sentiment  thus: 

"Sihe  wie  man  Studentcii  macht 
Aus  grobe  Ilolzlein  ungcschlagt." 

[See  how  the  students  by  hard  knocks 

Are  made  from  crude  and  uncouth  blocks.] 

Hazing  is  an  old  French  word  derived  from  hascr,  which  means 
"to  annoy,  to  vex,  to  irritate."  A  freshman  was  called  in  old  French 
Bee  jaunc,  i.  e.,  "yellow  beak"  which  in  modern  English  one  might 
call  "a  greenhorn,"  and  the  French  phrase  was  contracted  into  the 


COPPER  ENGRAVING  OF  THE   I/TH  CENTURY. 
Preserved  in  the  Germanischen  Museum  at  Nuremberg.^ 

late  Latin  form  beatmus  or  beanns,  the  definition  of  which  is  given 
thus:  "Bcaniis  est  animal  nescicns  vitam  studiosorum,"  that  is  to 
say,  "a  beanus  is  an  animal  unfamiliar  with  the  life  of  students." 

How  old  the  custom  is  to  vex  the  bee  jaunes  appears  from  a 
decree  of  the  confratria  Sancti  Sebastiani  at  Avignon  in  1441  which 
forbids  some  improper  practices  of  the  deposition. 

In  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  deposition  assumed  a  defi- 

^  A  similar  drawing  is  reproduced  by  W.  Fabricius  in  Die  dciitschen  Corps, 
P-  23. 


432 


THE  OPEN   COURT. 


nite  form  in  Protestant  universities,  and  Luther  himself  deemed  it 
necessary  to  express  his  views  on  the  subject  with  characteristic 
vigor.  In  the  year  1578  Johannes  Dinckel  wrote  a  pamphlet  "on 
the  origin,  instances,  type  and  ceremonies  of  that  rite  which  in  the 
schools  is  commonly  called  Deposition."  He  incorporated  Luther's 
verdict  together  with  the  illustrated  poem  (cainncii  heroicum)  of 
this  custom  by  Frederick  Widebrand,  from  wdiich  several  wood- 
cuts are  here  reproduced. 

Students  who  had  been  absolved  from  their  beanism  were  called 
absuliifi,  or  the  absolved  ones. 


^1 

1 

m 

^ 

^m 

^ 

WOODCUT    FROM    WIDEURAND  S    CARMEN    HEROICUM. 

Published  at  Erfurt  and  Wittenberg,  1578.     The  inscription  reads, 
with  the  usual  abbreviation:  "O  beane  beanorum." 


In  the  deposition  ceremou}-,  the  Ijcanus  was  dressed  in  a  ridic- 
ulous fashion,  his  skin  was  blackened,  horns  and  long  ears  were 
attached  to  his  head,  and  big  tusks  were  ])ut  into  his  mouth.  Woe 
to  the  freshman  who  would  resent  these  coarse  jokes,  for  he  would 
at  once  be  forced  into  submission  by  blows. 

The  tusks  necessarily  prevented  the  beanus  from  answering  in 
])lain  wnrds,  tlie  (|ue,sti(>ns  ])ropoiuule(l  to  him,  but  that  was  taken  as  a 
sign  that  he  grunted  like  a  pig  and  was  incapable  of  articulate 
speech.     Thereupon  the  teeth  were  pulled  out  and  the  horns  were 


HAZING  AND  lAOCING. 


433 


taken  off,  and  both  operations  were  performed  in  a  manner  that 
would  be  annoying-  and  painful.  As  a  rule  they  had  to  run  against 
the  door  until  the  horns  broke  to  pieces,  a  reminiscence  of  which 
custom  is  still  preserved  in  the  modern  German  saying  sich  die 
Horner  ablaiifcn,  i.  e.,  "to  run  off  one's  horns,"  which  means  about 
the  same  as  "to  sow  wild  oats." 

In  addition  the  freshmen  were  deposited  on  a  bench  or  on  the 
floor  (whence  the  name  dcpositio  originated)  and  subjected  to  all 
kinds  of  maltreatments.  They  were  anointed  with  ill-smelling  oint- 
ments and  had  to  drink  unpleasant  or  even  disgusting  concoctions. 


THE  PROCESSION  OF  THE  EEC  JAUNES. 
PVom  Widebrand's  Carmen  Hcroicum. 


They  wore  then  polished  I)y  rude  rubbings,  their  ears  were  cleaned 
with  Ing  spoons,  their  nails  were  cut,  their  heads  were  shaved,  and 
big  beards  were  painted  on  their  faces  so  as  to  make  these  boys  look 
like  men. 

While  undergoing  this  treatment  the  freshmen  had  to  listen  to 
a  long  litany,  repeat  a  confession  of  their  sins  after  the  fashion  of 
the  Church  ritual,  and  finally  they  were  drenched  with  dirty  water, 
roughly  dried  and  declared  free  of  their  beanism. 

When  these  tortures  were  finished,  they  had  to  go  to  the  Dean 
of  the  philosophical  faculty  and  receive  on  their  knees  the  salt  of 


434 


THE  OPEN    COURT. 


wisdom  in  imitation  of  the  Christian  sacrament,  while  wine  was 
poured  over  their  heads.  The  ceremony  was  concUided  with  a 
dinner  at  the  cost  of  the  "deposited"  freshmen. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  for  a  long  time  this  deposition 
was  considered  as  an  official  act  in  some  universities,  for  in  several 
universit}^  statutes  the  rule  existed  that  no  one  could  be  matriculated 
or  receive  the  Bachelor's  degree  unless  he  could  produce  his  diploma 
of  deposition. 

The  proverb  says  that  one  may  become  accustomed  to  anything 
as  eels  become  accustomed  to  skinning,  and  so  there  were  people 
in  the  good  old  times  who  did  not  take  the  ceremony  of  deposition 


ON  THE  GRINDSTONE. 
From  Widebrand's  Carmen  Hcroicum. 


amiss  but  deemed  it  an  inevitable  destiny  to  which  one  should  submit 
with  grace.  Wilhelm  Fabricius'-  quotes  a  letter  of  a  certain  Schupps 
who  wrote  to  his  son  as  follows :  "Thou  mayest  think  tliat  in  uni- 
versities wisdom  is  eaten  with  spoons  and  no  foolishness  can  be 
found  in  any  corner.  I)Ut  when  thou  arrivest,  thou  must  become  in 
thy  first  year  a  fool.  ..  .Est  quacdam  sapicntiae  pars,  cum  saeculo 
siio  insanire  ct  saeciili  moribns,  quantum  illibata  conscientia  fieri 
potest,  morem  gerere.  Allow  thyself  this  year  to  be  trilled  and 
vexed  in  good  German  and  in  Red-Welsh.  ..  ./jfT/^rr  et  ohdura. 
Olim  meminisse  jiivabit." 

'Die  deutschcii  Corps,  p.  35-36. 


HAZING  AND  FAGGING.  435 

The  Latin  quotations  read  in  an  English  translation  thus:  "There 
is  a  certain  wisdom  to  be  foolish  with  one's  time,  and  with  the  cus- 
toms of  the  time,  so  far  as  it  can  be  done  with  good  conscience  to 
follow  the  custom.  ..  .bear  it  and  endure.  The  time  will  come 
when  remembrance  will  be  pleasant."'* 

When  we  consider  that  the  practice  of  deposition  was  by  no 
means  harmless  and  that  students  sometimes  received  lifelong  in- 
juries, we  will  understand  that  parents  were  much  afraid  of  this 
barbarous  custom,  and  since  many  evils  could  be  averted  by  money, 
fathers  had  their  children  pass  through  the  ceremony  before  they 
went  to  the  university,  in  which  case  they  had  to  apply  to  some 
well-known  depositor  who  in  consideration  of  the  parent's  generos- 
ity would  let  a  boy  undergo  his  trials  in  an  easy  fashion. 

The  rule  which  made  deposition  obligatory  was  revoked  only 
in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  and  yet  even  when  officially 
abolished  it  continued  in  force.  There  was  only  this  difference  that 
it  became  less  virulent,  and  finally  the  freshmen  were  let  off  easily 
by  paying  a  fine  or  by  a  verbal  recapitulation  of  the  ancient  methods 
of  deposition,  which  was  made  impressive  by  an  inspection  of  the 
old  instruments  of  torture  used  on  this  occasion  in  former  times. 
Later  on  even  the  deposition  fee  was  abolished,  and  then  when 
freshmen  were  persecuted,  it  was  done  in  secrecy. 

Another  custom  which  belongs  to  this  class  of  barbaric  tra- 
ditions is  fagging,  which  was  based  on  the  same  idea  that  a  new 
comer  is  unworthy  of  equal  rights  with  other  academic  citizens  and 
that  he  has  to  pass  through  a  period  of  trial.  During  this  time  he 
has  to  serve  his  seniors,  give  up  to  them  his  own  possessions,  money 
or  food  which  he  might  receive  from  home,  and  sometimes  even  his 
clothes. 

A  freshman  in  the  old  German  universities  was  called  pennalis, 
viz.,  a  man  who  comes  fresh  from  the  penna  and  still  belongs  there. 
Pcnna  literally  means  "pen,"  but  was  a  general  name  for  any  prep- 
aratory school.  The  pennalis  was  called  a  fool,  a  feix  or  fex,  which 
latter  word  was  changed  to  Fnchs  or  fox.  Having  passed  through 
two  semesters  trial  they  were  then  admitted  as  full-fledged  mem- 
bers to  the  community  of  students  called  bursa,  so  called  with  this 
Latin  form,  originally  meaning  purse,  because  certain  expenses  were 
defrayed  from  a  common  fund.  The  term  bursa  was  also  applied 
to  the  house  in  which  a  number  of  students  lived,  and  finally  changed 

'The  last  two  quotations  have  come  down  to  us  indirectly  from  Homer's 
Odyssey,  the  former  {Od.  XX.  i8)  as  quoted  by  Ovid  {Ars  Am.  II,  178  and 
Tristia  V,  11,  7),  the  latter  (Od.  XII,  212)  as  quoted  by  Virgil  (^n.  I,  203). 


436  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

into  the  word  Biirsch,  meaning  a  young  man  who  is  a  member  of 
a  bursa. 

The  freshman  or  Fuchs  at  the  German  university  when  joining 
a  fraternity  of  any  kind  is  still  subjected  to  a  number  of  vexations 
but  they  are  harmless  jokes  in  comparison  to  the  barbarities  of  past 
ages. 

Hazing  and  fagging  are  customs  that  are  not  infrequently  ob- 
served in  American  universities,  but  they  may  be  of  a  spontaneous 
growth.  We  neither  affirm  nor  deny  an  historical  connection.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  come  to  a  definite  conclusion,  for  one  thing  is 
sure  that  such  customs  and  abuses  originate  naturally  and  some- 
times independently  in  different  parts  of  the  globe. 

We  know  that  the  fraternities  and  religious  institutions  even 
among  the  savages  have  their  periods  of  trial,  and  novices  are  always 
subjected  to  different  tests  of  their  fitness  to  become  fully  privileged 
members  of  the  society  to  whom  they  apply  for  admittance.  The 
Indian  secret  societies  are  in  many  respects  not  much  different  from 
the  Mediaeval  students'  societies,  only  the  methods  are  different  ac- 
cording to  the  state  of  the  different  degrees  of  culture.  Among  the 
Pythagoreans  they  were  more  dignified  than  among  the  American 
Indians,  and  the  Mediaeval  university  institutions  are  decidedly  nearer 
the  savage  state  than  to  the  schools  of  ancient  Greece. 

Similar  trials  had  to  be  undergone  by  the  neophytes  of  the 
Greek  mysteries  at  Eleusis  as  well  as  in  other  places. 

It  is  natural  that  the  older  members  of  a  community  are  not  in- 
clined to  admit  the  younger  ones  at  once  to  all  the  privilegels  of 
their  own  state,  and  so  we  find  also  in  the  Roman  Empires  dis- 
crimination made  between  the  Majorcs  of  the  schools  of  rhetoricians 
and  the  younger  ones  who  were  called  the  Eversorcs.*"  Similar  ar- 
rangements are  also  found  in  the  juridical  schools  of  Emperor  Jus- 
tinianus,  and  the  beginning  of  the  Mediaeval  university  life  the 
nucleus  of  which  appeared  to  have  been  the  juridical  schools  of 
Bologna  in  Italy  may  have  followed  in  this  special  practice  the  an- 
cient Roman  tradition. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  observance  that  the  new  comer  wher- 
ever he  may  appear  has  first  to  pass  through  a  critical  period  in 
which  he  will  be  exposed  to  all  kinds  of  provocations,  slander  and 
maltreatments,  until  he  becomes  acclimatized  and  is  looked  upon  as 

*  The  word  everlor  (from  cvcrtcrc)  means  "one  who  overthrows,  a  de- 
stroyer"; in  late  Latin  "a  good-for-nothing";  and  finally  in  university  slang, 
the  name  of  contempt  for  a  freshman.  The  existence  of  the  term  does  not 
prove,  but  after  all  suggests  the  prevalence  of  fagging. 


HAZING  AND  FAGGING.  437 

a  member  of  the  society  which  he  has  joined.     Such  a  condition  is 
so  natural  that  even  the  dogs  of  Constantinople  adhere  to  it. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  dogs  of  the  capital  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  live  in  communities  of  about  15  or  20  in  number,  and  every 
such  coterie  of  dogs  consider  themselves  masters  of  a  certain  terri- 
tory. A  new  comer  who  tries  to  partake  of  the  benefits  of  their 
domain,  of  the  shelter  and  food  which  may  be  found  there,  is  first  at- 
tacked most  savagely,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  that  a  dog  dies  of  his 
wounds,  but  if  he  survives  and  recovers  from  this  ordeal  of  hazing, 
he  is  recognized  by  the  others  as  a  member  of  their  group  and  is 
henceforth  allowed  to  share  in  all  the  privileges  of  the  canine  com- 
munity which  he  has  joined. 


SOME  EPIGRAMS  OF  GOETHE. 

TRANSLATED  BY  THE  EDITOR. 

A  hundred  years  thou  mayest  worship  fire, — 
Fall  in  but  once,  thou  art  consumed  entire. 

Anbete  du  das  Feuer  hundert  Jahr, 

Dann  fall'  hinein !   Dich  frisst's  mit  Haut  und  Haar. 


Who  on  God  is  grounded  Wer  auf  Gott  vertraut, 

Hath  his  house  well  founded.  1st  schon  auferbaut. 


Were  to  the  sun  not  kin  our  eyne. 

They  ne'er  could  see  the  sun's  fair  beam, 

Lay  not  in  us  a  power  divine. 

Of  the  divine  how  could  we  dream? 

War'  nicht  das  Auge  sonnenhaft, 
Die  Sonne  konnt'  es  nie  erblicken ; 

Lag'  nicht  in  uns  des  Gottes  eigne  Kraft, 
Wie  konnt'  uns  Gottliches  entziicken ! 


God  owns  all  the  Orient 
God  owns  all  the  Occident, 
Both  of  North  and  South  the  lands 
Peaceful  rest  in  God's  good  hands. 

Gottes  ist  der  Orient, 
Gottes  ist  der  Occident, 
Nord-  und  siidliches  Gelande 
Ruht  im  Frieden  seiner  Hiinde. 


SOME   EPIGRAMS   OF   C;OETHE. 


439 


As  any  one  is 
So  is  his  God, 

And  thus  is  God 
Oft  strangely  odd. 


Wie  Eincr  ist, 
vSo  ist  scin  (lott ; 

Daruni  ward  (iott 
So  oft  zu  spoil. 


"Cognize  thyself."    But  how  does  such  self-knowledge  pay? 
When  I  cognize  myself,  /  must  at  once  away. 

Erkenne  dich !     Was  hab'  ich  da  fiir  Lohn? 
Erkenn'  ich  mich,  so  muss  ich  gleich  davon. 


When  in  the  infinite  appeareth 

The  same  eternal  repetition. 

When  in  harmonious  coalition 
A  mighty  dome  its  structure  reareth ; 

A  rapture  thrills  through  all  existence 
All  stars,  or  great  or  small  are  blessed. 

Yet  are  all  strife  and  all  resistance 
In  God,  the  Lord,  eternal  rest. 


440  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

A  quiet  scholar  a  party  attended 
And  home  in  silence  his  steps  he  wended. 
When  asked  how  he  was  pleased,  he  said, 
"Were  people  books,  those  stayed  unread." 

Aus  einer  grossen  Gesellschaft  heraus 

Ging  einst  ein  stiller  Gelehrter  zu  Haus. 

Man  fragte:  "Wie  seid  ihr  zufrieden  gewesen?" 

"Waren's  Biicher,"  sagt'  er,  "ich  wiird'  sie  nicht  lesen." 

"The  devil  take  the  human  race, 

They  drive  me  mad  for  anger!" 

So  I  decided  seriously 

Will  meet  none  any  more ! 

Will  leave  those  folks  all  to  themselves, 

To  God  and  to  — the  devil. 

Yet  scarce  I  see  a  human  face 

But  I  fall  in  love  with  it.* 

Der  Teufel  hoi'  das  Menschengeschlccht ! 
Man  mochte  rasend  werden. 
Da  nehm'  ich  mir  so  eif rig  vor : 
Will  Niemand  welter  sehen. 
Will  all  das  Volk  Gott  und  sich  selbt 
Und  dem  Teufel  iiberlassen ! 
Und  kaum  seh'  ich  ein  Menschengesicht, 
So  hab'  ich's  wieder  lieb. 
*       *       * 

I  know  that  naught  belongs  to  me 
Except  the  thought  that  light  and  free 
Out  of  my  soul  is  flowing ; 
Also  of  joy  each  moment  rare 
Which  my  good  fortune  kind  and  fair 
Upon  me  is  bestowing! 

Ich  weiss,  dass  mir  nichts  angehort 
Als  der  Gedanke  der  ungestort 
Aus  meiner  Seele  will  fliessen, 
Und  jeder  giinstige  Augenblick, 
Den  mich  ein  liebendes  Geschick 
Von  Grund  aus  lasst  geniessen. 

*  Goethe  purposely  leaves  this  nnrhymed. 


SOMIi   EPIGRAMS   OF   GOETHE. 

Thy  worth,  wouldst  have  it  recog-nized? 
Give  to  the  world  .1  worth  that's  prized ! 

Willst  (hi  dich  dcincs  Werthcs  freuen, 
So  mnsst  der  Welt  dn  Wcrth  verleihen. 


441 


Time  mows  roses  and  thorns  amain  ; 

She  sows  them  and  mows  them  again  and  again. 


442  THE  OPEN   COURT. 

If  not  of  this  rule  possessed 
Of  dying  and  becoming, 

Thou  art  but  a  sorry  guest 
In  a  glad  world  roaming. 

Und  so  lang  du  das  nicht  hast, 
Dieses  Stirb  und  Werde, 

Bist  du  nur  ein  triiber  Gast 
Auf  der  schonen  Erde. 


"Hast  immortality  in  mind 
Wilt  thou  the  reason  give?" 
"The  most  important  reason  is. 
We  can't  without  it  live." 

"Du  hast  Unsterblichkeit  im  Sinn ; 
Kannst  du  uns  deine  Griinde  nennen?" 
"Gar  wohl !  Der  Hauptgrund  liegt  darin, 
Dass  wir  sie  nicht  entbehren  konnen." 


Why  do  you  scoff  and  scout 

About  the  All  and  One 
The  professor's  a  person  no  doubt,  • 

God  is  none. 

Was  soil  mir  euer  Hohn 

Ueber  das  All  und  Eine  ? 
Der  Professor  ist  eine  Person 

Gott  ist  keine. 


"Why  keepest  thou  aloof?  Why  lonely 
Art  from  our  views  thou  turning?" 

I  do  not  write  to  please  you  only, 
You  must  be  learning ! 

"Warum  willst  du  dich  von  uns  alien 
Und  unsercr  Meinung  cntfernen?" 

Ich  schreibe  nicht  cuch  zu  gefallen ; 
Ihr  sollt  was  lernen. 


SOME   EPIGRAMS   OF   GOETHE. 

A  fellow  says :  "I  own  no  school  nor  collcc^c ; 
No  master  lives  whom  I  acknowledj^e ; 
And  pray  don't  entertain  the  thought 
That  from  the  dead  I  e'er  learned  anqht." 
This  if  I  rightly  understand 
Means,  "I'm  a  fool  by  my  own  hand." 

Ein  Quidam  sagt:  "Ich  bin  von  keiner  Schule ; 

Kein  Meister  lebt,  mit  dcm  ich  buhle ; 

Auch  bin  ich  weit  davon  entfernt, 

Dass  ich  von  Todten  was  gelernt." 

Das  heisst,  wenn  ich  ihn  recht  vcrstand : 

"Ich  bin  ein  Narr  auf  eigne  Hand." 


443 


Many  cooks  will  spoil  the  broth. 
Beware  of  servants'  impositions 

We  are  already,  by  my  troth, 
A  hospital  of  sick  physicians. 


A  lie  when  spoken,  when  written  too, 
Will  poison  to  others  prove  and  to  you. 

Habt  ihr  gelogen  in  Wort  und  Schrift, 
Andern  ist  es  und  euch  ein  Gift. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

MARS  DUX  AND  MAR(U)DUK. 

BY  C.   A.   BROWNE. 

"I  cannot  help  laughing  if  I  am  to 
suppose  that  this  was  the  way  in  which 
the  name  was  really  used." 

Socrates  in  the  "Cratylus." 

"Marduk,  warrior  and  leader  of  the  Babylonian  gods,  is  the  same  as 
Mars  dux  of  the  Romans." 

C.  A.  Browne,  Open  Court,  Nov.  1908. 

"I  am  unable  to  agree  with  Mr.  Browne  that  Marduk  is  the  name  Mars 
of  the  Romans  and  yet  Mars  as  Grad-ivus  is  possibly  Marduk  as  the  Kurad 
or  'warrior'  in  Chaldaic  epic." 

The  Hon.  Willis  Brewer,  Open  Court,  Feb.,  1909. 

"I  do  not  agree  with  either  Mr.  Browne  or  the  Hon.  Mr.  Brewer  with 
regard  to  Mars.  Mars  and  Mar(u)duk  are  as  much  related  to  each  other  in 
name  as  an  apple  to  a  pineapple.  It  seems  to  me  that  Mars  is  an  evolution 
of  Mavors,  'war,  deeds  of  arms.' " 

Rabbi  Sigmund  Frey,  Open  Court,  May,  1909. 

I  have  been  greatly  interested  by  the  efforts  of  the  Hon.  Willis  Brewer 
and  Dr.  Sigmund  Frey,  in  the  February  and  May  numbers  of  The  Open  Court, 
to  dispose  of  my  serio-comic  ventures  in  the  realms  of  Babylonian  mythology 
published  in  The  Open  Court  for  last  November.  I  agree  most  fully  with 
what  both  gentlemen  have  said  regarding  my  derivations  and  am  ready  to 
accept  either  one  or  both  of  their  explanations  as  a  substitute  for  my  own. 

But  my  two  disputants  appear  to  have  done  me  a  great  wrong  in  taking 
my  prefatory  remarks  to  the  selections  from  the  Cratylus  seriously.  The  five 
examples  of  chance  resemblances  between  the  names  and  attributes  of  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Babylonian  gods  were  the  effort  of  as  many  minutes  random 
searching.  My  desire  was  simply  to  transfer  the  application  of  the  Hon.  Mr. 
Brewer's  method  of  philological  research  from  Egyptian  to  Chaldean  myth- 
ology and  to  illustrate  the  ease  with  which  etymological  discoveries  of  this 
kind  can  be  made. 

That  I  was  putting  up  a  "straw  argument"  was  sufficiently  indicated  in 
the  two  sentences  preceding  my  references  to  the  various  gods  and  goddesses. 
"Similar  resemblances  can  be  traced  between  the  names  of  the  Greek  gods, 
and  those  of  the  Hindus,  or  the  Persians,  or  the  Chaldeans.  Allow  me  to 
mention  a  few  discoveries  of  my  own  in  Babylonian  mythology." 


MISCELLANEOUS.  445 

Following  this  I  citccW  examples  of  certain  resemblances  between  the 
Chaldean  names,  Gunammidc,  Tiamat,  Marduk,  Eabani,  and  Aruru  and  the 
names  of  various  Greek  and  Roman  gods,  without  the  slightest  suspicion  that 
this  drawing  of  resemblances  would  be  taken  seriously.  Yet  in  order  to  dis- 
pel any  such  illusion  I  immediately  went  on  to  say  "Similarities  in  names  and 
attributes  as  the  above,  however  striking,  are  not  sufficient  by  themselves  to 
establish  derivations." 

I  regret  that,  carried  away  perhaps  by  the  subtleties  of  the  Socratic  humor 
which  prcvades  the  "Cratylus,"  I  did  not  make  my  meaning  sufTicicntly  clear. 


PEACEMAKERS  IN  TROUBLE. 

These  men  of  peace  are  unfortunate  in  easily  stirring  up  strife.  President 
David  Starr  Jordan,  at  the  Commencement  address  at  Bryn  Mawr,  repeated 
his  argument  of  the  nefarious  influence  of  war  upon  a  nation  by  declaring 
that  France  is  now  in  a  state  of  decadence  because  she  had  again  and  again 
lost  her  best  men  in  battle,  when  suddenly  M.  Lucien  Foulet,  who  holds  the 
chair  of  French  literature  at  Bryn  Mawr,  rose  from  his  seat  on  the  platform 
and  with  patriotic  indignation  addressed  the  speaker  saying,  "That  is  not  so, 
monsieur,  France  is  not  decadent !"  and  in  protest  against  the  insult  to  his 
country,  the  irate  Frenchman  proudly  left  the  hall. 

In  comment  on  the  idea  so  prevalent  in  America  concerning  the  decadent 
state  of  France,  we  will  say  that  what  foreigners  see  in  the  city  of  Paris  is 
generally  transferred  upon  the  whole  of  France.  The  truth  is  that  the  French 
provinces  show  symptoms  of  decay  neither  more  nor  less  than  any  other 
country  of  the  world.  What  we  consider  as  Frenchy  (by  which  we  generally 
mean  frivolity)  is  to  be  met  with  in  any  other  capital  of  Europe,  with  perhaps 
this  sole  difference  that  in  Paris  more  than  in  any  other  place  it  is  allowed  to 
come  to  the  surface.  As  to  the  French  being  smaller  in  stature  than  the  men 
of  purely  Teutonic  races,  we  must  remember  that  this  is  not  due  to  the  ex- 
termination of  the  best  men  in  the  country,  for  the  Gauls  as  well  as  the  Ital- 
ians were  smaller  than  the  Teutons  from  the  beginning  of  history,  and  Caesar 
attributes  the  huge  bodies  of  the  Germans  exactly  to  the  opposite  cause  than 
President  Jordan.  He  says  that  warfare  did  not  deteriorate  the  race  of  the 
Swabians,  but  had  invigorated  it  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  We  might  in- 
cidentally mention  that  another  cause  of  the  fine  Teutonic  physique,  men- 
tioned by  C?esar,  is  the  absolute  prohibition  of  all  liquors  which,  the  Swa- 
bians said,  tended  to  effeminate  mankind.     (C?esar,  Dc  Bella  Gall.  IV,  1-2.) 

We  have  received  some  letters  from  friends  of  peace  in  criticism  of  our 
position.  One  of  them  claims  that  navies  are  supererogatory,  they  are  only 
apt  to  stir  up  trouble  and  since  there  are  no  pirates  on  the  seas  there  is  no 
earthly  use  for  men  of  war.  But  if  navies  no  longer  existed  pirates  would 
spring  up  like  mushrooms  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  our  merchantmen 
would  soon  have  to  go  armed  again  as  in  olden  times. 

We  have  also  been  told  that  the  police  is  no  longer  needed  for  keeping 
order  in  our  cities.  A  few  years  ago  when  the  street  car  strike  paralyzed  St. 
Louis,  where  women  were  roughly  torn  off  from  street  cars,  non-union  motor 
men  knocked  down  at  their  posts  and  law  seemed  abolished,  we  may  remember 
how  the  present  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor  organized  a  protective 
company  of  private  citizens  armed  with  guns  loaded  with  buckshot,  whereat 


44^  THE  OPEN    COURT. 

the  rioters  who  had  not  been  amenable  to  •anA«persuasion  or  consideration 
of  law  and  order,  submitted  pretty  rapidly.  There  was  no  need  of  shooting 
or  killing  any  disturber  of  the  peace,  because  the  determined  effort  to  keep 
peace  at  an^^  price — even  at  the  cost  of  a  fight  for  order,  the  indispensable 
condition  of  peace — was  sufficient  to  overawe  the  unruly  elements. 

If  Secretary  Nagel  had  believed  in  the  principles  of  the  peacemakers  at 
any  price  except  the  price  of  fighting  for  peace,  he  would  not  have  succeeded 
in  reestablishing  order.  p.  c. 


PROFESSOR  MILLS   .A.ND  THE  PARSI   COMMUNITY. 

The  London  Indian  Chronicle  speaks  as  follows  in  its  issue  of  March, 
1909,  with  regard  to  our  esteemed  contributor.  Professor  Mills : 

"In  the  celebration  of  the  Parsi  Jamshedi  Naoroz  festival  in  London  in 
past  years,  honor  has  been  done  to  guests  who  have  served  the  community 
as  administrators  and  politicians.  Lord  Reay,  Lord  Ampthill,  and  Mr.  Harold 
Cox  have  been  fitly  honored  for  such  services ;  but  it  was  no  less  fitting  that 
in  this  year's  celebration  the  scholar,  the  interpreter  of  Zoroastrian  sacred 
writings,  should  be  entertained  in  the  person  of  Dr.  L.  H.  Mills.  After  all, 
we  do  not  live  by  bread  alone,  by  the  political  action  of  ourselves  or  the  State. 
The  world  is  governed  by  ideas,  by  moral  ideas ;  and  the  Parsis  cannot  rightly 
play  their  part  in  the  world  of  to-day  as  a  community  unless  Ihey  know  the 
spirit  and  purport  of  their  ancient  writings.  In  consequence  of  the  compul- 
sion they  wdre  under  when  they  found  asylum  in  India  to  adopt  as  their  own 
the  language  of  the  people,  these  writings  were  in  large  measure  sealed  to  the 
Parsis  until  the  task  of  translation  and  interpretation  was  taken  in  hand  by 
great  Orientalists.  Conspicuous  among  the  workers  in  this  field,  perhaps 
the  most  enthusiastic  of  them  all,  has  been  Professor  Mills,  whose  contribu- 
tions to  our  knowledge  of  the  Avesta  have  been  of  the  most  striking  value 
and  importance.  Though  well  stricken  in  years  and  a  sufferer  from  ill-health. 
Dr.  Mills  works  on  with  undiminished  zeal  and  acceptability,  his  love  of  the 
work  seeming  if  anything  to  strengthen  with  age.  The  Parsis  of  London 
were  proud  to  do  him  honor  on  the  21st  instant,  at  the  Westminster  Palace 
Hotel,  and  they  pray  that  his  life  may  be  spared  to  complete  the  great  fabric 
of  his  Zoroastrian  researches,  accomplished  and  designed. 

*      *       * 

"Sunday,  the  21st  instant,  the  day  of  the  Vernal  Equinox,  might  well  be 
regarded  as  a  notable  day  in  the  history  of  the  Parsis  at  present  resident  in 
England.  As  usual,  the  Parsi  Association  of  Europe  arranged  to  celebrate 
the  great  Persian  festival  in  a  befitting  manner,  and  sixty-seven  covers  were 
laid  in  one  of  the  most  commodious  rooms  of  the  Westminster  Palace  Hotel 
for  the  entertainment  of  all  assembled  that  evening.  The  decorations  of  the 
table  and  variety  and  quality  of  the  banquet  were  in  the  best  style  of  the 
celebrated  hotel.  That,  however,  which  lent  special  significance  to  the  event 
was  the  presence  of  Professor  Lawrence  Mills  of  Oxford,  as  the  honored 
guest  of  the  community 

"[Among  the  toasts  of  the  evening]  the  Chairman  proposed  the  health  of 
Professor  Mills  in  very  laudatory  terms,  and  assured  the  distinguished  guest 
in  what  esteem  and  regard  the  Parsis  throughout  the  world  held  him  for  his 
eminent  researches  in  the  field  of  Zend  and  Pahlavi  literature. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  447 

"Professor  Mills,  who  received  a  hearty  ovation  when  he  rose  to  respond, 
said  he  valued  most  highly  the  compliment  they  had  paid  him  in  asking  him 
to  be  present  at  their  domestic  festival.  He  was  particularly  thankful  for  the 
kind  allusions  made  about  him  by  his  friend  Sir  Mancherji,  [the  chairman  of 
the  evening]. 

"Professor  Lawrence  Mills,  wlio  was  again  very  heartily  received,  in 
proposing  the  toast  of  the  'Parsi  Conniiunity,'  referred  with  sincere  feelings 
to  the  love  he  bore  to  the  Parsis  and  everything  connected  with  them  .  He 
said  that  in  proportion  to  their  numbers  the  Parsis  had  produced  more  eminent 
men  than  any  other  community  or  race  in  the  world.  The  Gathas  contained 
the  essence  of  Universal  Religion  in  the  purest  form.  Professor  Mills  then 
dwelt  on  their  religious  basis,  and  advised  the  members  of  the  race  to  hold 
fast  to  the  tenets  of  the  Gathic  religion.  He  expressed  great  pleasure  in 
being  asked  to  be  the  guest  of  the  Parsis  in  England,  and  concluded  by  pro- 
posing the  toast  of  the  Parsi  Community  in  all  parts  of  the  world." 


THE  PHILOSOPHER  ADRIFT. 
Lao-tze,  the  Grand  Old  Man  of  China,  is  most  generally  represented 
seated  on  an  ox  and  accompanied  by  a  small  attendant  as  in  our  frontispiece. 
This  tradition  is  based  on  the  report  of  Sze-Ma-Ch'ien  that  at  an  advanced 
age  Lao-tze  left  his  native  state  Cho  and  departed  from  his  home  so  that  he 
might  not  be  compelled  to  see  the  ruin  of  his  country.  No  one  knows  where 
he  died.  It  is  a  melancholy  thought  that  the  greatest  sage  of  a  country 
should  feel  obliged  to  seek  a  new  abiding  place  after  he  has  reached  his 
eighties,  and  we  can  not  help  feeling  sympathy  with  the  suffering  caused 
through  the  rottenness  of  political  and  social  conditions  which  forced  Lao-tze 
to  seek  his  grave  in  strange  lands  among  foreign  barbarians. 


NOTES. 
Joseph  Koehler,  one  of  the  leading  authorities  of  the  juridical  faculty  at 
the  University  of  Vienna,  who  a  few  years  ago  received  an  honorary  degree 
at  the  University  of  Chicago,  has  published  a  versified  version  of  Lao-Tze's 
Tao  Teh  King.  It  is  well  known  to  those  who  know  Professor  Koehler  that 
his  interest  is  by  no  means  limited  to  his  specialty  but  that  he  studies  with 
preference  not  only  Oriental  and  Hebrew  law,  but  also  Indian  and  Chinese 
philosophy.  Though  the  original  is  mostly  written  in  prose  and  quotes  verses 
only  incidentally,  Koehler's  versified  version  is  upon  the  whole  very  readable 
and  reproduces  very  well  the  spirit  of  the  original. 


The  University  of  the  South  at  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  the  main  center  of  Epis- 
copalian scholarship  in  this  country,  has  opened  its  buildings  for  a  summer 
university  extension  session  under  the  directorship  of  the  Rev.  William  Nor- 
man Guthrie,  and  we  will  mention  that  the  Editor  of  The  Open  Court  gave 
a  course  of  lectures  there  last  year  on  comparative  religion  and  has  accepted 
another  invitation  to  lecture  on  the  religion  of  the  German  classical  authors 
this  summer,  from  July  19  to  23. 


Perhaps  the  most  effective  means  of  reducing  the  frequency  of  war  is 
brought  about  by  the  perfection  of  arms  and  the  invention  of  more  and  more 


448 


THE  OPEN   COURT. 


formidable  explosives.    Even  the  most  enthusiastic  lovers  of  peace-at-any-price 
will  find  it  hard  to  deny  that  Dr.  Alfred  Nobel  accomplished  more  for  the  cause 


DR.    ALFRED   liEKNlIAKU   NOBEL. 


of  peace  by  his  invention  of  dynamite  than  he  has  done  by  distributing  peace 
prizes. 


THE  RELIGION  OF  SCIENCE  LIBRARY. 

A  Choice  Collection  of  Well  Made  Books.     Reproductions  of  Standard  Treatises  in  the 
Departments  of  Philosophy,  Psychology,  Biology,  Religion,  etc. 


1  The  Religion  of  Science. 

Paul  Cams.     30c.     (Is.  Gil  ) 

2  Three  Introductory  Lectures  on  the  Sci- 

ence of  Thought. 

V.  Max  MiilkT.     30c.     (Is.  Gd.) 

3  Three  Lectures  on  the  Science  of   Lan- 

guage.    !•".  Ma.x  Miiller.    3i)c.     (3s.  Gd.) 

4  The  Diseases  of  Personality. 

Til.  Ribot.     30c.     (Is.  Gd.) 

5  The  Psychology  of  Attention. 

Th.  Ribot.    30c.     (Is,  Gd.) 

6  The  Psychic  Life  of  Micro-Organisms. 

Alfred  P.inet.    30c.     Us.  Od.) 

7  The  Nature  of  the  State. 

Raid  Car  us.    20c.    (9d.) 

8  On  Double  Consciousness. 

Alfred  I5inet.    2()c.     (9d.) 

9  Fundamental  Problems. 

Raul  Carus.    60c.     (23.  Gd.) 

10  Diseases  of  the  Will. 

Til.  Rd-iot.    30c.     (Is.  6d.) 

11  On  the  Origin  of  Language,  The  Logos 

Theory.    Ludwi?  Noire.    2oc.    (is.  Gd.^ 

12  The  Free  Trade  Struggle  in  England. 

M.  M.  Trumbull.    30c.     (Is.  Gd.) 

13  Wheelbarrow;    Articles  and  Discussions 

on  the  Labor  Question. 

M.  M.  Trumbull.  40c.  (2s.)  (Out  of  prim). 

14  The  Gospel  of  Buddha. 

Raul  Carus.    40c.     (2s.) 

15  Primer  ofPhilosophy.  Raul  Carus.  30c(ls  Gd.) 

16  On  Memory,  and  The  Specific  Energies 

of  the  Nervous  System. 
Ewald  Herius,'.    20c.     (ikl.) 

17  The  Redemption  of  the  Brahman. 

3l)c.     (ls._6d.)_    (Out  of  iiriut) 

18  An  Examination  of 'Weismannism 

George. J.  Romanes.    40c.     (2s.) 

19  On    Germinal    Selection    as   a  Source  of 

Definite  Variation.     August  Weismann 
30c.    (Is.  Gd.) 

21  Popular  Scientific  Lectures. 

Ernst  Mach.    60c.     (2s.  Gd.) 

22  Ancient  India;  Its  Language  and  Religions 

H.  Oldenberg.    30c.     (Is.    6d.) 

23  The  Prophets  of  Israel. 

C.  H.  Cornill.    30c.    (Is.  6d.) 

24  Homilies  of  Science.    Paul  Carus.  40c.  (2s.) 

25  Thoughts  on  Religion. 

G.  J.  Romanes.    GOc.     (2s.  Gd.) 

26  Philosophy  of  Ancient  India. 

Richard  Garbe.    30c.     (Is.  Gd.) 

27  Martin  Luther. 

Gustav  Freytag.    30c.     (Is.  6d.) 

28  English  Secularism. 

George  Jacob  Holyoake.    30c.     (Is.    6d.) 

29  On    Orthogenesis  and    the  Impotence  of 

Natural  Selection  in  Species-Formation. 
Th.  Elmer.    30c.     (Is.  6d.) 

30  Chinese  Philosophy. 

Paul  Carus.    30c.    (Is.  Gd.) 

31  The  Lost  Manuscript. 

Gustav  Freylag.     80c.     (3s.) 

32  A    Mechanico  -  Physiological    Theory  of 

Organic  Evolution. 

Carl  von  Xageli.    Summary.    20c.    (9d.) 

33  Chinese  Fiction. 

Rev.  George  T,  Candlin.    20c.     (iVl.) 

34  Mathematical  Essays  and  Recreations. 

HermanSchubert.    3Jc.     (Is.  6d.) 


35  The  Ethical  Problem. 

Raul  Carus.    GOr.      2s.    Gd.'' 

36  Buddhism  and  Its  Christian  Critics 

I'aul  Carus.     6<ic.     I2s.  Gd  ) 

37  Psychology  for  Beginners. 

Hiram  .\I.  Stanlcv.  2.k-.  Ms  )  (Out  of  print) 

38  Discourse  on  the  Method  of  Rightly  Con- 

ducting the  Reason  and  Seeking  Truth 

in  the  Sciences. 

Reuc  Descartes.     30c-.     'is.  fid.) 

39  The  Dawn  of  a  New  Religious  Era. 

Raul  Carus.    2oc.     (itd.) 

40  Kant  and  Spencer. 

Raul  Carus.    2.')C.    (Is.) 

41  The  Soul  of  Man. 

Raul  Carus.    8.')C.    (.Ss.  6d.) 

42  World's  Congress  Addresses 

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43  The  Gospel  According  to  Darwin. 

Woods  Hutchinson.    60c.    (2s.  6d.) 

44  W^hence  and  Whither. 

Raid  Carus.    3.5c.     (Is.  6d.) 

45  Enquiry  Concerning  the  Human  Under- 

standing and  Selections  from  a  Treatise 

of  Human  Nature 

David  Hume.     Paper.    40c.     (2s.) 

46  An  Enquiry  Concerning  the  Principles  of 

Morals. 

David  Hume.    30c.    (Is.  6d.) 

47  The  Psychology  of  Reasoning. 

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48  A  Treatise  Concerning  the  Principles  of 

Human  Knowledge. 

George  Berkeley.    30c.     (Is.  Gd.' 

49  Three    Dialogues     Between     Hylas     and 

Philonous. 

George  Berkeley.    30c.     'Is.  Gd.' 

50  Public  Worship :  A  Study  on  the  Psych- 

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51  The  Meditations  and  Selections  from  the 

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52  Leibniz's  Discourse  on  Metaphysics. 

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53  Kant's  Prolegomena.      Edited  in   English 

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54  St.  Anselm  :  Proslogium,  Monologium,  an 

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55  Canon  of  Reason  and  Virtue    (Lao-Tze's 

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56  Ants  and  Some  Other  Insects. 

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57  The  Metaphysical  System  of  Hobbes. 

Mary  Wliiton  Calkins.    .5oc.     '2s. 

58  Locke's    Essay  Concerning  Human   Un- 

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59  The  Principles  of  Descartes'  Philosophy. 

Rieiiedictus  De  .Spinoza.     Paper.  40c.   v2s.) 

60  The  Vocation  of  Man. 

Jolianii  Gottlieb  Fichte.  Paper.  30c.{ls.6d.) 

61  Aristotle  on  His  Predecessors. 

Tr.  by  A.  E.  Taylor.    4<ic       ^s.) 

62  Spinoza's    Short    Treatise    on    God,  Man 

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and  are  full  of  life  and  brilliancy 
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hiting  and  interesting. 
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first  number  and  have  always  read  it  eagerly. 
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liierature. 
Kansas  City  Star.— Inimitable  Michael  Monahan,  master  of  terse  and  vigorous  English,  flayer 

of  shams  and  conventionalities. 
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I  am  a  suscriber  to  (here  follows  a  list  of  some  high-priced  American  monthlies), 
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Do  not  fail  to  apply  for  Cataloigue,  ^-hich   is  M-Ithout  question 
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The  Evolution  of  a  Great  Literature 

Natural  History  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures.       By  Newton  Mann. 
One  vol.,  5x8  inches,  381  pp.,  $1.50  net   postage  15  cents  extra. 

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"I  do  not  know  you  personally,  but  3'ou  must  have  transmitted  vour 
spirit  to  me  in  your  book.  I  give  it  no  epithets  of  a  eulogistic  character, 
because  I  am  sure  you  need  no  praise  of  men.  I  trust  that  it  may  f^ud 
'fit  audience.'  We  want  such  books.  The  field  is  large;  the  aspects  under 
which  the  subject  may  be  presented  various.  You  have  not  encumbered 
your  exposition  with  super-abundant  detail.  I  think  you  have  shown 
much  skill." 

"In  style  it  is  clear  and  intelligible.  Its  fundamental  postulate  that 
'the  Hebrew  literature  was  an  evolution  and  not  a  miracle,' will  commend 
the  book  to  modern  layman." — The  Outlook. 

"One  of  the  most  powerful  books  on  the  true  view  of  the  origin  cf  the 
Bible  has  just  been  published,  and  is  entitled  'The  Evolution  of  a  Great 
Literature.'  The  author  writes  with  a  frankness  that  is  refreshing  in 
these  days  of  compromise  and  repression  of  honest  conviction.  Some 
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=  THE  = 

Foundations  of  Mathematics 

A    CONTRIBUTION    TO    THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF   GEOMETRY 

By  DR.  PAUL  CARUS 


140  pp.,  Cloth,  Gilt  Top.     Price,  75  cents  net;    {3s.  6d.  net^. 


This  work  is  an  important  contribution  to  the  philosophy  o\  math- 
ematics. Dr.  Carus  is  not  a  mathematician  by  profession,  but  a 
philosopher,  and  he  is  convinced  that  the  problem  in  hand  is  a  philo- 
sophical rather  than  a  mathematical  one ;  that  it  is  the  old  quarrel 
(discussed  by  Kant)  of  empiricism  with  transcendentalism,  and  henie  its 
treatment  may  well  be  philosophical.  The  first  chapter  reviews  the 
history  of  non-Euclidean  geometry  which  may  justly  be  consideied  a 
search  for  the  philosophy  of  mathematics.  Here  is  given  the  history  of 
the  parallel  theorem,  of  the  so-called  metageometry,  followed  by  an 
account  of  the  various  systems  in  detail,  and  their  exponents, — of  Gauss, 
Riemann,  Lobatchevsky,  Bolyai,  their  precursors  and  successors,  giving 
a  special  tribute  to  Professor  Hermann  Grassman  of  Stettin.  "The 
Philosophical  Basis  of  Mathematics"  deals  with  the  problems  of  thought 
involved  in  mathematical  science,  empiricism  and  transcendentalism,  the 
a  priori^  universality,  and  the  fundamental  considerations  of  space.  The 
question  of  dimensions  is  discussed  in  "Mathematics  and  Metageometry." 
This  chapter  is  of  especial  interest  because  it  contains  a  practical  sug- 
gestion by '  which  to  represent  concretely  the  relation  of  the  fourth 
dimension  to  the  third,  that  is  to  say,  what  our  space  would  be  like  if  it 
were  four-dimensional.  In  his  Epilogue  Dr.  Carus  brings  out  the  analogy 
between  mathematics  and  religion,  the  ultimate  and  unchangeable  form  of 
being  and  God. 


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"The  Scope  and  Content  of  the  Science  of  Anthropology" 

By  Juul  Dieserud 

THIS  is  a  valuable  reference  book  for  libraries  and  serious  students. 
"The  Science  of  Anthropology,"  according  toTopinard,  "is 
that  branch  of  natural  history  which  treats  of  man,  and  the  races 
of  men,"  Mr.  Dieserud  starts  his  valuable  book  with  an  anthropology 
which  is  the  science  of  the  human  race  as  a  whole,  and  divides  it  into 

( 1 )  The  science  of  what  man  has  in  common  with  animals;  and, 

(2)  The  science  of  what  man  has  that  animals  have  not. 

Mr.  Dieserud  gives  the  ripest  results  of  a  labor  of  years,  as  a 
constructive  practical  classifier  of  anthropological  literature,  first  in 
Chicago  and  now  in  the  Library  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  book  contains  three  parts  besides  the  Appendix  and 
Index  to  bibliography. 

Part    I.     Treats  of  the  Scope  and  Content  of  Anthropology. 

Part  II.     The  Classification  itself,  in  about  1 000  subdivisions. 

Part  III.  Contains  a  chronological  bibliography  of  some  230 
works  chiefly  used.  The  titles  in  the  Bibliography  are  each  fol- 
lowed by  an  extensive  extract  or  synopsis  showing  the  point  of  view 
in  the  work.  This  feature  alone  as  a  time-saving  aid  to  students, 
is  invaluable. 

Mr.  Dieserud's  system  of  classification  is  mature,  intelligent,  clear 
and  practical.  He  gives  just  that  survey  of  the  various  uses  of  terms 
which  is  needed  to  orient  the  classifier,  and  it  is  useful  in  the  highest 
degree  to  any  one  who  deals  with  any  system  of  classification. 

Any  study  of  racial  development  which  aims  at  practical 
results,  calls  for  a  knowledge  of  just  such  facts  as  are  stated  by 
Mr.  Dieserud  in  a  reasonable,  clear  and  comprehensive  style.  He 
makes  no  pretension  to  finality  or  even  "workableness." 

A  private  endowment  of  two  million  dollars  was  made  last 
year  for  the  sole  purpose  of  studying  the  racial  elements  which  are 
combining  in  the  present  American  type  of  nationality. 

Whether  or  not  the  seething  human  cauldron  in  America 
will  ever  crystallize  a  typical  form  out  of  the  various  races  and 
nationalities  pouring  into  it,  from  every  land  on  the  globe,  is  a  ques- 
tion which  must  appeal  to  every  student  of  human  forces. 

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The  Buddhist  Society  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland 


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41    Great  Russell  St.,  W. 

C.     LONDON 

ENGLAND 

THIS  Society  Membership  of  which  does  not  necessarily  imply  conver- 
sion to  Buddhism,  appeals  to  all  lovers  of  the  sublime  ethics  and  in- 
spiring literature  of  the  great  breed  of  Gautama.  Its  object  is  to 
study  and  make  known  in  the  continents  of  Europe  and  America  all  matters 
of  interest  in  connection  with  the  History,  Literature,  Philosophy  and 
Ethics  of  the  Buddhist  World.  For  this  purpose  it  has  started  a  new 
quarterly  Review 

The  Buddhist  Review 

The  price  of  which  is  Is.  and  subscriptions  and  promises  of  support  both 
financially  and  by  literary  contributions  are  most  earnestly  invited.  The 
annual  membership  subscription  is  £1.  Is,  and  all  members  are  entitled  to 
free  copies  of  the  publications  issued  by  the  Society.  Meetings  of  the 
Society  are  held  each  Sunday  at  7  P.  M.,  at  The  Studio,  12  St.  Mary's 
Abbots  Place,  Kensington  W.  London,  England.  American  friends  can  do 
much  to  help  the  movement  by  sending  written  papers  which  will  be  read 
at  the  weekly  meetings  and  printed  subsequently,  with  their  consent,  in 
The  Buddhist  Review. 

Our  agents  have  the  largest  and  best  stock  of  rare  Buddhist  works  in 
this  country,  and  will  be  pleased  to  forward  a  catalogue  or  to  obtain  any 
required  work  on  application. 

The  first  number  of  The  Buddhist  Review  is  now  ready.  Its  contents 
are  as  follows  : 

No.  1.  Love  (translation)  by  Prof.  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids,  LL.D.,  Ph.  D. 

No.  2.  Flowers  of  the  Buddha,  by  Ananda  Metteyya. 

No.  3.  Adoration  (translation). 

No.  4.  Buddhism  and  Ethics,  by  Mrs.  C.  A.  F.  Rhys  Davids. 

No.  5.  Allegory,  by  K.  J.  Coyle. 

No.  6.  Buddhism  and 'Science,  by  Prof.  E.  J.  Mills,  D.  Sc.  F.  R.  S. 

No.  1.  Faith,  by  J.  E.  Ellam. 

No.  8.  Buddhism  and  Free  Thought,  by  Howell  Smith. 

No.  V).  From  an  Eastern  Cloister,  by  J.  E.  El'lam,  etc. 


The  Fragments  of  Empedocles 

Translated  into  English  verse  by  Wm.  Ellery  Leonard,  Ph.  D. 
Author  of     Sonnets  and  Poems"  and  "Byronism  in  America" 

THE  lover  of  genuine  verse  will  rejoice  in  a  work  of  this  kind. 
The  pleasure  and  surprise  of  an  old  idea,  freshly  and  vig- 
orously put,  provides  intellectual  delight. 
Mr.  Leonard  has  rendered  a  fine  translation  which  is  scholarly, 
musical  and  poetic.  It  is  not  alone  these  qualities  which  commend 
the  book  to  an  appreciative  reader,  it  is  rather  the  strong  pulse  of 
truth  made  clear  in  every  thought  of  the  old  Mediterranean  Greek 
who  lived  a  contemporary  of  the  great  Athenians  about  Pericles. 
He  was  not  only  a  statesman  and  philosopher,  but  a  poet,  a  won- 
derful personality,  an  egotistic  melancholy,  eloquent  soul. 

OF  the  many  works  imputed  to  Empedocles  by  antiquity,  pre- 
sumably only  two  are  genuine,  the  poems  "On  Nature" 
and  the  "Purifications."  Of  these  we  possess  only  frag- 
ments. These  were  imperfectly  collected  late  in  the  Renaissance, 
first  by  the  great  German  Xylander  who  translated  them  into  Latin, 
In  1575,  Stephanus  published  his  "Empedocles  Fragmenta,"  but 
not  until  the  1 9th  century,  did  they  get  the  attention  they  deserved. 

"What  must  be  said,  may  well  be  said  twice  over.*' 

"More  will  I  tell  thee  too;  there  is  no  birth 

Of  all  things  mortal,  nor  end  in  ruinous  death; 

But  mingling  onl^  and  interchange  of  mixed 

There  is,  and  birth  is  but  its  name  with  men.  " — Empedocles. 

There  are  several  prose  translations  in  Latin,  rather  loose, 
and  this  present  work  by  Mr.  Leonard  is,  so  far  as  is  known,  the 
only  translation  into  English  verse. 

A  conscientious  attempt  on  the  part  of  a  lover  of  literature 
and  philosophy  to  present  the  Fragments  of  Empedocles  in  English 
blank  verse  that  shall  bring  out  their  poetry  no  less  than  their 
meaning;  accompanied  by  the  Greek  text  of  Diels,  notes  interpreting 
the  ideas  of  each  fragment,  and  an  essay  on  the  author  as  man, 
philosopher  and  poet. 

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RELIGIONS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

The  Series  is  intended  to  present  to  a  large  public  the  salient  fea- 
tures of  the  Great  Religions  of  the  Human  Race.  The  Volumes 
already  published  have  met  with  the  most  gratifying  appreciation. 

Fcap.  8  vo.      Cloth^  40  cents  net  per  volume. 


NOW    PUBLISHED 


Animism. 


By  Edward  Clodd 


Pantheism. 

By  James  Allanson  Picton 


Celtic  Religion. 


By  Prof.  Anwyl 


Mythology  of  Ancient 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

By  Chas.  Squire 

Ancient  Egypt. 

By  Prof.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie 

Scandanivan  Religion. 

By  W.  a.  Craigie 

Magic  and  Fetishism. 

By  Dr.  A.  C.  Haddon 

Hinduism. 


B^   Dr.  L.  D.  Barnett 
Ancient  China. 


Ancient  Greece. 

By  Jane  Harrison 

Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

By  Theophilus  G.  Pinches 


Islam. 


\\  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  m.  a. 


Religion  of  Ancient  Rome. 

By  Cyril  Bailey,  m.  a. 


Judaism. 


>Y  Israel  Abrahams 


Shinto :  The  Ancient 

Religion  of  Japan. 

By  W.  G.  Aston,  c.  m.  g.,  ll.  d. 

The  Religion  of  Ancient 
Mexico  and  Peru. 

By  Lewis  Spence 


Buddhism. 

By  Prof.  Giles         |  By  Prof.  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids,  ll.d. 

IN     PREPARATION 


The  Religion  of  Ancient  Israel.    By  Prof.  Jastrow. 

Islam  in  India.     By  T.  W.  Arnold,   Assistant  Librarian  at  the   India  Office. 
Author  of  "The  Preaching  of  Islam." 

The  Religion  of  Ancient  Persia.     By  Dr.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson,  Professor 
of  Ii^anian,  at  Columbia  University. 

Primitive  or  Nicene  Christianity.  By  John  Sutherland  Black,  ll.  d.,  Joint 
Editor  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Biblica." 

Mediaeval  Christianity. 

The  Psychology  of  Religion.    By  Dr.  Leuba. 


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The  Historical  Bases  of  Religions 

PRIMITIVE,  BABYLONIAN  AND  JEWISH 

By  HIRAM  CHELLIS  BROWN 

Pages  319  +  7  Price  $1.50  net  (7s.  6d.) 

THE  author  has  coudensed  in  this  small  volume  the  main  results  of  Old  Testa- 
ment criticism  and  Bainlonian  excavations,  discussing  therein  the  liistory  of 
the  Israelitish  orij^in  of  our  religion.  In  reply  to  the  traditional  conception  he 
says  in  the  preface  :  "Destructive  as  the  views  herewith  presented  mav  appear  to  be, 
I  believe  them  to  be  warranted  by  the  clearer  vision,  the  broader  outlook  gained  bv 
the  higher,  firmer  ground  that  modern  research  has  placed  beneath  our  feet."  The 
book  discusses  in  tlie  first  part  the  origin  and  development  of  the  religious  sense. 
Our  author's  definition  of  religion  is  ratlier  limited  and  seems  to  weaken  the  philos(j- 
phical  background  of  his  historical  expositions.  He  says  :  '"The  function  of  religion 
is  to  put  man  into  communication  with  these  supernatural  intelligences.  In  the 
second  part  Mr.  Brown  offers  a  good  summary  of  the  Assyrio-Babvlonian  religion. 
The  third  part  contains  a  discussion  of  Jewish  religion,  and  this  is  byfar  the  most  ex- 
tensive portion  of  the  book.  In  an  appendix  the  Code  of  Hammurabi  has  been  re- 
printed. The  book  will  be  welcome  to  many  who  look  for  a  popular  presentation  of 
this  important  subject  in  the  history  of  religions. 

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VOL.  XVIII,   NO.  3  (MAY,    1909)  CONTAINS! 

I.  ORIGINAL    ARTICLES  : 

The  Idealism  of  Edward  Caird:II     -     By  Professor  John  Watson 
The  Springs  of  Art,         -         -  By  Professor  J.  Mark  Baldwin 

The  Present  Meaning  of  Idealism,     -     By  Professor  Ernest  Albee 
Absolutism  and  Teleolgy,        -        -         By  Professor  A.  W.  Moore 

II.  REVIEWS   OF  BOOKS  I 


W.  Wundt,  S3^stem  der  Philosophie:  by  Professor  G.  S,  Fullerton 
— J.  C.  Cohn,  Voraussetzungen  und  Ziele  des  Erkennens:  bj^  Pro- 
fessor Warner  Kite — E.  B.  Titche7ier,T\\e  Elementary  Ps3xhology 
of  Feeling  and  Attention:  by  Professor  Edwin  B.  Holt. 

III.  NOTICES   OF  NEW   BOOKS! 

F.  J.  Schmidt,  Wiedergeburt  des  Idealismus — W.  S.  Bigelow,  Bud- 
dhism and  Immortality — C.  G.  Shaw,  The  Precinct  of  Religion  in 
the  Culture  of  Humanity  —  L'  annee  Philosophique  (1907) — 
A.  Thones,  Die  philosophische  Lehren  in  Leibnizens  Theodicee — 
H.  L.  Koch,  Materie  und  Organismus  bei  Leibniz. 

IV.  SUMMARIES  OF  PERIODICAL   LITERATURE. 


V.     NOTES. 


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Ma^ic  Squares  and  Cubes 

By  W.  S.  ANDREWS 

With    chapters    by    Paul    Carus,    L.    S.    Frierson    and    C.    A. 
BroM^ne,  Jr.,  and  Introduction  by  Paul  Carus. 

206  pp.,  cloth  binding,  gilt  top.  PRICE  $1.50  Net  (7s.  6d) 

Mr.  W.  S.  Andrews  of  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  was  one  of  Mr. 
Edison's  trusted  assistants  in  the  early  80 's  of  the  last  century  when 
that  great  inventor  was  perfecting  his  system  of  electric  lighting  by 
incandescent  lamps,  and  he  is  still  taking  an  active  part  in  the  Elec- 
trical Engineering  field. 

During  his  leisure  hours  he  has  given  considerable  thought  to 
the  working  out  in  his  own  original  way  the  construction  of  magic 
squares  and  cubes  of  various  styles  and  sizes.  The  developement  of 
these  mathematical  curios  according  to  regular  rules,  and  by  the  aid 
of  geometrical  diagrams  is  a  novel  feature  in  his  work  which  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  others  interested  along  the  same  lines,  and 
such  contributions  on  the  subject  as  they  have  had  to  offer  he  has 
incorporated  in  this  book,  making  it  a  most  comprehensive  pre- 
sentation of  the  subject 

The  first  two  chapters  consist  of  a  general  discussion  of  the  general 
qualities  and  characteristics  of  odd  and  even  magic  squares  and  cubes,  and 
notes  on  their  construction.  The  third  describes  the  squares  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  and  their  characteristics  while  Dr.  Carus  adds  a  further  analysis 
of  these  squares.  The  fourth  chapter  contains  "Reflections  on  Magic 
Squares"  by  Dr.  Carus  in  which  he  brings  out  the  intrinsic  harmony  and 
symmetry  which  exists  in  the  laws  governing  the  construction  of  these 
apparently  magical  groups  of  numbers.  Mr.  Frierson 's  "Mathematical 
Study  of  Magic  Squares"  which  forms  the  fifth  chapter,  states  the  laws  in 
algebraic  formulas.  Mr.  Browne  contributes  a  chapter  on  "Magic  Squares 
and  Pythagorean  Numbers"  in  which  he  shows  the  importance  laid  by  the 
ancients  on  strange  and  mystical  combinations  of  figures.  The  book  closes 
with  three  chapters  of  generalizations  in  which  Mr.  Andrews  discusses 
"Some  Curious  Magic  Squares  and  Combinations."  "Notes  on  Various 
Constructive  Plans  by  which  Magic  Squares  May  be  Classified,"  and  "The 
Mathematical  Value  of  Magic  Squares." 


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SEVENTY-NINTH  YEAR 

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A  RELIGIOUS  AND  SOCIOLOGICAL  QUARTERLY 

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IN  PREPARATION 

Miracle    and    Science 

The  Bible  Record  of  Miracles  Examined  by  the   Methods.  Rules,  and  Standards  of 
the  Science  of  Jurisprudence  as  Administered  in  Courts  of  Justice. 

By  F.  J.  Lamb,  Madison,   Wisconsin. 

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PLANT  BREEDING 

Comments  on  the  Experiments  of 

NiLSSON   AND  BURBANK 

BY 

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PORTRAITS  OF 
EMINENT  MATHEMATICIANS 

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PORTFOLIO  No.  1. 


Twelve  great  mathematicians  down  to  1700  A.D.: 


Thales,  Pythagoras,  Euclid,  Archimedes,  Leonardo  of  Pisa,  Cardan,  Vieta, 
Napier,  Descartes,  Fermat,  Newton,  Leibniz. 

"^*^  *  **  OL'IO  iNO.  Z.  The  most  eminent  founders  and  promoters  of  the 
infinitesimal  calculus  :  Cavallieri,  Johann  and  Jakob  Bernoulli,  Pascal, 
L'Hopital,  Barrow,  Laplace,  Lagrange,  Euler  Gauss,  Monge  and  Niccolo 
Tartaglia. 


PORTFOLIO  No.  3. 


Eight  portraits  selected   from   the  two  former, 


portfolios    especially  adapted    for   high    schools    and    academies,  including 
portraits  of 

THALES — with  whom  began  the  study  of  scientific  geometry; 
PYTHAGORAS— who  proved  the  proposition  of  the  square  on  the  hypotenuse; 
EUCLID — whose  Elements  of  Geometry  form  the  basis  of  all  modern  text  books; 
ARCHIMEDES — whose  treatment  of  the  circle,  cone,  cylinder  and  sphere 

influences  our  work  to-day; 
DESCARTES — to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  graphic  algebra  in  our  high 

schools ; 
NEWTON— who  generalized  the  binomial  theorem  and  invented  the  calculus* 
NAPIER — who  invented  logarithms  and  contributed  to  trigonometry; 
PASCAL — who  discovered  the  "Mystic  Hexagram  "  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 

PRICES 

Portfolio  I  or  a  (la  portraits)  on  Japanese  vellum,  size  11x14,  $5.oo;  both  for  $8.50. 
Portfolio  I  or  a  (la  portraits)  on  American  plate  paper,  size  11Z14,  $3.00;  both  for  $5.00. 
Portfolio  3  (8  portraits)  on  Japanese  vellum,  size  11x14.  $3.50;  single  portraits,  50  cents. 
Portfolio  3  (8  portraits)  on  American  plate  paper,  siza  11x14,  $a.oo;  singrle  portraits,  35  c. 

"  The  issue  of  this  fine  collection  is  equally  creditable  to  the  expert  knowl 

edge  and  discriminating  taste  of  the  editor.  Professor  David  Eugene  Smith, 

and  to  the  liberality  and  artistic  resources  of  The  Open  Court  Publishing  Co." 

— i^  N.  Cole,  Editor  American  Mathematical  Bulletin,  New  York. 

"  The  selection  is  well  made,  the  reproduction  is  handsomely  executed,  and 
the  brief  account  which  accompanies  each  portrait  is  of  interest.  Prof.  Smith 
has  rendered  a  valuable  service  to  all  who  have  interest  in  mathematics,  by 
editing  this  collection.  Wherever  mathematics  is  taught,  these  portraits  should 
adorn  the  walls." — William  F.  Osgood,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

The  Open  Court  Publishing  Co. 

P.  O.  Drawer  F.  378-388  Wabash  Avenue  CHICAGO,  ILL.