The Open court

^be ©pen Court

A MONTHLY MAGAZINE

Bevote^ to tbe Science of IReUaton, tbe IReliaf on of Science, an& tbe
Bitension of tbe IRelfotous parliament UDea

ErftVor; Dr. Paul Carus. ^^^^"°'^^'* {ma^ycSu?*

VOL. XXIIL (No. lo.) OCTOBER, 1909. NO. 641.

CONTENTS:

PAGS

Frontispiece. The So-Called Tomb of David.

Darwin's Contribution to Evolution. C. Stuart Gager 577

The Temple of Solomon. (Illustrated.) Conclusion. Phillips Endecott

Osgood 588

The City of David. (Illustrated.) Editor 610

Israel and Babylonian Civilization. Edouard Montet 619

Truth. (With Editorial Comment.) E. H. Randle 632

The Christian Canon. Wm. P. Whery 635

China and Accadian Civilisation 636

Our Nation's Preparation for Emergencies 638

Book Reviews and Notes 639

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Entered as Second-Qasa Matter Oct. lo, 1890, at the Post Office at Chicago, 111., under Act of March 3, 1^79.
Copyright by The Open Court Publishing Company, 1909.

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The Open Court

A MONTHLY MAGAZINE

Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and
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VOL. XXIII. (No. 10.) OCTOBER, 1909. NO. 641.

Copyright by The Open Court Publishing Company, 1909.

DARWIN'S CONTRIBUTION TO EVOLUTION.

BY C. STUART GAGER.

THE announced title of this paper would have sounded strange
indeed to the average reader of thirty or forty years ago.
Darwin's contribution to evolution ! Why, Darwinism is evolution :
it is all Darwin. Such was the almost universal popular impression.

This confusion of ideas has not entirely passed away to-day,
and we are all accustomed to see the words "evolution" and "Dar-
winism" used interchangeably in newspaper articles and popular
magazines.

Not onl\' were these two words used synonymously, but with
a special and restricted meaning which did violence to both of them.
"Do you believe in evolution?" is the first question put by the lay-
man ; and when the man of science answers "yes," he is asked with
unfeigned surprise, "Why, do you believe that man came from a
monkey?"

I would not presume to instruct this audience as to what evolu-
tion is, but a statement of it will be a fitting preliminary to what
I have to say, and serve to give a clear definition to the subject.

If we consider that the universe has not always existed as it
now is, we may conceive at least two possible theories to explain its
present condition: First, it was made as we now find it by an act
of creation ; second, the present order of things has come to be, by a
series of gradual processes operating throughout long periods of
time. Huxley avoided rubbing the fur of the theological cat the
wrong way by calling the former the Miltonic hypothesis. The latter
is the conception of evolution.

According to the Miltonic h}pothesis, events are unrelated, ex-

^ An address delivered before the Scientific Association of the University
of Missouri, at the exercises commemorating the one hundredth anniversary
of the birth of Charles Darwin, and the fiftieth anniversary of the publication
of the Origin of Species, February 12, igog.

578 THE OPEN COURT.

cept in point of time. One event may have occurred either before
or after any other, or they may all have occurred at the same moment.
But they have no logical connection. We may not interpret the
present in the light of the past, nor infer the future. Hitherto nature
may have followed a certain recognized order, but we are not at all
justified in concluding that such will hereafter be the case. Science
becomes a mere pastime without any ultimate goal. We may de-
scribe the facts and sequences of natural phenomena as one may
catalogue the titles and shelf-numbers of books in a library, but
with reference to the past or the future, no inference may be drawn
from' the former any more than from the latter. The librarian may at
any moment intervene and capriciously change the entire content and
arrangement of the library. God made it : there is nothing to explain.

Evolution, on the other hand, tells us that events have followed
in orderly sequence ; they bear to each other the relation of cause
and effect ; the present configuration of the material universe is the
logical sequence of the one preceding, and a clear understanding of
it would enable us to predict the one to follow. The caprice of a
Deus ex machina gives way to the uniformity of nature, and science
becomes something more than mental gymnastics. Knowledge of
the past enables us not only to understand the present, but also to
predict the future, and to order cjur lives accordingly. If God made
and now controls the universe, then evolution merely describes His
method of work. We know that He does not play tricks with us.
He has not made us to mock us. The universe is the revelation of
himself, and our intellects were meant for something more than
blind belief.

This, in brief, is evolution. Creation is not an act, but a process,
and still in progress. Merely for [)urposes of convenience we may
divide this process into two phases, inorganic evolution, and organic.

Now, it is quite superfluous to state here that the conception
of inorganic evolution was old before Darwin was young. It began
to take form in men's minds when ^olus and Boreas gave way to
convection currents and barometric pressure, and when Aurora fled
])(,-foi-c the reality of axial rotation.

We make only a passing reference to the fact that the idea of
evolution obtained among the ancient Greeks and Hindus, and even
amniiM- tlic AlL;on(|uin Indians C)f Xorth America, and recognize that
its inlrocjuction into modern science dates from the proposal of the
nebular hypothesis independently by wSwedenborg and Kant, in the
middle oi the eighteenth century, and its fiu'ther elaboration hv T.a-
Placc f]\\s \cars later.

Darwin's contribution to evolution. 579

Thus the universe as a whole was properly launched, but the
principle was not extended to the details of geological processes
until the preliminary work of Hutton and Playfair and the publi-
cation of Lyell's epoch-making Principles of Geology, in 1830-33,
established the notion of uniformitarianism. We see that the idea
of inorganic evolution was thus carefully worked out by the time
that Darwin was getting disgusted with the Greek and Latin classics,
and also with geology, in Edinburgh University. We must seek
for his contribution, then, in the realm of organic evolution. What
the contribution was is not as self-evident as one, at first thought,
might suppose.

Let us first endeavor clearly to state what is meant by the ex-
pression organic evolution.

If all organisms, living and extinct, plant and animal, including
man, could be assembled in one place, it would be possible so to
group them as to show their relationship to each other. A survey
of the individuals thus grouped would disclose the fact of a gradual
increase in complexity of organization throughout the ages, cul-
minating in the dominating types of the present. A more careful
observation would bring out the fact that no two individuals, how-
ever closely related, are exactly alike. In other words, we would
recognize descent with modification.

The individuals would naturally fall into groups of successively
higher orders. In sequence these would be Kingdom, Division,
Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species, Variety. Under Genus would
be grouped all those plants which might properly be referred to by
the same non-scientific, or ''common" name, for example, the oaks.
Now, it is a significant fact that all "common" names of plants are
generic names — rose, apple, primrose, willow, maple, etc., all refer
to genera. Hereby hangs a talc.

Previous to the work of the great classifier, Linnteus, it was
quite customary to refer to plants by only one scientific name, but
the scientist used his Latin jargon and said, Rosa, Mains, Salix,
Acer, instead of rose, apple, willow, maple. What did the systematist
mean by germs'^ Precisely what the word implied, kind. For is it
not clearly stated that, on the third "day of creation," "God said,
let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit
tree yielding fruit after his kind," i. e., after his genus ("jus fa genus
smini") ? Genera, therefore, were the units of creation, and this was
the very general belief of systematists up to the time of Linnseus.

The critical observation of Linnseus, however, soon detected
that the genus-group was composed of smaller subdivisions ; thus.

580 THE OPEN COURT.

for example, there was the Carolina-rose, the long-leaved willow,
the sugar-maple, and Linnaeus called them Rosa Carolina. Salix
loiigifoUa, Acer sacchariiiuni.

It should not be inferred that Linnieus introduced the binomial
nomenclature into science. No misconception is more widespread
nor more erroneous. Herbals, with binomials employed through-
out, were published a century before Linnaeus. What Linnaeus did
was to recognize that the genus-group was far too large to express
nature accurately. Genera could not be regarded as the lowest
taxonomic units, and so he took the binomial method of naming,
gave it precision, systematized it, and used it uniformly in naming
plants and animals. The subdivisions of genera are called species.
meaning particular kind. Then the species came to be regarded
as God's immediate handiwork. Thus we see, if Darwin had written
his Origin before Linnaeus's time, either it would have been called
the "Origin of Genera," or, if its present title had been given, the
book would have attracted no more attention than the Sysfeina
A'atura of Linnaeus, and would have aroused not a particle of re-
ligious furor. What a salutary tonic and corrective it is continually
to orient one's ideas and conceptions in the light of historical per-
spective ! If De Vries had preceded Darwin and the theologians re-
mained consistent, we would have had the battle waged over the ques-
tion as to whether or not the garden-varieties of vegetables originated
by a natural method or by special acts of divine interposition.

]jut, to return to the text, the work of Linnaeus ultimately re-
sulted in shifting theological attention from genera and focusing
it upon species. The latter were now to be safeguarded from the
onslaughts of materialism and infidelity. With genera and varieties
we could do as we liked.

Now, so far as the system of the great Swede disclosed, he was
entirely innocent of any concept of the kinship among either plants
or animals. The basis of his classification was wholly artificial.
God made the species. Those nearest alike, structurally, were placed
in the same genus, plants having the same number of stamens in
the same class, and those having the same number of pistils in the
same order ; but the idea of a genealogical tree for all living things
was yet to be introduced into taxonomy.

The history of the development of this idea of descent is too
long and to(j technical to be attempted here. It may be traced as
an undercurrent back some four or five centuries before Christ, to
Anaximander, and Empedocles. The latter is called by Osborne
"ihc father of the evolution idea." P>ut. notwithstandin"' the later

DARWix's cox'PRir.rrroK ro evolution. 581

writings of St. Augustine, who definitely rejected the notion of
special creation in favor of evolution, the works of Leibnitz and
Kant, and the contributions of Erasmus Darwin, of Treviranus. of
Lamarck, and of the author of the "\ estiges of the Creation," the
great fact of descent remained largely a philosophical speculation.
With Spencer, who elaborated the idea in 1852 in his essay on "The
Development Hypothesis," it was only a deduction from First
Principles. The establishment of its validity by direct appeal to the
facts may be mentioned as the first and fundamental contribution
of Darwin to evolution.

When the Origin of Species appeared in 1859 (only an al)stract
of a larger work, its author said), the scientific world was amazed
at the breadth of observation, the wealth of facts, and the masterful
way in which they were marshaled for the author's purpose. It
was a triumph of inductive logic. In his pocket note-book for 1837,
he wrote : "In July opened first note-book on transmutation of
species. Had been greatl}' struck from about the month of previous
March on character of South American fossils, and species on Gala-
pagos Archipelago. These facts (especially latter) origin of all
my views."

Erasmus Darwin, Goethe, Saint Hilaire, Treviranus, Lamarck,
and Chambers, the probable author of the "A'estiges," all hclici'cd
that species were not immutable and the products of special acts of
creation, but the question was still debatable. A candid considera-
tion of the evidence compiled by Darwin, however, made it prac-
tically impossible for any unprejudiced reader to reject the inference
of derivation. The question was no longer debatable. Special crea-
tion is indeed thinkable, but there is not the slightest evidence for
accepting it. Every living thing, so far as we have any evidence,
originates by natural birth. The dicta, ouuie rivuin ex ovo, ornne
viz'um e vivo explain not only the origin of living things to-day, but
also the derivation of the different kinds of living things. "Con-
sistent uniformitarianism," said Huxley, "postulates evolution as
much in the organic as in the inorganic w-orld. The origin of a new
species by other than ordinary agencies would be a vastly greater
'catastrophe' than any of those wiiich Lyell successfully eliminated
from sober geological speculation." Furthermore, while special
creation is perfectly capable of producing the present order, it is
not incapable of producing some other order. It cannot be proved
to be the vera causa of the present order.

This, then, is Darwin's first contribution to organic evolution :
he established the validity of the hypothesis of descent, namely, that,

582 THE OPEN COURT.

in the words of the Origin^ "the innumerable species, genera, and
families of organic beings with which the world is peopled have all
descended, each within its own class or group, from common parents,
and have all been modified in the course of descent." (Origin, ist
ed., p. 457). This is the fundamental doctrine of the book.

The immediate success of the evolution idea, as set forth in the
Origin, is often explained by the statement that the scientific world
was ready for it. Darwin himself never concurred in this view.
"I do not think," he says, "that this is strictly true, for I occasionally
sounded not a few naturalists, and never happened to come across
a single one who seemed to doubt about the permanence of species.
Even Lyell and Hooker, though they would listen with interest to
me, never seemed to agree. I tried once or twice to explain to able
men what I meant by 'natural selection,' but signally failed. What
I believe was strictly true is that innumerable well-observed facts
were stored in the minds of naturalists ready to take their proper
places as soon as an\ theory which would receive them was suffi-
ciently explained."

There were exceptions, however, to Darwin's view. The question
of origin had been raised by many investigators. Thus Huxley
often discussed it with Spencer, and states that the latter failed to
convince him, (i) because he ofifered no evidence in support of
his views; (2) because he failed to demonstrate the adequacy of
any known cause to produce transmutation. "That which we were
looking for, and could not find," said Huxley, "was a hypothesis
respecting the origin of known organic forms which assumed the
operation of no causes but such as could be proved to be actually
at work. We wanted, not to pin our faith to that or any other
speculation, but to get hold of clear and definite conceptions which
could be brought face to face with facts and have their validity
tested. The Origin provided us with the working hypothesis we
sought. Moreover, it did the immense service of freeing us forever
from the dilemma. . . .Refuse to accept the creation hypothesis, and
what have you to propose that can be accepted by any cautious
reasoner? In 1857 I had no answer ready, and I do not think that
any one else had. A year later we reproached ourselves with dull-
ness for being perplexed with such an inquiry. My reflection, when
I first made myself master of the central idea of the Origin was,
'How extremely stupid not to have thought of that !' I suppose that
Columbus's companions said much the same thing when he made the
egg stand on end. The facts of variability, of the struggle for
existence, of adaptation to conditions, were notorious enough; but

Darwin's ruxiRinujioN to evolution. 583

none of us had suspected that the road to the heart of the species
problem la}' through them, until Darwin and Wallace dispelled the
darkness, and the beacon-fire of the Origin g-uidcd the Ijcnighted."

Now, organic evolution has two natural subdivisions: First,
the evolution of the individual ; second, the evolution of the organic
world taken as a whole. It was due to the influence of Harvey,
that the conception, held centuries previously by Aristotle, of the
formation of the individual by evolution (Eiitwickclniig, develop-
ment), in the modern sense of the term, was firmly established, and
the doctrine of preformation permanently supplanted by that of
epigenesis. In addition to this, there were the following "well-
observed facts stored in the minds of naturalists ready," as Darwin
said, "to take their proper places as soon as any theory which would
receive them was sufficiently explained": (i) the observation of gra-
dations in structure from simple to complex; (2) observation of the
analogy between ontogeny and phylogeny, first clearly recognized
by von Baer ; (3) the observation of anatomical homologies; (4)
the influence of environment; (5) the facts of geographical and
geological distribution.

But antedating" these, and more fundamental than they, was the
elaboration, by Descartes, in 1637, of the idea that the universe, in-
organic and organic, is a mechanism, and therefore explainable on
the principles of physical science. This was the great intellectual
besom that swept away the light-excluding cobwebs of theological
speculation. Scientific progress and the confusion of final and
efficient causes are mutually exclusive. The science of agriculture,
for example, could never have developed so long as Ceres continued
to satisfy men's craving for an explanation of the mysteries of crop-
production. The great mathematician Leibnitz was unable to accept
Newton's theory of gravitation because it appeared to substitute
a physical force for the direct action of the Deity.

The elaboration, then, in the Origin, of the theory of natural
selection as a causo-mechanical explanation of the method of descent
found the scientific public well supplied with a fund of favorable
apperceptive ideas. The establishment of this theory is Darwin's
second contribution to evolution.

We have seen that Darwin did not discover the fact, so also,
we cannot crown him as the discoverer of the method of evolution.
Every one now clearly recognizes that there is probably more than
one method ; there are most certainly several factors in the process.
One of these factors is natural selection, and natural selection is
Darwinism.

584 THE OPEN COURT.

Attention has just been called to the truth that the discovery
of the fact of organic evolution was a triumph of inductive logic.
"I worked on true Baconian principles," said Darwin in his Auto-
biography, "and without any theory collected facts on a wholesale
scale." Now the discovery of natural selection was reached by an
entirely different method. It was a triumph of deductive logic.

"I soon perceived," says Darwin, "that selection was the key-
stone of man's success in making useful races of animals and plants.
But how selection could be applied to organisms living in a state
of nature remained for some time a mystery to me.

"In October, 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my
systematic inquiry, I happened to read for amusement 'Malthus on
Population,' and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for
existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation
of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under
these circumstances favorable variations would tend to be preserved,
and unfavorable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would
l)e the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a
theory b)- which to work."

But this idea of natural selection, more or less well defined,
occurred to other men before Darwin. It was stated by Wells, in
1813, and still more clearly by Matthew, in 1831, as Darwin him-
self has pointed out. The writings of these men were not known
to Darwin until sometime after the publication of the Origin, so
that he was truly an independent discoverer of the idea, though not
the first to propose it. Why, then, is it universally called Darwinism ?
For the same reason that mutation is associated by everybody with
the name chiefly of Hugo de \ ries. Darwinism made clear the sur-
vival of the fittest in the struggle for existence, but it did not explain
the origin of the fittest. Several investigations from time to time
suggested saltation, or discontinuous variation. Even Darwin him-
self considered the idea. But no one conceived the hypothesis so
clearly, stated it so definitely, worked it out so carefully, illustrated
it so fully, or showed its application so forcibly as did De Vries.
So it was with Darwin. His conception of natural selection was
clear and definite, his statement of it was positive and full, his demon-
stration of its adequacy as one factor of evolution compelled assent,
his evidence was a wealth of fact that commanded, not only the
attention, but the unbounded admiration of the scientific world. It
was said of ^'oltairc, "He expressed everybody's thoughts better
than anybody." This is what Darwin did with reference to the
entire prolilem of organic evolution.

DARW [N's CONTKir.UTIOX JO EVOLUTION. 585

The poet Lowell has said :

''Though old the thought, and oft cxpress'd,
'Tis Ill's at last who says it best."

For this reastni we very properly eall the theory of natural
selection Darwinism. Dar\^•in made it his own by expressing it
better than anybody else. Nobody ever seriously proposed calling
it \\'ellsism, Alatthewism, Spencerisni. nor even Wallaceism.

Thus, while in a very real sense the theory belongs to Darwin,
I would not name the formulation of it as his second important
contribution to evolution, but rather the fact that he compelled men's
attention to the theory. Not only did he, like his predecessors, get
the idea; the idea got him. and he forced the scientific world to
reckon with his theory. He said, 'T had at last got a theory by
which to 7i>ork." This was what all investigators recognized, — that
they had a working hypothesis, the most powerful instrument of
scientific research known to man. They could test it, they could
interpret with it. they could predict by means of it, they could ad-
vance with it by rapid strides. It was one of the "clear and definite
conceptions," for which Huxley and others were looking, and which
Darwin showed could be "brought face to face with facts." and
have its validity tested.

Furthermore, it appealed to scientists because it was the product
of investigation. Other men had said, "See how plausible the
hypothesis is." Darwin said. See how^ the hypothesis grows out of
the facts, and agrees with the facts, and explains the facts. See
also, said Darwin, the possibilities of research which it opens up.
In his note-book of 1837 he wrote. "My theory would give zest to
recent and fossil comparative anatoni}-. It would lead to study of
instincts, heredity and mind heredity, whole metaphysics, it would
lead to closest examination of hybridity and generation, causes of
change in order to know what we have come from and to what we
tend." And in the Conclusion to the Origin he wrote: "Much light
will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."

Ay. but there's the rub ! This last statement proved to be a
bomb in dynamite. The orthodox looked on in the calmest uncon-
cern so long as nothing but suns, and mountains, and fossil fishes,
and plants were concerned, but when the baneful hypothesis began
to stretch, out its tentacles over the lords of creation, then it was
high time for the Church militant to buckle on its armor. The
declaration of war was made by Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford,
at the Oxford meeting of the British Association in i860. The

586 THE OPEN COURT.

Bishop spoke "for full half an hour with inimitable spirit, emptiness,
and unfairness." "In a light, scoffing tone," says one who was there,
"florid and fluent, he assured us there was nothing in the idea of
evolution ; rock-pigeons were what rock-pigeons had always been.
Then turning to his antagonist with a smiling insolence, he begged
to know, 'If anyone were to be willing to trace his descent through
an ape as his grandfather, would he be willing to trace his descent
similarly through his grandmother?' "

At this ungentlemanly remark Huxley turned to Sir Benjamin
Brodie, who sat beside him, and, striking his hand on his knee, ex-
claimed, "The Lord hath delivered him into mine hands." The full
import of this remark was not understood by Sir Benjamin imtil
Huxley had finished his now famous rejoinder.

No one has ever agreed as to the exact words of Huxley's re-
ply, but the substance of the last paragraph of it was: "I asserted —
and I repeat — that a man has no reason to be ashamed of having
an ape for his grandfather. If there were an ancestor whom I
should feel ashamed in recalling, it would rather be a man — a man
of restless and versatile intellect, who, not content with success in
his own sphere of activity, plunges into scientific questions with
which he has no real acquaintance, only to obscure them by an
aimless rhetoric, and distract the attention of his hearers from the
real point at issue by eloquent digressions and skilled appeals to re-
ligious prejudice."

The effect is described as tremendous. Ladies fainted and had
to be carried out. But this tilt of words marks the beginning of the
most thorough intellectual house-cleaning the world has ever known,
and I regard the result of it as one of Darwin's greatest contributions,
not only to evolution, but to the intellectual advancement of the
world. It marked the end of any eft'ective throttling of truth by
ecclesiastical authority. Had it not been for this incubus, the idea
of evolution might have been received in the 17th century, for Des-
cartes clearly outlined it in 1637. This philosopher, however, was
contemporary with Galileo who had just suft'ered the penalties of
the Inquisition, and decided it were better, all things considered,
to formally reject the idea, after taking several pages to elaborate
it clearly !

The battle is not wholly won as yet, but scientific advancement
is not likely to be again seriously handicapped by theological oppo-
sition. It is more and more clearly recognized that there cannot be
any conflict between two truths.

The philosophical aspect of Darwin's work is apt to obscure

Darwin's contribution to evolution. 587

the very feature that Avon attention and confidence in his ideas ;
namely, the prodigious body of fact upon which the hypotheses were
based. No other author ever approached him in his grasp of bio-
logical data.

". . . .it is the very hardest book to read, to full profit, that I
ever tried — it is so cram-full of matter and reasoning," wrote Hooker
to Darwin in 1859. Asa Gray wrote him in i860. "I do not think
twenty years too much time to produce such a book in .... I am
free to say that I never learnt so much from one book as I have from
yours."

« His grasp of the facts of plant and animal life was encyclopedic,
covering taxonomy, morphology, comparative anatomy and physiol-
ogy, animal psychology, paleontology, anthropology, geology, and
regional biology. Moreover, the greater part of this information
was first-hand knowledge. Herbert Spencer's grasp of human
thought is the admiration of every thinker. The author of the
Origin wrote of him ; "1 could bear, and rather enjoy feeling, that
he was twice as ingenious and clever as myself, but when I fee]
that he is about a dozen times my superior. . . .1 feel aggrieved";
but he adds, "If he had trained himself to observe more, even if
at the expense ... of some loss of thinking power, he would have been
a wonderful man." Practically all of his knowledge was obtained
at second hand. Darwin's facts came direct from nature, "fresh,
buoyant, exact." This body of fact I consider not the least of the
great philosopher's contributions to evolution.

To summarize : Evolution is indebted to Charles Darwin for
demonstrating the fact of descent ; for advancing an adequate work-
ing hypothesis in such a manner as to command the respect and
attention of the scientific world and set them to work with it ; for
precipitating a decisive battle between dogma and the search for
truth ; for contributing a body of information unequaled in the
whole range of biological science. It cannot be too greatly em-
phasized that he set men at work as never before, and with a definite-
ness of purpose hitherto unequaled. He unified knowledge bv in-
fusing vitality into a unifying principle, gave direction to the entire
reach of human thought, and completely changed the character and
content of post-Darwinian science.

What is Darwinism? The theory of natural selection. Yes,
but to define it completely would necessitate a catalogue of prac-
tically everything that has been published, not only in biology, but
in physics, in chemistry, in geology, in astronomy, in psvchology,
and in social and political science, since 1859.

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.

A DEDUCTIVE STUDY OF SEMITIC CULTURE.

BY PHILLIPS ENDECOTT OSGOOD.

[conclusion.]

DECORATIVE AND SYMBOLIC DETAILS.

If it is natural to approach the work of reconstructing" the Tem-
ple in a tentative spirit, it is many times more natural so to approach
the more widely and diversely evidenced and much discussed symbol-
ism of the Temple's details, especially the twin pillars that stood in the
porch of the Temple, Jachin and Boaz ; for the question of their
form is bound up firmly with that of their significance and is
largely dependent rpon it. The interest of the Temple, too, must
be more in such live evidences of ancient thought and culture than
in the reshaping of hard stones, whose cold outlines, even when
blended into the organic unity of the building, must be more or less
the end-in-itself, rather than the interpretive means to an under-
standing of the humanity which made it. Details are more illumi-
native than architectural entireties, for the very reason that they best
can express concrete thoughts and moods.

I. In the beginning of this thesis I found it convenient to pre-
suppose the necessity of two axioms, claiming them to be construc-
tive data for my argument. The former of them was this, that
Judaism embodies a religious genius as yet not unique. I must claim
its aid once more at the crux of this present puzzle, repeating that
■'in spite of the superiority over neighboring faiths which comes
to the worship of Yahveh from its dawning henotheistic monotheism,
there are common elements still retained, proclaiming blood relation-
ship zvith the rest of the Semitic zuorld, hozaerer polytheistic it may
be." It is hard not to believe that in the Temple we find the symbols

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON. 589

of the earlier stages of Yahvism, which are also kindred to con-
temporary worship— symbols of neighboring and kindred nations.

2. Perhaps the commonest element of all old-world religions
is the reverence for the pillar. Tt is surprising to see how few things
there are of which Egypt is not the ultimate parent, whether it is
motives employed in art, or religious ideas and representations. Of
course, Mesopotamian civilization succeeded in stamping as indi-
vidually its own much that is apparently the outcome of its peculiar
culture ; but we are now able to see very numerous details and ele-
mentary ideals which go back of old Assyrian and old Babylonian
into still older Egypt ; whose travels to the Tigris and Euphrates,
just as also to Asia Minor and the Greek islands and Greece itself
are rendered intelligible only by the mediacy of Phoenician ships.
This is especially true of tree worship, which is the concomitant of
betylac, or pillar worship.

When motives of religious art pass from one people to another,
the myth sometimes accompanies the type on its migrations, but
oftener it lags behind ; the religious symbol is first naturalized and its
mythological significance follows later. Or perhaps the symbol alone
is adopted ; the meaning it held in its native climate being far dif-
ferent from the meaning it is christened with, if new meaning
there is at all, in its adoptive home. We cannot deduce from the
contemporary appearance of a symbol in diverse nations that it
necessarily means the same in each. Unless evidences of similar
myths and ideals are to be found, the symbol's presence stands for
little. But in the earlier days of Yahveh-worship these similar
modes of worshiping similar symbols are obviously present, so that
Phoenician religion may be fairly used as the data for the possible
ground-work of Hebrew faith, however higher than the foundation
its later evolution may build.

Throughout the earlier Old Testament we continually run across
the worship of Ashera. The circumstances, however, connote no
very clear identification with anything we know. Is Ashera a deity,
sometimes given "human" form? Is Ashera an embodiment of
Astarte-Ashtoreth ? Or is Ashera the symbolization of the nature-
mother in tree-form? As a symbol, attribute or utensil of worship
the Ashera seems to meet us only in the cultus of feminine deities.
In its most original form, as archeology has mapped its stages
out,'^' we have a single object, the emblem of this feminine deitv.
soon appearing in the company of her male correlative. These two

" Cf. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, ihe Bible and Homer. Text ; from
whicli T have most of my data on this subject.

590 THE OPEN COURT.

symbols may be two similar or dissimilar trees, posts, pillars or
cones. At any rate the agalmata are so far aniconic. These two
symbols either manifest the presence and joint rule of a godling
and little goddess in a holy place, or they show that a single deity
is thought of as a double nature (i. e., androgynous, both male and
female at once).

To these rude symbols soon are added heads, extremities and
other anthropomorphic details, until at last they become true im-
ages.'^ Interruptions and reversions halt and hinder the process
thus slightly sketched, but the evolutionary trend is clear.

When this final stage is reached that god who attained anthro-
pomorphic form is regarded as dwelling in the more primitive types,
in the tree, in the cone, or the post, and may be represented under
those forms ; or the tree, post or cone becomes the main idol of the
non-idol-confined god, the convenient object of ofi^erings and sacri-
fices.'''

The constant descriptions of the Asherim in the Bible, especially
when they occur in conjunction with mention of the altars of Baal
and Masseboth**^ leaves little doubt that beside the Baal-pillar, the
Masseba or Chamman, we must recognize the presence of the Ashera-
tree or wooden Ashera-post®^ (frequently burned as sacrifice), repre-
senting the paredros any localized god may have, just as he may have
a representation of Ashtoreth.*^'- Baal is simply the word for "god."
— -Yahveh is as yet a Baal.^-' The tree-goddess Ashera is only
another form of Ashtoreth-Astarte, who herself is often symbolized
in tree form. The Ashera is nothing but a local Ashtoreth or Baal-
consort, who has preserved in a purer form and for a longer period
her primitive and pristine character of a tree or wooden post, "the
vegetative ground-work of her nature." The lunar side of Astarte
Tconnected with the solar worship of her mate) is peculiar to the
general and ideal goddess, not to her local abodes or Ashera symbols.

Under Phrenician influence all the Canaanitic and Cyprian god-

'" Cf. Fig. 26 where the sacred tree shows clear signs of embryonic hu-
manity—which anthropomorphism is clarified in the two tracings at the top.

"Aerolites never outgrew this heaven-sent character (super-aniconic).

^ E. g., Exodus xxxiv. 13.

" It is interesting to note, that, although as a rule monuments are silent
witnesses, with one or two exceptions only, all the pillar-monuments we have
from the region of Phcenician influence mention somewhere on them the name
"Ashera."

"* Judges ii. 13; iii. 7; I Kings xviii and xix.

""' Cf. many Pentateuchal names written without distinction with the end-
ing Baal or Bosheth (Yahveh), e. g., Ishbaal = Ishbosheth and Mephibaal =
Mephiboshetli and also the meaningful name Baaliah CBaal = Jah).

THE TEi\[PLE OF SOLOMON. 591

clesses are derived from the single primitive feminine deity found
most clearly in primitive Babylonia, from whom anthropomorphic
form evolves most variously. Similarly \\'hen these same Canaanites
and Cyprians reached the stage where they substituted an anthro-
pomorphic god for the pillar-representative of the male deity, it
was Bel-Baal, husband of Belit-Balat ( Mylitta) who was the model.
They are the pattern Lord and Lady frcMu which local shrines adapt
their patron deities.

3. This is many years before the Temple of Solomon, although
even then contemporary development outside of Israel was little,
above this stage. The simple Baal-Ashera symbols had developed
into a particularization of attributes little found in Judea. From
this simple scafifold-faith there had elsewhere set in a specialization
in three directions.

a. Sex-symbols became no longer subsidiar}- to mere purpostf.s
of identification, but symbols in themselves of great sig
nificance.

b. Sacred trees became more and more definite in botanical
separation.

c. The sun and moon became identified with the divine duality"
We find the demarcation of these three tendencies already be

gun in the time of the later Pentateuch. Kings shows evidences
of the resultant conditions, if we look between the lines.

a. The Ashera began to be surmounted by sex-signets. A.>i
made of wood, the feminine, vegetative, symbol of the post becaniv
more the localized incarnation of nature, the vegetative All-mothei
The stone pillar of a Baal became the symbol of its transcending
god's masculinity. The phallus was first mounted upon it ; then tlu
pillar itself assumed the phallic character. The feminine symbol
the triangle, at first upon the apex of the Ashera-post, became the
cone of the goddess, the outline of which was that same triangle.
Thus grew up the phallic specialization and interpretation of the
life of the universe which we of to-day find so hard to comprehend
sympathetically.

The Semite cast all his gods more or less in one mold ; the
Greek specialized and articulated his, never allowing them to over-
lap functions in the divine economy of the universe. All Semitic
pantheons are therefore permeated with a solution of phallicism.
as well as with the solutions of other tendencies, until they seem
all of a piece. We find little dififerentiation between vegetative and
sexual attributes, since vegetative ideas and sexual ideas have af-
fected all the gods so much that they are no longer distinguished

592 THE OPEN COURT.

from each other, nor in their individual make-up is the same map-
ping-out and separation possible. It required a long time for man-
kind to reach that stage where abstract ideals could be formulated
and acted upon. The individual, concrete, kindergarten celebration
of some visible, suggestive symbol-ritual was the only means of
spiritual approach to disembodied life. But a single act of ritual
would be explicable in all sorts of ways, the varying interpretations,
vegetative, sexual, etc., blending into homogeneity through the me-
dium of the visible, concrete act, although heterogeneous except for
this thoug"ht-]>r()ducing, variously-explicable symbol, their point in
common.

If, then, the sexual idea permeated the conception of one god,
his paredros would straightway catch the same infection. The
Baal, conceived as the husband of the land he fertilized,^* made in-
evitable by his phallic emphasis a like metamorphosis of his goddess-
wife. He did not specialize into an individual with the definite
attribute of sexual fertility and let his goddess go her vegetative
way, but he gave to her his characteristic flavor and soaked himself
in hers, so that they held a community of qualities, rather than be-
coming private quality-estate owners. The sexual tendency devel-
ops not as individualized in any deity, but as a separable, yet never
separated, element in the evolution of the whole spiritual compound.
It is nevertheless a specialization from the primitive Baal-pillar
and its genetic content.

b. The second specialization descends from the Ashera-post
side of the family. Although the principle of fertility is one and
indivisible, this vegetative tendency is indubitably distinguishable.
Tree worship took its sufifragette equality in the worship of the
fruitful principles of the universe. The all-mother character could
be vegetatively explained as validly as in sexual terms. The pome-
granate was sacred to the first all-mother ; as being with its great
productive powers an appropriate signum of her essence. Hence,
too, we find the pomegranate sacred everywhere to the goddess
who occupies the seat of Ashtoreth in the native pantheon. In
Cyprus it was Aphrodite herself who planted it:"^ it was sacred to
Adonis (Tammuz) her partner,^*' and was bound up in the theo-

^ Asshur of the Assyrian Trinity = "the erect one."

" Cf. Antiphanes quoted by Athena^us, III, p. 84c.

^° "In the Temenos of Aphrodite at Dah was found a model of a pome-
granate in terra cotta (natural size) and many of the crouching figures of the
youthful Adonis (votive) hold in their hands — among other fruits — the
pomegranate." Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kyf'ros, the Bible and Homer (Text).

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON. 593

genetic myths of Phrygia.^^ The pomegranate is sacred in Egypt
to the "Warmhearted" Isis. It seems to be of Semitic origin ; Homer
mentions it only once. Even to-day the people of Cyprus use its
countless seeds as a symbol of fertility. The Assyrians gave an-
other tree sacred prominence, the palm. Conventional and far re-
moved from life as their sculptured palmettes may seem, only palm
withes could be so plaited ; and the leaves are unmistakable. The
elements of the Mesopotamian sacred tree are to be found in Egypt
and all the ports to which Phoenician influence extended.

This worship of sacred trees we find in the Old Testament in
the "groves" at which the iconoclastic anger of the reformers so
arose, but it was the deeds perpetrated in their shadow that were
the downfall of the heretical high places (bamoth) , not the sacred-
ness of the trees, which were found even in Solomon's own Temple
ornamentation. The sacred tree worship was too closely tied to the
glorification of the reproductive powers of the universe to escape
the stigma of the latter's excesses. But those who find in the repres-
entations of the sacred tree merely a frank feminine signum go too
far in their preconceived programme of reducing all cultus symbols
to sexuality.

These two specializations, sexual and vegetative, exist side by
side in the same symbols and rituals. When the king, personating
some Baal, married some Ashera image or some Temple-prostitute,
personating in her turn the goddess whose priestess she was, it was
both a recognition of the sexuality of the workings of the uni-
verse and a ritual of "homoeopathic magic"*^ whereby the fertility
of the land, the revival of the trees and the increase of all nature,
was insured. (It is a familiar tenet of all magic that the imitation
of a desired result procures it). Thus, for instance, the early Phoe-
nician kings of Paphos or their sons claimed to be not merely the
priests of the goddess but her semi-divine lovers, personating
Adonis. The original myth of Pygmalion and the image was in
all probability some such manifested Astarte-wedding.

c. Sun- and moon-worship is a third interpretation of the life
of the divine pair, merging with phallicism and nature-worship. The
sun as the productive energy in the workP^ was worshiped in Phoe-

*'^ Adonis =: Lord. "The name does not signify Tammuz in the Bible
unless so specified. But the cult was rampant (cf. Ezekiel). For an innocent
usage, cf. also the names Adoni-kam (Ezra ii. 13), Adoni-ram (i Kings, iv. 6),
Adoni-jah (i Kings i. 15).

^^ Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Frazer, pp. 14 and 30.

'* ~^'~ := the Impregnator.

594 '^"tlK OPEN COURT.

nicia in this fashion, not in the later abstract form of Persian Zoro-
astrianism. Sun and moon are merely another manifestation of the
genos and genea of all life (although the lunar aspect is also neces-
sarily more or less identified with a na tiire- goddess) .

All these three specializations existed in advanced forms, had
their specialized cults and rituals as quasi-sectarian bodies. Yet the
primitive pillar-pair still contained the essential germs of all three
specializations and had its more comprehensive, if less intensive,
meaning and appeal.

Jachin and Boaz stood in the porch of Solomon's temple. Their
workmanship was such that they seem to have been the most famous
incident of the whole construction. Bronze-casting was very ob-
viously unfamiliar to the Jews. But it is hard to believe that mere
artisan perfection gave them all their fame, — there must have been
some symbolism implied that redounded to the glory of Yahveh.
This significance I find in their being a sign of the androgynous
nature of Yahveh. While the more primitive intensity of quality-
personification may somewhat have dwindled away, let us remind
ourselves that orthodox high places were still in open and general
use; that Baalim and Ashera-Teraphim existed without question
at high-places of neighboring, kindred gods ; that we are halfway
between the golden calf in the wilderness and the destruction of calf-
worship in the northern kingdom, which had been instituted to
counteract the lack of Jerusalemitic worship by symbolizing the
attributes of Yahveh ; that Jachin and Boaz themselves bore facsim-
iles of pomegranates.

I do not find any definite phallic symbolism in them, nor any
specialized tree-signification. They represent to me the continuance
of the unspecialized betylae-pair, holding in their solution the male
and female elements, nature and phallic-cult basic ideas, patron and
patroness protectorate, and the solar and lunar manifestations of their
qualities. Precipitation and separation of these half-identical at-
tributes into concrete symbolism has not here taken place, as else-
where. The Temple remains aniconic, and therefore all-inclusive of
possible significance. The devout believer in Yahveh may claim
for him any attribute he feels to be inherent in the deity he wants
to worship, and point to Jachin and Boaz as the sign-manual of his
right to do so. . It is perfectly possible that they may signify any-
thing evolved from that type in whose form they anachronously
survive and defy the specialization whose seeds have otherwhere
flowered and fruited into special ritual, special emblems, special
cult-sects. Indeed, it is perfectly possible that the setting-up of a

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.

595

betylae-pair before the Temple, from the very fact that it was the
primitive seed of the too obviously flowering specializations round
about, was the very thing- to call the attention of the worshiper
back to the really simple and potent essence which was so masked
by their vagaries and exaggerations. Jachin and Boaz proclaimed
the simple creed of true Yahvism.

4. This intensifying of meaning in the two pillars seems to do
away with two forms of reconstruction. Stade makes them stand
within the porch, supporting the architrave of its lintel-structure.

Fig. 15. JACHIN AND BOAZ.
(Fergusson, The Temples of the Jews, p. 157, fig. 35.)

Fergusson conjectures that the two pillars upheld a screen, upon
which abundant space was provided for all the ornamentation heart
could wish. (Fig. 15.)

The change of material does not necessitate a change of func-
tion. Many writers contend that, since sacred pillars heretofore had
been made of wood or of stone, this change into metal argues a
change of significance and of function. I cannot see that this fol-
lows. Bronze was the ne plus ultra of the up-to-date mode. Further-
more, anything with so much significance and prestige as there

596

THE OPEN COURT.

seems to have been here involved would hardly have been put to a
comparatively menial, because utilitarian and structural, use. Any
amount of skill would hardly single out two door-posts for such
fame. They must have been objects in themselves, not in any sense
subsidiary to something else. As such they were outstanding obe-
lisks, I feel sure.

Fergusson's^° suggestion is likewise vetoed by this same in-
tensification of meaning as sufficient explanation of their honor.
His objection to simple pillars is that they do not provide space
enough for the wealth of ornamentation ascribed to them, "nets
of checkerwork, and wreaths of chain work, lily work" and pome-
granates by the hundred."^ This seems true, but is counterbalanced
by the very evident desire of the author to make the most of every
detail for the glory of Yahveh himself, whose house is thus, even
to minutest details, perfect in its execution. Influenced, however,
by the occurrence of a screen before Herod's
Temple, Fergusson goes to India for analogy and
prototypes. He finds there in the common topes
of Indian temples good opportunity for all the
prodigality of ornament to be desired. But he
knows more about India than Judea, for to go
so far afield brands the search a desperate one,
especially since no connecting link is at present
to be shown.

5. Why not be content with simple, free-
standing pillars, whose great uniqueness lies in
their material and unexcelled workmanship, but
whose symbolism adds the halo of sanctity to the
sheen of their brass? In Egypt, the stone obe-
lisks stand out free before the pylons (Fig. 16
and note) ; in all the representations of the Pa-
phian temple the flanking pillars or cones are ob-
vious ; the pseudo-Lucian tells of the two great
Priapi of Bacchus at the Byblos-shrine, into the
top of which twice a year a man climbed up, as
he would a palm tree, and there abode for seven days. In front
of the sanctuary-place of Astarte-lNIikal at Kition in Cyprus the
remains of columns with Ionizing capitals were found as holy

°* Fergusson, The Temples of the Jews. Text on "Solomon's Temple."

"* I Kings vii. 17-20.

* This is not the ordinary Egyptian obelisk (cf. "Cleopatra's Needle," Cen-
tral Park, New York, for tliat) bnt one of a pair which stand before the pylon
of Karnak, whose "saturation" of meaning is greater than any otlier present

Fig. 16. ORNA-
MEN'lED PIER
FKOM KARNAK.*

Cf. Perrot andChi-
piez, Egypt, II, 94.

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.

597

betylae in the customary place. In a small terra-cotta model of a
shrine of Venus Urania (as proven by the dove-cote holes) we find
a clearer reproduction of one of the later forms these pillars took.
(Fig. 17.) Owing- to the necessity of support from the fragility
of the material of the model the capitals barely touch the wall be-
hind, but this certainly is not the state of things the model intends
to portray, since the columns do not support the tiny pent-house
above the kennel-like door.

The law of parsimony must also rule out the use of Jachin and
Boaz as candle-sticks, burning the fat of sacrificed animals ; though
some of the later temple coins of the Roman era indicate this adap-
tation. Those of Sardia show the flames. This is a later and utili-

17. MODEL OF A SHRINE IN TERRA COTTA.

[Louvre.) Height 8l4 in. M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the
Bible and Homer, pi. CXXXIV. Parrot and Chipiez, Phoenicia,
p. 287, fig. 208.

tarian adaptation of the columns, which would not be thinkable
until their emblematic content had been forgotten, which, in the
time of Solomon was certainly not the case anywhere in the Medi-
terranean world.

Simplicity is the key-note of their interpretation (cf. figs. 18
and 19) ; not specific specialization of attribute, not mere utilitarian
blazonry. In the betylae-character is enough meaning to be worthy
of the house of Yahveh. What shall be the definite aspect of the

example there. Originally these were surmounted by some kind of sacred
symbol, perhaps bronze hawks. The bronze has stained the pillars. This gives
an example of an Egyptian baetylic pillar closely analogous to Baal and Ashera
masseboth in the stage where specialization is just beginning.

598

THE OPEN COURT.

twin columns? I would not dare to say. The reconstruction given
by Perrot and Chipiez meets any demand this line of interpretation
can put upon them, as simple symbols of the androgynous, all-
comprehending nature of Yahveh, god of Israel.®-

In the Temple of Solomon as in a museum there were ranged
throughout tangible relics of all the stages through which the wor-

Fig. l8. PHOENICIAN

MARBLE PILLAR

26 in. high. Louvre. Perrot
and Chipiez, Phoenicia, Vol.
I, p. 131, fig. 72. Ohnefalsch-
Richter, Kypros, the Bible
and i^om^r.pl.LXXX, fig.7.

19. PHOENICIAN PILLAR.

(Baal Pillar, Phallic.)

Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible anc
Homer, pi. LXXX. fig. 5.

ship of its God had grown, existing side by side. The exhibit of
its most primitive stage is in Jachin and Boaz (divested of the
latter-day skill with which the betylae-symbol had been clothed),
the common element with all pillar-worship of the Semitic world.

" "It is by no means impossible that the two words [Jachin and Boaz] were
within, like talismanic graffite by the Phoenician founders upon the columns.
Let (God it) keep upright by (his) strength" and that in the course of time
the two magic words were taken for the names of the columns by persons not
very conversant with Phoenician matters." Renan, Hist, of Israel, vol. IL

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.

599

III.

THE SACRED TREE.

The interior of the Temple sho\Yed no single stone, so thor-
oughly was it sheathed within. We read"''' that Solomon "carved
all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cher-
ubims and palm trees and open flowers, within and without." There
is grave and most legitimate doubt about the authenticity of all the
passages which ascribe the sheathing of so much of the Temple

l<^>i

Fig. 20. ASSYRIAN '"TREE OF LIFE."

From Layard, Nineveh. Plates. Also Perrot and Chipiez, Chaldea
and Assyria. Vol. I, p. 213.

with gold,''* but this need not rule out the carving of the wooden
sheathing, which we would have every historical and archeological
reason to expect and suspect if it had not been set forth in our
accounts. Egyptian and Assyrian precedent combining in Phoe-
nician usage, witnessed to in Mycenaean and Cyprian ruins (though
very meagrely, it is true), seem altogether to give authority to this
hypothesis.

^ I Kings vi. 29 ; also Ezekiel xli. 18.

"* Cf. Stade's and Benzinger's commentaries on passages, Stade, ZATW,
iii, 140 ft.

6oo

THE OPEN COURT.

The "palm trees" so repeatedly used must have been some form
of the Assyrian "tree of life" (Fig. 20). And the conventional
design, as I said before, can be only a palm-tree. Even to-day the
peasants of Cyprus plait palm-withes in much the same form.

In Phoenicia the palmette is frequently met; but, true to its
character as a borrowed motive, it is even T
more conventional than in Assyria and much \
simplified. This trend toward simplification ^^
brings out the residue of Egyptian form the
Assyrian hand so remodeled and disguised (cf.
Fig. 21). The stem has now become an archi-

PDCDCX)

Fig. 21. ALABASTER SLAB.

Louvre. Height 20 in. From Arados. Cf. Per-
rot and Chipiez, Phoenicia and Cyprus, Vol. i,
p. 134, fig. 76.

Fig. 22. FLORAL PILLAR.

Perrot and Chipiez, Egypt,
Vol. II, p. 89, fig. 62.

tectonic column with rudimentary volutes, with four or five rigid
leaves far removed indeed from the vegetable world ; even more
de-naturized than its Mesopotamian model. Compare with this the
elaborate Egyptian floral pillar here given (Fig. 22) as just as
possible a prototype and ancestor of the Phoenician palmette as the
Assyrian. Figure 21 might just as possibly be a simplification of
Figure 22 as of Figure 20, though the Assyrian, form is more clearly
outlined in it.

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON. 60I

I do not find the co-occurrence of palmettes and lotus flowers
an anomaly, as some do. The Phoenician used the salient motives
of his art-sources. The Egyptian lotus must therefore have been
one of his most familiar units of design. The lotus blossoms
("lilies," "knops of flowers") might almost be part of the sacred
tree, but the separate mention seems to indicate they were probably
in a border above or below.

In the preceding section I pointed, out the place in religious
development that tree-worship occupied. The specialization of this
out of the vaguer and more comprehensive betylae-worship (bethe-
lae) marks a division of its scope. The formalization of sacred
tree forms into mere mural ornamentation of stereotyped configu-
ration marks a still later stage. In the centuries to which we are
carried back by the earliest known Phoenician monuments, it is
patent that the Phoenicians were no longer in a stage where their
sole deities were rocks, trees, and pillars. These were thought of
as images, local incarnations of a transcendent deity. Polytheism
by the end of the Sidonian era was growing abstract, further re-
moved from polydemonism ; headed vaguely for the misty ideal of
unity. Yet Phoenicia's scattered mode of living soon led this as yet
tiny momentum toward abstraction to ally itself with the indifference
that lack of intensity, concreteness and concentration incurred. The
higher faith of her neighbors affected her not at all. So, although
tree-worship was even at this time not unimportant in Egypt, and
in the historic pedigree of Phoenicia's own Semitic past had played
a great, if not a concretely and realistically pictured part, the sacred
tree becomes for her workmen a mere ornamental stock-in-trade,
most acceptable to tree-venerating customers. Hebrew tree-worship
had been that common to all Canaan, bound up in the worship of
betylae and ashera and groves. Artistic expression had been denied
it, and by the time of the Temple when such artistic opportunity
came, the content of the symbol had largely faded out of being. The
decorative value appealed to the Tyrian architect and artisan, not
the live significance ; and it is doubtful if in this the Hebrews were
much different. It was "groves" of living trees that meant soine-
thing. The carved palm-trees on the walls, however, exhibited,
museum-wise, another stage of Israelitish worship, a stage which
even now existed in degenerate, specialized and perverted form in
the near-by groves of Ashtoreth, those groves to which that heret-
ical reversion to type so often brought unsteadfast Jews. The true
faith of Yahveh had grown above it years ago.

602 THE OPEN COURT.

XVI.

THE CHERUBIM.

The exact meaning of the word is doubtful ; but the importance
of the sacred beasts is hard to overestimate. The cherub persists
throughout Hebrew history as the symbol or guardian of the holiest
mysteries. Here in the Temple, we find cherubim on the walls and
also (in the round) guarding the Ark of the Covenant in the Debir.
As the cherub in the garden of Eden guarded the Tree of Life, so
on the walls, carved Cherubim flanked the sacred trees.

The cherub seems to have been some kind of mythic griffin,
composed of diverse traits chosen from well-known and respected
animals. Lion characteristics, wings, "the face of a man," bull
traits and features all seem to have fused in the ideal cherub. Prob-
ably, since fancy unchecked cannot keep stable, the cherub varied
much from time to time. From a comparison of Isaiah i. lo with
Ezekiel x. 14, the algebraic cancellation of equals leaves the "face
of a cherub" as the equivalent of that "of an ox." This I think
was the predominant motive in the cherub.

If this be so, we are straightway again brought into that free
exchange of ideals common throughout the Mediterranean basin.
But first see what historic probability there is in the Hebrew race
itself. The golden calf in the wilderness and the molten calves set
up by Jeroboam in the Northern Kingdom so few years later (abol--
ished by Josiah at Bethel in 640-609 B. C.) give good ground for
believing the same symbol was not unknown between-times ; — espe-
cially is this true since in both cases the worship seems naively to
have been considered legitimate, to have been recognized as worship
of Yahveh.

The notion has grown in late years that Yahveh was thought
of as a bull-god in the original form of the nation's faith. In this
case we have in the golden calf etc. another instance of that same
reversion to type and primitive crudeness which the transcendental-
ists of Hebrew history always most bitterly combatted. It is not so
much a mere example of primitive totemism as at first it seems.
The bull-form had a spiritual reality at bottom. Israel was cradled,
nurtured and educated to its maturity in the midst of bull-worshiping
nations. It would be most unusual if this nation only should escape.
The bull is the most natural emblem of generative force and sturdy
strength to cattle-breeders, and such were all the half-Bedouin races
of the Eastern Mediterranean.

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.

603

The most obvious source of such a concept is Egyptian, the wor-
ship of the black Apis-bull of Osiris (Fig. 23), the so-called "bull
of the West" who was considered as Osiris incarnate, and the wor-
ship of the white bull of Horus. The black Apis-bull was the
answer to the demand that Hathor, the cow-goddess of the under-
world, should have a masculine correlative to be complete. As a
cow-goddess, she was stronger than Isis whose bovine partner was
the Horus-bull. It is Hathor, the horned goddess with the sun-disk,
who infers the existence of the bull of heaven, the bull-headed god

Fig. 23. BRONZE FIGURE OF APIS.
Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, Vol. I, p. 289.

most easily developed by the Hebrews into Yahveh, whose blood-
cousin, though a black sheep of the family, was Moloch, also bull-
horned.

In the Promised Land itself the influence of surrounding gods
lent itself to the perpetuation of such an ideal. Not only was Moloch
a buU-god,^^ but the Hittites also worshiped similar deities. In the
remains of the mysterious Hittite palace at Euyuk there is a relief
which shows a priest and priestess each with a hand lifted in adora-

" Cf. the Rabbis. Jarchi. on Jerem. vii. 31. Diodorus xx. 14.

6o4

THE OPEN COURT.

tion to an image of a bull raised on a high pedestal with an altar
before it.^^ Sandan, the Hittite Hercules, seems to have been con-
sidered as a bull-god.

Analogies multiply from all directions. Europa and the Zeus-
bull, Ariadne and the Minotaur of Crete, Bacchus as a human-faced
bull (Fig. 24) ; these on the Greek side via Crete and Mycenae with

Fig. 24. BACCHUS AS A HUMAN-FACED BULL.
Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer, pi. CXCII, fig. 9.

a residuum of unmodified primitive characteristics, unite with the
Assyrian winged and human-headed sacred bull on common footing.
Horned gods and horned demons occur in many religions. The
horn is the symbol of power, of super-humanity. Kings adopt it
for their crowns, professing divine right and descent. "Minos was
bull-god as well as king. At certain feasts, and notably at his royal

Fig. 25. THE HERO GILGAMESH AND SACRED BULLS.

From the Chalcedony Seal as early as 3d millennium B. C. Ohne-
falsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer.

marriage, he wore a bull's mask, and his queen perhaps a cow's
mask." The ruins of Cnossos are replete with horn-emblems and
bull-masks. Legendary heroes and mythical demigods are adorned
with horned caps or sprouting horns (cf. fig. 25). The Assyrian
pantheon looks ridiculously like the stanchions of a well-stocked
cattle-farm.

^ W. J. Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia, I, pp.
393-395; Perrot and Chipiez, IV, 623, 656, 666, 672; L. Messerschmidt, The
Hittites, pp. 42-50.

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.

605

The bull-characteristics of the Cherub are the manifestation of
Yahveh's own past.^'

To the bull-form of the cherub were added wings. This like-
wise is a custom of long standing. In the very earliest strata of
Cyprus, races which date from about 1000 to the middle of the sixth
century B. C. (Gr?eco-Phoenician) the juxtaposition of heraldic birds
and holy trees or flowers is very frequent. They even seem some-

Fig. 26. VASE FROM KITION.
Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer, pi. LXXIX.

times to be adoring a holy tree ; perhaps holy birds were reared and
kept in the grove of a divinity who was worshiped under the sem-
blance of a natural or artificial tree. This finding of birds in the
function of the later cherubim and guardian bulls of Assyria or in the
position of Egyptian sphinxes (whose attitude toward the central
pillar is purely decorative, shown by the generality of cases in wiiich
°' Gen. xlix. 24 seems to call Yahveh the Bull of Jacob.

6o6

THE OPEN COURT.

the animals are back to back) makes the fusion of characteristics
easy, once the character of their act is fused. Wings are the relics
of such representations.

Figure 26 shows an interesting piece of Cyprian pottery of the
earliest date where both beast and bird are adoring the ashera-tree
(which also seems to be in a state of evolution into human form).

The taste for figures put face to face is Assyrian rather than
Egyptian, and Phoenicia almost never chooses to place its mythic
beasts in any but fronting poses. The famous Lion Gate at Mycenae
is duplicated by numberless seals, paterae and glyptics. This is the
position which- has meaning ; the other has none but ornamental
intent. The flanking animals give prominence and impressiveness

Fig. 27. A PILLAR WITH GRIFFIN SUPPORTERS.

From Mycenae. Tsuntas, "M-vKrivai," pi. V, fig. 6. Tsuntas and
Manatt, Myc. Age, p. 254, fig. 131. Furtwangler, Ant. Gentm.,
Vol. Ill, p. 44, fig. 18. Evans, Myc. Tree and Pillar Cult, p. 60,
fig. 36.

to the ashera or pillar they support. Most of the detail on the
betylae of Phoenicia is permeated by the inevitable and concomitant
satellites, who are their watchdogs. The Egyptian sphinx and the
Phoenician griffin (Fig. 27) merge with the Assyrian winged bull
into the function of the cherub, and duplicate his known character-
istics. The Assyrian bull is certainly the noblest and most dignified
forefather the most "blue-stocking" cherub could long for. His
calm majesty and massive power make him truly a fit guardian for
any sacred Tree of Life. (Fig. 28.)

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.

607

This brings me to a brief consideration of the symbolism of the
cherub.

The undifferentiated pillar grew to be a pair, which each in turn
specialized its sexual significance. The Ashera-pillar we found to
have become phallic, answering the call of the all-mother, Astarte.
The sacred tree on the walls of the temple manifests the develop-
ment simple beatylic worship (exemplified in Jachin and Boaz) has
reached on the feminine side. The masculine momentum towards

Fig. 28. WINGED BULL FROM KHORSABAD.
Perrot and Chipiez, Babylonia and Assyria.

phallicism does not in Semitic religion become over-frank or primary ;
but it develops with much vigor in secondary or veiled forms. This
the bull-worship seems to be. Baal-Peor,^^ the god of the Moabites
and Midianites, seems to have enshrined this principle. Some schol-
ars even go so far as to create out of the name Peor-Apis the Greek
name Priapus. The Apis-bull soon came to be considered identical

** Numbers xxv. 1-2 etc. ; Hosea ix. 16 etc.

6o8 THE OPEN COURT.

with Baal, and Yahveh as a Baal must have held more than a modi-
cum of this idea. In Phoenicia phallicism was attached to the sun-
cult of Adonis-Tammuz and Isis-Ashtoreth- Venus. But the ideal
of strength seems to have been the backbone of the deification.
Masculinity does not imply sensuality — but develops the considera-
tion of qualities such as reliability (cf. the covenant where Yahveh
"abideth faithful"), war-power and physical strength. As such
Yahveh need not be ashamed to own his symbol, the simple meta-
phor which these child people could easily visualize and understand.

XVII.

Primitive religion is interesting more than for its own sake.
Its intrinsic value must be in the contribution it makes to the phi-
losophy of history. Every day of modern times makes the fact of
evolution become more and more the fibre of our thought. But the
wonder likewise grows. God even is content to let his children
grow to knowledge of him through such imperfect visions of his
reality as these we have been studying. The main thing is, they
grow. And growth must be upward ; if upward it is toward the
perfection he has set as the ideal of perfect knowledge of him as
Love. The ideal of a loving God is undreamed of in these dim
ages, in the ideals the Temple embodied ; brought from the desert
wanderings to be spiritualized through stress and disappointment
into Messianic hope, which even so did not hope for the Truth as
Christ revealed it in our midst. We may not say, however, that this
half-faith was valueless. In the eyes of the Lord, to whom "a thou-
sand years are as a day, and a day as a thousand years," as being the
promise of perfection, it was priceless. Israel was his chosen people.
However near the wilderness the Temple may have stood, it faced
the East where the dawn was breaking.

"Well, you must know, there lies
Something, the Cure says, that points to mysteries
Above our grasp : a huge stone pillar, once upright,
Now laid at length, half-lost, discreetly shunning sight
r the brush and brier, because of stories in the air —
Hints what it signified, and why was stationed there.
Once on a time. In vain the Cure tasked his lungs —
Showed, in a preachment, how, at bottom of the rungs
O' the ladder, Jacob saw, where heavenly angels stept
Up and down, lay a stone which served him, while he slept,
For pillow ; when he woke, he set the same upright
As pillar, and a-top poured oil: things requisite

THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON. 609

To instruct posteritj', 'there mounts from floor to roof
A staircase, earth to heaven : And also put in proof
When zve have scaled the sky, we zvell may let alone
What raised us from the ground, and, — Paying to the stone
Proper respect, of course, — take staff and go our way.
Leaving the pagan night for Christian break of day.

Thus preached the Cure and no jot

The more persuaded people but that, zvhich once a thing

Meant and had right to mean, it still must mean

Yon spire, you keep erect

Yonder, and pray beneath, is nothing, I suspect,

But just the symbol's self expressed in slate for rock.

Art's smooth for nature's rough, new chip from the old block!"*"

^Robert Browninsr, "Fifine at the Fair." lines 2102-21 19, 2125-8, 2152-5.

THE CITY OF DAVID.

BY THE EDITOR.

JERUSALEM is first mentioned in history in the Tel-el-Amarna
letters as the residence of an Egyptian viceroy under the name
Uru-Salim. which became changed in the Hebrew to "Jerusalem,"
or as a well-assured reading runs in the Old Testament and on two
coins, "Jerusalajim," but neither the etymology of the original name
nor the dual form of Jerusalajim has been satisfactorily explained.

The city of Jerusalem is a natural stronghold, and when the
Israelites invaded the country, Mt. Zion could not be taken but re-
mained in the hands of the Canaanitic tribe, the Jebusites. It is pos-
sible that the pre-Davidian name of the city, at that time, was Jebus,
after the supposed ancestor of the Jebusites.

The geological formation of the territory is mainly limestone
which is everywhere apt to possess steep declivities and form many
caves. On the other hand it is often poor in affording a sufficient
amount of drinking water, and these features must have been very
evident in ancient Jerusalem. The rocks on which the city is built,
and also the several precipices in the neighborhood, are full of grot-
toes which have been used for various purposes, especially as places
of burial, and there is only one good spring which since times im-
memorial has furnished the water supply of Jerusalem. This is
situated on the southeastern slope and is now called the Spring of
the A''irgin. The Mohammedan population call it the "Spring of
Steps" because it is furnished with a stairway. We may fairly well
assume that the first settlement of the place was made here ; the
spring must have belonged to the cit}- of the Jebusites and must
somehow have been protected also in the city of David.

Tn order to make up for the deficient water supply on the rocks,
the inhabitants of Jerusalem built many cisterns of which there are
not less than thirty-eight under the temple area. One of them is so
larcre that it contains two million gallons of water. These rcscr-

THE CITY OF DAVID. 6l I

voirs have been freqnentll}' referred to* and seem to be partly natural
and partly artificial.

In the book of Joshua (xv. 63) the Jebusites are reported to
have felt so safe on their steep rock that they ridiculed the request
for surrender by having the place guarded by the lame and the blind,
at which mockery David took offence and became the more eager
to take possession of this formidable fortress. Finally he succeeded
in capturing the town which for strategic and political reasons was
so important to him. David made Jerusalem his capital and with the
aid of Tyrian craftsmen fortified the place called Millo, which seems
to have been the Jebusite name of the citadel.

The passage in the second book of Samuel is somewhat obscured
but the general sense is sufficiently intelligible. It reads thus (2 Sam.
V. 6-12) :

"And the king and his men went to Jerusalem unto the Jebusites, the in-
habitants of the land : which spake unto David, saying, Except thou take away
the blind and the lame, thou shalt not come in hither : thinking, David cannot
come in hither.

"Nevertheless David took the strong hold of Zion: the same is the city of
David.

"And David said on that day, Whosoever getteth up to the gutter, and
smiteth the Jebusites, and the lame and the blind, that are hated of David's
soul, he shall be chief and captain. Wherefore they said, The blind and the
lame shall not come into the house.

"So David dwelt in the fort, and called it the city of David. And David
built round about from Millo and inward.

"And David went on, and grew great, and the Lord God of hosts was with
him.

"And Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and cedar trees, and
carpenters, and masons : and they built David an house.

"And David perceived that the Lord had established him king over Israel,
and that he had exalted his kingdom for his people Israel's sake."

The highest portion of Jerusalem is Mount Moriah, the site of
the old temple, now called Haram esh-Sherif, i. e., the Eminent
Sanctuary, because the Mohammedans regard it as equally sacred
with the Kaaba at Mecca. There the Mosque of Omar stands on
the holy enclosure which is a large platform situated in the south-
eastern part of the city.

^lodern Jerusalem is divided into four quarters. The Chris-
tian district occupies the entire western half which is roughly marked
by a line drawn from the Damascus gate in the northern wall down
to the Zion gate, also called Bab en-nahi Daud, that is, "the gate of
the prophet David."

*Eccles. i. 3: Josephus, Antiq., XIT, 2. 2; Tacitus, Hist., V, 12; Ant. Aug.,
I tin., 590 f.

6l2

THE OPEN COURT.

This part of the city is divided by the Street of David, running
from the gate of Jaffa in a western direction, into two quarters,
that of the Armenians in the south and of the Greek Christians in
the north.

The Mohammedan quarter covers the northwestern part of the
city, while the Jews hve between the temple district, Haram esh-

TIIE GATE OF NABI DAUD.
From Ebers, Paldstina.

Sherif, and the Armenian quarter. The southern end of the Chris-
tian quarter was identified with Mt. Zion in Medieval times, but it
is probable that Mt. Zion should be located on the hill Ophel, the
knoll south of Moriah, outside of the present city wall. Wherever
Mt. Zion may have been, we know from Biblical sources that it was

THE CITY OF DAVID.

613

THE CITADEL.
From Ebers, Paldstina.

6l4 THE OPEN COURT.

the most ancient part of the city, for it is the place where the
Jebusites lived and where David established his garrison. *

The traveler who enters the city through the Jaflfa gate passes
the Citadel at the right, now garrisoned by Turkish troops. Here
he is confronted by two towers which belong to the oldest buildings
of Jerusalem, for their foundations date back to the times of the
Hasmonaeans, and archeologists assume with good reasons that the
Citadel formed part of the palace of King Herod the Great, the
defences of which were strengthened by Herod Agrippa I.

Down to the days of the Maccabees, or, as they are called by
the Jews, the Hasmoneans, Jerusalem remained confined to the
eastern hills Ophel and Moriah. But the Hasmoneans built their
palace on the place where now the citadel stands and so added
this territory to the city of Jerusalem. It contained the royal resi-
dence under the Herodians, and it was fortified by Herod the Great
with three strong towers called Hippicus, Phasael and Mariamne.*
The western tower, the present citadel, has been identified with
Hippicus, while the other toward the east must have been the tower
Phasael. When the Romans destroyed Jerusalem they left these
towers standing because they offered a good protection for their
own garrison quartered there to hold the palace.

While the ancient city of David must have been located on
Mt, Ophel south of the present district, tradition has always insisted
upon identifying the citadel of Jerusalem with the city of David,
and so in popular parlance it still bears the name of Mt. Zion. The
whole citadel has frequently been regarded as the ancient fortress
of David, and for unknown reasons the tower Phasael has been
singled out as a work of David and up to this time bears his name.
The native guide even knows the room in it where David used to
compose his psalms.

The lower part of the tower of David consists of a foundation
rising at an angle of 45° which is so well constructed that it would
be impossible to climb it. Upon this solid base stands the square
tower of a grim and warlike appearance, surrounded by a walk
protected by a parapet.. When Titus destroyed Jerusalem he left the
four towers built by Agrippa because they were serviceable as a
fortress for the Roman garrison.

Another place sacred to the memory of David is now called the
Tomb of David although it neither dates back to the time of David
nor does it contain his tomb. It is situated directly south of the

* See Josephus, Antiq., XVI, 5, 2, and Bel. Jud., V, 4, 3.

THE CITY OF DAVID.

615

Armenian quarter outside of the old city wall a short distance from
the Gate of David.

Havino- left the Gate of David behind, we pass by an ancient

house which is said to have been the residence of the High Priest
Caiphas. The tomb of David, so called, is a complicated system of
buildings surmounted approximately in the center by a turret of the
shape of Mohammedan minarets.

6i6

THE OPEN COURT.

In the eastern part of one room of this so-called Tomb of David
there is a kind of cenotaph or empty grave, which indicates that it
served as the crypt of a Medieval Christian church. But there is no

THE TOWER OF DAVID.
From a photograph.

evidence that an ancient Jewish tomb ever stood here. Tradition
only knows that David was buried on Mt. Zion, and so it selected this
spot on account of its romantic appearance.

THE CITY OF DAVID.

617

The tomb of David existed in Jerusalem during the first cen-
tury of the Christian era, for it is mentioned in Acts (ii. 29) in the
speech of Peter; but the locahty is not determined except perhaps
that the expression "his sepulchre is with us unto this day," indi-
cates that it must have lain within the city limits.

The same building- is also interesting because it plays an im-
portant part in the traditional localizations of the life of Jesus. One
of its rooms is called the coenaculum, and is believed to have been
the "upper chamber" where Jesus partook of the Last Supper in the

DAVID S TOMB.
From Ebers, Palastina.

circle of his disciples. It has further been regarded as the place
where the disciples were gathered together on the day of Pentecost
and where the remarkable event took place of the pouring out of the
Holy Ghost. The main part of the building must be very old, cer-
tainly older than the fourth century A. D., for it is mentioned by
Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem, who played a conspicuous part in the
"Invention of the Cross" by Empress Helena. That the building
should be much older than perhaps the end of the first century is
quite improbable, for Jerusalem has been destroyed most thoroughly

6l8 THE OPEN COURT.

several times, and there is no reason to assume that this conspicuous
huilding should have been left standing.

During the Middle Ages the building belonged to the Fran-
ciscan friars, and Arculphus, a traveler who visited and described
Jerusalem about 700 A. D., tells us in addition that this was the spot
where the Virgin Mary lived and died, and that here St. Stephen
suffered martyrdom, which latter is in contradiction to other tra-
ditions.

Every place is duly localized, the tomb of David, the rooms of
the Virgin Mary, the place where Christ washed the feet of his dis-
ciples, etc. The Franciscan friars also kept here a piece of marble
that was said to be part of the column of the flagellation of Christ.
The building has repeatedly been destroyed and rebuilt in parts.
In 1 56 1 the Franciscan monks were expelled through the intrigues
of a wealthy Jew whom they forbade to pray at the Tomb of David.
He made representations at Constantinople that the tomb of a great
prophet of Islam (meaning David) was permitted to remain in the
hands of the infidels. But the friars retained the permission to use
a room for the ceremony of washing the feet of pilgrims every year
on Maundy Thursday.

Our ^frontispiece, the so-called Tomb of David, is taken from
the northwest where it is bounded b\' the Greek cemetery, while the
pen and ink sketch, reproduced from Professor Ebers's Palastina, is
a closer view from the northeast.

One more place in Jerusalem which is situated on the Haram
esh-Sherif, East of the Moscjue of Omar, has been consecrated to
the memory of David; it is his seat of judgment, a pretty pavilion
consisting of six columns surmounted by a dome. The several
styles of architecture to which different portions of this building
belong, indicate that it can not be older than the Byzantine period,
but like the Street of David, the Tower of David, and the Tomb of
David, it proves the persistence of tradition which to this day has
not forgotten that Jerusalem was once the City of David.

ISRAEL AND BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION. '

BY EDOUARD MONTET, D.D.

BEFORE dealing with the grave question suggested by the words
Babylon and the Bible, it is necessary to refer to certain facts
which have special reference to the discussion. Up to the present
time, Biblical science has established that 2000 years before Christ
the Israelites came out of Arabia, the land of the origin, the classic
soil of the Semitic race. They established themselves in the south
of Babylon at Ur-Kasdin. The southern part of the country at that
time formed a division of the already flourishing empire called the
First Babylonian Empire (about 4300 B. C). There a civilization
had sprung up and developed which without exaggeration may safely
be described as marvelous. Its palmiest period dated from the time
of Sargon I of Akkad (about 3800 B. C.) and extended through
the reigns of his successors. This monarch, renowned in the
antique annals of the Orient, had founded a library, that of Uruk
"the city of books," a library composed of old and venerable writings
engraved in cuneiform characters on slabs and clay cylinders. These
works treated of astrology, magic, legislation, the grammar of the
two languages (Semitic and non-Semitic) which were spoken in the
Empire, and other matters. Thirty centuries later Assurbanipal,
the celebrated Assyrian of the 7th century B. C, had copies of these
works made, a part of which we now possess.

At the period of the decline of the First Empire, we meet with
the patesi or priest-kings, the lieutenants of neighboring sovereigns,
and contemporaneous (about 3000 B. C.) with the 4th Egyptian

* Professor Montet, Vice-Rector of the University of Geneva, Switzerland,
and head of the Semitic department of its Faculty of Protestant Theology,
was one of the most prominent figures at the International Congress of Liberal
Thinkers at Boston last year. He has studied and written much on Oriental
subjects and we are glad to present this article to our readers since it sums
up in a short essay the commonly accepted results of higher criticism on the
debt the Old Testament owes to Babylon. For further data we refer our
readers to Delitzsch's Babel and Bible (Chicago: The Open Court Pub. Co.).

620 THE OPEN COURT.

dynasty, during which the pyramids were built. Noticeable amongst
these was one Gudea whose headless statue in the Louvre at Paris
holds in its hand a stone slab, on which is engraved the plan of a
palace, such as we call to-day a scale-plan.

Babylonian civilization, then, as is evident from these details,
was in a very advanced state considering the epoch, and the Isra-
elites, quitting the deserts and oases of Arabia, must have been
struck at the sight of so splendid a spectacle with bewilderment and
admiration difficult for us to imagine. That this civilization exerted
an increasing influence on Israel there can be no manner of doubt.

And indeed when we remember that all the ancient civilizations
of the Orient were religious, it is not surprising that the religion
of the Babylonians of the First Empire, with its traditions, its litera-
ture, and its rites, should have profoundly affected the Israelites
and have left indelible traces in their sacred books.

The question, then, raised by the subject under discussion (viz.,
Israel and Babylonian Civilization) may be stated in these terms:

Is the Old Testament an original work, or is it only an echo,
a copy, or an imitation of the religious traditions of the Babylonians?
Will the value of the moral and religious truths contained in the
Hebrew Scriptures be compromised or diminished by the discovery
of the traces of Babylonian influence? Should we, men of the Bible,
I^elievers in the Book, be threatened by such a discovery with what
has sometimes been called "the loss of our treasure?"

If there ever was an engrossing religious question, surely this is
one. Let us examine it with all the impartiality and calmness of
judgment of which we are capable.

It is of course impossible in one paper to deal adequately with
so complex a question as the influence of Babylon on the Bible and
on Israel. I shall therefore content myself with taking a few typ-
ical examples, and after having thrown them into full light, draw
from them legitimate, well-founded conclusions which may con-
tribute to the solution of the problem stated.

ORIGIN OF THE WORLD AND OF MAN.

At the outset, let us consider the traditions concerning the origin
of the world and man contained in the first eleven chapters of
Genesis.

It is well known that these eleven chapters are essentially com-
posed of two narratives of different ages, one dating from the 8th
century B. C. (the Jahvist), the other from the 5th century B. C.

ISRAEL AND BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION. 62I

(the Priestly Code). The Assyrian-Babylonian documents which
correspond to these accounts come from Assurbanipal's library and
consequently date from the 7th century. These cuneiform texts
of the time of the great Assyrian Monarch, however, are copies of
documents of great antiquity, dating, according to Assyriologists,
from more than 2000 before Christ.

The Creation. — We have two accounts of the creation in the
Bible. In the first (Gen. i-ii, 4a), which is of the 5th century B. C,
God is called Elohini ; the creation takes place in seven days ; God
creates first, the light; then he separates the waters above (the
heavens) from the waters below (the seas) and when the earth
appears, the vegetable kingdom, the stars, the animals, fishes, birds,
and beasts of the earth (divided into great and small beasts and beasts
of the field) are successively created. After this comes the creation
of man, male and female, and God having found his work good rests
on the seventh day.

In the second account (Gen. ii. 4b-24) which dates from the
8th century B. C, God is called Yahveh. He begins by the creation
of man, then he places him in the garden of Eden, in which all kinds
of vegetation are made to grow and in the midst of which are the
Tree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. After
this God creates the animals and the birds, and at last woman.

Now leaving aside the essential differences which characterize
these two Biblical narratives, let us compare them with the two
principal accounts of the cuneiform texts preserved on the Baby-
lonian bricks which date from about 650 B. C. and which are exact
copies of documents of such great antiquity as 2000 B. C.

Their close resemblance to the Biblical narratives cannot fail
to strike any one who keeps in mind the first chapters of Genesis.

In the first Babylonian account called Ennuma Elish (these are
the opening words of the Assyrian text) it is stated that at the be-
ginning, when as yet neither the heavens above nor the earth below
had been named, there was the aqueous chaos, the Abyss or primi-
tive Ocean, from which all things proceeded. The word employed
in the cuneiform text is Ticimat, which is the same as the Tehom
of the Bible. The Hebrew word Tehom is the abyss over which
darkness hung and on which the spirit of God brooded, "moving
on the face of the waters," that is to say on the primitive Ocean.
This original state of aqueous chaos is again described by the
author of the Babylonian account as "the union or fusion of the
waters." The reference, of course, is to the waters above and below-
referred to in Genesis.

622 THE OPEN COURT.

In the Babylonian account the first act of the Creator is the
creation of the gods. But after this fragment, there are blanks and
obscurity in the text which follows. Further on we read that the
god Marduk made "the higher thrones of the great gods," the
planets, the stars, and then fixed the year, established the twelve
months, etc. Then should follow the account of the creation of the
plants and the animals — but here the text is obscure and mutilated.
At last the creation of man is described. It is said that Marduk
resolved to create man, saying, "I will take blood, and from bones
I will make man."

In the second Babylonian account called Eridu, it is stated that
at the beginning there was neither temple of God, nor building of any
kind, "a reed had not yet sprung up, a tree had not yet been created,"
The "whole of the lands," to employ the words of the text, consisted
only of an aqueous chaos (Tamtu — the Tiamat of the first text).

Then Eridu and Esagila were created (the temple of Eridu,
at once an earthly and heavenly paradise). Then Marduk made
the earth and created man. The goddess Aruru, wife of Bel or
Ea united with him in creating the human race, also the beasts of the
fields and the animals living in the fields, after which the Tigris and
Euphrates, etc., were made.

Now, in spite of the apparent differences between the Biblical
and Babylonian accounts, the close resemblance between the tradi-
tions that have come down to us is evident, and the priority of the
Babylonian traditions appears to be established by the great antiquity
of the sources from which they are drawn.

In these traditions, common alike to Israelites and Babylonians,
there are two points which must be insisted on, namely the Sabbath
and Eden.

The Sabbath, or Day of Rest of the Israelites, was the same and
bore the same name amongst the Babylonians. Indeed it is in an-
cient Babylon that we find the earliest traces of this institution, —
at least such is my opinion after careful research as to the origin of
the Sabbath.

As to Eden, the cradle of the human race according to the
Bible narrative, it must be located in Babylon as Delitzsch was the
first to point out and establish. And there is nothing astonishing
in the fact that the Hebrews should have imagined that the earthly
Paradise was in Babylon, when we remember that on leaving Arabia
they had left behind very primitive conditions in which they had
lived for long centuries and entered into the midst of a great and

ISRAEL AND BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION. 623

dazzling" civilization which nmst have appeared to them the miracle
of miracles.

The Fall. — In the Biblical text (Gen. iii. 1-25) which dates
from the 8th century B. C, the essential statements arc as follows :
At the beginning" the first human couple were innocent. Seduced,
however, by the Serpent, the woman and then the man ate of the
forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and thus
sin entered the world. God, fearing that man should profit by ex-
perience and lay hands on the tree of life, and eating thereof should
become immortal, banished him and his companion from the garden
of Eden.

In the Babylonian documents no such account as this has as
yet been discovered. We have, however, precious points of com-
parison which I will briefly enumerate: In the Biblical narrative
two trees are mentioned, the tree of knowledge of good and evil, and
the tree of life. But it is possible that in a more ancient gloss of the
same text it was a question of only one tree. The forbidden tree,
of the fruit of which Adam and Eve ate, is in reality simply called
"the tree in the midst of the garden" (Gen. iii. 3), which seems to
imply the uniqueness of the forbidden tree ; the tree of life is only
mentioned at the end of the narrative, in a kind of appendix. On
the other hand, in the Jahvist account of the creation, the tree of life
is indicated as also being in the midst of the garden (Gen. ii. 9) and
reference, iiiimediately following in the same text, to the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil seems to confirm the identity of the
two trees.

The philosophy of this passage expresses the great truth that
there is no real life except where there is a knowledge both of good
and evil.

Whatever may be our interpretation of this special point, one
thing is certain, namely that the Babylonian and Assyrian documents
mention only the tree or plant of life, jealously guarded by winged
genii and surmounted in the painted or sculptural representations we
possess by a winged symbol of Deity. This plant, an object of wor-
ship, is itself the symbol of eternal life.

Another point of comparison is to be found in the well-known
Babylonian cylinder in the British Museum, on which two human
beings are represented, a man with horns symbolic of strength, and a
woman, both reaching out their hands towards a tree which may be
a date palm. Behind the woman is a serpent, the tempter referred to
in the book of Genesis. I am aware that the interpretation I have
here given of these figures is called in question ; that it has been

624 THE OPEN COURT.

affirmed that they represent gods, and that as we are in possession
of no explanatory text, it is simple madness to attempt any inter-
pretation whatever. But this is not my opinion. From the day 1
first set eyes on the cylinder, the evidence of the representation on
the Babylonian clay of the Biblical narrative of the Fall forced it-
self upon my mind. Indeed there is no reason for surprise at so
striking a resemblance. The consciousness of sin which finds so
profound an utterance from beginning to end in the Old Testament,
is expressed with equal poignancy in the Babylonian documents,
and the most remarkable proof is the celebrated psalm of repentance
in the cuneiform texts. The following are some passages selected
from Sayce's translations.*

"O my god who art violent [against me], receive [my supplication].
- O my goddess, thou who art fierce [towards me], accept [my prayer].
Accept my prayer, (may thy liver be quieted).

O my lord, long-suffering [and] merciful, (may thy heart be appeased).
By day, directing unto death that which destroys me, O my god, inter-
pret [the vision].
O my goddess, look upon me and accept my prayer.
May my sin be forgiven, may my transgression be cleansed.
Let the yoke be unbound, the chain be loosed.

Let me pass from my evil, and let me be kept with thee,

Enlighten me and let me dream a favorable dream." — (Sayce, p. 355.)

[Accept] the prostration of the face of the leaving creature. .. .
[I] thy servant ask [thee] for rest.

To the heart of him who has sinned thou utterest words of blessing.
Thou lookest on the man, and the man lives,
O potentate of the world, mistress of mankind !

Compassionate one, whose forgiveness is ready, who accepts prayer.
(Priest). O god and mother goddess that are angry with him, he calls

upon thee!
Turn [thy face] towards him and take his hand !"

The most striking of these penitential psalms is certainly the
following, in which the consciousness of sin is uttered in a manner
as religious as it is impressive. One feels the anguish which wrings
the moral nature of the man who wrote these words :

"O lord, my sins are many, my transgressions are great.
O my god, my sins are many, my transgressions are great.
O my goddess, my sins are many, my transgressions are great.
O god whom I know and whom I know not, my sins are many, my trans-
gressions are great.

* Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the Religion of the Ancient Baby-
lonians. London, 1887.

ISRAEL AND BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION. 625

0 goddess whom I know and whom I know not, my sins are many, my

transgressions are great.
The sin that I sinned I knew not.
The transgression I committed I knew not.
The cursed thing that I ate I knew not.
The cursed thing that I trampled on I knew not.
The lord in the wrath of his heart has regarded me ;
God in the fierceness of his heart has revealed himself to me.
The goddess has been violent against me and has put me to grief.
The god whom I know and whom I know not has distressed me.
The goddess whom I know and whom I know not has inflicted trouble.

1 sought for help and none took my hand ;
I wept and none stood at my side ;

I cried aloud and there was noiie that heard me.

I am in trouble and hiding; I dare not look up.

To my god, the merciful one, I turn myself, I utter my prayer;

The feet of my goddess I kiss and water with tears.

To the god whom I know and whom I know not I utter my prayer.

O lord, look upon [me; receive my prayer!]

O goddess look upon [me; accept my prayer!]

O god whom I know [and whom I know not, accept my prayer!]

O goddess whom I know [and whom I know not, accept my prayer!]

How long, O god [shall I suffer?]

How long, O goddess, [shall thy face be turned from me?]

How long, O god whom I know and whom I know not, shall the fierce-
ness [of thy heart continue?]

How long, O goddess whom I know and know not, shall thy heart in
its hostility be [not] appeased?

O lord, destroy not thy servant !

When cast into the water of the ocean take his hand.

The sins I have sinned turn to a blessing.

The transgressions I have committed may the wind carry away.

Strip off my manifold wickedness as a garment.

O my god, seven times seven are my transgressions ; forgive my sins !

O my goddess, seven times seven are my transgressions ; forgive my
sins !

Forgive my sins ; may thy ban be removed.

May thy heart be appeased as the heart of a mother who has borne
children.

As a mother who has borne children, as a father who has begotten them,
may it be appeased!" — (Sayce, p. 350.)

The Deluge. — Tlie Biblical account of the deluge is formed by
the combination of two documents, one of the 8th century and the
other of the 5th. The principal contents of it are as follows : The
human race being corrupt, God decides to destroy it by a deluge.
Noah and his family alone escape the divine judgment. In the ark,
in which they take refuge, a couple from every kind of animal on the
face of the earth is housed.

626 THE OPEN COURT.

The rain which is the cause of the deluge falls forty days.
When the flood begins to subside the ark is stranded on Mount
Ararat. In order to make sure that the waters have subsided and
that dry land has appeared, Noah sends out four birds (ravens and
doves). When at length Noah and those with him quit the ark,
"they offer the Lord a sacrifice of thanksgiving." "Jehovah smells
a sweet odor" (Gen. v. 21) and declares that He will never again
utterly destroy mankind.

In the account of the deluge in Assurbanipal's library Xisuthros
the Babylonian Noah, as Berosus calls him (the transcription of
the Christian name from the cuneiform text varies so much, that I
prefer to adopt the one employed by the historian Berosus) con-
structs a ship, in order to escape from the deluge which the gods,
especially Bel, have decreed as a punishment for the wicked inhabi-
tants of Shurippak. The family and slaves of Xisuthros are brought
on board this vessel, also all his goods, as well as domestic and wild
animals, and enormous provisions of food for man and beast. This
ship of Xisuthros of which the cuneiform text gives us the exact
measure, rivalled in size and proportions the largest modern steam-
ships.

The gods open the flood-gates and let loose the deluge. Every-
thing is destroyed and the water rises to the very skies. In the
presence of this catastrophe the gods themselves are seized with fear
and take refuge in the upper heaven, the heaven of Anu. "The gods
lay motionless, huddled together like dogs," they weep. The storm
lasts six days : on the seventh day there is a calm, and when Xisuth-
ros opens the window of the vessel he perceives everywhere dead
bodies floating on the surface of the water.

The vessel is stranded on Mount Nizir. In order to discover
the condition of the inundated earth Xisuthros sends out first a
dove, then a swallow, and at last a raven which does not return.
Xisuthros then comes out of his ark. and offers a Ixirnt-offering
to the gods." "The gods smelt the sweet fragrance of the sacrifice
and gathered like flies above the master of the sacrifice." They prom-
ise never again to bring about a deluge, but to content themselves
with the employment of natural scourges ( lions, for example) for the
punishment of mankind. As to Xisuthros, he is carried up into the
presence of the gods.

The resemblances ])etween these two accounts — Biblical and
Babylonian— are most striking and would appear even more so,
when Gfiven /;/ r.vtciiso. As I have already indicated the Babvlonian

ISRAEL AND BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION. 627

account is far more ancient than the Bible account which is a sum-
mary and monotheistic adaptation of the former.

The Tozuer of Babel. — As to the BibHcal narrative of the tower
of Babel or Babylon, Avhich dates from the 8th century and which
corresponds to the similar account given by Berosus, the Babylonian
historian of the 4th century, we have nothing like it in the cuneiform
texts. At the same time the Babylonian origin of the Biblical myth
seems to be beyond doubt.

The colossal ruins of the "Temple of the Seven Lights of the
Earth," the Tower of Borsippa which Nebuchadnezar had restored
in the 6th century (as an inscription of that monarch bears witness),
certainly gave rise to the formation of the Biblical legend. While
looking upon this crumbled edifice, the debris of which to-day forms
a veritable hill of worn brick and dust, the foreigner passing through
the valley of the Euphrates cannot fail to ask himself many a ques-
tion as to the purpose for which so prodigious a monument was
erected and the cause of its fall. The Bible legend is undoubtedly
intended to serve as the answer to these qviestions.

And who knows if, some day, an inscription on a brick as yet
undiscovered, containing the Babylonian version of the Tower of
Babel may not be deciphered, throwing a flood of light upon the
Bible text. The valley of the Euphrates has in reserve as many sur-
prises as the extraordinary revelations it has already given us.

NAMES OF GOD IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.

Another interesting point of comparison between the Bible and
the religious documents of Babylon is that which touches the names
of God in the Old Testament.

We are all aware that in the Hebrew Scriptures God is some-
times designated by names which are related to El, Eloah, Elohim
(the plural form is foimd by far the most frequently), and at others
by Yahveh, a name also often employed.

EL — Now the divine name El, as well as its derivatives, is a
term of the religious vocabulary of the Semites. We find the same
word with difference of pronunciation or vocalization used by the
Aramseans, the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Phcenicians, the
Arabs, etc., and everywhere it is the generic name for Divinity,
bearing in germ the monotheistic idea, being even the very ex-
pression of monotheism amongst the Hebrews (El, Elohim) and
much later among the Moslem Arabs (Allah).

Yahveh. — This name in the Old Testament is the appellation

628 THE OPEN COURT.

of the primitive God of Sinai, or the holy mountain, which He in-
habited and where He revealed Himself to Moses in the 14th century.
Later on, in the time of King Ahab in the 9th century, it was there
that the prophet Elijah went in search of God for inspiration.

Yahveh, become the God of Israel, crossed with his people the
frontiers of their territory, followed them in their perigrinations
and went before them in military expeditions to foreign countries.
It is then no matter for surprise that we should find the name of
Yahveh on Babylonian bricks. What is remarkable is that it is
associated, as in the Old Testament, with the name El. On these
cylinders which Delitzsch supposes to date from 2000 B. C., we read :

la-a-ve-Ilu 1

la-ve-Ilu }- Yahveh is GOD.

la-ii-um-Ilu J

This is the Yahveh-Elohim of a very great number of passages
in the Old Testament.

THE CODE OF HAMMURABI.

The latest example of the coincidences between Babylon and
the Bible, is the famous code of King Hammurabi', dating from
about 2000 B. C., which was discovered in December 1901, and
January 1902, by Mr. De Morgan amongst the ruins of Susa and
which is now in the Louvre at Paris.

Between this code and the different codes mentioned in the
Old Testament, such as the Covenant (9th century), Deuteronomy
(7th century) and the priestly Code (5th century), there are, be-
sides noticeable differences, resemblances so striking and characteristic
that it must at least be admitted that the legislators of the two coun-
tries, Babylon and Israel, were inspired beforehand by the same
common law. Here and there, however, the resemblances are so close
that it is very difficult to escape from the conclusion that the Hebrew
legislator had under his eyes the Code of the King of Babylon. Here
are some cases in point :

The Old Testament lays down in principle the law of retaliation,
"an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth," etc. The Babylonian
Code establishes the same principle (art. 196-200) : "If a man has
put out the eye of a freeman, his eye shall be put out ;• if he has
broken a member, one of his own members shall be broken ; if he
has knocked out a tooth, one of his own teeth, shall be knocked out."

We all know with what severity the Old Testament punishes

ISRAEL AND BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION. 629

want of respect for parents. Whosoever shall strike father or
mother or curse them shall be put to death (Ex. xxi. 15, 17). The
Code of Hammurabi, though not so cruel, is none the less severe.
If a son says to his father, You are not my father, a mark shall be
made on his body, and he shall be sold as a slave. If a son says
to his mother, You are not my mother, a mark shall be made on his
body, he shall be made to walk round the city, and shall be driven
and under pain of death (art. i6).

In both legislations, the theft of man by man is punished with
death (Ex. xxi. i6 ; Ham., art 14). As to slavery, there are anal-
ogies, but also essential differences between the two codes.

The Israelite is not obliged to give up to his owner a runaway
slave who has taken refuge in his house (Deut. xxiii. 16). Accord-
ing to Hammurabi's Code the restitution in such cases is obligatory
even under pain of death (art. 16).

Slavery for debt lasted six years with the Israelites, at the ex-
piration of which time the Hebrew slave who had been sold or
bought was free (Ex. xxi. 2-3). According to the Babylonian
Code, slavery for the same reason, lasted only three years.

On many other questions, such as theft in general, theft of.
sacred objects in particular, false witness, corruption of judges, vio-
lation of property rights, dangerous animals, sexual crimes, etc., the
codes of the Old Testament and of Hammurabi offer numerous
resemblances and analogies, as well as divergences with which we
need not deal here, but which are of the same character as those I
have already indicated.

I should like, however, to call attention to a final analogy, and
that of the highest interest between Biblical and Babylonian codes,
I mean that which touches their origin.

According to the Biblical tradition, all the laws of Israel have
one divine origin. It was on Sinai that Yahveh revealed the Deca-
logue to Moses, and this contained in germ all the laws of Israel for
all ages. On the stele on which the Babylonian Code is engraved
one sees the Sun-god giving to Hammurabi the laws which he codifies
for his people. In both cases then we have the same conception of
the divine origin of the law\

But it is time to draw^ the conclusions suggested bv all these
facts and considerations.

CONCLUSIONS.

The Scientific Conclusions. — I consider that in the present con-
dition of Biblical science and of Assyriology, the Babylonian origin

630 THE OPEN COURT.

of the traditions as to the beginning of the world and of humanity
contained in the eleven first chapters of Genesis, is an established
fact. It is more than probable also that the legislators of the Old
Testament were conversant with the Code of Hammurabi. Finally,
it would seem that the relations between Babylon and Palestine
were close and ancient enough to permit of the possession by the
two countries, not only of common religious sentiments, not only
of the same religious and juridical vocabulary, but even the same
names to designate the Divinity such as Yahveh-Elohim (lave-Ilu).

Dogmatic Conclusions. — The scientific conclusions thus drawn
have a dogmatic importance of the greatest value. If it can be es-
tablished— and I think I have produced evidence enough for this —
that certain passages of the Old Testament are the echo of Baby-
lonian writings, then it is evident that the traditional notion of the
inspiration of the Bible can no longer hold water. For centuries it
has been believed and maintained in the Synagogue and in the
Christian Church that the Old Testament was dictated to the sacred
writers by God Himself and that they were but passive instruments
or agents in the hands of the spirit of the Most High. This con-
ception is now proved to be quite erroneous and with it disappears
also the dogma of the infallibility of the Bible. No ! the Old Testa-
ment is not a supernatural book ; it is a human document, full of
precious truths, but from which error is not excluded. At the same
time it is an admirable book, recording centuries of experience of the
most highly religious nation on the earth and constituting, with our
Gospels, the most valuable religious treasure in the world.

Religious Conclusions. — Have we any cause for sorrow at the
conclusions here drawn? Is there any reason for despair because
we no longer have in hand a so-called infallible code of religious
truth?

Shall we be tempted to imagine on account of these conclu-
sions that the knell of the Bible and the religion founded upon it
has been rung? No! a thousand times. No! On the contrary we
are full of thankfulness to God that He did not desire to limit His
revelation to one people, Israel, but to manifest to different nations
and in divers manners the fundamental verities of religion and
morality.

So far as I am concerned I feel an infinite joy, a sentiment of
thankfulness that knows no bounds, towards God when I discover on
the bricks covered with cuneiform characters religious affirmations
and expressions of sorrow for sin, as profound as anything contained
in the most beautiful pages of the Old Testament.

ISRAEL AND r.AliYLONIAN CIVILIZATION. 63I

One often hears of the bankruptcy of science and oftener still
of the bankruptcy of faith, but these noisy rumors and declarations
are but empty sound to the religious man who studies the facts of
science in a spirit of absolute impartiality, searching" only for the
truth in all realms despite those dogmas, creeds and ecclesiastical
traditions which would impose on the mind a fixed conception of
truth once for all. God has revealed Himself in all times and in all
ages, and He will continue to reveal Himself always and without
ceasing to those who seek after Him, whenever and wherever they
may call upon His name.

TRUTH.

I'.Y K. I[. RANDLE, A. M., LL. D.

'^T^HERE seems to be a great discussion about a very simple mat-
JL ter. "What is truth?" The more this is defined by meta-
physicians, the more obscure it Ijecomes. We quote from the reply
of Professor James, the pragmatist, to one of his critics, Marcel
Hebert, as cited in The Monist of January. "The relation to its
object that makes an idea true in any given instance, is, we say,
embodied in the intermediate details of reality which lead towards
the object, which vary in every instance, and which in every instance
can be concretely traced." The words here are simple and plain,
but the sentence is obscure. I fail to grasp his meaning. He goes
on : "The chain of workings which an opinion sets up is the opinion's
truth or falsehood, or irrelevancy as the case may be." Here an
opinion is represented as possessing truth or falsehood, and that
truth is the chain of workings the opinion sets up. I do not think
any one can be enlightened by this definition.

Dr. Paul Cams, commenting upon these quotations,^ gives a
much better definition of truth. "A truth is always a formulation
of the essential features of a set of facts. Truths are not concrete
realities, but ideas that appropriately describe certain characteristics
of realities, so as to make our anticipations tally with experience
in the past and present and even in the future. While facts are
always particular, truths are always general ; facts are verified by
the senses, truths by the mind ; facts change, truths remain true
forever."

Facts are always particular but I do not see how a fact can
possibly change. "It is a fact that John shot a bird": Can that fact
ever be changed? A fact is something done. Neither can I see
that truths are always general ; but if Dr. Carus means lazvs he is
correct. Many truths are laws. "All bodies set free above the
ground fall to the earth" : this is a truth and a law. I told the truth
' See "A Postscript on Pragmatism" in The Monist, Jan., 1909, p. 93.

TRUTH. 633

when I said, "John shot a bird." But the shooting of the bird was
a fact and not a truth.

In all statements there are two things to be considered ; one, the
statement itself ; the other, the thing spoken of. "The earth revolves
around the sun once every year." This statement covers only nine
words, while the object spoken of covers an orbit of about 190 mil-
lion of miles in diameter. Truth is the correctness of statement, and
pertains to the statement only ; or, more particularly, a truth is a
statement made in accordance with certain facts, conditions or laws.
The truth is in the statement. It may be made in writing, in spoken
language, or by signs or gestures or in any way an idea may be con-
veyed.

We must be careful in definitions, for every prominent word
has many secondary meanings. Green, for instance, means one of
the prismatic colors and applies in its original sense only to color,
yet we say green fruit (not ripe), or a green youth (one not up-to-
date). Green paint may refer to the color or it may refer to paint
not dry. There may be a dozen difterent colors in a newly painted
house; one will say as you enter, "Be careful, all the paint in the
house is green — not dry."

In dealing wdth truth we must define truth in its original sense,
its most important sense and not in any secondary sense. The
opposite of a truth is a lie, each one is exactly what the other is not.
A lie is a statement intended to deceive, and it is in the statement,
not in the facts or conditions referred to. There are two kinds of
each. One may purpose to state the truth and state a falsehood.
This might be called an honest lie ; or he may purpose to state a lie
and that for mischief, and tell the truth, this may be called a dis-
honest truth. Honest and dishonest as here used, however, will
hardly bear close criticism, but I have conveyed my meaning. The
purpose of a truth is to benefit; the purpose of a lie is to injure.
There is every grade of each as to importance.

Truth prefers to fight "naked," that is without armor. It needs
no cuss words of any kind to strengthen it. A lie is often clothed
with such armor. The adjective true is used in a wider sense than
truth, that is it has more secondary meanings.

The propositions in geometry are both truths and laws, but
the word proposition implies that the statement is to be proven.
The three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles. This
statement is true or it tells the truth ; it is also a law of mathematics.
Laws are universal, truths are particular or universal, in this case
the truth is coextensive with the law. In laying off a state into

634 THE OPEN COURT.

counties, it may be so small as to cover only one county, it and the
county having the same limits may become one. Something like
this may represent the difference, or rather oneness of the truth
and the law in the statement. Whenever truth is used in other senses
than in the correctness of a statement, it is a secondary sense of truth.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

Mr. E. H. Randle is right when he says that every prominent
word has many secondary meanings. This becomes obvious in our
use of the term "truth." I do not think that there is any disagree-
ment between his conception of truth and mine, but truth like other
words has many secondary meanings, and certain meanings are
used with definite phrases and connections. I trust that every
thoughtful reader will read the passage quoted and criticized by
Mr. Randle in the correct sense. Truths are always mental and
general, facts are always concrete and particular. Truths are iden-
tical with laws and if true are true forever. Facts are the fleeting
phenomena in the flux of events that pass by and change, which
means there are always new facts filling the present moment and
commanding our attention. I do not think that rightly understood
Mr. Randle will find fault with this statement, but I grant that the
word "truth" is used also with reference to single statements, and
in this connection I will call attention to the fact that if the state-
ment be true that "John shot a bird," we never would call it a
truth, but we would say of the man who says so that he told the
truth. To "tell the truth" means that the statement of a special
case is true, but to tell, or better to state, a truth has a different
meaning, which shows that the phrase " to tell the truth" is idiomatic,
and we cannot make use of it for the purpose of formulating an
exact definition of the term "truth."

Accordingly I object to Mr. Randle's expression when he says,
"The three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles ; this
statement is true and it tells the truth." Instead of saying, "it tells
the truth," he ought to say, "it states a truth."

The opposite of "telling the truth" is "telling a lie," always
having a moral significance, but the opposite of "truth" in the scien-
tific sense of the word is not "lie" but "error" or "that which is not
true."

Mr. Randle unconsciously proves his own contention that "every
prominent word has many secondary meanings" ; thus if an author
now and then uses a word in more than hne sense, we must be char-
itable and understand the use of it according to the context.

MISCELLANEOUS.

THE CHRISTIAN CANON.

To the Editor of The Open Court:

In the Epilogue to the series of articles on "Christianity as the Pleroma,"
pubHshed in the August Open Court, there is a sentence that should be made
the text of a sermon in every pulpit in the land, and it would be interesting to
see what the variously-minded preachers make of it.

"If Christianity possesses sufficient innate strength to assimilate the new
truths of science, it will survive and emerge from the present crisis stronger
than before; but if it rejects the new revelation it is doomed."

What is the sole, great obstacle to Christianity's thus placing itself? Ob-
viously, the Old Testament, which is a collection of religious scriptures written
by men who had no conception of modern conditions and no knowledge of
science. They belonged to an age of the world that is now past and obsolete,
and the dogmatic effort to uphold their statements as ever present truths has
for many centuries enormously biased and retarded human progress in science
and morals.

The trouble with what is termed 'Christianity is that it is a hybrid — one-
third European and Christian, and two-thirds Asiatic and Jewish. When
launched by the apostles it was not a mere reform of the religion of Moses,
but essentially a new Gentile creed with inspirations drawn from Jewish and
many other sources. The early Christian Church was not long in forming
a canon of its sacred literature; and it was after the New Testament canon
was fixed that the Old Testament Scriptures were canonized.

Then the Church made the great mistake that has cost the world so dear,
— binding the Jewish Scriptures in one volume with the Christian Scriptures,
and calling it "The Bible," and asserting for the Old Testament the same
infallibility and inerrancy and divine inspiration which it properly claimed for
the New Testament.

The reading of the two Scriptures together confuses and muddles the
Christian religion and instils in children's minds false views of the world's
history. The Yahveh of Moses is an entirely different deity from the Father-
god of Jesus Christ. And there are a number of stories and passages in the
Old Testament that are unfit reading for the young. We should all know more
about Jesus Christ and the Christian religion if it were cut loose from the
Jewish Bible altogether, and if Christian ministers would no longer use any
Bible but the New Testament, and would cease to read portions of the Old
Testament in their services, and make it a point to select texts from the
Christian Scriptures only.

636 THE OPEN COURT.

There are many religious scriptures besides those of the Jews and Chris-
tians. Is there any more reason for Christian Churches using and canonizing
Jewish scriptures than the Buddhist scriptures or the Zend Avesta? Mo-
hammed certainly owed as much to the Old Testament as did the Apostles;
but we do not find it bound up with the Koran as the bible of Islam. But
Bible societies still continue to translate and circulate the Old Testament,
despite the fact that the doubled and inconsistent two religions of the "Bible"
make the Christian propaganda infinitely harder and less efifective.

How illogical and inconsistent and also how disingenuous is the attempt
of Christians to belong to two religions at once, and hold to two incompatible
creeds ! Christianity as it ought to be has been overlaid and obsessed by the
Mosaic religion. All the criminal acts that in past times disgraced Christian-
ity-— persecutions, religious wars, witch burnings, and massacres are due to
the teaching of the Old Testament ; and it was its spirit, not that of Christ,
that imbued such men as Calvin, Knox, Jonathan Edwards and the Puritans.
Men that believed in a cruel and inexorable Lord of hosts, a God who was
the model of an Eastern sultan — arbitrary and absolute, were themselves cruel
and arbitrary. They taught that he who violated one small point of the law
was guilty of the whole code, and that the dictum of the divine Ruler, no
matter how unreasonable or immoral, could not be contradicted on pain of
mortal sin; and they taught and practised this on the authority of the Old
Testament.

Every once in a while we hear such expressions as "go back to Jesus,"
"return to the simplicity of the Gospel," "substitute the teaching of the Saviour
for that of the Church," and "restore pure and primitive Christianity," etc., etc.
But the reason why none of these schemes of reformation and betterment can
be made effective is because those who suggest them hang on desperately to
the Old Testament and persist in having a hybrid religion instead of a pure-
breed Christianity.

The Old Testament should be relegated where it belongs, among the
sacred books of the East, and churches, Missions and Sunday-schools should
use and teach from the Christian Scriptures only.

Wm. p. Whery.

CHINA AND ACCADIAN CIVILIZATION.

In his article on "The Accadian Affinities of Chinese," referred to in
the July Monist (p. 479), Prof. C. J. Ball proves the existence of a positive
historical connection between the Chinese civilization and that of Sumer and
Akkad. We see from tlie Hong Kong "Daily Press" of Saturday, May 29,
1909, that Col. C. R. Conder is of the same opinion. It would be thus inter-
esting to discover that the ancestors of the Chinese are the founders of all
the civilization on earth.

The Sumero-Akkadians are a branch of the Turanian race. Col. Conder
says.

"Turan was the country beyond Persia — Turkestan — and that was the
home from which this great race spread eastward. In China, then, there are
now two great branches, the northern branch which is Mongolian Turkish,
and the southern which is called Malayan, which perhaps in a softer climate
became smaller, with smaller features, and which was more like what we con-
sider typical of the Chinese of the present day. Both stocks have the short

MISCELLANEOUS. 637

head, lank black hair, a beard that does not grow till late in life, a peculiar
double fold of the eye-lid and a slanting eye : those peculiarities are to be found
in the physiognomy of the northern and southern branches alike. If you go
back to the beginning of civilization in the West, 3000 B. C, there you find
the same Turanian type. The Mongolian and the Turks are, however, nearest
to the ancient Akkadian and Hittite or non-Semitic population of West Asia.
But both the southern and the northern branches of the Turanians are certainly
akin to this one original race. You find portraits of the Hittites, and of the
Akkadians themselves, with slanting eyes, and pig-tails like those of the
Manchus, who forced the pig-tail on China in our seventeenth century."

As to the language Col. Conder says :

"I do not know whether I am heretical in my views, but I have often
heard Chinese spoken of as a mono-syllabic language, and I have not the
slightest idea what that really means. Mono-sjdlabic would, mean a language
of words that are mono-syllables. No doubt the Chinese roots are all mono-
syllables; so are the roots of a great many other languages — the roots of our
own language originally, and the roots of other European languages and of all
Turanian languages, are mono-syllabic. But although Chinese is in a very
early stage of grammar, still I read in the dictionaries that they have "clam-
shell" words to denote a particular meaning. If you want to say "to observe,"
you say "to peep-look" and use similar combinations that are not peculiar in
principle to China, but belong to many other languages if you trace them back
far enough. The Chinese also form words by putting the suffix — ki for the
adjective or for the agent, and they form verbs by putting tso — before the
root exactly as you find in Turkish and ancient Akkadian : and this even applies
to the sounds themselves. It has also been stated in a very learned paper I
once read that there is an evident connection between Chinese and Mongolian.
If it is admitted that this is the case, you have a regular chain from the Mon-
golian which is most intimately connected with the Turkish, while the Turkish
is the direct descendant of the ancient Akkadian. If the Mongolian and the
Chinese have a connection you thus have necessarily a chain of language con-
necting you with Babylonia. The Akkadian, however, is much nearer to the
Turkish, the pure Turkish of Central Asia, than it is to Chinese. I have had
cause to investigate that matter and I have found that nearly half the vocab-
ulary of the Akkadian is the same as modern Turkish, and the grammar is on
exactly the same principles in the two languages. Of course, they are more
advanced than is the Chinese. The Chinese is a more primitive language ;
but in many of its weak points such as the want of defining time for the verb,
absence of gender, and so on, it has the same weakness that the ancient Ak-
kadian had

"So much in regard to language and race. In regard to religion there is
no doubt that the general principles of native religion in China are exactly the
same that you find in ancient Babylonia and Syria amongst the Akkadians and
Hittites. For instance, the great sacrifices in China to Heaven and Earth, which
were the two principle Akkadian deities. Then there are the middle sacrifices to
the Sun and Moon and various other deities ; and you find these gods coinciding
with what were the old Akkadian secondary; and the inferior sacrifices are to
the Clouds and the Rain, and the Wind, and the Thunder, and the Mountains,
and the Rivers, and the Seas. Well, we have a treaty of the fourteenth cen-
tury B. C. made by the Hittites — their great treaty with Rameses the Second —
and in this they swore by the Clouds, Wind, Mountains, Rivers and Sea. So

638 THE OPEN COURT.

you could not have a closer comparison of two systems of "animism" than
that which is found in this ancient inscription and in the account of Chinese
sacrifices."

OUR NATION'S PREPARATION FOR EMERGENCIES.

In the July number of the Journal Military Service Institute there ap-
peared an article on "Preparations for Defense," written by Lieut. Col. W. A.
Glassford, of the Signal Corps at Fort Omaha. It was published also in the
July 4th issue of the Omaha World-Herald and is one step in the direction of
counteracting in the minds of the public that tendency of the peace movement
which would discourage further equipment for war. The article was referred
to the Washington War Department before publication and so bears the
stamp of the highest authority in verification of its statements of fact.

Col. Glassford dwells at some length upon the insufficiency of the force of
100,000 men now available in case of emergencies. He thinks that although
originally we had reason to feel secure, because of the time and difficulty
required to transport large armies, the same reason for security does not now
exist since the facilities have been so wonderfully improved. Although not
a pessimist, he calls attention to the fact that whereas former stages in our
territorial growth were not of a nature to cause any jealousy among Euro-
pean powers, now "for the first time in the progress of our acquisitions the
event connected with the most recent were watched by the governments of
Europe with intense interest. .. .Our advent as a colonial power in the East
had not yet been fully established when European discontent began to be
manifested in an unmistakable manner." Col. Glassford also notes the stra-
tegic difficulties of our immense coast line.

Col. Glassford is of the opinion that we need reserves of trained men
amounting to several times more than our regular forces, and believes that
"much can be accomplished in this direction by a short term of service with-
out re-enlistment and by making the army a school for the training of re-
serves." Although a soldier's pay sounds small it is no smaller than many
civil clerkships if the fact is taken into consideration that all the necessaries
of life are also included, food, shelter and clothing. Our author thinks it
would be perfectly practicable to offer such inducements in the way of edu-
cative facilities, that besides military service the young soldier would also
gain rather than lose in preparation for civil life. "In the infantry, for in-
stance, men could be instructed in the common school branches; in the artil-
lery, manual training; in the cavalry, horsemanship, equitation and notions of
veterinary art. In the corps of engineers, instruction could be given in en-
gineering; in the ordnance department, skill in mechanics can be imparted; in
the signal corps, operators and electricians can be made; in the medical de-
partment, pharmacy and medicine taught; while in the quartermaster and
subsistence departments, clerks and storekeepers can be trained. After a term
thus spent in the military service, a young man would commence his career
in civil life with acquisitions ranging, according to his aptitude, from those
required of a skilled workman to a start in a liberal profession."

Of course in the emergency of war these trained men could only be pro-
cured for the army by volunteer service, but the government could well afford
to offer them a special bounty as a recognition of their greater value. More-
over public sentiment would naturally point to them as those most suitable

MISCELLANEOUS. 639

to lead in offering their services for the country's need, and it is most likely
that as their number grew they would form into military organizations among
themselves. "The government could as well encourage associations of re-
serves for wars to come as it has of veterans for wars that have been."

BOOK REVIEWS AND NOTES.

Modern Light on Immortality. By Henry Frank. Boston: Sherman, French
& Co., 1909. Pp. 467. Price, $1.85 net.

In this carefully prepared volume Mr. Frank, Speaker for the Metropolitan
Independent Church of New York City, presents a thorough study of the im-
mortality problem which he has finally succeeded in solving to his own satis-
faction. Led by the insistence of his congregation not to neglect the subject,
but to deal with it as he had with other themes from a scientific and rational
point of view, Mr. Frank consented to take them with him along the path of
inquir3\ This book is a still more detailed exposition along the same lines.
Beginning almost with the inauguration of human thought at the dawn of
civilization he attempts to set forth the actual state of the human mind with
reference to its oft illusive dream. After making a careful study of all the
historical arguments in favor of the soul's existence and its future life, the
author could see nothing of value in fortifying one's affirmative conception.
Indeed the old arguments seemed to him weak and ineffective. So at the
end of Part I, "The History and the Problem of the Future Life," the con-
clusions are altogether negative and' destructive. The argument that there
must be a future life because the conception of immortality has prevailed in
the human mind from the beginning of history, did not appeal to him, and he
set about studying by the aid of physical sciences the source of this apparent
consciousness of survival after death, keeping close to the well-beaten track
of experimental science. Mr. Frank confesses his surprise at the result to
which his scientific investigation in Part II led him. He feels that his deduc-
tions are strictly logical and grounded in accurate and indisputable scientific
data although he expresses himself as "only too well aware that what is known
as the authoritative scientific world will in all probability reject the 'fine
fabric' of logic which with possibly too much conceit" he may have attempted
to weave. The positive conclusions which our author has reached at the end
of Part II, are succinctly stated as follows :

"It seems to me that one of two logical conclusions follows as the neces-
sary corollary of the theses thus enumerated; or possibly both are legitimate
deductions.

"First : That when mankind shall have discovered the secret laws that
appertain to the art of living, to Nature's own marvelous principles of life-
sustentation, we shall have overcome the mystery of death and shall continue
to live and fructify in the no longer mortal bodies we occupy; or

"Second : That there shall be developed in some organisms such a high
degree of self-consciousness that the physical seat, in which this spiritual
function resides and operates, shall be so controlled and integrated that it will
be endowed with sufficient strength to continue its organic activities after
this mortal coil shall have been shuffled off."

640 THE OPEN COURT.

The Ethics of Progress. By Charles F. Dole. New York: Crowell, 1909.
Pp. 398. Price, $1.50.
The main object of this book, as of most popular treatises on ethics, is
practical. The author's aim is to help men in the art of the good life. While
he denies adherence to the pragmatic principle that the true is the same as the
useful, he believes "that the true and the useful are at last one." He has
undertaken to treat the great issues of life, such as the significance of con-
science, the problem of evil, etc., without any theological or metaphysical
prepossessions but simply from the study of the facts of consciousness. His
chapters are short and provide attractive and helpful reflections for odd half-
hours. They are grouped into seven parts, discussing in turn, Ethics and Evo-
lution, The Doctrine of Good Will, Conscience and the Right, Moral Evil :
How to Treat it. The Problems of Human Nature, The Realm of Casuistry,
Problems in Practice.

Race Questions and Other American Problems. By Josiah Royce. New
York: Macmillan, 1908. Pp. 287. Price, $1.25 net.
This volume contains five addresses delivered in different places at dif-
ferent times but all bearing upon the application of a certain philosophical
doctrine and spirit to some problems of American life. This philosophy Pro-
fessor Royce has long tried to maintain and to teach in relation to theoretical
as well as practical problems. It is an idealistic philosophy, the practical aspect
and expression of which is loyalty. The addresses here contained bear the
following titles: Race Questions and Prejudices; Provincialism; On Certain
Limitations of the Thoughtful Public in America ; The Pacific Coast, a Psy-
chological Study of the Relations of Climate and Civilization ; Some Relations
of Physical Training to the Present Problems of Moral Education in America.

We are in receipt of a number of pamphlets and tracts from the Buddhist
Society of Great Britain, established in 1908, with headquarters at 14 Bury
Street, London, W. C. We note that the society is publishing from its own
press a series of "Buddhist Sermons, which opens with "An Outline of Bud-
dhism," by Ananda Metteyya, and a "Popular Series," the first number of
which is "The Message of Buddhism to the West," by John E. Ellam. They
have also republished Maung Nee's little Lotus Blossoms, which presents the
Buddhist propaganda most attractively to Western minds. The society is also
made headquarters for the dissemination of many English Buddhist publica-
tions which have appeared in the Buddhist centers of India, notably the pub-
lications of the Buddhasasana Samagama and other pamphlets from the
Hanthawaddy Press of Rangoon.

A new critical monthly review appeared in Paris for the first time in
April of this year, under the title Le Spectateur. Its appearance is very modest
but each number contains between 40 and 50 pages of general philosophical
discussion, including a department especially devoted to the critical considera-
tion of work done throughout the world in philosophical and scientific lines.
Its interests are catholic and include such widely diverse topics as folklore,
logic, judicature, besides more abstract speculations. It announces itself as
"devoted to the experimental study, l)otli abstract and ap])lied, of intelligence
in flailv life, scientific work and social activity."

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The Journal of Philosophy

Psychology and Scientific Methods

There is no similar journal in the field of scientific philosophy. It is identified with no
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the problems and experience of the present. The contents of recent numbers include:

Ener<ify and Reality John E. Boodin

Truth Value A. W. Moore

Positivism in Ital}' Guglielmo Salvadori

Subattentive Consciousness and Suj^.yestion

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Friedrich Paulsen Frank Thilly

Types of Unity J. H. Farley

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The American Anthropologist is the organ of the
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WORKS OF PROFESSOR LAWRENCE H. MILLS

THE YASNA OF T E AVESTA

in continuous treatment upon tlic plan initiated in the FH'E ZARATHUSHTRIAN
GATHAS, by L. H. Mills, Professor of Zend (Avesta) Philology in the University of
Oxford, A STUDY OF YASNA I., with the Avesta, Pahlavi, Sanskrit, and Persian
Texts. The Pahlavi is given in the original character and in transliteration, the Pahlavi
and Sanskrit being translated into English here, the Avesta in S.B.E., XXXI, 1887;
the Persian is itself an interlinear translation of the Pahlavi. The Avesta Text is re-
constructional with copious notes. The Pahlavi is re-edited from the Journal of the
German Oriental Society with all the MSS. collated, Bd. LVIL, Heft IV., 1903; the
English translation is re-edited from the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for Oc-
tober, 1904; Neryosangh's Sanskrit is re-edited from Spiegel with the additional colla-
tion of five MSS., and for the first time translated. The Persian is from the Munich
MSS. already partly edited in the Gathas. An Appendix contains the accented Sanskrit
Equivalents of the Avesta Text by the Author, issued upon the plan adopted by him
with Yasna XXVIII in Roth's Fcstgruss, 1894, and with Yasna XLIV in the Acts of
the Eleventh Congress of Orientalists held in Paris, 1897. Four photographic plates of
MSS., with other illustrative matter are added, pp. 163, to be had of F. A. Brockhaus,
in Leipsic, 12s. 6d., and of the Open Court Publishing Co., of Chicago; Yasna I. is espe-
cially valuable as it deals with the chief important questions of all the non-gathic Yasna.
Also a Dictionary of the Gathic Language of the Zend Avesta, being Vol. III. of the
Gathas, pp. 623-821, Leipsic, 1903, price 12s. 6d., with 120 additional pages soon ready,
pp. 622+320, 994-(-xlvii, 1909. £1. For sale by Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, $6.00.

A few copies of ZARATHUSHTRA, PHILO, THE ACH.EMENIDS AND IS-
RAEL, pp. 460-l-xxx, (Chicago: Open Court Pub. Co., 1906, price $4.00 net), are still
to be had of Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co. and of the leading booksellers in Ox-
ford at I2S. 6d. "He treats his subject thoroughly and exhaustively. .. .deep and patient
studies." J.J. Modi, Head Priest of the Parsi Colaba, Bombay, in the Parsi of Bombay, 1900.
— "A wealth of learning and thought." Nation, N. Y., Aug. 30, 1906.

AVESTA ESCHATOLOGY COMPARED WITH DANIEL AND REVELA-
TIONS, by L. H. Mills, (published by the Open Court Pub. Co., 1908, 50 cents net).
SAGGI DI LETTURE, TENUTE ALL' UNIVERSITA DI OXFORD, SULLA
RELIGIONE DELL' AVESTA, dal Prof. Lorenzo Mills. Being sections of lectures
delivered in the University of Oxford, translated into Italian by an accomplished Italian
man of letters upon his own initiative. Torino, 1909. To be had of G. Sacerdote, Turin,
Italj^ Pp. 75. Price, 2S.

The 31st volume of the Sacred Books of the East,thQ YASNA, VISPARAD, AFRINA-
GAN AND GAH, pp. 400+xlvii, 1887 (same Author) is still to be had at 12s. 6d. ; as is
the ANCIENT MANUSCRIPT OF THE YASNA, collotyped in an unsurpassed man-
ner in the actual size and color of the original, 770 photographs with Introductory Note
by L. H. Mills, Ten guineas. This is the main document of the above-mentioned works,
— for the presence of the original of it in the Bodleian, Mr. Mills is responsible, 1889.

"Professor Mills's name stands foremost in the ranks of those who have explored the
field of Avestic literature." The Rast Goftar, Bombay, April 18, 1909. — "Beyond question
our leading authority now living, on the Gathas." The Nation, N. Y., Aug. 30, 1906. —
(Mills (Earlier) of the Gathas) Das Ergebniss einer erstaunlichen Arbeit sehr mannig-
faltiger Art — unser Verstandniss der Gathas machtig gefordert. Gott. Gclelir. Anz.
^ld,y 13, 1893. "Insbesondere von Mills, der diese schwierigen Gedichte in griindlichster
Weise behandelt hat." Prcussisches Jahrbuch, 1897, Prof. Justi (Lexicographer). "Tous
ceux qui s'occupent de interpretation des Gathas rendront hommage a I'immense labeur
scientifique de M. Mills... son livre reste un instrument indispensable pour I'etude."
Prof. James Darmesteter, Revue Critique, Septegiber 18, 1893.

"Alles was fiir die Erklarung der Gathas nothwendig ist." (So also Dr. West in
J.R.A.S.) — "Immer wird es die Grundlage bilden, auf der sich jede weitere Forschung
aufbauen muss...einen hervorragenden Dienst." ZeitscJirift der deutschen M. G., 1896
(the late) R. Pischel (first Sanskritist of Germany). — A new edition has been inquired
for, and a renewed Government subvention is expected from an antiquated engagement.

A few copies are still to be had upon exceptional request, and for libraries, at £3, of
Brockhaus at Leipsic.

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The fourth number of The Buddhist Review, Oct., 1909, is now ready.
Its contents are as follows:

1. Buddhism in Indo, China hy Prof. Louis Finot.

2. The Samgha by Madame Alexandra David.

',]. What is Arya Dharma of the Buddha? by The Anagarika H. Dharmapala.

4. The Khuddaka Patha, or "Le'sser Readings" translated by R. C. Childers.

."). Cause ond Effect in Buddhist Ethic by Edward Greenly.

(i. Report of the Second Annual Meeting of the Buddhist Society of Great Biitain
and Ireland.

7. Discovery of the Buddha's Ashes by Francis J. Payne.

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Zarathushtra, Philo, the
Achaemenids, and Israel

Being a 1'reatise upon the Antiquity and Influence of the Avesta, for
the most part delivered as University Lectures,

By Dr. Lawrence H. Mills, Professor of Zend Philology in the
University of Oxford, Translator of the Thirty-first Volume of the
Sacred Books of the East, Author of the Five Zarathushtrian Gathas,
etc. Part i. — Zarathushtra and the Greeks. Part II. — Zar-
athushtra, THE Achaemenids AND IsRAEL. Composed at the re-
quest of the Trustees of the Sir J. Jejeebhoy Translation Fund of
Bombay. 8vo. Pp. xiii, 208; xiv, 252, two parts in one volume,
cloth, gilt top, I4.00 net.

Shortly before the death of Professor Janves Darmesteter, of Paris, the great
authority on the "Zend-Avesta," he surprised the general public by changing his
views concerning the antiquity of the Zoroastrian literature, maintaining that the
**Gathas" vsrere largely influenced by the wrritings of Philo, and were written about
the beginning of the Christian era. This change of view on his part led the Parsees
of India to engage Dr. Mills to write a book upon the great antiquity of the *' A vesta."
After several years of continuous devotion to the subject, the present volume is put
forth as the result, and it amply meets all expectations. The antiquity of the Zoro-
astrian literature is successfially maintained, and in such a manner that ordinary readers
can appreciate the argument.

**The Avesta in no sense depends upon the Jewish Greeks. On the con-
trary, it was Philo who was in debt to it. He drank in his Iranian lore from the
pages of his exilic Bible, or from the Bible-books which were then as yet detached,
and which not only recorded Iranian edicts by Persian Kings, but were themselves
half made up of Jewish- Persian history. Surely it is singular thnt so many of us who
* search the scriptures' should be unwilling to see the 6rst facts which stare at us from
its lines. The religion of those Persians, which saved our own from an absorption
(in the Babylonian), is portrayed in fiall and brilliant colors in the Books of the Avesta,
because the Avesta is only the expansion of the Religion of the sculptured edicts as
modified. The very by- words, as we shall later see, are strikingly the same, and these
inscriptions are those of the very men who wrote the Bible passages. This religion of
the Restorers was beyond all question historically the first consistent form in which our
own Eschatology appeared** (pt. i. pp. 206-207).

The conclusions come with great force in support of the genuineness and
authentidty of the biblical references to Cyrus in the Old Testament. Students of the
Uterature of the Captivity will find the volume invaluable. The facts now brought to
Bght are such as the literary critics cannot afford to neglect.

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