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Orchard and Garden

A Guide Book for Beginners

BENJAMIN WALLACE DOUGLASS

1918
FEDERAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
INDIANAPOLIS

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The writer desires to acknowledge the use of a number
of photographs of school gardens furnished by Miss Rousseau
McClellan, Director of Gardening in the Indianapolis Schools.
Mr. C. B. Durham, Landscape Architect of Indianapolis, also
furnished several pictures showing the use of shrubs around
the home.

CopyrigHtT 1918,
I EDERAL PUBLISHING COMPANY

Introduction

For a good many years, as State Entomologist of Indiana,
I preached the doctrine of better fruits and better gardens
and better farm crops. During the past six years I have been
taking my own medicine—practicing what I had formerly
preached. It has been a satisfaction to know that in most
cases at least I “had the right dope” and in the places where
theory did not accord with practice it has been a joy to work
out new methods that would fit the case.

It is not claimed that the subject matter of this book is
entirely new. Very few books are really new—they only state
in new terms thines that we have known before. However,
what new material is presented is such that has been thor-
oughly worked out in actual practice and tested during a
period of several seasons.

It is hoped that this book may prove a safe guide -to the
beginner and an inspiration to support him during the dark
hours of doubt that come to all beginners in any field.

Owing to the scope of the subject treated and the limits
of space, it has not been possible to digress very much from
the main topics to dwell on the charms of life in the country
and on the fascination of growing things. Farming, in any
form, whether on a thousand-acre ranch or in a city back
yard, is a creative industry and all creative industries are
inevitably interesting. The man who paints a picture, or
writes a poem, or grows a prize box of apples, or is the father
of a fine baby, is each interested in his respective creation—
vitally interested. ‘The man who is selling city lots or auto-
mobiles or shoes, or is practicing law, or teaching school, is
doing his useful work in the world, but at no time can he
be as interested in his calling as is the man who is actually
creating something new. The man who can make two blades

INTRODUCTION

of grass grow where only one grew before is a wizard, but
not nearly so much of a wizard as he who makes one blade
grow where before there had been none. In this country we
need both kinds. We already have some grass growing,—
considerable in fact,—but we need more, and there are two
ways to secure it. One is by doubling the present production,
or at least increasing it (we can not all be wizards), and the
other is by developing the waste places.

We have too much waste land, too many fence corners
and abandoned farms and neglected pastures and half cleared
timber tracts. We must learn to make use of the soil in its
entirety and we must learn to use the same soil over and over
again without appreciable loss of its fertility. We have been
doing with our farms too much as the greenhouse man
does with his benches—using one lot of soil for a limited time
and then abandoning it and taking a fresh supply. We have
moved west year by year to virgin soil and left behind us a
trail of abused land. All of the land must be used and used
intelligentiy—farmed, not mined of its fertility and cast aside.

These conditions are certain to come about in America.
All of the jand is going to be used to the best advantage. There
~is no question about it except the question of time. There is
another question, however, that is not so settled and that is
the question of who is to use this land. Will it be intelligent
Americans, with insight enough to know that tilling the soil
in one form or another constitutes one of the best “‘jobs” that
an American can have, or will it be ignorant foreign laborers?
Will Americans choose to become in fact a “nation of shop-
keepers” or will they truly inherit the earth? American agri-
culture should be built up by and for Americans. Our fore-
fathers in this country were an agricultural race and the na-
tional stamina that we have today is distinctly traceable to
that old stock that developed its power by living close to the
earth and breathing the clean air of Heaven.

Recent generations have shown a tendency to migrate to
the centers of population. Farm boys have become lawyers
and doctors and “captains of industry’? and too often the
father of the boys has followed them to the bright lights and

INTRODUCTION

rented the farm to anyone who would pay him a grain rental.
The father and the boys had been on such intimate terms with
the real things that count in life that they had become callous
to them just as the city man becomes callous to the smoke in
the air and the pasty black muck on the pavements. They
rented the farm on the basis of what it would produce in grain
and overlooked all of the life-giving elements that were free
for the taking.

On the other hand, we are beginning to see doctors and
lawyers and even ‘captains of industry” returning to the
land and, without exception,—and this is the encouraging
part,—these city men invariably go to the country and remain
there with far more enthusiasm than the farm folk exhibit
when they move to town. The country, the open air, the hills,
the sky and the smell of fresh turned earth, these are the real
spice of life that make it worth the living.

You may ask if the country will afford the bread and
meat of existence as well as the spice. That is a question that
only the questioner can answer. Some people fail at every-
thing, but the man who could make a success in the city can
usually do the same in the country. There are exceptions of
course. Some men would go mad in the country from the lack
of noise—though the probabilities are they are already mad
but no one has discovered it as yet. Some men have so com-
pletely sold their birthright that all they can see is their
mess of pottage and their understanding fails to grasp the
essential joys of country living.

For six years now, I have lived in the country. i have
often wished that more of my friends lived near me, but never
have I regretted that I had put the city behind me, as I hope,
for the rest of my days. As for my friends, I know too well
that they are inoculated with the idea of country life and
only bide their time. So it is the hope that this book may
serve to pass the inoculation along, as well as make it easier
for those who already have the habit.

BENJAMIN WALLACE DOUGLASS,
Hickory Hill, Trevlac, Indiana.
December 17, 1917.

CONTENTS

PART I—THE ORCHARD.

CHAPTER I.
PLANNING THE ORCHARD.

Location—-Roads—-Relative position on the farm—High
ground—Character of soil—Direction of slope—Water
supply—Laying out the orchard—Fillers—Planting
distances—_Varieties—Pear planting—-Plums—Cherries
— Grapes—Strawberries—Raspberries — Currants —
Gooseberries the eget Reon see hilt

CHAPTER:

PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS.

Seedlings — Cross-fertilization Horticultural varieties —
Graftinge—Root grafts—Top grafting—Budding—Cut-
tings—Layering—Pedigreed trees _____ : 15

CHAPTER AL.

SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT.

Drainage—Depth of soil—Orchard soils—Renewed fertility—
Fertilizers—Cultivation—-Dust mulch—Cover crops.
< Zo

CHAPTER IV.

PLANTING THE ORCHARD.

Soil preparation—Selecting trees—Age of trees to plant—
Staking the orchard—Dynamite—Inspecting trees—
Planting © 222. 2 Z- kcal fe Si he 2 ese 2 = So

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

CHAPTER V.
PRUNING.

Need for pruning—Time to prune—Stubs—Painting wounds
Apple pruning—Pruning old trees—Pruning peaches
—Plums and cherries—Pears—Grapes_____-____-- 45

CHAPTER VI.
INJURIOUS INSECTS.

Sucking and chewing insects—Codling moth—Lesser apple
worm—Plum curculio—Peach borer—Apple borers—
Currant worm—Grape moth—Canker worms—Bud
moth—Yellow-necked caterpillar—Tent caterpillar—
Pear slug—Bark beetle—-Flea beetles—White grubs—
Scale insects—San Jose scale—Scurfy scale—Oyster
shell scale—Apple aphis—Peach aphis—Phylloxera—
Leaf hoppers PD hele Speers = 5)

CHAPTER VII.
PLANT DISEASES.

Causes of disease—Bacteria and fungi—Apple scab—Bitter
rot—Black rot—-Blotch—Blight—Sun scald—lIllinois
canker—Crown gall—Peach scab—Brown rot—Leaf
curl—Peach yellows—Black knot—Leaf spot—Grape
diseases’ 22:22 = 2 eee SS. a 81

CHAPTER VIII.

SPRAYING

Need for spraying—Spray materials—Contact insecticides—
Lime sulphur—-Tobacco—Oil emulsions—Internal poi-
sons—Arsenate of lead—Paris green—Fungicides
Stock solutions—Bordeaux mixture—sSelf-boiled lime
sulphur—Dusting—Spray machinery—Nozzles—Power
sprayers Winter sprays—Summer sprays —_------ 39

CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX.

SMALL FRUITS.

Soils—Soil preparation—Time to plant—Strawberries—
Zaspberries — Pruning — Blackberries — Currants —
Gooseberries—Novelties Once Be er 119

CHAPTER X.
HARVESTING.

Picking—Time to pick—Picking peaches—Pears—Plums—
Cherries—Grapes—Small fruits—Packing sheds—Ap-
ple packages—Box packing—Barrel packing—Peach
packages—Plums—Grapes—Small fruits ~-------- 150

CHAPTER XI.
MARKETING.

Uncertainty of conditions—Methods of marketing—Parcels
post—Commission men-—Association selling—Soft
fruits—A pples ee oy oe Ae hee oe ae 147

PART HI—GARDENING.

CHAPTER I.
PLANNING THE GARDEN.

The family garden—Foreign gardens—Vacant lot gardens—
Farm gardens — Soils — Location — Arrangement —
Manure—Double crops—Fencing _ ee Oa fee

CHAPTER II.
SEED SELECTION.

Flower parts—-New varieties—Saving seed—Buying seed—
Mestimonseeds see Sess ee ee 165

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

CEHAPREB 1
SPRING VEGETABLES.

Asparagus—Beets—Corn salad—Lettuce—Onions—Parsley—
Parsnips—Peas—Spinach—Radish __--___'__ 171

CHAPTER IV.
SUMMER GARDEN.

Beans—Cabbage—Chinese cabbage — Cauliflower — Collards
—Corn—Cucumbers—Eg¢ plant—Kale—Muskmelon—
New Zealand spinach—Okra—Peppers——Potatoes—
Squashes—Sweet potatoes—Turnips _____________ 181

CHAPTER V.

SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET

Truck crops—Selling special crops—Soils—Canning crops—
Home hampers—Tomatoes—Growing plants—Trans-
planting—Setting plants—Cultivating and fertilizing
—-Peas—-Sweet corn—Potatoes—Scab—Seed potatoes
Formalin treatment—Celery—Blanching _________ 195

CHAPTER VI.
INDOOR GARDENING.

Greenhouse management—Forcing—Imitating out-door con-
ditions—-Soil—Watering -— Hot-beds — Cold frames —
House plants—Mushrooms ___ ea Bee IN)

CHAPTER VII.

GARDEN INSECTS.
Chewing insects—Sucking insects—Cabbage worm—Corn ear
worm-—sStalk borer—Tomato worm—White grubs—

Cucumber beetle—Flea beetles—Potato beetle—Squash
bug—Harlequin bug—Plant lice—‘‘Kaiser” bug____219

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIII.
HOME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.

General methods—Pits-—Surface mounds—Cellar storage
Temperature control—Concrete cellars—Screens—Ven-
tilators—Roof— Apples — Beets — Cabhage — Carrots
— Celery — Onions — Parsnips — Pears — Potatoes —
Sweet Potatoes—Turnips rare Ser ie BO

CHAPTER IX.

THE BACK YARD GARDEN.

Present waste of good land—Patriotic gardens—The city gar-
den—Lettuce-—Spinach—Asparagus—Chinese Cabbage
—The soil—Building up the soil—Its preparation for
seed—Fertilizers—Cultivation of the growing crops—
Vegetables for city cultivation—Asparagus—Beans—
Beets—Cabbage—Carrots—Corn—Cucumbers—Kale—
Lettuce — Onions — Parsnips — Peas — Potatoes —
Radishes—Spinach—Squash—Tomatoes—Turnips_ 241

CHAPTER X.

AN ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR.

A few timely suggestions for work to be performed in the or-
chard and garden during each month of the year___257

CHAPTER XI.

THE VALUE OF A FLOWER GARDEN.

The ethical and economical value of flowers—America should
be a land of fiowers—Cosmopolitan character of the
American flower garden—Planning the flower garden
—Lawns—Soil for the lawn—-The seed—Clover—
Weeds—Vines—Large growing shrubs____ 281

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

CHAPTER XII.

ANNUAL FLOWERS.

Hardy annuals-—Tender annuals—Soil—A list of satisfactory
annuals—Acyroclinium — Ageratum — Alyssum — An-
tirrhinium—Asters—Balsam — Calendula — Calliopsis
—Candytuft—Celosia— Centaurea — Cosmos — Eschs-
choltzia—-Euphorbia—F our-o’clock — Globe Amaranth
—Helianthus—Helichrysum — Kochia — Larkspur —
Marigold — Mignonette — Pansy — Petunia — Phlox
Drummondii — Poppies — Portulaca — Rhodanthe —
Ricinus — Salvia — Scabiosa — Stocks — Verbena —
Xeranthemum—Zinnia—Vines—Balloon vine—Cobaea
—Dolichos — Echinocystis — Humulus — Ipomoea —
Nasturtium—Sweet peas ____________ Eee S. Zon

CHAPTER XIII.

PERENNIALS.

Permanent perennials—Soil—Propagation— Vines — Achillea
—Anemone—Aquilegia—Asclepias—Aster—Campanu-
la—Chrysanthemum—Coreopsis—Delphiniums—Dode-
catheon -— Hepatica — Hollyhocks — Iris —— Linum
Lobelia —- Monarda — Pentstemon — Peonies — Phlox
—Physostegia — Rudbeckia — Tradescantia—Trillium
— Verbena -— Yucca — Dutch bulbs — Narcissus —
Daffodils — Tulips — Perennial vines — Ampelopsis
—Celastrus—Clematis—Lathrus—Wisteria _______ 305

CHAPTER XIV.

SHRUBS.

Value of shrubs—Native shrubs—Soil—Planting—Shrubs of
known value—Amelanchier—Barberry—Calycanthus—
Cercis —- Cornus — Corylus — Crataegus — Cydonia

CONTENTS

—Forsythia Hamamelis — Hydrangea — Lilac —
Philadelphus — Physocarpus — Rhododendron — Rose
— Location — Soil — Planting — Spirea — Symphori-
carpus—Viburnum—Weigela—Willow ____-__-_-- Bal

APPENDIX

Grafting wax—Number of plants to acre—Amount of seed to
100 feet of row—Packing table for apples________~- 351

PART I

THE ORCHARD

THE ORCHARD

CHAPTER I.
PLANNING THE ORCHARD.

Location.—The first thing to consider in planting an
orchard is the location. This subject must be studied from
several different standpoints.

An orchard must be located close enough to the market
that the fruit from the trees may be transported to the place
of sale without too much expense. It is useless to attempt to
grow fruit at such a distance from the market that the rail-
road charges will consume all possible profits.

Roads.—An orchard, then, should be located within rea-
sonable distance of city markets and it must be located in a
courtry where the roads leading to the railroad are sufficiently
good that they will insure cheap and easy hauling. Bad roads
are difficult for any kind of transportation and a load of fruit
may sometimes be decidedly damaged by long hauling over
them.

Relative position on farm.—The second point in regard
to the location of an orchard is the selection of the actual site
or. the farm. Usually a spot can be found that is better suited
to the growing of fruit than any other place on the farm. If
the entire farm is located on high ground and in a climate
where fruit-growing has proved profitable, then the entire
farm might be converted into a commercial orchard.

In locating the position of the orchard the elements of

2 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

elevation, soil, slope, water supply and convenience to the home
buildings must be considered.

High ground.—No orchard should ever be planted on low
ground; select the highest land that is available. The reason
for choosing this situation is that the high land is better pro-
tected from cold in winter and from frosts in spring. Cold
air is heavier than warm air and settles to the lowest level,
leaving the hill tops much warmer than the valleys. In gen-
eral it may be stated that the difference in temperature will

The orchard road.

amount to one degree to every ten feet of elevation. This
variation applies, of course, only when there is no wind. On
windy nights the temperature will be about the same at the
top of a hill as at the bottom, because all the air is stirred up
and an even temperature results. Frost, therefore, seldom
occurs on windy nights. Frequently a very slight elevation
will make all the difference between a full crop of fruit and
none whatever.

The character of the soil must be considered before the
orchard is planted. Almost any soil will prove satisfactory
for fruit growing except rich black prairie soil and t*e soil

PLANNING THE ORCHARD 3

of drained swamps. In general the richer the soil the slower
the trees will be in starting to bear fruit. All forms of sandy
soils are adapted to fruit growing and heavy clay loam soils
are excellent. Pure clay soils are usually deficient in humus,
that is, decayed vegetable matter, but this deficiency can be
supplied by growing and turning under such crops as rye,
oats, cowpeas, and clover.

The direction of the slope of a hill is of less importance in
the location of an orchard than has sometimes been supposed.
Formerly it was a common practice to plant orchards on north
slopes with the expectation that such a form of planting would
prevent the trees from starting into bloom quite so early in
the spring and thus save the fruit from injury by spring
frosts. It is doubtful if this theory will work out in actual
practice. On the other hand a south slope will receive more
sunlight and as a result the fruit will be better in color than
it will ern north slopes. In most hilly sections it will be found
that the soil on the slopes toward the prevailing winds will be
much poorer in quality than that on opposite slopes. For
instance, if the prevailing winds are from the west, then the
best soil will be found on the east side of the hills. The reason
for this condition is that a large part of the fallen leaves are
carried by the winds over the crest of the hill and deposited
on the opposite slope where they decay and form part of the
soil. This process being carried on year after year ultimately
results in a very great improvement of one slope to the detri-
ment of the other.

The question of water supply must not be overlooked in
the location of the orchard. An abundance of water must be
available even in the summer morths so as to provide an
ample supply for spraying purposes.

Near the house.—The orchard should be located as con-
veniently near the house as the other considerations will
allow. An orchard filled with ripe fruit is always a temptation
to the passerby; and, since it is not intended to grow fruit
for the free use of the public, it is well to have trees so located

4 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

that they can be watched at all times. Convenience to the
house will also often mean convenience to the water supply
and also make it easier to gather the fruit. Incidentally, if the
orchard is located where it can be seen every day, it will be a
constant reminder that it should have its share of attention.

“Laying Out.’—After deciding just where to plant the
orchard, the question of how to plant it arises. There have
been various methods of “laying out” an orchard and of

72 F iP iE is

P P ?

Diagram showing planting methods. P. Permanent trees. F. Filler trees.

these the commonest and perhaps the best is what is known
as the square system. In this system the trees are planted
equal distances apart and are located at the corners of an
imaginary square. This method may be modified by planting
a “filler” tree in the center of the square and sometimes this
plan is still further changed by planting additional fillers be-

PLANNING THE ORCHARD 5

tween the permanent trees and in line with them. The tri-
angular system differs from the square system in that the
trees are planted at the corners of an equal-sided triangle

A six-year-old Winesap in Indiana.

instead of at the corners of a square. Thus the trees of the
second row in the orchard will not come in line with the trees
of the first row, but midway between them. This system is
suitable only for level ground. All other systems of orchard

6 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

planting are simply variations of these two methods. The
accompanying diagrams illustrate the two arrangements,
while their application will be taken up in the next chapter.

Varieties.—In planning the orchard we must give a great
deal of attention to the consideration of varieties. This is
a subject on which the individual grower must be guided
largely by the experience of other growers in his locality. If
certain fruits have been a success under neighboring condi-
tions, then it is a safe risk to plant those kinds unless it is
krown that the varieties in question are no longer in demand
in the big markets. The Ben Davis apple can be grown suc-
cessfully over a large extent of territory, but it is no longer
planted to any degree, because growers have found that al-
though they can grow Ben Davis apples to perfection, they
can not sell that variety readily.

Fillers —As a general rule, commercial fruit growers try
to plant only those fruits that can be grown with a minimum
amount of labor and that are at the same time of the highest
quality. Some high quality fruits have faults which unfit
them for the commercial grower; but they may be included in
the list for the small home orchard, because such an orchard
is not designed primarily to be a source of profit. It has been
suggested that filler trees may be planted between the perma-
nent trees of an orchard. For this purpose it is essential to
select varieties which come into bearing at an early age. Fre-
' quently summer apples are planted as fillers, because many
of them will bear fruit almost as early as peach trees. The
early apples are also valuable to the orchardist in that they
require less spraying and the crop is-sold early enough in the
season that the money can be used to pay the expenses of the
main crop. Sometimes this consideration is of prime im-
portance to the planter.

Peach filley—Peaches, plums and cherries have been used
as fillers, but their use is not to be encouraged unless the
grower has had considerable experience in the management of
orchards. There is always a tendency to let the filler trees

~]

PLANNING THE ORCHARD

AE:

Stayman (Stayman Winesap), the most promising apple of the Winesap
family.

8 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

stand for “just one more season,” and in this way they do con-
siderable damage to the permanent trees.

Planting distance.—The following table shows the proper
distances for planting the various fruit trees and small fruit
plants.

Variety. Distance to Plant.
ADDICS = i= aoe ae Se re pe ae See oe ee ce 2 40 feet
P@aCh@§)-(S2. oe Sk oe al ee ECT
PIWIMS ths ae Se ed DOC
GHEEEICS? 5 222 be ee ee ee rl ee es Ca 20 to 80 feet
P@dES < 225 228 ek 2 es Se a ee ee ee OCCT
QiIINCES ao AS ae ee a ee ee 15 feet
GTA GS a aa Sc aa S to 10 feet
CurRrnants Jess. 2 oS ee oF ao ee ee ee 4 feet
GOOSeberries 2 222) 2 Fe eee ee 5 feet
Raspberries. <4 22 22420 oe 2 ee ee MOET
Blachkbervies, 24 2402 2 Soho oe eS ee KT
SUtLAWVELEIGS! Es en Bees jee ee 4x4 feet or in rows four feet apart

Varieties.—It is sometimes possible to make an orchard
pay its way by planting filler trees between the permanent
trees, and then interplanting with berries or other small
fruits between the filler trees. The following lists of varieties
indicate in a general way what varieties of large and small
fruits may be expected to succeed in the zone for which they
are suggested. The north zone includes the New England
states, New York, and the northern part of Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska and the territory to the north of
these states. The central zone includes the territory between
the thirty-fifth and fortieth parallels of latitude, and the
south zone includes all the country to the south of the central
zone. The varieties listed are those that are considered suit-
able for commercial purposes.

The letter N, C and S after the name of a variety indi-
cates the zone for which it is suggested. Apples for the ex-
treme north are indicated by NN.

PLANNING THE ORCHARD

A large commercial orchard in a hill country.

10 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Name. Zone. Nante. Zone.
Avleitt, gas = eee et 2 ee ae S: @.. Wine sche. = eee
Apkamisa stent eS eee Si» (Wagener #2... N.
Ballidiwatie Sea see on 2 oe en ee Ne) (Willow Jiwic’ 2222 eee Ss.
Esopus Spitzenbers: 2222 2 es IN: Wamesap® =] -232 22 ae S.C.
Hallawater => see sa eee Ne” Mellow, Newton 2222222222 N.
Grin GG en eee er ek Od ene S.C) “York bmn perial: =.) eee Sis (Os
lst gjomuRdlSrom 2 INEE@E SCNONl" L482 eee ise (Ce
Inoram eS AS ee eee S. Hibernal 0222222... eee NN.
Jonathan Ss] ee Che Delicioquss===—_"=— Looe C.
NineaDavid! 22-2 ees C'S; — Lowland Raspberry. SG:
Northern Spy. N. Meintosh’-— = N. NN.
Northwestern. (Greenine=222-N. NN, JOldenbul?: 2 S. C. N.
Rhode Island Greening__________ N: ‘Patten: Greening: 2 NN.
Rome Beauly = ae eee © ‘Red June 2... eee S. C.
Stanlese 2s ee eee CoNe.. Wealthy, === Cc. N. NN.
Stalyinan) S222 eee S2 Gy IN, eviellowiransparelie= S.-C:

In general it is advisable to plant yellow peaches for
market. A few local markets will take white peaches, but, as
a rule, they are not in great demand regardless of quality.

Nawnee. Flesh. Zone Vame. Flesh. Zone.
AVexangd ens White S. Greensborough___ White SeGs2nNe
Amp tac aee ofa Yellow S.C. J Ee ales === ello, SNE
AGOUE 2 Feees White Sh CL Health Cling === White S. C.
Belle of Georgin___Yellow S. C. INalamazoo:—— == Yellow Gc: N.
Carman== == =e White Spo INiaMNTTSo= = Yellow (GEezNE
Champion======—= White See Rave a ee White Sac:
Bbertaa == nes Yellow S. Cc. N. Red Bird Cling___-White SG:
Rarly Elberta____ Yellow SS ChaANs| | Solwaye2 Yellow CINE
litzzerald== === Yellow CSN. Snro¢ka 2 == eae Yellow Gene

Commercial pear planting is decidedly on the decrease on
account of the difficulty of controlling the pear blight. This
is a bacterial disease for which there is no known control.
At times new varieties of pears have been offered by nursery-
men who cijiaimed that the new productions were “blight
proof.” So far all these wonderful new productions have
failed to make good and the blight proof trees seem to die
just about as quickly as the old varieties. Many of the blight

less as commercial fruit.

PLANNING THE ORCHARD 11

Well-grown Burbank Plums.

proof varieties were so poor in quality that they were worth-
A few pears might by planted for
home use, but the planter runs the risk of exerting himself
uselessly. The following sorts are recommended if the or-
chardist feels that he must have a few pears: Bartlett, Lin-
coln, Seckle, Duchess, Comice, Sheldon, Kiefer.

Plums.-—The following plum list is designed especially
for the districts east of the Rocky mountains. On the Pacific

coast there are cer-
tain places where it
is possible to grow
varieties that are
not suited to LEast-
ern conditions. Plums
are among the most
variable of our fruits.
Some varieties have
come “te us “from
Europe and Western
Asia, many from
Japan and not a few
have beer developed
from our native wiid
plum. The common
blue Damson is said
to have come from the
old world city of
Damascus and _ its
present name is sup-
posed to have been
derived from the city
near which it was first
cultivated. Plums are
of the easiest culture
and will often grow
where no other fruit

12 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

would survive. There is probably no place in the United States
where some variety of plum could not be grown. The follow-
ing list includes only varieties known to succeed in commer-
cial orchards:

Name. Zone. Name. Zone.
Abundances) 35 ss = Se S: Cy-N-- iDeSoeto: Less. 2 eee Caan:
AIMErI Cay 2a a eet ate ee SCN. Lombard) 222.222 CaN:
BiG banlep 25 eee ae oe S: C2 N:-~Wild -Goose: 22-33 ae Sa7C2eNe
Danison) yaa se eee es ee Slo (Gs ING

Cherries.—There are two general classes of cherries,
known as sweet cherries and sour cherries. The sour cherry
will grow almost anywhere, but the sweet varieties are much
more difficult to produce to perfection. It is probable, how-
ever, that the sweet cherry will succeed in many more places
than is usually thought, because it has not been extensively
tested under modern methods of cultivation.

Sour Cherries—Early Richmond, Montmorency. These
two sorts are excellent wherever cherries are grown.

Sweet Cherries—Black Tartarian, Lambert, Royal Ann,
Schmidt, Governor Wood, Windsor.

Grapes are the poor man’s fruit, because they will grow
anywhere and with very little trouble. In some sections
commercial vineyards are planted. In the East the com-
mercial varieties are limited to a very few sorts. Concord,
Campbell’s Early, Catawba and Worden are among the best
sorts planted for market. In a few districts Delaware is
planted. It is a small but very fine red grape. The follow-
ing list includes varieties worthy of the home vineyard, al-
though some of them will not prove profitable.

Name. Color. Zone.
ETHER <2 eS ee ee ee ee 2 ee Black Cc. §
Diamond Sees 2 ee ee a ee le eee Ee eee ee White Cc
INTRO a2. eR eee Be ee ae eh ey ee ae White (OW iE
Lady Washington ————_ th ae ls ee ood 2 eee White CS:
DETR OTN ps l ne e Red Cc. S
Brillante hse foe — Soe oon ee ee ee eee Red Cc. S
VWViOO Gini ROG) 2 ke ee CS a he Boe eh ae ee Oe Red C

PLANNING THE ORCHARD 13

Strawberries.—It is impossible to give definite lists of
strawberries in a book of this sort for the reason that varie-
ties of this fruit do not give equal satisfaction in sections
often only slightly removed from one another. Then, too,
there is no other fruit in which kinds go out of fashion so
promptly and generally as in the cases of the luscious straw-
berry. New and excellent varieties are being introduced

A two-year-old vineyard.

every year and the student of fruit culture must study nurs-
ery catalogs and consult with his berry-growing neighbors
before he can decide what will probably succeed on his
ground. To give a list of sorts suitable for different places
would mean several different lists for nearly every state in
the Union. If there are no successful berry growers in your
section, it is advisable to plant a number of varieties and
watch their growth a year or two before trying this fruit on
a commercial scale.

14 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Raspberries.—A list of a very few varieties will cover
all the commercial sorts of this fruit. The black varieties of
raspberries that are universally planted are the Cumber-
land and the Kansas. The Hoosier, a new kind, is attracting
much attention and may prove better than the two former.
The Cuthbert is the most widely planted of all the red ber-
ries and the Columbian and Haymaker are the best purple
sorts. White or yellow raspberries are seldom planted ex-
cept as novelties. The St. Regis, an ever-bearing red variety,
is proving to be an excellent sort. It bears all through the
summer and is a decided addition to our list of fruit.

The Blackberry will succeed over a wide range of terri-
tory. This popular bush fruit grows wild in many places and
in a few localities great quantities from this source are gath-
ered and shipped each year. Among the most popular cul-
tivated varieties are the following: Early Harvest, Eldorado,
Snyder, and Wilson.

The Currant will thrive on many soils, but will not endure
dry weather well. As far as climatic conditions ave con-
cerr.ed it will survive great extremes of temperature. The
sorts most widely planted are London Market, Perfection
and Wilder. The best black variety is probably Black Naples
and the best white sort is the White Grape.

Gooseberries.—The Houghton is probably the most
widely planted of any gooseberry, but there are some prom-
ising new sorts that will undoubtedly become prominent be-
fore long. The English varieties are quite subject to mildew
and are not regarded as profitable, although the fruit is
superior.

CHAPTER, I.
PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS.

Seedlings.—All fruit plants produce seeds of some sort
and from these seeds new plants can be grown. These new
plants, however, are very seldom as good as the original
plant that first produced the seed. For instance, the seed
from a Grimes Golden apple will not be apt to produce fruit
that even remotely resembles the parent fruit. For this reason
fruit growers are forced to resort to artificial methods of per-
petuating their varieties.

There has been a tremendous amount of experimental
work done looking toward the production of new varieties
of all sorts of fruit. Some of this work has been productive
of results, but much of it has been in vain. Nature does not
seem to respond readily to attempts at improving on her
handiwork. She is slow in her methods, but ultimately sure.
Out in Iowa nature took things into her own hands and in an
old orchard produced a seedling’ tree that bore the first
“Delicious” apples. This apple, probably the best single
variety in existence, is a chance seedling. On the other hand,
in Indiana the State Horticultural Society tested more than
ten thousand carefully selected seedlings and out of the entire
lot did not secure more than half a dozen apples that seemed
worthy of further testing—none of them to compare with
the chance work in the old Iowa orchard.

Cress fertilization—One reason that the seeds of a
fruit fail to produce similar fruit is that the seed has been
fertilized by pollen from some other variety and as the two

varieties mix they produce something that is entirely differ-
(2)

16 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

ent from either parent. This mixture of qualities might be
compared to the mixing vf certain pigments. A yellow and a
blue paint when mixed will produce a green color. The green
does not in the least resemble either of the colors that were
used to produce it. Different kinds of blue or yellow will
produce different sorts of green and even the expert painter
must experiment with each particular batch of green in order
to match a previous shade. In the mixing of pollen the same
mixture will seldom occur twice and, therefore, it is rare that
any two seedlings will even remotely resemble each other.

Horticultural Varieties.—It must be remembered, too,
that all our fruits are very much improved over the wild
form. Our common varieties of cultivated fruit are what are
known as “horticultural” varieties; that is, they are not true
varieties as found in a wild state, but they are kinds that
have been improved by much careful, patient work on the
part of plant breeders.

All these so-called horticultural varieties have a decided
tendency to revert to the original type from which they were
developed. Their development has been simply a matter of
selecting the best seedlings from time to time. The original
wild apples of Europe were carefully watched for genera-
tions, and whenever a better sort was found, that particular
sort was taken by the fruit grower and carefully tended. In
time perhaps it was found to have produced a new seedling
that was still better than its parent. In this way the develop-
ment of varieties has progressed for many years. Great ad-
vance has been made in America in the evolution of new
sorts of fruit during the past century.

American Grapes.—Many, if not most, of the grapes
grown in the eastern United States have been developed from
native vines that formerly grew in the American woods. The
widely planted Concord is simply a chance seedling of the
native wild Fox grape that still grows over New England
and westward to the Central states.

Since we know that these improved varieties do not

PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS ile

reproduce themselves from seed, we are ready to consider the
methods that are employed in their propagation.

Grafting.—The chief means of growing fruit is per-
haps that of grafting. In this process a twig or scion of the
desired variety is inserted in a stock of some common sort
or into the root of a seedling. Accordingly grafts are spoken
of as root grafts or top grafts.

Root graft.—Tne root graft is used mostly in propagat-
ing the apple and similar fruits. Top grafting is used in top
= 1 working orchard trees
| to change the va-
riety and in a few
cases to improve the
tree qualities of a va-
riety. Some varieties
that are otherwise ex-
cellent have poor root
systems. This state-
ment is true particu-
larly of the Grimes.
In order to improve
the tree, it is custom-
ary to graft a Grimes
scion on a young tree
of some vigorous sort.

Various methods are
employed in making
grafts. The method
used in the prepara-
tion of root grafts for

Top grafting a young apple tree. nursery stock is com-
monly called whip grafting. A small, one-year-old apple
seedling is selected and the top is cut off with a smooth long
cut. This operation leaves the top of the root with a beveled
er.d about an inch or an inch and a quarter long. This bevel
is then split the long way of the root for a distance of about
three-quarters of an inch. A scion of the desired variety is

18 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

next selected and a piece of twig of last year’s growth is cut
such length that not more than two buds are included. The
lower end of this scion is cut exactly as the root of the seed-
ling was cut. The two beveled and cleft pieces are then fitted
together and the union is tightly bound with a bit of waxed
yarn. This work can be done in a warm place just at the
close of winter and the prepared grafts packed in moist saw-
dust until the ground is in fit condition for planting. As
soon as the ground can be worked easily the grafted seedlings
are planted in rows about three or four feet apart and about
six to ten inches apart in the row. They should be planted
so deep that just one bud will be above the surface. Constant
cultivation throughout the summer is required in order to
insure a vigorous growth.

In top grafting the process is similar; but, since a young
scion is inserted in a much older stock, some preparation must
be made to. prevent
the loss of moisture
through the large ex-
posed wound. In the
case of the root graft
the wound was cov-
ered with earth so
that very little mois-
ture was lost.

After selecting the
tree to be grafted, the
branches should be cut
back with a sharp saw
and only the stubs
left. If it is*notede=
sired to insert grafts
in all the main
branches, part of them
can be left during the

first summer and re-
Apple tree Bh Wiest nee coneh from grafts in moved after the grafts
as are well established.

PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 19

First split the stub of the branch with a sharp tool for a
distance of from an inch and a half to two inches. Then
select the scion and cut the lower end to a wedge shape about
an inch and a quarter in length. This wedge should be
slightly thicker at one side than
at the other, and at the base of the
thick side of the wedge should be
one of the three buds. Then pry
the split stub open far enough to
admit the wedge of the scion. In
inserting the scion be sure to place
it with the thick side of the wedge,
on which the bud is located, to the
outside of the stub. Also be sure
to see that the inner bark of the
stub and of the scion exactly co-
incide. It is from the line be-
tween the inner and outer bark
that the new growth starts, and
unless these lines are adjusted
exactly, the graft will make a poor
growth.

After the graft is finished the
stub of the tree should clamp it
A TED OST aE ate tight enough to hold it firmly. It

is then ready to be waxed. This
operation is done by covering all the cut surfaces with graft-
ing wax, which should be applied evenly over the cut end of
the stub and extend down the split sides as far as the bark is
broken even slightly. The top end of the scion should also be
carefully waxed to prevent the loss of moisture from that
point. This precaution may seem trifling; but, if one should
ever try to make a graft grow without this bit of waxing, it
will soon be seen how very important it is to heed such ad-
vice.
Budding is the term applied to a certain form of graft-

20 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

ing, because it involves the use of buds instead of the use of
scions. Budding is a very easy method of propagation and is
employed in relation with practically all fruits, including even
those that are more often grafted. Peaches and other stone
fruits are almost always budded.

Apple tree two years after grafting.

In nursery work it is customary to plant the seeds of
peaches in the fall of the year or very early in the spring. By
early summer the young seedling trees are large enough to
bud. The buds are secured from trees of known variety and
are cut in the form of “bud sticks,” which are simply twigs
of the present season’s growth from which the leaves have
been clipped. The buds are always located just above the

PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 2

base of the leaf and in the angle which the leaf makes with
the stem. In removing the leaves it is customary to leave a
short piece of the leaf stem by which to handle the bud more
conveniently. The bark on the seedling tree is split with a
sharp knife and laid open so that the clean white wood is
exposed. Then a bud is removed from the bud stick and in-
serted under the bark of the seedling. In this way the bark
surrounding the bud is brought in contact with the wood of
the seedling. The flaps of seedling bark are tightly bound
around the bud to hold it in close contact with the wood.
Aften ten days or two weeks the cords binding the bud are
cut, because, at that time, the bud and the wood should have
grown together and further use of the bindings might injure
the tree. In cutting the bud from the bud stick be careful
to remove the wood from the
bud. Sometimes in cutting the
buds the wood has a_ tendency
to adhere to the bark and in
such cases it is difficult to secure
good results. In moist weather the
buds will slip from the stick
easier than in prolonged dry
weather.

This bud will not grow during
the summer in which it is inserted.
Early the next spring the nursery-
man cuts off the old seedling top
at a point just above where the bud
was inserted. When the growth
does start it must start from the
single bud; as a result, this bud
forms the young tree.

Budding is not so often prac-
ticed in top working trees, because

it is difficult to secure good re-
showing une prot, yenich wai sults with this practice even on
ee core suines indicate (Trees four oF ive years old.

where buds were inserted.

A four-year-old peach tree,

eg ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Cuttings.—Another method of propagation is by the use
of cuttings. The cuttings are simply twigs, usually of the
previous season’s growth, and they are induced to grow by
planting them quite deep in the earth. Only one or two buds
should show above the surface. It is from these buds that
the new plant is formed, while the buds below the surface
provide points from which new roots develop. This method

is not usually employed by nurs-
erymen except in the case of
grapes, currants and gooseberries.
Other fruits do not form roots
readily from cuttings.

Layering.—Still another means

of increasing the numbers of a cer-
tain variety is by the practice of
layering. In this case a shoot or
branch of the plant desired is bent
down to the ground and a section
of the stem is covered with earth.
Under this mound of earth new
roots will form and ultimately the
bent stem may be severed from the
parent plant and the new indi-
vidual taken up and transplanted
elsewhere. This practice will work
nicely with grapes, and it is used
almost entirely in the propagation
| of raspberries and strawberries.
In the case of strawberries, this

system is the natural one by which

—— means the plant is enabled to

Grape cuttings. spread rapidly. The “runners” of

the berry plant are shoots which, on being brought in con-
tact with the soil, develop roots and start a new plant.

Dividing the roots of certain plants is another manner

of propagating, but it is not largely used in fruit growing,
because so few plants lend themselves to this method.

PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS 23

Effect of Stock on Scion.—It will be noticed in all
methods of propagating that the process is purely a vegeta-
tive one; that is, the question of seed does not enter into
consideration at any point. When a scion is taken from a
certain apple tree and made to grow by being placed in the
root stock of some inferior seedling, that scion and the tree
which it may make are not altered in the least. If the scion
is taken from a Baldwin tree, the resulting tree is certain to
be a Baldwin and to produce fruit exactly like the parent
tree. Of course, it is assumed that the soil and climatic con-
ditions are the same in each case. But nothing has been done
to that scion to change its character in any way, and the
fruit is bound to be just as good, but no better, than that pro-
duced on the tree from which the scion was taken.

“Pedigreed” Trees.—These considerations are of inter-
est because there are always people who attempt to deceive
the public by offering what they are pleased to term “pedi-
greed” trees. A pedigree always implies two parents. In
fruit tree propagation no real parent exists. The business’ of
propagating is a scheme of the horticulturist to induce the
tree to make a more extended vegetative growth. Under
such conditions any talk of possible pedigree is foolish. A
seedling apple might be said to have a pedigree, but it would
be of one generation orly, with a mother of one sort and a
father of another, which would mean very little in horticul-
tural values. Under no condition could a budded or grafted
tree be said to have a pedigree.

Conclusive Proof.—The Purdue Agricultural Experiment
Station has recently published the results of many tests along
this line and all of their experiments tended to show that bud
variations in apple stock were very rare. The following ex-
tracts are from the report on this work, which was done by
Mr. Joe A. Burton:

“One of the first things undertaken in the experimental
orchard was to graft Yellow Transparent and Chenango on a
wild crab to observe the infiuence of the stock on the scion.

24 ORCHARD AND GARDEN.

When these scions set fruit all the leaves were removed from
the graft and the apples were compelled to grow from sap
elaborated by the crab leaves. The fruits were perfect speci-
mens of Transparent and Chenango.”

““As regards the variation in size and color of fruit, scions
were grafted from Rambo trees which grew very large and
fine fruit; and another lot from trees which grew small and
inferior fruit; also scions from Ben Qavis, which grew highly
colored fruit and some from trees which grew poorly colored
fruit, were top-worked on the same tree. When brought to-
gether on the same tree, the fruit from scion wood from trees
producing large sized and highly colored specimens were indis-
tinguishable from the fruit borne on the scions which had been
taken from trees which grew small and poorly colored fruit.
This was repeated in practically the same manner with Ralls
with results verifying the above.

“These tests in the opinion of Mr. Burton would seem to
indicate that the observed variations between varieties is
probably due, in almost every case, to environment rather
than to bud variations.”

CHAPTER III.
SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT.

Drainage.—There is one quality that any soil must have
if it is to be used for the production of fruit. It must be well
drained. All varieties of fruit are injured if they are sub-
jected to the discomfort of “‘wet feet.” If the natural sur-
face of the land is not such as will cause all surplus rain to
run off, then some provision must be made for drainage. A
very simple and cheap method of drainage is to plow the

A hillside orchard cultivated in strips.

land so that a “dead furrow” will come between the rows
of trees. This will form a shallow ditch which will carry off
much of the surplus water. This plan has some serious ob-
jections, but it has been successfully used by practical fruit
growers.

Tile drainage.—A better, but more costly, way to drain
is to install a tile system throughout the orchard. Tile

26 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

should be placed not less than thirty inches below tlie sur-
face ard on some occasions deeper. It must be remembered
that the proper placing and laying of a drain is a matter
generally requiring expert attention. The planter would bet-
ter consult some local authority who not only knows the
character of the soil in question but who also has had ex-
perience in laying tile in that particular kind of soil.

Depth of soil—The expression “depth of soil” is some-
times used in speaking of particular pieces of land. This
term usually means the depth of that portion of the soil
which is capable of growing crops. Often a soil may be
several feet deep before rock or gravel is encountered, but
more frequently only the few inches of top soil are fit for
agricultural purposes. The deeper soil can be made avail-
able by deep plowing or by the use of dynamite in some con-
ditions. A deep soil usually has more plant food in the form
of available chemicals, than a shallow soil. Deep soils also
act as sponges to take up and retain moisture during the
growing season.

Orchard soil—As a rule the same high degree of fertil-
ity is not desired in orchard soils that is so important in
general farming soils. Fruit trees planted on such rich land
will make a rank growth, but will be slow in starting to bear
fruit. Such trees, too, are more liable to be injured by some
of the plant diseases than are trees that have made a more
normal growth. This statement is particularly true of the
blight of pear trees.

Orchards on poor land.—On the other hand, it would
be unprofitable to plant an orchard on the poorest land to be
found. Some ground is too barren for any agricultural use.
Extremes in both situations must be avoided. Many persons
do not stop to consider that a crop of fruit removes certain
chemical elements from the soil just as surely as a crop of
corn or wheat removes other elements. It has long been a
popular notion that orchards do not require fertilization,
and this idea seems to account in some measure for the many

‘aansodxs pue sSRuleIp O} SB pozyBdO, [JPM PALeYI1IO sunoAd VW

28 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

neglected and deserted old orchards to be found over the
country. The trees simply used up all available plant food,
and when the supply was’ exhausted, they naturally
failed to bear any more fruit. The chemical elements in most
soils are of two classes, that is, available (ready for use) and
unavailable materials. There is nearly always much more
unavailable matter than that which is ready for the plant to
use.

A cover crop of rye in a young orchard.

Renewed fertility By the action of roots, by the decay
of leaves, and by the action of frost and air, the unavailable
material is slowly made over into the other form which the
plants can take up and use. In the case of old orchards that
have ceased to be profitable, it is often surprising to find
them unexpectedly producing a fair crop. This apparent
exception means that while the old trees have been marking
time for a number of years, the available chemical elements

SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT 29

in the soil have been accumulating until they reach a point
where they are able to force the trees to bear another crop
eeerruit.

Fertilizers.—In modern practice the wise orchardist an-
ticipates this demand on the soil and provides his trees with
the chemical elements which they need before they begin to
slacken in the production of fruit. It is impossible to lay
down rules for the fertilization of orchards, because the
chemical needs of different soils will vary with the different
localities. In fact, different soils within the same orchard
will often have different fertilizer requirements. The best
way to determine what to use is to start an experimental
block of trees and use several different mixtures in order to
decide just which fertilizer provides most nourishment.

Barnyard manure.—As a rule, it is well to avoid the use
of barnyard manure, because in many instances it has seemed
to induce root trouble. A few good orchardists use it, how-
ever, and apparently have no annoyance. In any event, if
manure is used, it should never be applied close to the trees.

The three elements that are usually found in all com-
mercial fertilizers are potash, nitrogen and phosphorus.

Potash is mined in Germany in large quantities and
practically the world supply formerly came from that coun-
try. This element is also contained in unleached wood ashes.
In order to secure this element, orchardists have scattered
ashes over the surface of the ground for many years. Potash
is now obtained from sea weed and recent investigations indi-
cate that we have in our southwestern states deposits that
rival those of Germany.

Nitrogen is found in the soil in the form of nitrates, of
which there are several different kinds. The name itself
simply means that the nitrogen, which in its pure state is a
gas found in the atmosphere, is combined with some other
element. For instance, nitrate of soda is a chemical in which
sodium, ritrogen and oxygen are combined in given propor-
tions. Although nitrogen is a common gas, and is to be found

30 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

everywhere in the air about us, it is of no value as a plant
food unless it is chemically combined with some other ele-
ment. Certain kinds of bacteria have the power to take the
atmospheric nitrogen and combine it with other elements,
thus making it available for the use of all plants. These par-
ticular bacteria are found growing on the roots of clover and
similar members of the bean family. Wherever they grow
on the clover roots they form small nodules or lumps. When
the clover plant dies or is plowed under, these nodules decay
and liberate a very considerable amount of nitrogen in the
form of nitrates. This method of securing nitrates in the
soil by the growing of clovers is an almost universal prac-
tice in general agriculture. It is by far the cheapest means
of supplying nitrogen to the soil.

Phosphorus as an element of commercial fertilizers is
found in the form of a soft rock in some of the Southern
states. In this form it is combined with other elements just
as the nitrogen was combined in the case of nitrate of soda.
The use of phosphorus as a fertilizer element appears to be
increasing in most sections.

Cullivation.—Any orchard that is worth planting
is worth cultivating. Fruit trees respond to cultivation in
just the same way that corn or potatoes answer to attention.
No good farmer would attempt to grow a crop of corn with-
out thorough cultivation, but these same good farmerys some-
times think that an orchard needs no care from the time it
is planted till it begins to bear fruit.

Orchard cultivation should start in the spring just be-
fore the time when rye or wheat is starting to head out.
These two grains are often used as cover crops in orchards
and just before they start to head they should be cut up with
a heavy disc harrow. The use of the plow is not necessary in
most orchards, and, in fact, may cause some injury by cutting
the roots of the trees. The disc stirs the soil just deep enough,
and, unless the rye is permitted to grow too tall, the disc
will turn it uncer sufficiently. After the orchard has been

SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT. 3

Nitrogen nodules on roots of clover.

(3)

32 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

gone over with the disc in at least two directions, it should
be ready for some tool which will still further pulverize the
surface. Any kind of harrow is good for this purpose, but
most orchardists use either a spring tooth or one of the
patent Acme harrows. The latter is designed especially for
orchard work and is a very excellent tool. A common board
drag will help to keep the top soil pulverized and in a good
state of tillage.

The chief object of cultivation is to retain moisture in
the soil. This is done by forming what is known as a dust

The dust mulch.

mulch over the surface. The dust mulch acts like a great
blanket of felt laid over the orchard. Very little moisture
can escape from the soil if the surface is protected by such
a mulch. In a well cultivated orchard damp earth should be
reached easily by heaping up some of the mulch with the toe
of the shoe. To emphasize this point, go into an uncultivated
field with a pick and shovel and find how deep one must go
before reaching moist dirt.

Cultivation also kills all weeds. Since weeds need mois-
ture in order to grow, it is reasonable to expect that, if they

SOILS AND SoIL MANAGEMENT 33

are kept down, more moisture will be conserved for the use
of the trees.

Dust mulch.—Any rain that might fall on a dust mulch
will be gradually absorbed and a paste will be formed, which,
if permitted to dry, will cause a crust over the soil. As this
condition is exactly the one not desired, cultivation must con-
tinue, especially after each rain or even shower. By this

Clean cultivation in a young orchard.

means the dust mulch is kept in good condition to protect
the soil moisture for the sole use of the trees.

Cultivation should be stopped about the middle of sum-
mer in order to give the trees opportunity to harden their
wood before the approach of winter. If the trees were made
to grow till frost—which might easily be done—the newest
growth would be found too tender to survive the cold weather.

Cover crop.—At the time cultivation is stopped a cover
crop should be planted. This crop still further checks the

ORCHARD AND GARDEN.

“TOY BOM

Aip sulinp punoiws poe}eaAtypnoun ut

syoRlo

SOILS AND SoIL MANAGEMENT 35

growth of the trees and also furnishes a protecting cover for
the ground during the winter. Land so sheltered will not
freeze as deep and will also catch and hold the snow better.
The snow itself is, of course, a protecting cover for the ground,
and, as a result, the roots are less likely to be winter injured.
Another function of the cover crop is to prevent the soil from
washing away in winter. On hillsides this washing process
may become a very serious problem which may necessitate
planting the cover crop somewhat earlier to insure a heavier
ground protection. In neglected orchards such erosion of the
land has sometimes ruined a fine planting in one winter. Any
of the winter grains, such as rye, wheat or barley, will make
a good orchard cover. Rye is especially good because it makes
a sturdy growth and is quite hardy. In some sections crim-
son clover can be planted with the rye, thus affording the
benefit of the rye as a protection and of the clover as an aid
to fertilization. Winter vetch can be used in this same way.
It must be understood that these cover crops are not planted
as a source of direct profit. It is most unwise to attempt to
take a crop of grain from land between the trees. It simply
means stealing some of the fertility from the soil, which in
order to insure a profitable orchard, must be replaced in some
way later.

Throughout the entire subject of soil management we
must not lose sight of two facts. The first is that by good cul-
tivation we retain moisture for the use of the growing plants.
The second is that any crop that is harvested removes some-
thing from the soil which must in some way be returned. If it
is not returned, then it is but a question of a short time until
the soil becomes “worn out” and unproductive. In America
we have been too much inclined to mine our soils rather than
till them. Starting with a natural rich soil, we have taken
crop after crop from the same piece of land with no attempt
to return some of the fertility we have each year removed.

It is for this reason that we find in our older sections
“abandoned farms.” Most of them should never have been

36 ORCHARD AND GARDEN.

abandoned. Many of them are even now being reclaimed. An
abandoned farm in Massachusetts was bought by a modern
cultivator who was willing to give the soil a fair chance. It
took him about two years to get the old place back in such
shape that it could be profitably handled. After that time he
regularly harvested 500 bushels of potatoes to the acre—on
land that had been abandoned because it was unproductive.
There are very few places on the face of the earth where
the soil is so poor that it can not be made to yield a crop of
some sort and even the poorest land and that which has long
been neglected responds to intelligent care with a buoyancy
that is at once the surprise and the delight of the agriculturist.

CHAPTER IV.
PLANTING THE ORCHARD.

Soil preparation.—Many orchards are planted on poorly
prepared land, but in order to secure the best results the
preparation of the soil should be considered as of vast im-
portance. As a rule, the best preparation consists of fall plow-
ing when the trees are to be planted in the spring following.
Then as soon as the ground can be worked it should be gone
over once or twice with a disc harrow. It should next be
smoothed with a drag or spike tooth harrow. Except in the
South, the best time for planting nearly all fruits is in the
spring. When planted in the fall, trees frequently perish
unless the succeeding winter proves mild. However, spring
planting should be done early—the earlier, the better.

Selecting trees.—Trees should be selected just as early
in the season as possible. In fact, it is better to buy stock
in the fall, and have the nursery man deliver it early in the
spring. In this way the planter has the privilege of selecting
the best, while if he waited until later in the spring he would
have to take what was left. If the trees arrive before the
ground is ready for planting, they should be carefully un-
packed and heeled in. MHeeling in is just another name for
deep planting. A trench should be dug on the side of a hill,
with the lower end left open to afford the best drainage pos-
sible. Place the trees in this trench, with their tops slanting
to the southwest. Fill in the trench, covering the trees with
earth so that only a part of the tops show above ground.

3 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Trees can also be heeled in temporarily in the spring by plac-
ing them flat on the ground and shoveling some earth over
the roots. But this method is not sufficient if trees are to
remain so all winter.

Age of trees to plant.—In selecting trees for the orchard
always select one-year-old trees. They are the best from
every standpoint, and will prove more satisfactory than trees
of any other age. This statement applies to all varieties of
fruit trees. Small fruit plants are always sold when one year
old. Some of the advantages of buying one-year-old trees are

A nursery storage house where trees are kept over winter.

that they will stand transplanting better, that the grower
can prune the heads of his trees to suit his own tastes, and
that the cost of freight on a shipment is much less than for
older trees. It is often thought that an orchard can be made

PLANTING THE ORCHARD 39

to bear earlier by using two- or three-year-old trees, but such
is not the case. A one-year-old tree will get its bearings so
much more quickly that it soon outstrips its older neighbors.
Staking an orchard.—The orchard was planned in a
previous chapter and now comes the actual realization of
putting those plans into practice. First of all, a base line
must be established as a starting point. A base line is simply
a line of stakes set the given distance apart, with all of them
in a perfectly straight row. A surveying instrument 1s very
convenient in establishing this base line. With its help a
straight line can be
(z quickly located. Then
a right angled turn is
made and a _ parallel
line of stakes _ set.
With these two lines
of stakes placed it is
an easy matter to set
up tall sighting stakes
along the rows where
trees are to be placed.
Individual stakes are
Planting an orchard. One man unpacks and not required for each
eae a perme ohais Gf cad. Gaile Satna tree. The holes are
is just starting out with a bundle of trees. dug in line with the
sighting stakes and the required distances apart. Then the
planter follows and sets the trees in the holes; and, as he does
this he can easily sight back to the old sighting stakes and in
this way keep each tree exactly in line with the rest. This
system has been used in some of the largest commercial or-
chards in the country. While it is not as accurate as is some-
times deemed necessary, it is sufficiently good for any real
need. After the trees have been set a short time, some of them
are always sure to lean a trifle, so they can really not be ex-
pected to remain in perfectly straight rows.

AO ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Another method of staking an orchard is with the help
of a long wire. This wire should be long enough to reach
entirely across the field to be planted. If trees are to be
planted twenty feet apart, a small copper band should be
soldered to the wire at twenty-foot intervals. In practice this
wire is stretched across a field and a stake set for each tree
at the points where the copper bands are soldered on. After
the first row is set, the wire is moved over the desired dis-
tance at each end and another row of stakes placed.

Digging the holes; Dynamite.—In digging the holes care
should be exercised to make them large enough to accommo-
date all the roots without cramping. The topsoil should be
piled at one side of the hole and the subsoil at another. The
use of dynamite has been suggested
in connection with the planting of
| L trees and the mistaken idea is

prevalent that with its use the cost

C of digging holes is eliminated. As
a matter of fact, more time and

labor are necessary to dig a proper

l hole for tree planting when dyna-
\ mite is employed than otherwise.
If dynamite is used, a hole is bored
at the place where the tree is to be
planted and a small charge of
powder exploded about thirty
inches under ground. The surface
of the ground should not even be
blown away by this explosion, but
simply heaved a bit, with the top-
An example of improper plant- , S0il loosely piled up and neopenme
ine ie. «cate. Wallace), Visible. “Chen a hole muctimemmand
with a spade just as if no dynamite

had been used. In addition to the labor of digging an ordinary
hole, the planter must dig to the bottom of the blasted area to

PLANTING THE ORCHARD Al

Planting with dynamite.

In soils having a stiff
“hard-pan” below the
surface a snort dis-
tance, the use of dyna-
mite is advisable, but
must never be used
when the ground is
wet. It is a good plan
to prepare the ground
for tree planting by
using dynamite in the
places where trees are
to stand, providing the
work can be done dur-
ing the dry weather of

the summer previous to the actual planting. The use

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REPS eh,
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|

Inserting the charge.

make sure that no air
cavity has been left by
the explosion. If the
ground is even moist
when dynamite is used,
a hard walled pocket
will be left at the point
of discharge. A care-
less planter might eas-
ily set a tree over this
air pocket and would
wonder what caused
the tree to die during
the first dry weather.

The blast.

of dyna-

mite in the spring is almost always a mistake.

Inspecting trees.—When the ground is ready to receive
the trees, they should be unpacked or dug up, as the case may
be, and one man should be given the task of examining each
tree and pruning the roots preparatory to planting, which is
just as important as pruning the tops afterward. Each tree

42 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

should be taken up separately, and examined root, stem, and
branch for insects and mechanical injuries. If many trees are
found defective, they should be saved out and the grower
should refuse to pay for them. It is against the law for any
ee : nursery to sell defect-
ive stock, and) ne
buyer who permits an
unscrupulous dealer to
impose on him is doing
his duty.

All broken roots
should be pruned to a
smooth, clean cut, and
in the case of the apple,
all small fibrous roots
should be pruned en-
tirely away. These
small roots are usually
matted together and
when the tree is plant-
ed they frequently die
and cause the tree to
suffer or perhaps per-
ish from the disease
known as root rot. It
has been found that,
if these small fibrous
roots are taken away,

Pruning the roots. the possibilities of
avoiding root rot are greatly increased.

Planting.—After the trees are inspected, and tne roots
are pruned, they are dipped into a thick paste made of earth
and water. This gives the roots a coating of mud and prevents
their drying out before they are planted. The planter sets the
tree in the hole prepared for it and arranges the roots to the

PLANTING THE ORCHARD 43

best advantage. If the hole is not large enough for this pur-
pose, it should be enlarged to suit. The topsoil is then thrown
about the roots of the tree and tramped down as firmly as pos-
sible with both feet. More soil is added and again tramped
solid. But the last soil placed around the tree should not be
tramped down, but should be scattered in loosely. After the
tree is planted it is a good idea to try to pull it up with the
hands, and if it gives too easily it should be planted again more
firmly, in order to be a well planted tree.

Planting small fruit—The general principles just de-
scribed apply to the planting of all trees and nearly all fruit
plants. Strawberries especially require great care in planting.

Planting with dynamite. Boring the holes.

The young plants as they are received from the nursery always
have plenty of leaves and more roots than they possibly need.
The plants are tied together in bunches and the roots of an
entire bunch can be cut with one blow of a hatchet. All the
older leaves should be removed also. As a rule, about one-third
to one-half of the roots should be removed from strawberries.
The plants are set out by pushing a spade into the ground at
the place intended for the berry plant and making a wedge-
shaped opening by working the spade back and fortn. The

44 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

roots of the plant are then spread out in fan shape and inserted
into the wedge-shaped opening. Then the earth is drawn over
the roots and tamped down firmly. Care must be exercised not
to get strawberries set too deep or too shallow. The crown of
the plant must come exactly at the soil line to be right.

CHAPTER V.
PRUNING.

Need for Pruning.—Under modern conditions of fruit
growing, pruning is just as necessary and inevitable as spray-
ing. Trees that grow wild in the woods prune themselves. The
strong branches crowd out the weak ones and slowly but surely
the tree develops the form that nature intended it to assume.
The fruit grower finds it imperative to hasten the pruning
process instead of waiting for nature. Modern fruits are more
subject to insect and fungous injury than are the wild fruits of
the woods, and for that reason everything possible must be
done to help withstand injurious assaults from insect pests.
If a tree were left unpruned, it would soon become a thicket
of branches and leaves, and as a result, light and air are shut
out from the center of the tree. A dense growth of this sort
is always favorable to the development of fungous diseases.
Sunlight and air are great disease preventers, whether in rela-
tion to the human system or plant life. A man closed up ina
damp house may well be compared to an unhealthy tree in mat-
ters pertaining to light and ventilation. We must realize then
that pruning is needed to give the tree hight and air.

Another reason for tree pruning is the need of building
the size and shape of the tree. In the first place spraying is
now considered one of the essentials of successful orchard
work; and a tall, overgrown tree cannot be sprayed to advan-
tage, so it is incumbent upon the grower to keep his trees
headed low to facilitate this work. Apples from low growing
trees are also much easier to harvest than those from tall, over-
grown specimens. The modern tendency is to prune fruit trees

46 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

so that they will assume the form of a large bush rather than
the tall form that was so common in the older orchards.

Pruning is also used to stimulate the tree or even check
its growth. Winter pruning can stimulate a weak tree toward
making a sturdier growth. A tree of strong growth that tends
to produce wood at the expense of fruit can be made to form
fruit buds by early summer pruning.

A thrifty young orchard:

Time to prune.—We are now ready for the question re-
garding the best time to prune. An old adage says that the
time to prune is when your knife is sharp. While this saying
is not accepted at its face value, still it contains much wisdom.
If all pruners were particular to see that they used only sharp,
clean tools, that work would be accomplished with much
greater neatness and dispatch. Probably the best time to
prune any kind of tree is just at the end of winter and before

PRUNING . 47

the buds have started to open in the spring. By pruning at
this time, when the trees are just ready to start a vigorous
growth, the wounds made in pruning will heal over much more
easily.

Stubs.—-Regardless of the season at which the work is
done, there are a few rules that must be kept in mind con-
cerning this practice. In removing a branch from a tree care
must be exerted to cut just as close to the body of the tree as
possible. Never cut branches so as to leave stubs. They will
not grow and simply die back to the main branch where, as
they decay, they carry infection into the heart of tne tree.
Many orchards have been ruined by carelessness in this detail.

Large branches; Painting wounds.—When a large branch
is to be cut off, it is best to make two cuts. The first cut should
be made eighteen inches or two feet from the place at which
the branch is to be removed. In this way the weighi of the
branch is eliminated and the stub can be sawed off without
danger of splitting the bark on the underside. After large
branches have been taken off, the wounds should be painted
with something to prevent them from drying out and also to
prohibit rot. If the orchard displays any evidences of blight,
bitter rot, or black rot, all the large cuts should be washed
with a disinfectant solution and permitted to dry before they
are painted. It is especially important that all pruners keep
this point in mind. The best disinfectant to use for this pur-
pose is a one to one thousand solution of corrosive sublimate.
This is deadly poison and the bottle containing it should be so
labeled. This solution will kill the spores of any diseases that
are liable to be carried from tree to tree on the pruning tools.
Where small shears are used to work in diseased trees they
should be dipped into the disinfectant before a new tree is
touched. A few hours may be given for the cuts to dry after
they have been washed with the disinfectant, and they should
then be painted to protect the surface from further sources
of infection. Orchardists have used various substances for

this purpose, and the list of paints or “daubs’’ will include
(4)

A8 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

everything from mud to grafting wax. Mud is about the poor-
est material and grafting wax about the best for this purpose.
If grafting wax is used it should be handled hot enough to be

Two-year-old apple tree before and after pruning.

applied with a brush. However, excessive heat is to be avoid-
ed also. A wax can be made with linseed oil as one of the in-
gredients which resembles a thick, sticky paint. Such wax is,
of course, not suitable for grafting. White lead and linseed oil

PRUNING 49

make a good tree paint, and there are several brands of pre-
pared tree paint on the market. These legitimate paints must
not be confused with the so-called “tree paint’? sometimes sold
by fakers who claim such wonderful results if trunks are
painted with their mixture. Trunks of trees should never be
painted with anything that even remotely resembles paint un-
der any circumstances.

The work of pruning begins early in a young orchard. In
fact it begins as soon as the trees are planted.

Apple Pruning.—In the first place we will consider the
pruning of the apple tree. If one-year-old trees have been
planted, they will consist of a single “whip” from four to six
feet in height. This whip should be cut back to a stub thirty
inches in height. During the growing season this stub will
throw out several branches which will be utilized in forming
the permanent framework of the tree. At the beginning of
the second year these new branches must be examined and
three or four of the most vigorous selected to become perma-
nent. All others are cut off. Those that are permitted to re-
main are then headed back much as the original tree was
pruned the year preceding. It will be seen that the work of
training each particular branch of this small tree is but a
repetition of training the tree in the first place. If this first
pruning is done intelligently and carefully it will reduce future
work in this respect to a minimum.

If the planting consists of two-year-old trees, the first
pruning will be, in general, the same as that given to a younger
tree after it had grown for a year. A few sturdy branches
are chosen to represent the permanent limbs of the tree and
these are left after being cut back to a strong bud. It might
appear that by planting two-year-old trees, the planter might
gain a year’s time. This supposition is not true, however, for
the older tree never makes the same vigorous growth that is
accomplished by a one-year-old tree. Of course there are occa-
sional exceptions; but exceptions do not always make rules—
they usually prove them. After the young tree is well started,

50 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

the pruning should average about the same each year. It will
be necessary to keep the centers of the trees from becoming too
thick, and no crossed branches should be permitted to remain.
Different varieties often require separate attention, so sugges-
tions for their treatment will be given at this point.

Pruning different varieties —Since the Grimes Golden
does not require so much light and air as most other varieties,
it will need consequently less attention. A bright red apple

a

Rif : s
bs i Pig er an oe
h

we bs Line Sy a ee
ab a FT - al — we

Before and after pruning a four-year-old apple tree. The tree was started
as a “leader” tree, but at this pruning it was decided to change it
to an open center tree. The pictures show how this was done.
will never acquire its full color unless it has plenty of sunshine.
As a result, red varieties should be so pruned that every apple
on the tree will have its proper share of light. Some of the
Russian varieties, like the Yellow Trarsparent, have a ten-
dency to grow upright, much as a pear tree grows. Severe
pruning sometimes fails to correct this inclination and accord-
ingly this variety constitutes one of the severest trials of the
fruit grower. The Winesap is by nature an open-headed tree.
With but a little training it will cause less work in an orchard
than any other sort; but if neglected, it has a habit of tying

PRUNING 51

knots in its branches. A long neglected Winesap is indeed one
of the most trying trees imaginable to prune.

Pruning old trees.—The work of pruning any old neglect-
ed tree often presents very difficult problems. If the branches
are thinned out enough, too much direct sunlight will result in
the injury known as “sun scald.”’ Sun scald is simply the sun-
burning and killing of bark that has grown too long in the
shade. Old trees should have ali dead wood and all water
sprouts taken out. Water sprouts are the vigorous upright
sprouts found on the trunk and large limbs of neglected trees.
Next all crossed branches that seem to interfere with each
other should be removed. ‘Time and care should be taken to
study the tree as it is shaped. It should always be borne in
mind that the object of pruning is to enable that particular
tree to bear the greatest number of perfect apples possible.
Apples can not be perfect if grown in a tangle of brush. They
must have air and sunlight. Good pruning of old trees is
largely a matter of wise judgment and common sense. I have
seen men prune satisfactorily who could scarcely tell an apple
tree from a peach tree. Those men were not backward in using
their brains on so common a proposition as the best way to
saw out a superfluous limb.

Pruning peaches is a much different proposition from the
pruning of apples. The peach bears its fruit on wood of the
previous season’s growth. Consequently, in order to have an
abundance of fruit-bearing wood each year, the peach tree
must constantly be cut back so as to make it throw out a vigor-
ous growth of new wood. In this instance the production of
wood and fruit are synonymous. When the young tree is
planted it is cut back to a stub from eight to eighteen inches
in height. Authorities disagree as to the best height, but the
author finds that height most advantageous. From this stub
the new growth starts vigorously and the next season the tree
must be thinned out so that only three or four sturdy shoots
are left. These shoots are then cut back about the same way
that the shoots on tie young apple were cut back or preferably

52 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

farther. During the second year the peach will grow to be
quite a tree, and again the extra branches are removed and the
remaining ones are cut back from one-half to two-thirds their
original length. If this practice be neglected, the tree will
soon be out of reach of the grower and all new wood will be
produced so high above ground that a ladder will be needed
to harvest the fruit. There should be but little use for lad-
ders in the modern peach orchard if the trees are proprly
pruned from the start. If they are not pruned right at first,
there is no tree that will grow to more ungainly proportions.
After the third year the peach tree should not be pruned so
heavily. At about that time it may be expected to bear a few
peaches, and if too much of the previous season’s wood is re-
moved, the fruit buds are also decreased in number.

The vigor of old peach trees may sometimes be renewed
by heading them back to stubs. This process is called “de-
horning,” or, better, ‘““deheading.’”’ All the upper part of the
tree is taken off except the stubs
of the main branches. Under fav-
orable conditions these stubs will
throw out strong shoots that will
replace much of the fruit-bearing
wood that was removed. This pro-
cess may also be used on peach
trees after they have been severely
injured by a very cold winter. As
a general rule it is a good policy to
prune any peach tree severely that
has had its fruit buds killed during
the winter. At such time there is
no sacrifice of fruit bearing wood
because under those conditions no
fruit buds exist. The heavy prun-
= od ing will result in a vigorous growth
Severe heading back of a peach that will reproduce most of the

tree after a cold winter. F
fruit bearing area that was re-

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ite)

PRUNING.

54 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

moved and at the same time serve to bring the bearing portion
of the tree nearer the ground and within easier reach.

Plums and cherries differ from the peach in that they do
do not require such severe pruning. Some growers never
prune their cherry trees except to remove weak branches or to
open the head of the tree slightly. The sweet cherries are
quite a problem to the orchardist on account of the fact that
they tend to grow in an upright form with a main stem. It is
difficult, if not impossible, to change this habit of the sweet
cherry tree, and, as a result, the growers of this class of fruit
simply make the best of circumstances. Sour cherries natur-
ally form a low, open top and require practically no pruning.
Plums are sometimes seriously injured by too much pruning.
A few varieties of Japanese plums seem to be moderately ben-
efited by pruning, but in no case should it be as severe as that
outlined for peaches.

Pears should not be pruned at all, if the greatest protec-
tion from blight is desired. Blight is a disease that seems to
attack the more tender growth, and, as pruning tends to stim-
ulate growth, such work should be avoided. Sometimes it is
necessary to remove a few branches to improve the shape of
the tree; but, aside from this, the general pruning of the pear
should be avoided.

The pruning of grapes is an art in itself. There are many
systems in vogue and each grower thinks his method best. As
a matter of fact, many systems have given admirable results
and it is a choice of which system is better suited to a given
district. In this text space can be devoted to only one of the
many different methods of grape training and this particular
form is known as the “‘Knifin’’ system. There are even varia-
tions of the Knifin system, but the general idea is the same.

When grapes are planted, from one-third to one-half the
roots are cut away. This is perhaps the first pruning to which
the vines are subjected. After planting, the vines are cut back
to one or two buds. The vines are permitted to grow the first
year without supports. At the end of the first season they are

PRUNING 55

again cut back to the ground and during the second summer
they should be induced to form only one or two upright canes.
When these canes have reached a height of four to six feet they
should be cut back and made to throw out side branches.
Wires are then stretched on posts at a height of from four to
six feet from the ground. If two canes have been allowed to
develop, one of them should be tied with its lateral branches
to the top wire and the other to the lower wire. The vines
should be ready to fruit during the third year. In the case of

r

Illustrating the Knifin system of grape training. The same vine pruned
and unpruned.

grapes the fruit is borne on shoots which grow from buds
located on the previous year’s growth. This is always an im-
portant point to remember in this connection. The lateral
branches that are tied to the wires will throw out numerous
shoots on which the grapes will be produced. The shoot near-
est the main cane should not be permitted to bear any grapes,
for it is reserved for next season’s crop. At the end of the
season all the fruiting portion of the vine is cut off with the ex-
ception of the shoot that was not permitted to bear. This shoot
is bent upward and tied to the wire. It is then headed back for
a distance of from one-third to one-half its length. This cane

56 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

then becomes the renewal branch for the crop of the succeed-
ing year. The accompanying photograph taken in a large com-
mercial vineyard illustrates this entire process perfectly.

The pruning of small fruits will be taken up in the chapter
devoted to them.

CHAPTER Vi;
INJURIOUS INSECTS.

All injurious insects of the farm may be roughly divided
into two classes known as the chewing insects and the sucking
insects. Chewing insects secure their food by eating the tis-
sue on which they feed, while the sucking insects insert their
mouth parts into the plant tissues and withdraw the juices.

Sucking and chewing insects.—It will thus easily be seen
that the two classes of insects must be controlled in entirely
different ways. It would be useless to try to kill plant lice,
which are sucking insects, by applying to the trees or plants
any poison such as Paris Green. Paris Green is an “internal”
poison and must be taken into the system with the food, if it
is to kill the pest in question. Since it is impossible to inject
the Paris Green into the juices of the plant, it is self-evident
that the plant louse would not have access to any of the poison,
and might continue to feast on a sprayed plant with entire im-
punity. Consequently, Paris Green, arsenate of lead, and sim-
ilar insecticides are used only for those insects that actually
eat the tissues of the plant. For the sucking insects sprays
must be used that will kill as they come in contact with the
insects. This latter class of sprays is called “contact insecti-
cides.”

Codling moth.—Probably the best known orchard insect
in America is the codling moth. It is found wherever apples
are grown. No section is free from its ravages and each year
it does thousands of dollars worth of damage
in every state in the Union. This insect may
htt be taken as a type for its entire class and a

m aa | brief outline of its life history will serve as

/ an example of the many chewing insects. The

Larva of coding 2@dult (mature) codling moth is a small,
moth. brownish winged insect about three-quarters

58 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

of an inch in length. The female lays her eggs on or near the
young apples and as soon as the eggs hatch, the tiny worm
(larva) eats its way into the fruit
and remains there until it attains
its full growth. The full grown
larva then emerges from the apple
and spins for itself a small cocoon
under a scale of bark or in some
other well protected place. Within
the cocoon the larva changes
into still another form called the
“pupa.” In the case of butterflies
the pupa ’s called a chrysalis. The
| insect remains in the pupa form,
Adult codling moth (enlarged which is purely a resting stage, for
Himes); various periods of time according
to the species of insect. In every case, however, the pupa
eventually transforms into the adult or mature insect.

For the most part, chewing insects do their greatest dam-
age while they are in the larval state, because it is during that
period that they make their greatest growth. Very often the
adults do not feed at all and in some cases only to a very small
extent. These changes which the insect experiences trom the
time it hatches from the egg until it assumes adult form are
called the life cycle.

Codling Moth control——The codling moth lives over the
winter in the pupa stage and early in spring the adult appears
in orchards. The eggs are laid as above indicated at about the
time that the trees come into bloom. It is the problem of the
orchardist to poison the young worms before they can get
inside of the fruit. This is accomplished by spraying the trees
soon after they bloom, with a solution of arsenate of lead. Most
of the young moths enter the fruit at the blossom end and one
of the objects of spraying is to fill the blossom or calyx end of
the fruit with poison. If the spraying is properly done, prac-
tically all the worms will be killed before having an oppor-

INJURIOUS INSECTS. 59

The second brood of codling moth usually enters the apple at
the side or where the apples touch.

60 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

tunity to damage any fruit. Actual experiments have shown
that it is possible to prevent over 98 per cent. of the injury
caused by this insect. If neglected it is one of the most de-
structive insects known; but with a little careful work it is
easily controlled.

Second brood.—The codling moth has a second brood ar-

=o

Flakes of bark from an aple tree showing cocoons of the codling moth on

the underside. A and B—Cocoons unopened. C—Cocoon containing a pupa.

D—Cocoon containing an as yet untransformed larva. E—Shows a small

hole through the flake of bark. Through this hole one of the smaller
winter woodpeckers has extracted the insect.

riving the last of June or early in July. This second brood con-
sists of individuals that were not killed by the poison or that
developed in some nearby neglected orchard. If all orchards
were thoroughly sprayed, the second brood would be insig-
nificant in numbers. Some orchardists are not as careful as
they should be, however, and as a result even the careful grow-

INJURIOUS INSECTS 61

ers must spray for the second brood. It is the adults of this
second brood that winter over and deposit their eggs tie fol-
lowing spring.

The lesser apple worm is often mistaken for the codling
moth. It bears a striking resemblance to the latter, but ap-
pears much later in the season and can always be recognized
by its peculiar method of injuring the fruit. The codling moth
makes its way directly to the core of the fruit. The lesser
apple worm makes a tortuous mine or tunnel under the skin of
the fruit. The lesser apple worm is a very destructive pest in
stored fruit for the reason that it will migrate from one apple
to another. In this way one wormy apple may be the cause of
injury to several apples in the same barrel. Since the eggs are
laid late in the season, it is often hard to see any signs of the
insect when the fruit is gathered. The only remedy is to spray
with arsenate of lead later in the summer than is usually done
for the codling moth, and by all means to do a thorough job of
spraying.

The plum curculio is perhaps the most destructive of all
insects affecting fruit. While its name might lead one to be-
lieve that it damaged only plums, it is also found destructive to

peaches, cherries and apples and oc-

| casionally other fruits as well. The
adult insect is a small beetle that
k appears in the very early spring
and lays its eggs in crescent shaped

slits which it makes in the fruit.
The eggs are deposited within the
ae eae eae |6|6°)|~|Clesh of the fruit, so that poisoning
with any of the ordinary sprays is

impossible. In a few cases growers have devised a means of
collecting the insects from the trees by placing canvas under
the trees and then jarring them. The beetles fall into the can-
vas, where they are readily gathered up and destroyed. This
method is not entirely effective and so expensive as to be pro-

62 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

hibitory to the average grower. The most progressive or-
chardists are now controlling the curculio by spraying the
trees very early in the spring, just as soon as the first leaves
open. <A strong solution of arsenate of lead is used. This
spray, which is intended to kill the adult insects before they
have an opportunity to lay their eggs, is found very effective.

The peach borer is the name given to an insect that bores
into the base of the trunk of the peach tree. The borer is the

Work of the ecureulio on peach.

larva of a small moth. The adults emerge about the first of
June and from that time until September mature individuals
may be found. They probably lay eggs all summer long. In
the fall the larvae are to be found in all stages from very
small ‘“‘worms” to nearly full grown borers an inch or more
in length. All sorts of plans have been devised to control this
pest; but, from the standpoint of the practical fruit grower,
there is only one method of control that is practical. This
consists of simply digging the borers out with a sharp knife.
They sometimes extend into the roots of the tree and the soil
must be removed from about the trunk to a depth of five or
six inches. This method may injure the tree more or less, but

INJURIOUS INSECTS 63

not nearly as much as the borers would if they were unmo-
lested.

The flat headed apple borer is the larva of a beetle about
an inch in length. These beetles are widely distributed and
probably injure mary kinds of trees. It is certain that they
sometimes appear in isolated orchards that
have been newly planted in cleared spots
in the woods. As a rule, this borer will
not attack a tree unless it has been pre-
viously weakened from some other cause.
They are seemingly on the lookout for

trees that have been reduced in vitality for
The flat-headed apple ther reasons, and, when they once attack

a young tree, they usually make short
work of it. There is no known remedy except to keep the trees
in a state of good health, and if they should be attacked the
borers should be cut out. Of course if the tree is badly dam-
aged it must be replaced.

The imported currant worm is the most common of the
insects injurious to currants and gooseberries. The larva is
about three-quarters of an inch in length and a pale green in
color. Like all leaf eaters, it may be controlled by the use of
arsenate of lead. If the fruit has started to ripen, powdered
hellebore should be substituted for the arsenate. It is not quite
so effective, but there is less danger of poisoning the persons
who use the fruit.

The grape berry moth is the most serious insect enemy of
the fruit of the grape. It causes the common injury known as
wormy grapes, that are to be found in most places where the
vine is grown. The insect passes the winter in its cocoon at-
tached to dead leaves on the ground. Cleaning up the vineyard
will do much to keep this pest in check, but thorough and fre-
quent spraying must be practiced in badly infested vineyards.
The arsenate of lead may be combined with Bordeaux mixture
and the spray made effective for both the grape berry moth

[5]

64 ORCHARD AND GARDEN.

|

cece. AEE

oo

Grapes that have been sacked are usually free from insect injuries and dirt.

INJURIOUS INSECTS 65

and for several fungous diseases. In small vineyards and in
home grape arbors the fruit can be easily protected by tying
a paper bag over the bunches. This should be done soon after
the grapes bloom and before there is any sign of injury on
them.

Canker worms are sometimes very injurious to apple or-
chards. The larva is a brownish measuring worm and the in-
jury consists of eaten foliage. Entire orchards may be defol-
iated by this pest, but the ordinary spray as for the codling
moth will usually prevent any serious damage.

The so-called bud moth is one of the insects that has re-
cently attracted the attention of fruit growers and each year
it becomes more common. The larva of this moth is a brown
caterpillar with a black head and measures about half an inch
in length. The caterpillars winter over in small nests and in
early spring they emerge and eat into the opening buds. An
application of arsenate of lead just as the buds are opening
will usually control the bud moth satisfactorily.

The yellow necked caterpiliay is easily recognized by the
fact that there is a band of bright yellow just back of the head.
It is a large worm, measuring nearly two inches in length, and
feeds in colonies. In young orchards these colonies can be
easily seen and the worms killed. In older orchards that are
regularly sprayed most of the pests will be controlled inci-
dentally.

The tent caterpillar builds a nest in the forks of small
branches on many kinds of fruit trees. The worms are about
one and a half inches in length, blue black in color, thinly cov-
ered with yellowish hairs and marked by a white stripe down
the back. Their nests may be burnt out or arsenate of lead
may be sprayed on the surrounding foliage where they feed.
The fall web worm is similar in all respects to the tent cater-
pillar except that it occurs in the fall, while the tent caterpillar
is found only in the spring.

The pear slug is a slimy, soft bodied larva which attacks

66 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

the foliage of pear,
plum and cherry. It
usually eats only the
upper surface of the
leaf, leaving the skel-
eton of the veins. Ar-
senate of lead will con-
trol it; but, owing to
the fact that the body
of the insect is sticky,
it may be more easily
destroyed by dusting
the trees lightly with
_ powdered lime. Place
| the lime in a burlap
bag, tie the bag to a
pole and shake over
the trees. The lime
sticks to the body of
the larva and quickly
kills it. I have known
fruit growers to get
the same results from
a handful of road dust
sprinkled over the in-
sects. <A little watchfulness early in the season will save much
damage later.

The fruit tree bark beetle is a small insect that bores holes
in the trunk and branches of most any fruit tree. It has been
claimed that this insect will never attack a healthy tree, but
prefers to work on some other tree that has been previously
damaged by another agency. This is probably true, although
trees are sometimes found infested with this form which ap-
pear to be perfectly healthy in every other way. At any rate,
when the beetles once get started there is no cure for the
trouble. The tree should be cut and burned at once.

The pear slug and its work.

INJURIOUS INSECTS 67

The blue flea beetle is one of the commonest pests in the
vineyard. It winters over in leaves and rubbish on the ground
and comes out in very early spring to feed on the new shoots
of the vine. In a few days it may entirely destroy all pros-
pects for the year’s crops. Clean cultivation in the vineyard
and early spraying with arsenate of lead are the only means
of keeping this beetle in check.

White grub worms, the larvae of the common brown “June
beetles,” are frequently injurious in strawberry fields. They
are more common in land that was previously in sod, and for
that reason it is unwise to plant strawberries in sod land. If
the sod can be pastured to hogs for a few months in the fall,
they will usually clean out most of the grubs. The use of
tobacco stems will also make the soil distasteful to them, and it
has been suggested that strawberries be mulched with these
stems instead of straw. The cost will be somewhat more, but
if injury car. be prevented, the extra expense may be Justified.

Sucking insects.—The second great group of insects that
are to be considered are those which obtain their food by suck-
ing the juices from the plant. As has been mentioned before,
these insects can not be killed except by the use of some spray
material which will kill when it comes in contact with their
bodies. These are called contact insecticides. The sucking
insects include many of the worst pests with which the orchard-
ist has to deal. All the scale insects and the plant lice are true
sucking insects.

The scale insects are so named, because when they attach
themselves to a tree or plant, they secrete a plate or scale which
completely covers their bodies and affords them much protec-
tion. It is this scale which makes the insects difficult to control,
for any insecticide must first penetrate through or under the
protective covering before it can come in contact with the
body of the insect itself.

The San José scale (pronounced San Hosay) is easily the
worst and most widely distributed of our scale insects. It was
imported on nursery stock from China many years ago and has

68 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

since been distributed generally over the country by careless
nurserymen. The insect itself is a small sulphur-yellow crea-
ture, but is covered from sight by the circular scale plate. The
young scales are not hatched from eggs, but are born alive and
immediately begin to crawl about in search of a place to which
to attach themselves. This continues for about twenty-four
hours, when the insect attaches itself to a portion of the bark
ard inserts its beak into the living tissue. Very soon after-
ward the secretion of the scale covering begins and this scale
covering increases in size as the young insect grows. Under
the magnifying glass the individual scales appear to be per-
fectly round and with concentric rings extending from the out-
side to the center. The center is slightly raised or pointed.
The first young are produced with the first warm weather in
spring, and they continue to multiply all summer. A few
scales on a tree in the spring may be the means of completely
covering it before fall. The accompanying picture shows a
POEHOU | of pains from an apple tree that is crusted over with the
_ San José scale. In the picture they are
| magnified about ten times or about as
they would be enlarged with a strong
hand magnifying glass. At one time it
was feared that this scale would de-
stroy all the orchards in this country.
After a vast number of them were for-
feited, experimenters found that the
pest could be kept in check by the use
of a spray made from lime and _ sul-
phur. This material is very caustic and
will injure the foliage, if applied during
the summer; so that work toward exter-
minating the San José and other scale
insects must be confined to the winter
season.
Grape Scale-—Some times grape
vines, especially in cities, are infested

The grape scale.

INJURIOUS INSECTS 69

San Jose Seale (enlarged).

70 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

with a scale insect that closely resembles the San José
scale. This is the grape scale, and it is to be found only
on these vines. On the other hand, San José scale seldom
attacks the grape. This insect on the vines is particularly
difficult to control because of the fact that it works its way
under the thin, scaley bark and is protected from any spray
solution that may be applied. However, the lime sulphur
solution will kill it, but it must be applied thoroughly and with
a good deal of pressure so as to penetrate all of the irregulari-
ties of the vine.

Spraying to control scale insects.—In spraying for the con-
trol of any scale insect the fact that these insects can be killed
only by the contact of the spray dope with their bodies must be
kept constantly in mind. Every portion of the tree must be
completely covered with the mixture. Remember that these
scale insects are firmly attached to the bark, and, even if they
were not, they would probably not be so obliging as to crawl
about and wallow in the insecticide. It is the business of the
man doing the spraying to be sure that every portion of the
tree is absolutely covered.

The Scurfy scale is a whitish scale much larger than the
San José. It is to be found in nearly all apple orchards, but
seldom does much damage. The scale insect lays eggs in the
fall of the year and these eggs are protected by the same scale
plate which formerly covered the old female scale. The eggs
are somewhat more difficult to kill than are the insects under
the scale plates of the San José. Whenever this scurfy scale
does become a serious pest, it is often more difficult to kill than
is its Chinese relative.

The oyster shell scale is a common form which is some-
times serious in nurseries and orchards. It is also to be found
in the woods, as it is a native scale. I have found it as far
north as Canada, growing on some of the shrubby dogwoods.
It is fully illustrated in the accompanying cuts. Like the
scurfy scale, this insect lives over winter in the egg state and
is quite difficult to control. One of the most effective means

INJURIOUS INSECTS

(enlarged).

ale

Se

hell

S

Oyster

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Typical plant lice. The large, rounded ones were brown in color and
were inhabited by parasites.

INJURIOUS INSECTS 73

of controlling it is to spray the
trees with whale oil soap or coal oil
emulsion just as the young scales
are emerging in the spring. At that
time they are very easily killed.

Plant lice.—There are many
forms of plant lice, all of which are
highly injurious to the plants on
which they feed. They are small,
soft-bodied insects which obtain
their food by sucking the juices
from the more tender parts of the
plant. The plant lices are called
“aphids” (singular, aphis).

Green apple aphis.—One of the
commonest and most injurious of
the plant lice is the green apple
aphis. It is green in color and
feeds on the under sides of apple
leaves and on the stems and leaf
stalks. It is usually found on
the tender, growing tips of the
branches and after it has been at
work on a branch for a short time,
it causes the leaves to curl under
from the edges. In this way the
insect is greatly protected against
any spray material that might be
used. It winters over in the egg
form. The eggs may be found dur-
ing the winter on the younger
branches. They appear as very
small, glossy black objects, often
gathered together in some num-
bers. These eggs hatch early in

Scurfy scale. spring and the young aphids crawl
to the opening buds where they begin to feed. The orchardist

74 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

should always be on the lookout for these eggs while he is prun-
ing the trees in the winter. By being watchful, he can tell which
trees are infested. If no eggs are found, no control measures
are of course necessary, but if eggs are present, tne trees
should be sprayed with either a strong lime sulphur solution,
such as is used for the San José scale, or with a tobacco solu-
tion soon after the buds open. If this work is neglected until
after the lice have had a chance to curl the leaves any control
measure will naturally be less effective than if the pest were
given prompt attention.

The rosy apple aphis differs from the green form in habits
as well as in color. It is supposed to spend part of its life on
some other plant; but
up to the present time
entomologists have not
discovered what this
plant is. At any rate
the insect does not ap-
pear on the apple until
some time in the early
spring and leaves the
tree after a few weeks.
As a rule it is not so
injurious as the green
louse, because it does
not remain on the tree
during the entire sea-
son. Both this and
the former insect feed
| on clusters of small
fruit and cause them
to become permanent-
ly dwarfed. Apples in-
: | jured in this way will
Early infestation by plant lice produce these never develop into

Seda aes Cae oe marketable fruit and
should always be removed and destroyed.

INJURIOUS INSECTS 75

The black peach aphis feeds on the roots of peach trees
and at certain seasons it ascends to the top of the tree and
feeds on the branches. It is during the period spent on the
branches that it breeds and spreads to other trees. It is easily

Ae

Plant lice on “Golden Glow.”

controlled by spraying
with a tobacco solu-
tion and the root form
may be eradicated by
the use of ground
tobacco stems worked
well into the soil. If
thise as. done. Am diy.
weather, the first rain
will wash the extract-
ed poisons into the
ground where _ they
will kill the insects.
The woolly aphis is
another form that lives
on both the tops and
the roots of trees. It
is most commonly as-
sociated with the ap-
ple. On the roots this
louse will form small
knots or <galls and
around these will usu-
ally be found the white
woolly covering of the
lice. The insect itself
is of a dark color, but
is so completely cov-

ered with the white “wool” that it has the appearance of being
a white insect. This pest is often sent out on young trees
from the nursery. The planter should exercise great care in
examining all trees before planting to be sure that none of the

76 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

unwelcome aphids are present. If, however, they once become
established in an orchard very little can be done to exter-
minate them. They can not be readily killed in the ground,
and the best thing the grower can do is to keep the trees other-
wise healthy and to try to force them into a vigorous growth
in spite of the woolly aphis. The insects as they appear above
ground, on the branches, can be killed by the use of tobacco
solutions.

The phylloxeva is one of the very small aphids that attack
the grape. It is a native American insect and does not do any
great damage to our native varieties of grapes. European
varieties are badly injured by it. The first vineyards of Euro-
pean grapes that were planted in this country were all killed
by this pest. Then it was sent across the ocean to be-
come established in France, where it threatened to wipe out
the grape industry in that country. At last growers adopted
the expedient of grafting the European varieties to American
stocks, and in this way the pest was outwitted. Since all
grapes grown in the Eastern states are of practically pure
American strain, the damage done by the phylloxera does not
court for much. Some varieties that have been produced by
crossing American and European sorts are badly injured.
The most serious work of the phylloxera is on the roots, but
infested plants may usually be detected by the presence of
small and inconspicuous galls on the leaves. The leaf form
does not do much harm and is even sometimes found on Amer-
ican sorts. The insect itself is so smail as to require a strong
glass for its examination.

The grape leaf hopper is an insect that differs from both
the scale insects and the plant lice. It secures its food in the
same manner, however, and has been a most difficult form to
control. It is an unusually pretty insect that by feeding on
the leaves of the grape causes them to turn brown. They are
extremely nervous and when a vine so infested is shaken, the
hoppers will leap off in large numbers. These insects are very
hardy and it requires a vigorous contact insecticide to exter-

INJURIOUS INSECTS hud,

minate them. This has been the main difficulty, in faci, con-
nected with the control of this species. Any insecticide that
would kill the pest would also kill the vines. One of the most
approved and by far the most practical method is to spray the
grapevines with a solution of Bordeaux mixture. This spray
should be directed in such a way as to dislodge the hoppers
from the vines, knocking them to the ground. Another spray
machine should follow close behind the first and spray the
ground with a coal oil emulsion or other strong insecticide,
killing them before they can get back to the vines.

There are many other insects to be encountered in orchard
work, but lack of space will not permit a description of them
all. There are none, however, that will not fall naturally into
one of the groups here mentioned; and, if the student masters
the different forms and learns to recognize them as well as to
prevent them from doing injury, he should have no difficulty
in providing adequate treatment for any other insect that may
come to his attention.

Not all insects are injurious. Some are beneficial in
that they get their living by eating other insects. Those
forms which prey upon others are called parasites and they
do a most useful work in the world. If it was not for the
parasites among the insects. it would not be possible for
human beings to exist, for the injurious forms would quickly
overrun everything and destroy every vestige of vegetation.
Consequently it is wise for us to know and to protect those
forms that we know to be beneficial.

Lady Birds.—Nearly all lady bird bactles are parasites
on other insects. These are usually small, bright-colored
beetles, more or less round in shape and having a rather
characteristic tortoise effect. One of the best known of these
is the “twice stabbed lady bug,” a beautiful little insect, coal
black in color and having on each of its wing covers a bright
red spot. This form feeds on the scale insects and it has
been known to keep the San Jose scale in check. Other lady
birds feed on plant lice and are largely instrumental in pre-
venting very serious injury from these destructive forms.

78 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

The golden-eyed lace-winged fly is another curious and
interesting parasite of the plant lice. The adult of this insect
is a gauzy winged flying creature with bright golden eyes.
The eggs are among the most curious structures to be found
in the insect world. They are white in color and are attached

Blister beetles attacking plum

bloom. Arrows indicate position of

beetles. This twig was stripped in
thirty minutes.

Eggs of the lace winged fly.

to leaves, twigs or grass by means of a slender stalk several
times longer than is the egg itself. The larva of this insect
is often called the ‘“‘aphis lion” because it is so savage in its
attack upon the plant lice.

Blister Beetles —Some of the blister beetles are parasitic
and do much to keep in check the various grasshoppers. How-
ever, most of these same blister beetles are also leaf eaters

INJURIOUS INSECTS 79

at some stage in their life history and it is sometimes diin-
cult to decide whether they do more harm or good. One
form in particular feeds upon the opening flowers of fruit
trees and it has been known to appear in such numbers as
to strip every bloom from an orchard. They are particu-
larly injurious to plums. The orchardist must decide for
himself whether or not such a form as this is doing enough
damage to warrant control measure. If the blister beetles
are doing serious damage, then the trees should be promptly
sprayed with a mixture of arsenate of lead at the rate of
four pounds to fifty gallons of water.

Other. parasites.—There are innumerable small flies that
prey upon insects, most of them so small that they will often
be overlooked. One of these lays its eggs in the skin of the
common green tomato worm. The larva lives inside the
body of the worm and eventually emerges and spins a white
cocoon on the outside of the worm. Often tomato worms
may be found that are simply covered with these cocoons
and some people have had the fanciful notion that they were
the “eggs” of the worm and attempted to destroy them.
Nothing could be more foolish, as these white cocoons will
each produce a single small fly, which, in its turn, will attack
hundreds of other worms.

Most of these flies are so small and inconspicuous, how-
ever, that they will readily be overlooked, so they can take
care of themselves. Very few parasites are destroyed through
the ordinary processes of spraying.

One of the most interesting cases of insect control by para-
sites that I ever saw was in a large nursery where cherry trees
were being grown in great numbers. The one-year-old trees
were loaded with the black cherry aphis. These were confined
to the tips of the branches. There were quite a lot of lady bird
beetles feeding on the aphids, but not enough to get all of them.
The nurseryman started a gang of men out, each with a bucket
of oil emulsion. Each tree had to be treated and before dip-
ping the infested tops into the insecticide the workman would

shake the trees slightly to dislodge the beetles. The tips of
(6)

SO ORCHARD AND GARDEN

the branches were then submerged in the emulsion and the lice
killed. This work was not quite finished by Saturday night
and the nurseryman had scruples against asking his men to
continue the work on the Sabbath. Accordingly the block of
infested trees was allowed to stand untouched until Monday
morning.

When the workmen started out the first of the week they
were surprised to find that there was not a single live aphis
left on the trees, where Saturday night they had been abundant.
Since much of this infested block had been gone over with the
insecticide and at the same time the lady birds had been saved
by being shaken to the ground, it followed that the propor-
tion of parasitic insects had materially increased. All day
Sunday these little beetles, not knowing it was Sunday doubt-
less, had concentrated on the untreated corner of the block
and had made a grand finish of the lice that were sapping the
vitality of the trees.

CHAPTER VII.
PLANT DISEASES.

Cause of disease.—The San José scale is often mentioned
by the uninformed as a disease. It is not a disease any more
than the fleas or. a dog are a disease. In either case the condi-
tion is called an infestation. A plant disease is a sickness or
disorder of the plant caused by the action of some bacteria
or fungus which is growing on or in the plant. In this regard
that condition in human beings and lower animals which is
instantly recognized as a diseased condition has its resem-
blance in plants. In addition, plants also have diseases of
which the cause is as yet unknown. One general term covers
all of these as well as our ignorance of them. They are called
“physiological diseases.”” The peach yellows, which ras puz-
zled scientists for years, is in this class.

Bacteria and fung?.—It may be well to secure some idea
of the nature of bacteria and fungi before proceeding to con-
sider the various diseases which they cause. Both bacteria
and fungi are very low forms of plant life and in most cases
they are almost microscopic in size. Bacteria are always
microscopic. Fungi are frequently large enough to be seen
and easily handled.

Bacteria are one-celled organisms which possess remark-
able powers of increase. A single bacterium may, in the space
of a few hours and under the proper conditions of growth, give
rise to thousands like it. Bacteria multiply either by simple
division, i. e., pulling apart of the minute cell plant, or by the

82 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

formation of spores within the cell. In the latter case each
spore is capable of developing into a bacterium. This process
of spore formation is common whenever the conditions for the
growth of the bacteria become impoverished. The spore is re-
sistant to adverse conditions and will endure more heat, more
cold, and any general abuse than will the active bacteria.

Fungi.—In order to obtain a good idea of what the plant
body of some common fungi looks like and of the way in which
it grows, a piece of stale bread should be moistened slightly,
placed under a cover, and kept in a warm place for a few
days. A white mold will be seen to form over the bread, and,
if close examination is made, this mold will seem to penetrate
into the bread mass. In due time tiny black specks will appear
on the surface of the mold. If these are closely examined, they
will be found to consist of a small black ball surmounting a
stiff, straight stalk growing up from the mass of white
threads. The white threads are called the ‘‘mycelium” of the
fungus; and the little
black specks are the
cases in which the
plant produces’ the
spores. The spores
themselves are micro-
scopic in size, but
serve the purpose of
seeds. A microscope
should be used to ex-
amine the fruiting
| bodies and their con-
tents of spores.

Apple scab.—Of
all apple diseases the
one known as apple
scab is probably most
oe eet widely distributed. It

Apple scab: is to be found in every

PLANT DISEASES 83

place that apples are neglected. It is essentially a disease
of neglect and, like tuberculosis, can be easily prevented.
In fact most of the control work with plant diseases is
work of prevention rather than of cure. The apple scab
fungus lives over the winter in the dead leaves on the
ground. With the first warm weather in the spring
this fungus begins to develop. The fungus in the leaves
starts to grow and soon develops fruiting bodies containing
countless spores. These spores are carried in the wind and
deposited all over the trees. As soon as the young fruit is
formed, as soon even as the young
leaves begin to peep out of the
buls, the apple scab fungus is
awaiting them. It will attack the
fruit, the leaf, and the young
branch, although its injury to the
latter is of minor importance. The
characteristic appearance of scab
on mature fruit is well shown in
the accompanying cut and no
especial description is needed.
This affliction can be controlled
by an application of dilute lime
sulphur just before the flower buds
open and another after the petals
fall, using the same material.
Bitter rot is another disease of
opus Re eee the apple that is more common in
the leaf. the southern districts. It is more
difficult to conquer than scab, but appears later in the year.
The fungus that causes this disturbance lives from year to
year in large, rough cankers on the large branches of the
tree. Each summer a crop of spores is produced and

CO
=

F

A canker on a small limb of
apple.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

sprinkled downward through the
tree, falling on the fruit which
hangs below. Wherever’ these
spores fall on an apple, they may
develop the rot which is so charac-
teristic of the disease. The rotten
area 1S brown in color and it
spreads from the surface towards
the core just as fast as it spreads
on the surface. This will usually
serve to distinguish it from black
rot. The dilute lime sulphur solu-
tion will not control bitter rot.
Bordeaux mixture applied at inter-
vals, starting about five or six
weeks after the petals fall, is the
common procedure. If the dis-
eased areas on the branches are
also cut out and painted with
melted grafting wax, the disease
will be still more easily kept in
check.

Black rot resembles bitter rot,
but it is not such an important
fruit disease, as it is a leaf dis-
ease. The fungus causes’ limb
ecankers that are difficult to dis-
tinguish from the cankers of bitter
rot and these cankers furnish the
infection for the leaves. The dis-
eased leaves usually fall about the
middle of the summer, and in this
way cut off much of the food supply

from the tree during the fall months. This nourishment ob-
tained in the fall is most essential for the fruit crop of the
ensuing year. Thus the effect will be secondary, but is a

PLANT DISEASES 85

Left apple affected with blotch. fight, with bitter rot. Arrow shows
location of blotch. Notice that it is a superficial or skin disease.
serious damage nevertheless. The usual sprays, as for apple
scab, will generally control black rot, but in addition to that

precaution all branch cankers should be carefully removed.
Blotch is a disease of the fruit of the apple that has at-
tracted much attention in recent years, and has apparently
been spreading rapidly enough to warrant any amount of
notoriety. It is another southern disease that has been grad-
eee ually making its way
northward. Blotch win-
ters over in small cin-
namon brown cankers
on the twigs and small
branches. These can-
kers disseminate
spores about the mid-
dle of June. Soon after
this time small brown-
ish patches may be
noted on the _ fruit.
The disease on the
fruit is superficial as
a meine it does not extend far
below the skin. On
the surface the indi-

Apple blotch.

86 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

vidual blotches appear as if they might have been caused by
some light brown liquid splashed on the skin. As the disease
progresses these blotches become hard and much darker in
color. Eventually they crack open and the fruit is ruined.
The first method of control used on blotch consisted of re-
peated sprays applied every two weeks after about the middle
of June. Bordeaux mixture was preferred to the dilute lime
sulphur for this purpose. Recently it has been found that the
disease can be absolutely controlled by spraying the trees in
winter with a solution of commercial lime sulphur diluted at
the rate of one part lime sulphur to five parts of water. This
spray also controls scale insects.

One characteristic of apple blotch is its aptitude for at-
tacking certain varieties and avoiding others. Almost all
greenish or yellow apples, except possibly Grimes, are more
subject to blotch than are the completely red apple. A very few
red apples are injured by this malady, however, and the fol-
lowing varieties, none of which are first rank commercially,
are much more subject to this disease than others: Northwest-
ern Greening, Mann, Smith Cider, Stark, Missouri Pippin,
Ben Davis.

Sooty blotch and fly speck are two minor fungous affec-
tions that sometimes attack apples. The name of each
describes its appearance fully. In the former, evidence of dis-
ease appears like a small dab of soot spread evenly over the
fruit. The fly speck looks exactly like what its name implies.
They are both controlled in regularly sprayed orchards.

Blight is a bacterial disease that affects both the apple and
the pear. It is so much more common on the pear that com-
mon usage has given it the popular name of pear blight. The
disease is identical whether it happens to be on either the apple
or the pear. This disease lives through the winter in the in-
fected twigs and branches and in the spring these infected
parts exude a sticky substance that is filled with the organism
that causes the disease. Insects, including the honey bee, visit
this sticky exudate and carry away a supply of spores on their

PLANT DISEASES 87

bodies. Then in crawling about over the blossoms and twigs
of the apple and pear, they start the trouble in some new local-
ity. Probably, if the honey bee were to be exterminated, the
spread of blight would be greatly checked; but the bee is so
necessary in carrying pollen from one flower to another that

ap

ya

*
Pe

A good way to remove diseased trees in the orchard.

no good fruit grower should ever discourage it in that task.
We are obliged to have the bees in the orchard and so must
risk having them carry the germs of the deadly blight with
them. There is no cure for blight. Diseased branches can be
cut off and burned, but must be taken off much below the place

88 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

giving evidence of affection. Be sure to cut down into the
clean, healthy wood or the malady will simply follow the stem
and eventually kill the entire tree. There can be no mistaking
a tree or branch that has been killed by blight. From no other
cause do the leaves turn black and remain on the tree. In
pruning a blighted tree, the contagious nature of the disease
must be constantly kept in mind. Always disinfect the pruners
with a solution of corrosive sublimate made by dissolving one
part of the chemical in one thousand parts water. This solu-
tion will kill the germs of the disease, but it is highly poison-
ous and must be handled accordingly. After pruning, wash
the wounds with the same solution and when they are dry,
paint them with a good lead paint or with melted grafting
wax.

Blight seems to occuz in different forms at different times.
Sometimes an attack will be very severe; and at another it will
resuit in killing a few twigs. In this respect there is a resem-
blance to certain bacterial diseases that attack the human
family. In some years the epidemic of grip is very sweeping,
while in other seasons the disease will seem more like a severe
cold. Sometimes blight will attack only the twigs and again
only the trunks and large branches. Sometimes it attacks
the trunk near the surface of the ground and kills a ring of
bark around the tree. Such conditions are nearly always
found in orchards in which raw stable manure has been used
around the trees.

-’ Sun-scald.—Blight injury must not be confused with sun-
scald which is in reality a mechanical injury and not a dis-
ease. It is caused by the alternate freezing and thawing of the
trunk. The wood of a tree freezes every winter with very
little effect. When, because of severe pruning or some other
reason, the trunk of the tree is exposed to full sunlight sud-
denly, especially on the southwest side, sun-scald may nearly
always be expected to result. If one should freeze his ear and
use warm water in thawing it, he would probably be so unfor-
tunate as to lose part of his ear. But if cold water or snow
were used, the after-effect would be slight. The sun-scalded

PLANT DISEASES

Hairy root on apple.

90 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

tree experiences this same situation. The winter sun is warm-
est at about 2 or 2:30 o’clock in the afternoon. At that
time it is in the southwest and strikes that side of the tree
with its full force, so that the juices are suddenly thawed out
on that side of the tree. Then the sun sets and the tree just
as suddenly freezes again. As a result the tissues at that period
are minutely ruptured—torn to pieces—and die. A similar re-
sult doubtless follows severe pruning when the southwest side
of a tree is exposed to the scorching, hot summer sun. This
is often the case with young nursery trees. Apple trees more
than one year old will have become tender from their two years’
growth in the shaded nursery row and when they are planted
in the.open orchard they fall an easy victim to the hot sun.
One of the worst features of this scalding is that it provides
exactly the right conditions for the entertainment of the flat-
headed apple borer that was mentioned in an earlier chapter.

The Illinois canker is a disease of the trunk and branches
of the apple tree. The fact that the cankered areas appear to
be blistered should afford easy recognition of this affliction.
When these blisters are shaved off with a knife, they will be
found to extend into and through the inner bark. Each indi-
vidual blister will show as being marked with a black ring.
There is no known control for this disease and whenever it is
found, it should be cut out and burned to prevent spread.

Crown gall, or hairy root, is a disease that is not confined
to the apple alone. It attacks the roots, usually just at the
surface of the ground or a little below. The characteristic
evidence is the formation of large, warty knots, often over-
grown with masses of hair-like roots, that are easily seen
and surely identified. This affection almost always starts in
the nursery. It is bacterial in origin and the bacteria gain
entrance to the plant at the point where the graft is made. All
trees that show any evidences of this affliction should be re-
jected, for they never make satisfactory orchard trees. It is
against the law for any nursery to sell trees having this dis-
ease, and money paid for such stock should most certainly be
refunded.

PLANT DISEASES 91

Peach scab is among the most common diseases of the
peach. A peach so infected becomes mottled with black spots,
which eventually cover the peach, finally turning it completely
black and during this process cracking it open. This disease
is widely distributed over the country, so that there are few
peach orchards not suffering from scab. It is easily controlled
by spraying with a self-boiled lime sulphur solution.

Brown rct is another disease of the peach that also attacks
the plum and cherry. It attacks the fruit in very much the

Stra 2. same way that the
mold affected the bread
as described in the
early. part) of ~ this
chapter. The disease
starts with the plant-
ing of the spore of the
fungus on the fruit,
usually by the wind or
by some insect. Bees
are a pest in a peach
orchard at harvest
time, because they are
always crawling about
over whatever rotten
fruit is present, and
then drag their bodies
over the sound peaches
in their search of the
sweet juices of the
fruit. In this way they
spread serious infec-
tion. When the spore
ay ie 8 a | ‘starts to grow, the

Brown rot of the peach. These dried peaches fungus causes a dis-
hang on the tree all winter and cause infection

REEL GG Ee Cae coloration of the fruit
in a constantly widen-

92 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

ing circle. Eventually the peach becomes brown all over and
then the grayish spore bodies appear on the surface. These
rotten fruits will remain on the trees all winter and are a fer-
tile source of infection for the next year. This disease is
always much worse if there is warm, wet weather at the time
of harvest. This assertion recalls the fact that in growing
moid on bread the moisture was kept in by a glass cover.
Many plant diseases will thrive under similar conditions.
Spraying the peaches with the self-boiled lime surphur early
in the season will remove much danger of infection. In the
case of cherries, especially sweet cherries, this disease is sus-
pected of causing unfruitfulness in some localities. In such
circumstances the fruit was all destroyed before it was given
opportunity to develop. A few applications of se!f-boiled lime
sulphur have been known to correct this condition so that
trees that had been barren for years, produced a _ record-
breaking crop.

Leaf curl is a fungous disease of the peach that would be
quite serious if it were not so easily controlled. It manifests
itself by curling the leaves of the plant as soon as they come
out of the buds in the spring. In fact the spores of the disease
are present on the twigs all winter, seemingly waiting for the
leaves to give them a chance. Late winter spraying with
strong lime sulphur will kill the spores of the disease and at
the same time eradicate any San José scale that might be
present. This point illustrates the fact that the business of
spraying is not a simple one and the grower must have the
situation well in hand if he desires to accomplish most work
with the least expenditure of money and labor.

The peach yellows is a highly important disease, so im-
portant, in fact, that it deserves special attention. It is a
physiological affection, which means that nothing tangible
is known about it. Scientists have studied it for thirty years
or more and it still remains as little understood as it did at
first. Many growers and some scientists are beginning to

95

PLANT DISEASES

on peach tree in winter.

“mummies”

Brown rot

94 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

feel that yellows has a distinct relation to winter killing. It
it known that the yellows is more likely to appear after a
severe winter. It is also claimed that potatoes grown in the
peach orchard will cause the yellows. Scientists have scouted
that theory, but it has recently been suggested that it agrees
with the belief regarding winter injury. When potatoes are
planted in an orchard, they are cultivated until midsummer
and then permitted to rest. The stoppage of cultivation nat-
urally checks the growth of the peach trees. Later in the
fall the potatoes are dug and in digging them, the peach trees
are incidentally given the most severe cultivation to which
they have yet been subjected. Growth naturally starts again
and the tree enters the winter in a vigorous growing condi-
tion—entirely unseasoned against the severity of the winter.
The next year yellows often appears in the orchard. This
riddle of peach yellows will undoubtedly be solved in the near
future, but in the meantime nothing can apparently be done
as a corrective.

The black knot on the plum is a disease that affects the
twigs and branches of the tree. The Japan varieties are
almost never affected by it, and, since it is difficult to control,
the wise orchardist will avoid planting the sorts that are
subject to it. The only means of controlling it is to cut out
and burn the affected branches.

The leaf spot, or shot hole fungus, causes spots to appear
in plum leaves. Later these spots fall away, leaving a round
“shot hole.’”’ To remedy this the trees should be sprayed with
strong lime sulphur solution before the leaves open, and dur-
ing the summer they should have several applications of self-
boiled lime sulphur.

The black rot of grapes causes the berries to turn brown
at first, then black, and finally to shrivel away. The spores
develop on these first berries attacked and the disease will
soon spread over an entire vineyard. Some varieties are
much more liable to rot than others. For relief the vines

PLANT DISEASES

“SMO|[[OA

yoRvoId

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96 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

must be sprayed in the winter with strong Bordeaux or with
winter streneth lime sulphur. During the summer the vines
must be sprayed regularly as directed in the chapter on spray-
ing.

Anthracnose on grape causes a circular spot on the ber-
ries and also forms a small canker on the canes. Severe
pruning to remove the damaged canes and spraying as for
black rot will help control the infestation.

Anthracnose on berries.—Another disease, also called

Grape anthracnose,

anthracnose, appears in whitish spots on the canes of rasp-
berries and blackberries. Eventually the canes die, and the
fruit is always much poorer in quality and less in quantity
on diseased plants. The old canes should be cut out and the
new ones sprayed with Bordeaux.

The leaf spot of strawberry is sometimes a serious dis-
ease, although it does not damage the fruit directly. The

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98 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Strawberry leaf spot.

fungus forms _ small
spots in the leaf and
weakens the structure
so that it is unable to
continue in its normal
functions. Badly in-
fested beds should be
plowed under or burnt
as soon as the crop of
fruit has been har-
vested. Sometimes the
practice of burning
over is decidedly ben-
eficial, as it kills not
only the diseased
leaves, but also eradi-
cates numerous leaf-
eating insects. In new-

ly planted strawberry beds the plants should be sprayed with
Bordeaux mixture at frequent intervals.

CHAPTER VIII.
SPRAYING.

Need for spraying.—Of all the recent developments in
norticultural practice, none is of more significance than
spraying. Not so many
years ago it was pos-
sible to grow most
fruits without any spe-
cial attention other
than an _ occasional
pruning and cultiva-
tion. This time is now
past and fruit growers
everywhere recognize
the fact that the trees
must be sprayed thor-
oughly, if a first-class
crop is to be produced.
Very often the applica-
tion of the right spray
at the right time
makes all the differ-
ence between a full
crop of fruit and none
at all. In one instance
a large sweet cherry
tree illustrated this
point very forcibly. The tree was unusually large and each year
it bloomed freely, but had never ripened any fruit. The owner
of the farm declared that in his twenty years proprietorship

=

Perfect apples are obtained only by spraying.

100 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

he had never seen any ripe sweet cherries on the tree. By the
form alone it was decreed a sweet cherry in the neighborhood,
but no one knew whether the color of the fruit was yellow or
deep black. This tree was sprayed and produced that year
over sixty gallons of fine Royal Ann cherries. With similar
spraying it has done equally well ever since.

Spray materials.—In order to understand spraying fully,
a general knowledge of spraying materials must first be ob-
tained. These may conveniently be divided into three classes,
viz., contact insecticides, internal poisons, and fungicides. The
word “insecticide” simply means a preparation that will kill
insects. Fungicide is the term applied to those solutions used
to kill fungus. ;

Contact insecticides.—There are three contact insecticides
in almost universal use in orchards. The practical grower
must know what they are and how they are prepared and used.

Lime sulphur solution.—The first and most important of
this group is the lime sulphur solution. This is a mixture of
lime and sulphur in which the sulphur, or part of it, is brought
into solution by boiling it with lime. Sulphur by itself is only
slightly soluble in hot water. By mixing it with lime and boil-
ing vigorously, the lime and sulphur form a combination that
is soluble. It is this combined sulphur and lime that consti-
tutes the insecticidal part of the mixture.

The common method of preparing the solution is to take
fifty pounds of good unslaked lime and add enough water to
cover. Then add fifty pounds of sulphur and stir well. As
soon as these ingredients are well mixed, enough water should
be added to make one hundred and fifty gallons altogether, and
the entire mass should be boiled until it develops a deep coffee
color. This process will take from thirty minutes to one hour,
according to the intensity of heat applied. The solution may
be prepared in large iron kettles or might better be made in
wooden tanks into which steam pipes from a small boiler are
permitted to discharge. By using live steam in this manner
the amount of heat may be easily controlled at all times.

SPRAYING

101

Concentrated lime sulphur.—There is now on the market
a preparation known as concentrated lime sulphur solution

| x ae

Using the hydrometer.

which many orchard-
ists have adopted in
place of making the
mixture as it is need-
ed. If properly used,
the commercial solu-
tion is just as good as
the home-made and all
the labor of making it
is avoided. Since the
home-made material
should be freshly pre-
pared as it is used, it
will be easily seen that
it will require time for
preparation just when
the fruit grower can
least spare it. By us-
ing the commercial
solution all the avail-
able time is devoted
to spraying instead of
being taken up in the
preparation of the
spray. The commer-
cial solution is usually

of a uniform strength and can easily be tested to make sure
that one quantity is exactly like every other.” For this pur-
pose an instrument, called the hydrometer, is used. The
hydrometer is made of glass and is so constructed that it

floats in any solution in an upright

position. A graduated

scale on the glass indicates the strength of the solution. There
are many different hydrometers made for testing various sub-
stances, but the one used in connection with lime sulphur is

102 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

known as the “Baume” hydrometer. On this scale the fresh,
undiluted commercial lime sulphur should test not less than
32 degrees. When diluted for use it should test not less than
714 to 8 degrees. The directions put out by most manufac-
turers will advise diluting the material till it tests only 5
degrees, but this recommendation should not be followed, if
good work is to be expected. It is generally conceded that 5
degree lime sulphur will not kill all the San José scaie; and
so the wise orchardist will use his material at the higher
strength.

Tobacco is the base of another kind of contact insecticide
that is used for summer spraying against soft-bodied insects
like the plant lice. The lime sulphur solution at winter
strength can not be used while the trees are in foliage because
it is so caustic that it will burn the ieaves. It is for this reason
that the tobacco preparations are used during the summer.
Tobacco tea may be prepared by boiling stems and refuse
leaves in water, but the ordinary grower has no means of
knowing whether his solution is sufficiently strong. Here
again the manufacturing chemists have been of good service
by preparing a tobacco solution of known and uniform
strength. There are several preparations on the market
which cortain not less than 40% of nicotine sulphate, which
is the important ingredient in the solution. This is the strong-
est preparation of tobacco that has yet been made and it is a
very violent poison. It should be handled with care and
stored out of reach of children. The solution is diluted for
use by adding from 500 to 1000 parts of water according to
the insect that is being eradicated. Since these preparations
vary somewhat with the different brands, it is safest to follow
the directions provided by the manufacturer. These strong
preparations should not be confused with the weak and mostly
inert mixtures, that are offered by some firms. It is a wise
precaution to examine the label on any tobacco preparation
and assure one’s self that the article contains not less than
40% nicotine sulphate.

SPRAYING 105

Coal oil emulsion is a contact insecticide that is not as
popular as formerly. At one time it was widely employed for
the control of the San José scale in winter, and, in a dilute
form, for the control of plant lice in summer. At the present
time it has been largely supplanted by the lime sulphur solu-
tion and the tobacco preparations. There are still a few situ-
ations in which the kerosene emulsion may prove of value.
This is particularly true in regard to some of the scale insects
like the oyster shell scale, which are most easily destroyed
when the eggs are hatching in the spring. The emulsion is
made as follows:

ChippedBhardesoaph 2262 eee ee Bet ee Fin oe 1% pound
iG omeeeetenees tee eee ee Bie eae ee ee So ee Se 1 gallon

INGO SCI C pepe teen es ee A ee ee es eg ee ar pong ees SOMOS

5¢

Heat the water and dissolve the soap in it. Add the coal
oil and churn vigorously. At first the mixture becomes milky,
but soon becomes quite as thick as soft butter. As it grows
cold it hardens and may be kept some time without having the
oil separate out. For summer use it should be diluted with
from twelve to fifteen parts of soft water. If soft water is not
obtainable, a small portion of borax must be added to make a
smooth solution. In use this preparation must be carefully
observed as it is likely to injure tender foliage. This possi-
bility varies with the weather conditions, and, because a cer-
tain strength solution failed to injure a certain plant on ore
day, is no assurance that it wil! not injure the same sort of
plant the next day. As arule, warm, dry weather is favorable
to its use, because under such conditions the oil is evaporated
more quickly. On cool, moist days the oil will remain on the
foliage longer and to most plants kerosene is a positive poison.

The “miscible oils’’ are very similar in their action to
the coal oil emulsion. There are several brands made by
various manufacturers. They are all prepared under the
same principle and as purchased they all appear to be a heavy
dark oil. This oil, when mixed with water, makes a milky

104 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

F ers solution. If used strong enough,
these solutions will kill most varie-

ties of scale insects; but they have
an unfortunate record of having
killed many trees also. Their use
is gererally regarded as danger-
ous, and careful fruit growers are
avoiding them whenever possible.
The lime sulphur solutions will ac-
complish all and more thar any of
the miscible oils and without any
of the element of risk attached to the employment of the latter
class of insecticides.

Internal poisons.—There are only two internal poisons
sufficiently important to be mentioned here. They are arsen-
ate of lead and Paris Green. Arsenate of lead is a chemical
preparation of arsenic and lead. During the past few years
it has come into almost universal use as the best internal
poison. It can be prepared at home, but the home-made sub-
stance varies in strength to such an extent that no practical
orchardist will attempt to make his own. The commercial
composition has been standardized and all that is sold must
come up to United States government inspection. As a result
the orchardist is protected from getting an impure chemical
regardless of the brand he purchases. As supplied by the
trade, arsenate of lead is a pure white paste containing about
50° water. A newly-opened package will resemble a package
of ready-mixed paint in that the heavy portion will be settled
and more or less caked at the bottom. This hard cake should
be carefully stirred up until the contents of the original pack-
age is of a uniform consistency. None of the water in the
package should be poured out as it is all counted in with the
weight of the substance, and, if part of the contained water
should be poured off, a paste would result which would be ma-
terially stronger than would be anticipated. The well-mixed
paste is to be applied at the rate of from two to three pounds
to each fifty gallons of spray solution.

Spray injury on apple.

SPRAYING 105

Dry arsenate of lead.—Recently some manufacturers have
been making a feature of dry powdered arsenate of lead. In
most cases this is simply the ordinary paste form, dried and
ground. Asa result this product is not so finely divided as is
the paste—that is, the particles of arsenate of lead are larger
in the dried form and consequently do not remain in suspen-
sion as long as the paste does. ‘Thus the poison settles in the
spray tank and the solution as it goes on the tree is not uni-
form in strength. The saving in freight, the convenience in
hardling, and the accuracy in weighing are all in favor of the
dried substance; but until the present time at least, the paste
form has procured the best results in the orchard. With im-
proved methods of manufacture the dry form will soon doubt-
less be made quite as effective as the paste.

Paris Green is a combination of arsenic and copper. It
was widely used before arsenate of lead came into general use.
It is not now so extensively employed as formerly except for
certain pests. It is more likely to injure the fruit and the
foliage, and it is altogether more expensive than the newer
poison.

Fungicides.—The preparations that are used as fungi-
cides are interesting on account of the methods which occa-
sioned their discovery. Many years ago the grape growers
near Bordeaux, in France, were much annoyed by having their
fruit stolen by tramps. They made a mixture of lime and
copper sulphate and sprinkied it on the vines nearest the road
to make it appear as if the grapes had been poisoned. After
this had been done several times they discovered that the
vines that had been sprinkled were not only unmolested by the
thieves, but were growing more vigorously than their neigh-
bors farther from the road. In this accidental way was dis-
covered the preparation which has ever since been known as
Bordeaux mixture. It is probably the best general fungicide
that is now known in spite of the fact that it has some unde-
sirable characteristics. It consists simply of the mixture of
two solutions, one of copper sulphate and the other of lime.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

106

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SPRAYING 107

The solutions are prepared separately, and then diluted and
mixed. The following formula is.in general use:

AV Vis Came ee eee at oe ees Se ck eae lye BE ol ee Lo ay 50 gallons
@onperssulphatey==s. =— a le Sey ae, 5 Le eee __. 4 pounds
IN er yas eo eee SE ea fae el REA 9 5 cg a a Orne eee ee Rage 4 pounds

Stock solutions of both lime and copper should be pre-
pared in advance, as the copper is not easily brought into solu-
tion. The best way to prepare these stock solutions is to weigh
out a given number of pounds of copper sulphate, place it in
a burlap bag, and suspend it in a barrel containing the same
number of gallons of water as pounds of the chemical. After
the copper is all dissoived the resulting solution will repre-
sent one pound of copper for each gallon of water. Similar
measures should be taken in the preparation of the lime solu-
tion. When ready to start spraying, take four gallons of each
of the solutions, dilute them separately and then mix. Unless
special diluting tanks are at hand, this is somewhat trouble-
some and the same results can be obtained in the following
manner. Take four gallons of the copper solution, place it in
the tank of the spray machine which has been previously
almost filled with water, and stir vigorously. If the machine
is equipped with an agitator, this solution may be easily mixed
by working the pump a few moments. While the solution is
being stirred vigorously, add the four gallons of the lime solu-
tion. The solutions should never be mixed in the concentrated
form, as the resulting combination is not nearly so effectual.
If the spray tank holds more than fifty gallons, proportionate
quantities of the stock solutions can easily be used.

Seif-boiled lime sulplhur.—Probably second in the list of
fungicides comes the self-boiled lime sulphur mixture. Its
value as a fungicide was discovered from the fact that it was
at first thought to be a means of controlling the San José scale
in the summer time. It failed to accomplish the latter pur-
pose, but proved itself to be admirably adapted to the work of

108 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

controlling certain plant diseases. The self-boiled lime sul-
phur mixture differs from the lime sulphur solution in that it
is simply a mixture of the two chemicals made in a specific
way, and not a chemical combination. It is prepared in the
following way:

Good unslaked-stone line: == = = = Ee 8 pounds
Kiower \sulp huts = ee ee cee es ee 8 pounds
Wiate@tryie S22 See ce oe ee ee ee ee ee 50 gallons

The lime is placed in a barrel and enough hot water added
to slake it. Hot water increases the heat which is normally
generated in slaking. As soon as the hot water is poured on,
the sulphur must be added and the entire mass stirred for a
few moments. It should boil vigorously from its own heat
so that no artificial heat need be applied. If the solution is
permitted to boil long enough, some of the sulphur will com-
bine with the lime and the resulting compound will be a clear
coffee-colored liquid which rises to the top. This action may
be remembered as very similar to the one obtained in the
preparation of the lime sulphur solution. For fungicidal pur-
poses it is not desired that the cooking should progress farther
than this stage. Just as the brown liquid begins to form, cold
water should be added to stop the boiling. In practice, it is
customary to add enough water to complete the required fifty
gallons. The preparation is then ready to spray on the trees.
Care and judgment are necessary in the preparation of self-
boiled lime sulphur, but if the fruit grower learns to check
the boiling at the proper time, he may well believe that his
undertaking is becoming successful. This fungicide has an
advantage over Bordeaux mixture in that it can be applied to
any kind of foliage without the danger of burning. It is also
the only satisfactory spray for use on peaches and plums. It
is not so vigorous in action, however, and has not proven that
it will perfectly substitute the Bordeaux in the apple orchard.

Commercial lime suiphur.—A dilute solution of the com-
mercial lime sulphur is another fungicide with which every

SPRAYING 109

fruit grower should be
familiar. All the lime
sulphur solutions have
the power of killing
fungous growths. or
preventing such dis-
eases. The commercial
lime sulphur, however,
is so strong in its ac-
tion that it must be
greatly diluted when
used in the summer as
a fungicide. The usual
method of employing it
is to weaken the com-
= mercial material with
Filling a spray tank. forty parts water. At
this strength it is not
injurious to the apple tree, but will probably cause serious
burning on the ieaves of the trees bearing stone fruits. Dilute
lime sulphur solution is extensively used as a first spray on
apples and the Bordeaux is applied later.

Dusting.—Formerly spray materials were much employed
in the form of powder or dust which was blown over the trees
by special blowing machines. There have been recent at-
tempts to revive this form of treatment; but, for the most
part, the agitation has been made by the manufacturers of
dusting machines. In practically every instance the use of
dust has not given as good results as the wet spray.

Spray machinery is now made in a great variety of styles,
but the most common outfits are the barrel and power rigs.
The barrel outfit is designed to be used by hand. It consists
of a barrel to contain the spray material, a pump to force the
liquid out, and a stirring device to agitate the solution in the
barrel. Many spray materials tend to settle if allowed to
stand and the agitator, as a consequence, is a highly essential

110 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

part of the outfit. The pump should by all means be made of
brass, and should have a suificiently large air chamber to
maintain a uniformly high pressure. Most barrel outfits will
furnish enough force to supply only one line of hose. In fact,
it is unwise to attempt to make them supply more than one
line, for a lowered pressure would most assuredly result which
would be greatly detrimental to efficient service. All pumps
should be provided with a gauge to determine pressure, which

Winter spraying.

should never read below 100 pounds on hand pumps and 175
pounds on power pumps. But higher pressure can be main-
tained at whatever point the power plant is able to furnish.
More solution is required if applied at a low pressure, and it
will not prove so effectual. The high pressure breaks the
spray substance up into small particles and provides a very
thin coating for the entire tree.

The barrel and pump can be mounted on a low sled or set
in a small wagon. If the ground is rough, the sled is much to
be preferred for it is less likely to upset. The spray outfit

SPRAYING LAL

must also include fifty feet of good half-inch rubber hose, an
extension rod and a good nozzle. The hose should not be
shorter than the length specified, because a shorter hose will
prove a handicap for good work. When a tree is being sprayed
the workman must go completely around and spray all sides
of it before he can consider his work well done. The long
hose will enable a man to spray an ordinary tree without mov-
ing the machine. The hose should have been made for spray-
ing and should not ke an adapted garden hose, which can not
endure the high pressure and which will quickly be rotted by
the chemicals. Good half-inch spray hose should last for three
years and should not cost more than from fifteen to seventeen
cents per foot. Extension rods are made of bamboo, lined
with a thin brass tube. The brass tube is threaded at both
ends so that the nozzle can be attached to one end and the hose
to the other. There should be a good brass cut-off valve be-
tween the hose and the rod. All these parts can now be pro-
cured of standard size, so no difficulty should be encountered
in the matter of proper fittings. Nearly all bamboo rods are
made alike, and, as a rule, are perfectly satisfactory. Never
use an iron pipe as an extension rod, because it is heavy and
difficult to handle and flakes off inside, thus clogging the
nozzle. Iron extension rods are furnished only with the
cheapest outfits. Nozzles are of various styles, which differ
with the manufacturer. The nozzle known as the double
Vermorel has long been popular with fruit growers, and is
capable of extremely effective work. Its only possible objec-
tion is the ease with which it becomes entangled in the
branches, but this has no weight with the careful workman.
The disc type of nozzle has come into general use in the
past few years, and is steadily gaining in popularity. To the
experienced, however, its only obvious advantage is that it
does not catch in the branches, thus facilitating speedier work,
but this fact might easily become a disadvantage since careful
spraying is to be encouraged rather than speedy work.

The Bordeaux nozzle throws a fan-shaped sheet of spray.
(8)

112 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

It is not used to any great extent by practical growers, but is
often used in spraying shade trees because it throws a large
volume of spray, thereby insuring quick work.

Power sprayers are built on the same principle that is
used in the hand pumps except that the power for running
them is supplied by a gasoline engine. This type of outfit is
usually provided with a tank which will hold from one hun-
dred to two hundred and fifty gallons of spray material. The
smaller sizes are best adapted for hillside work, as they are
much more easily handled.

Power pumps are built with either one, two, or three
cylinders. The three cylinder pump, called a triplex, has prac-
tically three times the capacity of the single cylinder and is a
very efficient pump. The engine used on any spray machine
should be constructed as light as possible and should not be
larger than is absolutely needed for the work. It is absurd
to haul a heavy four or five-horse-power engine about over the
orchard when one of half that capacity and weight would do
the work just as well. Experienced orchardists find that a
small one and a half or two-horse-power engine gives all the
power needed and has the added advantage of lightness. In
every case the engine should be just as simple in construction
as is possible, for fewer parts to become deranged means less
delay on such account. Any gas engine, even the best of them,
will need attention from time to time. Keep the machine well
oiled and clean it thoroughly after each spraying. It will then
require the minimum care and attention.

Small hand sprayers are made in a great variety of de-
signs. Most of them are but little more than playthings, but
occasionally such a sprayer will be found most convenient for
small work. One of the best types is that known as the com-
pressed air sprayer which is made by a number of different
firms. It consists of a tight, brass cylinder holding three or
four gallons. The pump is inside the cylinder and is operated
much like a bicycle pump. The cylinder is filled partly full
of material and the cap screwed into place. Several pounds

SPRAYING 113

of pressure are then pumped up in the can over the liquid,
and this pressure forces the spray substance out through the
nozzle. For small shrubs and vines around the house, this is
quite a convenient outfit, but it does not supplant the larger
machine in the orchard or the fruit garden.

Freak sprayers.—There have been, from time to time,
several kinds of “freak” sprayers on the market. Most of
these are run on the same theory as the little hand sprayer
above described, and none has proven in the least satisfactory.
The prime objection to them all is that they have no means
of agitating the spray liquid. In this respect they have all
failed.

Careful spraying.—Regardless of the kind or type of
spray machine used, there is one point which the fruit grower
must always bear in mind, which is that his work must al-
ways be done thoroughly. A man may own the finest spray-
ing machine on earth, and still make a failure of his spraying.
I have seen this proposition work out so often in actual prac-
tice that I cannot make the argument strong enough. Suc-
cess in spraying does not depend so much on the kind of ma-
chine used as it does on the man who is directing the nozzle.
If trees are to be slighted, the money wasted in such manner
might better be saved and put into some other business. But
the future will be the harvest time to the careful fruit grower
—to the one who knows how to spray and is not afraid of
work,

Spraying is not a disagreeable task if proper preparation
for it is made. In the first place, old clothes must be worn
that can be discarded at the end of the season. If the sprayer
is not afraid of his work, he will undoubtedly be covered with
the spray material. However, the spray solution has no in-
jurious effects on the human animal except a most discourag-
ing odor. The winter strength lime sulphur solution is rath-
er caustic and sometimes burns a tender skin. To avoid any
discomfort, everyone who sprays should take the precaution
to oil his hands and even his face before starting work. Tal-

114 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

low is a good thing to use for this purpose and vaseline is ex-
cellent. If glasses are not worn, a pair of large amber glasses,
such as are used on bright days in winter or on the water,
should be secured. They will most admirably serve the double
purpose of protecting the eyes from the strong light as well
as the spray. They are better than goggles because the latter
fit so tight that they permit ro circulation of air about the
eyes, which soon become very tired and hot.

Winter or dormant sprays are usually applied for the con-
trol of scale insects and for certain plant diseases. The strong
lime sulphur solution will control most scale insects and also
help control various fungous diseases. Besides it acts as a
cleansing wash to the trees, which would make its application
profitable even if there were no scales present in the orchard.
By cleaning the bark of the tree it seems to put new vigor into
every branch. Any spray applied in winter should be used
at a high pressure so as to drive the liquid under the small
flakes of bark and into all the cracks and crevices. Sczle in-
sects prefer such sheltered places, which are also convenient
for the lodgment of the spores of diseases.

The first spray to be applied to apples is usually put on
when the buds are first showing their pink color. This should
consist of the commercial lime sulphur solution diluted with
forty parts water. To this is added two pounds of arsenate of
lead to each fifty gallons of solution. The combination makes
a spray solution that is effective against leaf-eating insects
and against such fungous diseases as the apple scab. This
spray is designed to eradicate the scab, the curculio and the
bud moth.

The second apple spray is applied just after the petals
fall. This spray is intended primarily to control the codling
moth and is often called the codling moth spray. It will be re-
membered that the codling moth usually enters the fruit at the
blossom end. The object of this treatment is by using high
pressure to force the spray substance into the calyx cup of
every blossom. A little later in the season, as the young

115

SPRAYING

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116 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

apple begins to grow, the lobes of the calyx curl inward and
close the cup. Unless the fruit is sprayed before these lobes
close, very limited opportunity remains for controlling this
pest. A dose of spray poison must be inserted into each calyx
and the young codling moth will be poisoned at its first bite
toward eating his way into the apple. The dilute lime sul-
phur is used as a basis in this spray which is identical with
the first spray.

The third application is made about two weeks after the
second and has the same object in view. It is to a certain ex-
tent a “good measure” spray, so if any of the spray work is
to be left undone, this third spray should be the one neglected.
The identical dilute lime sulphur solution is used as in the
first two instances.

In spraying for the lesser apple worm a very high pres-
sure should be maintained and a nozzle used that will form a
very fine mist. In the codling moth spray a high pressure
was used to drive the poison into the calyx cup. In the con-
trol of the lesser apple work a spray will be needed to coat all
parts of the tree and all parts of the fruit as well. For this
purpose I have found that the triple Vermorel nozzle, with a
pressure of at least 200 pounds, will give by far the most sat-
isfactory results. Other attempts at controlling this pest with
a disc nozzle have absolutely failed.

Peaches should be sprayed just as the calyx cups are being
crowded from the growing fruit. These little husks protect
the young fruit until it is two weeks or more old. In this
early stage spraying would do no good because the poison
could not be brought into contact with the young fruit. This
spray controls the scab and in a measure it also controls brown
rot. Where the latter disease is serious the trees should have
a second, and perhaps a third, application later in the season.
The self-boiled lime sulphur solution with three pounds of
arsenate of lead paste to each fifty gallons, is the spray used
in all summer sprays for the fruit.

In vineyard spraying it is customary to mount the noz-

SPRAYING 7

The proper time for the peach spray.

118 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

zles in such marner that they do not need to be turned, and
are permanently fixed in position. Enough nozzles are used
so that the entire vine surface on both sides is coated at one
trip between the rows. This is a similar arrangement to that
used in spraying field crops, except that nozzles can be placed
in such a way for field work as to cover several rows at a time.

The chief points to remember in connection with any kind
of spraying are: first, know what you are spraying for;
second, know what you are to spray with, and third, do the
work thoroughly.

CHAP THRE Exe
SMALL FRUITS.

The term small fruits is applied to the various berries,
such as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries and to cur-
rants and gooseberries. All small fruits require special care in
planting and cultivating, but are otherwise easy to raise. They
seldom require much spraying and are so productive that they
are a source of profit to growers. They all come into bearing
at an early age, and for this reason they make admirable crops
to grow between the rows of trees in an orchard. Strawber-
ries are a practical intercrop in vineyards.

Rich soil is to be preferved in the commercial production
of any of the small fruits. They adapt themselves to a wide
variety of soils provided that there is enough available fertil-
ity present to force them into a sturdy growth from the start.
Like all other quick crops, they demand that the fertility be
available in order to be of immediate use. On poor soils the
plants very often succumb before they are able to establish
themselves. It is not advisable, therefore, to attempt the
growth of berries on any but the best soil obtainable. New
ground, that is, ground which has been recently cleared, is
nearly always suitable for small fruits, because it contains
plant food in large quantities and is usually in a condition
which favors the retention of moisture during dry weather.

Soil preparation.—Next to the fertility of the soil comes
the preparation. The ground must be thoroughly prepared
before attempting to plant small fruits. Apple and peach
trees sometimes grow well in newly cleared ground with very
little preparation, but the same is not true of the berries. If

120 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

it is planned to use small fruits as an inter-crop in orchards
that are planted on new ground, it will be wise to cultivate
the land in some other crop for a year before the berries are
planted. This practice will insure much better cultivation
when small fruits are planted. Without cultivation they are
sure to perish. If small fruits are planted on old ground that
has been cultivated for many years, some measure should be
adopted to restore fertility. A good plan is to sow a crop of
cow peas or soja beans and turn them under some time dur-
ing the fall previous to the planting of the berries in the
spring. If old pasture land is used, it should be plowed in the
fall and frequently gone over with a spike tooth harrow to
break up the sod and to kill the white grubs that are always
present in such land. The white grub is one of the chief ene-
mies of the strawberry and also injures some of the other
small fruits.

The best time to plant any of the small fruits is in the
spring. Assuming that the ground and especially the surface
of the ground, has been as well prepared as if a garden crop
were to be planted, the actual work is ready to be started.
The plants should be kept moist until they go into the ground
and should be inspected as carefully as fruit trees. In all
cases the roots should be pruned and the tops cut back. The
principle involved is exactly the same as in the case of fruit
trees. The roots as they come from the nursery are always
more or less imperfect and sometimes in small fruits the roots
are matted together in a tight mass. These must be thinned
out and the top reduced so as to restore the balance between
top and root. In planting the various berries the plants should
be set just about as they grew in the nursery and the soil
must be firmed about the roots. This is one of the most vital
points in securing a good stand of plants. After planting, the
berries should be regularly cultivated and no weeds should be
permitted to grow near them. The cultivation should start
within a very short time after the plants are set. Some
strawberry growers cultivate the day after the plants are set

SMALL FRUITS Lt

The ultimate aim of the berry grower—shortcake.

122 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

and keep the ground loosened throughout the season. A safe
rule is to cultivate about as for a crop of corn or potatoes.
Strawberries are an interesting crop, easily grown, and, on
good land, they are very profitable. A single acre has been
known to clear as much as five hundred dollars, but the aver-
age profit is much less than this, owing to poor culture, poor
varieties, or low market prices.

Strawberry varieties must be given special attention, be-
cause a variety that is a success in one section may prove a
disastrous failure in another. Do not plant too large an acre-
age until you know what varieties are suited to your ground
and climate. If no neighbor has made a success of strawber-
ries, it will be best to plant a single row of several varieties
and observe results. The next season suitable varieties can
easily be selected and may be safely planted. A few old varie-
ties have succeeded in many different localities. New varie-
ties especially should be carefully tested before being exten-
sively planted. This last precaution applies to all sorts of
fruits, but particularly to strawberries. A new variety may
prove a wonder for its originator so as to cause him to be per-
fectly honest in advertising it as a splendid new production.
In the adjoining state, however, it may prove worthless, dis-
appoint the planter and give the originator a bad name.

Strawberry plants come from the nursery tied in small
bunches of about twenty-five plants each. These bunches
should be packed for shipment in crates so that the green
leaves are exposed to air. If they were packed in tight boxes
like dormant trees many of them would die. As soon as they
are received they should ke planted, and, if it is impossible
to take care of them at once, they should be heeled in. This
is done by digging a narrow trench and opening the bunches
so that all the roots come in contact with the soil. Lay the
plants in the trench and cover the roots and crown with earth,
firming it with the foot. In planting see that the plant is set
just as deep as it formerly grew. Many strawberry plants

SMALL FRUITS 123

are lost each year by being set too deep or not deep enough.
And lastly clip off all but one or two leaves before planting.

Systems of planting.—Strawberries may be planted either
in hills four feet apart or in matted rows. In the latter case
the rows are four feet apart and the plants are set about
twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. The runners from
the plants in the row are kept trained in the row and a mat of
plants is formed which will vary in width according to the
vigor of the variety. In the hill system the runners are con-
fined to a small space in order to form a compact clump. This
method produces very fine fruit, but not nearly so much to the
acre as the row system.

Some varieties of strawberries produce flowers with im-
perfect flower parts. That is, the flowers of certain varieties
do not contain pollen-bearing organs and so must depend upon
the flowers of other varieties to furnish the fertilizing ele-
ments. Other varieties produce flowers that are perfect, con-
taining pollen-bearing organs. Those sorts which produce no
pollen are called sterile varieties to distinguish them from the
perfect varieties. In growing sterile varieties it is necessary
to plant them in close proximity to plants that are perfect, or
there will be no fruit or at best only imperfect fruit. This is
an important thing to remember, as some of the best varieties
are imperfect or sterile.

Straw mulch.—In the fall of the year, at the approach
of cold weather, the plants should be given a cover of straw.
This protects them during the winter and prevents severe
injury to the roots caused by the alternate freezing and thaw-
ing in the spring. The straw should be permitted to remain
until severe night frosts are past. When the straw mulch
is taken off in the spring, it should be piled in the space be-
tween the rows and left. A slight covering of straw should
be left through which the plants will be forced to push, in
order to keep the fruit off the ground, thereby keeping it
cleaner and making it easier to handle. The bulk of. straw
which is left in the space between the rows will be convenient

124 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

to protect the blossoms from possible frosts by covering the
plants again whenever such emergency threatens, thus sav-
ing the crop. ;

Burning old beds.—Strawberry beds will bear a crop one
year after they are planted; but, as a rule, they are not con-
sidered profitable for more than two or three crops. Some
growers are satisfied with only one crop from a given plant-
ing, while a few permit their beds to stand several years. In
such cases it is customary to burn the beds over after they
have fruited. The old plants are mowed close to the ground,
dried for a few days, and then burnt. This treatment kills all
leaf-eating insects and eliminates much of the leaf spot dis-
ease. Afterward the space between the rows should be well
cultivated and manured. Such precaution will sometimes
rejuvenate an old bed and make it profitable.

Kverbearing strawberries.—A recent introduction in the
strawberry line has been the everbearing variety, which is
simply a sport from the older sorts that tends to produce its
fruit in the fall instead of the spring. As a matter of fact,
such varieties product berries in small quantities all summer,
but never enougn to make them profitable. They are of value
chiefly to the man who grows only a small amount of fruit
for home use. In some seasons the ordinary varieties pro-
duce fruit in October, often enough to make a profitable har-
vest, and they have even been known to ripen under a light
fall of late October snow. Such occasions are experienced
only rarely, but it is probable that in some favorable year,
the everbearing varieties may yield a profit. The cautious
grower, however, will permit others to do the experimenting.

Raspberries.—There are two main classes of raspberries
—the red and the black. The red and black varieties are
also crossed with each other, producing a purple sort that is
quite popular. Red raspberries are propagated by separat-
ing the suckers from the old plants. These suckers or sprouts
are generally produced in great abundance, even resulting in
one of the great sources of trouble in planting this sort of

SMALL FRUITS 125

Strawberries in a young orchard. Notice straw mulch.

126 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

fruit. By this method of propagating, the nurseryman also
propagates and distributes the root gall disease. As a con-
sequence root galls are to be found almost everywhere that
red raspberries are grown. In some sections the disease has
wiped out the red raspberry industry. All plants of this
variety should be carefully examined to make sure that the
roots are in a healthy condition before they are planted. The

Clean culture among raspberries.

black raspberries ave propagated by layering and are, there-
fore, much less annoyed with root disturbances than are the
red sorts. The tips of the black raspberry canes are per-
mitted to grow until they touch the ground when they are
covered with earth. In a short time they take root. The fol-
lowing spring they may be separated from the parent plant
and dug for transplanting.

Raspberries should be planted in rows above five feet
apart and about three feet apart in the row. Some growers

SMALL FRUITS PT,

place them even farther apart than this distance. Constant
cultivation is necessary to insure a good growth. The plants
will produce a few berries the next year after planting and
should be ready for a full crop in two years from planting.
Wires are sometimes used to support the canes, but most of
the large growers depend on pruning to secure a stout stem
which will hold up its load of fruit without artificial sup-
port. No mulch is required on raspberry plantations until
the second summer. Then a light mulch of straw should be
placed around the plants to help hold the moisture during the
dry weather. At this time the plants are so outspread that
they can not be cultivated as closely as during the first sum-
mer and the straw mulch simply takes the place of cultiva-
tion. If preferred, the mulch may be placed next the plants
and a space left between the rows in which the cultivator may
continue its work.

Raspberries should be pruned in the spring before
growth begins. If pruned in the fall they are liable to die
back from the point where they were cut, thus causing a still
further loss of fruit bearing wood. As a rule they may be
shortened from one-third to one-half their length. The re-
sulting fruit will be better and the stem stouter. After fruit-
ing, the old cane should be cut out and all the strength of the
plant permitted to go into the new shoots.

Blackberries grow wild over a large part of the eastern
United States. They prefer a clay loam, but sometimes are
found growing in quite sandy places. They grow best in
those soils in which they grow wild. This is one reason why
they are not more extensively cultivated. The wild crop in
favorable years amounts to enough to keep the price of the
cultivated fruit so low that the grower makes no profit. In
sections that have been settled for a long time and where
there is no waste land, it may prove advisable to plant black-
berries commercially, but there is still a great quantity of
wild fruit supplied to the markets each year. This supply

in some cases is so great that the fruit is shipped by country
(9)

128 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

buyers to distant markets. They are there doubtlessly sold
as cultivated berries. Blackberries are propagated in much the
same manner as are raspberries. Their culture is about the
same as that of the raspberry except that they should be plant-
ed farther apart (from six to eight feet) and they should be
pinched back each summer as soon as the canes are about three
feet high. Such pruning causes the canes to branch and become
very stiff in order to hold up a great load of fruit. Dew-
berries are a species of blackberries, but are produced on
vines that run on the ground. They are not commercially im-
portant.

Currants are easily grown except in heavy clay soils.
They require plenty of moisture and do not endure drouth
well. Their cuitivation is the same as for raspberries, but
they should be planted four feet apart each way. They are
propagated by cuttings taken from the old plants in the fall.
These cuttings should be planted at once and they will start
to grow the following season. In some conditions they are
permitted to grow for two years before planting. The fruit
of the currant is produced on old wood and for that reason
very little pruning is desirable. The important facts con-
cerning their culture are to keep the plants from crowding
and take out all dead wood. Borers may work in the older
canes and give cause for their removal. The red currants
are the most popular and are by far the most easily grown.
There is always a ready market for them and the supply
never seems to be able to keep up with the demand.

Gooseberries are grown much the same as currants. The
European varieties are subject to mildew and for that reason
they should not be planted. A few good crosses between
American and English varieties have resulted in a fruit that
is of high quality and still fairly free from mildew. The
variety known as Downing is said to be such a cross. The
demand for gooseberries is not so great as that for currants
and they are not being so widely planted. A few plants will
furnish all the fruit that an ordinary family will possibly use.

SMALL FRUITS 129

Novelties.—There are frequently new varieties or new
kinds of berries brought to the grower’s attention, and some
of these deserve a slight notice on account of the fact that
they are usually downright fakes. A few years ago a so-
called plant wizard heralded what he was pleased to call a
new garden huckleberry. It proved to be a member of the
rightshade family, devoid of flavor, utterly useless and en-
tirely unlike any known huckleberry, to which family it did
not even belong. More recently the Himalaya berry has been
widely advertised. All trials of it seem to indicate that it is
a totally worthless variety and that it usually kills to the
ground each winter except in the extreme south. So instead
of being a hardy plant from the highest mountains of India,
it is so tender that it can not withstand the mild winters of
the south central states. All novelties that are advertised
as being “the greatest ever’ should be regarded with sus:
picion until their worth is proven.

Small fruits for back yards.—Nearly any of the small
fruits can be grown with success in a city back yard with the
possible exception of the blackberry. All of the others are
small growing plants or bushes and do not require much room.
Currants and strawberries can also be grown in portions of
the yard too shady for other uses. They will not do so well as
if they had full exposure to sunlight, but in a shaded strip
along the north side of a board fence or shed they will pro-
duce a very fair crop.

A bed of everbearing strawberries ten feet square has
been known to supply enough fruit for a small family in the
city. For city growing it is probable that the everbearing
strawberries are the best. At no time will they bear as full
a crop as the older commercial sorts, but they will produce
a small amount of fruit over a long period.

This is also true of the everbearing raspberries, of which
the St. Regis is the best. Twenty-five plants of this variety
will supply more fruit than the average family can use and
its production will be extended throughout the entire summer.

130 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Cuthbert is another good red raspberry that has been a suc-
cess in city gardens. Raspberries, however, should only be
planted where they can have full sunlight throughout most of
the day as they are not shade enduring.

The successful growing of any of these small fruits in a
city back yard depends upon the use of exactly the same sort
of care in the preparation of the soil, planting, cultivating,
etc., as is necessary when the same fruits are grown on a
commercial scale in the country. Accordingly all that has
been said of their general culture is applicable to their suc-
cessful growing in the city.

CEA EAA Reo
HARVESTING.

Under the heading Harvesting, will be considered the
picking and packing of fruit. This subject is highly im-
portant to the grower, because, if proper attention is not ac-
corded this phase of the business, an entire season’s work
might be lost. Many good crops of fruit have been ruined
because they were not properly picked and many more have
been seriously injured by improper packing.

Picking—No other feature of fruit growing requires
more careful attention than the picking of the fruit. In the
“good old days” apples were shaken to the ground and gath-
ered into piles in the open, where they were permitted to re-
main urtil the necessary time was found to put them under

Women and girls make successful apple pickers.

Sy ORCHARD AND GARDEN

shelter. These methods are always wasteful. No grower
need expect to realize a profit from fruit handled in such
manner. Unfortunately, however, a few men still persist in
trying to harvest their fruit in such a way. One of the first
points to learn about harvesting any fruit is the proper time
to pick it. Some crops are ruined if allowed to hang too long,
while others will yield greater returns and will be of better
quality if they are permitted to stay on the tree as long as
possible. The market should, in some cases, be considered,
because fruits intended for the use of a nearby market can

The crop from an average seven-year-old tree in a well-cared-for orchard.

be permitted to ripen more fully on the tree than if they
were to be shipped a great distance.

Time to pick.—Apples will vary in the time of picking
with the variety. Ordinarily they should be gathered as soon
as they acquire their full color, but there are some excep-
tions to this rule, which will be dwelt on at greater length.
Some growers prefer to have their apples remain on the trees
till the stems part readily from the twig. This condition
usually means full maturity of the fruit. In some cases,
nevertheless, it is not desired that fruit should be fully ripe
at picking time. If part of the crop begins to fall to the
ground of its own accord, that is an indication that the fruit

HARVESTING 133

should be picked. Most growers do not wait for the fruit to
reach this state of maturity. The Ben Davis should hang as
long as possible, for the color and quality are thus improved.
This variety will keep better, however, if picked as soon as
it is well colored. The Winesap should not be gathered until
it acquires full color and the stem parts from the twig easily.
The Grimes should be picked before it becomes clear yellow

Perfect fruit represents a profit. Imperfect fruit is often a loss.

in color; in fact, it is better picked while the skin is still per-
fectly green. A yellow Grimes will rot easily, while if picked
green, it will sometimes color well in storage. The Delicious
should be gathered as soon as it is well colored. Like the
Grimes, it is a poor keeper if allowed to hang too long, but if
picked while still hard and firm, it will keep till May in cold
storage and come out in perfect condition. The Jonathan
must be picked even before it is well colored, for it will be
much less likely to develop the Jonathan fruit spot if gath-

134 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

ered slightly green. The Stayman resembles the Winesap
in that it should be allowed to hang as long as possible, other-
wise it sometimes withers in storage. Summer apples are
usually picked as soon as they will do to cook regardless of
their state of maturity. A few varieties, such as Red June
and Liveland, grown chiefly as eating apples, should be al-
lowed to color well before being gathered. Yellow Trans-
parent and Duchess may be picked as soon as they are well
grown. It is a good practice to make several pickings of
summer apples because they do not all ripen at the same time
on the same tree. The last picking may be left to mature
more fully and be disposed of in local markets.

Picking peaches.—The proper time to pick peaches will
vary slightly with the variety and the distance shipped to
market. Ordinarily the fruit is given opportunity to soften
a bit without becoming ripe enough to eat. The average
commercial peach as it comes from the tree is certainly far
from being a tempting fruit. Some varieties, like the EI-
berta, can be picked quite green, will ripen in transit, and
will open up on the market perfectly ripe. Other sorts, like
the Greensborough, which is a splendid peach when ripened
on the tree, will not ripen rapidly after being picked. The
variety has this defect and many growers will not plant it
for this reason. Peaches allowed to ripen on the trees are
always of much better flavor than those shipped to market
green or half-green. If they were left to become soft on the
tree, however, they would be too ripe for use by the time
they were purchased by the city customer. So few city
people know the flavor of the fine orchard-ripened fruit, that
they accept the ripened-in-transit peach without question. It
is a safe guess, however, that the experienced fruit grower
would not eat his own product if he had to take what arrives
in market. It is one of the rewards of the fruit grower to
have all the fine fruit he wants as nature intended he should,
direct from the tree.

Pears are almost always picked green and ripened in

ws)

HARVESTING 1:

storage. They are better in flavor and in quality when
handled in that way than if they were permitted to ripen on
the tree. Western growers pick some varieties as soon as
they are large enough to sell readily, and they invariably
reach the eastern market in good condition.

Plums are usually gathered before they become fully
ripe. The Japan sorts color well after being picked. They
should be quite firm if
they are to be shipped
any distance.

Cherries should be
picked as soon as they
become well colored.
The sweet kinds
should be taken off as
soon as they develop
the sweet flavor, but
before they become
fully ripe.

Grapes should ripen
well on the vines, as
they do not change
much after picking.

Small fruits must
be picked when they
are well colored.
Strawberries are
sometimes picked be-
fore they acquire
much color, because
they do not bear up
well under shipment.
Raspberries are gath-
The America plum—a cross between the once ween ay pee
American native and the Japanese type of fruit. arate easily from the

stems. Blackberries

136 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

are similar to raspberries in this respect. Currants are taken
off while still slightiy green, or at least as soon as they show
color. Their chief use is for jelly-making and, if too ripe,
they are less desirable for that purpose. Gooseberries must
be plump, but quite green, for in this condition they are most
salable.

Care needed.—There are several points in regard to the
picking of the various fruits that must be borne in mind. In
picking apples the fruit must be firmly grasped in the hand,
with the thumb pressed against the stem forcing it tight
against the apple, and then the fruit is given a slight twist,
thus causing the stem to separate from the twig. Care should
be used to pick the apple with the stem entire, but with no por-
tion of the twig. The next year’s fruit bud is often formed
close to the stem of the apple, and careless picking will cause
the spur bearing the new fruit bud to break off and remain
attached to the apple. Such a practice will not only lessen
the chances for a plentiful crop the following year, but also
furnishes a bit of sharp cornered twig that will puncture the
skin of the apple wherever it touches other apples. Apple
pickers should always have their finger nails closely trimmed.
A very slight injury might result from a sharp nail which will
readily provide a place for the spores of rot-producing fungi
to enter. The apples should be picked preferably in baskets
or in specially constructed canvas picking bags, but never
in grain sacks. Apples gathered in sacks will not only bruise
each other, but risk greater injury from being crowded
against the branches by the picker. Remember that the apple
is a valuable fruit and accord it the same treatment as any
other high-grade product. The fruit should be gently laid in
the receptacle—not thrown. And when containers are emp-
tied the fruit should not be poured out, but should be lifted
out carefully.

Peaches are picked with the same care as apples. Having
very short stems, they should better be twisted off so as to
separate cleanly from the tree. If they do not part from the
stem easily they are probably too green to be harvested.

HARVESTING 13

Women pickers—Small fruits are usually gathered by
women and children and picked directly into the packages in
which they are to be marketed. The customary package is
the quart box, and a tray is generally provided for the pickers
which will hold four or six of these boxes. The pickers fill
the boxes in the field, but the careful grower will repack each

A packing table.

box to assure himself that the bottoms are filled with good
clean fruit.

Packing sheds.—As soon as any fruit is picked it should
be taken to some central point, usually a packing shed, and
there packed for shipment. Packing sheds are of any size,
shape or arrangement according to the individual needs of
the grower. Sometimes a tent erected in a berry field will

138 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

serve as a small fruit packing center, to which all fruit will
be brought to be crated. Some small fruit growers build
sheds, and the apple and peach growers will, of course, have
extensive facilities for the handling of their fruit under
cover. Apple packing houses are generally much larger than
those for peaches, because the peach crop moves in and out
of the packing shed promptly, while the apple crop may be
permitted to accumulate for several days before being
shipped.

Apple packages.—There are two standard packages for
apples. The barrel has for years been the standard package
in the East and the bushel box in the West. Recently there
has been a tendency on the part of eastern growers to adopt
the box as a standard package and it is gaining in popularity
every year. One fact that has hindered the general adoption
of the box in the East is lack of information on the part of
eastern growers. Through inexperience they have lacked the
skill required in packing boxes and they have not realized that
the box package is suited only to strictly fancy fruit. Old-
fashioned methods which still prevail over a large part of the
eastern apple districts have resulted in the production of large
quantities of poor fruit. Imperfect fruit is not suitable for
box packages and it is a great mistake to attempt to market
it as such. Wherever good fruit is produced, it will pay the
grower to investigate and learn how to pack the box. This
skill can not be accomplished by reading the directions in a
book and can be learned only by actual first-hand experience.
There are a few principles of box packing, however, that can
be stated concerning the proper procedure and which when
mastered will do much to assist the practical application of
such knowledge.

Apples for box packages should be sorted for size, color,
and condition. Apples of different sizes can not be packed
in the same box and be expected to result in a standard pack.
The color should be uniform throughout the box. Concerning
condition, it should be emphatically borne in mind that no 1m-

HARVESTING

A well-packed box of apples.
(Photo by H. H. Coburn.)

140 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

perfect fruit can be tolerated in a box package. Boxes must
be packed with perfectly clean fruit, entirely free from rot,
scab, worms or any mechanical blemish. Each apple should
be wrapped separately in paper. The box should be lined
with paper.

The standard apple box measures 1014x1114x18 inches,
inside measurements. The top and bottom must be made of
thin, flexible boards. Place the empty box so that the bottom
is inclined from the back towards the front. Line it wtih
white paper, ordinary unprinted newspaper stock, in such a
way that two flaps of paper are left to cover the top of the
box. Have a supply of thin, soft paper cut about ten by ten
inches in size, to wrap the fruit. A rubber finger tip pulled
over the thumb of the left hand will enable the sheets of
paper to be picked up easily and quickly. Take up a sheet
of paper so that it lies flat in the left hand, select an apple
with the right hand, place it in the center of the paper with
the blossom end down, and twist the flaps over and around the
fruit. Be sure that the stem of the apple comes at the point
where the corners of the paper are folded or twisted, for if it
were placed in the center of the sheet, it would perforate the
paper and possibly injure the apple next to it. There are sev-
eral systems of placing the apples in the box which vary with
the size of the apple. The pack known as the ‘‘three-two”
pack is an easy one for beginners and is adapted to several
sizes of fruit. First apples are placed in the two lower
corners of the box. Then one is paced midway between these
two, which leaves short spaces between the end apples and
the middle one. The next row consists of only two apples
which occupy the spaces mentioned. The next row repeats
the arrangement of the first row, consisting of three apples,
and so on alternately. When the first entire layer has been
arranged in the box, the apples should be so tightly packed
that there can be no possible movement of one apple against
the other. When the box is completely filled, the apples
should extend above the top of the box for a distance of one-

HARVESTING 141

half inch at each end and one and one-half inches in the
middle. This bulge is produced by turning some of the apples
in the middle of the box so that their longest diameter will
extend perpendicularly. Some packers use a slightly larger
apple in the center of the box, but the really fancy packs are
made by using apples that are quite uniform ir size. When
the box is full the paper is folded over the fruit and the lid is
nailed in place. A box press is generally employed in nailing
on lids. The reason for making the top and bottom of the box
of thin material is to accommodate the bulge in the pack.
When the lid is pressed on, some of the bulge is pushed down
to the bottom so that both top and bottom will bulge approxi-
mately the same. The thin, flexible top and bottom act as
springs to hold the fruit firmly in place and prevent it rolling
about and becoming bruised. If there should be any shrink-
age in storage, the top and bottom boards will still keep the
package tight. In storing and shipping boxed apples they
should always be piled on the sides, which are of thicker ma-
terial and will prevent the fruit from being crushed. Other
styles of pack include what is known as the “straight’’ pack,
the “two-two,” the “four-three,” the ‘offset’? and other packs.
Most of these are good, but the straight pack should never be
used unless the size being handled can not be packed in any
other way. The objection to the straight pack is that each
apple bears directly on its neighbors, thus almost certainly
bruising the fruit. The various styles of packs are dia-
grammed in the accompanying illustrations.

The barrel nackage is adapted to apples that do not grade
high enough to be put into boxes, although some eastern grow-
ers still pack their finest fruit in barrels. Formerly there was
no standard size for apple barrels, and, as a result, fruit
reached the market in barrels that held from two and a half
to four bushels. The barrel has now been standardized in
most apple-producing states and, while the prescribed meas-
urements will vary slightly in the different states, the barrels
all hold practically the same, viz., three bushels. A barrel of

142 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Stra ight “Pac k

f= 3s Packs

Showing the start of four different packs for box apples.

HARVESTING 143

that capacity will measure about sixty-four inches around
the bulge, severteen inches across the ends, and have staves
twenty-eight and a half inches in length. The government
has adopted a certain standard for the packing of apples in
barrels, and fruit so packed and so labeled must come up to
certain requirements. This rather absurd standard is not
much used by growers because it tolerates the presence of
ten per cent. wormy apples. The box has not yet been stand-
ardized by the government, and still it is practically impos-
sible to find an imperfect apple in a box packed in any of the
sections which have familiarized themselves with the smaller
packages. Growers realize that good fruit is their best ad-
vertisement, better even than any artificial government stand-
ard. Every grower should attempt to pack his fruit in such
a way that it will be above suspicion rather than in accord-
ance with a special standard. If it is perfect fruit, then it will
be above any standard yet established.

In packing a barrel of apples, a layer of corrugated paper
should be placed in the bottom of the barrel. Then a layer
of apples is laid in with the stems down. In fancy barrel
packs two layers are placed in this manner. Then the fruit is
carefully poured in from containers that can be lowered into
the barrel. The barrel should be shaken frequently to settle
the apples as much as possible. It should be remembered that
when they are shipped, they will receive rough handling so
it is necessary that they be packed solid to avoid bruising. Fill
the barrel and then carefully put on another layer of apples
with the stems toward the top. Lastly place another sheet of
corrugated cardboard on top and then head the barrel. Place
the barrel in a barrel heading press, loosen the top hoops and
force the head into place. This process will crowd the fruit
down into the barrel and no doubt injure some of it slightly,
but will not damage it as greatly as if it were permitted to
rattle around loosely in the barrel on account of slack pack-
ing. After the head is forced into place, tighten the hoops.

Some practice is, of course, needed in order to do this quickly
(10)

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

144

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HARVESTING 145

and neatly. Do not use tco many nails in fastening the heads,
only enough to hold the hoops securely in place. Remove the
press and tack lining hoops in the head at each end. Lining
hoops are sections:of curved wood to fit inside the staves on
the head of the barrel, to prevent the head from working loose.
Lining hoops should always be used, if the barrel is to be
shipped. The label should be put on the end of the barrel
which was dowr. while the fruit was being packed. That end
will open with a more uniform show of fruit and create a
better impression than will the other end. Neatness of pack
is an important feature in selling fruit.

Early apples are often sold in bushel baskets, which are
convenient containers for such fruit, but should not be used
for winter packages.

Peach packages will vary in different localities. Some
sections ship all peaches in bushel baskets, while others ship
in crates containing six small baskets. For fancy fruit the
latter is a very attractive and popular package. But it is
slightly more expensive than the bushel basket and requires
more skill and experience in packing. Its relation to the
peach trade is the same as that of the box to the apple trade,
i. e., it is adapted only to fancy fruit.

Plums are shipped in a variety of packages. In the West
they are marketed in small crates containing several small,
square baskets. In the East the Climax basket is a popular
package. It is a veneer basket with a handle, resembling the
grape basket, but much larger.

Grapes are packed in four- and eight-pound baskets,
which are fitted with a thin, wooden top to be held in place
with a specially bent wire staple.

Small fruits and cherries are sold by the case or crate,
which contain either sixteen or twenty-four quart boxes. Red
raspberries are often sold in pint boxes. Formerly this class
of fruit was sold by the “drawer,” which was a large flat tray
holding as much as the grower desired. The drawers were
returned to the grower and used over and over again. They

146 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

soon became dirty and unsightly, and their use has been dis-
continued by all progressive growers. The crates of small
boxes always present a neat, clean appearance and while they
cost more, they nevertheless demand a better price for fruit.
Tight pack.—No matter what kind of fruit is being
packed, or what sort of a package is being used, fruit must be
packed tight. The package must be completely full and must
be filled in such a way that there will be the minimum of set-
tling in transit. All packages should be neat and clean and
should bear the name of the grower and the name of the
variety of fruit contained. The ultimate aim of the fruit
grower is to sell the fruit he produces. A clean, honest pack-
age is the best advertisement possible in the selling of fruit.

An old orchard in full bloom.

CHAPTER XI.
MARKETING.

Uncertainty of conditions—After a crop of fruit is
grown and packed, it remains to be marketed and this detail
is often by no means a small part of the year’s work. The ex-
perienced fruit grower does not purchase a luxurious new
automobile as soon as he learns that his peach crop has not
been killed by cold weather; nor does he begin to plan an ex-
tensive pleasure trip when the buds begin to show color. He
realizes instead that his year’s work is not assuredly safe until
he has the money from its disposition in his pocket. Profits
on fruit are often very large, much larger than on any other
crop taken from the soil, but the grower remembers from ex-
perience that there are many chances of loss. A hail storm
may ruin a fine crop of fruit on the day before it was to have
been harvested. Then, a crop may be gathered, escaping the
hail, only to encounter overstocked markets with prices so low
that the returns will not pay the freight. Fruit may spoil in
transit, or it may rot in storage; and last of all, dishonest
commission men are still doing business. Loss from that
source is probably now less than formerly, and as time goes
on, there is every indication that the dishonest dealer will be
eliminated, so that the sale of fruit will be conducted on a
basis that is fair to both the producer and the middleman.

Methods of marketing.—There are a number of ways of
disposing of a crop of fruit. If the grower does not have too
large an acreage, and has easy access to markets, he may
peddle his products from door to door. It is probable that
this method yields the best returns, because it eliminates the

148 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

cost of transportation, commission, and multiple handling.
Of course such methods are impossible if the orchards are
extensive or if they are far from market.

Parcel post.—Some growers sell their fruit direct to the
consumer by advertising in local papers and magazines. Since
the advent of parcel post this scheme has gained considerable
favor and has been reported as giving excellent results. If
fruit is to be sold by parcel post it must be packed in a light,
tight package that comes within the size and weight limits of
the postoffice regulations. Since these regulations are as yet
frequently changed by the postoffice department, it seems un-
wise to publish any measurements that may be in effect at
the present time. The grower who contemplates sending fruit
by parcel post should consult the local postoffice authorities re-
garding permissible sizes of packages and rates to various
points. In advertising fruit for sale the grower must first
decide on a fair price for the fruit itself. The first expendi-
ture will be for the corrugated cardboard packages in which
the fruit is to be packed, the packing of the fruit and the
postage. Then the cost of advertising should be estimated and
the sum of expenditures incident to shipping, added to the
actual value of the fruit itself, should give the proper price at
which to quote the fruit in the advertisements. For instance,
if the orchardist thinks he should secure forty cents net for
his fruit, he must add to that forty cents the cost of the pack-
age, about seven cents, the cost of packing, about three cents,
and the postage, about fifteen cents. This gives a total of
sixty-five cents, which’ is the theoretical price at which he
should advertise his fruit, but the cost of advertising must not
be overlooked. It has been found that the cost of advertising
on this class of produce amounts to from fifteen to twenty-five
per cent, of the selling price. Consequently the above-de-
scribed peck of apples could not safely be advertised at less
than seventy-five cents per peck.

Consider the cost.—There is a large and growing demand
for apples and other fine fruits supplied from the producer

MARKETING 149

direct to the consumer, and it is probable that the parcel post
will help develop this class of trade. The grower must exer-
cise care that his selling expense does not eat up his profits;
and the illustration just given will furnish a fair idea of the
relation between the net selling price of the grower and the
actual purchase price of the consumer. Many orchardists do
not stop to figure the cost of growing and packing their fruit.
They think that a certain sum of money returned on a crop of
fruit should be all profit. But a record should be kept of the
work done on the orchard. Accounts of the costs of pruning,
spraying, cultivating, picking, packing, and selling should be
filed so an intimate knowledge of the selling price can be ob-
tained in order to estimate a profit. Producing a crop of good
fruit is an expensive process. But a good product is, at the
same time, very valuable. When a selling price is set, see that
it is high enough to make a fair return on the investment, and
is also a reasonable price for the consumer to pay. It is human
to expect to sell more low-priced apples than high-priced ones,
but, if a customer cultivates the habit of buying fruit, he will
soon find himself unable to do without it. If the public would
form the habit of eating fruit not once in a great while, but
every day, such a condition would not only help sell fruit, but
would not be a detriment to the victims of the habit. It will be
one of the habits that will be of untold benefit to the ones who
practice it.

Commission men.—Probably the most common way of dis-
posing of fruit is through the medium of the commission man.
A commission merchant is one who receives fruit from the
grower, sells it for him and then sends the receipts, less the
commission, back to the grower. Often the commission firms
are blamed for failures of which they are not guilty, but some
authentic cases on record prove that the dealer, evidently not
satisfied with receiving his rightful commission, tried to ap-
propriate the entire shipment. However, for the average
erower the services of the commission man are indispensable.
He is the only means of communication between the producer

150 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

and the consumer, and in nearly every case the price expected
for his work is very low, when the amount of work and worry
involved is considered. A commission man will receive a ship-
ment of fruit from the grower, pay the transportation charges,
drayage charges and in some cases will have to repack the
fruit. These costs are charged against the selling price of the
fruit and are deducted from the amount finally sent the grower.
No charge for store room, salesmanship, book-keeping, or ad-
vertising is entered, for these items are all covered by the ten
per cent. commission which the dealer extracts from the selling
price as his pay. In return for this ten per cent. commission,
the grower secures the equivalent of a store of his own in the
city, with the added advantage of not being confined to any
one store or any one city. So the middleman appears to be a
very useful link in the chain between the orchard and the city
purchaser.

Association selling.—In some localities a different system
of selling has been organized, known as association selling.
The growers form an association which will sell all fruit
produced under their brand and guarantee. In the northwest
and in California this plan has been developed most satisfac-
torily, so that the growers have been enabled to secure better
prices for their fruit as well as to reach distant markets with
relative safety and ease. The influence exercised on the grow-
ers by these associations has also been highly beneficial, because
such organizations have adopted a very high standard of qual-
ity and have insisted that fruit sold under the association brand
must meet those requirements. This idealism has resulted in
making the growers more alert in the control of pests and
more careful in the packing of boxes and crates. As an extra
precaution every package that is sold has an identification
number on it so if its contents caused complaint, the source can
be easily traced. The cost of selling through associations is
not quite so high as the cost of selling through the agency of
commission dealers, but, on account of a recent increase, a few
growers in the Northwest have indicated their dissatisfaction

MARKETING ES

with association methods. Probably association plans have not
yet been developed to their utmost perfection and will steadily
increase in popularity. The association plan is not practical
unless there are a number of growers located near each other,
all of whom are experts capable of producing the very highest
grade of fruits. Association methods are not adapted to the
selling of low class produce, because one of the features of the
plan is the advertising which the fruit receives, and it is very
poor policy to advertise worthless commodities. Any article
should be just as good or preferably a bit better than described
by the advertisement, in order to realize the best returns.

Soft and quickly perishable fruits are, of course, sold as
soon as they are ripe enough to ship. A few growers sell their
fruits on the tree, with the stipulation that the purchaser
should manage the picking and packing. The price received in
such an arrangement must be low enough so that the buyer
has a safe margin to cover any possible risks, for none are as-
sumed by the seller in this case. Occasionally, however, the
grower will sell his fruit for less than it actually cost him to
prune, spray, and cultivate, merely because he had no means
of ascertaining these costs.

Apples are often sold on the tree, but more frequently the
grower chooses to pick and pack his own crop. Then the prob-
lem of the proper time to sell confronts him, for which there
is only one solution. The best rule to follow is to sell when-
ever a price is offered which will pay a reasonable profit. There
is sometimes heavy loss connected with the continued storage
of fruit. There has been a tendency toward planting apples
that are known to keep well with the expectation of holding
them in storage until spring, when a good price will be demand-
ed. This practice is often a great mistake. One grower picked
and sold his Jonathans before they were much more than half
colored, as cooking apples. Since the market for such apples
was brisk at that time, he realized five dollars per barrel for
his crop. His neighbors laughed, held their apples until spring,
paid storage on them and finally sold the crop for three dol-

52 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

lars per barrel. It is not an unusual experience to find that
storage charges have consumed the profit on a crop, with the
storage bill amounting to as much as the cost of producing the
fruit. Such exorbitant charges should be controlled by a state
public utilities commission, with the hope that in the future
these gross over-charges will be righted. In some localities the
growers have combined to build small storage houses of their
own, thus reducing the costs to a minimum. All old horticul-
tural books for three-quarters of a century have presented
plans for the construction of apple store houses, but the idea
has never become popular possibly on account of uncertain
conditions.

Altogether, there is no branch of the business of fruit
growing that requires as much judgment as the selling of the
crop. It is the final test of the grower’s ability, in which too
many growers fail.

PART II

GARDENING

GARDENING

CHAPTER TE:
PLANNING THE GARDEN.

The family garden is a universal institution, but is not
developed to the same state of perfection in our United States
as in foreign countries. Very few farm homes exist at the
present time without the customary kitchen garden, but in
rare cases are they cultivated to the best advantage. In most
situations the entire management of the garden is left to the
women of the household. The men have not realized that the
returns from a well-kept garden are just as valuable and
more important than from any similar area on the farm. As
a result the status of the American garden has remained very
much as it was a century ago. We have not been so alive to
the improvement of the quality, quantity and variety of our
vegetables as of our fruits. In many instances the garden
space is still devoted to a few staple vegetables, such as beans,
corn and cabbage.

Foreign gardens produce not only a great quantity of the
old standard foods, but in addition they grow a much greater
variety of vegetables than are ever found in the American
garden. Numbers of old farmers are known to exist who have
never eaten asparagus and seemed to consider it as an orna-
mental shrub to be grown in the door yard by the ‘“women-
folks.” As a rule the improvement of the varieties in our
American gardens has been the result of the work of a few

156 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

specialists and the commercial seedsmen. After a new sort is
introduced and cataloged for a number of years the seedsmen
have gradually retired the less worthy sorts, and the public
has blindly purchased whatever was offered. Fortunately the
public has benefited by the outcome, which has been evolved
with very little codperation on the part of the individual
planter. This statement is not meant to reflect on the success
of the occasional progressive grower, but to stimulate the lag-
gard into a realization of what he is losing.

Vacant lot gardens.—Practically every farm has its own
garden. Recently many city folk have taken up gardening,
and as a consequence, the vacant lot garden idea has spread
rapidly. In most of our American cities enough vacant land
exists which, if cultivated, would supply vegetables to the
entire town. It has been said that the entire Japanese nation
could live on the products from the waste land in our Ameri-
can fence corners. This theory is especially true in regard to
waste land in cities. Most cities enlarge their boundaries in a
manner that exceeds all normal demand. A land owner at the
edge of town will decide to dispose of his holdings in the shape
of a new city addition of lots, so the ground is taken out of
cultivation and divided into small parcels. It is not, as a rule,
rapidly taken for building purposes, so for a period of years it
lies idle, when it could very well be used for garden space. The
idea of vacant lot cultivation is a worthy one that should be en-
couraged to increase in popularity. Such work will be a step
toward the highest economic development. It will mean the
production of a crop on ground that was previously sterile.
The idea of the family garden is not primarily to produce
foodstuffs to sell, but to furnish fresh vegetables to the family.
If a market can be found for any surplus supply, that will
yield additional profit.

Farm gardens.—On the farm there is generally a choice
of locations for the family garden. It is extremely advisable
not to situate it in an out-of-the-way corner which can not be
used for any other purpose. Put it where its importance de-

PLANNING THE GARDEN 157

serves, on the best ground that is available. Choose for the
garden a location that has a favorable exposure, where the
sun will strike it early in the day and as late as possible. If
a slope is used, choose one which inclines toward the east or
south, as soil on such slopes will become warm earlier in the
spring than it will on a north or west slope. A garden on a
hill will be ready for planting earlier than one in a valley and
it will not have its plants killed so early in the fall. One season
in a garden extending along a hillside the plants at the foot of
the hill were killed three weeks before those on top of the hill.
In this manner the yield of tomatoes and other plants may be
greatly extended.

The soil for the garden should be as rich as possible, and
in addition to the native fertility it should be well enriched
with stable manure each year. Stable manure is much better
than any other form of garden fertilizer for general use, for
it not only adds the chemical elements most needed, but also
furnishes plenty of humus, which must be present to keep the
garden in good physical condition. A well manured garden
soil will retain moisture longer and will require less cultivation
than one that has been given little or no manure. Chemical or
commercial fertilizers should be avoided in garden work as
they have never proven better than manure and in many cases
their long continued application tends to destroy the texture
of the soil, causing it to become pasty.

Locate the garden as conveniently to the house as can be
managed. As the products of the garden are to be used
chiefly by the family, the site chosen should be close enough to
the home to be easily and quickly reached from the kitchen.
Such a location will prove not only a convenience, but a great
time-saver for the women of the house whose time and labor
should be conserved as carefully as that of the men.

Arrangement.—In arranging the different plants in the
garden it is well to have the perennials at one side along with
the space for hot beds or cold frames. Perennial plants are
those that live from one year to the next, planted perma-

158 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

nently in the garden. Among them are asparagus, rhubarb
and the herbs, such as sage. Some herbs are annuals, but it is
well to have them occupy the same space from year to year.
The portion of the garden that is devoted to annual crops
should be arranged in long rows or in flat beds. The old style
of making garden provided for raised beds, with paths be-
tween them. These raised beds were objectionable in several
ways. In the first place they were adapted to hand cultivation
only. It was impossible to use a horse in such an arrange-
ment and even the modern wheel hoes were found impractical
for use in such beds. Then, too, much good space was wasted
by the large number of patches that were necessary, and
moisture was wasted as well. By raising the beds, a greater
amount of surface was exposed for evaporation and, as a re-
sult, the soil dried out very quickly.

Manure.—The garden plot should be given a heavy cover
of well rotted manure in the fall of the year, which may be
plowed under either at that time or very early in the spring.
Whenever it is plowed, it must be plowed deep, for that is
one of the secrets of good gardening. Unless the soil is turned
to an unusual depth the garden will suffer during the hot
weather which is likely to appear any summer. After the
ground is plowed it must be worked down well with a good
harrow. Some gardeners use a disc harrow after the plow
and follow the disc with a spike tooth harrow and a board
drag. The intention is to secure a well packed seed bed that
has been loosened to as great depth as possible. Such soil
conditions provide for the prompt germination of the seed and
for its continued growth during the season.

Long rows in the garden reduce cultivation work to the
minimum. Every farmer knows that it is much easier to cul-
tivate a field of corn in which the rows run the long way of
the field than one in which they run the short way. When the
rows are long, fewer turns of the cultivator will be needed,
and it is on the turns that the mest time is consumed. This
fact is particularly true of gardens in which a horse is used

PLANNING THE GARDEN

abor saver.

enience and le

at conv

eee

s

i

The wheel hoe

(11)

160 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

to cultivate the crop. It is also true of those gardens in which
wheel hoes are used. Another advantage of the long row is
that it economizes more space than the short row. Low-grow-

Plant the garden in long rows so as to make cultivation easy.

ing plants should never be planted between rows of tali grow-
ing crops. Plant low growers at one side of the garden and
tall growing vegetables, like corn and pole beans, at the other
side. Rotate the planting each year so that the same crops
will not occupy the same soil twice in succession. This prac-

PLANNING THE GARDEN 161

Rhubard As baragqus

Herbs
Radis Lettuce Oxntons

Tomatoes (on fence )
LeTtuee
Onions

Radishes

pS pike ASeans o be fio awed by

(& hines<
Gra bba —_

Beets
Creel:
S pinace

‘lke be Lolowsd tsi

Kale-

Yc rnibs.

Toniailoes on —Fenee )

Upper—Suggested plan for a farm garden.
Lower—Sugegestion for a garden in a city back yard.

162 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

tice is simply good farming, but is not really so necessary in
the growth of garden crops as it is with the usual farm fields,
for the reason that a more liberal supply of manure is pre-
supposed for the garden than for the regular crops of farm
grains and grasses.

Double crops.—Often the garden space can be so arranged
that two crops of vegetables can be secured from the same
ground in the same year. There are many combinations that
can be used to secure this result. By obtaining an early start,
many of the spring vegetables will be harvested before it is
too late to plant the customary summer garden. As an ex-
ample, sweet corn may follow a crop of early peas. The peas,
being a legume, really improve the soil to a certain extent,
making it more productive for the crop of sweet corn which
follows. Lettuce and radishes are quick-growing, cool weather
crops which mature early and which are worthless if per-
mitted to stand too long. The plan, then, is to force them to
a quick growth early in the spring, use them while they are
prime, and finally utilize the space for later vegetables. Beans
are a good crop to follow these spring relishes, but cabbage
or tomatoes may be used. Later sowings of lettuce may be
planted to follow the early crop of the same vegetable and
the same theory is true of sweet corn. If the first planting of
sweet corn is of an early maturing variety, it will ripen in time
to make way for a later planting of the same sort which can
be used in the fall. Crops which mature about midsummer,
such as early cabbage, corn and some kinds of beans, can be
succeeded by plantings of kale or spinach for fall use. The
accompanying diagrams indicate some plans for the average
garden, but they are, of course, to be modified to suit the indi-
vidual tastes of the growers. Crops to follow early seedings
are also indicated.

Fencing.—The garden should by all means be enclosed by
a good fence, which should be so constructed as to exclude all
farm animals and especially chickens. Small mesh wire fence
is most often used for this purpose and is probably the best

PLANNING THE GARDEN 163

and cheapest material. Some gardeners prefer to build a tight
board fence, but such a protection is expensive to build, and
has the added objecton of providing too much shade for
economical planting. Gates must be furnished large enough
to permit the entrance of the manure wagon and enable cul-

The garden drill.

tivation by horses. Some growers have designed their fences
in such a way that the fence at either end consists of a series
of removable panels which can be quickly taken down while
the garden is being plowed and cultivated. Such an arrange-
ment enables the horse to be turned outside of the garden and
results in clean cultivation to the ends of the rows with no
danger of uneven rows where the horse turns. This kind of.

164 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

fence costs but little more than the ordinary tight fence, and
if it is built properly, is just as serviceable as if it were made
of continuous wire. At all events a garden fence should be
built substantially and permanently. A few growers believe
in changing the location of the garden every limited number
of years, but there is no good reason for such a theory. Well-
kept gardens will continue to increase in productiveness each
year, if they are properly tilled and regularly manured. Old
garden soil should be very rich and warm. Why should years
be spent in building up a productive soil only to change the
garden to a new locality? The gardens of Europe have been
in use for generations and without exception they are more
fruitful than any of our American gardens. With them inten-
sive gardening has become a necessity, while with us it should
be practiced before it is our last resort.

CHAPTER, IL
SEED SELECTION.

Seeds.—During recent years a great deal of attention has
been given to the question of seed selection and, as a conse-
quence, many important discoveries have been made. In the
discussion of the propagation of fruit plants the point was
developed that it was impossible to pedigree fruit trees, be-
cause of the fact that reproduction in the nursery is purely
vegetative. The blossom with its attendant mixture of pollen
does not play any part in the growing of a young fruit tree,
A scion (twig) is simply cut from the tree which it is desired
to propagate, and this scion is induced to grow in a seedling
root. The young fruit tree is merely an extended growth of
the tree from which it came. In this same relation the point
was established that fruit trees that grew from seed seldom
produced fruit similar to that of their parents. These two
points should be kept in mind when considering the selection
of garden seeds.

Flower parts.—In order to understand the manner in
which a seed is produced, a fundamental knowledge must be
first established concerning the typical flower parts of a
plant. On examining any common flower it will be found that
it consists of certain very definite parts whose shape and ar-
rangement may vary somewhat on comparison with other
flowers, but whose functions are similar in nearly all cases.
On the outside of the flower, and often covering it in the bud,
will be found certain green leaf-like divisions. These parts
are called sepals and together they form the calyx. Inside the
calyx is another row or rows of divisions forming in most

166 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

cases the showy part

of the blossom. These

parts are called petals

and when considered

as a whole, they form

the corolla. Inside the

corolla iS a) row 06

slender stalks — sur-

mounted by a cap of

powdery yellow’ or

orange. These are the

stamens and in the

center of the group of

stamens is found a

heavier stalk, usually
with a sticky end,

which is called the pis-

til. The parts which

are the important ones

Flower Parts: Cx Calyx. C. Corolla. Ss. in the work of the
ptamens) sePs Pistia On Ovary. flower are the stamens

and the pistil. The pistil is connected directly with the ovary in
which the seeds are produced, but the seeds can not be devel-
oped until some of the pollen which is produced in the stamens
is transplanted to the sticky top of the pistil. When the pollen
reaches that point, it quickly develops a microscopic tube which
passes down through the stalk of the pistil and unites with the
embryo seeds in the ovary. In some plants only pistils are found
present and the plant is forced to depend on the pollen of its
neighbor of the same species. The pollen from one species
will not fertilize seeds of another species. Radish pollen will
not fertilize lettuce seed, but pollen from yellow corn will
readily fertilize the seed of white corn. In .a few cases it is
found that, while both stamens and pistils are found in the
same flower, the seeds are more readily fertilized by pollen
from some other individual plant. This general mixing of

SEED SELECTION 167

pollen results in seeds almost hopelessly mixed and it also
accounts for the great variation found in plants grown from
seed.

New varieties.—At this point the question naturally
arises relating to long established varieties that have re-
mained the same for many years, such as Burpee’s Bush Lima
pean, Livingston’s Stone tomato, Golden Bantam corn, ete.
The first step toward answering this question is to ascertain
how these varieties originated. To begin with, some gardener
or seed grower probably noticed a particular plant in his
garden which seemed to be better in some respects than
others of its kind. Sweet corn is a good plant to consider as
an example. In a field of mid-season corn a grower finds a
stalk which ripens its corn earlier than the rest and is of a
golden color. He saves the seed from this stalk, plants it by
itself the next year, and awaits results. Part of the resulting
corn proves to be similar to the original stalk and the rest is
quite different. The grower then selects those ears which
come nearest to the type that he is trying to develop and makes
another planting the succeeding year, again thinning out all
the ears but those which approach his type. After a few
years of this selection he finds that practically all his seed
comes true to type, and he can then claim to have developed a
new variety. A similar process was no doubt followed in the
development of all our named varieties of vegetables. As a
matter of fact, there is a constant tendency on the part of a
plant to change its characteristics, sometimes for the better
and sometimes for the worse. This fact furnishes one reason
why so many seed catalogs are continually advertising what
they choose to call improved varieties. It is also one reason
why individual growers who are careless about saving their
own seeds, do not have much success in perpetuating varieties.

Advantage of large seed.—Recent investigations have in-
dicated that improved yields might be expected by using only
the largest and plumpest seeds of a given variety. Experi-
ments were conducted by planting both small and large seeds

168 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

of various kinds. In every case the large seed showed a de-
cided advantage over the small seed. Just how valuable this
discovery will be in practice remains to be seen, but it is cer-
tainly worth further investigation which can easily be pur-
sued by any one with the inclination.

Saving seed.—lf the gardener expects to save his own
seeds, he must select samples from those plants which have
shown themselves to be true to the variety or an improve-
ment on it. Do not let only the poorest and scrubbiest speci-
mens remain for seed. Let the fine big heads of lettuce stand
so that next year a larger percentage of the whole crop will

A simple form of seed tester.

resemble them. Do not try to gather seeds from the tag ends
of the garden, but leave a few plants especially for seed pro-
duction and make sure they are good plants.

Buying seed.—If the grower does not save his own seed,
it must be bought from a reliable dealer. Plenty of seedsmen
sell good seed, but some also sell very poor seed. As a rule, if
a firm has been established in one locality for a long time and
has built up a big business, its reliability can be depended
upon. Some of the ordinary faults of seed dealers are that
they do not keep fresh stocks, they adulterate high-priced seed

SEED SELECTION 169

with cheap seed, and they do not exercise care to label their
seeds properly on the packages. It is a known fact that sev-
eral varieties of lettuce often come out of the same lot of seeds.
The cost of good seed is very little more than the cost of poor
seed. It is expensive economy to attempt to save on the cost
of seed.

Testing seed.—All seeds should be tested before planting
them. In order to have plenty of time for this work the
season’s supply of seeds should be ordered early in the year.
The gardener can test them himself or he can have samples
tested at his state experiment station free of charge. Experi-
ment stations are equipped to examine the purity of seeds and
also their germinating qualities. If germinating qualities are
to be tested at home, one of the devices to secure quick sprout-
ing of seeds is illustrated herewith. It consists of two plates,
one of which is slightly smaller than the other, and a fold of
cloth placed between them. The cloth is dampened, the seeds
placed between the folds, and the smaller plate is used as a
cover. Blotting paper may be substituted instead of the cloth.
The top plate retains the moisture. Put the plates in a warm
place and examine from day to day.

The “rag doll” seed tester is one of the most convenient
devices for the testing of the larger garden seeds such as corn,
peas or beans. It is especially valuable in the work with corn
because it enables the grower to make an accurate test of each
ear before planting. All that is needed is a strip of cloth, a
black pencil and a water pail. Take any strip of white cloth
and mark it off in squares about four inches across. Leave a
strip of six inches at each end that is unmarked and allow a
wide margin along each edge. Then take ten grains from —
each ear of corn or from each lot of seed to be tested and
place these grains in a bunch on one of the squares. When
all of the squares have been filled fold the edges of the cloth
carefully over the seed from each side, taking care not to
molest the grains or to mix them. Then very carefully roll
the whole strip up and tie it securely with string. It is now

170 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

ready to be soaked in warm water for a few hours. After
it has been soaked for from three to five hours it can be placed
in a bucket or pail with a little water in the bottom and a cover
over the top. It is well to place a stick of wood in the bottom
of the pail so that the “rag doll’’ does not actually lay in the
water. At the end of a week the tester can be carefully
unrolled and each lot of seed can be examined to detrmine
the percentage of germinable grains. Each square of course
will represent an ear or a lot of seed and the ears or lots
tested should bear numbers and the corresponding numbers
should appear on the cloth.

Seeds should not be gathered until they are fully ripe,
when they should be put into envelopes, properly labeled and
stored in a cool, dry place.

CHAPTER III.
SPRING VEGETABLES.

Certain spring vegetables may be planted very early in
the season before danger from frost is over. This chapter is
concerned only with these plants.

The spring garden.—The time for lance the spring
garden must be determined by the progress of the season and
by the condition of the soil. The rule is to plant the very
hardy vegetables, like onions, radishes and lettuce, just as
soon as the ground is in fit condition to be worked readily.
A wet season will retard this planting time and a dry season
will advance it sometimes considerably. No garden should be
planted at any time unless it is possible to work the soil deep
and pulverize it to a fine, firm seed bed.

The plants suitable for the early garden will be consid-
ered in alphabetical order and not in the order of their sea-
sonal appearance in the garden.

Asparagus.—This vegetable is a perennial, that is, it lives
in the soil from year to year. It is customary to have the as-
paragus bed at one side of the garden where it will not be dis-
turbed. The plants form thick mats of roots from which
heavy stalks are sent up early in the spring. These stalks are
the parts to be eaten and constitute a delicate vegetable that
should be in every garden.

Its culture is quite easy. It is customary to plant one-
year-old roots instead of seeds in order to gain time in the
preparation of the bed. These roots should be planted in rich
earth at a depth of about six inches. For garden culture they
may be planted in rows about three feet apart and placed

1b7(P4 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

from twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. Asparagus
will not thrive in poor soil, and, if the soil is not naturally
light and rich, it should be made so by the addition of an
abundance of well-rotted manure. Keep down the weeds,
especially during the first two seasons. Mulch with stable

Asparagus roots, showing where the shoots originate.

manure in the fall and permit the manure to remain on per-
manently, for it adds to the depth of the soil over the crowns
as well as furnishes much needed fertility. Shoots should not
be taken off during the first year and only sparingly the sec-
ond year. If cut before the plants are well established, there
will be a tendency to weaken the roots and cause the bed to

SPRING VEGETABLES fies

be unprofitable. Favorite varieties of asparagus are Con-

over’s Collosal, Barr’s Mammoth, and Reading Giant.
Beets.—While beets are not among the very early gar-

den vegetables, they are sufficiently hardy that they should

— ee eind

A good type of garden beet.

be planted soon after
the ground is. thor-
oughly warmed. Some
growers even plant
part of their seed be-
fore the ground is
quite warm. Beets
are quite easily grown.
They should be planted
in rows from twelve
to fifteen inches apart,
several inches apart in
the row, and about an
inch deep. By making
successive _ plantings
about a month apart,
beets may be had
throughout the sum-
mer. The tops are
sometimes eaten as
greens, but the form
known as Swiss Chard
is much more adapted
for this purpose. Swiss
Chard is a kind of beet
that does not develop a
fleshy root. The leaf
stalk and the leaves
are eaten, the former

to be prepared as asparagus and the latter to be boiled and
served as spinach or kale. Beets planted late in summer will

174 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

usually keep through
the winter if gathered
after cool weather sets
in and stored in a dry,
cool place.

Corn Salad.—This
plant should be more
generally known, as it
furnishes a substitute
for lettuce before that
crop is ready for use.
It may be planted in
the fall of the year and
protected during the
winter with a _ light
mulch of straw. It
will start to grow as
soon as the least warm
weather approaches
and will be ready for
use before other vege-
tables. It may also be
planted in early
spring. In either case
it should be planted in
drills about a_ foot
apart. Its culture is otherwise the same as for lettuce.

Lettuce-—A garden would not be worthy the name if it
did not include its rows of lettuce. This salad vegetable may
be had in a great many varieties which are suited to differ-
ent purposes. Some varieties form tight heads almost like
small cabbages, some are collections of large loosely curled
leaves and others are a combination of the two forms.

Since lettuce is eaten green, it is necessary to force the
leaves to a quick growth, thus insuring their crispness and
tenderness. Accordingly the soil should be loose and rich

Swiss chard.

SPRING VEGETABLES 175

Every garden should have its row of lettuce.

(12)

176 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

and cultivation should be very thorough. Often lettuce is
planted by sowing the seed broadcast on a small plot of
ground. But this method crowds the plants and prevents
both perfect development and cultivation. It is a much better
plan to plant the seed in rows and thin out as the plants in-
crease in size. In this way the small plants can be used while
quite voung and the plants which are left will have more
space in which to develop. The varieties that form heads
are grown to perfection only by transplanting. The seed
should be sown in a cold frame and as soon as the plants are
large enough and the outside earth warm enough, the small
plants can be transplanted to the permanent row. The rows
should be a foot apart and the heads should be set from
eight to twelve inches apart in the row. They should have
constant cultivation. Plants of head lettuce may be set in
any vacant space in the garden. If there is a vacancy in a
row of some other vegetable use that space to set out a few
heads of lettuce. They mature rapidly and can always be
disposed of for some later crop. In the South, lettuce may
be planted in the fall and permitted to remain in the ground
over the winter. This practice is not successful in the North.
The best varieties of leaf lettuce are Black Seeded Simp-
son and Grand Rapids. The best of the heading forms are
Big Boston and All Heart.

Onions.—Onions may be grown from sets, which are
merely small onions, or from seed. They require the very
best cultivation if grown from seed. Those produced from
the sets are used extensively for green onions eaten raw in
the spring. The sets may be planted as soon as the ground
is in condition to work and will grow rapidly. The seed may
be sown in the open ground or it may be started in a hot bed
and the seedlings transplanted after the arrival of warmer
weather. Such an arrangement hastens the crop quite de-
cidedly. When grown on a large scale the seed is sown in
drills and the young seedlings thinned out so that they stand
a few inches apart in the row. Frequent shallow cultivation

SPRING VEGETABLES it

is essential for this crop. If the onions are grown for winter
use, they should be harvested as soon as the tops are dried
and stored in a cool, dry place. Distinct varieties of onion
sets are difficult to obtain so they are generally sold by the
color as white, red, or yellow.

The best varieties to plant from seed are the Prizetaker
and the Yellow Globe Danvers.

Parsley.—This small and very ornamental plant is used
as a garnish and as a flavor in soups. The seed should be
sown very early in the spring in permanent rows or may be
planted in a cold frame and the young plants later set out in
rows a foot apart and about four inches apart in the row.
When once set, the plants may remain in the ground over the
winter if they are protected with a slight mulch. A few of
them can be potted at a time if wanted for winter use, and
brought into the house where they will continue to grow. A
pot of parsley in the kitchen window is attractive as well as
useful for whenever leaves are taken off, they are rapidly
replaced by new ones.

Parsnip.—The seeds of this vegetable should be sown
as early in the spring as possible in rows about two feet
apart and the plants should be thinned so as to stand several
inches apart in the row. This plant is grown for its edible
roots and should be given frequent shallow cultivation.
While the parsnip is included among the early spring vege-
tables, it is so listed merely because it must be planted early.
The roots are not ready for use until late summer and are
improved if permitted to remain in the ground till after the
first freeze. They may even remain in the ground over the
winter without injury, but they must be dug before any
growth starts in the spring or they will be unfit for use. If
permitted to remain neglected in the soil, they produce quan-
tities of seed and may beceme a pest in the orchard.

The variety known as the Hollow Crown is perhaps the
best.

Peas.—Among the first seeds to be planted in the spring

178 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

are the peas. Some varieties may be planted earlier than
others. The smooth peas are, as a rule, regarded as more
hardy than the wrinkled varieties, although some of the
wrinkled sorts are quite hardy and of superior quality. If
the ground is too heavily manured, a heavy growth of vine
will be forced at the expense of the pods. Moderate fertility
is to be preferred. Fertilizers rich in nitrogen are to be
avoided. The rows should be three feet apart for most sorts,
although the dwarf kinds, like the American Wonder, may
be planted more closely. Sow the seeds so that the plants will
be a few inches apart in the row. Some growers plant two
rows together about six inches apart and use the same sup-
port for both rows. Where space is limited, this is a good
plan. Three-foot poultry netting makes an ideal support for
peas, but small brush from the woods is just as good if prop-
erly selected and firmly stuck into the ground. Peas will
succeed better if planted several inches deep than if drilled
with an ordinary garden drill. Some gardeners dig a trench
about six inches deep and plant the peas in the bottom, cov-
ering them with two inches of dirt. As the peas appear
through the surface, more soil is filled in until the trench is
filled. This method causes deep rooting, thereby avoiding
danger from drouth.

Sugar peas are a variety used much like green beans,
the entire pod and its contents are cooked and eaten. This
sort is popular in some parts of the South.

The best standard varieties are (early) Gradus, (me-
dium) American Wonder and (late) Telephone. All varie-
ties may be planted at intervals of a few weeks to insure a
succession of crops throughout the season.

Radish.—This vegetable is one of our most hardy spring
sorts and may be planted as early as any vegetable grown.
In most parts of the North it may be grown all winter in hot
beds and in the South it will grow all winter out of doors.
In every case the radish should be planted in warm, rich soil
where it will mature quickly, in order not to become tough.

SPRING VEGETABLES 7S

Plant radishes in permanent rows about a foot apart and thin
to one to two inches apart. As they grow, the largest may
be pulled for use. They thus receive the desired thinning.
Radishes do not thrive after hot weather starts; so it is in-
advisable to attempt to plant them for successive crops. Win-
ter radishes are planted late in August or early in September
and are ready for use before frost. Some varieties are very
fine and firm and with care can be stored for winter use.
They are usually dug at the first indication of cold weather

Several types of radish.

and either stored in a cool cellar or placed in a pile and cov-
ered with earth to a depth of two feet.

The Cardinal Globe, Icicle and Long Scarlet Short Top
are some of the popular sorts. White Chinese is a good winter
variety.

Spinach.—These most delicious greens may be very easi-
ly grown. The seed is planted either early in the spring or
late in the fall. If planted in the fall, the plants will live
over winter and furnish an abundance of greens as soon as

180 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Victoria spinach.

growth starts in the spring. The spring-planted seed will
furnish a plentiful supply of summer greens. Spinach does
not succeed well in warm weather and for this reason the
fall planted seed is usually more successful. The New Zea-
land spinach is a variety that thrives in warm weather and
is recommended for planting for the summer crop.

The best variety of the ordinary spinach is the Victoria.

CHAPTER. Ly.
THE SUMMER GARDEN.

Certain vegetables are regarded as being strictly adapted
to warm weather, so an arbitrary form of dividing them into
classes has been adopted. Those vegetables for the spring
garden have been considered in the previous chapter and now
the various plants suitable for the summer garden will be dis-
cussed.

Beans.—-Any garden worthy of the name must contain
some beans, and often in the country, when a good idea is
carried to an extreme, a garden contains little else. There
are many varieties of beans and several distinct classes, such
as pole beans, kidney beans, lima beans, etc. The soil re-
quirements for all beans does not vary to any extent. The
seed should be planted in well-prepared soil which is mod-
erately rich, and given good cultivation. Beans of all varie-
ties are very tender, so that they should never be planted until
all danger of frost is past and the ground is thoroughly
warmed. Beans planted in cold, wet soil are slow to germinate
and usually rot before they sprout. In planting the larger
beans, when only a small quantity is to be grown, it is advis-
able to place each seed in the soil with the fingers, using care
to place the scar on the side of the bean down. If the bean is
laid on its “‘back,”’ it will sprout only with great difficulty.
Try planting some lima beans in a box of soil in the house in
various positions and see which position furnishes the first
plant above ground.

Pole beans should be planted in hills not less than three
feet apart. As their name implies, they must be provided with

182 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

some sort of support. This support may be poles of any
description, strings, or the stems of some other growing crop
such as corn. Often certain varieties of pole beans are
planted in the same hill with corn and permitted to climb the
stalks.

For the small garden the bush beans are more satisfactory
than the pole beans, because they do not require so much at-
tention or need support of any kind. They form a low bush
and the beans are usually produced in great abundance.

The snap beans are grown for their edible pods, although
many sorts can be allowed to ripen their seeds which are
then used dried. Some of the snap beans are green in color
and some are yellow or white. The latter are generally called
wax beans.

The following varieties are the best of their respective
classes for general planting: Bush beans: Refugee, Golden
Wax, Valentine. Pole beans: Kentucky Wonder, Lazy Wife,
Golden Cluster. Lima beans: Burpee’s Improved Bush, Ford-
hook Bush, Carpentaria, and Early Leviathan. The last two
are tall-growing varieties.

Cabbage.—This vegetable may be grown as an early sum-
mer crop or it may be planted later and harvested late enough
so that it may be stored for winter use. Early cabbage must
be used promptly after the heads form or they will crack and
spoil.

Cabbage seed should be planted ina hot bed, if early
cabbage is desired, or in a prepared seed bed in the open
ground, if it is desired to grow a crop for storage. The seed
bed should be carefully worked up and the soil made very rich
and fine. The seed may be sown broadcast or planted in rows
a few inches apart. As soon as the young plants show above
the ground they should be thinned so as to develop strong
individual plants. They are allowed to remain in the seed
bed or hotbed until they are ready for planting in the open
ground. They should not be too large at planting time. It
takes some experience to know just how early to plant the

THE SUMMER GARDEN 185

“Kentucky Wonder” is the best green pole bean.

184 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

seed in order to have plants of the right size at the proper
time. The permanent plants should be set in rows about three
feet apart and about eighteen inches apart in the rows. Some
growers space them farther apart than this; but in garden
culture it is usually desirable to economize as much space as
possible. In setting the plants in the open ground the tops
must be clipped back so that the leaf surface is reduced at least
half. This pruning enables the plant to become established
quicker, and, if well watered at the time of planting, young
cabbage plants seldom wilt. If they are not cut back, many
plants will die, because the large leaf expanse gives off
moisture more rapidly than the recently disturbed roots can
gather it.

Some quick-acting fertilizer, such as sheep or hen
manure, should be placed in each hill in order to stimulate a
good vigorous growth at the start and cultivation should be
constant from the time the plants are set out until they begin
to form heads. If they are cultivated after the heads begin
to form, a new growth might be stimulated and, as a result,
the heads will split. The same effect may be expected if the
cabbage is grown during a dry summer and heavy fall rains
set in before the heads are harvested. Winter cabbage may
be stored in a cool cellar or it may be placed in piles and cov-
ered with earth. In the latter method the plants are placed
in rows with the heads down and with the roots up. The en-
tire plant should be pulled up instead of cut off when so stored.

Danish Ball Head, Flat Dutch, and Charleston are stand-
ard varieties of merit. Savoy cabbage is a form with curled
leaves and is of very good quality, but is not easily grown by
the amateur.

Chinese cabbage is an entirely different vegetable, al-
though it belongs to the same botanical family. It resembles
a large bunch of celery, and, like celery, it is grown for its
stalks. The leaf stalks of the Chinese cabbage are prepared
for the table in the same way that ordinary cabbage is served.
Its taste is similar, too, but in cooking, it lacks the familiar

THE SUMMER GARDEN 185

A good head of early cabbage.

186 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

cabbage odor so often found objectionable. It is of the easiest
culture and is grown as a distinctly late summer crop. The
seed is planted about the middle of August and the plants are
thinned to stand about twelve to eighteen inches apart each
way. Their cultivation is similar to that of ordinary cabbage,
for they must not be permitted to dry out. Chinese cabbage
makes a very handsome vegetable and the ease witn which
it can be grown and the excellence of its table qualities should
make it more generally used in this country.

Caulifiower.—The care of this vegetable is the same as
the cultivation of cabbage. Everything that has been said
concerning cabbage culture will apply to this crop except that
it is often necessary to tie up the outer leaves of the plant in
order to blanch the large flower bud in the center. This flower
head forms the edible part of the plant. Dwarf Erfurt is a
choice variety for home use.

Collards.—A form of the kale plant is much grown in the
Southern states under the name of collards. It is planted in
rows about two feet apart with the plants about two feet apart
in the row. The leaves are eaten as greens.

Corn.—Sweet corn is one of the most valuable of all our
summer vegetables, and it should have a place in every gar-
den. Since it requires as little attention as any crop that can
be grown, it is by no means difficult to grow. The ground for
sweet corn should be rich and well prepared. If this condi-
tion is observed, any one can grow corn to perfection.

Most varieties of sweet corn are rather tender and should
not be planted until all danger from frost is past, and the
ground is thoroughly warmed. The seed may then be planted
in rows two or three feet apart and stand from one to two
feet apart in the row. Closer planting is permissible for the
smaller growing kinds like Gelden Bantam and for most any
kinds in small gardens where space is at a premium.

As soon as the corn shows above the ground it should be
well cultivated and during the season the rows should be hoed
after each shower. If showers are not plentiful, it should be

THE SUMMER GARDEN 187

cultivated occasionally in order to keep down the weeds. Suc-
cessive plantings should be made at intervals of ten days to
two weeks so as to have tender corn throughout the season.
The later plantings can be made in the ground which was oc-
cupied by early garden crops such as radishes, lettuce and
onions.

Golden Bantam is a very fine early variety that is more
hardy than many other sorts and can often be planted to ad-
vantage long before other kinds could be safely started. This
variety, as its name implies, is small both in stalk and in ear
and the grain is golden yellow in color. The color has helped
prevent its popularity on the markets; but growers generally
are learning that it is one of the very best kinds to grow for
home use. Undoubtedly there will be a strong market demand
for this sort after the public becomes educated to its excellent
flavor.

Early Adams is also a good early variety, while Stowell’s
Evergreen will yield an excellent main crop. Country Gentle-
man is a corn of fine flavor, although the grains are not ar-
ranged in regular rows, but are distributed over the cob in an
irregular fashion. Mammoth Late is a good variety to grow
for late summer and fall use, but, while it is large in size, it
lacks much in quality when compared with the better sorts.

Cucumber.—The cucumber belongs to the same family to
which the melons, squashes and gourds belong. It is a hot
weather plant, so, therefore, the seed should not be planted
until danger from frost is past. Like all members of the melon
family, it demands good soil that has been well prepared. If
not already rich, the soil must be made fertile by the liberal
use of manure. The seeds should be planted in hills about
six feet apart and cultivated constantly till the vines reach
such size as to interfere with the work. About a dozen seeds
should be planted in each hill. The young plants can then be
thinned out so as to leave only two or three of the strongest
vines. Thinning will preferably be done only after all danger
from the striped beetle is past. If desired the young plants

188 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

can be started in the house by planting the seeds in old berry
boxes or on square chunks of sod turned bottomside up. There
is also a very convenient paper pot
manufactured for this purpose of
transplanting plants. In any case
the plants are set out without dis-
turbing the medium in which they
have been started. This method
results in the production of cucum-
bers somewhat earlier in the sea-
son than if they were planted in
the open ground. A few very early
cucumbers may also be grown in
the hotbed by planting several
seeds in the center of each bed
where other early crops are grow-
ing. The cucumbers will not begin
- to cover much ground until the
Melon plant started in an old other crops are disposed of, when

tin can. The can has had the

top and bottom melted off and they can be alloted the entire space
one side has been split so as to
eaclliiste. the a pemoral of anel sil neeesaainys
The White Spine is one of the

favorites for general cultivation, although there are many
good varieties offered by seedsmen. The Boston Pickling and
Chicago Pickling are widely grown for the purpose of secur-
ing the small cucumbers for use in making pickles.

Eggplant.—This vegetable belongs to the same family as
the tomato. It is grown in the same way. The cultural direc-
tions for tomato will apply to the eggplant except that the
seeds of the latter are to be planted earlier in the spring. The
young plants are very tender, but, after they are planted out
in the open ground and become established, their culture is
not difficult.

Kale.—The edible part of this vegetable is the leaves,
which are eaten as greens. The name is sometimes applied
loosely to several members of the cabbage family, but the true

THE SUMMER GARDEN 189

kale is a distinct plant of much merit. It is easily grown by
sowing the seeds broadcast like turnip seeds during the month
of August. It thrives without transplanting and will furnish
an abundance of greens during the fall months. If the earth
is lightly raked over the seed, germination is more satisfac-
tory than if the seed is merely left on the surface of the
ground, although in favorable seasons it will grow with no
further attention. It may thus be planted among late sweet
corn and will yield greens until freezing weather. By cover-
ing with a light mulch of straw, it may be kept in condition for
use far into the winter. When kale is to be grown in a small
space, the seeds should be planted the middle of August in
shallow drills about eighteen inches apart. The plants may
then be thinned to stand a foot apart in the row. This style
of planting coupled with good culture will produce larger
heads than the easy method first discussed.

The Scotch Curled Kale is regarded as the tenderest and
best flavored of the several varieties offered.

Muskmelon.—This most delicious of all garden products
should find a place in every garden except those of the far
North. Like most members of its family, it requires warm
weather to develop successfully. The soil should be rich and,
in fact, can hardly be too rich. The culture of the plant is
exactly the same as for cucumbers. If ground mice are abund-
ant, some care must be used in planting muskmelon seed, as
the mice are extremely fond of them. There is on record
a five-acre field that was replanted to muskmelons three differ-
ent times. The third planting was eaten just as promptly as
the first ones and by that time it was too late in the season to
try again. Some gardeners claim that such damage can be
avoided by supplying an abundance of seed and leaving part
of it on top of the ground for the use of the mice. It has
been also suggested that the seeds be lightly coated with tar
to make them distasteful to the mice. It is probable that a
few traps and a little poisoned seed might be useful in a
field that was previously known to be infested with mice. In

190 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

harvesting muskmelons they should remain on the vine until
the stem separates readily from the melon. When grown for
market they are always to be gathered before they are fully
ripe. This fact constitutes another good reason for growing
muskmelons in one’s garden instead of buying those that were
picked green.

Watermelons.—These melons are grown in exactly the
same manner as cucumbers and muskmelons except that the
vines require some-
what more space. All
directions concerning
the culture of musk-
melon will apply also
to this splendid fruit.

The following varie-
ties are good: Sweet
Heart, Watson, Ice-
berg, and Rattlesnake.

New Zealand Spin-
ach.—This form of
spinach is suitable for
hot weather culture.
The seed is to be plant-
ed in May after no
more frosts are to be
expected and will fur-
nish an abundance of
excellent greens dur-
ing the hot months.
Otherwise its culture
is similar to that of the
ordinary spinach.

Okra.—As this is a

southern plant it is not
There is no ST ae ete ass ae is as well known in the
North as it should be.

Oi

THE SUMMER GARDEN

‘Pley

uolaUuL

[BlotawUut0)d

Vv

192 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

In the South it is a staple article of food and is served in sev-
eral ways, but chiefly in soups. The tender green seed pods
are the parts to be used. The seed is planted in rows about
eighteen inches apart, with the plants about six inches apart
in the row. As the young plants are tender, the seed should
not be planted until the earth is warm. Good cultivation will
assure an abundant crop. The seed pods must be used before
they become too hard, when they are unfit for food. The
flower is large and quite showy, so the plant is sometimes
grown for its ornamental effect.

The varieties known as Long Green and Perkins are best.

Peppers.—Peppers are used mostly in pickling. Their
cultural directions are the same as for tomatoes.

Potatoes——Most average gardens do not boast of sufficient
acreage for growing potatoes so they are hardly to be classed
as a garden crop. They will be discussed in detail in the chap-
ter on special crops.

Squashes.—The care of squashes is the same as for cu-
cumbers and the other members of the family already men-
tioned. For serving they are baked, or cooked for pies like
pumpkin.

The White Bush Squash is a summer sort that is easily
grown and exceedingly prolific. The vines grow somewhat in
the shape of a bush, occupying but little space. They may be
planted three or four feet apart. The Hubbard is a very fine
black-shelled variety that is grown largely for market. This
variety requires a long, warm season in which to mature its
fruit properly and after which they can be safely stored all
winter. The Cushaw or crook necked squash is a favorite in
the South, where it is universally grown. Directions for its
culture are the same as just described.

Sweet Potatoes.—In the South sweet potatoes are a com-
mon garden crop and in favorable sections are extensively
raised as a field crop. They are easily grown on any light soil.
The tubers of the previous season are planted in a hotbed in

THE SUMMER GARDEN 193

the early spring, and, as the green shoots appear, they are
pulled from the parent potato and used as sets for the garden
planting. These sweet potato plants are merely sprouts from
the old tuber and they are produced in large numbers. They
should be planted to a depth of several inches, and, as the
season advances, the soil should be drawn toward the rows
so that ultimately the plants will stand on the top of a slight
ridge. If there has been a shortage of plants for the earliest
setting, more can be obtained by cutting off the tips of the
growing vines as soon as they are well started. These tips
should be about a foot long, and are to be used in the same way
as the sprouts produced from the tubers in the hotbeds. This
method is, of course, of value only in sections having a long
season and would perhaps, be useless in the North owing to
the fact that the plants set late would not have time to ripen
their crop before frost. As a rule, the plants are left undis-
turbed from the time the vines cover the ground until frost.
At the first slight frost the vines are likely to be killed. The
potatoes should then be dug and removed to a dry frost-proof
storage room. They are often successfully stored in dry sand;
but under ordinary conditions they are somewhat difficult to
keep without rotting.

Tomatoes will be considered under a separate chapter on
special crops.

Turnips.—These vegetables are usually planted on ground
that was occupied by another crop earlier in the season. They
may be planted in rows ten inches apart or they may be sown
broadcast over the soil to take care of themselves. The latter
method is most widely used and produces very good results.
The turnip is such a hardy, vigorous vegetable that it requires
but little attention after the seed is planted. If the ground has
been planted to other crops during the summer, it should be
fairly free from weeds and the soil should be loose. Other-
wise the ground must be especially prepared in the same way
advised for the preparation of the spring garden. Then the

194 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

seed may be scattered over the surface and afterward lightly
covered with a rake. If, after this preparation, the gardener
can be favored with a good shower to start the seed, he may
rest assured that he will harvest a crop of turnips. Perhaps
the assurance that they require so little attention is the main
reason that turnips are so universally grown.

CHAPTER V.
SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET.

Truck crops.—Any garden crop can be and often is grown
as a special crop for the market. In most instances the grow-
ing of these special crops is managed by trained men who
have had experience along their particular line and have be-
come expert in the cultivation of certain vegetables. Success
with some particular crop in a small garden does not neces-
sarily imply success with the same crop when grown on a
large scale. Because a man has grown very excellent rad-
ishes or cabbage or onions in his home garden, he should not
feel too confident about attempting to grow the same crops
on a large area with the idea that he can market them profit-
ably. There are many items to be considered in the growing
of the truck crop.

Selling special crops.—The first point to consider is the
ability to dispose of the crop after it is sold; because, if it is
impossible to sell what has been grown, it would be more pref-
erable never to have planted the seed. Selling vegetables is
not an easy matter to accomplish for several reasons. In the
first place, the question of transportation is an important fac-
tor. The successful truck growers are usually situated close
to some large city where they can sell their products imme-
diately after gathering and no unreasonable transportation
bill will absorb the profits of the crop. Some truck growers
of the South ship their vegetables great distances North every
spring, but always very early in the season before northern-
grown crops are available. Crops of lettuce and other tender
vegetables grown in California are often marketed in the East

196 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

in spite of the great distance to be transported; but this
produce also is sold at a time when no similar vegetables are
obtainable in the East.

Soils.—The question of soils is important in connection
with commercial gardening. Almost any farm contains a
small plot of ground sufficiently rich for a successful garden;
but, if the entire farm were utilized for gardening, the quality
of the soil would probably fall far short of expected standards
for growing a profitable crop.

The previous experience of the grower will aiso have
much influence with the measure of success which the busi-
ness of trucking may bring. Most successful commercial
gardeners are men who have had long experience in the busi-
ness and who have gradually extended their plantings of cer-
tain crops from year to year until they became proficient in
handling the large area of some one commodity to the best
of their ability. Many of the most successful market garden-
ers in this country are foreign born. The fact has been men-
tioned before that gardening in Europe and in Asia is much
more efficiently done than in this country, but this statement
does not infer that Americans do not make good gardeners.
Until this time the massing of our population has not been
crowded enough to force excellence in this branch of agricul-
tural work. Gardening in any form constitutes hard labor.
The American farmer finds it easier to devote his time to such
crops as corn and small grains than to develop a backache over
a truck farm. Conditions have arisen, however, that are caus-
ing American farmers to turn their attention to market gar-
dening and, of course, our Americans will ultimately make as
good gardeners as they are general farmers.

Sometimes a lack of capital will cause failure in truck
growing. This kind of farming requires more labor, more
men employed and more money for handling the crop than any
other branch of our agricultural activity. Consequently those
who enter into the business with small means may find that

SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET 197

they are unable to grow and harvest a crop which they planted
with the highest hopes.

Canning crops.—Probably the simplest form of market
gardening is the growing of special crops for canning fac-
tories. Strictly speaking, this work can hardly be called mar-
ket gardening, because it is restricted to certain specified crops
that are capable of being preserved in cans. Among these are
tomatoes, corn, beans, peas, and, to a lesser extent, spinach,
pumpkins, etc. In growing such crops it is customary to sell
the entire yield to the canning factory before the seeds are
planted. That is, the grower makes a contract to supply the
factory with the entire product from a certain acreage at an
agreed price. A contract of this sort should be so drawn that
it will protect both the grower and the factory, and in filling
the contract the grower should exercise care not to violate a
clause or phrase which might render the contract void. If he
agrees to deliver the entire marketable crop from a given area,
he should be sure that this crop really is delivered and that no
shortage in the measurement of the land exists. Sometimes a
grower is tempted to sell a portion of such a crop to another
cannery at a higher price, only to find that he has broken his
contract thereby and so can not compel the factory manage-
ment to live up to its side of the bargain. Most of the crops
grown for canning are of fairly easy culture and for the most
part they do not require the soil, care or capital necessary for
the smaller crops. Some of these crops will be mentioned in
detail later.

“Home Hampers.’’—On Long Island a method of market-
ing produce direct to the consumer has been developed. This
“Home Hamper” system involves the use of a kind of crate or
hamper in which are packed an assortment of fresh vegetables.
The collection is planned to supply families of different sizes
and contents vary as the season changes. The hampers are
shipped direct from the farm to the consumer, the vegetables
arrive clean and fresh and the city customer pays less for his
garden truck than if he had bought it from the local market

198 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

or grocer. On the other hand, by eliminating a middleman
the producer is enabled to realize more for his produce than
if he sold it through a commission house. The plan has been
such a pronounced success that it is worth trying in any local-
ity where vegetables are produced in commercial quantities.
Such a system of marketing, of course, necessitates the pro-
duction of a complete list of vegetables and small fruits, so
that the individual grower has no opportunity to specialize in
any one crop. ;

It should be kept in mind that gardening on a large scale
is not different from family gardening in method. All the care
necessary in the small garden is also demanded in commercial
planting. This occupation means much physical labor, which
can, however, usually be made lighter by the use of drills,
horse cultivators and other special farm machinery adapted to
this particular branch of agriculture.

Tomatoes.—Among the most important vegetables that
are grown commercially are tomatoes. Until comparatively
recent vears this attractive and valuable fruit was regarded
as unfit for food and was grown only for ornament in gardens.
This old-time prejudice has been completely overcome, till
today the tomato, either fresh or canned, is known everywhere
and is increasing in popularity each year. Thousands of acres
are grown annually for the exclusive use of canning factories,
while the product of other thousands of acres is shipped to the
market for immediate use. The demand for tomatoes seems
to be growing constantly each year.

Growing the plants —Tomato seed is sown very early in
the spring in specially prepared beds in the open ground, in
hotbeds or cold frames, or in boxes in the house. The earlier
the plants are started, the better are the prospects for an early
crop of ripe fruit. For the most part the canning factories
prefer to have their tomatoes delivered later in the season
after other crops have been canned. On this account tomatoes
that are intended for the canning factory are frequently grown
from seed planted in beds in the open ground. Regardless of

SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET 199

where the seed is started, the soil must be rich so as to give
the young plants sufficient nourishment for a sturdy growth.

Transplanting.—When they have thrown out one or two
permanent leaves, they should be transplanted so that they
stand not closer than three inches apart. Some growers trans-
plant a second time, claiming that they thereby secure an addi-
tional yield that more than pays for the cost of growing the
plants. A few growers even advocate the method of planting
the seeds in paper bands placed in the hotbed. These bands
take the place of small flower pots and serve to hold the soil
about the roots when the time comes to set the plants in the
field. While this system may seem a rather elaborate prac-
tice for a commercial grower, its value has been proven in
some cases. The amount of work involved by this method is
so great as to make it prohibitive for most commercial grow-
ers, but it is doubtless a good plan to follow in setting only a
small patch.

Setting the plants——The plants are set in permanent
ground as soon as danger from frost is past. In the latitude
of central Illinois tomato plants should be in the field not later
than May twentieth. Danger from frost is over in that local-
ity by the tenth of May and an interval of ten days is avail-
able in which to do the planting. For home use a few plants
may be set out as soon as the ground is warm and the plants
large enough to be set out. If cold weather should follow, they
may be protected by placing some temporary shelter over
them. Fruit jars make good covers, or any one of several
patent plant protectors may be purchased. One or two layers
of newspaper placed over tender plants in the early spring
will often save them when frost is threatening. As a rule, it
does not pay to attempt to grow early tomatoes in the North,
because the southern crop is available long before the earliest
grown northern fruits can be marketed. The commercial
grower in the North will meet with more success if he con-
fines his attempts to the main crop, which, as a rule, is mar-
keted after the southern crop is exhausted.

200 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Cultivating and fertilizing.—The plants are set in the
field four feet apart each way and they should be in checked
rows so as to enable cultivation in both directions. No crop
responds more readily to cultivation than the tomato and with-
out cultivation it is a commercial failure. The fields shouid be
cultivated from six to eight times during the growing season,
with a frequent hoeing by hand to kill whatever weeds were
missed by the cultivator. Good stable manure makes an ex-
cellent fertilizer for a crop of tomatoes; but, when that is not
available, it may be substituted by a commercial fertilizer con-
taining two per cent. of nitrogen, eight to ten per cent. of
available phosphoric acid and ten per cent. of potash. About
five hundred pounds of such fertilizer to the acre will produce
satisfactory results on average soils. After the crop has been
harvested in the fall, the land should be plowed so that all
remaining vines and unripe fruit are turned under. In this
way injury from some of the insects and diseases attacking
the tomato is prevented to a certain extent.

Varieties.—The variety known as Livingston’s Stone has
been a favorite for canning during the past years and remains
the best sort that can be planted for this purpose. Many new
varieties are introduced each year, but the sensible planter will
not use new sorts until they have been thoroughly tested and
their value demonstrated. The Earliana is a good variety for
the home garden when early fruit is desired. Ponderosa pro-
duces a very large, but somewhat irregular fruit.

Peas are often grown in large quantities for canning fac-
tories and make a profitable crop. Frequently the ground de-
voted to peas can be utilized for a second crop of some other
vegetable, such as potatoes or late corn. Commercially, peas
are drilled in rows about six inches apart, and, when the ma-
jority of the pods are well filled out, the entire vines are cut
like hay. They are hauled to the factory on hay wagons and
threshed. The grower should provide for the return of the
vines and empty pods, for they make good feed for animals.
Before this fact was known, managers of canning factories

SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET 201

were often at a loss for the best means of disposing of the
vines and empty pods. By accident a farmer learned that the
refuse could be stored so that it would provide an excellent
cattle feed. Now some factories are retaining this refuse to
sell at a good price.

Sweet corn is sometimes a profitable crop either for the
factory or for market. When growing it for the factory, the
grower should inform himself concerning the type of corn de-
sired by the canner and then plant the variety which is wanted.
Field cultivation of sweet corn does not differ from the care of
other corn, except that it is much more subject to the corn ear
worm so that in some localities it must be sprayed in order to
produce perfect ears. This situation will be further discussed
in the chapter on insects.

Potatoes were merely mentioned in the list of garden veg-
etables because they are more truly a field crop than a garden
crop, perhaps one of our most necessary vegetables. The fol-
lowing directions are intended to cover their cultivation on
either a large or small scale.

Soil—Scab.—Although land for potato growing must be
rich, it is not advisable to apply a dressing of manure to the
potato field. Manure, as a fertilizer, will predispose the crop
to the disease known as potato scab. While it does not exactly
cause the scab, it will bring about proper conditions for the
scab to develop. The disease is really caused by spores which
remain in the ground from year to year. A field that has pro-
duced scabby potatoes should not be used again for that pur-
pose for several seasons, as these spores live about five years.
In preparing the soil it should be plowed deep and the ground
well worked until it is soft and friable. If a potato planter is
used, no furrowing off will be required, otherwise the ground
should be marked with furrows about three feet apart and
four or five inches deep. The seed potatoes are dropped in the
furrow at distances of about eighteen inches and covered by
hand or with a drag.

The seed potatoes should be selected from the very best

202 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

stock obtainable. Saving small potatoes for seed is poor econ-
omy as they will never produce the best results. The careful
grower will select his seed in the fall when the potatoes are

The two lower specimens show poor types to select for seed. The upper
is a good seed potato.

dug, choosing the largest specimens from those plants which
produce large and uniform potatoes in the greatest abundance.
By this method of seed selection the yield of potatoes can be
very materially increased. The selected seed should be care-

SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET 203

fully stored during the winter. The best means of storing
on the farm is by placing them on the ground, covering them
with straw and then piling at least eighteen inches of good
soil on top of the straw. Potatoes have been known to keep
perfectly in this way through a winter when the thermometer
registered thirty degrees below zero. Stored in this manner
they will be in better condition for planting than if kept in a
cellar, unless the cellar contains the right amount of moisture
and is frost proof. To define the right amount of moisture
is a difficult matter, which is even more perplexing to main-
tain. It is safer, therefore, to resort to the outside system of
storage for seed potatoes. If stored in the ground they will
not sprout so readily as in the cellar and may keep perfectly
dormant until the first of June.

Cutting the seed.—In preparing the potatoes for planting
they should first be cut so that there are not more than two
or three eyes to each piece. However, cutting the potatoes
into very small pieces is also inadvisable. It is much more
preferable to have a fair-sized piece with several eyes too
many than to shave the piece down to secure a given number
of eyes. The potato plant will secure its start from the food
that is in the piece of seed potato that is planted. If this piece
is shaved down to a small quantity of food material, it will
result in giving the potato vine a poor start in life and per-
haps seriously affect the ultimate yield. Some growers have
even planted potato peelings bought from hotels. That these
peelings will produce potatoes is true, but the yield will be so
light that it would more than pay to put the money in good
seed.

Formalin treatment.—After the seed is cut it must be
soaked for two hours in a solution consisting of one pint for-
malin to thirty gallons of water. This treatment is to kill the
spores of scab, if any be present, and is a safe practice for all
seed. After soaking, the potatoes must not be returned to the
bags that previously held untreated potatoes or they may
become reinfected with the disease. It is a good plan to have

204 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

a place where the potatoes may be poured out to dry, after
which they should be put into containers that have been
treated with the same disinfecting solution. Every precaution
should be taken to be sure that only clean potatoes are planted,
that is, potatoes that are free from disease. In no other way
can the earth be kept free from scab, and, of course, no kind
of treatment for seed put into infected land can be expected
to produce a crop of clean potatoes.

Cuitivation.—The potatoes should be cultivated at fre-
quent intervals and the surface of the ground around the
plants should be kept level. The level cultivation has the ad-
vantage of being cheaper, of conserving more moisture and of
disturbing the root system less. After the first few cultiva-
tions some tool should be used which will not disturb the
ground deeper than an inch or two. Deep cultivation
is injurious to the potato, and, if the ground was properly
prepared in the first place, it is not necessary. Shallow culti-
vation is kept up to eliminate weeds and.to maintain a mulch
during dry weather, thus conserving the moisture in the soil.
The fine feeding roots of the potato plant spread a consider-
able distance through the soil, so that, if cultivation is deep,
many of these roots may be cut. As a consequence, the plant
is deprived of a certain amount of food and must in addition
make an effort to replace the roots which were injured.

The time of planting potatoes varies with the locality and
the intention of the grower. If early potatoes are desired,
they must be planted as soon as the ground is warm and in
fit condition to work. Potatoes for storing must be planted
much later or they will ripen so early in the fall that they will
not keep during winter. Sometimes, too, a crop of late potatoes
will ripen early and then make a second growth, which will
cause them to be misshapen. In the latitude of central Indiana
late potatoes should not be planted before the middle of June
and fine crops have been grown which were planted the tenth
of July. In southern Indiana late potatoes may be put in after

SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET 205

the wheat is cut and still have time to mature a full crop before
frost.

For early potatoes the Irish Cobbler, Early Ohio and
Early Rose are favorites. For main crop purposes Green
Mountain, Rural New Yorker, Sir Walter Raleigh, Carmen,
and Duchess are grown. The Early Rose is also often planted
as a late potato and can be depended upon for a full crop even
if planted a considerable length of time after the other varie-
ties are in the ground.

Potatoes are harvested either by hand digging, by plowing
and hand picking or by use of one of the improved machines
designed to dig and sort them. Large growers in the North
prefer to use the digging machines, while in the South, where
labor is cheap and plentiful, hand digging will prove more
economical. Potatoes are shipped and stored either in light
barrels covered with burlap or in burlap bags. The legal
weight for a bushel of potatoes is sixty pounds, but there are
no specially defined standard packages as there are for apples.
As a result potatoes are shipped in odd sized barrels and bags.

Celery is an important field crop in some sections, but will
not thrive unless planted in the type of soil demanded for its
growth. It requires a rich, black soil that will not bake and in
which there is an abundance of moisture. Drained swamp
land, with the water table reduced to a point about two feet
below the surface, is very satisfactory for this crop. On such
areas in the North and in the South celery culture is carried
on extensively. In the ordinary garden this crop is often un-
satisfactory, but some growers meet with fair success in its
culture even under seemingly adverse conditions.

For the early crop the seed is planted in well-prepared
soil in hotbeds, from which the small plants are transplanted
into shallow boxes. Transplanting stimulates a better root
system so that the plants will more ably endure the ultimate
transplanting to the field. The ground must be kept moist
after the seed is planted, and one way to accomplish this detail
is to cover tke soil with a piece of burlap and water the ground

206 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

through it, removing the cloth as soon as the seeds germinate
in order not to injure the young plants.

The plants are set in the open ground as soon as the earth
is well warmed. Planting at that time will insure an early
crop. In the North it is customary to grow late celery as the
main crop and often seed for this yield is planted in the open
ground after danger from frost is past. The treatment of the
young seedlings is the same as for plants grown in hotbeds.
When plants are set in the open ground, the tops should be
sheared off or the leaves will evaporate moisture faster than
the recently transplanted roots can secure it from the soil.
If permitted to follow its own inclination celery would spread
out with the leaves lying flat on the ground. To prevent this
result, the soil should be worked up close to the plants in order
to hold the leaves in an upright position.

Blanching.—After the plants have made their growth,
they must be blanched or whitened, which may be accom-
plished in several ways. Some growers merely use boards
along each side of the rows. Others place the celery in pits,
while some sorts can be blanched by the use of the ever-ready
newspaper. A few varieties, known as self-blanching, pro-
duce white stalks normally, but is not regarded as fine in
flavor as the older kinds.

The culture of celery is a highly developed business to be
undertaken only by those who have had previous experience
with the crop. The varieties most widely grown are Giant
Pascal, Boston Market and Golden Self-blanching.

CRAP Rie WL.
INDOOR GARDENING.

INDOOR gardening is a comprehensive
subject in itself, and in a book of this
size little more can be accomplished than
the establishment of some of the prin-
ciples underlying the successful man-
agement of those crops which are grown
under shelter. These principles will
apply to the growing of any indoor crop,
whether it be in a green house, hotbed
or in a box in the kitchen window. A
man, to be an expert gardener, must
first be an expert in growing plants in
the open, because success under shelter
depends on the grower’s knowledge of the needs of growing
crops.

In greenhouse management two primary rules must al-
ways be kept in mind. Unless the conditions mentioned in
these two rules are met, no grower can hope for any success
for any crop grown under glass. The first of these is that
every plant has its normal season to rest and to bloom and
produce fruit. The grower must have a working knowledge
of which plants to grow during a certain season so as to pro-
duce the greatest returns. Plants that are entitled to their
period of rest must not be crowded into active growth. Grow-
ing plants in a greenhouse does not imply that the same plants
are to be kept in a condition of active growth from one year’s
end to the next. They must be provided with a season during

(14)

208 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

which they may take the rest which would be accorded them
if growing in a natural state. Even the plants of the tropics
are not in a constantly equal stage of growth at all seasons of
the year. They have periods during which they slacken their
efforts and recuperate in preparation for another season of
active growth.

Indoor seasons—Forcing.—By a close knowledge of the
habits of the different crops, the indoor gardener can arrange
his seasons so that his greenhouses will have a succession of
profitable crops instead of a large quantity of idle space while
some certain crop is apparently sulking. A few indoor crops
are very peculiar in that they absolutely refuse to be forced
into bloom ahead of their time unless given some special treat-
ment. In an attempt to grow strawberries under glass in a
small way, the plants were taken up in the fall before the
ground froze, and placed in a house where carnations were
growing. It was presumed that the temperature of the car-
nation house would be right for the berries, but the plants not
only refused to bloom but even declined to grow, because they
had not had their normal winter’s rest. They eventually
bloomed at about the same time the berries bloomed in the
garden. Since then it has been discovered that this temporary
resting period can be greatly shortened by using ether on the
plants. In this treatment the plants are put into a tight box
and subjected to the fumes of ether for several hours, after
which they are potted and placed in suitable houses. Such
treatment has enabled florists to force the blooms on lilacs,
hawthorns, lilies-of-the-valley and other plants. The ether
fumes merely take the place of the normal resting period
which the plant would have if left in the open ground. Un-
doubtedly the same plan would have worked on the strawberry
plants.

Some varieties of plants bloom at different seasons than
other varieties of the same plants. Accordingly the florist
must plan to have his roses of a certain kind planted so that
they will produce a crop that will be available at a certain

209

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INDOOR GARDENING

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210 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

time. If he fails to secure a crop ot bloom at Christmas or
at Easter when flowers are in great demand, he may lose his
entire season’s profit by a week’s miscalculation of the proper
season of growth.

Imitating outdoor conditions.—The second rule always to
be kept in mind is that the weather conditions inside the house
must imitate as closely as possible the weather conditions of a
typical day of the growing season out of doors. Thus the
florist must try to maintain in his rose house the same condi-
tions of temperature and moisture that he would expect to find
out of doors on an ideal June day. Roses out of doors are at
their best during the month of June when the day temperature
is relatively high, with cool nights and abundant rainfall.
Many amateurs make the mistake of supposing that the day
and night temperature of a greenhouse should be approxi-
mately the same. In every case the night temperature should
be lower than that maintained during the day, because this is
the condition of the natural air temperature out of doors in
all climates; and an attempt must be made to imitate in the
house the ideal out-of-door conditions. Carnations require a
much lower temperature than roses, so they can not be suc-
cessfully grown in the same house. The temperature of the
ideal carnation house will follow closely the temperature of a
typical day late in May when the thermometer does not reach
above seventy degrees at any time. At night it may all low
enough to be fatal to good results with roses. Vegetable
growing furnishes as many problems as flower growing under
glass. Different vegetables require different weather condi-
tions, but the principle is the same in both cases. Lettuce, for
instance, is a well known cool-weather crop which succeeds
best in the early spring before the days have become very
warm. Grown inside, it requires similar temperatures. It
will grow in a house that is suited to carnation culture, but
since cool nights are really beneficial to it, lettuce can endure
more cold than carnations. On the other hand, tomatoes
under glass require a high temperature. They will endure as

INDOOR GARDENING Prat

much heat as the rose, but usually require a drier atmosphere.
In this detail they conform to the rule just quoted in that they
succeed best in the late summer when the normal outdoor
climate is hot and rather dry.

Soil for use indoors should be selected with great care,
for richness and adaptability to the particular crop to be
nourished are demanded. Richness alone is not always enough
to suit some particular crops. In a few favored localities soil
is found exactly right for some one plant. For instance, the
clay soil at Newcastle, Indiana, has proven to be exceptionally
well adapted to the culture of roses, and as a consequence, a
great industry devoted to this beautiful flower has been de-
veloped at that town. This soil is so well adapted to its pur-
pose that it has been shipped great distances to other rose
growers. In general, the best indoor soil is a mixture of good
loam or clay loam with well rotted manure and rotted sod.
Florists often make a compost pile of manure and thick sods
and permit this pile to rot for a year or two before using it in
the greenhouses. It pays to devote a little extra time to the
preparation of the soil for use indoors in order to make every
square foot as productive as possible. This advice, of course,
applies to soil that is used for any sort of indoor work,
whether it be greenhouse or hotbed.

Watering.—Plants grown indoors require more water
than the same plants when grown outdoors. This statement
is particularly true concerning greenhouses and plants kept
in the living rooms of dwellings. The greenhouse beds are
usually made on benches, with a circulation of air on all sides
and beneath them. This condition is conducive of great evap-
oration and water lost from the soil must be replaced promptly
and regularly. House plants demand a great deal of water
because the air in the house is always too dry for the most
favorable growing condition and moisture must be supplied
to meet this deficiency of the atmosphere. On this account
furnace-heated houses are very unsatisfactory for the grow-
ing of plants. Most farmers’ wives have success with indoor

212 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

plants, because the average farm house in warmed by means
of stoves, and consequently the air in the house is not as
thoroughly dry as when a furnace is used. In greenhouse
work it may be said that the amount of water needed, as well
as expert care, is proportionate to the height of the tempera-
ture. The high temperature tends to produce a quick, rank
growth which is more subject to fungous diseases and to
insect attacks. The beginner in greenhouse work will do
well to start with crops requiring a moderate temperature and
after he has become familiar with them, he can gradually as-
pire to the crops needing a high temperature.

Moisture in the air.—The need of moisture in the air as
well as in the soil can easily be proven by a simple experiment
that can be made by any one. Take two small potted plants of
any sort, but of similar size and condition. Place them in a
warm, dry room where they will have plenty of light. Invert
a glass fruit jar over one of the plants, and leave the other
exposed to the air. Give each plant the same quanitity of
water daily and note the difference in growth. This experi-
ment is especially successful with hyacinths and with some
of the other Dutch bulbs. Indoor plants should always be
watered in the morning and preferably on bright days. Never
water plants late in the afternoon or on very cloudy days or
when the temperature is falling.

Hotbeds are simply greenhouses in miniature, with an-
other means of supplying heat than the use of steam or hot
water. They are usually heated with fresh manure packed
under the soil of the bed, but they may also be kept warm by
building a brick flue under the frames. The popular method
is to heat with manure. In preparing a hotbed the soil should
be excavated from a pit slightly larger than the desired size of
the bed. This pit should be about three feet deep and filled
with fresh manure that has been permitted to heat once.
Fresh horse manure is the best to use and it should be piled in
a heap until it heats thoroughly. After heating, it is to be
well stirred and mixed with from half to two-thirds its bulk

INDOOR GARDENING 213

of leaves or short straw. The mixture may then be packed
down into the hotbed. When in a short time it begins to heat
again, it can be covered with about six inches of good soil.
Hotbeds prepared in this manner should be good for about two
months, and, if started the first of March, they will keep the
plants in good growing condition until warm weather. The
hotbed should be managed exactly like a small greenhouse
and be watered and ventilated on the same principle.

The chief value of the hotbed is in the production of early
vegetables and in starting some of the long season plants such
as tomatoes and melons. Lettuce is a very satisfactory crop
when grown in hotbeds and is largely grown under such
methods of cultivation. It can be grown at either the begin-
ning or the end of winter with perfect assurance of success.
When grown in the fall it should be planted at intervals from
the time of first frost until the first or middle of November in
order to insure a succession of good crops. Each new plant-
ing should be made in a separate hotbed so that the last plant-
ing will have at least six weeks of strong hotbed heat to pro-
tect it from the cold weather.

Hotbed protection.—In severe weather, hotbeds should be
provided with some kind of covers to furnish additional pro-
tection. The customary cover consists of a shutter made of
light lumber, matting, straw mats or simply large sheets of
heavy burlap. The straw mats afford the most effective shel-
ter and can either be bought at a low price or made at home
very cheaply. Make a frame the same width as that desired
for the mats, which is generally determined by the length of
straw available. If rye straw is used, for it is considered the
best for the purpose, the mats can be made from four to
four and a half feet wide. Lay the frame on two supports
high enough to assure a comfortable position while at work
and stretch six pieces of binder twine lengthwise of the frame.
Secure the twine to nails driven at each end of the frame, in
such a manner that it can ke readily loosened. Then wind
six balls of binder twine small enough for skillful handling,

214 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

and attach their loose ends to the nails at one end of the frame.
Now lay a wisp of straw across the stretched strings, take each
ball in turn and draw the string tight over the wisp of straw,
bring it once around the stretched string and lay on another
wisp of straw and proceed. When the mat is the size of the
wooden frame, the strings may be loosened, the mat rolled up,
and the strings restretched ready for another section of mat.
In this way long pieces of matting may be made which will be
found very convenient for covering a whole row of hotbeds.
Some growers use these mats in addition to the board shut-
ters, placing the shutters on top of the mats. This shelter
keeps the straw dry, thus preventing complications in freez-
ing weather. In late spring the glass sash can often be re-
moved from the hotbed and be replaced by unbleached muslin.
This arrangement is particularly useful in growing tomato
plants, for when they are transplanted, the cloth furnishes
enough shade to prevent the wilting of the plants.

Cold frames are quite similar to hotbeds except that no
means of heating them is provided. They are used in early
spring after the severe weather is over and their value is
chiefly in protecting tender plants from late frost. A hotbed
that has ceased to give out heat practically becomes a cold
frame for the rest of the season. Tomatoes, cabbage and
similar plants can often be started to advantage in cold
frames.

House plants of some sort should be in every home, for
they require so little care that there is no excuse for being
without them. The chief requisites for success with plants in
the home have already been mentioned, but too great stress
can not be put on their need of moisture as contrasted with the
usual lack of moisture in the average dwelling. Geraniums
are old-time favorites for house culture because they are so
easily grown and so hardy that they will grow under all sorts
of adverse conditions. Various begonias and palms are per-
haps next in popularity. In some places the culture of Dutch
bulbs is well understood and these beautiful flowers are a con-

INDOOR GARDENING 215

stant source of delight during the winter months. Tiey are
so easily grown that with a little care they will supply con-
tinuous bloom from December until spring. Most of the varie-
ties of narcissus are suitable for house culture, as are hya-
cinths and a few of the tulips. The big yellow daffodils are
such favorites that they are universally grown to supply win-
ter cut flowers. The varieties known as Emperor, Empress,
and Sir Watkin are all excellent for ordinary house culture.
The pretty and reliable paper white narcissus is perhaps
easiest of all the Dutch bulbs to grow. All these bulbs may
be grown under the same conditions. They are produced for
the most part in Holland, but more are being propagated in
our country each year. When they are offered in market in
the early fall, good sized, clean bulbs should be selected and
planted in pots or boxes. They should be covered with about
two inches of good soil and then set away in a cool, dark place
for several weeks. The best success is had by placing the
boxes out of doors and covering them with six inches of rich
soil. This soil does not freeze readily and furnishes all the
protection needed until the boxes can be brought into the
house. They should be brought in as soon as the ground out-
side is well frozen, but before the frost penetrates to the boxes
containing the bulbs. The boxes are then placed in a cool dark
cellar, and as they are wanted, they are brought into the
warmth and light where they bloom in the course of a few
weeks.

The accompanying illustration shows a hotbed that can
easily be built in the furnace room of any modern home. The
bed is glazed with double glass sash and the heat is supplied
from the furnace. Such a bed is not practical for the culture
of roses or other greenhouse stock requiring much heat, light
or moisture, as none of these elements are well supplied. It
serves admirably, however, as a place to store house plants in
winter and to grow Dutch bulbs, violets, parsley, etc.

Mushrooms.—In recent years much attention has been
given to the growing of mushrooms for either home or market

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

216

‘SuljjaMp woz yNO BING peq Joy JO MesIA 9pIsuy

INDOOR GARDENING PAT

supply. The preparation of a mushroom bed is not by any
means a complicated task, and, as the average farm supplies
the material in abundance, there is no reason for such slight
recognition of the crop. While mushrooms do not have the
high food value that was once accorded them, they furnish an
excellent change in the winter diet on the farm. Mushrooms
are simply the fruiting bodies of a certain fungus which can

As the hot bed appears from the outside.

best be grown on fresh stable manure. The manure for this
purpose should be stored in a dry place and should be forked
over every day until it has ceased to heat violently, when it
is ready to be packed into the mushroom bed. The location for
this bed is best in a warm sheltered place where it will not be
subjected to drying winds. Even moderate air currents are
to be avoided. A basement under a residence often furnishes
an admirable situation for a mushroom bed. A crib or box
should be prepared on the floor of the cellar the size of the

218 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

bed desired. This box is then packed full of manure, which is
tamped down hard and firm. It is then lightly sprinkled so as
to cause it to become quite hot again in a few days. When
this heat subsides and the temperature is falling, the mush-
room spawn is planted in the beds. The spawn is merely a
prepared form of the fungus
used to start a new growth.
It is purchased in the form of
bricks which are to be cut into
two-inch squares and planted
in the bed in ten-inch inter-
vals, about two inches below
the surface of the soil. In two
weeks the beds should be
cased or covered with one
inch of good, garden loam, in
order to help retain moisture
and induce the fungus to pro-
duce more mushrooms. After
the spawn is put in the bed
it should not be watered

The cultivated mushroom. until after the mushrooms
begin to appear, which will be from six weeks to two months.
As they appear they should be gathered each day and no
specimens should remain on the bed after they are large
enough for use. If the beds become dry at this time, they
should be watered with slightly warm water, but not soaked.
After the bed has ceased to produce, the manure and soil must
be removed preferably to the garden to be used as fertilizer,
and the frames of the bed should be well scrubbed with white
wash.

CHAPTER Vil
GARDEN INSECTS.

Need for spraying.—The control of insect pests in the
garden is so important that no gardener should neglect to pro-
vide means of eradicating the various pests as they appear. To
fail to spray certain crops or to take other necessary measures
of precaution may make all the difference between success and
absolute failure. Each year garden pests seem to be more
numerous and require more prompt measures of control. This
same condition has been noticed in connection with orchard
insects, so the conclusion is reached that the men wio make
provision for controlling attacks of pests will win success,
while those who neglect this duty will certainly fail. Every
garden should be equipped with a small sprayer and the gar-
dener should be familiar with its use in controlling injurious
insects.

Chewing insects.—One great class of insects feeds by
eating the substance of the plant on which they exist. The
Colorado potato beetle, commonly known as the potato bug,
is an example of this class. Such feeders are controlled by
the use of arsenate of lead applied in the form of a spray.

Sucking insects.—The other class of insects secures its
food by sucking the juices from the plant. Food for these in-
sects can not be poisoned because it is obtained from beneath
the surface of the leaf or stalk. A good example of this class
of insects is the squash bug. These sucking insects can be
controlled only by some poison that kills as soon as it touches
them. The best contact insecticide for use on garden crops
is a solution of tobacco. This preparation may be obtained by

220) ORCHARD AND GARDEN

boiling tobacco stems or one of the commercial products may
be purchased. Black Leaf 40 is one of the best preparations,
for it contains forty per cent. of nicotine sulphate. As it isa
very violent poison, it must be handled with extreme caution.
In use it is diluted several hundred times according to the
plant and pest that are receiving treatment.

The imported cabbage worm is well known to everyone
who has tried to grow cabbage. The adult of this insect is a
white butterfly, with black markings on the wings. The insect
is not a native of this country, but was imported from Europe
many years ago. There are also some native butterflies thai
lay their eggs on the cabbage, but they are not sufficiently
numerous to be of any serious consequence. The butterfly lays
its eggs on the young cabbage plants and from the egg
hatches the familiar green worm. All the actual damage is
done while the insect is in the worm or larval stage. At this
stage the insect is a voracious feeder, eating the substance of
the leaves and frequently eating into the heads as they form.
Arsenate of lead sprayed on the plants while they are young
will kill the first larvae that appear, but as the plants grow,
the leaves become more waxy on the surface and the spray
solution will not stick. At such times it is far better to use a
poison in powder form. Arsenate of lead can now be secured
in a dry state. Mix powdered arsenate with dry slacked lime
and dust the compound lightly over the plants. Dry lime alone
has been used with fair success, for the larva or worm is very
thin skinned. Some growers have reported success in con-
trolling the cabbage worm by the use of hot water. It would
appear, however, that the objection to this measure might be
in the difficulty in having the temperature of the water right
to kill the pests without injury to the plants.

The corn ear worm is too well known to need any descrip-
tion. It is the larva of a moth that is widely distributed, but
that has been more injurious in recent years than in the past.
The eggs are laid on or near the tips of the ears at about the
time when the silk is showing and the young larva eats its

GARDEN INSECTS 22,

Corn ear worm and its work.

222 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

way into the tip of the ear of corn. It is usually not satisfied
to remain in that position, but must advance along the entire

Arsenate of lead sprayed in the corn when it is first showing the silk will
prevent the ear worm injury.

length of the ear and ruin the entire structure. Other crops
are also sometimes damaged by this pest.
Arsenate of lead applied in the form of powder at the time

GARDEN INSECTS 223

the silk is showing will eradicate the ear worm in most cases.
The powder should be dusted over the entire ear of corn as
the insect sometimes eats its way through the husks and en-
ters the ear at the side. Fall plowing will also tend to reduce
the number of insects, for they live in the ground over the
winter and the adult moths emerge in the spring.

The stalk borer is the larva of a moth which lives in the
vines of the cucumber, melon and squash. The eggs are laid
on the stems of these plants and when they hatch, the larva
at once bores into the stalk and makes a tunnel lengthwise
through the stalk. Late in the season the borers emerge from
the stems, spin their cocoons, and spend the winter on or near
the top of the ground. Since the insect lives and feeds on the
interior of the plant, it can not be reached with any kind of
poison, so that preventative measures of control must be re-
sorted to. The presence of the borers can always be detected
by the wilting of the vines and all such injured vines must be
removed and burned in order to destroy the pest. This prac-
tice will also help to control the melon wilt, a bacterial disease
which might be mistaken for the work of borers. A few grow-
ers have reported success by cutting out the borers as soon as
any wilt appears. In this manner a vine can sometimes be
saved, but the practice is not universally a success.

The common green tomato worm is the larva of the to-
mato sphinx moth and is widely distributed. It can be found
in every garden and field where tomatoes are grown and is a
close relative of the tobacco worm. The eggs are laid on the
leaves of the plants on which it feeds and hatch in a few days.
The larva is deep green in color, marked with oblique white
stripes on the sides of the body. A spine or horn is present
on the tail end of the larva which is commonly supposed to be
the stinger. The insect is quite harmless, however, and the
spine is provided by nature to make the inoffensive larva ap-
pear terrible to its enemies. The winter is passed in the pupa
or resting stage in the ground. The accompanying cut fur-

nishes a good illustration of the insect in its larval stage. Fall
(15)

224 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

plowing will kill many of them in the soil. If this measure
should fail to keep them in check, the fields may be sprayed
with arsenate of lead at the rate of three pounds to fifty gal-
lons of water.

Tomato worm and its work.

White grubs are the larval forms of various species of
June beetles, or June “bugs,” as they are commonly called.
For the most part the damage from these pests is done when

GARDEN INSECTS 225

they are in the larval stage, although in other cases the adult
beetles seem to be the offenders. The larvae eat the roots of
many kinds of garden vegetables and sometimes become a
serious problem to the gardener. Fall plowing, followed by
pasturing hogs in the field, will be of much assistance in elimi-
nating the pest. The use of fertilizers containing refuse to-
bacco is to be encouraged, for the tobacco makes the soil dis-
tasteful to the larvae. They are usually more obnoxious in a
field that has been heavily manured or an old pasture field.
Wire worms are the larvae of various click beetles whose life
history and control resembles that of the white grub.

The striped cucumber beetle is perhaps the most serious
pest with which the melon grower has to contend. It is a small
yellow beetle with three black stripes running the length of
the body. In this adult stage it feeds on the young melon
plants and will often destroy an entire crop. It is customary
to plant more seeds in each hill than are necessary in order
to make allowance for the damage from this insect. Thorough
and early spraying will provide the best means of extermina-
tion, however. The plants should be sprayed with arsenate of
lead at the rate of three pounds to fifty gallons of water as
soon as the first leaves appear above ground. They should be
treated again as soon as more leaves form and the entire
plant should be kept covered with the poison until the plants
begin to form running vines. After that time there is little
danger of injury from these beetles. Air-slacked lime, dusted
on the young plants, will also serve to repel the insects, but
will not kill them. Another disadvantage in using it, is its
inclination to be washed off in the first rain, leaving the plants
unprotected, while the arsenate of lead will stick to tne leaves
indefinitely.

Flea beetles are very small, active beetles that often dam-
age garden plants early in the spring. They are especially
destructive on young cabbage and tomato plants that are be-
ing grown in a prepared seed bed. If the seed bed is pro-
vided with tight board walls and covered with cheese cloth,

226 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

the insects may be excluded. In actual experiments the plants
inside the protected area were not touched, while those out-
side were almost entirely destroyed.

The Colorado potato beetle is the most injurious insect
that the potato grower has to fight. It is now universally dis-
tributed wherever potatoes are grown. The eggs are laid on
the leaves almost as soon as the young plants aypear above
ground and the larva begins to feed as soon as it is well out
of the egg shell. The insects eat the entire plant, seldom mov-
ing to another while there is still green forage on the first vic-
tim. Early in the season, when the damage first becomes no-
ticeable, the larvae can easily be picked off by hand; but, if
they are neglected for a few days, they will multiply so numer-
ously that hand picking is not only difficult but ineffective as
well. The best method of control is by spraying with arsenate
of lead added to Bordeaux mixture. The Bordeaux itself is
beneficial to the potato plant as it prevents leaf diseases and
stimulates the plant into a more vigorous growth. The neces-
sity for using Bordeaux on potatoes makes the control of the
insect very simpie, as the only expense is the cost of the poison.
The application of the spray solution is indispensable, so that
the expense of adding the arsenate is negligible. The Bor-
deaux is prepared as directed for controlling fungous dis-
eases.

The squash bug, or “stink” bug, is a familiar insect to |
every farm boy. It belongs to the group of insects known as
true bugs (Hemiptera, or half-winged insects). The adult
is grayish brown in color and one-half to three-quarters of an
inch in length. It feeds by sucking the juices of all members
of the melon family, including melons, cucumbers, squashes
and pumpkins. It is doubtless responsible to a great extent
for the rapid spread of the melon wilt, a bacterial disease. The
insect will feed on an infected plant and later on a healthy
one, transferring the bacteria from one to the other. The in-
sect is controlled by gathering the eggs by hand or by trapping
the adults. The eggs are large for the size of the insect and

GARDEN INSECTS Pie

are laid on the under side of the leaves. They are bright yel-
low in color, so are not readily overlooked. The adults may be
trapped by placing boards near the melon vines, under which
the insects will seek shelter at night. If the boards are lifted
each morning, large numbers of the beetles can be taken in
this manner.

The harlequin bug is very injurious on cabbage in the
South and is now found as far North as south central Indiana.
The adult winters over in trash on the ground and begins to
lay eggs early in the spring. The eggs hatch after a short pe-
riod of incubation and the young grow with amazing rapidity.
Many broods are produced each season and by fall the cabbage
field may become a swarming mass of harlequin bugs. Since
the insect secures its food by sucking the juices of the plant,
it can not be eradicated by the use of arsenates, but must be
reached by contact insecticides. Another problem is presented
here because the bugs are so resistant that they will not yield
to any contact poison except those strong enough to injure the
cabbage plant. It has been observed that the bugs prefer
mustard to cabbage and that one of the best methods for con-
trolling them is to plant a row of mustard about and occasion-
ally through the rows of cabbage. When the bugs have gath-
ered on the mustard, they may be sprayed with pure coal oil.
The oil will not only kill the bugs, but will also injure, if not
kill outright, the mustard as well. Where this pest is estab-
lished, a community should codperate to destroy it completely.
If an entire neighborhood would work together in this way,
many common pests would be much more easily controlled.

Plant lice of various kinds are often encountered in the
garden, and, in most cases, they can be controlled by the use
of Black Leaf 40, a preparation of nicotine sulphate. The cab-
bage aphis lives over the winter on the old stubs left in the
garden. These old roots should be removed and burnt, or
plowed under deep. The corn root louse sometimes becomes a
troublesome pest on sweet corn. The insect is colonized by
ants, for, by itself, it is quite helpless. The ants carry the lice

228 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

about, permitting them to become established on the roots of
the corn plants. The use of kainit, crude potash salt, or of
nitrate of soda will discourage these pests. Fall plowing of
the corn fields will also tend to check the spread of these in-
sects, as it will result in breaking up many of the ant nests.

Kaiser Bug.—In the summer of 1917 a new aphid pest
appeared in many sections of the country on potato and tomato
plants. This aphid was in some sections given the name of
“Kaiser bug,’ on account of the suddenness and insidiousness
of its attack. This was a case of a previously unimportant
insect suddenly becoming a dangerous pest. The insect was
first described in Florida thirty-five years ago and since that
time has been observed as an occasional obscure louse. Sud-
denly it appeared in enormous numbers and caused tremen-
dous damage. It will yield to the usual treatment of a tobacco
spray (Black Leaf 40 diluted 1 to 500), but the treatment must
be very thorough and must be repeated at intervals of not
more than three days. As the insect attacked not only pota-
toes, but many other plants as well, there were always plenty
of specimens to crawl back on the vines that were cleaned by
spraying. Hence the necessity for repeated spraying. This
particular aphis has a tendency to “let go all holts” and fall to
the ground when the plants are disturbed. As a result of this
habit we have another method of control that is available to
the small grower. Take a shallow pan, such as an ordinary
wash basin, and put in it about an inch of kerosene. Hold
the pan under the side of the infested plant, bend over the tops
and give them a shake. With a little practice the gardener
may treat quite a patch in a surprisingly short time. Some of
the insects are sure to miss the pan and fall to the ground, but
they will crawl back to the growing tips as soon as possible
and the next day the treatment can be repeated. One gardener
in Indianapolis who used this method kept his vines practically
free from the pest, while his neighbors who were doing only
indifferent spraying lost most of their crop.

CHAPTER VIII
HOME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

fter a crop of fruit or vegetables has been produced for
home use it will pay to use exceptional care to have it properly
stored for winter. Many fresh fruits and vegetables can, of
course be kept only by canning them; but that is an activity
apart from the design of this book. Those crops which can
be stored in a fresh state will be mentioned in detail at the end
of this chapter.

There are three general methods of storing fruits and root
crops out of doors as follows: Storage in pits, in surface
mounds and in special cellars.

Pits are simply trenches dug in the ground at any con-
venient place where good drainage can be secured. The lower
end of the trench should always be open so as to allow water
that has run in to drain off, for no crop should be stored in a
place in which water is standing. The vegetables to be stored
in the pits are placed there in the fall as soon as cool weather
approaches, after which the pits are covered with straw to a
depth of eighteen inches. Over the straw is placed a covering
of boards to shed the water. This method of storage is par-
ticularly adapted to the preservation of celery.

Surface mounds present the easiest method for storing
many kinds of fruits and vegetables. The mound should be
made in a portion of the garden or other place where the soil
is mellow and where good drainage can be secured. The land
should slope in all directions from the location of the mound.

230 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

It is usually preferable, but not necessary, to place on the
ground a layer of clean straw. On this is heaped the fruit or

|

Turnips prepared for wintering. They are ready to be covered with earth.
vegetables to be protected. They should be arranged in the
form of a rough cone and covered with straw to a depth of

about six inches. If heavy paper is available it should now be

HOME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES PA

placed around the cone of straw in such a way as to shed the
water and keep it from running down over and through the
pile of vegetables. Paper for this purpose should be strong
and water proof. Red builders’ paper will answer the pur-
pose, but tarred paper should never be used. The writer once
used tarred paper to cover several barrels of apples that were
stored by this method and when the fruit was removed in the
spring every apple had acquired a moth ball taste that no
amount of exposure to the air would remove. After the build-
ing paper has been applied over the straw, earth should be
heaped upon the mound. Begin at the bottom of the mound
and work completely around the pile, making a wali of earth
of definite thickness and gradually build up this wall from the
bottom toward the top. Do not attempt to cover the mound
by throwing the earth on top of the pile and allowing it to run
down the sides; always build the earth walls from the bottom.
In that way you can always be sure of the thickness of the
covering. Apples will not require to be deeply covered, be-
cause slight freezing does not affect them. A four- to six-inch
wall of earth on top of the straw will keep apples perfectly.
Potatoes, however, require much heavier covering, as do all
root crops. The earth covering for potatoes should be at
least as thick as the average frost depth in the locality in
which the potatoes are stored. If the ground commonly
freezes to a depth of twelve inches, then the earthen walls
should be twelve inches thick. However, some growers avoid
the use of thick coverings by applying a light cover of manure
on top of the earth. By this method the thickness of the wall
may be reduced at least one-half.

Apples or potatoes in barrels or boxes may be stored on
the same principle as the surface mounds. Instead of building
a mound of the fruit or vegetable, the boxes or barrels are
merely laid on the ground with a few short pieces of timber un-
der them to prevent actual contact with the soil. They are then
covered with straw and treated in the same manner as the
mounds. The use of paper in these mounds prevents the water

Zao ORCHARD AND GARDEN

from leaking down over the stored product. If the mounds leak
the fruit is almost sure to have a mouldy taste imparted to it by
the water that has run through the soil covering.

At the door of a modern apple cellar in February. The heavy screen door
ean be seen in the background.

HOME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 233

Cellar storage is by far the best method for keeping the
majority of fruits or vegetables. The cellar under a dwelling
may be used to keep all sort of fruits and vegetables, but, as a
rule, such cellars are not adapted to this purpose and so it
nearly always pays to build a separate outside cellar for this
especial purpose.

Air and moisture are the two essentials to the successful
storing of most fruits and vegetables and unless these two fac-
tors can be supplied in controlled quantities the cellar will
never be a success. Air is needed because of the fact that all
fruits or vegetables are still parts of living plants. They are
actually alive and the life processes of plants are still going on
in them. The skin of an apple takes in oxygen and gives off
carbon dioxide gas just as the skin of an apple leaf does. If
fresh air is not supplied, this carbon dioxide gas may accum-
ulate in sufficient quantities actually to injure the fruit. It is
now supposed that this action causes most of the injury known
as “storage scald.” The theory is further strengthened by the
fact that apples that are picked slightly green, i. e., those
that are still more actively engaged in doing leaf work, are
much more liable to this injury than are apples that have been
allowed to become fully colored, fully ripe and more or less
dormant so far as their plant activity is concerned.

Moisture must be supplied in any cellar where apples are
stored because of the fact that the fruit may dry out if it is
kept in too dry an atmosphere. Moisture is also necessary
early in the season in order to reduce the cellar temperature.
If plenty of dampness is supplied to the walls and floor and an
abundance of ventilation is provided, the temperature of the
cellar will be greatly reduced by the evaporating moisture. In
Mexico water jars are made with slightly porous walls
through which a portion of the water seeps to the outside sur-
face. These jars may be placed in the hot sun and the water
will always remain cool due to the loss of heat through the rap-
idly evaporating moisture. It is this principle that is used in

234 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

reducing the temperature of an apple cellar in the early fall;
and unless both moisture and air can be supplied in liberal
quantities one of the chiet objects of the cellar will be defeated.

Temperature Control.—In the early fall the temperature
of storage cellars may also be reduced by opening the door at
night and closing it during the day. This should be done some
time in advance of the actual use of the cellar for storage so
that the place may be as cool as possible when the fruit is
put in.

It is also advisable to place the fruit in the cellar in the
morning and not in the latter part of the day. If fruit is put
in the cellar late in the day it will have become warm with
the sun and will accordingly tend to raise the temperature of
the cellar atmosphere. Some growers leave their fruit in an
open shed until the first very cool night and the next morning
place it in the cellar. This pre-cooling of the fruit before plac-
ing it in storage is important enough to be given some extra
care.

Material.—Storage cellars may be built of brick, stone or
concrete. Stone cellars are open to the disadvantage of being
accessible to mice unless the joints are very thoroughly and
carefully pointed. Brick cellars are mouse and rat proof, but
are not as strong and usually not as cheap as concrete cellars.

Concrete cellars should be built with walls of sufficient
thickness to support the roof, as the entire weight is thrown
on the side walls. The accompanying plan for a concrete cel-
lar has been thoroughly tested and several structures have
been built to the specifications mentioned. The walls are
twelve inches thick and the roof is built of hollow tile twelve
by twelve by twelve inches. These tiles are covered by a three-
inch layer of concrete.

The wall forms are first built and then the inside form is
roofed over with tight fitting boards. This wooden roof is to
form the support for the tile roofing. The square tiles are laid
across the cellar in courses, with a four-inch space between
each course. These spaces are to form concrete beams be-

HoME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 235

tween the rows of tile. Near the bottom of each of these beams

should be placed a twisted steel bar, 11 inches thick, to serve
for reinforcing.

SaaS ss
ozan FASTA, ee 7
Piaiss eee UN ie

[iS eS SAGAN
Concrete Cellar,

Some construction details for a concrete cellar.

The floor should be of concrete and should have one or
more openings connected with a ten-inch drain tile to afford

236 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

both drainage and ventilation. Most of the ventilation can be
obtained through the door. In very cold weather it is necessary
to shut off much of the air circulation in order to retain the
proper temperature. Consequently a ten-inch drain will sup-
ply all the air that is needed when the weather is so cold that
the door should be closed.

Screens must be provided over the drain tile and also over
the ventilators in order to exclude mice. It is also very im-
portant to provide a heavy screen door that will close neatly.
All of these screens may be made of 4}-inch mesh galvanized
wire cloth, which will last for years. They form one of the im-
portant items in the construction of a successful storage cellar.

If the walls are built one foot thick they will support a
roof span of fourteen feet with perfect safety. The cellar
can then be built fourteen feet wide and as long as may be
desired. These proportions have been found to be very satis-
factory in actual practice.

Ventilators should be placed in the roof at intervals of
about twenty feet. These are best built in the form of con-
crete flues at the time the roof is made. The concrete should
extend about eighteen inches above the top of the roof and
should be capped with a galvanized iron extension three feet
long. This extension should have a hood and the air openings
at the side should be covered with screen to prevent mice from
entering.

The door need not be built unusually heavy. In some
cellars it has been the practice to use heavy refrigerator
doors, but a simple door made of two thicknesses of inch
boards, with an air space between, will answer every purpose.

Roof.—After the concrete work is finished and before
the earth is put over the cellar, the roof should be given a
heavy coat of pitch, to enable it to turn the water. It is
immaterial how much water comes through the walls or runs
over the fioor, but it is not desirable to have any leaks in the
roof. Such leaks cause water to run down over the fruit and
if it is stored in barrels or other packages the moisture will

HOME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 237

spoil the appearance of the package even if it does not injure
the fruit. Where tile has been used in the roof as above de-
scribed, it will not require a very heavy covering of earth to
make the roof frost proof. The walls, of course, will be cov-
ered completely to a depth beyond the possible frost line. Six
inches of earth on the roof has kept one of these cellars warm

Apples in a concrete cellar. This cellar is fourteen feet wide and eighty
feet long.

in weather that caused the thermometer to register ten to
twenty blow zero for more than a week.

The accompanying chart will give some idea of the tem-
perature range inside one of these cellars as compared with
the range outside. It is desirable to hold the temperature as
near one place as possible.

The following notes on the storing of various fruits and

vegetables will serve as a guide in the matter of keeping the
different sorts for winter.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN.

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HOME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 239

Apples.—The fruit should be well grown, have reached
its full size, but not necessarily its full color. Grimes should
be fairly green. Delicious must be picked while still very hard
and firm. May be kept in either surface mounds or cellars, but
preferably in cellars. There must be a surplus of moisture in
the air or they will wilt and lose quality.

Beets may be kept in pits, mounds or in moist cellars.
They should be fully grown before harvesting and should
have the tops cut off about an inch or two from the root to
prevent too much loss of moisture.

Cabbage.—Store in pits or mounds. Cellar storage is not
uniformly successful. A common method is to pile the heads
in a long “rick,” with the roots sticking up. (For storing in
_this way the plants should be pulled root and all.) Then cover
the rick with earth just heavily enough that the roots stick out
of the ground.

Carrots.—Store in mounds or in a cellar having plenty of
moisture.

Celery.—This is best stored in pits. The trench should be
made deep enough to receive the entire plant. Plants are
transplanted to these pits and are packed in them just as close-
ly as possible. The roots should be well covered with earth in
order to maintain an abundant supply of moisture to the stalks.

Onions should be gathered during a dry time and should
not be allowed to become moist or they will rot. They can
best be stored in a dry room where they will be free from frost.
Some varieties are not injured by freezing if they are allowed
to thaw out slowly, but the safest plan is to keep them from
freezing.

Parsnips may be dug in the fall and stored in pits, mounds
or in moist cellars. However, many growers allow them to
remain in the ground over winter. They are perfectly hardy
and withstand freezing. The flavor is improved after they
have been frozen so that even though they are to be stored they
should not be dug until after a severe freeze.

Pears.—Some of the very late varieties of pears may be
(16)

240 ORCHARD AND GARDEN.

kept in storage until January or February. Each fruit should
be wrapped in paper and handled carefully. They require
less moisture than apples and can often be stored to advantage
in a cellar under a house that would be entirely unsuited for
apples.

Potatoes.—This is one crop that is not in the least par-
ticular about the way in which it is stored. If the tubers
are kept from frost and at the same time not permitted to get
too warm they will remain in good condition. Cellar storage
such as is adapted to the keeping of apples will also hold pota-
toes in perfect condition. They also endure both more and less
moisture than will apples. They can be kept out doors in
mounds if protected from freezing and do well in an ordinary
house cellar. If the air is too dry they are inclined to wilt and
if it is too warm they may sprout. Potatoes stored on the
farm by any of these methods make much better seed potatoes
than do those which have been kept in chemical cold storage.

Sweet Potatoes—Unlike Irish potatoes, these must be
stored in a warm, dry place. They may be packed in dry sand
and kept in a house cellar. They are difficult to retain in good
condition.

Turnips should be pulled in the fall after cool weather sets
in. They will withstand some freezing weather in the field.
They are best stored either in mounds or in a moist cellar. If
stored in a mound they should be as well protected from freez-
ing as potatoes. Although they are not injured by rather cold
weather while they are standing in the field, they are soon
ruined if allowed to freeze after they have been gathered.

CHAPTER IX
THE BACK YARD GARDEN

In an earlier chapter the fact has been mentioned that in
all large cities, and in many small towns, a great waste of
good land exists through the premature “laying out” of addi-
tions to the town. At the edges of all of our towns and cities,
more vacant lots are often found than lots on which are houses.
This land, often in small parcels, produces as a rule only a
crop of weeds-—a crop that must be harvested by being cut
down, but which produces nothing of value to the community.
The majority of our American homes also have in the rear of
the house a space of considerable extent designated as the
“back yard’. Too often the back yards are an expense, when,
as a matter of fact, they should be an asset. The recent high
prices and general shortage of all sorts of food stuffs has
caused a more or less systematic movement throughout the
land involving the cultivation of these vacant spaces in our
towns. “Patriotic gardens” have sprung up in the most out-
of-the-way places and have been tended by people who had pre-
viously never thought of themselves as possible agriculturists.

This movement has been so enthusiastically received by
such large numbers of the population that it seems advisable
to devote one chapter particularly to the city gardens in order
that some of the difficulties beginners experience in this new
field may be removed.

Patriotic gardens are an innovation in America, but they
have come to stay. (This is written during the winter of 1917-
1918.) I recently heard a woman in one of our large cities re-
mark that she ‘hoped the war would be over before spring so

242 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

that they would not have to bother with a garden again.” As
a matter of fact, if the war was already over our patriotic
gardens would be an economic necessity for several years to
come. It will require a number of years for the world to get
its balance again after hostilities have ceased and by that time
our city people will be so enamoured of their gardens that they

A city garden of a foreign-born citizen. The surplus from this garden is

sold to a local grocery.
will continue them for the enjoyment in the work if for no
other reason. The joy of seeing things grow is one of the gar-
dener’s rewards. It is not necessary to make “two blades of
grass grow where one grew before,” but it is quite important
to produce something of value where nothing at all had ever
been produced.

Some people have tried to minimize the value of the city
garden and to intimate that the general adoption of gardening
in the city would never be a success, but the results of the past
year have proved that quite the contrary is true. Many city
gardens failed, but many more were a success and as the years
go on the percentage of successes will grow amazingly.

A city friend of mine sent me his list of seeds that he had
selected for his first attempt at back yard gardening. He had

THE BACK YARD GARDEN. 243

Even the leaf lettuce will form rather compact heads if it is transplanted
and given plenty of food and room.

244 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

a large yard, but the list which he presented was large for even
such an extensive garden as I have in the country. I discour-

Big Boston lettuce.

aged him about planting so many different things, but he fin-
ally made it clear to me that he wanted my advice only in re-
gard to the varieties he had selected and that he expected to

THE BACK YARD GARDEN. 245

grow everything that he had listed. Late that summer I had the
pleasure of seeing his “plantation” and I was truly surprised
at the measure of success he had attained. He had grown
everything from radishes to watermelons and had had some
of nearly every crop to give to his neighbors. This was before
the popular movement toward city gardens and the same man
has repeatedly equaled his first success. During the past year
he produced, in addition to his usual summer crops, nearly
enough potatoes to supply his family throughout the winter.

Such a case might seem exceptional, but, as a matter of
fact, is not. The school gardens that were started last year in
most, if not all, cities proved beyond a doubt that the waste
land in our back yards can be made to produce a very consid-
erable amount of food. However, the idea of the school garden
is not a new one. In many localities such gardens have been
long estalished and they have produced more than food. They
have taught the children who tended them, the value of labor.
To some they have taught a trade; I know several young men
who are now commercial gardeners who obtained their start in
a city school garden. To many of these city children the gar-
dens have brought the joy of the open air in its best and most
valuable form.

Gardening in the city, however valuable and interesting
it may be, has its drawbacks and disadvantages. There are
more difficulties to be overcome than there are in the country—
difficulties of atmosphere, soil, and experience. Most of these
difficulties may be overcome by work and patience. Next toa
good soil, sunlight and air are garden requisites. The air is,
of course, abundantly provided and in spite of the smoke in
some parts of cities it is good enough for most growing plants.
Even in the factory districts and near railroad yards I have
seen splendid gardens in spite of the smoke; but the sunlight
is sometimes a difficult matter to secure. In small lots the
houses and fences often shade too large a portion of the avail-
able land to enable the amateur gardener to make much head-
way, but even here changes may be made to help conditions.

246 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Board fences may give way to fences built of woven wire and
thus provide not only a strip of light, but provide at the same
time a support for such things as can be trained to grow on
a trellis. Along the fence, if it be of wire, is an admirable
place fer tomatoes. Pole beans of all sorts can also be planted
along such fences and the need for poles vanishes.

Often in a back yard there is an old tree, a “loafer” tree,
that produces nothing but shade and even then sheds its

A good back yard garden.

leaves early and stands as an unsightly and useless object.
Such old trees should be cut down wherever they interfere
with the garden. It is difficult to grow fruit in the city, much
more difficult than it is to grow garden stuff; and a live garden
is undoubtedly more beautiful and valuable than a half-dead
tree. There will always be some places in a city yard that will
be shaded. Buildings can not be removed, and sometimes
owing to the contentious dispositions of neighbors wire

THE BACK YARD GARDEN. 247

fences can not even be erected. In such cases we must make
the best of our adverse conditions and plant in the shaded por-
tions only such plants as we know are shade enduring. For-
tunately there are such plants, about which the gardener
should know in order to make the most of his opportunities.
Probably chief among vegetables that will grow in the
shade is lettuce. As a matter of fact, a lettuce bed thrives bet-
ter in partial shade than it does in the open sunlight, especially
after the weather turns quite warm. In the country it is not
an uncommon practice to plant a bed of lettuce under a tree

% Wea

» PRA yee

A school girl’s city garden.

and in such situations it remains in good condition long after
the open-grown lettuce has become tough and bitter. Radishes
will also grow in the shade and for this purpose the small Card-
inal Globe is one of the best varieties.

Spinach is another crop that could be grown in shaded
areas, though it will not do as well as it would if it had full
sunlight. In fact, very few plants will grow as well without
plenty of sun as they will in the open, but for the purposes
of this chapter a few vegetables are suggested that may be
grown with a minimum of light.

248 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

An asparagus bed might well be planted in a shaded cor-
ner. I have seen some good asparagus grown on the north
sides of buildings, for the nature of the asparagus foliage is
such that it can make the most of the light which is available.
Swiss chard is another vegetable that will endure a measure
of shade without much injury. In fact, chard which is grown
in partial shade is more tender than if grown in the open. The
same fact is true of Chinese cabbage, one of the newer vege-
tables that only requires to be known to be appreciated. Chi-
nese cabbage is always planted late in the season and could
well occupy the same ground that had previously been produc-
ing lettuce and radishes. This form of cabbage, however, re-
quires a fertile soil and plenty of moisture, so unless these can
be supplied the city gardener
would better not attempt its
cultivation.

It is with the soil that the
city gardener will probably
have most his troubles. Some
city gardens would try the soul
of a saint at spading time and
probably later too.

Most cities are “built up”’.
In an effort to bring the town
to a uniform level the city
fathers have rearranged the
face of nature to such an ex-
tent that she would not recog-
nize herself. The average back
yard, if it is an old partsor
town, probably has several lay-
ers of ‘made dirt’? whose sur-
face soil is composed of a
choice mixture of brick bats,
old plaster, clay, gravel, stones
and move or less decomposed

Keeping the rows straight.

THE BACK YARD GARDEN. 249

tin cans. I have delved in city yards and I have sometimes
thought that my feelings were akin to those of the man who
makes a business of digging up buried cities. I have found
everything in back yard soils except treasure—that is for the
man who will patiently work with such conditions and pro-
duce a crop. It is a treasure that must be planted and that
will increase each year.

If a garden is attempted in one of these filled-in yards, the
first thing to be done is to have the garden area spaded as
deeply as possible. Somewhere below all that rubbish is a lay-
er of soil that is probably good. In many cases it is very good.
It is indeed buried treasure and will yield up gold in several
forms to the patient toiler who will work for it.

It is not necessary to uncover this deep layer of good soil
in order to make its fertility available for your garden plants.
Loosen the soil deeply and the
probabilities are that your
plants will send their roots
down after that long-covered
fertility and bring it to the
surface in flowers and fruit.

Taking out the stones, the
bricks and the tin cans is a job
that embodies very little of
the poetical, yet it is a job
that pays good wages. These
stones and bricks must be re-
moved not only to afford root
room, but to facilitate cultiva-
tion of the crop. Taking out
the foreign matter means sim-
ply putting the city soil into
good mechanical condition. It
is no more rigorous labor than
many New England farmers

The children are always interested
in what they have helped endured when they cleared the

to produce.

bo

50 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

forest from their hillside farms and then had to remove the
stones to obtain access to the soil. Unlike the virgin hillsides
of New England, however, the city soil is usually deficient in
fertility in addition to being in bad physical condition. To
improve the fertility and also to help the texture of the soil,
a good heavy application of stable manure should be applied
and thoroughly turned under. This procedure means that the
soil must be worked twice. Once to remove obstructions and
again to cover the manure that is applied as a fertilizer.

In the majority of cases manure is the best fertilizer that
can be used in gardens whether in the city or elsewhere. Com-

Kentucky Wonder Beans grown on an otherwise useless fence.

mercial fertilizers have their value in their proper place, but
never have they been able to replace advantageous use of
stable manure in the growing of garden truck. After the
manure has been applied and spaded under, go over the whole
surface with a sharp small hoe or with a steel rake entirely
pulverizing the clods not only on the surface, but as deep as
the ground has been worked. Any air spaces under the roots
of your plants must be prevented. Such air spaces allow the

THE BACK YARD GARDEN. Pei |

soil to dry out and will cause the plants to perish more quickly
than almost any other cause.

After the seed is planted and the young plants are appear-
ing above the ground be sure that the surface of the soil is
kept loose and well stirred. If
the first preparation of the
ground has been correct, cul-
tivation need not be deep, two
inches is enough, but must be
done thoroughly and constant-
ly. If the garden is watered
with a hose be sure not to wa-
ter too frequently. More gar-
dens in the city are injured by
too frequent watering than by
not watering at all. Some
gardeners have attempted to
water their plants every day.
As a result they have applied
only a small amount of water
each time—not enough to soak
into the soil so as to benefit
the roots, but just enough to
wet the surface. When this
wet surface dried a crust was
formed and in that way still
Even the city gardener must spray. more soil moisture was allow-
ed to escape. The deep moisture in the soil can get away more
easily through a hard crust than through a well cultivated sur-
face. If artificially watered let it be infrequently, but when
it is done the soil must be thoroughly soaked. A garden that
is well soaked once a week is always more greatly benefited
than one that is just “sprinkled” every evening.

The following list of vegetables is given for city cultiva-
tion, with a few remarks applicable to city conditions.

Asparagus.—Except in unusual cases, not advised for city
gardens. When the ground can not be well be used for other

252, ORCHARD AND GARDEN

purposes on account of shade or where there is plenty of room,
it might prove a desirable crop.

Beans.—The bush beans are most desirable for city cul-
tivation. The bush lima beans are good and the White Wax
and Valentine are splendid. As
a rule it does not pay to try to
grow “navy” beans in the city,
as they require too much space
for the amount of food pro-
duced.

Beets should be in every
city garden, as they are easily
produced and seem to thrive
on many different soils. They
are very hardy and so the seed
may be planted early. Swiss
chard, a form of beet grown
for its edible leaves, is a pop-
ular vegetable. It is the most
easily grown of all plants used
for greens.

Cabbage.—Not as a rule
advised for city cultivation, as
it requires too much space.
The Wakefield is undoubtedly
the best cabbage for city pur-
poses.

Carrots are easily grown. The ground should be kept
loose to allow full development of the roots.

Corn.—This crop requires much space, also shades other
crops near by. However, if a good variety of sweet corn is
used it can be planted with some of the pole beans and the
corn stalks will not only produce their crop of roasting ears,
but will also provide support for the beans. A good combi-
nation of this sort is the Stowell’s Evergreen corn and Ken-
tucky Wonder beans. The very dwarf corns, like Golden Ban-
tam, should not be planted with beans.

2S ee

This boy specialized on lima beans.

THE BACK YARD GARDEN. 253

Cucumbers require less
room than almost any other
member of the melon family.
They may be grown on a
trellis or over a wire fence.
As a rule, however, they are
not desirable in the city gar-
den.

Kale.—As a crop to fol-
low early vegetables, kale
will produce considerable
food. It can be planted in
the space formerly occupied
by lettuce, radish and beets.

Lettuce-—By all means
every city garden should have
its bed of lettuce. Although
it is possible to buy fine head
Real food stuff produced in a lettuce in the markets nearly

Mace on every day in the year, the city
man should know the quality of really fresh lettuce. It is
quite different from the quality of lettuce that has been
shipped across the continent or stored by the dealer for sey-
eral days. Big Boston is a good variety for the beginner.

Onions from sets can be grown readily and a small area
will furnish enough to supply the average family.

Parsnip.—The parsnip can be grown in most soils, but the
erower must have patience with the seed after it is planted.
Germination does not take place very promptly and most be-
ginners make the mistake of making a second planting, think-
ing that the first seed had for some reason been killed. Event-
ually both plantings come above ground and the plants are then
much too thick. This fact is also true of parsley and carrots.

Pea.—The dwarf varieties are best for the average city
garden. They are an early crop, that can be followed by later
crops of other vegetables.

254 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Potato.—The potato is really a field crop, but nearly every
amateur gardener feels the necessity of growing a few pota-
toes. As a rule, greater value can be obtained from a small
piece of ground if it is planted in some other crop. However,
some city gardeners produce enough for their own use. If the
city man feels that he must grow some potatoes, he should
adhere to the well established rules for their cultivation and
not experiment with any new schemes which are advertised to
increase the production many fold. As far as is now known,
no successful artificial system
exists for speeding up produc-
tion with this or any other
vegetable.

Radishes should be in ev-
ery home garden. A small bed
will supply a large family.

Spinach.—This is the best
of all the “pot herbs” grown
for greens. It is of the easiest
culture and should be in every
garden, especially as it may be
taken off the ground in time to
be followed by later crops of
other things.

Squash—tThe only squash
that is suitable for the city
garden is the white scallop
bush squash. One hill of this
vegetable will not take much
space and will produce a sur-
prising number of fruits.

Tomato.—A few tomato plants should be in every garden,
no matter how small. Few plants are so satisfactory and none
are more easily grown. They may be trained to a fence or
tied to stakes. If allowed to run on the ground they will take
up more room than is necessary.

Real gardening—and in a big city.

THE BACK YARD GARDEN. 255

Tomatoes on stakes.

Turnips are good in a city
garden as they can follow the
early vegetables. They wili
probably produce more food
value to the square foot than
almost anything else.

Cooperation.—Owners of
city lots who desire to estab-
lish back-yard gardens can
often cooperate in such a way
as to render the work easier
and simpler for all concerned.
I have already mentioned the
fact that fences can be re-
moved and either left out
entirely or can be replaced
with wire fences that will
allow the light and air to get
in. Other forms of coopera-
tion consist of the community
ownership of spray machines,
plows or even of smaller gar-
den tools. Often the purchase

of seed may be left to one man in a group, who will buy it in
quantities so that lower prices can be obtained. A commun-
ity hot bed for producing early plants of cabbage and tomatoes
will simplify the production of all plants of this sort and the
expense of the hot bed will be distributed between several peo-
ple instead of being borne by each individual. Such coopera-
tion is urged in every community because it will reduce
expense and result in the production of better gardens.

(Gini)

256 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Such cooperation will often result in securing a greater
yield from a given area than if the same area was to be culti-
vated by one person. The city man who plants a garden for
the first time should also guard against trying to do more than
he is able. It is far better to have a small garden well tilled
than to have a large tract that is neglected.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. PART

AN ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR

Kings and Emperors and Popes have fought over the
proper arrangement of the months in the year, so it is per-
haps unseemly for a tiller of the soil to meddle with a royal
quarrel, but to the man who lives with growing things the
present scheme seems most illogical. Our year starts long
before the first breath of life from the southland stirs the dor-
mant plant life into action. The world is wrapped with a
blanket of snow when the new year begins and all the noise we
may make about it will not stir one leaf into activity or swell
one bud upon the sleeping branch.

To one whose years are measured by the activity of his
plants, it would seem that the old Romans, with their new
year opening in March, had much the best of the arrangement.

JANUARY

Orchard.—Of all months, January is to the orchardist the
least active. The weather usually precludes any attempt at
out-of-door activity. If warm days come, some pruning may
be done in the apple orchard, the vineyard and among some of
the small fruit plants. It is not wise to prune either peaches
or raspberries this early in the year, because the pruned stubs
may be injured by severe cold weather later. This sort of in-

258 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

jury is of course liable to affect any variety of fruit, but those
mentioned are the most apt to suffer. Unless there is much
pruning to be done, it would better be deferred this month.
Never under any circumstances prune even apple wood while
it is frozen, as injury is almost sure to follow.

This is a good month in which to haul out fertilizer and
place it around the trees or on the small fruit blocks.

Indoor shop work can be accomplished so as to have it out
of the way when the season for out-door work opens. Be sure
that all tools are properly oiled. Spray machines should be
overhauled to see that no parts are broken and that the pump
valves are all in good order. Pruning
be sharpened. Grafting wax can be made and if apples are to
be propagated the root grafts can be prepared during this
month. Examine the apple trees tor eggs of the apple aphis,
which will be found in small cracks in the bark and around
the buds on last year’s wood.

Garden.—Manure should be hauled to the garden and
either left in piles or spread over the surface. Hot bed sash
should be repaired and repainted and the frames for the hot
beds should be repaired, or if there are none, material should
be obtained from which to make them. Seed catalogues should
be ordered and studied to ascertain what new varieties have
been introduced and the order for the year’s seeds should be
sent. Do not neglect ordering the garden seed early. It is
just as safe in your home as it would be at the dealer’s and you
are assured of its presence. By placing orders for seed late the
dealer is swamped just at the time you are needing your seed
and as a result it makes trouble for him, delays you, and per-
haps prevents you from getting the choice of varieties desired.

In the South much preliminary work may be done toward
making the garden. Our country is so large and our climate so
varied that it is impossible to give exact directions for each
month that will fit all sections. In the main, these suggestions
are written for the conditions prevailing about the thirty-
ninth or fortieth degree of latitude. Allowances can be made
for relative differences.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 259

FEBRUARY

Orchard.—This is the month in which the orchardist
should plan to do most of his pruning. Severe weather may
prevent the work from progressing as rapidly as it should and
may cause it to lap over into March, but as March is a busy
time in other ways, it is well to get as much of the pruning out
of the way as possible.

While pruning, watch the trees closely for insects and fun-
gous diseases. The San Jose scale can be readily detected by
the observant pruner and wherever it is found in an orchard
the trees should be marked. Later these known infested dis-
tricts can be given extra attention at the spraying time.

Black rot and bitter rot both form cankers on the twigs
and branches. If such cankers or rough, dead areas are found,
the branches bearing them should be cut out entirely if pos-
sible. Blight cankers are also easily detected at this time and
should be removed. Where it is impossible to remove a cank-
ered branch without injury to the shape of the tree or where
the removal would necessitate taking away too much good
fruit-bearing wood, the canker itself can be carefully cut out
with a sharp knife, the wound disinfected with corrosive sub-
limate solution (1 to 1000) and afterwards painted with white
lead and oil or with hot grafting wax.

260 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Notice the peaches particularly before pruning and if the
buds have been killed, it will pay to give the trees an extra
heavy pruning. The heavy pruning will remove much of the
wood which would have borne fruit next summer, but it will
induce a vigorous growth that will bear the succeeding year.
See that all branches and twigs are carted out of the orchard
and burned as soon as possible in order to kill any insects or
plant diseases that might infest them.

In pruning plums look for evidences of black knot, and if it
is present have all infected branches promptly cut out and
burned. Also gather all dried or mummied plums and peaches
and either bury them or, better, burn them. They carry the
infection of the brown rot and their removal at this time will
simplify spraying later.

Garden.—Start saving the manure for the hot beds. It
should be fresh and mixed with bedding straw. Keep it under
shelter where it will not be rained on, or it will lose much of
its heating value. Horse manure is the only kind that is en-
tirely satisfactory for this purpose. If the hot bed frames are
not already built, have them set up without delay, as they will
soon be needed. On bad days mats for the hot bed can be pre-
pared and stored away ready for use later. They may not be
needed at all, but it is best to be prepared in advance. If very
cold weather should set in after the hot bed is once started the
mats may save the plants from freezing, and such mats can
not be prepared in a hurry.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 261

Orchard.—This is the best of all winter months for the
application of the dormant spray. Every twig and branch
must be well covered with the spray solution. Those portions
of the erchard that have been found to be infested with scale
insects or with the eggs of plant lice should be given extra
attention. The trees should be examined a few days after they
have been sprayed and if any exposed areas of bark are found,
the work must be done over in these parts of the orchard.

After a spray machine has been used for the dormant
spraying it should be taken to the shop and thoroughly cleaned
and all of the valves examined and oiled. The strong lime sul-
phur solution is quite inclined to attack the metal parts of
machinery and may cause moving valves and other parts to
stick. It will be some weeks before the pumps are again used
and if they are oiled now they will be in good shape for the
big rush later.

Tree planting can often be started this month. If the
ground is not frozen, this is the best month of the year for set-
ting out trees and shrubs. If the ground should freeze again
after the trees are planted it will be so much the better for the
trees. It will cause the soil to be more firmly fixed around the
roots.

262 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

If all of the pruning was not done last month it can be car-
ried on in March.

Garden.—The hot beds should be started the first week
in March. In some localities it is even better to get them
started late in February so that seed can be planted the first
of March. The hot beds will usually maintain their heat for at
least six weeks and after that they still afford as much or more
protection as cold frames. Consequently the starting of the
beds should be about two months before the average date of
the last severe frost.

Cabbage and tomato seed may be sown in the hot bed for
early plants. Lettuce may be sown in hot beds for the earliest
crop. Late in the month onion seed may be sown if it is in-
tended to grow a few large onions by the transplanting method.
This method has been followed in Bermuda for many years.
The seed is grown inside, until strong plants are formed. These
seedlings are set in the open ground at the time the regular
garden is made and are carefully cultivated and kept free from
weeds. The method involves more labor than does the other
methods of onion culture, but it enables the season to be pro-
longed and thus grow to maturity in the North those varieties
that have heretofore only been grown in warm countries.

If the season is advanced and the ground in such shape
that it can be worked, plant a few peas in the open ground for
the early crop. Some growers always plant their early pota-
toes on March 17th. But the proper time to plant them is when
the season is properly advanced and when the ground can be
easily worked.

In the flower garden sweet peas may be planted if the
ground is in good condition.

See that the garden is thoroughly cleaned up and all
weeds, trash and stalks of last year’s plants are burned. This
work should really be done in the fall, but too often it is neg-
lected owing to the pressure of other duties.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 263

APRIL

Orchard.—If the peach trees have had a dormant spray
they will not require any more attention until about ten days
after the petals fall, but if they did not receive a dormant
spray, then they should be sprayed with lime sulphur at the
rate of one gallon of commercial solution to nine of water.
This treatment controls leaf curl and should be applied just
before the buds open. The apples should be sprayed just as
soon as any pink shows in the buds. Spraying must stop as
soon as the bloom opens. They are sprayed again as svon as
the petals fall. This work usually comes the last part of April
and usually runs over well into May.

Grafting may best be done early in April just before
growth starts. Be sure the scions are still perfectly dormant.

Order barrels and boxes for the fall crop. Also purchase
crates for small fruits. Packages of this sort can usually be
bought now at a lower price than later and the grower is al-
ways sure to have them when needed.

Garden.—Apply manure to the asparagus bed and break
the surface of the soil so that the sprouts can come through
easily.

Plow the garden and get the soil in condition just as early
as possible.

264 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Early beets may be planted if the ground is in good condi-
tion.

Cabbage seed may be sown in the open or in cold frames.
If sown in the open, some provision should be made to protect
the plants on cold nights.

Lettuce plants from the hot bed may be set in the open
ground the latter part of the month. The onions started in the
house should also be ready to set out if the weather is warm
enough. Tomato plants should wait for settled weather.

In the open ground, lettuce and radishes may be sown and
also peas, spinach, parsley and parsnip. Parsnips that have
remained in the ground over winter should be dug before they
start growing or they will be tough.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 265

MAY

Orchard.—Finish the spraying left over from last month
and clean up the machine as soon as you are through with it.
This warning can not be repeated too often.

Remove the wrappers from around the trees, as there is
now but little danger of rabbit injury and it is not commend-
able to have the trees wrapped during hot weather. Start cul-
tivation in the orchards early in the month. If any trees have
failed to leaf out examine them for rabbit or mouse injury. If
damaged trees are discovered promptly, there may still be time
to dig them out and replace them with new trees.

Cultivate all small fruit plantations except strawberries.
These should be mulched between the rows with clean straw
until after the crop is harvested.

Spray grape vines.

Garden.—This is the busy month in the garden, as nearly
everything can be planted now. Early in the month plant
beets, peas, lettuce, radishes, onions, sweet corn. All of these
can be planted at intervals of two weeks so as to provide a
succession of mature crops.

Tomatoes can be planted in the open ground the last of
the month.

Cabbage plants may be set out. See that they go in rich

266 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

and well prepared ground, as this crop needs plenty of fertility
to succeed best.

If the weather is warm, plant melons, cucumbers,
squashes, which may have been started in the hot bed or cold
frames. Do not plant these warmth-demanding vegetables
unless the weather is suitable or more will be lost than gained.

Plant potatoes for the main crop and be sure that the
seed is treated for scab before planting.

In the flower garden all sorts of annuals may be planted,
but the soil must be as well prepared as if a crop of vegetables
was to be grown. Perennial plants may be set this month—
the earlier, the better.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 267

JUNE

Orchard.—Grapes must be sprayed again this month. As
soon as the grape berries are the size of small peas, select the
best bunches for sacking.

The orchard cultivation must not be allowed to lag this
month. Keep at it unless the weather should be very wet.
Even then cultivate between showers.

Gooseberries, strawberries and raspberries will be gath-
ered this month. The gooseberries will not need much atten-
tion, but the strawberries and raspberries should be given
careful work. After the strawkerry crop has been harvested,
mow the beds, let the leaves dry for a few days and then burn
them over. This practice kills many insects and gives the beds
a good growth of new leaves. In old patches that have had the
rows grown together, plow out paths so as to confine the plants
to definite rows. After the raspberries have fruited, cut out
all of the old canes so as to force the new canes to make a bet-
ter growth.

Garden.—Asparagus beds should not be cut after the first
of June or the roots may become exhausted. After the last cut-
ting, apply a light dressing of manure and then keep down
weeds until the asparagus shoots have had time to cover the
ground.

268 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Keep down weeds in the garden. Plant additional rows of
corn, wax beans, beets, etc., to supply fall vegetables.

Plant navy beans the latter part of the month. If these
are planted late they are less apt to be damaged by the bean
weevil and also their cultivation is simplified. If they are
planted late and the ground has been carefully prepared they
will not require much attention after they are above ground.
They grow so rapidly that they often cover the ground before
the weeds have an opportunity to crowd them.

In the flower garden the plants should be kept cultivated.
Asters should be set in the location in which they are to bloom,
as should all other annuals that have been started in special
seed beds or in cold frames. Roses should be pruned imme-
diately after blooming.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 269

Orchard.—July is one of the most trying months on the
orchardist because the apples now demand their regular sum-
mer spray for the control of the second brood of the codling
moth and for various fungous diseases. This spray usually
comes just at the hottest part of the summer and spraying
under such weather conditions is anything but pleasant. How-
ever, it must be done. The Bordeaux spray should be applied
with fine nozzles and a good pressure in order to secure a fine
mist-like spray, that must reach all parts of the tree.

Apples and other fruits should be thinned early this month
if they are too thick on the trees. Few orchard practices pay
better than this usage. As a rule, when two apples hang to-
gether one of them should come off. The one that is left will
be a better apple and will be worth more money than the
two would have been worth if they had been allowed to hang.

After blackberries have fruited the old canes should be
cut out and burned. This custom is a great help toward keep-
ing the patch in a healthy condition. As the new blackberry
shoots grow they should be cut back as soon as they reach a
height of three feet, which causes them to throw out side
branches and make more sturdy canes. The first early apples
will be ready to be gathered the last of this month. It is

270 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

better to make more than one picking with most early apples
because they do not ripen uniformly. This fact is especially
true of summer apples that show color. The Red June should
be picked only when it has developed a good red color. Live-
land Raspberry and Chenango are others of this class. The
Yellow Transparent, while it is a yellow apple, always yields
better if given several pickings. The first picking of the Yel-
low Transparent can be made to include only the largest of the
apples. It will be found that those that remain will increase in
size wonderfully.

Cultivation must be continued through this month. Keep
down weeds.

Garden.—The garden must be kept cultivated through
July. Weeds are the great enemy of the gardener. This rule
applies to flower gardens as well as any other kind.

The ground should be prepared for the planting of turnips
and other late crops. See that the surface dirt is made fine and
loose. Turnips may be planted the last of the month.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. Pare |

AUGUST

Orchard.—-If the trees show an inclination to turn yellow
they must be sprayed again. In apples this yellow leaf may be
caused by black rot or by cedar rust. In either event the rem-
edy is Bordeaux mixture. Apply it liberally if any leaf trouble
exists. Among peaches and plums the leaves often turn yellow
through the action of other fungous diseases. These stone
fruits should be sprayed with the self-boiled lime sulphur solu-
tion.

Summer apples should be picked this month and peaches
also should ripen in some quantity. Harvest them on clear
days whenever possible and pack them carefully. Stop culti-
vation in the orchards and plant cover crops early in the month.

Gaurden.—Plant turnips the first of the month. Also plant
Chinese cabbage and kale. Winter radishes may also be
planted now. Provide the Chinese cabbage with plenty of
moisture and do not let the seeds dry out. After the plants
are a few inches high, give them an application of liquid
manure.

James Whitcomb Riley in writing about the month of
August said something about “the glorious month of indolent
repose”. If there is any such thing as “indolent repose” for

the orchardist or gardener it probably comes in this month
(18)

Zhe: ORCHARD AND GARDEN

of heat and dust. It is a difficult month for the grower of
plants, for often very little can be done to prevent the burn-
ing sun from withering the efforts of the preceding months
of toil.

But in such times of drouth it is well to remember that
cultivation is a great conserver of soil moisture and the more
we can cultivate, the more moisture we retain in the soil for
the use of our plants. So that one of the best rules for
August in the garden is to cultivate and cult?vate and CULTI-
VATE.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. Ze

SEPTEMBER

Orchard.—Quite a bit of work can be done this month in
preparation for the apple harvest. Provide plenty of picking
bags or baskets and repair ladders or buy new ones. On
rainy days build boxes and remove the heads from barrels in
preparation for the apple packing. By doing this work now
much time is saved later when the rush is on at harvest time.
Clean out apple storage cellars and then spray them thor-
oughly inside with good whitewash or, better still, with a
strong Bordeaux mixture. This treatment is to kill the spores
of rot-producing fungi that are probably on the walls and
floor. A little care at this time will pay dividends later.

Grapes are ripe in September. Pick them and pack care-
fully if they are to be shipped. If sold to a local canning
factory they can be handled in larger baskets and with less
care. Those in paper bags will not ripen so early and will
remain in good condition until November. This is usually the
busy month for peaches. The Elberta and similar sorts ripen
early in the month. Do not allow them to get too ripe.

Garden.—The early part of September is a rich time in
the garden. Melons, tomatoes, late beans and sweet corn
are at their best. Now is the proper time to save much of the
seed for next year. Select the best melons, tomatoes, cucum-

274 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

bers, etc., and from them save the seed. In saving bean seed
gather it from pods that are perfectly clean and healthy. This
attention will do much toward securing a healthy crop next
year. Select the seed corn from vigorous stalks in a crowded
part of the patch. It is not best to select corn for seed when
it has grown on hills very much exposed. That which has
made good ears under average garden conditions is much more
liable to yield good seed than that grown under very favorable
conditions. In other words, a weak strain of seed might do
well where all conditions were favorable, but what is desired
is seed that will do well under average or perhaps adverse con-
ditions. Navy beans should be ripe enough to pull the last of
the month. Pull the entire vine and stack them up in little
piles to dry out. If they can be placed under an open shed, it is
to be preferred. As soon as they are dry enough to shell easily
they. can be threshed and the beans spread out in the sun
every day for several days to cure thoroughly. Never attempt
to put them away for the winter unless they are perfectly dry.

Dig potatoes. As they are dug, have some one follow along
the row and select good specimens from the best hills to save
for seed. This method is better than attempting to select seed
from a barrel or bin. Sometimes a hill will contain only one
large potato. It is not advisable to keep that potato for seed.
Take the seed from hills that produce a number of good med-
ium sized potatoes. This precaution takes some time, but it
will eventually pay.

Chinese cabbage may be ready for use the last of the
month.

OCTOBER

Orchard.—In the apple orchard this is the culminating
month of the whole year. Now the results of all our labors
are to be seen and enjoyed, and if we have the good fortune
to harvest a crop of clean, perfect fruit we may consider that
our work has been well done. The pleasure of picking and
packing absolutely perfect fruit is one of the rewards of the
fruit grower. Pick apples just as carefully as if they were
much more delicate and tender structures. Sometimes a
bruise may not show at the time, but it is certain to show
later. Handle the fruit gently, do not throw it about or allow
it to fall on the ground. Asa rule an apple that falls on the
ground is not fit to pack, no matter how perfect it may appear.
It is almost certain to be bruised.

Pack the fruit honestly. Be honest with yourself about
it. Do not put into a barrel any apples that you would not
like to buy yourself if you were getting fruit from the market.
Feed the bad ones to the hogs or have them ground into cider.
They are worth more money as cider than they are as apples.

If you have an opportunity to sell your crop at a fair price,
sell it. If the price is too low and you are equipped to store the
fruit, then by all means hold it. It may even pay to send it to
a cold storage plant in the nearest city and have it stored there.

276 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

After the crop is harvested the trees should be wrapped
with paper to protect the trunks from rabbit injury. At the
same time scrape away all trash and leaves around the trunk
for a distance of two feet in all directions from the tree. This
precaution will discourage the work of mice, which are often
very destructive to the roots of apple.

Garden.—Dig sweet potatoes before they are frosted. It
is customary to let them grow till the first frost nips the
vines. Then cut off the vines at the ground. After this they
will stand a severe frost without injury.

Pot a few plants of parsley to keep in the kitchen. It
makes a very pleasant addition to the kitchen window and is
useful as a garnish and in soups.

Onions should be gathered before severe frosts and stored
for winter. Turnips may be gathered or may be left till early
in November if the weather is not severe. Cabbage should
be gathered this month. Chinese cabbage and kale can be
lightly covered with straw and will remain in good condition
late in the winter. The kale is perfectly hardy and will grow
vigorously in the spring.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. ad

NOVEMBER

Orchard.—Early in the month the same activity continues
in the orchard as prevailed in October. The two months often
overlap and not infrequently is the weather better in Novem-
ber than earlier.

Late in the month is a good time to remove dead trees
and burn them. They can often be pulled out by the roots at
this season, while they would be hard to pull at almost any
other time.

If peaches have been used as fillers in an orchard and are
old enough to begin to interfere, do not hesitate to pull them
out. This is the season to do it. If you allow them to remain
over winter the fruit buds may escape damage and then you
will not have the courage to take them out—when the good of
the orchard demands it. Order fruit trees for next year’s
planting. By doing so at this time you are sure to get better
trees than if you waited until spring after everyone else had
placed his order. Have the trees held and shipped in the spring
or get them now and heel them in.

This is a good month to repair the fences around the or-
chard and garden. Time is now to be had and posts set at
this season will remain solid better than if set in the spring.

Garden.—After everything has been harvested from the

278 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

garden it should be cleaned up and all trash burned. Too often
this is left until spring. It is better management to do it now.

Tender shrubs should be protected by being mulched with
straw. Roses and other plants liable to winter injury should
be wrapped with straw saved for the purpose.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 279

DECEMBER

Orchard.—If the weather is favorable the first part of the
month the November work can extend well into December.

Haul manure to the garden and orchard.

Mulch strawberry beds with straw, but not until after the
ground freezes hard. Freezing will not hurt strawberries; in
fact, it is beneficial, but freezing and thawing will cause them
to pull out of the ground. The straw mulch prevents this pos-
sibility. Mulch raspberry patches that were recently planted.
Old ones will usually not require it.

Late in the month the weather often puts a stop to all out-
door work in the orchard.

Gurden.—There is not much to do in the garden this
month. If parsnips are wanted for winter use they may be
taken up after the first hard freeze and stored in sand in a
moist cellar. They are best left in the ground over winter, but
if this is done they are very difficult to dig when the ground
is frozen.

Kale that has been protected by straw may be used until
late in the month or in some localities all winter. Chinese cab-
bage should still be good if it has been protected by straw, but
it will not withstand the same amount of cold as kale.

280 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Hardy perennials and shrubs bordering a drive.

CHAPTER XI

THE VALUE OF A FLOWER GARDEN

I once came upon a deserted cabin in the woods of north-
ern Michigan, miles from any settlement. The roof was fall-
ing in and the crude door drooped on its hinges, but by the step
bloomed a riot of old-fashioned flowers and I knew that a wo-
man had been a member of the household that had once ogcu-
pied that outpost of civilization. She was gone, but her flow-
ers remained, seeding themselves from year to year, and as
they caught the eyes of those who passed by they proclaimed
abroad, “This house was once a home.”

We have for too long a time considered flowers as unnec-
essary luxuries. We have taken them too much for granted.
Although we have had them akout us, we have not felt that
they were indispensable.

Flowers help to make life worth the living and anything
which helps bring this condition about has what we may call
a money value. Some people can understand a subject only
when it is presented to them in terms of cash. They eat their
food by the colorie and do not realize the wealth they miss in
the beauty of the life around them. And yet even such as these
will pay more for a house that has some trees around it, some
flowers in the door yard and a vine over the entrance, than
they would for a house that stood out bare and unattractive.
They are paying their hard cash for beauty—for flowers—but
they probably never thought about it in just that way. They

282 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

would miss the flowers if they were not there, but they do not
give them a second thought when present. Railroads and other
“soulless” corpora-
tions have never been
known to spend mon-
ey unless there was a
chance that the same
money would come
back and bring more
with it, and yet we
find that railroad
companies are among
our most extensive
flower gardeners. It
is not enough to build
an attractive station
at a promising town;
that station must be
adorned with flowers and trees. This is a practice that has
grown with the years and it has never failed to pay dividends.
A station that makes an instant appeal to the traveler may
bring a resident or an industry to the town; and from thriv-
ing towns railroads get their revenue.

Some of the largest manufacturing plants are situated
literally in flower gardens. We have outgrown the idea that a
factory must necessarily be a dirty, ugly structure. Plants
of Boston ivy are soon grown and flower seeds are not ex-
pensive. If these are combined with a little common sense a
factory may be converted from a dingy workshop, where men
work for a daily wage to a place where the worker will value
his job, where he will always be on time and where he will for-
get about the time clock.

America of all places should be a land of flowers. The first
Spaniards who landed on our continent were so impressed
with the wealth of flowers that they gave the land the name of

An attractive railroad station.

THE VALUE OF A FLOWER GARDEN. 283

“Florida.” Florida is still a land of flowers, but if those Span-
iards could have gone over the whole country they would have
had their first judgment confirmed because, in a slightly lesser
degree than Florida and the south, this was, indeed, a land
of flowers. The American forests were carpeted with flowers
and the streams and marshes were rich with blooming vegeta-
tion. The shores of the Great Lakes were blue with the
fringed gentian, while in early summer the prairies stretched
an unbroken bed of color, not for miles alone, but for hundreds
of miles.

New England’s coast was a bleak spot when the Pilgrims
landed there, and they had much to contend with in their first
winter; but an American flower gave them their first cheer
and brought new courage to their hearts—the trailing
arbutus.

In our American flower garden we have opened our
hearts to plants from the four corners of the globe. We have
flowers from the wind-blown hills of wild Manchuria, from the
sunny gardens of Japan, from Europe, from Africa and from
the islands of the sea. As time goes on we will add others
from far countries, but in the meanwhile let us not forget
that our native plants provide us with a wealth of beauty that
it ill becomes us to neglect. Let us try to encourage the grow-
ing of American flowers and plants in every way possible. We
need not shut our eyes to that which is good and beautiful from
other countries, but, by all means, let us open our eyes more
widely to the wealth of beauty that God placed on this conti-
nent in reach of everyone.

Planning the fiower garden amounts in a way to planning
the home surroundings, because the flower garden includes all
that is planted with the intention of improving the appearance
of the house. The way in which the home grounds are planted
is often an index of the character of the people who live in the
house. Often the owners are too preoccupied with their other
affairs or too indifferent to the real meaning of the decorative

284 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

planting around the home and so they allow a landscape archi-
tect to have entire charge of affairs.

The landscape architect has his place in modern home
building; he is often just as necessary as is the architect who
builds the house, but he should stand in the same relation to
his client as does the house designer. Only a man devoid of
ideas and ideals would say to his architect, “Build me a house’’,
and then give his order no further thought. Of course it has
been done—as the houses often testify—but it is a foolish
means of securing a place in which to live, although no more
ridiculous than telling a man to “Plant me a flower garden”’.
If the owner does not know much about flowers, that is his
misfortune, which he should attempt to correct, for he will
miss much pleasure. He probably does not know anything
about house building either, but he knows enough about what
he wants to enjoy the realization of his ambitions.

The small flower garden that is planted by the owner and
tended by him usually shows more character than does the fin-
est planted “estate” that is maintained by a force of gardeners
and is of interest to the owner only as a show place.

As for the old-fashioned gardens of our grandmothers,
they may have missed much of being artistic successes as
judged by present standards, but they reflected the love of flow-
ers that was one of the innate characteristics of their owners.
Some of these old gardens were positive joys both to their
planters and to everyone who saw them. The old-fashioned
flowers fitted in with the old-fashioned people who grew and
loved them, and it is a wise gardener who has the insight to
include plenty of the old favorites in his modern garden.
Styles have changed in gardening in recent years just as they
have changed in architecture. In the mid-Victorian period,
when houses were built with all sorts of “scroll work” and
with outlandish lines, the flower gardening coordinated with
that type of architecture. It was a favorite plan to project
a few gaudy beds of striking color from the midst of an other-

THE VALUE OF A FLOWER GARDEN. 285

A well planned entrance.

286 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

wise beautiful lawn and the result was supposed to be beau-
tiful.

We have returned to simpler styles both in regard to our
houses and with our ornamental planting. Flowers are used
for borders, for back grounds and for hedges. They are
planted in long lines and broad masses where they will create
an effect that works in with the architectural scheme of the
house. The lawn should be kept open and free. There is
nothing that finishes a house more than a broad sweep of
graceful lawn, whose lines are not marred by flower beds or
shrubs in the center. Keep the flowers back away from the
lawn.

Lawns.—So few people know the value of a good lawn in
improving the appearance of a place, and, by a good lawn is
meant not only one that is soft, smooth and velvety with a
sturdy, healthy growth of grass, but one that is a LAWN, not a
grass plot in which are studded ‘“‘specimen” shrubs and cres-
cent shaped flower beds.

Still fewer people know just how to go about starting a
good lawn. Primarily a lawn is nothing more than a grass
plantation. The grass is a plant requiring the same elements
that other plants must have in order to be vigorous. It must
have to begin with a good soil, and, after the seed is planted,
it must have abundant moisture. Given these two factors a
lawn can be grown any place—yes, even under trees. One rea-
son why grass sometimes fails to grow under trees is that in
the beginning the trees were planted in soil none too rich in
plant food and what fertility did exist has been exhausted in
tree growth. As a result there is none left for the grass—and
grass requires much fertility.

If the soil is rich enough to grow a fair crop of corn or
weeds, it will nearly always grow grass. As a rule grass will
not grow well in a soil that contains any free acid and if an
acid condition exists it can readily be neutralized by the addi-
tion of lime—preferably in the form of ground limestone.

THE VALUE OF A FLOWER GARDEN. 287

The soil for the lawn should be prepared with just as
much care as if a garden crop was to be grown. Do not lightly
rake over the surface, roughing the ground up a bit, and think
that your soil is properly prepared for the planting of grass
seed. It will sometimes really grow with that sort of prep-
aration, but it will flourish much better if started properly.

The seed should be sown broadcast, and an abundance
should be used. The desire is to have a large number of small
plants rather than a few large, coarse ones and if planted too
thick the plants will quickly thin themselves out.

Kind.—For the north only one grass is universally suit-
able for lawns and that is the Kentucky blue grass. This will
thrive on many soils and will also grow under trees, if the soil
is of sufficient fertility to support any grass. However, the
Wood Meadow grass is often used for shady situations, but is
an expensive seed to buy. Rhode Island bent grass is good,
mixed with blue grass, but it also is costly. Red Top will per-
haps endure more moisture than blue grass, but otherwise is
not superior. If any of the more high-priced grasses are
grown they should be mixed with the blue grass.

It is sometimes desirable to mix a proportion of either
timothy or white clover with the grass seed at the time of
planting. Blue grass requires about four weeks to germinate,
while the timothy will appear in a few days. Timothy, being
a strong grower, will act as a shelter crop for the blue grass.
Do not expect to produce a finished lawn in one season. It is
not done.

The seed should be sown as early in the spring as the
ground can be put in condition. It is a good idea to have the
ground prepared in the fall, then it will only need raking over
in the spring before the grass seed is sown.

Clover.—On very difficult clay soils the white clover is in-
valuable, as it acts as a nurse crop for the grass during the

first two years, during which time it is loosening the soil and
(19)

288 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

adding fertility to it.
When the grass once
gets started it will
crowd out the white
clover and take the
space to itself.

Weeds. — Where
much manure has been
used in enriching the
soil the first year will
see more weeds on the
lawn than grass.
However, weeds need
not cause any worry
if they are _ fre-
quently mowed. Most
of them are annual
plants that will die in
the fall, so the main
object is to keep them
from producing seed.

A newly planted

teh lawn must be kept
he ground is entircly. caverodlbe Gis clover mya tered aan emai
makes a good appearance and the grass is .
coming along nicely underneath. to dry out, the grass 1S
given a set back, even
if not killed outright, and the finished lawn is removed just
that much farther into the future. Where weeds persist in
the lawn the best method of destroying them is by the use of
a chemical spray. There have been several chemicals recom-
mended for this purpose, but the best is undoubtedly iron
sulphate. This spray is used at the rate of two pounds to the
gallon and must be applied in the form of a fine mist. Heavy
applications are to be avoided, as they may injure the grass
as well as kill the weeds. Applied properly this solution will
not injure the grass but will kill all broadleaved weeds. It
should be applied five or six times during the season in order

THE VALUE OF A FLOWER GARDEN. 289

to kill successive crops of leaves produced by the perennial
weeds. This treatment is effective against dandelion and dock,
two very common pests in lawns.

After a good lawn is acquired, learn to appreciate it, and
value it for what it represents. Do not start cutting up to
plant shrubs or to make a rose garden or geranium bed.
Flower beds placed about over a lawn are just as much out of
taste as bric-a-brac on a billiard table. Shrubs and flowers,
however, are just as important to the finished appearance of
a place as the lawn. But keep them around the borders of
the lawn and not in its midst.

The garden for annual flowers should have a place by
itself, and preferably in a location where it does not form a
part of the general picture of the yard as a whole. Annuals
have their purpose, but for permanent effects it is better to
use perennial plants and shrubs.

Vines around a
doorway are always
good and they may
often be planted so as
to be not only things of
beauty, but to furnish
shade at a place where
it would otherwise be
difficult to obtain.

The foundations of
a house, no matter
how important they
are to the structure,
are often more pleas-
ing if they are out of
sight behind a mass of
shrubs or are over-
grown by some good
clinging vine. For
this purpose use shrubs
that are perfectly
hardy—native shrubs

A framed doorway.

290 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

if possible. Many hardy plants may be planted among shrub-
bery with charming effect.

Large growing shrubs may be used for screens to cut off
a portion of the yard or grounds from the public view. There
are many native shrubs admirably suited for this purpose and
for the most part they grow rapidly and are entirely satisfac-
tory. The native “pussy” willow, altho technically a tree, can
in effect be used as a shrub, and, as it makes a tremendous
growth in one season, it is nicely adapted for the purposes
of a screen plant.

One of the big advantages of using hardy shrubs and
plants around the house is that they do not necessitate plant-
ing every year, as do
annuals, and_ they
nearly all improve
with age. The owner
learns to watch for
their first activity in
the spring and thus
becomes interested in
them so that ultimate-
ly they become a reg-
ular part of his life.
This friendship with
growing plants is no
small part of the satis-
faction that results
from having a flower
garden, of having
one’s home surrounded
with beautiful plants
that faithfully each
year present their
tribute of beauty in
return for the care
lavished upon them.

Daffodils as house plants.

J aa

CHAPTER XII.
ANNUAL FLOWERS.

Annuals are those
plants which produce
a crop during the
same season the seed
is planted and which
die with the approach
of cold weather. Asa
matter of fact, among
flowers there are
some listed as annuals
which do not conform
to this rule, but in
effect and for all prac-
tical purposes they are
annuals nevertheless.

Hardy annuals.—
Some of the annuals
are perfectly hardy
and will not only grow well from seed sown in the open, but
will ripen seed and seed themselves for another year. The
common corn fiower follows this rule and when a red is once
started it seems to be able to look after itself indefinitely.

Tender annuals—Other annuals are more tender or re-
quire a longer season in which to develop their flowers and so
must be started indoors in pots or boxes. A good example of
such plants is the common “‘moon fiower” and the China asters.
Sometimes perennials, such as pansy, are grown as annuals

292 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

when as a matter of
fact they are peren-
nials.: Ordinarily
they would not pro-
duce blooms the first
season from seed, but
by being started in-
doors early in the
year the plants gain
a season on the ac-
tual calendar.

The. -soul-aster
growing annuals
should be a rich gar-
den soil such as would
grow good vegetables.
If not in that condi-
tion plenty of ma-
Moonflowers started in pots on the window WES must be turned

sill. under when _ the

ground is spaded in

the spring. One fortunate fact is undeniable concerning most

soils. A section of the earth’s surface taken almost any place,

if not particularly good soil, can always be improved. Nothing

seems to respond to good treatment quicker than the face of
the earth.

In the following list of annual flowers I have tried to
include only those species that are known to be satisfactory.
Most of them are old sorts. Some of them were in our grand-
mothers’ gardens. These same old sorts are still just as at-
tractive and interesting as ever and new “introductions” have
not crowded many of the old favorites off the list. In a few
cases varieties have been improved by selection and in other
cases really valuable additions have been made from other
countries, but in the main our annual flowers are flowers that
have been grown for generations and have family traditions of

ANNUAL FLOWERS. 293

their own. This fact, if no other, should give them a place in
our flower beds and in our hearts as well. Figures following
names, refer to height in feet.

Acroclinium. 1.—This genus contains several species
grown as “everlastings.”’ The seed should be planted in the
open ground after danger from frost is past. They make at-
tractive plants for an open border and so are valuable aside
from their use as dried flowers. The color varies from white
to almost red, through very delicate shades of pink. The
beauty of the flowers and their easy culture should include
them in every garden. If used for winter bouquets the flow-
ers should be cut before they are fully opened.

Ageratum. 8 to 10 inches.—Blue, light blue or white flow-
ers are characteristic of this rather delicate annual which is
so extensively used for flower boxes and for garden borders.
It is a tender plant, requiring a long season, and the seed
must be planted in a hot bed or indoors very early in the
spring. Florists grow great quantities of these plants every
year for sale with such plants as geraniums, coleus, etc., to
be used in ornamental beds.

Alyssum. 4 to 1.—Several varieties of alyssum are
offered, all of which are good. The sort sold under the name
Little Gem is a dwarf grower that produces an abundance of
small white flowers. After blooming, the plants may be cut
back, when they will bloom again. The seed may be sown in
the open ground where the plants are to remain. It some-
times naturalizes itself and comes up in the same place year
after year if the ground is undisturbed.

Antirrhinium (Snapdragon). 2.—Snapdragon is in fact
a perennial, but is often treated as an annual and as such gives
excellent results. If the seed is sown in the open ground in
May the plants will bloom in August if given good care. By
planting indoors earlier the season of bloom may be consid-
erably advanced. The plants are not entirely hardy, but if
given a light covering of straw, will winter in good shape and
produce an abundance of bloom the next season. This plant

294 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

is now being grown by florists on an extensive scale and is a
popular cut flower throughout the winter. There are a variety
of colors, varying from scarlet to white with many interme-
diate shades.

Asters. 1 to 2.—Many varieties of asters are grown as
annuals and they are among the most successful of all our
late blooming plants. Like most desirable things, however,
they have their drawbacks and their culture is attended with
several difficulties. Fungous diseases peculiar to the genus
sometimes destroy the crop. This misfortune is particularly
liable to occur when asters have been grown on the same piece
of ground for a number of seasons in succession. It is well
to change the location of the beds each year. The aster beetle
is often troublesome and eats holes in the flower heads. The
only successful way of eliminating this insect is to pick the
infested portions and burn them. Root lice are also trouble-
some, but they can be killed or prevented by working some
tobacco in around the roots of the plants, or spreading it
lightly over the surface of the ground. The soil for asters
should be well enriched. The seed is planted in boxes in the
house or, if late blooms are desired, it may be sown in the open
ground. House-grown plants that have been transplanted
once or twice often make better flowers. There are many
kinds to select from, covering a great variety of color and
form. Some of the larger sorts rival the chrysanthemum in
their regal beauty.

Balsam. 14 to 2.—Altho this plant was introduced from
India, it has been with us so long that it seems like a regular
member of the family. It has long been a favorite in gardens
in spite of the fact that the flower habit is such that it is not
well suited for cut flowers. Plant the seeds in good soil in
May.

Calendula (Pot Marigold). 1.—This is the ‘‘Marygold”’
that was cultivated in England in Shakespeare’s time. It is a
very old favorite and has lost none of its ancient charm. The
flowers come in various shades of yellow and are produced

ANNUAL FLOWERS. 295

continuously from early summer until frost. It is one of the
easiest annuals to grow. Plant the seed where the plants are
to remain as soon as the ground is well warmed in the spring.
By planting a few seeds in pots late in summer the marigold
can be used as a house plant and will bloom well during the
winter.

Calliopsis. 1 to 2.—Related to the perennial Coreopsis.
Seedsmen offer a number of varieties of Calliopsis, varying in
color, form of flower, and size of plant. Most of them are good
and some of them are natives of this country. The seed should
be sown where the plants are to remain and after they are a
few inches high they may be thinned so as to stand about six
inches to a foot apart, depending on the size of the variety
grown.

Cundytuft. 1—Seed should be sown from mid-April until
June in order to provide a succession of bloom. This is a
splendid plant for securing a mass of color and for this reason
should be planted in large beds. It is to be had in a variety of
shades of red and in white. It is excellent for cut flowers.

Celosia (Cock’scomb). 1 to 3.—This plant is an old favor-
ite in annual gardens, but is inclined to grow rank and coarse.
It lacks much of being a desirable plant when grace and color
are desired. May be planted in open ground or started in the
house and transplanted later.

Centaurea (Corn Flower). 14.—Seedsmen offer a number
of sorts of cornflower, some of them native American wild
plants. They are all annuals, but usually re-seed themselves
and appear year after year in the same place. Seed should be
planted in the open ground early in the spring. The sweet
sultans are a form of the cornflower and are more desirable
in point of beauty. Shades of color vary from white to rose
and lavender. They are excellent for cut flowers and should
be grown in every garden.

Cosmos. 3.—This new introduction to our northern gar-
dens has proven of great value. No other plant can take its
place for the production of an abundance of graceful bloom late

296 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

in the summer. As it is a large growing plant it should be
planted behind other lower growing forms and in such
situations produces a good back ground for almost any
of the earlier flowers. In the latitude of central Indiana
cosmos will sometimes re-seed itself and appear in the same
place on successive years, but it is not regarded as entirely
hardy. Most growers start the plants indoors and set them
where they are to remain after danger from frost is past.
When the plants are a foot high the central shoot should be cut
off so as to make the plants more bushy. If this is not done
the plants will often grow so tall that they are unable to sup-
port themselves and as a result fall over in great disarray. An
early strain has been introduced which produces its bloom
from early August until frost. The flowers, however, are not
so large as in the late flowering sorts and the variety is other-
wise less desirable. It is a good plan to have some of each
sort. The colors are chiefly shades of red and a fairly clear
white.

Eschscholtzia (California Poppy). 1—The California
poppies are very bright flowers of the easiest culture. Seed
should be sown where the plants are to remain very early in
the spring. The variety sometimes re-seeds itself. If the
flowers are kept gathered before forming seed the plants re-
main in bloom until frost. With a little protection the plants
will live over in mild winters.

Euphorbia (Snow on the Mountain). 2.—This plant is
grown for the effect of its pretty green and white foliage. The
flowers are inconspicuous. Seed may be planted in the open
ground where the plants are to remain. It makes a good back
ground for other low growing fiowers. This species should
be handled with care as the juice acts somewhat like that of
poison ivy when it comes in contact with a tender skin. Like
poison ivy, too, many people can handle it with entire im-
munity.

Four-O’clock (Marvel of Peru). 14$.—An old-fashioned
annual not of unusual value except for its associations. There

ANNUAL FLOWERS. 297

are other better plants, but this one can be easily grown al-
most anywhere by anyone. The seed is sown in the open
ground in May.

Globe Amaranth. 14.—This is another flower grown for
winter bouquets. The flower heads are composed of many
small, bright colored bracts which hide the true flowers. These
heads resemble the flower heads of red clover. They should
be cut before the flowers are fully mature and hung up to dry
for winter use. They remain attractive long into the winter.
They are not as attractive, however, as some of the other ever-
lastings. Seed may be planted in the open ground as soon as
the danger from frost is past.

Helianthus (Sunflower).—The sunflower, coarse as it is,
is not to be despised. It has considerable value in many situa-
tions. Nothing will serve quite so well to screen a rough
corner quickly—and the flowers are far from being unpleasant
to the sight. Another fact that should not be disre-
garded, is that the sunflower will provide an abundance of
food for many kinds of birds, and it is always interesting to
watch the little creatures hanging on desperately trying to get
their breakfast from the downward-bent seed heads. Try to
find a place for a few at the far end of the garden. The seed
can be sown as soon as the danger from frost is past. Need-
less to say, they like a sunny situation.

Helichrysum (Strawflower). 14.—This plant is one of the
most popular of the everlastings and is grown from seed
planted in the open ground. Like all other everlastings, the
flowers should be cut before they are fully opened so as to
cause them to hold together more firmly. Strawflowers come
in various shades from white to crimson.

Kochia (Summer cypress). 3.—Related to some of our
common weeds and, like them, grows very rank whenever it
has an opportunity. It is a plant without any particular char-
acter to recommend it except that any one can grow it under
any sort of condition. It is to the flower garden what the
Ailanthus is to the shade trees. The seeds are planted in the

298 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

open ground after frost dates are past and it should be thinned
to stand two feet apart. Its best use would be as a background
for the better low-growing plants.

Larkspur. 14.—In recent years we have seen remarkable
improvement in size and color among the annual larkspurs.
These old-fashioned flowers were always favorites and they
have good reason to be, for they are easily grown, make a fine
appearance in the garden, bloom from early summer until
frost, and are excellent for cut flowers. The seed should be
sown in the open ground by the first of May or earlier if the
weather will permit. In a favorable season the plants will be
in bloom by July and will continue to bloom till killed by frost.
Frequent cuttings will tend to make the plants bloom better
and will keep them in better shape generally. A double sort
has become popular and grows nearly twice the size of the
single forms.

Marigold. 4 to 14.—There are a number of flowers that
are known by the name of marigold. Calendula was known
under this name in old English gardens. The marsh marigold
is a native spring flowering plant that grows in swampy places.
The marigold of the seedsmen, however, belongs to the genus
Tagetes and is quite unlike any of the other plants that some-
times bear its name. There are two common forms, the
French and the African. The French marigold is a dainty
little yellow plant that is excellent where a mass of yellow
bloom is desired. It is of dwarf habit and is a splendid thing
for edgings and for window boxes. The African marigold is
a much larger growing plant and produces a wealth of color,
ranging from clear lemon yellow to brilliant orange. In the
French varieties these same colors prevail and in addition the
flowers are often striped with rich brown. Both forms are
excellent plants. The leaves have a distinct odor when
crushed that is very unpleasant to some people, but rather at-
tractive to others. Probably no other plant can be grown to
perfection with as little care. The seed is planted in the
open ground early in May and the plants will be blooming by

ANNUAL FLOWERS. 299

the last of June and will continue to bloom until after frost.
If the seed is scattered in some out-of-the-way corner it will
often grow with no attention at all.

Mignonette. 1 to 2.—This plant is a native of Africa, but
has been in cultivation in flower gardens so long that it is now
quite cosmopolitan. The flowers are insignificant in appear-
ance and are neither graceful nor beautiful in color, but the
fragrance is such that the plant is a general favorite. The
seed can be sown in the open ground in late April, and again
in June or July to have a late crop. The plants do best if they
are grown in partial shade.

Pansy.—These interesting flowers have been developed
from one of the wild violets native to the cooler portions of
Europe and have been in cultivation for centuries. They will
not withstand hot, dry weather and the plants often perish in
midsummer. In the cooler parts of the United States they
often thrive from year to year, as they are in fact perennials.
I have seen pansy beds in northern Wisconsin that produced
an abundance of flowers year after year with practically no
attention and no winter protection except the snow. They are
often treated as annuals and for that reason are in this list.
For such purpose the seed should be sown in a cold frame very
early in the spring. The soil should be well prepared and
should not be allowed to dry out after the seed is planted.
The young plants are very delicate and require careful atten-
tion. The seed should be very lightly covered. After they
have attained some size the young seedlings are thinned out or
transplanted so as to allow each plant plenty of space. They
are set in the open ground as soon as they are large enough to
withstand handling and will bloom the same season. Pansy
plants are produced by the professional growers each year in
great quantities and it is probably best for the amateur to
purchase his plants from them. Late in summer seed can be
planted for early bloom the next spring. The plants should
be well grown by the time cold weather appears so as to be

300 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

in good condition for winter-
_ ing. In sections where there
_ is considerable freezing and
thawing the plants must be
mulched to prevent them from

drawing out of the ground.
Petunia.—These are fa-
vorites in nearly every garden
because they are so easily
grown, are such _ vigorous
growers, and produce an
abundance of bloom. The
flowers vary in form and in
color. The single forms may
be planted out of doors in the
garden as soon as the ground
is warm, but the double and
more tender sorts thrive best
if started in the house, in a
cold frame, or hot bed. The
seed is very small and should
not be covered deeply. If the
ground is pulverized finely
and the seed sprinkled over
the surface it will usually bed
itself. It is best to cover it
Petunias. very lightly by sifting a small

amount of good soil over it.
Phlox Drummondii. 1.—This annual phlox is a native of
Texas, but is a very satisfactory annual well into the north.
The seed can be planted in the open ground the first of May
and will bloom in about six to eight weeks. Like many other
plants, this one does better if started in a well prepared seed
bed and transplanted to the desired spot later. It will grow
in almost any soil and is a very satisfactory plant. As a bed-
ding plant, where a solid low mass of color is wanted, it is

ANNUAL FLOWERS. 301

excellent and is also exceedingly satisfactory in flower boxes
or hanging baskets.

Poppies. 14 to 3.—There are several kinds of poppies that
are grown as annuals, but all of them require about the same
care. No class of plants will produce such a brilliant color
effect as will the poppies when they are properly handled.
They should be planted in large masses where their colors
will have an opportunity to show as a whole. Individual
plants are not effective. They make great material for bank-
ing against the borders of a flower garden where strong effects
are desired. For the most part they are not useful as cut
flowers because the petals are inclined to fall soon after the
flower is picked. Sow the seed very early in spring where
the flowers are to bloom, as they do not survive transplanting.
If they come up too thick, thin them out so that they stand
about six inches apart. The Shirley poppies are among the
most popular of the single sorts and “White Swan” and “Car-
dinal” are good doubles.

Portulaca (Trailing).—This popular dwarf is useful for
edging and among rock work. It prefers plenty of sunshine.
The flowers are bright and attractive. The seed can be sown
out of doors as soon as the ground is warm and danger from
frost is past and is another very small one that must be
planted carefully. One great danger with small seeds is that
they will be planted too thick. With the more careful planting
they will usually require thinning.

Rhodanthe. 1.—This plant is another good everlasting.
It is smaller and more delicate than the Helichrysum and is
handled in the same manner.

Ricinus (Castor Bean). 3 to 10.—This valuable annual
is good as a background for flowering plants. There are many
horticultural varieties offered by the seedsmen, varying from
dwarf plants with variegated foliage to immense plants that
would serve well to hide a small barn. Seeds are planted in
the open ground after danger from frost is past.

Salvia (Scarlet Sage). 2.—This plant has long been a fa-

302 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

vorite for situations where a belt or mass of scarlet color is de-
sired. It furnishes a good clear color, but the plants are not par-
ticularly attractive in form and is not what could be called
“characterful.” The seed must be sown early either in the
house or in a hot bed for the best results. Florists annually
produce thousands of plants of salvia for bedding material.

Scabiosa. 2.—In spite of its rather unpleasant sounding
name, this annual should be more widely grown. It is
excellent for cut flowers and is easily grown. There is a
range of color from white to scarlet. The seed can be sown
in the open beds, but is better to be started in a special seed
bed and later transplanted to the place where it is to bloom.
This treatment improves the plant habit of many of our an-
nuals.

Stocks. 2.-—Popular annuals that are not as widely grown
as they might be. They are not only beautiful, but fragrant
as well and make excellent cut flowers. Seed should be
planted in a hot bed in February or March and transplanted
once or twice to develop a good root system before being
planted in the open ground.

Verbena. 1.—Every old garden had its bed of these charm-
ing plants. They should be more extensively planted in our
modern gardens. Seed may be planted in the hotbed in Feb-
ruary for a crop of early bloom or may be planted in the
open in May for bloom later in the summer. By keeping the
bloom cut, the plants will produce flowers till frost. As a rule
they ave inclined to trail over the ground and will produce
great mats of bloom.

Xeranthemum. 3.—This is another of the everlastings
so is treated in the same manner. It is one of the most at-
tractive in the list.

Zinnia. 2.—The last plant on the list, but by no means
the least important. They are old garden favorites and are
good both for their appearance in the garden and also as cut
flowers. They are offered in a variety of colors and in form
ranging from rather interesting single bloom to those which

ANNUAL FLOWERS. 303

are very double and with curled petals. The plant has been
improved by selection in recent years and some of the newer
varieties that are offered are excellent. The seed is planted in
the open ground where the plants are to remain about the first
of May or whenever the soil is warm and in good condition
to work. They will thrive in a variety of soils, but require
full sunlight to be entirely successful.

VINES.

There are a number of good annual vines, but in most
places it will be more profitable to plant perennials for all pur-
poses where climbers are desired. The following brief list in-
cludes the best of the annuals.

Balloon vine.—A quick growing vine, with insignificant
white flowers followed by expanded seed pods from which it
takes its name. The foliage is good. Plant in the open ground
in May.

Cobaea.—A rapid growing vine, but must be started in-
doors and set in the open after danger from frost is past. Has
interesting flowers.

Dolichos (Hyacinth bean).—One of the best of the quick
growing annual vines. Makes an attractive plant when grown
over wire fences. In the south is used as a stock feed plant.

Echinocystis (Wild cucumber) .—A native wild plant that
has much value as a climber. Plant in open ground in May.

Humulus (Japanese Hop).—A recent introduction from
Japan. It has good foliage and in rich soil makes a good
growth.

Ipomoea (Morning glory).—The old-fashioned morning
glory is the one best vine for a quick growth to cover some
unsightly building or to screen an unsightly corner. This old
favorite will re-seed itself, however, and can become a trouble-
some weed. The “moonflower,” a more recent introduction,
blooms after sundown. Its habit of growth is much slower

and must be started indoors. The seeds are very hard and a
(20)

304 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

hole should be cut or filed in the outer seed coat before planting
to hasten germination.

Nastuitium.—The nasturtium is one of the best annual
climbers, or rather trailers, as it is more inclined to trail than
to climb. It demands much moisture so must not be allowed
to dry out. Seeds are planted in the open ground in May. A
dwarf form does not trail to any extent.

Sweet Peas.—This is the one annual vine that is entirely
justifiable in any garden. In fact it is almost a necessity. The
vines are grown not for their value as climbers, but for the
bloom, which is as beautiful as that of any flower we have.

The soil for sweet peas must be rich and deep and should
be prepared with the greatest care if success is expected. It
is a plant that requires plenty of moisture and does not thrive
well in very hot weather. The finest sweet peas are grown in
the cooler parts of the country. The flower gardens of north-
ern Michigan are noted for the excellence of their sweet peas.

The seed should be planted as early in the spring as the
ground can be put into condition. Some amateurs attempt
always to plant the seed on a certain date, but nothing could
be move foolish than this practice. The time to plant is when
the season is right. Plants do not always accommodate them-
selves to the solar calendar. It is often desirable to plant the
seed about an inch deep in the bottom of a six- or eight-inch
trench. As the plants appear in the bottom of the trench, fill
in with good earth, causing the plants to push up through the
filling. By the time they have reached the top of the trench
their roots are several inches below the surface and they are
less apt to be affected by dry weather. Some support must
be furnished for the vines, and the flowers are to be kept
picked off and no seed allowed to form. This procedure pro-
longs the season of bloom much beyond what it would be if
seed were to be produced.

CHAPTER XIII.

PERENNIALS.

The use of perennials in the flower garden and in con-
nection with shrub planting has fortunately been on the in-
crease during the past years, and many of our American gar-
dens are developing that air of permanence that can not be
produced by the use of annual plants. Perennials are plants
that live over from year to year. Some of them are perfectly
hardy and some require protection in severe winters. With
the greatly increased interest in this class of plants nursery-
men have introduced a host of forms not generally known
and many of them are worthy additions to any garden, but
some of them are intended chiefly to grace the pages of the
catalogues and it were better for the gardener if they were
allowed to remain there.

Permanent.—Although perennials do not require re-
planting each season, the grower must not get the notion that
they will succeed under neglect. It is true that they generally
require less care than do the annuals, but some rules must be
observed and some work must be done if the grower is to
secure results of which he can be proud.

Soil. When perennials are planted the soil must be in the
best possible condition. In growing annuals the soil is worked
up each year and mistakes of one season can be corrected the
next, but with perennials there is no chance to retrieve an
error after it has once been made. For this reason the grower
should insist that his soil be stirred deeply and that it be pro-

306 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

vided with an abundance of plant food. Turn under plenty of
manure and make sure that the soil is well drained. If the
subsoil is stiff and hard it should be excavated to a depth of
two or three feet and the bottom of the bed filled in with
broken jugs, tin cans, pieces of brick and mortar—anything
in fact which will provide for the escape of excess moisture
in wet weather.

Propagation.—Perennials in many cases may be grown
from seed, but it is best to purchase the young plants from a
florist or nurseryman who makes a business of producing this
class of stock. It is a business in itself and the young seed-
lings invariably require more care than do the plants after
they are well grown. Some kinds are best reproduced by
making cuttings or by division of the roots. Phlox and
chrysanthemums make large clumps that are easily divided.
After a clump of this kind has stood for several years it will
flourish better if it is taken up, the roots divided and replanted
in newly prepared soil.

Vines.——Many perennials are climbers and are greatly
superior to annuals where vines are wanted. Some of them
have in addition to their permanence a good winter appear-
ance that makes them beautiful throughout the year.

In the following list an attempt has been made to include
only those plants which are of known value and which are
sure to succeed in the hands of the average grower. Some of
them are native wild plants that can be collected from the
woods and fields. This class has been too much neglected, as
it furnishes an abundance of good material that is perfectly
hardy and is often superior in beauty to some of the horti-
cultural varieties put out by plant dealers. The utilization of
this class of plants should be encouraged just as much as pos-
sible in our American gardens.

Achillea.—This genus is represented in our woods and
pastures by the common yarrow, a plant with finely cut leaves

PERENNIALS. 307

and flat heads of white flowers. Occasionally the flowers are
a bright pink, but this is not a constant characteristic, as the
pink forms often bleach out under cultivation. Another form
of the plant offered by plant growers is A. Ptarmica, variety,
“The Pearl.” This is a double form, producing an abundance
of small, double white flowers. The plants are perfectly
hardy and will grow in almost any soil. They often grow in
old pastures and seem to thrive even with the grass crowding
their roots. On that account this is a good plant for natural-
izing in places where it can not be regularly cultivated.

Anemone.—There are some native members of this genus
that make admirable hardy plants. There are two common
wild flowers often called anemones, but which belong to differ-
ent genera. These plants are the little wildflowers of the
spring woods. One is Syndesmon and the other Isopyrum.
They are low growing and will thrive in any moist, rich,
shaded soil. They are of value only for their bloom in early
spring. The true anemones are larger growing plants, bloom-
ing later in the year and with the flowers followed by inter-
esting seed heads. A. virginiana is often cultivated. Flowers
white. Plant grows to three feet tall. It will withstand some
shade. The seed head is cylindrical in shape, while that of
the A. canadensis is spherical. This latter form is also culti-
vated in gardens and thrives best with a sunny exposure. Of
the introduced forms, the Japanese anemones are by far the
most beautiful and are worthy of a place in any garden of
hardy plants. They are offered in a number of varieties.

Aquilegia.—The common columbine of the American
woods makes a good garden plant, although it is not so desir-
able as the more ornamental introduced species. All of the
columbines are perfectly hardy and will grow in a variety of
soils, but prefer one that is not too heavy. If the garden soil
contains too much clay it would be well to work in a small
proportion of sand to loosen it before planting these flow-
ers. The bright colored, drooping flowers are produced in great

308 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

abundance in early summer. They prefer a situation which
does not receive the full sunlight.

Asclepias.—This group is the one which the milkweed be-
longs. Some people looking at this plant wholly as a weed
will feel that it has no place among the aristocrats of the hardy
flower garden, but even the more common milkweeds are not
to be despised. While it is true that it is an ordinary weed in
many localities, that fact does not detract from the beauty of
the plant. If it had been imported it would be grown by every
florist. The species that has the most value to the plant
grower, however, is that known as “butterfly weed,” a form
most common in low, wet places. It produces great heads of
brilliant orange yellow flowers that are as striking and beau-
tiful as any of the pampered pets of the most fastidious gar-
dener. Although the plant grows wild in rather moist situa-
tions, it will thrive in many soils and where a number of
plants are set together they furnish a dash of color that cannot
be equaled by any other plant. While the plants are in bloom
they are constantly visited by hosts of the Monarch butterfly
whose orange and black coloring fits in with the general color
scheme of the flowers. They must be watched at this time,
however, because the butterflies are not there purely for orna-
mental purposes. They are usually feeding and incidentally
laying their eggs on the foliage. The eggs produce a green
and black striped caterpillar which is about the only serious
insect enemy of the plant. They are usually not numerous,
however, and can be readily picked off by hand. If they are
allowed to continue their development they produce, eventu-
ally, one of the most beautiful chrysalids. Truly even the
pests connected with this plant have an undue share of beauty.

Aster.—For the hardy garden there is just one best aster
and that is the form known as the New England aster. It is
perfectly hardy and makes a wonderful show of purple bloom
in the fall of the year. It can be planted in clumps among the

PERENNIALS. 309

shrub border and will furnish a wealth of color just at a time
when flowers in such situations are needed. The native form
has been improved by selection until now there are several
shades of color offered by plant growers. Aside from the
variation in color they are all very similar. There are many
native asters in our autumn woods, but none of them have the
value of the above form. Some of the delicate, small flowered,
blue and white kinds are very pretty when naturalized in great
masses along ravines in wooded places, but for the average
garden they are not particularly commendable.

Campanula.—Bailey lists forty-nine species of campanula
and many varieties under each species, so it will readily be
seen that this is a large group. It contains, among others, the
bluebell, noted in Scottish literature. Its growth is not con-
fined to Scotland however, as it is also native over a large part
of the northern United States. The best of the group from
the standpoint of the flower gardener are the Canterbury bells,
those graceful, bell-shaped flowers which come in-a variety of
pleasing shades and which are so well adapted to the condi-
tions of the average garden. C. persicifolia is a taller and
more attractive plant than the Canterbury bell, but the flowers
are not quite so attractive. _

Chrysanthemum.—tThe old-fashioned hardy chrysanthe-
mums of the old farm gardens are among the best hardy plants
that can be planted. They produce an abundance of bloom
long after everything else has been killed by frost and even
after a severe freeze they will often continue to open their
flowers. If very severe weather should threaten to ruin the
bloom, the stems may be cut and brought in the house even
long before they are ready to open and when placed in water
they proceed to develop their flowers in the most perfect way.
Recently too many tender sorts have been offered in the cata-
logues and growers have been disappointed to find that their
plants died during the winter or were ruined by early frosts.
For that reason the plants from old established patches that

310 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

are known to be hardy are the best. Some nurserymen realize
this disposition and have collected their stock from plants that
have been growing in old gardens for years. Such plants will
give universal satisfaction and will make one of the best addi-
tions possible to the hardy border. The plants will grow in any
good garden soil and require but little attention. They are
best planted either in the fall or in the very early spring be-
fore they start to grow. The growing of the fancy varieties
of chrysanthemum should be left to the commercial grower
who is equipped to take care of the plants and who under-
stands their requirements.

Coreopsis.—This bright yellow plant resembles the an-
nual cosmos in nearly everything except color. The flowers
are splendid for house use and their constant cutting
tends to keep the plants in bloom for a longer period. They
come into bloom early in the summer and if not allowed to
form seed will continue to bloom until frost.

Delphiniums.—The perennial delphiniums or larkspurs
are among the very best of the hardy plants for the flower
garden. The Chinese forms are small flowered dwarf plants
suitable for any position where a low, dark blue flower is de-
sired. The stately English delphiniums are among the most
beautiful of the group. They grow from four to eight feet
tall and will bloom from early summer till frost if they are
properly treated. As soon as a spike of flowers is through
blooming, that is when the top flowers are beginning to fade,
the flower stalk should be cut to the ground. The plant will
then throw up another great spike to repeat the show. They
thrive in any good garden soil, but the richer it is, the better
flowers will be produced. The colors vary from pure white
through various shades of blue. The light, clear blues are very
effective, as this color is not at all common in plants capable
of producing a large mass of bloom.

Dodecatheon.—This native American plant, commonly
called the “shooting star,” is an excellent. perennial for situa-

PERENNIALS. 311

tions where a spring
blooming plant of low
growth is required.
It is characterized by
spikes of white or
pinkish flowers of a
very intresting shape,
growing much after
the habit of the Alpine
violet or cyclamen.
The flower suggests
that of the cyclamen
very decidedly and no
doubt our little native
plant would be a green-
house favorite if it
were not so common in
the woods.

Hepatica.—This is
another familiar plant
of our woods that de-
serves to be recog-
The bloom of the shooting star resembles nized in our gardens.

BA Gycamen, While it is a spring
blooming plant, the foliage is persistent and beautiful all sum-
mer, making a ground cover in shady places. The leaves re-
main green, or rather red bronze, all winter and until the
flowers come in the spring. It is one of the most desirable
plants to mass in beds on the north side of houses where it
will have shade and moisture. Plants that will thrive in such
situations are needed and the hepatica should prove a wel-
come addition to the list.

Hollyhocks.—Every one loves the good old-fashioned
hollyhocks. They are rank growers and are not. particularly
graceful and many other plants produce colors that appeal
more to the artistic eye, but at that there is something stately

Sl ORCHARD AND GARDEN

about the plants that cannot be overlooked. They recall old
gardens and old times and through long association have won

Good old-fashioned hollyhocks.

+6
we!
—T
ow.

Nae

PERENNIALS.

the place in the hearts of flower growers that will cause them
to retain their place in the garden. They are splendid to use
as a background for other flowers or in a mixed border of tall
growing plants. Their wide range of colors causes a regular
riot in the garden—an effect that is often wanted.

Iris—The flags are among our most useful perennials
because of the fact that they will grow in such a variety of

Iris bordering a path.

situations and are so universally beautiful. There is nothing
better with which to border a bed of other flowers or to use
along a path or an approach to a house. They grow stiff and
upright and have no tendency to lop over on their neighbors,
although the roots will in time spread and cause the indi-
vidual patch to enlarge and the border strip to become slightly
wider. The German iris, so called, although it is not a native
of Germany, is one of the most useful, as it adapts itself to

314 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

many types of soil and will do better in poor soil than almost
any other perennial. It requires good exposure to sunlight,
however. After the first year or two it does not seem to need
cultivation and is able to take care of itself very effectively.
The Japanese iris is a much more showy plant, producing
flowers of great beauty of form and coloring. It is by far the
finest of all the group, but unfortunately is a moisture-loving
plant and if deprived of its moisture it often fails completely.
The same statement is true of the blue flag of our American
marshes. It is an attractive plant but it will grow only in wet
places. The Spanish iris is a delicate form of easy culture. The
bulbs, for this is a bulbous form, are planted early in the fall
and bloom the next season. Altogether there are more than a
hundred species of iris and many hybrids between species.
No flower has been more highly developed and few forms
will yield greater satisfaction to the lover of flowers.

Linum.—The ornamental flax is a pretty little perennial
with delicate foliage and covered with a multitude of blue
flowers. It comes into bloom early in the spring and remains
covered with flowers nearly all summer. The plants are not
tall growing and not bold in coloring, but for a situation
where delicacy and grace is desired they are splendid.

Lobelia.—The red flowered lobelia, or cardinal flower, is
a beautiful perennial, but requires plenty of moisture. If a
place can be secured where moisture is assured throughout
the season it would be well to try it, but in the average gar-
den there are other plants that are more apt to succeed.

Monarda.—This is one of the mints that is well worth
cultivation in a hardy border. The flower heads are not only
interesting, but they also attract numerous butterflies and
provide forage for honey bees. It is a wild plant over the
most of the country.

Pentstemon.—There are a number of species of pentste-
mon native in the United States, but P. digitalis is the form
chiefly cultivated. It produces attractive spikes of white
flowers in early summer and is worthy of more extended cul-

PERENNIALS. my

tivation. P. grandiflorus is native in the prairie district. It
has larger flowers of light lavender blue.
Peonies.—Perhaps no other hardy flower is so widely

A native monarda.

316 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

cultivated as the peony. Certainly none is more admired.
The bloom exceeds the rose in beauty of form and color and
most varieties are equally fragrant. In addition to producing
the most splendid flowers, the plants produce clean, vigorous
foliage that is seldom attacked by insects or fungous disease
and which makes an excellent appearance throughout the sea-
son. If only one hardy plant can be selected, let it be, by all
means, a peony. The plants that are furnished by nursery-
men are usually single roots cut from a large clump. As a
rule these single roots will produce only one or two stalks the
first season they are planted and the results are apt to be dis-
appointing to the amateur, especially when he is told that the
plant should not be allowed to bloom the first season. For
immediate effects it is best to purchase original clumps of
several years’ growth, although such clumps will cost about
five times as much as the single plants. The roots may be
planted either in the fall or in very early spring before growth
starts. In any event they should be placed in the best soil ob-
tainable and in a situation where they will have an abundance
of light and air. They do not succeed in even partial shade
and their excellence entitles them to the best location in the
garden. No plant is better adapted for grouping around
houses and along drives and walks. There are many varie-
ties offered and practically all of them are good. Some are
single, but the most of them are double. The great white
variety, festiva maxima, is one of the finest flowers in exis-
tence.

Phlox.—There are several native species of phlox that
are worthy of cultivation. One of these, P. divaricata, is the
common wild flower known as blue phlox and is to be
found in rich woods ovey a greater part of the eastern states.
It is suitable for garden culture and as a plant for early bloom
in a shrub border it is excellent, making large clumps. P.
subulata, or moss pink, is a dwarf form, blooming very early
in the spring and covering itself with charming little lavender
or rose pink flowers. It is a creeping plant, with grass-like

PERENNIALS. Sond

foliage, and if given an opportunity will form great mats,
covering the ground for yards in every direction. There is
nothing finer for a ground cover in situations where the soil
is poor and where an early show of color is desired. This
phlox does not succeed in rich soil. It grows to perfection on

Phlox divaricata, one of our native plants.

difficult yellow clay and if it can get its roots in a crevice
under a stone it will thrive as well as if it were growing in a
rich garden. The tall growing phlox of the garden is either
P. paniculata or P. maculata or a cross between the two.
Nearly all of our named varieties are such hybrids. From
this it will be seen that this is a strictly American family.
These tall growing phlox are among our best hardy plants

318 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

and if given good soil will soon make large and showy
clumps.

The Missouri Botanical Garden gives the following direc-
tions for the cultivation of these hybrid plants: “The garden
culture of phlox is very simple. As they are gross feeders, the
soil should be worked up to a depth of eighteen inches to two
feet and well enriched with well-rotted manure. The manure
is especially necessary in light sandy soil to conserve moisture.
It should be used sparingly in stiff heavy soil, however, in view
of a prevalent spot disease caused by a fungus, Cercospora
phlogina. The disease is characterized by circular brown
spots on the foliage, which on the upper surface show a dark
brown border. The distance of planting should vary from two
to three feet, depending upon the effects desired. For color
grouping clumps may be set two feet apart without being
overcrowded. Phlox suffer in hot weather because of their
tendency to form roots at the surface. To avoid this, mulch-
ing with well-decayed cow manure should be resorted to in
June. Moderate shade is also beneficial during the hot part
of the day, so that an eastern or western border is preferable
to one facing south. For the best results phlox should be di-
vided every three or four years.”

Physostegia.—Another American plant that is widely
cultivated in gardens, but not as extensively as it should be.
It produces tall spikes of pink or white flowers and makes a
graceful addition to the hardy border.

Rudbeckia (Golden Glow).—This perennial is one of the
best of the tall growing plants. It is not what could be called
a graceful plant, but its vigorous growth and unfailing sup-
ply of bright yellow flowers give it a value that a less thrifty
plant would lack. Being tall growing, it should be placed
where it will have plenty of room. Sometimes the stems re-
quire support or they will blow over in the wind. They can
be strengthened by pinching out the leader when it is about
two or three feet high and causing the plant to branch.

Tradescantia.—The native spiderworts make excellent

PERENNIALS. 319

little plants for the hardy border and as they will endure some
shade they may be planted among shrubs or under trees. The
flowers are blue or purple and last but a short time, but are
quickly followed by others.

Trillium.—For a cool, rich spot in the garden there is
no more striking plant for early bloom than the large white
trilliiums. These are native in our rich woodlands. The tall
stalks bearing the three-parted leaves of sturdy green, appear

Tradescantia, or spiderwort, makes a fine perennial in a sheltered location.

early in the spring and the bloom opens soon after the leaves
reach their full development. This is one of our most interest-
ing native plants and should be more widely grown. Many
plant specialists list it in their catalogues, but it can also be
obtained direct from the woods in many parts of the country.
The bulbs should be planted deep—at least as deep as they

grew in the woods, about six to eight inches. There are other
(21)

320 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

varieties of native tril-
lum, but for the most
part they are not suit-
ed for garden planting.
The little snow tril-
lium, one of the earl-
lest wild flowers, may
be naturalized in the
border or on the lawn
in a sheltered situa-
tion. It grows only a
few inches high and
produces white flowers
almost as soon as the
snow is off the ground
in the spring.
Verbena Venosa.
—This is a hardy form
of the verbena and
should be more widely
grown. It is often
found in old gardens
where it has been es-
tablished for years.
When allowed to have
its own way it will
form large mats of
deeply cut foliage and
will produce a perfect mass of flowers from early spring until
frost. These flowers, a purplish violet in color, attract large,
black, swallow-tail butterflies in great numbers. Any bright
day in summer will see the plants shadowed over by these in-
sects which seem to visit it only for the nectar of the flowers,
as the larva of this butterfly feeds on other plants.
Yucca.—The common yucca is a good evergreen plant,
perfectly hardy. and valued not only for its great spikes of

One of the showy trilliums.

PERENNIALS. ik

white flowers, but also for its striking stiff, green foliage,
which remains in good condition indefinitely. It is of the eas-

ey}
ieee! i i

The Emperor Daffodil.

iest culture and often escapes from cultivation and runs wild.
It is a good plant to give a touch of green in the winter among
the shrubbery.

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

‘di

Paper White Narcissus as grown in the house.

PERENNIALS.

VS
=
ih)
ne
TU)

DUTCH BULBS

There are many sorts of plants commonly sold under the
name of Dutch bulbs, because of the fact that their culture has
been developed to its highest state in Holland.

Among these, the various members of the narcissus fam-
ily hold a high place and are among our best perennials for
spring bloom. The great yellow daffodils are for the most
part perfectly hardy and can be planted among shrubs with
very pleasing effect. The variety known as Emperor is prob-
ably the best for this purpose. The bulbs should be planted in
the fall in soil which has good drainage. It is a good plan to
dig a trench about seven or eight inches deep and put an inch
or two of sand in the bottom of it. On this sand the bulbs are
placed and covered with good earth.

The paper white narcissus is also an excellent form for
naturalizing among shrubs and trees and is handled exactly
like the daffodil. The ‘‘poet’s narcissus” is perfectly hardy
and makes a good plant for outdoor culture.

Ali of these can also be grown in the house by planting in
boxes and pots and allowing them to remain out of doors until
cold weather approaches. They are then brought into a cool
cellar and later into a warm, lighted room.

For the hardy border there is no more effective plant than
the Darwin tulips, which are just as different from the small
early flowering tulips as could be possible. The Darwins pro-
duce tall stems, bearing great cup-shaped flowers in a wonder-
ful variety of brilliant colors. No hardy garden should be
without them. They are planted and treated just as the daffo-
dils. Ground mice have a great fondness for the bulbs of the
Darwin tulip and the beds should be examined every fall for
signs of these pests. If they are present, as will be indicated
by their runways, means must be employed to exterminate
them. Oatmeal dusted with strychnine can be placed in the
entrance to the burrows and the hole covered with a stone or
clod. This will prevent birds from eating the grain. If after

324 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

a few days the holes are again open the dose should be re-
peated. If the holes remain closed and no new openings ap-
pear you may feel sure that the mice have perished.

PERENNIAL VINES

Ampelopsis.—The five-leaved ivy of our forests makes a
good vine to cover old stumps or to run over a dead tree, but it
is not so effective on walls and on foundations as is the A.
veitcheii or Boston ivy. This is a splendid plant and makes
the best foundation screen in the list. Sometimes it is reported
as being difficult to get started clinging to the wall. This
nearly always means that it is not making a vigorous growth,
as it would if it was planted properly in the right kind of soil.
Too often the soil next to a foundation wall is filled with rub-
bish from the construction of the building and unless this is
removed and good earth supplied it will be difficult to cause
anything to grow. Given good soil and a fair amount of mois-
ture, the Boston ivy will do its part vigorously.

Celasirus.—This is the native bitter-sweet and, while it is
not a quick growing vine, it is a most excellent one. Asa rule
the vines do not produce any berries until they are several
years old, but the winter beauty of a well-grown specimen is
so great that it pays to spend some time in securing this result.
In the woods the bitter-sweet will grow in partial shade and
cover small shrubs and trees with its long stems. It has been
observed, however, that these vines grown in the deep woeds
seldom produce many berries, while the plants found along
the edges of the woods or on fences in the open are usually
laden with their attractive seed pods. From this occurrence
it would appear that it is a sort that will grow in either shade
or sun, but that it produces its truit best when it has a full
exposure.

Clematis.—There are many varieties of clematis offered
by nurserymen, but none of them are any prettier than our
native C. virginiana. This makes a vigorous growth and bears

PERENNIALS. 325

Bitter Sweet.

326 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

in profusion small white flowers. The flowers are produced
in great feathery masses which make the plant one of our most
graceful climbers. The large flowered forms are easily grown,
but lack the delicate beauty which marks our native plant.
C. paniculata is a newer introduction from that land of plant
marvels, Japan. It is similar to our native form, but produces
slightly larger flowers and at the same time loses but little of
the grace of our own vine.

Lathrus.—This perennial vine greatly resembles the
sweet pea. The flowers, however, are not fragrant. It will
grow in any soil and makes an excellent vine where height is
not desired, for, like the sweet pea, it does not grow very tall.
The flowers are produced all summer and are good for cutting.

Wisteria.—Two species of wisteria grow wild in America,
but the Chinese form is superior to either of them as a culti-
vation plant. Few vines make a more rapid growth or are
more universally satisfactory. It should be planted in deep,
rich soil and allowed plenty of moisture. In dry weather it is
well to mulch the surface with leaves or straw to help retain
moisture.

CHAPTER ix V.
SHRUBS

Botanically, a shrub differs
from a tree in that it has many
stems, while a tree has but one.
From the standpoint of the gar-
dener, however, there is no reason
why a small ornamental tree should
not be treated as a shrub. What is
wanted is a small woody plant that
is ornamental and that will not
grow beyond a certain definite size.

The value of shrubs for orna-
mental planting can not be over es-
timated for no class of plants lends
itself to a greater variety of effects
nor is any sort of ornamental
planting more permanent. Many
of our best shrubs are native to
this country, but it is only in re-
cent years that gardeners nave ad-
mitted this fact. Years ago the gardens of England and
Europe were using great quantities of American material,
while at the same time our American nurseries were listing
and recommending chiefly varieties that had been introduced.

Native Shrubs.—Each year sees a still greater inclination
to make use of our own material in this line and some land-
scape architects are building an enviable reputation chiefly
through the use of native stock.

There are, of course, many valuable shrubs as well as

328 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

other plants that have been brought to us from far lands and
in the course of time others will be brought. It is not the de-
sire to minimize the usefulness of any of these, but it is de-
sirable that our own plants of value should not be overlooked.

Soil—When a shrub is planted it is expected that it will
occupy that particular spot for some time. It is not likely that
it will be moved in a year or two. It is a permanent addition
to the establishment and for that reason it should be selected
and planted with care. The soil should be properly prepared

The proper protection for tender shrubs in winter.

to begin with. Do not expect shrubs or any other sort of plants
to grow and thrive if the preparation of the ground from
which they must get their life is neglected. Most shrubs
require a fertile soil if they are to make fine specimens. Do

SHRUBS. 329

not blame the nurseryman if your plants do not look like the
pictures in the catalogues. In most cases catalogue pictures
are very modest and the failure to exceed them rests entirely
with yourself.

In the actual planting of a shrub use just as much care
as though you were planting an apple tree from which you
some day hoped to secure part of your sustenance. Have the
hole dug deep enough and large enough to receive all the roots
without crowding. Then see that the roots are in good condi-
tion; prune off those that are broken or damaged in any way.
Set the shrub in the ground as deeply as it grew in the nur-
sery or a trifle deeper. Throw in the top soil and tamp it well
with the foot, or, better still, work it and pack it around the
roots with your hands. Do not allow any air spaces below the
roots, for such spaces cause the earth to dry out and may cost
the life of the plant. The last soil that is used in filling the
hole should not be tramped hard, but should be left loose—and
kept loose.

In most cases the shrub should be pruned immediately
after it is planted. In transplanting, the root system has, of
course, been damaged to a considerable extent and some of the
roots have been lost. Those that are left can not begin to sup-
ply moisture to the plant in its accustomed quantity and in
order to balance the water supply some of the water using
area of the plant must be removed. This is the only reason
for pruning either a tree or a shrub at the time it is planted.
The rule holds good for any sort of plant, whether it be an
oak or a stalk of celery.

If the plants are not to be moved far, it is sometimes pos-
sible to transplant large well-grown shrubs without much
pruning, but in such a case the work must be done at the
right time and in the right way. The only satisfactory time
for such work is in the winter when the ground is frozen hard.
It is then possible to dig a trench around the shrub that is to
be moved and pry it out of the ground with a large ball of
frozen earth. In this way very few of the roots are disturbed.

330 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

It is about like setting a pot-grown plant in the garden. Hven
in such cases, however, the shrubs almost invariably show a
tendency to make a weak growth for one or two seasons after
they have been moved and the safest way for the amateur is to
start with small nursery-grown plants and let them acquire
size as they will.

Most shrubs grow rapidly, so that it does not take a long
time for them to begin to repay the labor lavished on their
planting and after care. In the following list are included
only shrubs of known value and where their culture differed
from the normal a note has been made of that fact.

Amelanchier (June berry).—This small tree often grows
in the form of an open bush, but even where it attains tree size
it is always an “under wood” in the forest. Its principal orna-
mental value lies in the fact that very early in the spring it is
covered with a multitude of small white flowers. Before the
other trees have more than started to leaf out, the June berry
has thrown its cloud of misty blossoms to the April air. If
grown as a shrub it must be given plenty of room so that it
can develop its full beauty. As it is shade-enduring, it may be
planted under larger trees with good effect.

Barberry.—The best of the barberries is the form intro-
uced from Japan as B. thunbergii. It makes a graceful shrub
if planted in the border or it may be used with fine effect as a
hedge plant. The stems are quite spiny and if the plants are
placed about eighteen inches apart they will form a low hedge
that will turn stray dogs very effectively. One of the chief
beauties of the plant lies in the fact that in winter it is coy-
ered with loads of bright red berries which retain their plump-
ness and color well into spring. It may be propagated by
taking dormant cuttings and sticking them in the ground to a
depth of several inches. These will quickly take root and in a
season or two will make sizable plants. If an immediate effect
is desired it is better to buy well grown plants from the nur-
sery as quite large bushes can be transplanted with consid-
erable success. If the larger plants are set out they should
be cut back to the ground after planting. It is shade enduring.

SHRUBS. ae

June Berry.

BO ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Calycanthus (Sweet Shrub).—This is an old favorite for
garden culture and deserves a prominent place in spite of the
fact that it is not particularly ornamental and the flowers are
not suited for cutting. Its popularity is due entirely to the
fact that its dark, brownish red blossoms are extremely fra-
grant with a spicy, fruity odor not found in other plants. The
twigs of the shrub, when broken, give off a very pleasant odor
also. These facts, coupled with the fact that it has long been
an inhabitant of our gardens, make it a shrub worth while.
It will grow well in the shade of trees and this gives it an
added value.

Cercis (Red Bud).—The red bud of our forests is one
of our most valuable shrubs. It sometimes forms a small tree,
‘but it is always attractive. It can be used either as a single
specimen or may be planted in groups or in lines to form a
screen. It blooms very early in the spring, before the leaves
open, and when in full bloom is one of the most beautiful
sights of the American forest. In those parts of the country
where the red bud is still plentiful it forms one of the chief
attractions of the spring landscape. The flowers are small,
pea shaped and of a beautiful shade of pinkish lavender. They
are produced in such great abundance that they fairly clothe
every twig and branch of the entire tree. As they fall they
are quickly followed by the glossy, heart-shaped leaves which
remain in good condition all summer. By midsummer the seed
pods are well grown and take on a beautiful red coppery color
so that the tree is only a little less beautiful in fruit than it was
in flower. The red bud can be transplanted successfully only
when it is quite small. Large specimens are usually ruined by
transplanting and it generally pays with this, as with most oth-
er plants, to use small healthy specimens to start with. It grows
rapidly and a small tree well started will often outstrip a larg-
er one that has had its root system damaged in handling. It
will grow in the shade, but requires full sunlight to develop
to perfection.

SHRUBS. 305

Cornus (Dogwood).—The large flowering dogwood is
one of the most striking of our native trees—for it is a tree
although often used for the purposes of a shrub. The branches
are covered each spring with a load of large white blooms that

Red Bud.

304 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

never fail to provoke comment. Once in a long while a single
tree is found in the woods bearing flowers of a delicate shade
of pink. This pink flowered form is even more beautiful than
its parent—for it is considered as only an offshoot from the
white varietv. Nurserymen now offer both kinds. In autumn
the foliage of the dogwood turns from green to a deep rich red
and it is then one of the most ornamental trees in the forest.
Later the leaves fall and the bright red berries, produced in
small clusters, stand out sharp and clear and give the tree an
interesting appearance well into the late fall. This plant nas
so many good qualities that it should be in every ornamental
collection. It is not so large but that it could be grown to
perfection even within the confines of the average city yard.
Certainly it takes up less room than do many of the exotic
magnolias that seem to be so popular and, aside from the fact
that it is a native and the magnolias are not, every argument
is on the side of the dogwood. For some reason people will
buy plants that are introduced from some far-off country and
sold under a high-sounding name, while they leave neglected
the most beautiful trees and plants of their own state. The
dogwood will stand a moderate amount of shade, but in the
forest it is at its best when it breaks through the edge of the
timber and gets a space of sunshine all to itself.

There are other members of the dogwood group that are
true shrubs. The only ones of these that are extensively cul-
tivated are those that have red stems in winter. This red-
stemmed character is the most striking feature of this group
of plants and it is a valuable one because it produces a note of
color in our gardens at a season of the year when color is at a
premium. The American species, C. stolonifera, is a good
one of this sort, but C. alba, a form introduced from Siberia,
has more brilliant red stems and is the more desirable of the
two for planting. Both of these have small clusters of white
flowers in spring, followed by flat heads bearing white berries.
They are useful shrubs, but are not to be compared with the
tall-growing form first mentioned.

99

SHRUBS. 335

Corylus (Hazel nut).—The common hazel makes an ex-
cellent shrub for shady situations, doing well even under old

Dogwood.

forest trees. It has many interesting features that recom-
mend it to the planter. To begin with, it is probably the first

(22

336 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

plant of any kind to bloom in the spring. The first warm day
of early spring will bring the hazel into bloom and many lov-
ers of the out of doors watch for it with eager eyes each year.
The flowers, however, are not such as would attract attention
from the average person. They are of two kinds, one produc-
ing the pollen and the other bearing the ovary from which
develops the fruit. The pollen-bearing flowers are catkins
which in bloom measure from two to five inches in length. The
female flowers, however, are tiny tufts of pinkish pistils that
might easily be overlooked. However, they are the flowers
and the fact that they brave the season to make their appear-
ance so early in the year has made the plant dear to the heart
of every nature lover. The foliage of the plant is rather rough,
but not unpleasant and the fruit is a delicious, though small
nut. The hazel will grow in heavy shade. A northern form
of it is similar except that the nuts, instead of being protected
by a short envelope or husk, are situated at the base of a long
leafy tube. They are interesting in appearance, but difficult to
extract from their protective covering.

Crataegus (The Haws).—We have in America many va-
rieties of the haw family and almost without exception they
are deserving of more extensive cultivation. A few of them
are worthy of special mention. C. mollis is one of the best
because of its excellent form, its fine white bloom and its loads
of red fruit. This is the only one of the haws that the average
person would consider as edible, although small boys have
been known to eat with relish the fruit from many kinds.
The fruit of this haw ripens in August and September. It is
nearly or quite three-quarters of an inch in diameter and is
useful in making a clear red jelly of wonderful flavor. C.
coecinea and C. punctata are both well worth the attention of
the grower for both are excellent varieties. C. cordata, the
Washington thorn, is one of the most valuable of the group.
If allowed to take its natural shape it will form a small tree
up to thirty feet in height. However, it can be and often is
trimmed to a much smaller size. It makes a good hedge plant
and stands trimming well. The foliage turns to a rich red in

SHRUBS. oor

the fall and after the leaves are off the bright red, though
small, haws show up to perfection. These are produced in
great abundance and remain on the tree all winter.

Cydonia (Japan quince).—This shrub is one of the early
introductions from Japan and has remained fairly popular

An American haw.

338 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

although it has many bad characteristics. In early spring it
produces an abundance of glowing red flowers, which are fol-
lowed in late summer by the fruit, which somewhat resembles
the cultivated quince and has an attractive odor. However,
the plant sprouts from the root badly and unless given a great
deal of care it soon makes an unsightly bush that is devoid of
character. It is also very subject to the attack of the San
Jose scale. If there is a scale insect within a mile of a Japan
quince bush it seems to be able to locate it and settle down
there. As a result these are often a source of infestation for
the neighboring country. Orchardists have been known to
spray their trees thoroughly and wondered how they happened
to have so much scale on the trees the next fall. Too often it
has happened through the fact that they had a neglected
Japan quince in the dooryard.

Forsythia.—Several forms of this have been introduced
and they are all valuable shrubs. Their chief value lies in the
fact that they produce a wealth of clear yellow flowers very
early in the spring long before other plants have started their
work of brightening up the garden. It does not do well in
shaded situations.

Hamamelis (Witch Hazel).—The hazel nut is the first to
bloom in the spring and this, the witch hazel, the last to throw
its yellow blossoms to the wind in November. They are not
related, but both have their value. The individual bloom of the
witch hazel is rather insignificant, but it is produced in such
quantities that the whole shrub seems crowded with the yel-
low flowers. In nature it grows about the edges of rocky
ravines, but under cultivation it adapts itself to many situa-
tions and is an admirable shrub worthy of more extended
planting. The seed pods, which ripen just before the bloom
appears, are one of the interesting features of the bush. The
seed capsules open in such a way as to shoot the seeds some
distance and with considerable force. This is one of the means
by which the plant manages to distribute its seeds.

Witch Hazel.

340 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Hydrangea.—The
native wild hydrangea
is not only a charming.
plant, but one of value
because it can _ be
grown in shady situa-
tions. It is a vigorous
grower and will pro-
duce results in a shad-
ed corner about as
quickly as any plant
that can be used. The
most commonly plant-
ed horticultural vari-
ety is the H. paniculata
grandiflora, with its
great masses of white
bloom. It is a valuable
sort, but, unlike the
wild kind, it must be
grown in full sunlight.

Lilac.—The lilac
is not a native of this
country; but 142 0as
been grown here for so long that it seems as though it belonged
to us. It was one of the first plants introduced and must
have been brought from England and France at a very early
date. It is too well known to require description and too valu-
able to need any advertisement of its virtues. The lilac
reaches its finest development in the cooler parts of the coun-
try. On Mackinac island, Michigan, are the finest specimens
of this shrub to be found any place. Doubtless the plant was
brought to that section by the early missionaries, for certainly
some of these specimens are very old. The older ones have a
tree-like form and are of such size that they are used as ham-
mock supports in some cases. In recent years several named

Wild hydrangea.

SHRUBS. 541

varieties of lilac have been introduced. They produce blooms
larger and finer in color than the old-fashioned lilac, but with-
out exception they lack the vigor of growth that is possessed
by the original form.

Philadelphus (Syringia).—This is another favorite that
deserves to be perpetuated because of its wealth of white flow-

sap

Tree-size lilacs on Mackinac Island, Mich.

ers in the spring. In habit the shrub is not greatly to be ad-
mired and outside of the period when it is in bloom it is not a
particularly beautiful object. However, it seems to withstand
adverse conditions better than almost any of our shrubs and
for the city back yard it is probably the one best shrub. City
back vards can not be too partial about their plants anyway
and it is well that some forms seem to thrive in spite of the ad-
verse conditions. As for the better shrubs, they will revel in
the cleaner air of the country.

Physocarpus (Nine bark).—This attractive plant has

342 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

been brow beaten by the botanists until it probably does not
know its own name. The writer learned to know and love it
under the generic name of opulaster, which has since been
succeeded by that given above. It has also been classed as a
spiraea, and nurserymen still offer it under that name. A
golden leaved form is listed as “golden spiraea.” Regardless
of the name, it is a splendid plant and should be in every col-

Physoecarpus.

lection of shrubs. The branches rise from the ground with
a graceful sweep and in spring are covered with white blooms.
Later seed pods take the place of these blooms and the plant
is then almost as attractive as it was when the flowers were
at their best. It is a quick growing form and one that will
succeed in many soils and situations.

Rhododendron.—The rhododendrons, kalmias, azaleas

SHRUBS. 343

and others of this group make wonderful plants for the sarub-
bery or for massing against a house or under trees, but they
are among the most difficult of all plants to grow. They may
be grown almost any place, however, if the bed is properly
prepared for them. They grow naturally in a soil composed
almost entirely of peat and where this material can be
obtained rhododendrons and their allies can be produced.
Excavate the place where they are to stand to a depth
of at least three feet and fill the bottom with broken
stone unless there is a gravel subsoil to provide good
drainage. Then fill the excavation with peat mixed with
in the soil and if this element is present in any quantity in the
surrounding soil it will eventually work into the bed of peat
and ruin the planting. To prevent this it is sometimes advis-
able to build a thin-walled concrete pit, coat the walls with
pitch to keep out the soil water and then fill with peat in the
usual way. The plants will do better in a shaded situation,
such as the north side of a house and the surface of the soil
should at all times be mulched with a layer of leaves to help
retain moisture. Some plant growers have at times claimed to
have a “secret” for growing rhododendrons and have treated
the beds with a chemical to make the soil suitable for the
plants. This chemical is usually magnesium sulphate which
when carefully used has been known to be of assistance in
growing these evergreens on soil that would otherwise
promptly kill them. Just as often the use of this or other
chemicals has resulted in the very prompt death of valuable
plants. There is no secret about growing this beautiful class
of shrubs, simply plant them in peat and they will grow.

Rose.—It is presumptous to attempt to deal with rose
growing in the brief space of a paragraph. There are some
four or five thousand varieties of roses under cultivation now
and single growers list as many as eight hundred different
kinds. Our native wild roses are not particularly rich in
garden material when compared with the wonderful horticul-
tural varieties that are offered by the trade. Some of the native

344 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

forms are of value when they can be used along fences on
large estates, but for the most part they are too rank in growth
to be desirable in the average garden. The sweet brier is an
old favorite, and though not a native, it has escaped from cul-

Native American roses.

SHRUBS. 345

tivation and is to be found in many old fields and pastures. It
is valued for the fragrance of its foliage and for the bright
red “hips” that remain on all winter. The list of climbing
roses contain some sorts that are exceedingly beautiful. The
crimson rambler has long been a favorite in spite of the fact
that its color is against it. The Dorothy Perkins is just as
good a climber and the color of its flowers is far superior to
that of the older form. A rather new rose is the American
pillar, a climber of great vigor. The flowers are single, of a
delicate shade of pink with a white eye. It is still further to
be desired by the fact that it has unusually handsome foliage
that remains bright and green until cold weather. It is quite
hardy except in very severe winters. The following notes on
starting a rose garden are taken from a publication of the
Missouri Botanical Garden:

Location.—Roses are entitled to the choicest location in a
yard. Good exposure to the sun, and proper protection from
prevailing winds will do much to make the rose garden a
success. While a location with a full-day sun exposure is
much to be preferred, it is not absolutely essential, and where
a choice must be made it is best to give roses the morning sun.
Buds should not be located near trees or shrubbery. Roses
are heavy feeders and for their best development require an
unusual amount of fertilizer; when planted near trees or
shrubbery, the roots of the latter deplete the soil of nourish-
ment, with the result that the roses suffer. If, however, plant-
ing in close proximity to trees and shrubs is unavoidable, it is
advisable each year to dig a trench (about a foot wide and two
or three feet deep) around the rose bed and fill with well-
rotted cow manure. This procedure will tend to prevent the
roots of shrubs from actually entering the rose bed. Some-
times a concrete wall is constructed deep enough to prevent
this encroachment.

Soil.—Roses usually do well in any good garden soil, but
better results are obtained if considerable care is exercised in
the preparation of the ground. Roses require a heavy, well-

346 ORCHARD AND: GARDEN

drained soil. To obtain this, the area to be used for a bed
should be dug out to a depth of from eighteen inches to two
feet, and if the drainage is not good another six inches should
be removed and this space filled with fine broken stone, brick,

American Pillar Rose.

SHRUBS. 347

or old flower-pots. Upon this porous stratum six inches of
well-rotted cow manure should be placed, and finally sufficient
heavy soil to finish the bed, raising it not more than three
inches above the surrounding grade. This latter layer should,
if possible, be top soil (including sod) from an old pasture.
After making the bed it should be allowed to settle for a week
before the planting is begun.

Planting.—Roses may be set out either in the fall or in
the spring. The spacing depends very largely upon the vari-
ety; tea and hybrid tea varieties may be planted about eigh-
teen inches apart, but hybrid perpetuals, on account of their
more vigorous growth, should be spaced at least two and one-
half feet, and ramblers eventually need about four feet. In
any case an eight-inch margin from the edge of the bed should
be allowed. Where potted stock is being planted, the ball
of earth should be placed with its upper surface about two
inches below the soil; field-grown stock may be set two or three
inches lower than its former position in the nursery. The
holes for receiving the plants should be large enough to admit
the stock without bending or crowding the roots, the soil
should be firmly packed around the roots, and the plants thor-
oughly watered immediately after planting. All stock should
be so pruned that but two or three buds remain on each shoot
—the upper bud, in each case, pointing outward.

Sviraea.—There are numbers of spiraeas listed by the
plant dealers, but of the entire lot one stands out as being far
and away the best. This is the spiraea Van Houtii, which has
many points to recommend it. It blooms early in the season,
producing a great mass of delicate white. Its brancnes are
long and drooping, giving it a graceful appearance not ex-
ceeded by any plant of its type. Also it is a quick grower and
will produce results in a short time. Probably no other shrub
is so largely planted as a foundation screen. S. Anthony
Waterer is another good introduction, producing heads of bril-
liant red flowers and blooming from July until frost. It is
stiff and erect in habit as compared to the first named.

348 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Symphoricarpus.—-This genus contains just two shrubs,
both native and both of decided value. One is the snowberry,
a delicate little shrub with long, slender branches. Early in
summer the plants are covered with an abundance of tiny
pink, bell-shaped flowers, which are later followed by clusters
of the most beautiful waxy white berries. These remain on
the shrub until cold weather causes them to darken and
shrivel. The other plant is the Indian currant, a more robust
form than the snowberry, although only growing about thirty
inches high at the most. It is covered in the fall with masses
of small, dull red berries that might be imagined to resemble
currants. The plant is ornamental from the standpoint of
form and the berries remain on all winter and give color to the
planting just when it is most needed. Both of these forms are
made more valuable by the fact that they withstand a consid-
erable amount of shade.

The black haw, one of the viburnums, makes an attractive large bush.

SHRUBS. 349

The always welcome “Pussy Willow.”

350 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Viburnum.—Probably the best known of the viburnums
is that form which is known as the “snowball.” It makes
an attractive large shrub and, with the syringa, is one of the
best shrubs for city planting. The maple-leaved viburnum
is good for shady situations. It has flat heads of white flow-
ers, followed in the fall by dark bluish-black berries. The
“black haw” is a viburnum and a splendid one too. It makes
a large bush and is a desirable form to use where it can be
given plenty of room. The fruit, which certainly does not
resemble a haw in the least, is, nevertheless, edible.

Weigela.—This was one of the first plants introduced
from the orient and has been tested out through a period of at
least seventy-five years. It is still a valuable shrub and, al-
though many horticultural varieties are offered, the old rosy
pink species is still as reliable as any of them. It blooms early
in the summer, producing a great mass of bloom on its curved
branches. It delights in full sunlight.

Willow.—No list of shrubs and no hardy garden should
be complete without a ‘‘pussy willow’. Although this is tech-
nically a tree and will do its best to grow into a tree, it can be
kept a shrub by the simple process of keeping it cut back to
the ground every few years. Such treatment seems cruel to
an ambitious plant, but it is the pussy willow, the shrub, that
we desire and not pussy willow, the tree. No other feature of
the early spring is more delightful than the soft, silvery-grey
catkins on the willow twigs. They are among the “harbingers
of spring” that we learn to look forward to with joy and ex-
pectation and when they appear we feel that the season of
growth is indeed close to us and we can expect before long to
see the flood of green sweeping back over the trees and turn-
ing our dreary world again into a place of sunshine and of
song.

APPENDIX.
GRAFTING WAX.

Grafting wax is made as follows:

Melt together four ounces of resin, two ounces of bees-
wax and one ounce of tallow. When it is thoroughly melted
and mixed, pour it into a pail of cold water and pull it as you
would molasses candy. Grease your hands well with tallow
before attempting to pull it. If it should become lumpy, melt
it over again and let it heat somewhat hotter than it cid the
first time. After it has been pulled it should develop a smooth
texture and a lighter color—just as molasses candy does.

The tallow should be good beef or mutton tallow. Crisco,
a vegetable substitute for lard sold for cooking, can be used in
place of the tallow and makes an excellent grafting wax. It
is usually more easily obtained than is pure tallow.

By the addition of a small amount of linseed oil to the
above wax while it is still melted, its normal melting point can
be lowered. Such wax should not be pulled, but should be kept
in a metal pot similiar to a glue pot, in which it can be heated
and applied to cut surfaces with a paint brush.

NUMBER OF PLANTS REQUIRED TO SET ONE ACRE.

ix foot ee: BA OUL a kere eb. newest eee ce 5,445
ee heet Ae ess QT S0. BOXS Teeth Ase ae we tA ee 4,840
US's SCTE Pee ee ee TACHA Ve ocd rect, iy seek eo 3,630
iixceieei ton el ye ft 1OS9On Sxbakeety oa. ees eee 2,426
De whee ees ms S908 COX O hOOt 52k aoe 1,815
Peep C Cb at et (2601 AXA eet) 242 = tS Ze,
Peemree io incheseas = S Gla. “4xO meet: .2_ 2 os. eee 1,185

Piet vo: INCHES. “ta =. 6,223" 5x5 feel) Soe koe ae

302 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

DXO Heh; sees a ore. 15039" §20x20 feet 224 = ae eee 108
6X6) TEC, 2a a = L2bO “20x80 feet. a2 sa eee ae
OxSeGet pat see eS YOU | 24x24 feet s. =s.. aan fe)
SxS gheety es eee eee ey S300 (25x25) feet p=] == = 69
SxLO) ees ers Berne 544 30x30. feet: 222 _ aaa 49
LOXMO MCCS See BAe ASD Aooxkoe Lech A 42
Osa Sheci Sees nee 363° 33x33. feet 2 eee 40
2 Re eeCC tr n= a ar 302) (s4xeA- feet. === al
NAsaliG Sheet ha 2 2 ee 12 2260" S6xXoon feel 2. = oe
Pos Pelt) = ae L938. S8xescfeet. 322 30
TG <nG hCeEs = 56 eee ee L(0u 40x40 feet. — eer Zul
SSCL ECOL. emt enka 134

AMOUNT OF SEED REQUIRED TO SOW 100 FEET OF DRILL.

Beet 224.2. Leake oz. Parsley. = =. eee oz:
Beans, (bush) 2222205) 1 pt... ‘Parsnip: 2-2 === 4 oz.
Conroe ee oe Sees ee OZ. Peas 2 ot. =.=. ieee IE hte
Chard aye 2 apo ea ioz2 “Radishy< =). Loz:
Olena era fe Des eee 207%... vopinach £225. Js _ saa oz
Onion seed"222 25-222 soz. eC Urhip: === === aa 4 OZ.
Onionwsets oases at

PACKING TABLE FOR BOXED APPLES.

Standard
Diameter Packed No. Boxes
in Style Flat Unless Apples No. of Apples Unless
Inches Pack Marked Per Row Layers in Box Marked
2 5 Straight a 9-9 5 225 Special
236 5 Straight ~ saa 8-8 5 200 ed
2% 3-2 SSeS 8-7 5 188 ————
2% 3-2 — T-7 5 175 Special
25% 3-2 —— 7-6 5 163 =
274 3-2. oo 6-6 5 150 a
23h, 3-2 — - 6-6 a) 150 Special
2% 3-2 —_—— 5-5 5 125 —_——
3 2-2 *Side 7-7 4 il Special
314 2-2. Side 7-7 a nl Special
31% 2-2 Side 7-6 +f 104

*Pack 4 to 6 apples flat at the alternate end of each layer.

APPENDIX
3% 2-2 Side 6-6
3Y4 2-2 ——— 6-6
33% 2-2 —-— 5-5
3% 2-2. oe 5-4
3598 2-2 ——-- 4-4
3% 2-2 —_—_—. 4-3
3% 3 Straight Side 6-6
3% 3 Straight Side 5-5

Note that all apples are packed flat in
nated otherwise.

Wee eRe eR ee

oo

96
96
SO
G2
64
56
D4
45

Special

standard boxes unless desig-

The above table is one prepared by Purdue University.

‘
’
é
7 me
. ee
@ iste

a]

INDEX

ANChICAg Sess te 2 ee ee 306
AXGrtoelbhaul bua Soo ee ae B93
EXCITATION. = sere ae ee 293
AUSSI 22 = =e ee en eee eS
Amelan@hier 22232222 sae 33
Amenicant Grapes! 2225-222 ees= 16
ATMMCLOD SSi ee =o See ee 324
PFATIOTIN ONC geen ae Ha = eee es 307
AMMA MOWers =. 2s 2 291
PAMIUNIE ACM OSC) gaa ee SIG
ANTHeeanhsy hone See ee 293
PNT OOS) = = ee a es ee 5220
ors Sa Sees PO St ON 78
MCAC Here ete es — Be. 96
Apple—
ADM Ssmeree nr ~ 5 Se ee eS
DIN Se hOS Vere ee 74
[ORE IPTC SY eee as ee real a a ae 141
DOCS errata Reese BIS 138
ramvie Spine se eee aes 132
MACK ASESS 2 Stee ts eS Se SS
DIGUMIN ete See Ty oe 49
SCal yee aaa ae ee Se 82
SUOAS Clay 2 = eS ee ee 239
Wan OS) spa = evs eS 10
NTO) aS Se SE ee eee ae ee ree! 263
PNCUNTE Say, eee Be we 307
Arsenate of lead) 222232822 — 104
INS CLE DIAS toa ati ee er 308
ASPAGASUS) 22. ae Sil, Zl
Associations of fruit growers_ 150
INSTCES > Wee se cee 2994 308
PAU ORS tgecs oe et ee SR a Ziel
ISENOUGI Ce ys eee een Sec ee ee 81
Baliloome vine, 2325272 2a he 303
IBENISGHID (5 pe See eee aes 294

Barberry: so: ee ee ee 330
Bariwsbectie 22=2— sea ee == OG
Barrels) (es ies Aas eee 2 141, 143
BGAN Gta ae ek see eee Cal 27
BCCtSs72 == ee wat Seem oe 173; 252
Storage: ==-= = eae eae 239
Benencial insects 22. Ltt
Bitterroot s—= 2 =o ee 83
Bittersweet so 5). se 2 ees eae 324
Blackberry === = een 14. 27
BlackekonOte, 5: ee 3 2 See 94
Black peachwaphis === s sam Ds
Black. Tot. rss ee eee 84
OffeTrapes: 2 eS ee eee 94
Bie hts esa ee oe Ae ee ae 86
Biistegebectles) === === aaa 78
Bilctchy ~— -<SSees eee 85
Blue- flees beetles 222-22 ass 67
Bordeauxe mii xtc) ee 105
Borer—
peach e.= =e ak eee eS 62
Fay 0)] Over iene eee oD a es 63
Stalk = => es ak eee ee 223
BOX ap DIGS. = ees ee ee ee 140
packiniesitalb lesion yan ye
BLOWN Oe ants ss ee ee ee 91
Buds. Avs a ees Io Ae 20
Budding 2 eS ae it)
Bide m oth ye" 22 = a eee 65
Budlsstickse Sa =. — enone 20
Calbialeey sels ae eee are Be Itsy4y 24S
Chines eo 2 se eee Ral ote 184
NON 0 1a Seger eran a, Bee, 5 Ses Ee 270
Calendar for orchard and gar-
Gens | sees eet ee ee 257

356 ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Cally opsisma === =. = ae aes rags) (Croyeny ilove So 295
Galyicanthiisi =e = eee 332e (COLDUS! == 2-255. ee es 330
Camp anullayp =e se soe eee 309! “Corylus: 2.4.2.3 See 335
Cand yin = aE ee 295: - ‘Cosiios: 2 ao eee 295
Canker wonriite, = === = == 65. (Cover: crops: 222 2 - oO
CamminieaiCrop See U95; 19%) -Crataesus: 222 =) =a 30
Carrots ys. eee 202) ACross) tertilizanon == 15
Castor) canes see ee a eee 308 ~Crown gall) 2222422 eee 90
Caterpillar— Cucumber 2-232" 2.-3 a 187, 253
CCT fated See = ee ee ee ee 65 beetle: 2.2 4 eee 225
yellow necked) 22 =s= sas 6b. (Cultivation —2 =e 30
Cauliflower. <2. eae 186 1Cunculio).--2-- + eee 61
Celastris===—— See Ais ewe 324: «Currant, ---.2.- =. eee 14
Celery. pe a. & eek Ei cs Ba 205 borer 2220 eee 128
blanchinic; 25-3. ee 206 Soll 22. Se 128
StOrTages fee we ee ee 23 WOrm'. 2... eee 63
(uangialeraumaee ~_-t 206— ‘Cuttines 22-39 = eee 22
Cellansstonages =22 552) ee 23 Cydonia! 222-5283 2 eee 337
Celosiat = 245 22-222. 5 a ae 295
Clonal nee aa ee 995. ‘Daiiodils: =. 22. + Se 323
Ceres ee reed ed So ee ee 999 Darwin tulips == 323.
Ghardeco= ee ot aes ee 17/o ee WecembeCr sy === === === a 279
Cheurvir ee a ae ee 12 Velobhinin se 310
picking Pa th oe es ae ({ojueDechornine speachesy= === 52
DRUM erg okt = ot eee ee eu oe 5A a DISeaSsesnoOL plants. —————————— 81
Chewing insects .______-____- 57 Wistance for planting === 8
Chiry samt lemurs ee 309) *Division of roots, === 22
MCU TTA CUS ee a oe es [04 Dodecathcon === === aaa 316
ClO viernes eek) See feel ad ae 97 Losvo0d >. = ———————— 333
CoaleolmemUl Sion === 3.20 303
Gonica 2. 2. eae Cn eee 993° Double crops —)____ === 162
GoOCks COT ee ene 2050 ) Vidiac == ee 25
Godling mothy.-= 5 sess. sees 57 Dusting -_-------_----_-____- 109
@oldvtrameuwcee ese ee 914 Dustmulch 32
OLAS ere tT ees 196 —-Dutch. bulbs 2222-2 === 323
COKE potato beetle ____--- Eee Eichinocystig. 22. 303
COMER onae Sa Teen ee eT 307 Hes plant: 222 3 188
Commissionysme nye 149 Wscholtzia. 2.2 ae 296
Concrete cellars. =o 234 Euphorbia... 2 296
COreopsisy 22s ese A ee 310
Connies-eee = t=. ee 186.2015 252 -Mebruany: 2.2 eee 259
Car ewOrly ¢) 222 te ea ee 220) Hence form carden == 162

Corndsalad). 2 eee 174 + Fertilization of bloom ———__ 15, 166

lertilntvenss — = == Se. se ee 29
re Nisess eae eee ee Eee 158
en @tnee Se a ee 4
Hileasbeetiien === s-——- === =— 67, 225
Mower ‘structure 225 92=sss= 165
EO WiCTS epee ee 281
Saiyan ee a ee 291
Hlvaespecks funes)) == === === ss 86
Honcinicwee === =s2 2. 2 208
OTM: £32 = es = Tape eae ee 203
HOnSVichidiee = == se 338
HotG-O-Clocks (=> se 296
ROR. (ao eee 2
TRIPDUe GUOIRKES) 2 be oe = 5 ee 2)
Fruit tree bark beetle _______- 66
RRO eee ee see 82
MUN Sicides 222 so ee 105
Gandensiwee = eee eae 155
aRrancenvenity == =e aSSTi
doublexcropsainy 162
IREINGY SS Re eS a eae 162
LETGUNZCRS === 2s ea ee ee 158
OWE ee ee es eae ee 281
LINGO S Ses Se ee ee eee 219
LOCATION, | ]S= 20 a 157
SCO Ste eee ees ere se 165, 167
SO lle set ae ee eee 157
Wal allitge| © ess eee 156, 241,
Garden huckleberry -________ 129
CGlobemamanranth’ 2222 =a. s sess 297
GoldenteslOws ease 4 ee 318
GOOSeCbeRnya eae we AP 2S
Giranuincue. = eas Sere oe 17
WG aoe as Ree ee 48, 351
CUD C eee aes Se ee ee 12
DlACkeer 0 twee ste ae eS 94
behinvacin Ollie 22a Shei 63
leafehopper-2.-_ 222" ee 76
DAGkineys Sees see oe A 145
Divo xenay eas ae 76
Dib Lhe A Se ees 54
Scalewt== = oe ee ee 68

Grass
Greenhouse
Grub worm

Hairy root
Hamamelis
Harlequin bug
Harvesting
Haw
Hazel
Heeling in
Helianthus
Helichrysum
Hepatica
Himalaya berry
Hollyhocks
Home hampers
Horticultural values
Hot. beds

FOUSeS plants a= y

Huckleberry, garden
Humulus
Hyacinth bean
Hydrangea
Hydrometer

Illinois canker
Imported cabbage worm
Insects

beneficial

garden
Insecticides
Ipomoea
Iris

Jantlaryaere= ea noe ee ee
JapanecseaiO pee === oer a ee
Japan quince
July
June

Kale

ae

4a

358

Knifin system
KoChia.* Sse ee es Se eee
Lady birds
Larkspur
Lathrus
Lawns
Layering
Leaf curl
spot
Lesser apple worm
Lettuce
varieties
Lilac
Lime sulphur
self-boiled
commercial
Linum
Lobelia
Location for orchard

March
Marigold
Marketing

perishable fruits
Manuner =2== S22 2s ees 29)
May
Middlemen
Mignonette
Miscible ‘oil
Monarda
Morning glory
Mushrooms
Muskmelon

Narcissus
Nasturtium
New Zealand spinach
Nicotine

304

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Ninebark’ 225 == 341
Nitrogén ~ 222 eee 29
November: .-2- 2 2 See PA
Number of plants to acre ____ 351
NozZles'=2= >= 111
Oct0ber «2.222 eee PATS)
Oil. Sprays 222-2 eee 103
Okra... 2223s See 190
ONIONS: {= . =" 4 Ses eee 176, 253
StOTage. 22002 ee 239
Orchard—
location: 22-32 eee iy
TOAQS: -2522.2.5 eee il
Slope: 2222-22. =e ee 3
Soil, 2.425222 eee ao 926
Oyster shell<scale. = === 70
leAybauuales yyyCoyobals} 47
Pansy )=.22-2 2 eee 299
Parasites: “22.5.2. ae te
Paris, (green) 22 2-- 2-2 eee 105
Parsley 2.2222. 7 a 177
Parsnip: 2242 eee Is 2583
StOrage. =. 2 eee 239
Peach 223s) eee 10
aphis. 222.24. eee 75
borer. 4-23 Se eee 62
fillers” 20225... eS eae 6
harvesting” {2222252 =e 134
packages: 22 2 eee 145
pruning’. 2-25.) eee 51
SCabl 9°22. a eee il
Yellows 0 2. ¢. 3 eee 92
P@ars) cua<=552-* eee 10
harvestin® 22 == eee 134
prunine, eee 54
Sle. ack eee 65
storage, 2. ee eee 239
P@as: (i8. 2 aaa Ti 33)
forncannint 222 200
Sugar = i252. See 178
Pedigreedtrees. eee 23

Penstemon
Peonies
Peppers
Perennials
Petunia
Philadelphus
Pinleh< } ee eae ee ae 300,
Phosphorus
Plylloxera
Physcearpus
Physostegia
Planting
plans
small fruit
distance
Plant diseases
Plant lice
INS e a ! Sy ee ee 12,
curculio
ManVieStiMee= == a= bse
Poisons
Pollen
Poppies
California
Portulaca
Potash
Potatoes
beetle
cultivation
early

harvesting
planting
scab
seed

sweet

apple
cherry
grapes
peach

INDEX
314 Pruning—
315 DCA ese oe eee
192 Duma ae Se eee
305 [enaoKey KO) JonewhaKey 2
300
Sak (eRvaAGiSh 223228255 we a Se 178, :
3116) 2 sRae doll seed) testers =
ai) IReNSyoloysverneysy 2 14,
76 DMN ey sao ee ee
avi eleweyal: louie) = ae eee eS
Blk, 1pvlovoyaKoxexenachaovel oe ee
42, Rhodanthe! = S2s5 2 Se
AE Cin S ieee ea eo rs ee
Sia NOAM sy 222-6 Ga ae ee
Sin PROOtNE ALIS! on 5 ee ae ee
Cal ReOKONn Ghilsoyn Lo
(ior LROOTS a= ats Se eee
Ar ROS Cy tre sa aes eT, ee
Olly “Rudbeckiay == ae
oy EUV CM aa No er eet Fags eee es 30,
YL
lle MNS alviats sx 25 ee Se ee
JOU Sane JOSCRS Callers een ee
296-8 [SCA ae ee eee eee
301 DOtAtO) ==" = Se eee
298= ‘Scabidsa) » =s.22-8 22 a ee
254 = Scalexcontroly === ee
220 OS COrletmSae cms ee
204s AS Clonct ae eee ee WO
PANS SCN Bregukss =
ZU @ Seed gst a2) eae eee cS
203 advantage: of slarger 242242
135 amount needed for 100 ft. of
204 TOW oe ae See
201 DUN ere ee es ee
201 SAVANE) So vee See ae cere
240 COSTING ase Se aces ee
9) 2 See cilities ieee eee ee ee eee
Alby SVEVCa ON? HRC See
49 Septem Ctae es ae sake tk ee
Gye (SNMOe ING wibby 2
O40 Shrubs) (== t= Seo ee
Ble SLOPey p22 ae A eels

2H

=

(JS)
— bo
COS INDI ISS) =

co

[)
OS
Or w

360
SUS at ee ee ee 2 ee 65
Sora ea tes Ue ee ee 119
DACKI oe pansies ae ye 145
SOI] Sarena Ud ee ie 119
pp Vane) iiey JOVEN, eae a eee 120
SoU a 2S als Ka, Pala
Sollprepacanlonyess see Bi, IS)
Sooty blovchiy= == ae eee 86
Spitacag, eae aa See 347
Splrayintee, eae ee See See 99
SPDLAy MMA Gal Sy ee eee 100
MACHINE TY. te 2255 Nes Pelee 109
Squash ya oot a Pee SOLE 192, 254
DUS eee ese nes a ee ee 226
Stalking Mes ts Se Se A a BG)
StallksboOnreny (2 S.e a tek ce 2 eee ee 223
SO Cks 5 ee es ee 302
SUORALC AN om teed ee See 229
Stra wiWerries: .% —- 2a ee 3
everbearing 22.5) «<2222022 = 124
Lea fas Ole 2a = eee 96
116 01H We) Weige steep epee sei ona 123
Dlamitim pe Ae ee 2 ee 43
VATICTICS sano. 5k ence. <= Se 122
Strawilowens = 22 2 22 Hh eee 297
SUCkimcawinSe Clsie ae Do (HT
SiON Key (A ee 297
Sumescallid) S22 =. 3 es eae 88
Siweeticonnr + 5 as ee 186, 201
Siwcetaapeag 12 eee ee ee 304
SWeeurpotatOn tase ee ee ea 192
SiwiceteshnT ul 22 Det se Ans ee 332
Syn ouornCeyjows Lo 348
SVT Gia ee eae ly oe le Eo. 341
fRemiperatwre:. 222222222. ee 2
4MEinE Gaiene oilers) 22 65
PREStiMniatS Cede ee ses 2 ae ar ae 169
AL OW ACC Ogee ree. Bee! 102
PROTA Oana = ener, a 198, 254

34717

ORCHARD AND GARDEN

Tomato—
SrOWANE aD LAaNtS re 198
cultivatine! 222: > eee 200
BeOS olen aia” — 199
VarietiCS 22 = | eee 200
WOrll> 2202-2 4s Ss ee 223
Top erating = 2 eee 18
Tradescantiay = 22.) =e 318
Tree ‘selection -2---3- = 3
Trilhivmes..- See 319
Tulip. Ss. pom es 328
Varieties! 2-53 10
development ot) ==—=—=———— 167
horticultural. ==. =a 16
Mecetable= storage =. =— =a 229
Vierbena.w2 2 3a eee 302
Vehosa, == ee 320
Vetch: . 222222222 =). 3)
Viburnum. 3-22 eee 350
Vines. 2223-42 "" ee 303
Watermelon 2222225. ——— 190
Water supply ___ eee 3
Weeds. 22225. = eee 32, 288
Weigela = 25. ===) eee 350
Whip erates: 2° eee 17
WihiteS Srl s!2 = 67, 224
Willow “22222 = eee 350
Wisteria: 2220322 eee 326
Witeh hazel’ 22) ee 338
Women. pickers, 222 137
Woolly aphis: 22-2) US
METHANE Mea Ty ye 302

Yellow necked caterpillar ____ 65

Vellows peach === === 92
Yucca: 222. =e ee 320
TANNA: «222 ee ee 302

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