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OUR OLD WORLD
BACKGROUND

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

OUR OLD WORLD
BACKGROUND

CHARLES A. BEARD

AND

WILLIAM C. BAGLEY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1922

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

fll*

Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1922.

NortoooU

Set up and electrotyped by J. S. Gushing Co.
Norwood, Mass., U. S. A.

PREFACE

THIS volume completes a series of books for the
grade schools. The companion works are A First
Book in American History and The History of the Amer-
ican People. Although each volume is independent in
itself, a unity of purpose knits them into one organic
whole. We have kept always before us the problem
of giving our boys and girls the best possible civic and
cultural equipment, and have endeavored to contrib-
ute something to the solution of that problem. On
this point we need not add anything to what we have
said in the prefaces to the companion volumes.

As to this particular work, the argument for the form
and subject matter is to be found in the first chapter.
We have placed it there because we believe that the
pupils should know why they are called upon to take up
any line of historical study.

The importance of European history for the under-
standing of America has long been recognized by our
colleges and high schools. The increase in the number
of courses and books on that subject bears witness to
the fact. Nevertheless, few attempts have yet been
made to carry the idea into our grade schools. It is
true that we have several books bearing some such title

504903

PREFACE

.3sV;l 'pAckgr.ound of American History," but all of
them close European history virtually with the foun-
dation of the American colonies.

How inadequate is such a treatment of our past !
In order to appreciate this inadequacy one has only to
consider the streams of immigration that have flowed
into the United States from all parts of Europe since
the seventeenth century, the influence of European
literature, especially English, upon our thought, the
thousand and one relations of the United States to
Europe since the Declaration of Independence, the par-
ticipation of America in every general European war
since 1701, and the commanding position won by our
country in Europe and "the Orient during our own
time. To cut off European history at the opening of
the seventeenth century is to deprive the great mass
of our young citizens of all formal instruction in the
modern world culture. Even the most superficial sur-
vey of the situation to-day shows how serious has been
our neglect of duty in this respect.

In defense, of course, there may be urged the extreme
difficulty of presenting the subject of world history to
grade school pupils. It is far from our thought to min-
imize that difficulty. It has weighed heavily upon our
minds all through the preparation of this text. Im-
pressed, however, by the urgent necessity of the oc-
casion, we have labored hard to surmount it. As in
our other books, we have sought to grasp the striking
and essential ideas and movements of mankind, and

PREFACE vii

to present them in clear and simple form. W<; be-
lieve that no pupils can go carefully through these pages
without making important additions to their stock of
ideas and without enlarging the horizon of their thought.
We believe that they will all have a firmer grasp upon
the history of our own country and a better understand-
ing of their coming duties as citizens of this republic.

We confess also to having more than a practical pur-
pose in mind. The charge is often made that Ameri-
cans are provincial in their outlook. We shall not reply
by saying that, in our opinion, Europeans are still
more provincial, or by saying that the American people
know far more about world history than the mass of
Europeans know about the history of the other con-
tinents. Whatever may be the merits in this old dis-
pute, we have deliberately aimed at helping to make
Americans less provincial by introducing them early
to two fundamental ideas : the unity of all history, and
the importance of enriching our national life by the
study of the best in all the past and in all nations.

We are not attempting, therefore, to add another
course of history to the grade school curriculum, or
merely to enlarge one already given. We are inviting
the cooperation of teachers in the pressing task of pre-
paring the American people, in spirit and in understand-
ing, for the imposing world destiny to which they are
called by their enterprise, their wealth, and their power.
Textbooks alone can do little. They are at best frail
instruments. The teachers who grasp the idea and

/.; :, ^ PREFACE

fr;in£p the living word are the masters of
the field. If our book only aids them in their work
of carrying American culture to new heights, our re-
ward will be beyond measure. When they remember
with Maeterlinck that " there are no dead," let them
remember also that all of us shall live forever. All the
future is in the hands of the present.

C. A. B.

W. C. B.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PACK

I. AMERICA AND THE WORLD : ANCIENT AND MODERN . i

America's Mixed Inheritance. The Changing Back-
ground of American History. The Foreground of His-
tory — America to the Front. Conclusions.

II. THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND 26

The Prehistoric Ages — from Stone to Metals. Life
among Primitive Peoples. The Beginnings of Human
Society.

III. THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY .... 42

The Nations of the Orient. Greece and Rome. Social
Classes in the Ancient World. The Great Cities of An-
tiquity.

IV. THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS ... 70

The Practical Arts. Architecture and Art. Literature
and Education. Ancient Religions and Christianity.

V. THE MIDDLE AGES: FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH . 112
Feudalism. The Medieval Church.

VI. THE ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES . 137

Architecture, Art, and Learning. Town Life in the
Middle Ages.

VII. THE RISE OF NATIONS 161

The Rise and Growth of France. The Rise of Spain.
The Making of the English Nation.

VIII. THE GROWTH OF WORLD COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION 186

The Growth of Trade from Early Times. European
Attention Fixed upon the East. The Service of Science
and Learning. Navigators, Explorers, and Conquerors.

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

IX. THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 213

The Protestant Reformation in Germany. The Protes-
tant Reformation in England. Results of the Protes-
tant Revolt.
X. THE GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND . .238

The Old Political and Social Classes in England. A
Century of Revolution. The Results of the Revolutions.
XI. THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS . . . .261

The Commercial Triumph of England. The Conflict
between England and France in India and North America.
The Balance of Power in Europe.

XII. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 2$o

The Old Order in France. The People Revolt. The
Napoleonic Wars.

XIII. THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY . . . .321

Steam Power. The Invention of Machinery. The
Meaning of the Industrial Revolution.

XIV. NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY . . -354

Unification of Germany and Italy. Nationalism in
Eastern Europe.

XV. THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY 378

Democracy in France. Democracy in England. Democ-
racy in Germany. Democracy in Southeastern Europe.
Rise of Democracy in Russia. Democracy in the Orient.
Democracy and Civil Liberty.
XVI. THE IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS . . 407

Europe in the Orient. European Occupation of Africa.
European Interest in Latin America. The World War —
1914-1918.

XVII. EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME 444

The Domestic Affairs of th.? Nations. International
Relations.
XVIII. THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE . . . . 467

Modern Knowledge. The Idea of Progress and Reform.
Literature and Art. The Unity of the Modern World.

LIST OF MAPS

PAGE

The World, to Illustrate Chapter I . 24

Ancient Oriental Empires 46

Ancient Greece 48

The Roman Empire about 400 A.D. 53

Europe about 1200 A.D. (in colors) .... facing 116

Trading Centers in the Middle Ages 152

The Empire of Charlemagne 164

France in the Fifteenth Century -. 167

Egbert's Kingdom 173

England under William the Conqueror 175

The Age of Discovery 203

European Settlements in America 226

Era of the Reformation -237

Chief European Rivals 263

Europeans in the Orient . . 271

British and French Rivals in North America 274

Western Europe in the Seventeenth Century 277

Europe about 1810 . . . . 312

European Railways 347

Europe in 1815 357

Nationalities in Austria-Hungary 371

Central Europe in 1871 391

Japan and China 400

Africa 415

The Caribbean Region . 418

South America 421

Europe after the World War (in colors) , facing 436

OUR OLD WORLD
BACKGROUND

CHAPTER I

AMERICA AND THE WORLD: ANCIENT AND
MODERN

THERE is no scene in all American history, there is no
great name upon our roll of heroes, there is no book
upon our shelves that does not awaken memories of
Europe.

Is it Washington triumphant over the British army
at Yorktown ? Lo ! we behold the French general,
Lafayette, at his side. We know that the French
fleet is riding in the harbor and we remember that
our minister, Benjamin Franklin, has been pleading
America's cause at the court of the French king.

Is it a humbler scene ; for example, a May-day
picnic in Central Park in New York City ? There
we see children of English, Irish, Italian, Jewish,
German, Scandinavian, and other national origins -
Americans all --playing about a high stone shaft, an

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Egyptian obelisk, more than three thousand years
old, brought all the way across the sea to adorn a city's

playground !

Is it a home scene with the
family gathered around the
lamp in the evening ? The
books and magazines on the
table may be in any one of a
dozen languages and the news
in the paper is gathered from
the corners of the earth. The
conversation may be about
memories of the countries in
the Old World from which
the parents or grandparents
came, or it may be about the
latest events in London, Rome,
Moscow, or Berlin.

Is it a mothers' meeting in a
modern city school to discuss
with the teacher the education
of their children ? Many races
are certain to be represented
and the customs of many lands
are sure to be compared.

Search high and low, far and

wide, throughout the length and breadth of America, and
you will see the truth in the saying : " The history of
America is the history of Europe in the New World."

Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York

THE CENTRAL PARK OBELISK IN
ITS EGYPTIAN HOME

AMERICA AND THE WORLD

Take the character of a great American, Abraham
Lincoln, as another illustration. His parents were of
English origin, his tongue was English, and his early
religious training was
that of a Christian
denomination which
was founded in Eng-
land.

Consider his edu-
cation. As a farmer's
boy, he was accus-
tomed, on winter
nights, to lie upon
the floor before the
hearth and pore over
his books in the light
of the blazing fire.
In those quiet hours
he was, without
knowing it, preparing
himself to teach and
lead this nation in a
time of great trouble. In the little library from which
he gathered wisdom and understanding, were eight
books. Three of them were by American writers.

Five of them were from other lands. First among
these was the Bible, one of the oldest books of the
world. For hundreds and hundreds of years, the
Bible had been read in many languages and had in-

A MONUMENT TO LINCOLN IN LONDON

4 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

fluenced the lives of countless millions of people.
Another one of Lincoln's books was Aesop's Fables,
a collection of stories said to have been made by a
Greek writer five hundred years before the birth of
Christ. The stories themselves were still older. Some
of them have even been traced back to ancient Egypt.
Lincoln also had The Arabian Nights, " a thousand and
one " marvelous tales that had come down from the
earliest days of Persia, Arabia, and India. His other
books were by English writers. One was Pilgrim**
Progress, by the famous preacher, John Bunyan, who
based it all upon the Bible. The other was Robinson
Crusoe, written in 1719 by Daniel Defoe.

Lincoln was a true American ; but who can say
from what ancient times and distant lands came the
ideas that guided him and the hopes that inspired him ?
America gave him opportunity ; the Old World gave
him an inheritance so great that the human mind can
scarcely measure it. Of nearly all Americans, as of
Lincoln, it may be said : " The Old World is their
motherland and teacher."

AMERICA'S MIXED INHERITANCE

The People. From the very beginning of American
history, many races have played a part. With the pass-
ing years, the number of different peoples coming to
our shores has increased. John Cabot, whose voyage
gave the king of England a claim to North America,

AMERICA AND THE WORLD

was an Italian (A First Book in American History,
pp. 26-29). One °f tne American colonies, New Nether-
land (New York), was founded by the Dutch, and
another, Delaware, by the Swedes. Even in those

(g> Keystone, View Co.. Inc.
THE MAYFLOWER

colonies founded by the English, there were also to be
found Welsh, Germans, Irish, Scotch, French, and
Jews. Although English became the language of the
land, the nation was not to be wholly English in blood.
In time, the descendants of the original English were

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

outnumbered by other races. Moreover, the English
blood itself had become mixed with that of many
nationalities. Theodore Roosevelt, certainly an Amer-
ican of the first rank, boasted that among his ancestors
were Dutch, English, Scotch, Irish, and Germans.
Our Language. Although English is the language

of the American people, it is
made up of and mixed with
words from many tongues,
especially Greek, Latin, and
French. Of Latin origin are
nearly all our words about
government, such as presi-
dent^ senate, and constitution.
From the Greek come a great
number of terms used in the
schools, such as geography,
and physiology. Most of
our scientific words are of
Greek or Latin origin; To
telegraph, for instance, means
in Greek simply "to write from a distance." Some
people say that it is better to use short and simple
words of English origin. Doubtless this is wise
wherever possible, but even by the greatest effort one
can hardly avoid using words taken from other lan-
guages. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address shows how many
Latin words crept into the language of a man who was
accustomed to use the purest English.

From cm old print
} CICERO, THE ROMAN ORATOR

AMERICA AND THE WORLD 7

Our Government. We have learned much from
Europe, especially England, about how to govern
ourselves. When the English founded the thirteen col-
onies in America, they provided that each one should
have a legislature to make the laws, a governor to
enforce them, and judges to explain and apply them.
When the colonies became independent states, they
kept these three branches of government. This is
the origin of our state government of to-day. Changes
have been made, of course, but the important parts
remain. The idea of government by elected officers,
instead of kings alone, came to America from England.

Our federal government, or union of the states,
however, was created by the Americans themselves.
It was planned by a convention of citizens who met at
Philadelphia in 1787 (First Book, pp. 149-154). Among
them were George Washington, James Madison, and
Alexander Hamilton.

In drawing up the plan of the federal government,
these men thought a great deal about governments
of other countries and other times. James Madison,
for example, studied. carefully the history of the ancient
world, as well as of England, before he even went to
the convention. His notebooks have been kept and
can be read to-day. Other delegates were familiar
with the history of Greece, Rome, and England.
Again and again they spoke of the governments of
these countries and tried to profit from the lessons of
olden times.

8 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

For example, one member of the convention said
that at the head of the American government there
should be three officials, instead of one President. At
once another member replied : " One man will be more
responsible than three. Three will contend among
themselves until one becomes the master." He pointed
out how this very thing had happened in ancient Rome
when that country was governed by three men called
a triumvirate. On other important points the lessons
of Greece were cited. As the members of the conven-
tion were nearly all of English descent, they naturally
spoke often of things to be learned from the history
of England.

Our Civilization. Religion. The Christian religion,
which is the faith of most of the American people,
arose in Palestine on the distant shores of the Medi-
terranean Sea two thousand years ago. Of the many
branches of the Christian Church in the United States,
all except a few were founded in the Old World.
The Jewish religion also came from Palestine.

Books. Of the books studied in our schools or read
in our homes, very many are of foreign origin. The
English poet, Shakespeare, and the English novelist,
Dickens, are in most private libraries. In our high
schools, pupils study the Latin language and learn to
read the writings of the Romans, Caesar and Cicero.
American writers often follow foreign models. Daniel
Webster (First Book, pp. 284-288), perhaps our greatest
orator, constantly studied the speeches of Greek and

AMERICA AND THE WORLD

Roman orators. Our first poets and novelists imitated
European examples. They wrote of knights and ladies,
kings and princes, as if there were nothing in America
to write about. Very
slowly did American
writers venture to choose
American people and
scenes for their novels,
poems, and dramas.

Schools. American
schools and colleges, at
first, were like those in
Europe. The first teach-
ers came from the Old
World. The first text-
books were written and
printed in Europe. It
was a long time before
school children had ge-
ographies, spellers, and
histories printed in Amer-
ica. Thomas Jefferson, founder of the University of
Virginia, got many of his ideas of education from
France.

Science and Invention. Although Americans have
themselves invented many wonderful machines, a
great deal of our knowledge about such matters
came from across the sea. Spinning and weaving
are even older than the oldest nation on the earth.

A MONUMENT TO SHAKESPEARE
IN NEW YORK

10 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Egyptians mapped the heavens and began the
science of astronomy. The compass was invented
long before the day of Christopher Columbus. The
first printing press was built almost two hundred years
before the English landed at Jamestown. The steam

Metropolitan Museum

AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN MAP OF THE STARS

engine, as a working machine, came from England.
Electricity was known to the Greeks. In fact, it was
by using knowledge from the past that Americans
were able to make astonishing progress and to give to
the world the reaper, the telegraph, and the tele-
phone. If you will read the lives of our inventors
you will find that they began where other inventors
left off.

THE CHANGING BACKGROUND OF AMERICAN HISTORY

The Expansion of Europe. In speaking of our
inheritance from the Old World, we must remember
that, through all the years of our history, Europe
itself has been changing too. When Columbus set

AMERICA AND THE WORLD II

out upon his daring voyage, Europeans knew nothing
of the Western Hemisphere and little of Asia. They
had no colonies. Their trade was mainly among
themselves.

During the four centuries that have passed since
then, Europeans have spread to all parts of the earth.
In some instances, they have swept away the natives
and founded new states, as in the case of Canada
and Australia. In other instances, they have mingled
with the natives and mixed Old World ideas with theirs.
This is what the Spanish did in Mexico, Central and
South America, and many islands of the seas. In
still other places, the Europeans made themselves
rulers over natives. In this way, the British built
up their vast empire in Asia and in Africa. So, too,
the French, the Germans, the Belgians, and the Italians
formed their empires in Africa, bringing millions of
the natives under their flags. Thus it happened that,
between 1492 and our day, all of North America and
South America, nearly all of Africa, all of Australia,
and huge portions of Asia fell under the sway of Euro-
peans.

The Awakening of the Orient. Where the Europeans
have not conquered, they have shaken other races
out of their old ways of living. They have forced
them or induced them by example to adopt European
ideas of government, trade, and war. This is what
happened in the case of China and Japan. These
countries are older in civilization by thousands of

12 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

years than either England or France, but it was under
the influence of Europeans and Americans that they
adopted gunpowder, the steam engine, the railway,
the factory, and many ideas of democratic government.

Under European influence, the Japanese created a
parliament elected by voters and established daily
newspapers. It was not until about 1855 that Japan
opened her doors to the world, but within fifty years
she had rapid-fire guns, railways, factories, and vast in-
dustrial cities of her own. Within fifty years she defied
one of the most powerful nations of Europe, Russia,
and defeated her on the field of battle. Having all the
inventions of the West, from steam engines to battle-
ships, she is now the first power in the Far East.

During the same period, the Chinese cut off their
queues and put on trousers. They threw off the rule
of their ancient imperial family and tried to found a
republic. So the slumbering giants of the East have
been stirred from their long sleep, and stand alert and
ready for coming events. They are Europeanized.

The Trade of Europe. While conquering by the
sword and arousing natives by their enterprise, the
Europeans have spread their trade everywhere. There
is not a nook or cranny of this old earth that they have
not visited with their wares. They trade and bargain
with the dusky Eskimo of the frozen North, the
swarthy African of the tropics, the wandering Arab of
the desert, as well as with the civilized people of
every clime.

AMERICA AND THE WORLD 13

Whether it is the port of Hongkong in distant China,
La Paz twelve thousand feet high in the mountains
of Bolivia, or Libreville under the blazing sky of Africa,
the Europeans are there with their goods to sell. The
Turks dozing away in Anatolia, the nomad tribes-
men of Persia lolling in their tents, are aroused by the
call of the European merchant who cries abroad his
wares and offers to buy in exchange. The ships that
dock at Liverpool, Boulogne, and Hamburg come from
every country that borders on the sea and every climate
under the shining sun.

In addition to trading with the peoples of every
land and race, the Europeans lend them money to
build railways, factories, and telegraph lines. Eng-
land alone has lent five billion dollars to Asiatics and
Africans. French bankers have lent billions to Egyp-
tians, Turks, Brazilians, Africans, Chinese, and in fact
all the other peoples of the earth.

Wherever we go on the broad surface of the globe,
we meet Europeans and see the signs of their work.
The geography of Europe remains the same. The
same seas wash the coasts of France and Spain as in
the days of Columbus. But the civilization of Europe
has spread all over the world. There is no ocean
that is not plowed by European merchant vessels
and battleships. There is no port that they have not
visited. There is no people that they have not stirred
to new thought and action. The European background
of American history has become a world background.

14 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

THE FOREGROUND OF HISTORY — AMERICA TO THE

FRONT

American Influence on Europe. Great is the debt
of Americans to the old yet ever changing Europe ;
but we must not forget that there is another side to
the story. From the day that Captain John Smith
set foot on the shores of Virginia to the day that General
John Pershing set foot on the shores of France, there
was not an hour in which European statesmen did
not have to reckon with America.

American Government. The American example of
a people governing themselves without kings and
nobles was always before the people of Europe. French
soldiers, like Lafayette, who came over to aid Wash-
ington in the American Revolution (First Book, pp.
141-142), carried back with them American ideas
about government. A few years later they helped to
overthrow the French king in the great French Revolu-
tion which broke out in 1789. The state constitutions
which the Americans drew up for themselves after
1776 were translated into French. They were spread
broadcast and read in every European country.

Books about America. Able men and women from
Europe visited America and studied our ways of
living, working, and governing. They wrote books
about the things they saw, and European people read
these accounts. In 1744 Peter Kalm, a German,
published the story of his travels in America for the

AMERICA AND THE WORLD

1 6 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

benefit of the German people. In 1786 a French noble-
man published for his countrymen an interesting
book about the new American republic. Years after-
wards, in 1835, a still abler Frenchman, Alexis de
Tocqueville, issued a work, entitled Democracy in
America, which set all Europe thinking. A little later
a thoughtful Englishwoman, Harriet Martineau, printed
a volume on America for her fellow citizens to read.
If we should give here a list of important European
books about America it would fill ten or fifteen pages
of this little volume.

Influence of Immigrants. It was not only the
writers who carried back to the Old World American
ideas. Thousands of immigrants from all parts of
Europe, after living here for a while, returned home
to visit or to stay. They told their neighbors how
people lived and worked in America. The millions
who did not go back to their native lands wrote letters
to their families and friends across the sea. In this
way they put American ideas into European heads.
There are no scales in which to weigh the influence
of all these things on European life ; but we know that
Europe became a different Europe on account of
America.

American Trade with the World. Since the early
days of American history the well-being and prosperity
of millions in Europe have depended upon the produce
drawn from American fields and plantations. Owing
to wheat and corn from America, Europeans had

AMERICA AND THE WORLD 17

more bread to eat. The vast cotton spinning and
weaving industry of England, employing millions of
people, was for a long time almost entirely supplied
with raw cotton from our Southern states. Whenever
a war stopped the flow of raw materials to Europe,
the" people of Europe suffered, as well as American
farmers and planters.

Within recent times, Americans have been sending
large quantities of manufactured goods abroad. There
are few distant countries that do not use our reapers,
sewing machines, and typewriters. Our merchants are
to be found in all the great cities of the world advertis-
ing and selling manufactured goods. European busi-
ness men find them shrewd and energetic in the search
for customers.

The Growth of American Territory. In addition to
spreading their trade far and wide throughout the
world, Americans have also carried their flag to distant
lands. Alaska came under our control in 1867. The
United States now holds Porto Rico and the Virgin
Islands in the West Indies. It owns the canal strip,
or zone, across the Isthmus of Panama. Cuba, Haiti,
Santo Domingo, and Nicaragua are under American
protection.

The American flag has been planted in the Pacific.
It waves over the Hawaiian Islands, over a part of
the Samoan group, over Guam, and over several other
small islands. Since 1898 it has floated over the
Philippine Islands near China and Japan. So the

1 8 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

United States has territory in the same regions as the
English, French, and Dutch. Anything important that
happens in Asia becomes a matter of interest to America.
The United States has indeed become a " world power."

America in the Wars of the Old World. Europe
has had many wars in which nearly all the great nations
have taken part. During the past two hundred years
there has not been one of these " general " wars in
which America has not joined in one way or another.

In colonial times, when England and France were
struggling for the mastery in North America (First
Book, pp. 83-101), the American colonies were drawn
into the quarrel.

Even after winning their independence, Americans
could not keep out of European conflicts. The long
war from 1793 to 1815, in which France and England
took the lead, interfered with American trade. Ameri-
can citizens took sides and thus the quarrel in Europe
stirred up a quarrel here (First Book, pp. 154-160).
French and English warships captured our goods and
ships at sea. The English stopped and searched our
vessels for English-born sailors. If they found any,
they took them off. For a long time our government
did not know what to do. Finally, in 1812, it declared
war upon England (First Book, pp. 181-194).

A hundred years later, when Europe was at war
again, the United States was deeply stirred by the
contest. At length, it threw its sword into the scale,
helping to put an end to the German empire (First

AMERICA AND THE WORLD 19

Book, pp. 439-449). In other parts of the world the
power of American armies had already been felt. Even
an uprising in distant China, in 1900, led our govern-
ment to join with the governments of Europe in putting
down a native rebellion (First Book, pp. 380-384).
So American ideas, American trade, and American
arms are powerful factors in the affairs of the world.

American Relations with European Countries. In
all the troublous times of our history, Americans
have looked to Europe for counsel and aid. Within
two years after the Declaration of Independence, the
United States made an alliance with France (First
Book, pp. 136-143). It even drew Holland and Spain,
as well, into the contest against King George III.

When the Civil War burst upon our country,
President Lincoln and President Davis both turned
at once to the countries of Europe to see which side
they would favor. The South even hoped that England
and France would aid it against the North. Long
afterward, in 1899 and 1907, the Czar of Russia,
hoping to put an end to all war, called conferences at
The Hague. The United States sent able delegates
who played a leading part in those debates. In. our
time, after the defeat of Germany in 1918, President
Wilson went to Paris to speak for our government in
the conference that sought to settle the disputes between
nations.

The Climax in American Power. From the World
War, America emerged the richest and most powerful

20 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

nation on the earth. Once it borrowed money and
bought its manufactured goods in Europe. Now Eng-
land, France, Russia, and Italy owe the United States
billions of dollars. Belgium, Sweden, Switzerland, and
even European cities borrow American money to pay
their bills.

American business and industrial concerns have
established branches in every leading European and
Asiatic city. In one of the public squares of Paris,
where stands a great monument to the warrior, Napo-
leon, are to be found the offices of two of America's
richest banking houses. Kingsbridge, a famous street
in London, is almost lined with the displays of American
merchandise. A forme'r Chicago boy owns the largest
department store in the capital of King George.

Once America depended mainly upon English ships
to carry her goods over the seas. Now America has
a splendid merchant marine of her own and American
captains steam into the ports of Egypt for cargoes of
cotton destined for the spinning mills of England. The
sun that follows the British empire around the world
finds everywhere signs of American energy and Ameri-
can .power.

The grand climax came in 1921 when, on the call
of President Harding, the leading naval and military
powers of the world sent delegates to a conference in
Washington to consider ways of peace. What a
sweep is this from the tiny colonies of Jamestown and
Plymouth to the mighty nation that has now become

AMERICA AND THE WORLD 21

the center of the world ! What a heritage we have !
What grave duties the possession of such power lays
upon the people of this nation !

CONCLUSIONS

1. The background of American history is not
the history of the Indians who inhabited this con-
tinent before the Europeans came.

2. It is not merely the history of Europe down to
the founding of the English colonies in America.

3. The background of American history is in very
truth the history of the world down to the landing of
the last boatload of immigrants on our shores and
the sailing of the last ship from an American port for
some distant land.

4. The important events of every day in all parts
of the world are matters of concern for American
citizens. Busy in their fields, shops, and homes, they
may not think so, but it is true. The United States
has ties binding it to every section of the globe in
peace and war. American trade is carried on in all
markets. American business men vie with those
of Europe in hunting for new oil lands, coal fields,
and iron mines in far-off countries. There is always
danger that war in Europe may summon American
boys from farm and shop to fight and die on land or
sea. In fact, the graves of American soldiers and
seamen are already scattered among the battlefields
of many lands.

22 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

5. That nation is greatest which gathers the best
from all times and all countries, improves upon its
heritage, and makes the noblest use of its powers and
talents at home and abroad.

It is not enough, therefore, for American citizens
to study the history of our country alone. It is not
enough to know about American ideals and achieve-
ments. To understand how our nation came to be
what it is, and to serve it wisely, we must study the
history of the wide world of which it is a part. We
must even learn about our earliest ancestors and
their long and toilsome way upward from barbarism
to civilization, from ignorance to knowledge.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. How many Old World countries are represented among
the pupils of your schoolroom? Let each pupil find out from
what country or countries his family originally came. Make a
list of these countries and locate them on the map. 2. Read
the newspapers to learn from what Old World countries news is
reported. Let two or three pupils read different papers each day
if possible, and make reports. At the end of a week make a list
of the countries from which news is most frequently reported.
Locate these countries on the map, and think of reasons why news
from them is of interest to Americans. 3. Which of the books
named on p. 4 have you read in whole or in part ?

II. i. What is meant by the statement that Japan and China
have been "Europeanized" ? Tell what you know about the way
in which the Japanese and Chinese have lived in the past. How
did their way of living differ from the way in which Europeans

AMERICA AND THE WORLD 23

and Americans have been living ? 2. American merchants who
sell goods in South America, in Africa, or in Asia must compete
with European merchants; what does "compete" mean? Why
is it well to know something of the history of the peoples with
whom we compete in trade? 3. In your geographies you will
find pictures of cities in Asia, Africa, and South America ; study
these pictures to find out what European influences they show.
For example, in what ways do the buildings, the streets, and the
dress of the people show that " the civilization of Europe has spread
all over the world" ? What things do you notice in these pictures
that seem not to have been affected by European civilization ?

III. I. What are the chief differences between a republican
form of government and a monarchy? The United States was
the first great modern republic. What European country first
followed the example of the United States in becoming a republic ?
What European countries have lately changed from monarchies to
republics ? 2. How did troubles in Europe affect America in the
French and Indian War ? In the War of 1812 ? Why have great
European wars had so great an influence on our country ? Why
would it probably be even more difficult in the future for our
country not to become involved in any great war that might break
out in the Old World ? What steps has our government taken to
prevent future wars in the Old World? 3. What is meant by
the " territorial expansion " of our country ? Name and locate
the important possessions of the United States outside of North
America. 4. Make a list of the most important ways in which
our country has influenced the Old World in the past. 5. Study
the newspapers to learn in what ways the United States is now
influencing the Old World.

IV. i. Tell why the history of the Indians who lived in
America before the time of Columbus, even if they had left a his-
tory, would not be the history of the American people. 2. Give
as many reasons as you can to show why every American citizen
should know something of Old World history.

AMERICA AND THE WORLD 25

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

Study carefully the map on the opposite page. Most of the
countries that we shall study about in this book are in Europe.
Compare Europe with Asia and Africa as to size. Note how broken
or irregular the coast line of Europe is as compared with the coast
line of Asia or Africa. Name the principal seas, gulfs, and bays
of Europe. In what ways have these been of advantage to the
European peoples ? A number of cities and countries are men-
tioned in this chapter ; locate all of these on the map.

CHAPTER II
THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND

MANY an American farmer boy, while strolling along
a river bottom or plowing a field, has picked up stone
arrowheads or stone hatchets that were made long
ago by American Indians. Such weapons have been
found in nearly all parts of the United States. They

Courtesy of American Museum of Natural History, New York

RUDE STONE IMPLEMENTS

tell us of human beings who lived in a crude and sav-
age condition, without a knowledge of metals, without
strong, well-lighted houses, without the comforts and
the tools that make it so much easier for people to
live and work to-day.

Now it is an interesting fact that such stone weapons

have been found also in other parts of the world ;

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND 27

indeed, in nearly every country. In Europe and Asia,
however, they are not usually found near the surface
of the ground. There they have been buried deep
by drifting sand and by the ruins and rubbish left
by many generations of people who had learned to
use metals and had quit making stone weapons. By
studying these stone weapons and the bones and various
things found with them in rubbish heaps, scholars
have learned much about the way people lived long
ago before the invention of writing made written
records possible. The long period before the inven-
tion of writing is known as the prehistoric ages, " pre "
being the Latin word for " before."

THE PREHISTORIC AGES — FROM STONE TO
METALS

The Old Stone Age. For many long centuries,
all mankind lived very much as the North American
Indians lived before white men came to this continent.
In France and elsewhere in Europe, there have been
discovered deep caves which had been closed for
thousands of years. In these caverns, the bones of
human beings have been found and, along with them,
the bones of animals, like the woolly rhinoceros and
the mammoth, that do not exist to-day. In these
caverns, as well as in sand banks, there have been
unearthed many rude implements made of stone.
Owing to the fact that the implements found at the
very bottom of these caves and sand banks were

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

scarcely more than rude flakes and chunks of stone,
historians speak of the earliest part of the prehistoric
period as the Old Stone Age. How long it lasted we
do not know.

The New Stone Age. In the upper layers of the
rubbish in caves and in river drift were found better
and better tools in ever greater
variety ; hence the term, New Stone
Age. Progress among primitive
people was slow, very slow; but
there was some advancement. The
crude way of chipping stone was im-
proved. Axes, spearheads, and
arrowheads came to be made of
stone that could be highly polished
and brought to a sharper edge or
finer point. In addition to weap-
ons, there were bone needles, frag-
ments of pots, scrapers, flint knives,
and other things used in making
clothing and preparing food.

The Bronze Age. The New Stone
Age gradually merged into what is
called the Bronze Age. As primitive people became
more and more expert in making stone implements,
they began to take note of the differences among
stones of various kinds. Whenever they discovered a
new kind of stone, they doubtless tried to see what
they could do with it.

Natural History M useum
A POLISHED FLINT

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND

Now it happens that one of the few metals that is
found in a state which permits immediate use is copper.
In their hunts for useful stones, primitive people found
chunks of copper and learned that it was malleable ;
that is, it could be pounded into various shapes.
They found also that they could polish it by rubbing

EARLY STONE HAMMERS

Natural History Museum

it hard. As they loved to adorn themselves, they
made ornaments of this shining metal. Since it was
not very hard, however, it was not a good substance
for axes and spears. The edge of copper would not
keep its sharpness.

In their search among the stones, primitive people
also found another metal, tin. After a long time,
they discovered that by melting tin and mixing it
with copper they could make a hard alloy, called
bronze. Then they had a metal that could be hardened

30 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

and polished and given a keen and lasting edge. It
could be used for making tools, weapons, sheets of
metal, pots, kettles, and many other useful things.
This marked a wonderful advance in manufacture.

Natural History Museum

AN AMERICAN INDIAN IRON FORGE

The Iron Age. Late in the prehistoric period,
primitive people discovered the most wonderful metal
of all, iron. This was still harder than bronze and
could be worked up almost as easily into weapons,
tools, and utensils. When mankind reached this stage

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND 31

-the Iron Age,--\t was well on its way toward
settled and civilized life.

The Ages Overlap. In trying to picture to our-
selves these long stages through which mankind passed
in prehistoric times, we must keep some things firmly
in mind. First, the ages overlapped even among the
same races ; that is, they did not pass suddenly from
one to the other. Secondly, different races passed
through these ages at different times. Thirdly, some
races skipped one or more of them. For example,
the North American Indians were in the Stone Age when
Columbus discovered the New World. They did not
pass slowly upward through the Bronze and Iron Ages.
They got tools, weapons, and cooking utensils from the
white man, and leaped all at once, so to speak, into
the age of iron and steel. So it has been with many
other primitive peoples. Even in modern times, how-
ever, there have been discovered some races that have
advanced no farther in civilization than the cave
dwellers of Europe who lived more than five thousand
years ago.

LIFE AMONG PRIMITIVE PEOPLES

The Sad Plight of the Earliest People. One of the

most interesting stories of all past ages is that which
tells of primitive peoples beginning their long and
toilsome struggle upward from savagery. Born into
a world which they did not understand, they were

32 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

face to face with terrible foes — cold, hunger, thirst,
tempest, and wild beasts. They had to find for them-
selves food, clothing, and shelter ; yet for this task they
were far worse off than Robinson Crusoe when he was
thrown upon a lonely island. Crusoe had saved many

Natural History Museum

AN EARLY LAKE DWELLING

tools from the wrecked ship, and he had a knowledge
of many other things which he did not actually possess.
This knowledge enabled him to make clothing, build
a suitable shelter, tame goats, plant grains, and culti-
vate fields.

The first peoples, on the other hand, had no tools,
no knowledge of grains, no domestic animals, no iron

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND

forges. But they had to live ; so they began to use
their brains in two ways. First, they protected them-
selves against the elements — heat, cold, and storm.
Secondly, they tried to understand the resources of
nature and to provide themselves with food. Fortu-
nately they had a
friend, as well as a
foe, in nature. They
found shelter in caves
and food in the forests
and streams. As they
made discoveries,
they added to their
knowledge. They
began to build shelter
and to grow food.
Each step they took
carried them farther
along the way.

Men, the Hunters
and Warriors. In this
upward struggle,

there was a division of labor between the men and
the women. Men became the hunters of animals
for food and skins and the protectors against en-
emies. They killed game in the forests and streams.
They fought wild beasts and their own savage kind.
Thus they became skillful in the arts of the chase and
warfare. They made weapons of all kinds. In their

Natural History Museum
RUDE DRAWINGS ON THE WALL OF A CAVE

34 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

leisure hours, they polished and decorated their spear
handles and bows. Sometimes they drew, on the
walls of their caves, pictures of the animals they had
hunted. They became artists after a fashion. Their
eyes and ears were sharpened in the search for .prey.
Their limbs became lithe and supple as they chased
the deer. They tamed the dog to help them on the
hunt and they learned the mysterious ways of wild
animals.

Women and the Arts of Peace. On the other hand,
primitive women started the arts of peace — industries
of all kinds, agriculture, and homemaking. While
the men were on the hunt, women studied grains,
plants, and fruits. One writer has said : " One cannot,
without profound thought, look upon the picture of
a long train of Ute women (North American Indians)
coming home with their drying baskets full of seeds
upon their backs, supported by bands across their
foreheads, holding also in one hand a gathering wand
and in the other a winnowing and roasting tray. For
these women are indeed the forerunners of all farmers
and harvesters and threshers and common carriers and
millers and cooks. The National Museum at Wash-
ington possesses a collection of food plants used by
savage women, and in the Royal Kew Gardens in
London may be seen an exhibit arranged on the basis
of plants. Unwittingly both these museums have
erected monuments to the manual labor and skill of
savage women."

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND

Primitive women learned a great deal about cooking.
They cut up and cured the meat killed by the hunters.
They discovered how to parch and roast in pits filled
with hot stones. They learned how to grind grain,
to bake, and to boil. As this work fell to them, it
was doubtless they who
invented the first utensils
- baskets to carry grain
in and pots to cook in.
They found out how to
store provisions and they
tamed the wild cat to
protect their stocks from
vermin. In their endless
wanderings, they learned

Natural History Museum.
the qualities of plants. A PIECE OF PRIMITIVE POTTERY

They found that some

were good, some were poisonous, and others useful
in sickness. They were therefore doctors and chemists,
as they collected drugs and ground them for medicine.
In our National Museum, there are hundreds of speci-
mens of drugs that savage women used.

Primitive women were also the first clothiers. They
cut and sewed the skins of the animals caught in the
hunt and made garments from them. They learned
how to make threads from wool and from certain
vegetables. They were the first spinners and weavers.
As time passed, they became ever more skillful and
artistic. They made dyes from the juices of the plants

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

they knew, and they made beads from bright-colored
bits of stone. Thus domestic arts began. To prim-
itive women we owe the beginnings of gardening, home

music, pottery, sculp-
ture, weaving, and
embroidery.

Finally there was
the care of the baby.
It was woman's great
task to feed and care
for the children.
While the warrior de-
stroyed life in battle,
she protected life.
While his spirit fed
on hatred of his en-
emies, her spirit was
nourished by the love
of her little ones. She
not only cared for
their physical needs.
She taught them out
of her store of knowl-

edge how to guard

A/atuml History Museum

NAVAJO WOMAN WEAVING

against things danger-
ous to life. The girls she trained in her domestic arts.
The boys, as they grew up, were trained by the father
in hunting, fishing, and fighting.

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND

THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN SOCIETY

The Savage Society. In the earliest days of mankind
people lived together in small groups. Their only ties
were those of the family. Such a group is called a
savage society. Its members were few. They had
for a long time no domestic animal. They had no
fixed homes but lived in forests and caves. They
wandered about
from place to place
in small bands
hunting for food
and shelter.
Human beings liv-
ing in this early
stage of society,
known as Bush-
men, were found
in Australia when
white men first
went there.

Domestic Animals and Tribal Society. Humanity
took an immense stride forward when it discovered
how to tame the goat, the cow, and the sheep. This
knowledge made it possible to have milk, meat, and
cloth without the uncertain and exhausting labor of
the hunt. We do not know when this remarkable
discovery was made ; but we do know that it was
long before people learned to write any story of their

Natural History Museum
FINE ART IN SAVAGE SOCIETY

38 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

doings. It is thought that the dog or the cat was the
first animal to be tamed. That may have been a
step toward the taming of goats and other animals
caught on the chase and kept alive for food.

After the domestication of animals, life for man-
kind became more certain and secure than when every-
thing depended upon hunting and fishing. Property
began to accumulate. Some men grew rich and power-
ful as their flocks increased. Great tribes of people
gathered around the possessors of huge herds of cattle.
There was much work to be done watching and taking
care of the animals. Slavery was introduced because
the labor of captives became valuable to the captors.
So some men were turned from hunting and fishing
to join the women in peaceful pursuits. Stores of
meat, cheese, skins, and wool were laid up against
times of dearth. In short, mankind was lifted one stage
above the perilous and uncertain life of the savage.

At the same time, warfare became a regular thing,
as tribesmen fought each other over cattle or grazing
lands. If you will take your Old Testament and read
the Book of Numbers, you will see how the Israelites
attacked the Midianites and took from them their
flocks and herds. Indeed, in many of the early books
of the Bible there are accounts of tribes waging war
on their neighbors and seizing their cattle.

The Art of Planting and Reaping. Later in primitive
times, long before the art of writing was discovered,
there came a second wonderful discovery ; namely,

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND 39

that seeds planted in the ground will take root and
produce new supplies of grain. With some ancient
peoples that discovery may have preceded the taming
of animals, but generally it was much later. When
and where the art of agriculture began, we know not.
One ingenious student of primitive life explains it in the
following way. Grain grew wild in the forests. Primi-
tive women gathered it and made bread of it by mixing
it with water and baking it on hot rocks. In a time of
abundance some of the grain was hidden in the ground,
and, lo and behold ! it was called to life a hundred
fold by the spring rains. Once discovered, the process
was easy to repeat. So the secret of the seeds was
found out. This is, of course, sheer guesswork ; yet it
may be a correct answer to the riddle. At all events,
we know that thousands of years before there were
any written records of history the art of planting and
reaping was learned.

The Beginnings of Settled Life. This art was des-
tined to make another important change in the af-
fairs of mankind, one even greater than that made
by the domestication of animals. While people de-
pended upon hunting and cattle raising for a livelihood,
they had to be constantly on the move from one hunt-
ing ground or pasture to another. This migratory, or
nomadic, life was, in time, completely changed by the
discovery of agriculture. When people learned the
value of the soil, they began to settle down to till it.
Houses took the place of tents. The land was claimed

40 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

as the property of the tribe or family that settled on
it. More and more slaves were captured to till the
fields. Scattered bands of savage hunters thus de-
veloped into farmers. The nomadic shepherds were
driven farther and farther into the hills as the farms
spread out in every direction. Nations were founded.
A mighty struggle for possession of the earth began.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. Why is it so difficult to learn how man lived during
the long ages that preceded the historic period ? 2. To make
and use fire is recognized as one of the great inventions of primi-
tive man ; by what means could primitive man have discovered
how to make fire ? In what ways did the control of fire help primi-
tive man? 3. Imagine yourself left, like Robinson Crusoe, on
a desert island, but without the tools that he obtained from the
wreck. What would you do to enable yourself to live ? Even
if you did not have tools, are there any ways in which you would
be better off than a primitive man in the same position ? 4. Why
are metal tools better than stone tools ? How did it happen that
copper was used before iron ? For what purposes is copper used
to-day ? 5. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin ; what is meant
by an "alloy"? Modern coins are usually alloys; find out of
what metals the one-cent piece, the five-cent piece, and the twenty-
five-cent piece are alloys. Why is bronze not used much for tools
and weapons to-day ? 6. Many of the inventions and discov-
eries of primitive peoples were undoubtedly made by women;
what modern inventions and discoveries have been made by
women ? 7. Make a list of the important inventions and dis-
coveries that were made before the time of recorded history.

II. i. What animals were probably first tamed by primi-

THE EARLY AGES OF MANKIND 41

tive peoples ? What animals do you know of that have been
tamed or domesticated since recorded history began ? 2. What
is meant by a "nomadic society" ? In what ways is a nomadic
society, living on its herds of domesticated animals, an advance
over a savage society, living chiefly by hunting wild beasts ?
3. How does a farming people differ from a nomadic people ? In
what ways is this difference an advance toward civilization ?

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. Remains of people that lived in Europe in the Old Stone
Age have been found chiefly in Spain and France ; locate these
countries on the map facing p. 436. 2. Some scholars believe that
these primitive peoples originally entered Europe from northern
Africa ; study the outline of the Mediterranean Sea (p. 436) and
note the places at which these peoples may have found it easiest
to cross from Africa to Europe. It is believed by some that in
very early times there was a land connection between Europe and
Africa at two points. Gibraltar was one of these; where might
the other "land bridge" have been ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING
FOR PUPILS

CLODD, EDWARD — The Childhood of the World; Macmillan.

The Story of Primitive Man; Appleton.
VAN LOON, HENDRIK W. — The Story of Mankind (School edition),

i-iv ; Macmillan.
WELLS, MARGARET E. — How the Present Came from the Past,

Book I, i-vi ; Macmillan.

FOR TEACHERS

OSBORN, N. F. — Men of the Old Stone Age; Scribner.

TYLER, J. M. — The New Stone Age in Northern Europe; Scribner.

WELLS, H. G. — The Outline of History, I, viii-x ; Macmillan.

CHAPTER III
THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY

AFTER mankind learned to tame animals and till
the soil, the number of people on the earth increased.
Rich grazing lands were made use of for flocks and
herds. Fertile river valleys were laid out into fields
for cultivation. Men who had once thought only of
hunting and fishing settled down with the women to
the arts of peace. Wealth in cattle and grain accu-
mulated.

Then those who had riches became a target for the
tribes which kept their old fighting habits. Warriors
found it easier to conquer and rob than to watch flocks
or till the soil themselves. Warfare on a large scale
came to plague the earth's multitudes. Out of war-
fare sprang powerful military leaders who conquered
vast territories inhabited by herdsmen and tillers of
the soil. So began the making of kingdoms and em-
pires, wide-reaching and long-enduring.

THE NATIONS OF THE ORIENT

Oriental Despotisms. The oldest nations of which

we have written records rose in the fertile valleys of

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY

the Nile and Euphrates rivers, in the regions generally
known as Egypt and Babylonia. There many a
kingdom was set up, flourished, and vanished thousands
of years before Christ. Indeed, the history of the
earliest centuries about which we know anything is little
more than a story of one mighty king after another.

First, it seems, warriors from the regions of Babylonia
conquered the lands east to the mountains and west
to the Mediterranean. They ruled millions of subjects
and were, in turn, themselves overthrown.

Then the emperors, or Pharaohs,
of Egypt extended their dominion
by force of arms from the Sahara
to the banks of the Euphrates.
They governed their subjects with
pomp and ceremony. Then they,
too, were beaten in battles. After
them came the Persian emperors,
who overran all Asia Minor and
Egypt and boasted of an empire
greater than any the world had yet
seen. They also had their day and
left behind nothing but a few relics
to tell of their riches and power. *«„,**** **»»*

One modern scholar fixes the date A STATUE OF AN EGYP-
of the first Egyptian king at more
than 5000 years before Christ ; another places it at
3400 B.C. The earliest mention of Babylon is at least
3800 B.C. We know that about 2300 B.C. the borders

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

of the kingdom of Babylon reached the shores of the
Mediterranean. We know that before the earliest
kings of whom we have written records there were
hundreds of minor rulers who built up great states and
disappeared before new conquerors.

The striking thing about these ancient kings is that

THE RUINS AT THEBES (EGYPT)

From an old print

they were all despots, or absolute rulers. That the
common people, who tilled the fields, wove the cloth,
or guarded the herds, should have a voice in their own
government was not thought of. The king stood above
all. Everything was made to glorify his name. The
mighty pyramids of Egypt were the tombs of kings.

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 45

The ruins of temples that still stand tell of their maj-
esty. The pictures on the crumbling walls, the huge
statues that once adorned imperial cities, the songs
and ballads that have survived the wreck of ages, all

From an old print
Two GIANT GUARDIANS OF A VANISHED EMPIRE

bear witness to the prowess and grandeur of the despot.
Artists, architects, and writers vied with one another
in praising the names and deeds of their royal masters.
Some kings ruled more wisely than others, but
practically all of them ruled without regard to the
desires of their peoples. They levied taxes at will;

46 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

they imprisoned or put to death any who incurred
their displeasure ; they waged war, whenever they
liked, to gain territory or to add to their glory. Their
strength lay in the ignorance and fear of their subjects ;
their weakness lay in the fact that their subjects and
slaves did not care much whether their rulers were
overthrown in battle or not.

ANCIENT ORIENTAL EMPIRES

Under such a system, the people had no freedom of
spirit. They had to flatter the king to secure his
favor. They cringed before him to escape his ill-will.
They said and wrote things to please him. As despot-
ism was the chief mark of the government, so cowardice

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 47

and cringing were the chief marks of the subjects.
Fraud and deceit became common ; for by deceit the
king's taxes and penalties could be avoided.

GREECE AND ROME

The City-States of Greece. In strange contrast
to the despotic empires of Egypt and Asia Minor
were the governments of Greece. The Greeks were a
marvelous shepherd people who in very ancient times
moved down in search of pasture into the rugged
peninsula that bears their name. They conquered
the people who already dwelt there and at the same
time learned much from their subjects. Their new
homeland was broken into many small regions by the
mountains and the sea. It had no great river like the
Nile and no vast plains like those of Babylonia.

Though the Greeks lived close together and wor-
shiped the same gods, they could not be permanently
united. Many alliances and leagues were formed
among them, it is true, but none of these lasted for
long. It is true also that the Greeks of Macedonia,
under Alexander the Great, built up a huge empire
extending from the Danube River to the borders of
India ; but it did not survive his death in 323 B.C. The
peoples of Greece were too independent to bow their
necks to a single ruler. They were happiest when
divided into tiny states or commonwealths, each man-
aging its own affairs. In desperate battles they beat
off Persian kings who tried to subdue them, and

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

not until many centuries had passed did they fall
under the sword of the Romans.

In the eighth century before Christ, there were in
the Greek peninsula scores of these little countries
known as city-states. Among them may be mentioned
Corinth, Thebes, Miletus, and Argos. Most famous
and important of all were Athens and Sparta.

ANCIENT GREECE

The Greek state was usually no larger than a county
in Ohio or Iowa. It had a sort of capital city with
shops, temples, dwellings, and market places. The coun-
try around it was laid out into small villages and farms.
Each community formed one great family. The mem-

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY

From an old print

THE PARTHENON — THE FAMOUS TEMPLE AT ATHENS

bers of it believed that they were the descendants
of the same god and were thus related. The citizens
of each little state were intensely patriotic. They
were also enterprising, for they founded colonies all
around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

Within their city-states the Greeks made many kinds
of experiments in governing themselves. There were,
however, three forms of government that were most
common : the monarchy, or rule of one man ; the
aristocracy, which meant in practice the rule of the
few ; and the democracy, or rule of the many. Our
very word " democracy " comes from the Greek and
means " rule of the people."

50 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

A Greek democracy, however, differed very much
from our modern notions. In Athens, for example, when
the people ruled, the voters did not choose representa-
tives to go to the capital and make laws. On the con-
trary, the voters all assembled in the open air. They
approved or rejected laws proposed to them, and they
chose the magistrates or officials of the little state.

A GREEK TEMPLE AT PAESTUM IN ITALY

In another respect also the Greek city democracy
differed from ours. In Athens, for instance, even in
the democratic period, there were about as many
slaves as there were Athenians. There were five or
six slaves for every citizen who had a right to vote
in the assembly. At its best, therefore, democracy in
Greece was limited to a very small ruling class. The
masses did not rule. They were slaves — men and
women, usually white, taken captive in war or bought
somewhere in a slave market.

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY

Rome : Kingdom, Republic, Empire. Of all the an-
cient states, Rome became in time the most mighty.
Yet it began most modestly. Sometime in the dim
past there began to flourish on the banks of the Tiber
a tiny kingdom inhabited by farmers. For more than
two hundred years (753-5093.0.) its kings slowly ex-
tended their power over the surrounding country.

Metropolitan Museum

A WAR CHARIOT OF THE ETRUSCANS, AN ITALIAN PEOPLE CONQUERED

BY ROME

While Rome was expanding, her last king was over-
thrown and a republic was founded. Following the
example of the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the
Persians, the Romans tried to conquer the known
world. They defeated in wars all the other little

52 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

states in the Italian peninsula and made them subject
to the republic. Then they began to fight beyond the
borders of Italy. They conquered Carthage, Greece,
Gaul, much of Britain, all of the eastern Mediter-
ranean country, and Egypt. Their armies, led by
generals like Julius Caesar, were invincible. The
proudest princes, beaten by them in wars, were dragged
to Rome to march as captives in triumphal parades.
Cleopatra, the beautiful queen of Egypt, escaped
them only by committing suicide. Owing to their
victorious armies, the dominions of the Roman re-
public finally stretched from Britain to Arabia.

While Rome was growing, its government re-
mained very much the" same. The vast republic was
ruled by the city of Rome. It was, in fact, a city-
state. The people of Greece, or Gaul, or Spain were
given no voice in public affairs. They were governed
with a stern hand by officers sent out from the capital.
In the city itself, the government consisted of a senate,
composed of nobles and rich men, two assemblies of
citizens, and magistrates elected by the assemblies.
Every male Roman citizen who was in the city of Rome
at the time of the meetings could vote in the assembly.

Was this not an amazing situation ? A few thousand
men assembled in open meetings in Rome could deter-
mine the fate of vast and distant dominions and millions
of subjects.

Untold wealth poured into Rome from the provinces.
The little nation of farmers became a nation of reck-

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

less rich men and a city rabble. The rich grew richer ;

the poor voters grew more and more corrupt and sold

their votes to the highest bidder.

Slowly the Roman republic was changed into an

empire under the rule of one man. No exact date can

be fixed for this change. It was
brought about by victorious gen-
erals like Julius Caesar (100-44
B.C.) who came back from the
frontiers at the head of their
armies and seized upon power
at the city of Rome itself. Some-
times these generals waged wars
among themselves. At last in 3 1
B.C. one of them, Octavianus,

From an old -prt'it i .1 r ,1

JULIUS CAESAR became the master of the so-

called Roman republic. Four

years later the Roman senate made the conqueror com-
mander-in-chief of the army and head of the Roman
religion, and gave him the title Augustus, which had
hitherto been given only to their gods. In other
words, they made him emperor. The old forms of
government were not changed. The senate still met and
the assemblies of citizens still gathered ; but the republic
was dead in fact, if not in name.

In the course of time, the august emperor became the
absolute master. The republic was changed into an
empire ruled by one man whose word was law from
Spain to Pontus. The emperors, as they followed

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 55

one another in a long train, brought huge stores of
treasures to the city of Rome. They built magnif-
icent public buildings, massive triumphal arches,
great highways, marvelous public baths, and vast
amphitheaters for the entertainment of the people

THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE

of the city. They tried hard to keep the citizens at
Rome contented. They gave bread to the masses
and they amused them with shows in the amphitheater,
where men called gladiators engaged in mortal com-
bat or fought with lions and tigers — " every form

56 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

of man or beast the broad empire of Rome could
furnish." Never had the world beheld such splendid
buildings, such wealth, such display of riches, such
pomp and pride.

For about four hundred years the empire of Rome
lasted, but in the course of time it began to grow
steadily weaker. Finally it was broken up like the older
empires of the East (see p. 43). The citizens of Rome
sank into luxury and sloth. A Roman writer lamented :
" That majestic people which once controlled armies,
high offices, and everything else, now limits its desires
and its eager longings to two things only --bread
and circus games ! " When the army failed, the empire
fell. Rome could no longer rule the civilized world.
Where august emperors once reigned in all their glory,
we now behold the broken ruins of amphitheaters,
fallen arches, and heaps of brick and stone. The
struggle for the possession of the earth passed from
the Romans to other races. We shall see later how
they, in turn, played their part.

SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

The Antiquity of Classes. Humanity had not gone
very far on the path from savagery before it was divided
into many classes. Tribes, kingdoms, empires, city-
states, and republics all had classes. First of all
were the priests, who had charge of the religious cere-
monies. Next were the nobles, who united with

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 57

pride of birth the ownership of cattle and land in
large amounts. Then there were the merchants, who
traded far and wide, carrying goods from one section
of a country to another and even from nation to nation.
Below the merchants were the small farmers and the
skilled artisans -- the metal workers, stone cutters,
and other wielders of tools. At the bottom of the
scale were the serfs and slaves, bound fast to the soil
they tilled or to the master who owned them.

Sometimes these classes were united in defense

Metropolitan Museum
A MODEL OF AN EGYPTIAN PALACE

against a foreign invader. Sometimes they engaged
in struggles among themselves over the division of
land and cattle. Many a time did the slaves rise in
terrible rebellion against their masters, only to meet,
usually, with equally terrible punishment.

The Nobles. Whether we turn to ancient Egypt,
Greece, or Rome we find a class of wealthy and power-
ful landowners — men who held great estates tilled
by slaves or bondmen of some kind. The fields of

58 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the Nile Valley were laid out into immense farms, each
owned by a noble. To-day, historians dig up the
ruins of their fine houses, visit their tombs, and read
such of their books as have escaped the ravages of
time.

From the earliest days there existed in Athens and
in Rome a class in most respects similar to the nobles
of Egypt. In Rome, for instance, the most influential
men were the nobles, owners of estates and members
of distinguished families. The nobles were proud of
their rank and looked upon themselves and their
ancestors as superior beings. They were entitled to
wear the purple stripe on their garments to mark them
off from the common people and slaves. In the later
days of the republic, when Rome had become rich,
the nobles by birth found themselves rudely elbowed
by men who had made great fortunes in trade and
politics — men who " broke into " the nobility by one
method or another.

All Italy was dotted with the fine houses and estates
of Roman nobles. The house of one of them, we are
told, had more " rooms than many cities embrace
within their walls." These palaces were decorated
with beautiful marbles and statues brought from
Greece, Asia, and Egypt. The families that dwelt in
them were waited on by slaves and their lands were
tilled by slaves. They themselves scorned trading
and all kinds of manual labor, and would do nothing
except hold a government office or a command in the

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 59

army. Eager to enlarge their holdings, the nobles bought
up or seized the lands of the small farmers. In the later
days of the empire all Italy was a collection of huge
estates worked by slave labor.

The Farmers. In several of the Greek states and in
early Rome there were many farmers who owned
small farms and tilled them with their own hands.
The plebeians, as these commoners were called at Rome,
were citizens, but at first their rights were limited.
They could vote in the assembly, but they could not
hold high office. Though the king might transform a
plebeian into a noble, marriage between the nobles
and the plebeians was forbidden.

Many and long were the conflicts between these
two classes in Rome, until in the later days the dis-
tinctions between the two were nearly all abolished.
Plebeians were permitted to marry nobles, and most
of the offices were opened to them.

For a long time, the Roman farmers were able to
hold their own. It was believed that the stalwart
farmer, who left the plow to fight the battles of Rome,
was the best kind of citizen. " Farmers furnish the brav-
est men and ablest soldiers," wrote the Roman Cato
" No other calling is so honorable, safe, and pleasant
as this is." Efforts were sometimes made to multiply
the number of farmers by breaking up great estates
into small plots. Especially was it a common practice
to grant farms to returning soldiers — a kind of reward
or bonus. As in the early days of the United States,

60 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

it was said that Rome was rich enough to give every
man a farm.

In the course of time, however, the number of free
farmers became smaller and smaller. Their lands
were often bought or seized by the nobles and changed
into estates tilled by slaves. Many of them perished
in battle. Thousands, unable to compete with slaves,
drifted to the city of Rome or sank into the position
of bondmen on the vast estates. As the republic
gained new territories, it became the practice to grant
the lands in huge plots to generals and politicians.
A Roman writer tells us, for example, that six Romans
owned half the province of Carthage and that the
peasants of Africa were a wretched lot. He adds that
he saw an ass and a woman harnessed together to drag
a peasant's plow.

The Artisans or Skilled Workmen. In Athens and
in Rome, as indeed in all the cities of the ancient world,
there were hosts of skilled workmen who were free in
the sense that the small farmers were free. Along with
them were found also numerous day laborers. When
the city of Rome became the center of a great empire,
there were perhaps 500,000 people within its gates,
of whom probably one half were free. They usually
lived in huge apartment houses, each family having a
few dark rooms in a great building.

As the number of slaves who could do skilled work
increased, the free artisan found it difficult to make a
living. Often he sank to the level of a beggar, haunting

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 61

the streets of the city. In both Athens and Rome,
the free workman was regarded with contempt by the
upper classes. Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, de-
clared that " no man can practise virtue who is living
the life of a mechanic or laborer." Cicero, the Roman
orator, looked upon workmen as belonging to an in-
ferior order, saying with scorn, " A workshop can have
nothing respectable about it."

Merchants and Professional Classes. Athens and
Rome, like Egypt and Phoenicia before them, developed
trading to a high pitch. Their ships plowed all the
waters of the Mediterranean and in their markets were
found traders from every clime. In addition to com-
merce, there were other ways of making money. Tax-
gathering was a very profitable business, for the pub-
licans, or tax-gatherers, were permitted by law to
gather about all they could wring from the people.
Money-lending was also profitable. So was office-
holding in Rome and in her provinces. Though
merchants and bankers grew rich, the aristocracy con-
tinued to look upon them with scorn. Cicero thought
all retail merchants contemptible " because they can
make no profit except by a certain amount of false-
hood." Aristotle exclaimed that in the life of a mer-
chant " there is no room for moral excellence." Never-
theless, impoverished noblemen were often glad to
marry their daughters to the sons of rich traders or
money-lenders.

Somewhat above the trading classes in the eyes of

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the Roman aristocracy were the professional classes ;
but they too were of every degree. First among them,
in the heyday of the Roman empire, were the archi-
tects and engineers, the men who planned and built

From an old print

A ROMAN BRIDGE NEAR NIMES (FRANCE)

the amphitheaters, palaces, and bridges. Musicians
were in great demand for entertainments, public and
private. Doctors, owing to the number of fraudulent
fellows, or " quacks," had a hard time to win the esteem
of the people. Some of them, however, rose to emi-
nence. Such, for example, was Galen, who lived at
the end of the second century after Christ. He was
so famous that people from the ends of the empire

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 63

wrote him for advice and he told them by letter what
medicine to take. Poets, historians, and teachers were
frequently honored for their talents.

In many cases, however, in the later days of Rome,
the teacher was a slave in the house of the rich aristo-
crat. Roman noblemen took pride in importing from
Greece educated slaves as tutors for their children,
or as reciters to amuse their guests. Some of the dis-
tinguished writers of Rome were of this servile origin.

The Slaves. The masses of people among all the
great nations of antiquity were slaves. Slaves built
the pyramids of Egypt, rowed the warships of Athens,
and tilled the fields of Italy. The history of labor in
antiquity is largely a history of bondage. As Rome
grew, slavery multiplied. When the Romans conquered
Italy, Greece, Africa, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and parts
of Germany, they brought the captives into Rome
by the thousands as slaves. It is estimated that
Caesar in his conquest of Gaul took a million prisoners
who were sold into bondage. In the slave markets
of Rome could be found white-skinned Greeks and
Germans penned up with swarthy Africans.

Those who were sold as domestic servants usually
had a fairly easy life ; but most of them passed into a
servitude on the great estates that was truly horrible.
They were worked in the fields in chain gangs and
thrown into dungeons at night. The owner had the
power of life and death over his slaves. Those who
resisted their masters or ran away were frequently

64 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

crucified along the highways as terrible examples to
their fellows. Toward the latter days of the empire,
Italy was crowded with slaves and the descendants of
slaves. Thousands of them had been freed by their
masters. Some of them rose to positions of wealth and
influence. Others swarmed into the cities, where they
helped to swell the mobs so famous in Roman history.

THE GREAT CITIES OF ANTIQUITY

All the nations of antiquity had their great cities :
Thebes and Memphis in Egypt, Nineveh on the Tigris,
Babylon on the Euphrates, Jerusalem in Palestine,
Tyre and Sidon in Phoenicia, Athens in Greece, Rome
in Italy, and Carthage and Utica in northern Africa.
In the Bible we can read graphic accounts of the
mighty cities of the East. The populations of these
ancient places we can only guess, for there was no
regular census such as we have to-day. Rome in its
prime, as we have seen (p. 60), had about 500,000
people within its borders. Perhaps Babylon was even
larger.

The splendor of some of the cities dazzled all
visitors. Babylon had its palace of terraces, rising
one above another, and its " hanging gardens." It
was reckoned by the Greeks as one of " the seven
wonders of the world." In all the cities, temples, pal-
aces, baths, wonderful official buildings, stores, and
the luxurious homes of the rich testified to their wealth
and magnifience.

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 65

Some of these cities have utterly vanished. Of
Babylon nothing can be seen to-day except a few frag-
ments of ancient walls and heaps of bricks crumbling
into dust. Others have had continuous life. Athens
is the capital of modern Greece, and many a stately
ruin remains to tell of ancient days. Rome is the

THE RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM, THE GREAT AMPHITHEATER AT ROME

capital of modern Italy. The palaces of the emperors
are no more, but some noble buildings remain intact
to this very hour.

The Romans were indeed the master builders of
antiquity. Their capital city was the wonder of man-
kind. Around the Forum, or ancient market place,
they erected public buildings, imperial palaces, beauti-
ful temples, and splendid monuments. All over their

66 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

broad empire the Romans built magnificent cities.
At Aries and Orange, in southern France, are to be
found to-day splendid ruins that are visited annually
by hundreds of Americans, curious to see the signs of
Rome's world power. London stands on the site of
an old Roman city, and here and there may be found
a bit of wall or pavement that has escaped destruction.
So, too, in Paris the traveler may see fragments of
walls and arches and baths that have come down from
the day when France was Gaul, a province of the
Roman empire.

It is in the cities of antiquity that we find much that
resembles modern times._ There were immense public
buildings, monuments erected in honor of victorious
generals, banking houses in which business was carried
on with the most distant countries, and huge theaters
for public amusements. There great throngs gathered
in the streets to cheer returning soldiers or to hear
the news of some momentous event in a far-off country.
There were the tenements of the poor and the man-
sions of the rich, the artisan working at the flaming
forge, the women buying at the market, and the politi-
cian stirring the masses by an impassioned oration
on some burning question of the day.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. Why can more people live in a country where farming
is practiced than in one where hunting and fishing must be de-

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 67

pended upon for obtaining food ? 2. So far as we know, the
first great nations grew up in the fertile valleys of the Nile and the
Euphrates rivers, though the lands adjoining these valleys are very
largely arid ; are there any reasons why such conditions should have
been favorable to the development of these regions as the homes
of people engaged in farming ? There are no great forests in these
river valleys ; how did this help the farmers ? 3. The Nile River
overflows its banks each year and the water spreads over its valley ;
in what ways would this be an advantage to farming ? Why were
people living under such conditions likely to be united under strong
and powerful leaders? 4. What is meant by a "despot"?
5. Why do we know more about the wars and conquests of the
ancient kings than we do about the millions of people whom they
ruled? 6. The text mentions the "Pharaohs" as the rulers
of ancient Egypt ; what other terms have been used by different
countries for their rulers ?'

II. i. How did the ancient Greeks differ from the people
of the Nile and Euphrates valleys in their manner of living ?
In government ? 2. How did the democratic government of
Athens differ from our democratic government ? 3. Do the people
of your town or city meet together to decide directly any ques-
tions of government ? How many years elapsed between the
supposed date of the first Egyptian kings (5000 B.C.) and the
death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) ? How many years be-
tween the death of Alexander and the present time ? 4. What
was the form of government in Rome in the early days of its
history? What changes took place later? 5. How many years
elapsed between the death of Alexander the Great and the death
of Julius Caesar ? 6. What changes took place in the way in
which the Romans lived as they passed from the rule of kings to
the rule of the people and then to the rule of emperors ?
7. Give as many reasons as you can to explain why the great
Roman empire failed to endure. 8. The close of the Roman
empire is usually placed at 476 A.D. ; how long was this after

68 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the first date that we associate with Rome (753 B.C.) ? How
does this compare with the number of years that our present
government has been in existence ?

III. I. We have in our country to-day priests or clergymen,
large landowners, merchants, farmers, skilled workmen, and un-
skilled laborers; why are these groups not "classes" in the sense
in which this word is used in the text ? t 2. We do not have in
our country " nobles," " serfs," or " slaves " ; name those countries
in which there is still a class of "nobles." What is the difference
between a "serf" and a "slave"? 3. What occupations that
are highly respected to-day were looked down upon as ignoble or
dishonorable by the ancients? 4. In what ways are the great
masses of people better off to-day than were the masses of the
people in ancient times? 5. While some of the ancient cities
were large, probably none was so large as are such modern cities
as London, New York, Chicago, or Paris ; can you think of any
reason explaining why such very large cities were probably impos-
sible in the ancient world ? (Consider the problem of feeding so
many people and the ways unknown to the ancients that we now
have of producing foodstuffs, and especially of transporting food-
stuffs quickly over long distances.)

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. I. Study carefully the maps showing the location of the Nile
and Euphrates valleys. Note how the Nile Valley is protected.
Where does the Nile River rise ? Trace the courses of the Tigris
and Euphrates. When history began, these two rivers flowed into
the Persian Gulf separately. Eridu (p. 46) was then a seaport.
2. Study the map of Greece (p. 48), and point out some important
differences between this region and the regions of the Nile and
the Tigris and Euphrates. What advantages would the Greeks
have in a country such as theirs ? Why was the country favor-
able to the development of small city-states rather than to the
development of a united kingdom or empire ? Locate Athens,

THE GREAT NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY 69

Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Miletus. 3. Point out the extent of
the Greek empire that was formed by Alexander the Great and
endured only while he lived. 4. Locate Rome. Why was Rome
admirably situated to be the center of a great empire ? (Note the
ease with which the various parts of the Mediterranean basin
could be reached by boats.) 5. Locate the regions that the
Romans gradually conquered : Carthage, Greece, Gaul (France),
Spain, Britain (England), Egypt, Asia Minor. 6. Locate the
great cities of antiquity mentioned on p. 64. Find out which
of these exist under their old names. Which of them occupy the
sites under new names ? Which of them no longer exist except as
ruins ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING
FOR PUPILS

ARNOLD, EMMA J. — Stories of Ancient Peoples ; American Book.
ASHLEY, R. L. — Early European Civilization, i-iii ; Macmillan.
BEST, S. M. — Egypt and Her Neighbors; Macmillan.
BROOKSBANK, F. H. — Stories of Egyptian Gods and Heroes; Crowell.
GOSSE, A. B. — The Civilization of the Ancient Egyptians; Stokes.
VAN LOON, HENDRIK W. — Ancient Man; Boni and Liveright.

The Story of Mankind (School edition), v-xxvi.
WELLS, M. E. — How the Present Came from the Past, Book I.

FOR TEACHERS

See bibliographies at close of Chapters ii and iii in BOTS-
FORD'S A Brief History of the World; Macmillan.

CHAPTER IV
THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS

THE peoples of the ancient world did more than found
great cities, states, and empires. They carried for-
ward the work of civilization begun by primitive men
and women. They improved the old ways of tilling
the soil. They raised a greater variety of fruits,
grains, and vegetables. They raised better sheep and
cattle. They built solid and handsome houses. They
made beautiful drawings, paintings, and sculptures.
They erected wonderful temples and public buildings.
They brought many of the domestic arts to a high state
of perfection. They learned how to prepare and cook
excellent food and to make fine linens, embroideries,
laces, and brocades. For sheer beauty their work has
never been surpassed, and seldom equaled. They
studied the heavens and made the beginnings of the
science of astronomy. They studied the ways of
nature and thought deeply about right conduct.
They wrote poems, books, and plays. They wor-
shiped gods and had religious rites. Finally, they
came to the idea of one God, all-powerful and all-wise ;
and one of the peoples of antiquity, the Jews, also gave

to mankind Christianity.

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 71

In the practical arts, such as domestic science and
agriculture, the peoples of the ancient world made
definite strides in advance of primitive life. In the
fine arts, like architecture and sculpture, they pro-
duced examples which the best artists of all later ages
in the Western civilization admired and studied closely.
In poetry, drama, oratoiy, and philosophy, they worked
out such perfect models that all the world still marvels
at them. Although our progress has been wonderful
in material things, although we have the railway and
the airplane, in all things of the mind we still have
much to learn from the ancients. The English poet,
Shelley, said of Greece :

Her citizens, imperial spirits,
Rule the present from the past ;
On all this world of men inherits
Their seal is set.

Those writers are nearer the truth, however, who tell
us that the Jews gave to the world religion, the Greeks
art and literature, and the Romans law and order.
Even there we must not draw sharp dividing lines
between the ancient nations, because they borrowed
so much from one another. For a long time after Rome
fell, the people of western Europe knew no ancient
language but that of the Romans, Latin. So they
read mainly about what the Romans had done. Hence
it was easy to give too much weight to the work of
the Romans. About the day of Columbus, scholars
began to study Greek with great earnestness ; then

72 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

they declared that the Greeks had done everything.
Long centuries afterward, indeed almost within our
own time, scholars learned to read the queer sign
writing used by the still older Egyptians and Babylo-
nians. Then they found out how deep was the debt
of both Greece and Rome to nations thousands of years
older than either of them. The life and thought of
America are really linked in an unbroken chain with
the life and thought of people whose homes and palaces
were dust for ten centuries before Rome rose to great-
ness on the banks of the Tiber.

THE PRACTICAL ARTS

Agriculture. In tilling the soil, as we have said,
the ancients made remarkable advances over the

Metropolitan Museum

AN EGYPTIAN PICTURE SHOWING PLOWING AND SOWING

methods followed by primitive people. They learned
to irrigate dry lands. Perhaps they got the idea from
the annual flooding of the Nile River. At all events,
in both the Nile Valley and the Euphrates Valley, there
were great irrigation works. The ancients also dis-
covered the secret of fertilizers to enrich the soil.
This enabled them to cultivate one spot for centuries.

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 73

Thus they could give up wandering in search of new
lands, and could support large populations in a rela-
tively small area. They also discovered the secret of
plowing and harrowing the ground so as to break it
into fine powder. This, too, increased the production
per acre.

The ancients discovered many aids to agriculture.
They tamed the ox, the horse, and the ass. They in-
vented plows, harrows, and carts that were dragged
by their beasts of burden. They built granaries in
which to store their crops. They made knives or
sickles to cut the grain. They used the ox to tread
out the grain and they winnowed it, or separated the
chaff from the grain, by tossing it into the air. For
grinding the grain they made heavy stone mills, which
were turned by slaves or oxen.

The ancients increased their food supply in many
ways. They domesticated more animals, such as
swine, sheep, ducks, geese, and cows. They learned
to handle the wild bee and secure vast quantities
of honey. They grew peas and beans as well as rye
and wheat. The plains of Italy and the fertile valleys
of the Nile and the Euphrates were the great grain-
growing areas of the ancient world. In the rougher
and more mountainous regions of Italy, Greece, and
Palestine, vineyards and olive orchards flourished.

The Domestic Arts. In all the home comforts, the
ancients made great gains over primitive peoples
who lived in caves or tents, or in brush and timber

74 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

huts. They learned how to build stone houses. The
nobles and rich men had wonderful palaces with baths
and hot-air furnaces. The homes of the masses were
very much like some to be seen to-day in Italy or
Greece. They were of stone and plaster, with flat
roofs. There were no glass windows, but there were
doors and wooden shutters. The floors were of stone

Metropolitan Museum

SOME PLAIN EGYPTIAN FURNITURE

or dirt. But they had one great advantage — they
were cool in summer.

The art of cooking — bread-making, roasting, bak-
ing, and stewing — was so improved over primitive
times that delicacies could be made for those who
could afford them. Bread was the staff of life. Wine
and olive oil came next in the diet of the masses. Fruit,
fish, meats, and honey appeared on the best tables.
But as the ancients ate with their fingers, they did not
have sauces and desserts like ours. Indeed, it has been
said that sauces mark the great difference between
modern and ancient cookery.

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 75

In cloth-making, the ancients have never been sur-
passed. In the Metropolitan Museum of New York
City, there are linen sheets, taken from ancient Egyptian
tombs, which have lasted all through these centuries.
The Egyptians pictured their goddess, Isis, with a

Metropolitan At useum

AN INLAID ROMAN SEAT OF THE FIRST CENTURY AFTER CHRIST

shuttle in her hand ; and the Romans pictured their
goddess, Minerva, with a distaff for spinning, showing
how greatly they prized the work of their women.
On the walls of Babylon and Nineveh, as well as of
other ancient cities, there were pictures illustrating the

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

cloth-making process all the way from the raising of
sheep and the growth of flax to spinning and weaving.
The ancients did more than make fine cloth. They
made beautiful designs, wonderful tapestries, and
embroideries. Especially in the lands of the eastern
Mediterranean did the love of gorgeous decorations
flourish.

Owing to the mildness of their climate, the ancients
spent much of their time out of doors. They got up
early and went to bed early, as they had no brilliant

lights for the house.
Since they were an
out-of-door people,
they did not make
as many kinds of
furniture as we do
to-day. They had
chairs, couches,
beds, and tables,
though they were
by no means as
comfortable as
ours. For what
they lacked in com-
fort and variety,
they made up in
decoration. The Egyptians, Assyrians, and Jews
made wooden furniture, using much cedar and ebony
and probably rosewood, walnut, and teak. They

Metropolitan Museum
EGYPTIAN JEWELRY

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 77

decorated their tables and chairs by inlaying the
wood with gold, silver, ivory, and precious stones.
The Greeks employed bronze in making furniture,
adding decorations of gold and silver. All these things
the Romans had also ; but they were especially fond
of beautiful marbles.

Most of our ornaments of to-day originated among
the ancients. They had necklaces, rings, bracelets,
brooches, earrings, diadems, mirrors, combs, and jewel
boxes. Their work in precious stones and metals was
so good that modern workers find it hard to equal
it and cannot surpass it. Ancient artists could carve,
solder, inlay, cast, and chisel with a subtle skill and a
fine taste that make us marvel as we look upon their
work.

ARCHITECTURE AND ART

Egyptian and Babylonian Architecture. We do not

know what people it was that first came out of caves
and huts and learned to build houses of stone and brick.
We do know, however, that very early in their, history
the Egyptians learned how to plan and erect great
buildings. The pyramids, the towering tombs of their
kings, and their temples have stood through thousands
of years to bear witness to their skill. Moreover, they
learned to decorate their buildings and to carve at
the gates gigantic figures in stone.

Of the buildings erected by the ancient peoples to
the east of the Mediterranean, we know less, because

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 79

they used so much wood and unburnt brick which did
not survive the wear and tear of centuries. Of their
work we can only read in the books that have come
down to us. Accounts of Babylon, for instance, tell
us of buildings huge in size and gorgeous in design,
such as the Temple of Baal, greater even than the
pyramids. They tell of " wonderful walls around the
city, and the hang-
ing gardens of Semir-
amis." In the Old
Testament, we can
read of the beautiful
tombs arid temples
of the Jews. In the
third chapter of the
second book of the
Chronicles, there is Metropolitan Museum

an account of the THE TOP OF AN EGYPTIAN COLUMN

temple, or "House of God," built by Solomon at Jeru-
salem. It was ceiled with fir, overlaid with gold, " gar-
nished with precious stones for beauty," and decorated
with carvings and ornaments. Of this temple not a stone
or sign remains. So we can only behold its beauty in
the mind's eye as we read of it in the Bible.

Greek Architecture. We know a great deal more
about the architecture of the Greeks. Examples of
their work and many splendid ruins are scattered far
and wide in Mediterranean lands. The most beautiful
as well as the most enduring work of the Greek archi-

80 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

tects was the temple. It was small in size, simple in
form, straight in line, and designed to house the statues
of one or more gods. Only a few could worship at a
time within the gloomy shadows of its narrow chamber.
That, however, suited the Greek kind of religion, as
we shall see.

Several of these temples still stand, preserving to
this day their delicate columns and graceful lines.
The most perfect temple is at Athens. There is another
fine structure at Paestum, near Naples in Italy, erected
there by an ancient Greek colony. The Greeks also
built tombs and theaters ; but on none of these struc-
tures did they lavish such care and affection as on the
temples.

Roman Architecture. The Romans copied directly
from the Greeks. They early adopted the Greek
temple, along with the Greek gods, but they added to
both. The majestic Pantheon of Rome, erected to all
their chief gods, combines a Greek porch and columns
with a huge structure surmounted by a mighty dome.
This building has stood about 1800 years almost intact.

In other ways, too, the Romans added to the designs
of the Greeks. Their special creations were vast amphi-
theaters, circuses, triumphal arches, palaces, aqueducts,
baths, and civic buildings. They learned somewhere
how to make strong mortar and to build arches. With
the arch they were able to erect buildings of great
height and size. When men can only pile blocks of
stone and wood upon one another, their designs are

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS

limited ; when they can use the arch and mortar,
even the very stones become almost as clay in their
hands. With lavish profusion the Romans erected
huge buildings throughout the length and breadth of
their empire. The gigantic amphitheater, or Colos-
seum, opened 80 A.D., had, when completed, seats for
more than 40,000 people. It was about 600 feet
long and 500 feet wide. Its outer rim stood more
than 150 feet above the ground. So solid was its
masonry that most of its walls
and arches have survived the
ravages of earthquakes and time.

Size, mass, and strength marked
the work of the Romans ; but they
sought for beauty also. They
robbed Greece of her marbles and
statuary; they brought monu-
ments from ancient Egypt; and
they collected artists and sculp-
tors from the ends of the empire.
As they became rich, they em-
ployed Greeks for delicate work
and drew upon the Orientals for
gorgeous colors.

Art under the Oriental Despots.
The Egyptians, from the earliest
day of which we have record, drew,

, . _,, . Metropolitan Museum.

painted, and carved. 1 he themes

. , AN EXAMPLE OF THE BEST

and forms of their art remained EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE

82 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

much the same for thousands of years, almost as
fixed as the character of the Nile Valley in which
they lived. Art was not free. That is, artists did
not draw and paint and carve whatever pleased
their fancy. The greatest artists were employed by
the ruler, or despot, to glorify him, to picture his life
and his deeds. They showed him in war, on the hunt,
at the court, and in public ceremonies. Instead of
art for its own sake, art was used to portray the spirit of
servility to despots. Moreover, Egyptian artists were
very limited in their imagination. To express wisdom,
cunning, courage, and other traits, they often placed on
the statues of their rulers and gods the heads of ani-
mals supposed to have those qualities. Much of their
work was unnatural and confined to straight lines ;
but in later days they learned to carve in stone mar-
velous, lifelike portraits. In their art, the Persians,
Assyrians, Hebrews, and Babylonians were in many
respects like the Egyptians.

Greek Art. It was the Greeks who first worshiped
beauty and gave living and natural form to painting
and sculpture. While the Greeks learned, too, from the
art of their neighbors, especially from the Egyptians,
they were themselves creative. That is, they did not
merely imitate. They had imagination and expressed
their ideas in the spirit of their own freer society.
Their matchless work, of which we have many examples,
has been the model and envy of artists everywhere.
Their chief subjects were gods rather than kings. As

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 83

Metropolitan Afusevm
THE Discus THROWER

84 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the gods were supposed to be like men and women, the
artists drew them in human form. Moreover, the
Greeks made their own bodies beautiful by taking
athletic exercise, and these served as the models for
artists. Instead of carving rigid images like the
Egyptians, the Greeks gave movement and grace to
their statues. The Discus Thrower beautifully rep-
resents this living art. Lovers of art tell us that
Phidias, a Greek born about 500 years before Christ,
was the greatest of all the Greek sculptors, and that
in beauty his work has never been surpassed.

Roman Art. In the field of art the Romans were
copyists rather than creators. They saw about them
in the old Greek colonies of Italy many examples of
the finest Greek work. They welcomed Greek artists
who came to Italy to seek their fortunes or were
exiled from home. They brought Greeks from Athens
to teach them, and they sent their sons to study in
Greece. For fine and delicate things they relied mainly
upon Greek skill. As the Romans grew rich, the sena-
tors, emperors, and noble ladies took pride in having
themselves portrayed in marble. Some of the best
examples of art that have been preserved from the
Roman period are the busts of eminent citizens.
The Romans not only copied ; they also collected and
preserved some of the best work of the ancient Greeks.

Modern Studies of Ancient Architecture and Art.
Modern admiration for Greek and Roman work is
so great that the leading nations now have schools

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS

at Athens and at Rome for the study of art and archi-
tecture, as well as other antiquities. Some of these
schools are supported by governments and others by
private societies. The English, French, Germans,

and Americans have been eager t

seekers after the beauties of the
ancient world. Their museums
are filled with statues — originals
or models — and other art ob-
jects. In the eighteenth century
the Europeans began to write
serious and important books on
ancient art and buildings. To-
day there are whole libraries on
the subject in many tongues. No
one who desires to become a
master builder or painter or sculp-
tor can neglect the study of the
ancients.

Architects to-day use in our
buildings the Greek columns and
the Roman arches, as well as the
spires of the later ages. In Amer-
ica's own creation, the " sky-
scraper," there appear many de-
vices of the ancients. If an

ancient Greek could come to life, like Rip Van
Winkle, and stroll down the streets of New York City,
he would be astounded to see the pillars of a Greek

Courtesy of Bankers' Trust Co.

GREECE AND EGYPT
IN NEW YORK

86 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

temple perched hundreds of feet above the earth near
the dizzy summit of a great office building. If an
ancient Pharaoh could step out of his mummy case and
accompany the Greek, he would be amazed to see
the columns of the Greek temple surmounted by a huge
pyramid towering high toward the clouds. Verily we
may again say of the ancients :

On all this world of men inherits
Their seal is set.

LITERATURE AND EDUCATION

The Origin of Writing. Literature and education,
like art, were matters of slow growth. They did not
spring up overnight. Indeed, for countless ages man-
kind got along without knowing how to write ; that
is, how to express ideas by means of marks.

The art of writing began with picture making.
One may write " There is a house " merely by drawing
a picture of a house. On the other hand, one may use
a picture to convey an idea very different from the
drawing itself. For example, a picture of an eye may
mean not only an " eye," but " I."

Picture writing easily grew into sign writing. It
became possible to express even the most difficult
ideas by means of symbols. All early writing in Egypt
and Babylonia was based on pictures, and it took
hundreds of different pictures or symbols to tell a
long- story. To this day, the written language of
China and Japan has the form of pictures. It is made

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS

up of thousands of signs or separate characters. Even
for the Chinese and Japanese it is difficult to learn.

Out of picture writing grew the art of
writing by marks, each of which stood for
a sound. Finally, there were invented
twenty or more marks or letters which in-
cluded all the sounds of a spoken language.
Three thousand years before Christ, the
Egyptians had stumbled upon this device
and had invented an alphabet of twenty-four
letters. Long afterward the Phoenicians
made the alphabet from which ours came.

Thus phonetic spelling, or spelling by
sound, took the place of picture writing.
This was one of the most wonderful steps
in the growth of human knowledge, be-
cause in this way thoughts could easily be
recorded and so passed on from one age to
the next. It made possible widespread learn-
ing— the democracy of knowledge, so to
speak. Knowledge could no longer be lim-
ited to the few when anyone with a little
leisure could learn to read the books of the
wisest thinkers. China at this time is taking

Metropolitan
Museum

this step in language development by intro- EGYPTIAN Pic-

... . ,,. -i i TURE WRITING

•ducmg phonetic spelling among her people.

The Subject Matter of Early Literature. Long be-
fore picture writing or phonetic spelling was invented,
ancient peoples had stored up in their minds a great

88 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

deal of knowledge. It was in the form of ballads,
songs, tales, fables, and laws. It was handed down
from father to son by word of mouth. In each nation
or tribe there were a few " wise " men whose business
it was to memorize this store of learning. They also
taught it to the young, who were in turn to pass
it on. When the art of writing was invented, the
first things set down were the old songs, ballads, stories,
and laws. Thus literature began. The word itself
is from the Latin litera, meaning merely a letter of
the alphabet or symbol.

The earliest of the Greek poets whose works have
come down to us was Homer, who collected the song-
stories that had long been sung in Greece. So among
the English-speaking people, the earliest literature is
the songs and legends of the Anglo-Saxon peoples
brought together in the poem of Beowulf. In some-
what the same way, our own poet Longfellow took the
American Indian legends, wove them into Hiawatha,
and gave us a picture of old Indian religion, life, and
culture.

Oriental Literature. The Egyptians, Jews, and other
ancient peoples had many books long, long before the
birth of Christ. They had war songs, stories of the
great deeds of kings, medical books, and writings on
moral conduct. The Egyptians had great libraries
of books written on papyrus, that is, rolls of paper
made out of reeds. At Nineveh there was a huge
library of clay tablets. The Jews likewise had a vast

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 89

literature. Many of their writings, which were deemed
sacred, were collected in that part of the Bible known
as the Old Testament. In it we find stones of creation
and of many wars ; there we can read the history of
the Jews and other peoples of southwestern Asia, be-
sides the famous laws written in the Ten Command-
ments and poems, such as the Psalms.

Greek Literature. Greek literature, as we have
seen, opens with the poems of Homer. In his Iliad
and Odyssey, he recounted many a myth and tale of
ancient gods and men. When Homer lived — indeed,
whether he lived at all — is uncertain ; but several hun-
dred years before Christ, the stories that bear his name
were known among the Greeks.

As Greece grew older, there appeared many poets,
orators, philosophers, and play writers. The great
poetess Sappho was placed by the learned Greek,
Aristotle, in the same rank with Homer. The historian
Herodotus wrote fully about an important period of
Greek history, and is regarded to-day as " the father
of historical writing." The Greeks also wrote plays —
tragedies and comedies — which were given in the
large open-air theaters. Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides won immortality as playwrights. When
Athenian citizens met to elect officers and decide
public questions, they were addressed by orators who
discussed the issues of the day. The most famous
orator of all, Demosthenes, warned the Athenians
in a famous oration that they were in danger of being

90 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

conquered by Philip, king of Macedon. In addition to
poets, historians, playwrights, and orators, the Greeks
had many philosophers. These men inquired into the
meaning of life, the nature of the gods, and human con-
duct. First among these were Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle, whose ideas, after the lapse of more than
two thousand years, are still studied by seekers after
wisdom.

In each of these fields of literature, the Greeks
created a fine method, or technique, which serves as
a guide for our own writers. They searched for the
best style ; that is, for clearness, force, and accuracy.
In the play, or drama, they learned how to make
thrilling plots, to work audiences up to the climax,
and to make a telling ending. Their orators studied
deeply the art of persuasion and drew up certain im-
portant rules for making a convincing speech.

Roman Literature. The Romans conquered the
Greeks by arms, but it may truly be said that the
Greeks conquered the Romans by their art and lit-
erature. The greatest Greek books were translated
into Latin, often by Greek scholars. They were taught
to Roman youths and imitated by Roman poets,
historians, orators, and philosophers.

The Romans were more than imitators in literature.
Their poet Vergil will ever live beside Homer. Their
Horace, who wrote about everyday Roman life, will
compare in fame with the best poets of Greece.
The Roman orator Cicero, even more than Demos-

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 91

thenes, perhaps, was the model of all later orators who
sought to speak in the grand style. The philosopher
Seneca, though he did not rival Aristotle in his wis-
dom and understanding, was counted among the great
thinkers of the ancients. As playwrights, however, the
Romans could not excel, or even equal, the Greeks.
The people preferred the crudest kind of comedies.
Roman playwrights and actors could not think up
anything as exciting as the gladiatorial combats in
the Colosseum or the gorgeous parades arranged by the
emperors.

In writings on law and history, however, the Romans
were path-breakers. They compiled their laws in
great collections or codes. Many of these have come
down to us and are carefully read by students of law.
Indeed, Roman law, changed, of course, is still used
in France, Germany, Japan, Italy, and many other
countries.

Rome also produced some historians of lasting
fame. One of the finest models of historical writing
is Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War. For
simplicity, dignity, and accuracy, it is admirable. It
is justly chosen as the first serious Latin book to be
read in American high schools to-day. In the historical
writings of Tacitus we have more than stories of battles
and rulers ; we have wonderful pictures of life and
customs. Tacitus did not seek merely to glorify his
country. He tried to understand it and to find ways
of protecting and saving it.

92 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Influence of the Greek and Latin Languages.

After Greece declined and the Roman empire fell to
pieces, the books of the Greeks and Romans, like their
art, remained to influence all future generations. There
is only one Roman Forum, and one must go to Rome
to see it ; but Caesar's Commentaries can be multiplied
into millions of copies. The elegant Latin that Cicero
spoke was no longer in daily use ; the Latin of the
people slowly grew into modern Italian, French, and
Spanish.

While this change was taking place, educated people
kept on studying and writing Latin. It became, as
we shall see, the official language of the entire Christian
Church for many centuries. The official documents
of the Catholic Church are still published in it. So
much wisdom was locked up in the writings of the
Greeks and Romans that teachers once required all
college and high school students to learn one or both
of these ancient tongues. It is only within recent
years that college students have been allowed to choose
modern instead of ancient languages.

Education in Ancient Times. As in our time, so
in ancient Greece and Rome there were schools.
Sometimes they were supported by the government,
but usually they were conducted by private persons.
As in our day, also, the rich Greeks and Romans often
had private tutors to teach their children at home.
In Rome, it was common for wealthy men to employ
learned Greek slaves to teach their boys and girls.

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 93

Sparta affords us the best example of government
control of education among the Greeks. In that
state every son of a freeman was trained by officials
to serve the government, especially in the art of war-
fare. The education of the Athenian boy usually con-
sisted of reading, writing, music, and gymnastics.

To reading and writing, the Romans frequently
added the study of the Greek language. This was
because they relied upon Greek books for much of
their wisdom. It appears that all the larger cities of
Italy and most of the small towns also had schools,
at least for elementary education. In the days of the
great Roman empire, the government encouraged citi-
zens to found schools in the provinces in order to
spread the language and the culture of Rome. Roman
nobles and rich men often had great libraries on their
country estates ; and occasionally one of them gave
money for a public library instead of giving a gladia-
torial show.

In addition to the lower schools there were univer-
sities at Athens, Rome, and many other ancient cities.
These were established by groups of teachers who
gathered around some scholar and taught his ideas.
Athens was the great university center of antiquity.
To that city flocked students from Rome, Egypt, and
all parts of the known world. There some of the wisest
thinkers of all time, men like Socrates, Plato, and Aris-
totle, won their fame as teachers.

There was little learning outside of the schools.

94 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

There were no printed books, magazines, or newspapers.
The masses of the people were slaves and received
no education at all. Workmen and merchants were
regarded as persons of a lower order, unworthy of
education. The modern idea that every boy and girl
should go to school was utterly unknown. Since
labor was looked down upon, training for work with
tools was treated as something beneath the dignity of
the educated classes.

Still the Greeks thought of themselves as masters
of all things. Thus wrote the poet Sophocles, when
Athens was in her glory : " Of all strong things, none
is more wonderfully strong than man. He can cross
the wintry sea and year by year compels with his
plow the unwearied strength of the Earth, the oldest
of the immortal gods. He seizes for his prey the aery
birds and teeming fishes, and with his wit has tamed
the mountain-ranging beasts, the long-maned horses,
and the tireless bull. Language is his, and wind-swift
thought and city-founding mind ; and he has learned
to shelter himself from cold and piercing rain ; and has
every device to meet every ill, save Death alone."

Ancient Ideas about Government. In their schools,
the ancients discussed the whole subject of govern-
ment. They also thought a great deal about the best
form of government. Socrates and Plato gave much
attention to planning an ideal scheme. They decided
that all land and property ought to be owned by people
in common and that all people should work solely for

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 95

the common good. Aristotle, on the contrary, replied
that this was impossible. He said that property should
be, as a general rule, private; he thought that men
would work harder if each one looked after his own
business and reaped the results of his own labor. He
taught that the best form of government was a kind of
modified democracy. He said that farmers busy in
their fields made the best citizens, and that an ideal
government was one in which each family had a small
amount of property. He feared the government of the
few or the rich. He likewise feared the government of
the many or the poor. In his scheme, women were
to obey their husbands and keep silent, and slaves
were to do most of the work. Aristotle believed that
slavery was both natural and right.

Some of the writings of these three philosophers
have been kept all through the centuries, and have
been translated into English. The founders of the
American republic were familiar with them. Jefferson,
for example, agreed 'with Aristotle in many things,
especially that a nation of farmers was the best kind
of nation (First Book, p. 157).

ANCIENT RELIGIONS AND CHRISTIANITY

Religion. All peoples in all times have believed in
powers and forces outside of themselves, called gods
or goddesses. With this belief has been coupled a
feeling of duty toward the gods, which all must fulfill.

All early races believed in many gods. "Our

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

than a man !

country is so peopled with divinities," exclaimed a
Roman writer, " that you can find a god more easily
The gods were to the ancients the
spirit of mystery that lay in all the
works of nature. They thought of
them as in trees, vegetation, seeds,
growth, the seasons, and death. Some
gods were great and powerful and
towered above all the rest. Others
were minor and local.

In Greece, each family and each
community had its local deities. Then
there were gods and goddesses com-
mon to all Greeks. Chief among the
latter were Zeus, the father of gods
and men, ruler and lawgiver of the
universe ; Athena, the goddess of wis-
dom and handiwork ; Apollo, the god
of light and beauty; Demeter, the
goddess of the earth, fruits, and vege-
tation ; Aphrodite, the goddess of

AN EGYPTIAN GODDESS love . and Ares? the god Qf battles.

The Romans likewise worshiped many gods. Ju-
piter, like Zeus in Greece, was the greatest of them
all, while Mars, like Ares, was the mighty god of
battles. The goddess Vesta ruled over household
affairs, and Venus was adored as the goddess of love.
Besides these, the Romans had hundreds of minor
gods for places and things. Silvanus, for example,

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 97

was the god of the woods, and Terminus, the guardian
of the boundaries of land.

Metropolitan Museum

A RESTORATION OF THE INTERIOR OF THE PARTHENON SHOWING THE
GODDESS ATHENA

Among both the Greeks and the Romans there was
set aside a special class of persons, known as priests

98 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

or priestesses. It was their duty to take charge of
the worship of the gods. They were to keep the gods
pleased, to avert their anger, and to find out what they
wanted men to do. In Rome, for instance, it was the
duty of six maidens, known as the Festal virgins, to
guard the sacred fire that burned always in the temple
erected to Vesta, the household goddess. There were
in later days pontiffs, who had charge of all religious
affairs. They performed the ceremonies at marriages
and funerals and on other occasions.

The chief pontiff was called " the judge of all things
divine and human." In the days of the empire, the
emperor himself was supreme pontiff. Indeed, he was
worshiped by the people as one of the gods themselves.

Ideas of Right Conduct. Very early in their history,
both the Greeks and the Romans began to think about
morals. They wrote books on the duties which people
owe to one another, and some of their writings on this
subject have come down to us. One of them, Aristotle
(P- 9S)> taught that all persons should seek the best
life and that the best life is a life of virtue.

Among the Romans, none rose to nobler heights
than Marcus Aurelius, who was the emperor from 161
to 1 80 A.D. In a book called Meditations, which can
be had in many English translations, he wrote lofty
rules for right conduct. He taught kindness, simple
living, modesty, honest labor, generosity, and the
spirit of forgiveness. " Respect that which is best in
the universe," he said, " and in a like manner also

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 99

respect that which is best in thyself. ... I seek
the truth by which no man was ever injured. He is
injured who persists in his error and ignorance." All
good things, he said, he learned from his mother and
his teacher, and in the midst of his trying duties as
emperor he remembered them and sought to practice
them in daily life. Often he was impatient with man-
kind. " The things which are much valued in life,"
he once exclaimed, " are empty and rotten and trifling,
and people are like little dogs biting one another and
little children quarreling, crying, and then straight-
way laughing." The wars and evil deeds of men
filled him with grief. But he concluded : " Still it
is no right way to be offended with men ; it is thy duty
to care for them and bear with them gently." Never-
theless, he found it hard to live up to the rules he chose
for himself. Strange as it may seem, this very man was
cruel to the Christians, the followers of One who also
taught of mercy and love.

The Idea of One God. The wisest among the an-
cients believed that there was only one God, not many
gods. The Hebrew prophets were among the first
to take this view, and to proclaim Jehovah as their
sole God. The masses of the Hebrews, however, had
a hard struggle in trying to keep the one true faith.
Continually they fell into idolatry and the worship of
other gods. Whenever they did this, they were
fiercely denounced by the prophets and called back
to the worship of Jehovah.

100 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Greeks in time began to exalt one of their gods,
Zeus. The deepest of their thinkers were working
toward the idea of one God, the wise and just ruler
of the universe. Socrates was put to death for ques-
tioning the belief in the old gods and teaching that
there was but one God.

The Romans in later days exalted Jupiter above
all their other deities. Many of them, like the Hebrew
and Greek teachers, learned to believe in one God,
but Roman statesmen said that the people must honor
all the gods. After the Romans came to rule over many
lands and nations, they permitted every kind of belief
that did not make trouble for their officers. By doing
this, they grew more and more doubtful about their
own gods. It is said that many a Roman priest laughed
up his sleeve as he offered sacrifices to his many gods.
A Roman in the days of the Emperor Nero flatly
declared that " nowadays nobody believes in Heaven
and nobody cares a straw for Jupiter ; everybody shuts
his eyes and just keeps thinking about his own affairs."
Through this decay of Roman religion, the way was
prepared for a new faith, Christianity.

The Origin of Christianity. In the reign of Augus-
tus, Rome's first great emperor, there was born in
Palestine, a distant part of his realm, Jesus Christ,
the founder of the new religion. His life, his labors,
his teachings, and his tragic end are all recorded in
the first four books of the New Testament, the Gospels
of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. In them we read

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 101

how he went about teaching in the highways and the
byways, how he rebuked the Pharisees for their pride
and haughtiness, how he performed miracles, how
he delivered the Sermon on the Mount, how he
preached the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood
of man, how he taught that the humblest who believed
in him should have eternal life, and how he gathered
his disciples around him to spread the gospel.

Near the end of the story we are told that he was
brought before the Roman governor, Pontius Pilate,
and accused of trying to make himself king of the
Jews, in defiance of the Roman emperor. Pilate was
much puzzled by the conduct and words of Jesus,
and at length turned him over to the mob to be cru-
cified. Then comes the story of his resurrection, the
Last Supper with his followers, and his ascension into
heaven. Among the very last words of Jesus recorded
by Mark was the command : " Go ye into all the
world and preach the gospel to every creature."

The Mission of the Apostles. The command was
carried out by the followers whom Jesus left be-
hind. In the Acts of the Apostles and in the letters
of Paul to the Romans, the Corinthians, and his other
brethren, we read of the labors of the disciples and
missionaries. In the second chapter of the Acts it
is written that the faithful apostles, who assembled
at Jerusalem, were " gifted with tongues " so that they
might preach the gospel to the peoples of the earth
in all languages. There we learn about the formation

102 OUR OLD .WORLD BACKGROUND

of the first church of the faithful at Jerusalem. There
we read of the ceaseless journeys of the missionaries
of Christ as they spread the gospel in many parts of
the Roman empire and formed new churches of the
faithful. There we read of Paul, converted suddenly
on the road to Damascus and preaching the gospel
far and wide, in Athens, Corinth, and Rome. In his
many letters to the new congregations of Christians,
Paul encourages them, chides them, advises them,
explains the gospel, and exhorts them to holy living
and good works.

The Reasons for the Spread of the New Faith.
With wonderful swiftness, the Christian faith spread
among the masses everywhere in the Roman empire.
There were many reasons for this. For one thing, it
was a universal faith ; that is, it offered salvation and
immortal life not only to Jews, but also to Greeks,
Romans, and all the earth's multitudes. Again, it
taught the equality of all men before God, that the
soul of the most wretched Roman slave was as precious
as the soul of the proudest emperor. Moreover, it
offered the kingdom of heaven to all persons worn out
by the labors, trials, and perils of this world. None
was so humble that he was unwelcome in the new
church. Had not Jesus himself said : " Blessed are
the meek for they shall inherit the earth " ? The
working people, scorned and despised by the ruling
class of Rome, found a home in the Christian congre-
gations. Jesus had been a carpenter and his apostles

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 103

had been humble folk. On the Roman slave whipped
to his dungeon at night, Christ's words of mercy fell
like the dews of heaven. The lowly everywhere
turned from the stern gods of war and hatred to the
God of love and sweet charity.

Persecution of the Christians. The Roman govern-
ment at first tolerated Christianity as it tolerated
all other religious beliefs. In a little while, however,
Roman mobs began to stone the missionaries and
preachers. In time of such disorders, minor Roman
officers were called upon to punish Christians for dis-
turbing the peace and preaching against the Roman
religion. After a while the emperor himself began to
take notice of the new sect and to look upon it as
dangerous. The Christians refused to worship him
as divine, as all Roman subjects were required to do.
They would not preach toleration of the Roman re-
ligion because they believed it to be utterly false.
Moreover, they held many public and private meetings
and formed brotherhoods among the faithful.

The Roman emperor was in mortal terror of secret
societies and " seditious " meetings. He began to
fear that the Christians would try to overthrow him,
especially as they grew more and more numerous.
So at length he forbade Christian worship. He pun-
ished with imprisonment or death thousands of Chris-
tians who refused to obey. Some were burned at the
stake ; others were thrown to wild beasts in the Colos-
seum. Their churches were torn down ; copies of the

104 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Scriptures were destroyed by fire ; and their ceremonies
were forbidden by law.

Some emperors were worse than others, but by the
end of the third century the persecution of Christians
became widespread and terrible. In Rome they were
forced to take refuge in caves and underground passages,
known as catacombs. In several places in Rome and
other cities, they dug vast tunnels and rooms deep
underground. There, huddled together in the darkness,
they held their religious services and buried their dead.
To-day the traveler, by the dim light of candles,
may journey through hundreds of miles of the gloomy
catacombs of Rome. He may read on the grave-
stones and on the walls of the low-vaulted chapels the
solemn story of cruel days when Christianity was
driven underground by the terrorism of the Roman
government.

The Triumph of Christianity. Yet persecution could
not kill Christianity. • On the contrary, it flourished
in spite of prisons, executions, and mob violence. All
over the Roman empire Christian churches sprang up ;
and, in time, some rich and powerful people were drawn
to the new faith. Finally, even the emperor was com-
pelled to compromise with the Christians. In 311
A.D. he publicly gave them permission to worship as
they desired. Before many more years passed the
Emperor Constantine declared Christianity to be the
one lawful religion of his empire.

The third stage in the triumph of Christianity came

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 105

when the Roman emperors ordered every one to accept
the Christian faith. Those people who refused were
called heretics, and it was their turn to be severely
punished.

Thus, about three hundred years after the death of
Christ, the Christian faith became the law of a vast
empire. Rome, the old capital of the empire, had
become the seat of the pope, the head of the Catholic
Church, " Catholic " meaning universal. According
to Catholic belief, the first pope was the Apostle
Peter, to whom Christ had said : " Thou art Peter
and upon this rock I will build my church. . . . And
I will give unto thee the keys to the kingdom of heaven."
This, we are told, was the beginning of the Catholic
Church. Under the leadership of the popes, the work
of the Church was carried on even while the Roman
empire was crumbling into ruins. Under their guidance
earnest missionaries were carrying the gospel of Christ
far and wide to the peoples of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

In time the head of the once persecuted Church
dared to write to the emperor himself : f There are
two powers, august Emperor, by which the world
is chiefly ruled, namely the sacred authority of the
priests and the royal power. Of these, that of the
priests is the more weighty because they have to render
an account even for the kings of men in the divine
judgment."

Surely in all the history of mankind there is no
story more amazing than this. From the shores of

io6 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Galilee there came a religious faith that was to con-
quer a vast empire, to live on after that empire had per-
ished, and to spread to every land, even to new worlds
yet undreamed of. Under the banner of Jesus, Colum-
bus was sent forth by Queen Isabella in quest of new
peoples to be brought to Christianity. " We are knit
together as a body in a most sacred covenant of the
Lord," exclaimed the leader of the Pilgrims, who, many
years after Columbus, made the beginnings of New
England on the coast of North America.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. Study the first paragraph of this chapter carefully and
then try to tell what is meant by the word "culture" as used in
the title of the chapter. 2. In the second paragraph, a distinction
is made between "practical arts" and "fine arts" ; name as many
practical arts as you can think of; as many fine arts. What
would you say are the chief differences between the two ?
3. Irrigation of land is one of the important practical arts that
have come down to us from very ancient times; what is meant
by irrigating land ? In what parts of our country are farmers
compelled to depend upon irrigation ? Find pictures of irrigating
ditches in your geographies. 4. Why are fertilizers so important
in farming ? What usually happens to farm lands that are used
year after year for the same crops without the aid of fertilizers ?
5. Why is it important to break up the soil as finely as possible
if crops are to be raised most profitably ? How does the modern
farmer break up the soil ? 6. What animals are used by the
farmers in your region as "draught animals" -that is, to pull
loads ? What modern machinery is used also for this purpose ?
For how long a time has such machinery been in general use ?
7. Certain farm animals are important as suppliers of food rather

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 107

than to draw loads ; name the most important of these. Are
any animals used on farms to-day that were not known to the
ancients ? 8. What are the most important changes that
modern civilization has brought about in the domestic arts ? (In
Chapter xiii you will be told some of the changes that have been
brought about in the making of cloth.) How does the preparation
of food in these days differ from that of ancient times ? What
differences are there in "table manners"? What are the chief
differences in furniture ?

II. i. Study the picture of the Greek temple on p. 97. In
what ways did this building differ from a modern church ?

2. Find out whether there are any buildings in your neighborhood
that represent in any way the Greek architecture. (Wherever
columns are used for porticoes or porches, the "capitals" or tops
of the columns are often copied after the old Greek models.)

3. Compare the seating capacity of the Colosseum at Rome with
that of the largest hall or auditorium with which you are familiar.

4. The ancients had no buildings like the great "sky-scrapers"
of modern American cities ; .find out how it is possible to build
these high buildings, and what materials modern builders use that
were not known to the ancients. 5. Primitive artists living
in the Old Stone Age drew much more lifelike pictures. of men
and animals (see p. 37) than did the Egyptian artists (see p. 82) ;
why are the Egyptian pictures so "stiff" and formal ? Why were
the Greeks better artists than the Egyptians ? 6. What kinds
of pictures do we have to-day that were unknown to the ancients ?

III. I. Can you explain why the development of the art of
writing was one of the greatest of all advances in civilization ?
2. Why was phonetic writing so great an advance over picture
writing ? Experiment by trying to tell, entirely by pictures, of
an experience that you have had and then by making a written
account of the same experience. 3. How was knowledge passed
on from person to person and from generation to generation before
the invention of writing ? Why would this process make the pres-

108 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

ervation of accurate knowledge difficult ? What is meant by
a myth ? What myths have you read ? 4. Why is so much of
the early literature in the form of poetry ? (Which is the easier
for you to memorize, prose or poetry?) 5. What are some of
the important differences between the work of a poet and that of
a playwright ? Between the work of a philosopher and that of
an historian ? 6. What great invention of modern times has
made possible a true "democracy of knowledge " (p. 87) that was
impossible even among the ancient peoples who had developed
the art of writing ? 7. Make a list of the ways in which education
in ancient times differed from education as carried on to-day.
8. What great question of government did the Greek philosophers
study and write about ? Which of the two views presented on
pp. 94-95 seems to be the more generally favored to-day ?

IV. I. What sentence in the second paragraph under the
heading "Ancient Religions and Christianity" explains why the
belief in many gods was so widespread among the ancients ?

2. What are the most important differences between the religions
of the ancients and the religions of civilized people of to-day ?

3. In what country did the Hebrews originally live? How did
their religion differ from that of most other ancient peoples ?

4. Under what government were the Hebrews at the time of the
birth of Christ? 5. Why did the teachings of Christ spread so
rapidly? 6. What is meant by "persecution," and why were
the early Christians persecuted ? Do you know of any peoples
in recent history that have been persecuted because of their re-
ligion ? 7. Explain why the oldest and largest of the Christian
denominations is known to-day as the Roman Catholic Church.

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. Make a list of all the names of places that occur in this chap-
ter. Look them up on the maps on pp. 46, 48, and 53. Try to
decide in advance which of these three maps you should consult

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS 109

before looking up each name. 2. Then consult the maps in your
textbook in geography and see which places on the list are still
known by the same names. For example, Nineveh occurs on the
map on p. 46, but there is no modern city of that name; Rome,
on the other hand, occurs both on ancient and on modern maps
of Italy.

SUGGESTIONS FOR REVIEW OF CHAPTERS I-IV

1 . Have a line seven feet in length drawn on the blackboard. Let
this line represent the period of recorded history. Place at the
left end 5000 B.C. as the date that scholars assign to the first
Egyptian kings. Place at the right end of the line the date of
the present year. The date of the birth of Christ will be placed
five feet from the left end of the line, indicating the point that
divides the "B.C." and "A.D." periods. Place at the proper
points on the line the following dates, indicating what each stands
for: 2300 B.C. (Babylon); 753 B.C. (beginnings of Rome); 323
B.C. (death of Alexander); 44 B.C (death of Caesar); 313 A.D.
(the Roman empire officially accepts Christianity) ; 476 A.D.
(fall of the Roman empire); 1492 A.D. ; 1776 A.D. If the black-
board is long enough, it would be interesting to continue a dotted
line to the left eighteen feet farther. The end of this dotted
line would represent the date 23,000 B.C., which most scholars
believe to be within the period of the Old Stone Age in Europe.
It should be remembered, however, that the dotted line represents
the prehistoric period, about which our actual knowledge is very
slight.

2. The pupils who have studied carefully the four preceding
chapters have now what might be called a "speaking acquaintance"
with some very interesting and important persons. If they wish
to become better acquainted with these persons, the class may
well be divided into "reception committees," each of which will
be responsible for bringing one of these historic characters to the
class by finding and reporting the interesting facts about his life,

1 10 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

and especially the reasons which explain why his fame has lived
for so long a time. The following are suggested : Homer ; Soc-
rates; Plato; Aristotle; Alexander the Great; Phidias; Julius
Caesar; Paul the Apostle; Galen; Constantine the Great.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

FOR PUPILS
Myths and Legends

BAKER, EMILIE KIP — Stories of Greece and Rome; Macmillan.
BEST, S. M. — Glorious Greece and Imperial Rome; Macmillan.
BULFINCH — The Golden Age; Stokes.
CHURCH, A. J. — The Aeneid for Boys and Girls; Macmillan.

The Story of the Iliad; Macmillan.

The Story of the Odyssey ; Macmillan.
COLUM, PADRAIC — The Golden Fleece; Macmillan.

The Children's Homer; Macmillan.

GAYLEY, C. M. — Classic Myths in English Literature; Ginn.
HARDING, C. H. and S. B. — Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and

Men; Scott Foresman.

HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL — The Wonder Book; Macmillan.
KINGSLEY, CHARLES — The Heroes; Macmillan.
KUPFER, GRACE H. — Stories of Long Ago; Heath.

Greece

ASHLEY, R. L. — Early European Civilization, iv, viii.
HALL, JENNIE — Men of Old Greece; Little Brown.
MACGREGOR, MARY — The Story of Greece; Stokes.
O'NEILL, ELIZABETH — The Story of the World, iii-ix ; Putnam.
TAPPAN, EVA M. — The Story of the Greek People; Hough ton

Mifflin.:
VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), xiv-xvii.

THE CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS ill

Rome

ASHLEY — Early European Civilization, ix, xii, xiii.

HARDING, C. H. and S. B. — The City of the Seven Hills; Scott

Foresman.
LOVELL, ISABEL — Stories in Stone from the Roman Forum; Mac-

millan.

MACGREGOR, MARY — The Story of Rome; Stokes.
O'NEILL — The Story of the World, ix-xvii ; Putnam.
TAPPAN, EVA M. — The Story of the Roman People; Hough ton

Mifflin.
VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), xxii-xxvi.

Christianity

HODGES, GEORGE — When the King Came ; Houghton Mifflin.
SMITH, N. A. — Old, Old Tales from the Old, Old Book; Doubleday

Page.

TAPPAN, EVA M. — The Old, Old Story Book; Houghton Mifflin.
The Christ Story; Houghton Mifflin.

Education and School Life
SMITH, D. E. — Number Stories of Long Ago; Ginn.

FOR TEACHERS

BOTSFORD — A Brief History of the World, iii-x.
BREASTED, J. H. — Ancient Times; Ginn.

CHAPTER V
THE MIDDLE AGES : FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH

WHILE Christianity was spreading throughout Europe
and the power of the pope at Rome was growing, the
great Roman empire was falling to pieces. If you
will look at the map showing Europe and western
Asia in about the year 400 A.D.(p. 53), you will find that
empire stretching all the way from Scotland through
France, Italy, Greece, Palestine, and Arabia to the
Persian Gulf. It embraced all Europe west of the Rhine
and south of the Danube. Most of the region east
and north of these rivers was inhabited by numerous
tribes of whom little was known except that they were
warlike and barbaric.

If you will then contrast this map with the other
one of the same territory, showing the state of things
about 800 years later, namely 1200 A.D. (facing p. 116),
you will be struck by the changes. The solid unit
of the Roman empire has disappeared. The map
of Europe looks instead like a piece of patchwork.
Within the borders of the old Roman empire and to
the northeast, there have come hundreds of independent
states and principalities. Some of them are so small

112

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH 113

that they can be shown only on a large wall map. At
the head of each one is a prince bearing some such
title as king, duke, count, or margrave.

The period between the fall of Rome and the rise of
modern nations is called the middle ages or the medieval
period. No exact date can be fixed for its beginning or
its end. It is hard to say just when the Roman empire
disappeared because it went to pieces so gradually.
Neither is it easy to say when the modern period began.
Roughly speaking, however, the period between 410
A.D. and the discovery of America may be called here
the middle ages.

FEUDALISM

The Decline of Rome. What had happened in
the intervening years to bring about such astounding
changes as these shown on our maps ? First of all
had been the decline and fall of the empire itself. The
great line of Roman emperors died out and left no one
powerful enough to carry on the task of governing
the civilized world. The old Roman families that
had once been leaders both in times of war and in
times of peace had fewer and fewer children to follow
in their steps. Finally they almost disappeared as
a class, and no other leaders arose to take their places.
The Roman farmers, who had once been the mainstay
of the country, declined in numbers. Those that
remained generally lost their lands and became bond-
men or went into the cities to swell the ranks of the

114 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

poor. The army, formerly composed of free Roman
citizens who loved their country, became a band of paid
soldiers. Many of them had come from foreign lands
and sold their services to the highest bidder. They
sometimes even sold the office of emperor itself, for
they finally became the masters of Rome.

Moreover, the Roman people lost their old, simple
ways of living and joined in a mad scramble for wealth
and luxury. Sons and daughters of men who had
once defended Rome or had faithfully served the
government, came to think only of rich food, expen-
sive clothes, exciting games, and idleness. At the
very time the Romans were learning to prefer easy
living, the supply of slaves to do the hard work fell
off. As the army no longer conquered new peoples,
the stream of bond servants which had flowed into the
Roman slave market dried up. The Romans had
become too spoiled by slavery to do the work that the
slaves had done.

Finally, the distant provinces began to revolt.
They had been systematically robbed by their Roman
governors and had grown to hate these masters. The
army, which ceased to be able to defend Rome itself,
was less able to defend Roman rule in far-off lands.

When the provinces dropped off one by one, the
merchants and bankers of Rome lost their business.
Their magnificent buildings slowly decayed. No new
public monuments and palaces were erected. Those
that had once been the grandeur of the Eternal City

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH 115

sank down to earth in hopeless wreckage. Rome
ceased to produce poets, orators, historians, and great
writers of every kind. The splendor of Rome was
gone, leaving behind nothing but the magic of her
great name.

The Germanic Invasions. As the strength of
Rome's armies fell off, her enemies grew in number.
The Germanic tribes beyond the Rhine and the
Danube had long beaten against Rome's bor-
ders. Finally they broke into the empire in hordes.

The barbarian invasion, however, did not occur all
at once or in the same way. Thousands of Germans
went into the Roman empire very much as immigrants
come into the United States to-day, singly and in bands.
They were attracted by the opportunities of Rome.
Others went because they preferred the peace of the
empire to the endless and cruel wars of their native
lands.

Thousands of Germans, organized as tribes — Goths,
Franks, Angles, and Saxons, -- invaded Roman terri-
tory under powerful and daring chieftains. One of
these bands, the West Goths, commanded by Alaric,
even captured and looted the city of Rome itself in
410 A.D. Thus the very spot from which Roman
armies had once gone forth to subdue the earth was
itself in the hands of conquerors. " Nations innumer-
able and savage beyond measure," exclaimed the
Christian monk, St. Jerome, " have invaded all Gaul.
The whole region between the Alps and the Pyrenees,

Il6 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the ocean and the Rhine has been devastated. . . .
O wretched empire !"

Feudal Princes. There was now no Roman empire
stretching from Scotland to Arabia. It is true that
emperors long ruled with much pomp at the new capital,
Constantinople, but they had little influence on affairs
in Europe. In the place of the western empire there
were hundreds of little kingdoms and principalities.
There were hundreds of petty princes installed in
stone castles and ruling tiny domains by the sword.
The peace of the Roman empire had gone and with
it Roman citizenship, once a thing of pride and
power. The little states built amid the ruins of
the empire were always at war with one another.
The inhabitants of each were forced to obey the local
prince, or feudal lord.

The system of princely rule, born of warfare, arose
in different ways. In some cases, a German warrior
surrounded himself with fighting men. They con-
quered a piece of Roman territory. The chief took
a large part of the land for himself and divided the
rest among his followers. Each of his men swore
fealty and promised to help the overlord in defending
their common domains.

In other cases, the feudal chieftain was a former
Roman citizen who, in the general smash of his country,
rose to the top as a fighting man and leader of fighting
men. Roman citizens, frightened at the general dis-
order, flocked to him and placed themselves and their

EUROPE

about I20O

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH

117

lands under his protection. He promised to defend
them and they, in turn, pledged themselves to aid him
with men and money. Sometimes one man with his
followers swore
fealty to another,
and the latter with
all his underlings
would subject him-
self to a still more
powerful man.
Thus it happened
that B would hold
land from A ; C
from B ; D from
C ; and so on, mak-
ing a long line of
lords under a single
great leader.

The chief busi-
ness of the feudal
lord was fighting
to get land and to

FEUDAL LORDS FIGHTING

An old print

keep it. Valor in

battle and loyalty

to his superior, if he had one, were his striking

virtues. By warfare he added to his wealth and

increased his renown. Therefore feudal princes were

engaged in endless conflicts among themselves. For a

thousand years and more Europe was given over to

Il8 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

fighting and pillaging. Princely families rose, seized
huge territories, and in turn were either conquered by
stronger families or completely destroyed.

Since it was chiefly the strong who were victorious,
there slowly came to power a few masterful men. They
made themselves the ruling monarchs of whole nations,
like the English, the French, and the Spanish. Of
these kings and their part in history, we shall say more
later.

The Serf and the Manor. The domain of a feudal
lord, in any part of Europe during the middle ages,
was a single village or collection of villages. It was
inhabited by peasants who tilled the soil. Every
village, moreover, belonged to a lord. The villagers
were serfs. Each man and his family were bound to
the village. They could not leave it and take up their
abode elsewhere without the consent of the lord. No
one could marry without his approval. Each family
had a certain amount of land, in addition to a cottage
or hut and garden. For the use of this land the serf
family had to pay the lord in crops and in labor on the
land which he reserved for himself. The serfs payment
in labor was usually very heavy. Often it amounted
to five days a week in harvest time. Thus little time
was left for tilling his own soil. He could not sell any
cattle without his lord's permission. If he committed
an offense, he was likely to be tried and punished in a
court held by the lord's bailiff or agent.

In exchange for these heavy duties, the serf's family

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH 119

had certain advantages. The lord was bound to pro-
tect it against invaders. At all events, the serf and
his sons did not have to render military services. The

Metropolitan Museum
THE ARMOR OF A FEUDAL WARRIOR

family was, furthermore, sure of its cottage and plot
of ground and a bare living if it could be had from the
land. The old people were not turned out to starve or

120 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

carted off to the poorhouse. Certain holidays ordered
by the Church broke the dull monotony of heavy
labor and gave opportunities for rest and festivities,

When toil remitting lent its turn to play

And all the village train from labor free

Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree.

Still, at best, it was a crude and toilsome life. The
cottage was merely four bare walls with a thatched
roof. No books or papers enlivened the routine of
life. Seldom, in fact, could a serf read or write. Little
did he know about the great world beyond his horizon.
Little did he know about the chemistry of the soil at
his feet or improving the breed of his cattle. He
was not a citizen ; merely a subject. He was not
expected to take any interest in public affairs or to
hope for any improvement in his lot. An old English
couplet about the " squire " or landlord described his
fate in simple words :

God bless the squire and his relations
And keep us all in our proper stations.

The Village. There are many parts of Europe to-day
where one may see a village practically as it was in
the middle ages, with a feudal castle standing in its
midst. From what we can observe and from books
and pictures that have been saved, we can see through
the mind's eye the medieval villages.

Let us make an imaginary journey to one of them
in France. It is on a plain at the foot of a high hill.

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH

121

The cottages are all alike. They are small and
built of stone or of wood and plaster. The roofs are
made of thatched straw. They have no glass windows,
only small openings in the walls fitted with heavy

IN AN OLD FRENCH VILLAGE TO-DAY

wooden shutters. The houses are all huddled together
along a narrow unpaved lane. The barns are attached
to the houses and the people live close neighbors to
the cows, horses, pigs, and goats. In rainy weather
the lane is a quagmire, and in summer the odors of
the village are sickening.

The rooms of each cottage are low and dark. On

122

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the ground floor there is a kitchen, dining room, and
bedroom combined. In the smoky fireplace hangs
an iron pot in which most of the family cooking is
done. In a loft up under the thatch is a room in which
the children sleep. When it rains, water leaks in upon
them. At best, it is dark and airless. The food of

EUROPEAN WOMEN STILL WASHING IN THE MEDIEVAL WAY

the family is simple and coarse -- porridge, soup,
bread, and wine. Often all the family eat out of the
same pot.

The housewife performs her labors in the very hardest
way. She carries water from a distant well or stream.
She has few pots and pans and dishes. She has to
" break her back " washing clothes in a near-by stream,
and is grateful if it is not dirtier than her weekly bundle.

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH 123

To her household duties, she adds digging, sowing,
and reaping with the men in the fields. All through
the long ages woman has carried this double burden.
She was carrying it when Caesar's legions marched
through her village to conquer Britain. She carried it
all through the middle ages. She carries it to-day
as the American tourist, wrapped in a cloud of dust,
rolls past in his automobile.

Outside the village are the fields stretching away
in small plots. There are also a meadow for the
village cattle and a forest which supplies wood for
winter time. From the hillside merrily tumbles a
little stream of water, which renders the village a
fourfold service. At the entrance of the village, some
of it is drawn off to a wooden trough from which the
household needs of the people are supplied. After
crossing the narrow road under a stone bridge, it turns
the landlord's mill at which the grain is ground. Then
it spreads out over a pebbly bottom where the peasants'
clothes are washed. Finally it winds through the
meadow where graze the village flocks and herds.

Near by is the village church standing in the yard
where sleep the dead of many a century. On a moss-
covered stone, perhaps, one may find a striking epitaph
written in memory of some beloved one whose bones
were dust long before America was discovered. In the
early morning, the church bell announces the matin serv-
ice. In the evening, it "tolls the knell of parting day."
On Sundays, it summons all the village folk to service.

124

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Castle. High on the rocks above the village
looms the castle in which dwell the lord of the village,
his family, and his warriors. On every side massive

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH 125

walls rise straight from the steep rocks. At each of
the corners is a high tower where sentinels watch for
approaching enemies. At the entrance is a heavy draw-
bridge which is let down over a deep ditch, or moat,
filled with water. Within the fortress is the castle it-
self. It is built around a courtyard. Its walls are eight
or ten feet thick, pierced here and there by narrow
slits which let in the only daylight the residents enjoy.
In one corner of the castle is a great dining hall heated
in winter by an immense fireplace. On one side is a
chapel in which the lord's private chaplain performs
religious services for the family. In another corner
are the sleeping quarters of the lord and his family
and followers, or retainers. Near the dining hall are
the kitchen and the rooms of the army of servants.

Life in this gloomy pile is by no means as happy as
it often appears in fairy stories. Except in the warmest
summer weather, the rooms are cold, damp, and cheer-
less. Aching limbs are more common than joyful
hearts. The only light at night is from candles that
flicker and sputter in the ceaseless drafts of chilling air.
Musicians may enliven the evening meals with merry
strains, and a dance of the knights and ladies may
follow the repast. On the whole, however, life is
deadly dull. The fighting men are overjoyed when
they are summoned to the walls to defend the castle
against an advancing enemy, or are ordered in martial
array to storm the stronghold of a neighboring lord,
or to go on a long crusade to Jerusalem.

126 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH

The Conversion of the Barbarians. While the
feudal lords were building up their power, the Church
was slowly uniting them in certain ways. As we have
seen, the Christian religion was adopted by the Roman
emperors and made the only lawful religion of the
whole empire. The early apostles and teachers had
succeeded beyond their dreams ; but they left to
those who came after them the task of converting the
rest of the known world. This work was carried on by
missionaries. For more than two hundred years they
kept heroically at it, suffering, for their great cause,
hardships that beggar description. They went into
the dark forests of Germany. They pressed northward
till they reached the ice-locked lands of the Arctic
circle. They journeyed westward, carrying the cross
of Christ to the uttermost parts of Britain, Ireland,
and the neighboring islands.

Though the missionaries preached to the people in
the highways and byways, they made a special effort
to reach the hearts of the barbarian war leaders.
Whenever a prince was converted, he ordered his
subjects baptized in his faith. Thus, for instance, did
Clovis, the king of the Franks, who invaded ancient
Gaul. One day, in 496, while he was in a desperate
battle, things were going badly for him. As his wife
had been converted to Christianity by some mission-
aries, it occurred to him that her God might help him

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH

127

in his trials. Thereupon he appealed to Jesus for aid
and declared that, if victorious in battle, he would
accept the Christian faith. He flung himself with re-
newed energy into
the fray, and de-
feated his enemies.
Then, according
to his pledge, he
and his warriors,
numbering, it is
said, three thou-
sand, were at once
baptized. So it
happened that the
missionaries sub-
dued the barba-
rians and united
them with Rome
after the Roman
armies had failed.
About a hun-
dred years later,
a band of mission-
aries under a fa-
mous monk, Augustine, landed on the shores of Britain.
That island, though once Roman, had now been
conquered by the Angles and Saxons from the
German forests. The monks were received by
Ethelbert, king of Kent, who listened patiently to

From an old print
ETHELBERT LISTENING TO CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES

128 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

their sermons. When they asked him to forsake his
old gods, he hesitated, saying : " Your words are fair,
but they are of new and doubtful meaning." A year
passed before he accepted the new religion. When he
did decide at last in favor of Christianity, thousands
of his subjects flocked to the monks to be baptized.
Thus the conversion of the English was begun. By
the year 1000 the work of the missionaries in western
Europe was completed. Rome was again its ruler -
the ruler of its mind and spirit.

The Pope. At the head of all Western Christendom
was the pope at Rome. His powers were immense.
He could make laws which all Christians had to obey.
He was a high judge to whom Christians could appeal
in matters of religion. As the representative of God
on earth, he claimed an authority far superior to that
of mere earthly kings. Indeed, he could free a king's
subjects from their oaths of allegiance and outlaw a
king before the world. As head of the Church, he owned
a vast amount of property and drew huge revenue
from faithful Christians. He had territories and an
army and waged war on kings and emperors in defense
of his rights and powers.

The Clergy. The affairs of the Church were managed
according to carefully laid plans. All Christendom
was laid out into large districts, known as archbishoprics,
each presided over by an archbishop. This great
domain was in turn subdivided into bishoprics, at the
head of each of which was a bishop. The bishopric

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH

I29

was, in turn, composed of villages, each with its church
and parish priest. All those who labored officially
in the Church, from the humblest village priest to the
pope at Rome, were known as the clergy and formed a
distinct class. No
one could enter it
without a special
training and with-
out having the ap-
proval of church
authorities.

The powers of the
clergy were numer-
ous and important.
They baptized, mar-
ried, and buried all
Christians. They
could impose cer-
tain penalties upon
church members for
disobedience. Ac-
cording to the theory
of the Church, they
could, in effect,
close the gates of
heaven to the unfaithful and condemn wrong-doers
to everlasting punishment. They alone could perform
the religious services upon which the salvation of the
people depended. The range of this vast power was

From an old print

THE SUPREMACY OF THE POPE: A KING
AT HIS FEET

130 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

set forth in a celebrated document published by the
pope in 1302 : " That there is one holy Catholic and
apostolic Church we are impelled by our faith to believe
and hold . . . and outside of this there is neither
salvation nor remission of sins. . . . We, moreover,
proclaim, declare, and pronounce that it is altogether
necessary to salvation for every human being to be
subject to the Roman pontiff."

In every country the clergy owned a great deal of
property — lands and houses given to the Church by
pious donors. They collected tithes from the people
for the support of the Church. They charged certain
fees for marriages, burials, and other services. Taken
together, their wealth rivaled that of kings and nobles.
They held courts in which many matters, such as dis-
putes over property left by dead men, were settled.
They were the teachers in schools and they wrote
nearly all the books. In whole communities they were
the only people who knew how to read or write ; who
knew anything outside the bare routine of living. They
were the only class dedicated to the work of helping
suffering mankind, and to them the poor and afflicted
turned for aid and consolation. Because of their
wealth, because of their control over the minds and
hearts of people, and because of their services, the
clergy were very powerful during the middle ages.

The Monks and Nuns. In the early days of
Christianity many men grew weary of the troubles
of the world and withdrew to solitary places to live

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH 131

simply and think only of religious matters. Such
persons were known as monks — a term derived from a
Greek word meaning " solitary." Often a number of
them would join in a brotherhood and build for them-
selves a house or monastery in some secluded spot.

From time to time there arose new leaders who
preached a new gospel of Christian duty and collected
followers about them. Among such leaders was St.
Benedict, who founded the order of Benedictine monks
in Italy about 529. Another was St. Francis of Assisi,
who established the Franciscan order in 1210. A
third was Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish soldier and priest,
who planned in 1534 the Society of Jesus, the members
of which are known as Jesuits.

Somewhat in the same way, women often dedicated
themselves to a religious life as nuns. They founded
convents where they lived and worked. They too had
many different orders as new teachers appeared from
time to time.

It is impossible to describe in a paragraph the work
of the monks and nuns, for their labors varied according
to their several purposes. Some took vows of poverty
and devoted themselves to helping the unfortunate.
Others were missionaries to the heathen. Others
spent their time laboring on their lands, copying or
writing books, or making beautiful tapestries and laces.
To their care we owe the preservation of most of the
books that have come down to us from Greek and
Roman times.

132 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Only within the walls of the monastery or convent
could those who were heartily sick of the endless feudal
wars find peace. Only there could they have freedom
to live lives of scholarship and helpfulness. In time,
every country in Europe was dotted with monasteries
and convents. The various orders grew rich with
gifts made to them by pious persons.

The Laymen. All the people outside the clerical
class were known as laymen. They were all subject
to the rules and laws of the Church. All were church
members, for no one was allowed to choose his own
faith or to say that he would have none at all. All
had to attend church and to give money to its support.
No one could dispute or even question the authority
of the clergy. Any one who was bold enough to deny
the Catholic faith was summoned before a court and
tried as a heretic. If he confessed that he was in error,
he was received back into the Church but forced to do
a heavy penance. If he refused to confess that he
was wrong, he was handed over to the government to
be punished.

In religion, therefore, as in other matters, the common
people of the middle ages were subject to higher author-
ities. They did not elect the lord of the village who
governed them. Neither did they elect the village
priest who had the care of their souls in his charge.
Great teachers of the Church, like St. Thomas Aquinas,
held that the people would begin to quarrel unless
bound together by some one of superior rank. They

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH

133

taught that " the rule of one is more beneficial than
the rule of many." At the same time, they also said
that it was the
duty of the ruler to
consider the good
of his subjects.

The Unity of
Christendom. Per-
haps the most re-
markable feature
of the medieval
Church was its
unity. All na-
tions, all races, all
sorts and condi-
tions of people in
western Europe
were brought to-
gether by this one
religious bond.
There was one
head of the Church.
There was onefaith.
There was one language, both for the services of the
Church and the learning of the clergy. That was
Latin. Those who could speak Latin were equally at
home with the priests of London, Paris, or Rome.
There was one law of the Church for all Christians.
There was one Christian ideal set before mankind. In

From an old print
ONE LAW FOR ALL CHRISTIANS

134 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

this respect, therefore, the Roman Catholic Church
kept alive one idea of the Roman empire — a world
united under one great authority.

The Church as a Check on the Government. Though
the medieval clergy were friendly to kings and feudal
princes, still they strongly held to their own rights
and property. In this, Christianity differed from all
the religions of antiquity. In Rome and Greece, the
priests were servants of the government. They took
orders ; they did not give orders. No Roman priest
in pagan days ever thought of telling the emperor
his duty. The popes and clergy of the middle ages,
on the contrary, often assumed the right to criticize
the conduct of kings and their officers and to call them
to account for their misdeeds. In this way the Church
became a sort of restraint on the government, a critic
of the civil officers. This was a great departure from
the state of things that had lasted for centuries among
the nations of antiquity. In time, as we shall see,
the clergy and some of the kings had a great quarrel
on this point. This quarrel ended in breaking Western
Christendom apart.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. i. Suppose that you had been a Roman citizen at the
time of Rome's greatness, and suppose that you then knew
what we now know of the causes that led to the decline and fall of
Rome ; what advice would you have given to your countrymen ?
2. One of the great lessons that history teaches is that slavery
is even worse for the masters than for the slaves ; why does slav-

FEUDALISM AND THE CHURCH 135

ery have so unfortunate an effect upon slave owners ? Lincoln
once said : "As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a mas-
ter. That is my idea of democracy." Can you think of any
other things besides holding slaves that a true believer in de-
mocracy would not do? 3. Try to imagine what life in your
state would be like if the feudal system of the middle ages were
still in existence. Think of yourself as a farmer living under
such conditions. You would probably live in a village and go
out with other farmers to work in the surrounding fields every
day. How does this differ from the way in which most Ameri-
can farmers live to-day ? Why did nearly every one live in towns
or villages in feudal times ? What rights and privileges do free
citizens have to-day that the serfs of feudal times did not have ?
What duties do free citizens have that serfs did not have ?

II. i. "While the feudal lords were building up their power, the
Church was slowly uniting them in certain ways" (p. 126). Ex-
plain this statement and tell in what ways the Church united the
people living in western Europe. 2. Give as many reasons as
you can explaining why the clergy had so much power in the
middle ages. 3. What are the differences in the meanings of
the following words : bishops, priests, monks, and nuns ; mon-
asteries and convents; clergy and laymen? 4. In western Eu-
rope during the middle ages there were many governments and
many languages, but only one religion ; how does this condition
contrast with the condition of our country to-day? 5. What
is meant by the word Christendom ? (Think of other words that
have the same ending, such as kingdom, earldom, dukedom.)
Though all the nations of Europe to-day, except Turkey, are
Christian nations, could we properly speak of Europe as Chris-
tendom ? Give reasons for your answer.

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. i. Why can the Roman empire be shown on a one-page
map while medieval Europe (a much smaller territory) requires

136 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

a two-page map? 2. On p. 112 you are asked to compare the
map of the Roman empire (p. 53) with the map of medieval
Europe facing p. 116. Compare it also with the map of modern
Europe facing p. 436. Name the chief medieval and modern
countries that are included in, or that include, the following prov-
inces of the Roman empire : Gaul, Dacia, Illyricum, Italy, Thrace.
3. On p. 115 St. Jerome is quoted as complaining of the invasion
of Rome by various barbarous tribes. Would you expect to be
able to locate all these tribes on any one map ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

BENEZET, L. P. — The Story of the Map of Europe, ii-vi ; Scott

Foresman.

BEST, S. M. — The Nations of Western Europe; Macmillan.
HALL, HAMMOND — The Boy's Book of Chivalry, i-ix ; Partridge.
O'NEILL, ELIZABETH — The Story of the World, xvi-xx ; Putnam.
TAPPAN, EVA M. — When Knights Were Bold, i-ix ; Hough ton

Mifflin.
VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), xxvi-xxxviii.

CHAPTER VI
THE ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

MORE than a thousand years lay between the sack
of Rome by Alaric in 410 and the discovery of America
by Columbus. During a large part of this time,
all Europe was in the confusion that followed the
barbarian destruction of the Roman empire. Man-
kind was busy with migrations, wars, feuds, and the
bare struggle for existence. In the midst of this chaos,
the Catholic Church offered unity, order, and peace.
The priests and others in the service of the Church
found the means or the leisure for cultivating the
finer things of the human spirit. In contrast to the
varied interests of Greece and Rome, there' was in the
middle ages one supreme interest — the Christian re-
ligion as interpreted by the Catholic Church. All art,
all architecture, all literature, all learning, bore the
stamp of religion. Everything was viewed from the
standpoint of the Catholic Christian faith. That is
the striking feature of the middle ages.

ARCHITECTURE, ART, AND LEARNING

Medieval Architecture. As the Greeks devoted their
noblest energies to erecting temples, so the people of

137

138

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the middle ages devoted theirs to building beautiful
churches. Christian congregations, as soon as their

worship became lawful, moved into the temples of
the Greeks and Romans after tearing down the statues

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 139

of the old gods and making alterations. When they
began to build for themselves in western Europe,
they frequently adopted Roman models ; and the
style of many early Christian churches is for that
reason called Romanesque. Such structures were
marked by massive walls and low roofs. They were
heavy and lacking in grace.

In the course of time, architects devised a new style
known as Gothic. They learned how to build high,
thin walls, supported by buttresses on the outside.
Their work thus became more flexible. They could
construct lofty, vaulted roofs and towering spires that
pointed heavenward. Instead of narrow slits for
windows, they could make great openings and fill
them with delicate traceries of stone, lead, and stained
glass. Therefore we see great differences in the Gothic
style. Some cathedrals were massive, severe, and
stately. Others were slender and ornate, like fine
lace work.

In religious buildings, architects had the greatest
opportunities for creative work, because the middle
ages lavished money mainly upon beautiful churches.
Yet there was other work to do. There were splendid
castles to be built for feudal lords. Occasionally,
also, they were called upon to build town houses for
merchant princes. Wonderful examples of this form
of architecture are to be found in Venice and Florence.
Sometimes they were employed by unions, or gilds, of
merchants, like the clothiers or goldsmiths, to erect

140

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

a gild hall in which the members could hold their
meetings. There were some public buildings, too,
like town halls and royal palaces. In planning them
the medieval architect had a chance to make new
designs. Whether the noblest work of the middle

ST. MARKS, IN VENICE (SHOWING BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE)

ages was better than that of the Greeks, each one can
judge for himself by comparing a Gothic cathedral
with a Greek temple.

Art. In painting, as well as in architecture, the
artists of the middle ages worked out many new and
interesting ideas. This is true, even though in later

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 141

times they often copied the gorgeous colors, the gold
and glitter, that came into Italy from Constantinople.
In most cases they chose for their subjects Biblical
characters and scenes. They took infinite pains in
portraying their ideas of the Madonna, of Christ, and
of interesting events in the growth of the Church.

For color, form, and beauty, their work stands out
among the splendid artistic achievements of all times.
Moreover, there were so many painters of high grade
and they painted so many pictures that it is hardly
just to mention any of them without giving a long list.
Giotto (1276-1337) is distinguished as the founder of
the Florentine school of painters. Michael Angelo
(1475-1564) is famous as the decorator of the Sistine
Chapel in Rome, which may yet be seen in its fading,
but still wonderful, splendor. Even in Angelo's time,
the painting was mainly religious ; but more and more
the artists were painting secular, or non-religious, scenes
and portraits of eminent laymen.

• Literature. In literature, as in art and architecture,
religion stood first. For many a century after the
decline of Rome, there were no great poets and dram-
atists. The educated people, nearly all of whom were
priests, thought chiefly of religious subjects. They
wrote lives of the saints and martyrs whose labors and
sacrifices had helped to spread the gospel throughout
the world. They compiled great works on the theories
of religion and on the problems of Christian conduct.
They composed long books on the Bible. They worked

142 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

out all sorts of theories as to the nature of angels
and the doings of Satan. Even when they wrote on
business matters, such as money-lending and selling
goods, they looked at the subject from the religious
point of view. This led them to treat fully " just
prices " for goods and " the sin of usury," or high
interest rates.

When at length there appeared a great poet, the
Italian Dante (1265-1321), his theme was still reli-
gious. Dante's greatest work was his Divine Comedy,
in which he drew vivid pictures of hell, purgatory,
and heaven. This was at once hailed as a masterpiece.
It is still read to-day. It was unique because it was
written in the language of the people, Italian, instead
of Latin, the language of the learned. Few European
poets, certainly no medieval writers, are now more
widely studied in the United States than is Dante.
Two great translations have been made by American
scholars, one of them by the poet Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow, who organized the first Dante society in
America.

Next in bulk to works on religion and the lives of
saints stood histories and chronicles. Of these every
European country produced a great quantity during
the middle ages. Almost every monastery kept a
chronicle or record of events by years ; from time to
time some monk would undertake to compile a story
of mankind from Adam to his own day. Most of these
medieval historical works are queer mixtures of truth

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 143

and fiction. They tell of wars, of the work of the clergy,
of the fortunes of kings and queens, of gifts to churches,
and of the adventures of mythical heroes.

Take, for example, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It
purports to be a history by years from about the birth
of Christ to the twelfth century, telling especially
about England. It was written by many men, partly
from rumor, partly from books, and partly from actual
knowledge. Most of it is devoted to wars among the
Anglo-Saxons and to the affairs of the Christian Church
in England. Some years the chronicler can find nothing
important to write down, so he enters the year and
leaves a blank space. In 671, he can only say : " This
year was a great destruction among birds " ; but
this at least is a change from tales of war and piracy.
In 734, we are told : " This year the moon was as if it
had been sprinkled with blood." In 793, some one
wrote : " Fiery dragons were seen flying in the air."

Other historical works were ballads reciting the
brave deeds of kings. These were often sung at court
to please the monarch who was praised by the bard.
In none of them do we get a clear and full picture of
all classes or of the life of the masses. It is mainly
from laws, account books, tax records, and similar
documents that we are able to form a correct idea of
how the people of the middle ages lived in their towns
and villages. Medieval history did not deal with the
doings of the common people ; nor was it written for
their benefit.

144 OUR .OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

In addition to religious and historical works, there
was some writing about the government of mankind.
The poet Dante, though his fame rests almost entirely
upon his poetry, was an able writer on politics. He
believed that peace was necessary to draw out the
noblest side of human beings ; so he advocated forming
an empire again, in some respects like that of old Rome.
At least he thought there should be one high imperial
ruler who would restrain robbers and warriors and per-
mit the people to live and work in comfort. In Dante's
time there also lived another noted political writer,
Marsiglio of Padua. This author startled the educated
classes by saying (i) that the purpose of government
was "the good of the people"; (2) that the whole
body of the citizens " or the better part of them "
should be the supreme law-makers ; and (3) that
even popes should be elected by the people. Indeed,
there were very few themes that were not touched
upon by medieval writers in one form or another.

Schools and Universities. It was a long time after
the fall of Rome before there appeared in Europe
schools, colleges, and universities with regular teachers,
students, and courses of study. Practically all the
teaching that went on during the dark days of the
barbarian invasions was the work of individual priests
and missionaries. They instructed a few followers
in order to spread the knowledge of Christianity.

The first schools that deserve the name seem to have
been founded by wealthy bishops at their cathedrals.

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 145

The main purpose of such a school was to prepare for
the priesthood ; but sometimes it was attended by
young princes who wished to master the art of reading
and writing. King Alfred (below, p. 172), we are told
by a monk of his time, set a good example ; he sent
his youngest son to a school to learn " the liberal arts
before the manly arts, namely, hunting and such pur-
suits as befit a gentleman." By the year 1500 Europe
had scores of cathedral schools. Good bishops regarded
it as both a duty and an honor to give money to them.

To these institutions the sons of peasants and mer-
chants came to prepare for the priesthood. That
was the one career through which they could rise out
of their classes into the higher ranks. When a serf
became a priest he was freed from servitude. Feudal
lords often became angry at losing their bondmen,
but the bishops paid little heed. They were always
glad to welcome bright boys from the peasantry because
the Church had need of able and vigorous men to carry
on its varied work.

As the towns grew in size, rich merchants founded
grammar schools to teach reading, writing, and arith-
metic. These institutions were open to boys preparing
for business as well as to those who planned to enter
the ministry.

With the passing years, schools for more advanced
studies were also established. The college or univer-
sity arose in the middle ages somewhat in this fashion.
It was the practice of missionaries and learned men to

146 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

go about teaching, stopping in one town after another
to instruct any who cared to listen. One taught the
Old Testament, another grammar, and a third mathe-
matics. In a very natural way, teachers of different
subjects began to gather at certain centers, like Paris
or Oxford. This was a great saving of time for students
and masters, because all subjects could be studied at
one place.

The next step was easily taken. The teachers and
students of a given city formed a society or union or
gild known in Latin as a collegium or universitas.
When that was once done, it was a simple matter to
arrange a regular course of study through which any
pupil had to pass in order to become a master himself.
Indeed, one became " a master of arts " as one became
a master mason, except that an apprenticeship was
served in learning rather than in stone cutting.

At first there were no splendid buildings. Each
teacher would rent or find a vacant room and lecture
there. The chief subjects of study were Latin, gram-
mar, arithmetic, and the writings of the famous Greek
philosopher, Aristotle (p. 95). There were no printed
books for the students. The teacher simply read
his lectures slowly while the pupils laboriously copied
his sayings word for word. Nothing contrary to the
teachings of the Church was allowed. Great pains
were taken to show that there was nothing in the writ-
ings of the pagan Aristotle that was contrary to the
Bible or Christianity. Of the vast range of subjects

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 147

like chemistry, botany, physiology, geography, and
history, very little was said in the medieval universities.

The Revival of Ancient Learning. About the year
1400 there opened a new period in the history of learn-
ing. The learning of the early middle ages, as we have
seen, had nearly all been in the Latin language. Books
were written in it ; it was the tongue used in the class-
rooms all over western Europe. Some of the Greek
writings were in constant use, but in Latin translations.
Greek literature as a whole and most of the literature
of the Romans had been allowed to lie buried in the
dust of old buildings. The Greek language itself was
not understood by students in western Europe. Many
of the ancient writings were not approved by Christian
teachers because they were the work of scholars who
lived before Christ.

Slowly this changed. The learning of the Greeks
and Romans was made to live again. In the year
1396, a famous bishop went from Constantinople to
Florence and began to teach the Greek language and
literature. Pupils flocked to him ; soon some ventured
to go to Constantinople itself to study.

When that city fell into the hands of the Turks in
1453, Greek scholars fled in crowds to Italy, taking
their precious books with them. The merchants of
Venice and Florence were proud to carry cargoes of
manuscripts along with their bales of silks and spices
from the Far East.

Soon the Italian cities were the homes of " a new

148

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

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Metropolitan Museum
PAGE OF A MEDIEVAL BOOK MADE BY HAND

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 149

learning." About the same time interest in the writ-
ings of the ancient Romans was awakened. The books
and papers of Caesar, Cicero, and Tacitus were rescued
from the dust where they had long been buried, and
spread far and wide in many editions.

Thus a new world of ideas and historical events was
opened to students everywhere. People began to care
for ancient, or pagan, literature as well as for Christian
writings. Scholars soon read the poems of Vergil as
well as the Psalms of the Old Testament and the
Sermon on the Mount. The stately orations of Cicero
found a place by the side of the lives of early Christian
saints and martyrs.

The Invention of Printing. While the students of
Europe were in a furor about Greek and Roman writ-
ings, some patient workmen invented movable type
and the printing press. Before that time every boo :
had to be made laboriously by copyists with quill or
brush. The process was slow and expensive. Innu-
merable errors crept in as one copy was made from
another. With movable type, any book could be
put into type almost as quickly as the old copyist
could write it down. Once in type and on the press,
any number of copies could easily be printed.

Just who it was that deserves the honor of inventing
printing we know not. Gutenberg and Faust in Ger-
many and Coster in Holland are among those to whom
the credit has been given. As in the case of most inven-
tions, the idea was in the air and many men were at

ISO

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

work on it. We do know, however, that a Bible was
printed at Mainz, Germany, in 1456. That year may
well be taken as opening the age of the printing press.

Within fifty
years printing
presses were set
up in most of the
leading cities, and
it was estimated
that eight million
volumes had been
printed. Books
became cheap. In-
terest in reading
spread steadily
among the people.
Printers were
eager to publish
books on any sub-
ject that might
find a sale. Books
on travel, on law,

on Greek and Roman literature, on farm manage-
ment, on geography, and on medicine began to flow
from the presses. Learning was no longer confined
to the clergy nor almost solely to religious subjects.
After a while books were made even for children.

OLD HOUSES IN ROUEN (FRANCE)

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 151

TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Growth of Towns. It was mainly in the towns that
the art and learning of the middle ages flourished.
Many a Roman city had lived on after the fall of the
empire, and in the course of time new centers of trade
also had arisen all over western Europe. Sometimes
the town was under the protection of a powerful feudal
lord or even of a king. Sometimes it was under the
rule of a bishop or archbishop. Again it happened
that the city and its inhabitants were wholly in-
dependent. In most cases, the people built a wall
about their city and were ready to defend it against
attack.

In England, the towns of London, York, Lincoln,
Winchester, and Bristol were leading centers of trade
as early as the fourteenth century. In Germany,
there were many wholly independent towns, or free
cities, among them Cologne and Hamburg. For mu-
tual aid, a score or more of them formed a union
known as the Hanseatic League.

Such trading cities grew more rapidly and easily
in Italy than elsewhere. Because of their situation
between the East and the West, the Italians early be-
came the leading merchants of Europe. From India
and China they brought spices, precious stones, and
rich fabrics. They carried these goods by land or
water to the trading towns of Spain, France, Germany,
and England. On the east coast rose Venice, " the

'52

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

queen of the Adriatic," built upon a group of small
islands for protection against invaders ; Venice in time
became rich and powerful. On the west coast there
flourished a rival in Genoa, the nursery of hardy sail-
ors, and the birthplace of Columbus. Pisa, Florence,

TRADING CENTERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES

and Milan were also centers of commerce, art, and
literature.

The Merchants. It was in the towns that there
grew up the class of merchants and business men who
were in time to have more wealth and influence than
the feudal lords. As trade increased, the merchants

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 153

amassed great sums of money. They then began to
take an interest in many things outside of business.
They vied with bishops, popes, and princes in encourag-
ing art. They gave money to painters and sculptors
and thus enabled them to devote all their time to their
work. Merchants also sent their sons to college.
They bought books and the beautiful manuscripts
made by monks. They founded schools and libraries.
They lent money to hard-pressed kings and some-
times became their advisers

The Merchant Gilds. The power of the merchants
was increased by their unions. In each town, they
formed a society or gild (p. 140). Often it happened
that the gild members were the only voters in the town ;
in that case, they managed the town government.
The gild was both a business and a charitable society.
It laid down rules about the price and quality of goods
and it aided its sick and unfortunate members. No
one could carry on business in the town without its
consent. No new shops could be opened without
its approval.

The Artisans. The towns were also the homes of
the artisans -- weavers, smiths, and the like — who
made the goods which the merchants bought and sold.
Though business had fallen off in the days of Rome's
decline, the arts of manufacture were by no means
lost. With the spread of Christianity, encourage-
ment was given to craftsmen of every kind. The
building of churches, cathedrals, and monasteries called

154

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

for great skill. The gorgeous robes of the priests
and bishops and the decorations of the churches show
how clever were the men and women who made them.

Many of the
monks spent all
their time making
locks, artistic iron
work, or wood
carvings.

Moreover, the
Christian Church
promoted honest
work by teaching
the dignity of la-
bor. The Greeks
and the Romans
had despised the
artisan, as we
"All
by

hired laborers,"
wrote Cicero, "are
dishonorable and
base." Christian-
ity, on the other
hand, exalted the
workman. "To labor is to pray," taught the Church.
Since they were favored by the Church and given
markets for their wares by the merchants, craftsmen of

have seen,
gains made

Metropolitan Museum

A GORGEOUS CLERICAL ROBE

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 155

all kinds flourished. As time passed, they became
very numerous. This is shown by the names of people
- Smiths, Fullers, Weavers, Dyers, Carpenters, Tay-
lors, and Potters.

As soon as there were several artisans in a medieval
town, they organized as the merchants did. Their
society was known as a craft gild. Each trade had
its gild, which fixed the wages of workmen and made
sure that good materials were used in all articles. In
addition to this the gild took care of sick and disabled
gildsmen and their families.

The Rise of Democracy in Towns. In the beginning,
the town was often nothing more than an overgrown
country village which belonged to the lord or the king.
Its residents were serfs bound to render services, to
their overlord just like the peasants. Its position on
a sea, a river, or highway crossing, however, favored
the rise of trade and industry. In the course of.time,
the townsmen came to demand certain rights of their
own. These were the easier to win as the rich men of
the town had money to give in exchange for the favors
they asked.

When the townsmen got their rights they had them
set forth in a charter. The word "charter" itself comes
from the Latin word charta, meaning a sheet of paper.
The charter of a town was a document recording the
rights granted to the inhabitants by the overlord. As
a rule, the townsmen had to pay for the privileges
granted to them.

156 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

These charters varied from place to place. In
general, they included the right of the townsmen
(i) to elect a mayor and aldermen; (2) to hold courts
for the trial of offenders against the law; (3) to hold
town meetings ; (4) to collect their own taxes ; and
(5) to be free from the interference of the lord's steward
and bailiff. Here was the germ of self-government and
democracy. Some of the men, at least, could vote and
have a voice in making laws and laying taxes. Thus
some of our modern notions of democracy already
existed in the middle ages.

Strange to say, the kings actually favored the rise
of self-governing towns. They were glad to have
help against powerful nobles. So they were ready to
grant charters to townsmen and enlist them on the
roya"! side in any dispute with the feudal lords.

Progress in the Towns. The towns were the centers
of new ideas and new enterprises, as well as the homes
of budding democracies. The country, on the other
hand, did not change much from century to century.
Work went on there in the same way and with the same
tools. Peasants did not travel or read. If one of
them wanted to do something other than farm work, it
was to the town that he went. The peasant's lord
also clung fast to old-fashioned ways. He looked
after his estate and waged wars as his father had done
before him. He sometimes bought rugs or pictures,
but he seldom changed his ideas or his habits.

The merchant of the towns was the " progressive ''

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 157

158 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

element in every country. He had to read and under-
stand arithmetic in order to do business. He traveled
and saw strange parts of the world. He was interested
in new goods, new inventions, and new markets. He
was always eager to find other ways of making money.
The nobleman wanted to fight the Turks because they
were not Christians. The merchant was ready to do
business with Turks, Arabs, Hindus, or Chinese --if
it was profitable.

Life in the city was more exciting than life in the
country villages. To the city came merchants and
travelers from distant lands, bringing stories of strange
peoples along with their goods to sell. In the streets
and market places of the towns, the people heard of
new kinds of articles and new industries. So the no-
tions of change, of invention, and of adventure stirred
the minds of the townsmen. Slowly the world was
getting ready for the modern age of discovery and
business enterprise.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

I. I. Compare the Gothic and Byzantine cathedrals pictured
on p. 138 and p. 140. Note the differences in the construction
of the roof, the walls, the windows. Point out the buttresses on
the Gothic structure. Which is to your mind the more fitting
for a cathedral : a spire or a dome ? Also study the church
buildings that you are familiar with and see how many evidences
of Romanesque architecture you can find (p. 139). 2. Compare
the picture of the castle on p. 124 with that of the Gothic cathe-
dral. What are the important differences ? 3. Dante's Divine

ARTS AND TOWN LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 159

Comedy was one of the first great books written in a modern
language ; how long after the fall of Rome did Dante live ? What
language had been used by writers during all those years ?
4. What is meant by a "chronicle" ? By a "ballad" ? 5. Why
did Marsiglio's theories of government "startle the educated
classes" of his time ? How do they compare with the views of
government that are generally held to-day ? 6. The first five
hundred years of the middle ages are sometimes known as the
"Dark Ages"; from a study of the text under the heading,
"Schools and Universities," what reasons can you give for the use
of the term "Dark Ages" ? What kind of "darkness" is referred
to ? 7. Aside from the Bible, the principal writings studied in
the schools of the middle ages were those of Aristotle, and his
influence on the thinking of educated people was practically su-
preme up to the time of the Revival of Learning, about 140x3.
How long before this time had Aristotle lived ? 8. How did the
colleges and universities of the later middle ages differ from the
colleges and universities of to-day ? 9. What is meant by the
Revival of Learning ? 10. Why is the date 1453 considered
an important "key date" in history? u. The invention of
printing is recognized as one of the most important events in
human history ; give as many reasons as you can that will ex-
plain its importance. Some one has compared the invention of
writing to opening a door just a little so that "a mere line of
light" comes "through the chink into a darkened room." "At
last came a time . . . when the door, at the push of the printer,
began to open more widely. Knowledge flared up, and as it
flared it ceased to be the privilege of a favored minority." Ex-
plain what this means.

II. I. Why were most of the cities of medieval Europe sur-
rounded by walls ? What effect would this have upon the growth
of the cities ? Upon the way in which the people would have to
live ? Upon the health of the people ? 2. What was meant
in the middle ages by a "free city"? 3. Printing, as we have

160 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

seen, did something to break down the power of the clergy; in
what way did the development of trade and the rise of commercial
cities help to break down the power of the feudal lords ?
4. What is meant by a "gild" ? What associations or organiza-
tions to-day have purposes similar to those of the "merchant
gilds" of the middle ages? 5. What is the difference between
a "merchant" and an "artisan" ? Between an "artisan" and an
"artist" ? Name some of the important artisan trades of to-day.
Why did the artisan trades develop more during the middle ages
than in ancient times ? What organizations of to-day correspond
to the "craft gilds"? 6. What is meant by a "charter"?
American cities are usually governed under charters ; find out
by what authorities these charters are granted. How does this
differ from the way in which medieval charters were granted ?
7. What is meant by the statement that the government of the
medieval cities was "the germ of self-government and democ-
racy"? 8. How did life in the country villages in the middle
ages differ from life in the large towns and cities? What are
some of the important differences to-day in our country between
country life and city life ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

CHURCH, A. J. — The Crusaders ; Macmillan.
O'NEILL— The Story of the World, xxv.
TAPPAN — Heroes of the Middle Ages, xxiii-xxvi.

When Knights Were Bold, x-xv.
VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), xxxviii-xli.

CHAPTER VII
THE RISE OF NATIONS

The King's Part in History. In the middle ages
-with the warlike lords and princes, the powerful
Church, and the rival towns — there was growing up a
new force : the strength of kings. It was the king
who finally put a stop to much of the local fighting
that broke out after the fall of the Roman empire. It
was the king who brought peace again to large sections
of Europe and bridged the gap between the empire
of Rome and the modern world.

In the beginning of his career, the king was merely
a powerful chieftain. Perhaps he was the head of a
conquering tribe or a baron more skilled in fighting
than any of his fellow barons. At all events, his power
was at first in his sword ; later, after the invention of
gunpowder in the fourteenth century, in his guns and
cannon. He added to his territories as he conquered
one feudal prince after another and broke down the
walls of their castles with cannon balls.

When a king had conquered a large area, he did a
number of things that counted for progress. He
kept peace among his subjects, which favored both
agriculture and trade. He coined money and made it

161

1 62 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

circulate within his realm, thus aiding the merchants.
In this way, he made it possible for them to trade
all over his kingdom. He chartered towns. As we
have seen, this favored the growth of city democracies.
He battered down the castle walls of robber barons
perched upon the crags. He thus made the highways
open and safe for travelers and traders. He amassed
a large treasury and so had the money to fit out
ships for exploration. It must not be forgotten that
all the early explorers who unveiled the New World
had the aid of kings.

The king set up a school at his court and encouraged
scholars to write books and collect maps and records.
He built highways that were useful for commerce as
well as for his armies. He aided Christian missionaries,
thereby helping in the spread of Christianity. As
we shall see, more than one king quarreled with the
pope at Rome, and so took the lead in bringing about
the Protestant Reformation. One need not be blind
to the cruelties of kings in order to see what a large
part they played in making the modern world.

It was around the kings that the nations of western
Europe grew into strength and unity. First there
was the unity brought about by the sword. Then came
unity in language, literature, education, law, the
administration of justice, the monetary system, com-
merce, and the strong central government. The
medieval dream of one European empire disappeared
before national patriotism. Even the idea of one

THE RISE OF NATIONS 163

church was later cast aside, as some nations definitely
rejected the supremacy of the pope. All this made
for more variety and many separate countries. At
the same time, it led to terrible wars among nations,
such as the Hundred Years' War between England
and France ending in 1453, and the Thirty Years'
War — a general European conflict that closed in 1648.

THE RISE AND GROWTH OF FRANCE

The Prankish Kingdom. France was the first of
the nations to appear. It derived its name from a band
of Frankish warriors who broke through the northern
border of the Roman province of Gaul about the middle
of the third century. Long afterward there arose
among them a leader called Clovis, who began, in
486, the conquest of Gaul. At his death some twenty-
five years later, the work had been finished ; nearly all
the territory now embraced in modern France had been
subdued and united under his sword. In the mean-
time he had been converted to Christianity (see above,
p. 126), so that France was among the first Christian
kingdoms of the world. For nearly two hundred years
the descendants of Clovis reigned in France. Then the
family grew weak and indolent and was thrust aside
by one more powerful.

The Carolingians. The new family, known as Caro-
lingians, had been growing in wealth and power for
a long time ; it counted among its members warriors
of skill and bravery. Each of the new line of kings

164

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

was approved by the pope and thus had religious sanc-
tion for his authority. Those who had once reigned
by virtue of the sword now ruled " by the grace of
God."

The most famous of the line was Charlemagne, or
Charles the Great, who reigned from 768 to 814. He

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE

extended his realm to include large portions of Germany
and Italy as well as France. He was a fierce warrior
when fighting his neighbors ; at the same time he was
a friend to peace within his own dominions. He
founded schools, aided in the conversion of the heathen
to the east of his realm, built magnificent palaces,

THE RISE OF NATIONS

165

1 66 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

and took pride in erecting beautiful churches. He
was so deeply interested in learning that he tried to
teach himself how to write after he became a man ;
he kept tablets under his pillow so that he could practice
whenever he had a little time to spare. Unhappily
he began too late in life and could not master the art.
The monks at his court, however, who could write, have
left exciting stones of his valor and his deeds.

The Holy Roman Empire. In the year 800 a wonder-
ful thing happened in the life of Charlemagne. He
was then on a visit to Rome, and on Christmas Day
attended services at the great church of St. Peter's.
While Charlemagne was kneeling before the altar, the
pope, Leo III, placed a crown upon his head and hailed
him as " Emperor of the Romans." By this act the
king of the Franks was declared to be the successor
of the great Roman emperors. In the streets of the
Eternal City, where once the masses had cheered the
victorious Caesar, the populace now did homage to a
new master, who bore the grand old title of " Augustus."

In this way there was established what was known as
the Holy Roman Empire, which was to last until 1806.
It had a stormy life. Since it was the pope who first
placed the crown on Charlemagne's head, later popes
claimed the right to decide who should wear it. Charle-
magne's empire broke up a few years after his death,
but the struggle among princes to secure the imperial
crown went on for nearly a thousand years. There
were also endless disputes between popes and emperors

THE RISE OF NATIONS

167

over the question as to whether the religious or the
imperial power was supreme.

France under the Capetians. Charles the Great's
family could not keep order in France, so that task
passed to other hands. This time it was undertaken
by Hugh Capet, a masterful baron who, from his seat

FRANCE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

at Paris, began to conquer dukes and counts all about
him. Under the Capetian family France was again
united. Branches of the family ruled in France, except
for a short time, until the nineteenth century.

The French barons strove with might and main to
keep their independence ; but year by year, with

1 68

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

THE RISE OF NATIONS 169

occasional setbacks, the power of the king increased.
At length Louis XIV (1643-1715) could boast that he
alone possessed all powers of government. Sons of
barons who had once threatened kings with the sword
were now glad to hold a napkin for a king as he sat at
dinner. From time to time the French kings called
parliaments composed of the clergy, the nobility, and
the commoners. In 1614 even that restraint on the
king was set aside. The king was absolute master,
but the union of France was secured.

THE RISE OF SPAIN

Goths and Arabs in Spain. Even its fortunate
position below the Pyrenees Mountains did not save
the Spanish peninsula from the ravages of the barba-
rian invasions. In 418 a German tribe of West Goths
burst into Spain and established a kingdom there.
For nearly three hundred years, the West Goths
held their own against all enemies. Then in 711
they were utterly defeated by a great army of Arabs,
or Moors, from Africa. The Moors were the followers
of a zealous religious leader, Mohammed (died 632 A. D.).
They were bent on conquering all Christendom.

For seven hundred years the Moors maintained
themselves in Spain. They built beautiful palaces and
mosques, many of which still lend a peculiar charm to
Spanish architecture. They brought with them the
learning of the East. Above all they prized the study
of natural science.

170

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Formation of Modern Spain. The presence
of the Mohammedans in Spain was a source of distress
to the kings of France. Charlemagne set about the
task of winning the country back to Christianity.
By heroic efforts he was able to wrest a part of the

land from the
Moors and gain a
foothold beyond
the Pyrenees.

Thereafter a
few Christian
princes in Spain,
who survived the
Moorish conquest,
were able to throw
off Moorish rule.
So independent
kingdoms a p-
peared here and
there in the north.
Among these early
kingdoms were
Castile, Leon,
Aragon, and Na-
varre.

Finally these
Christian realms were united under Ferdinand of
Aragon and Isabella of Castile, who were married
in 1469. By this time all of Spain had been re-

(g) Keystone View Co., Inc.

COURT OF THE LIONS, ALHAMBRA (SPAIN)

THE RISE OF NATIONS 171

covered from the Moors, except the kingdom of
Granada in the far south. In 1492, the year that
Columbus sailed on his fateful voyage, the Moors were
driven from their last foothold in Spain. All Spain
came under the rule of Ferdinand and Isabella. To the
west, however, the little kingdom of Portugal was able to
keep its independence for a long time. Spain, united
and peaceful at home, soon launched upon a new career.
It led in exploring and conquering the New World.

THE MAKING OF THE ENGLISH NATION

The Coming of the Anglo-Saxons. When the bar-
barians were at the gates of Rome in 410, messengers
were sent post haste to recall the Roman army from the
distant province of Britain. That far country, which
Caesar had visited and his successors had conquered,
was now to fall a victim to other foes.

The newcomers were Jutes, Angles, and Saxons —
Germanic warriors, who came from their homes in
and near what is now the Danish peninsula. " Foes
they are, fierce beyond other foes, and cunning as they
are fierce," wrote a Roman poet ; " the sea is their
school, war and storm their friend ; they are sea wolves
that live on the pillage of the world." Angles and
Saxons were, in 449 A.D., invited by the Britons to
aid them against the still more savage Picts and Scots
that came down from the north.

Before many years had passed, the English, as we
may now call the various tribesmen, turned against

172 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

their allies. They began the conquest of Britain for
themselves. For a century or more the terrible contest
went on. Wealthy Romans fled with their gold and
silver or buried the treasure in the earth. One after
another, the old Roman towns fell into the hands
of the invaders. Christian churches were not spared
the torch. Even the priests were slain at the altars.
By the year 557, all southern and eastern Britain
was subdued by the English, who had come in many
bands under as many different war lords.

Early English Unity. Yet the island was not to find
peace. The conquerors turned against one another.
For two and a half centuries English chieftains waged
a deadly contest among themselves for supremacy.
At length, in 828, one of them, Egbert of Wessex,
brought all the English under his banner. In the
meantime, Christian missionaries had been active and
had converted the English to their faith. Churches
and monasteries had risen all over the land, and
monks were busy with their quills writing down laws
and chronicles.

Alfred the Great and the Danish Conquest. Unity
had hardly been won before a fresh danger appeared.
Bands of fierce warriors from Scandinavia, the Danes,
swept down upon the English coasts in frightful array,
burning and plundering. In a bitter struggle with
them, Alfred, a grandson of King Egbert, was to win
the love of his people and the title of " the Great."
Coming to the throne in 871, he found his whole realm

THE RISE OF NATIONS

173

in peril. By the most heroic efforts he saved a large
part of it from the conquerors ; but all the northeastern
part of England was wrested from him.

In the realm that remained Alfred ruled with wisdom
and justice. He
won for himself a
place in history as
one of the noblest
English sover-
eigns. He was a
brave warrior and
knew how to lead
an army in self-de-
fense. He was a
wise lawgiver. He
compiled the laws
of England, tak-
ing, as he said,
" those which
seemed rightest to
me." He was
deeply interested
in education. He
had a school at his
court, and wished that every freeborn boy should
" abide at his book until he can well understand Eng-
lish writing." Alfred was also a generous friend of the
Church.

He loved the English tongue and himself translated

EGBERT'S KINGDOM

174 °UR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

into it many works written in the Latin language.
Not content with making mere translations, Alfred
added many passages of his own. He wrote down
his ideas of wise and just government and made clear
his hatred for the cruelty and tyranny of Roman
emperors. Day and night, one of his friends said,
Alfred labored to correct injustice done to his subjects,
" for in that whole kingdom the poor had no helpers,
or few, save the king himself." At his death, in 901,
Alfred had made the beginnings of English literature
and had set an example of a king who wished to be
" a father to his people."

The Norman Conquest of England. About a hun-
dred years after Alfred's death, all England was
conquered by Danish warriors. One of their leaders,
however, King Canute, tried to rule as well as
Alfred had done. After he had made certain of his
grip upon England, he paid a visit to Rome. There
he vowed, he says, " to rule justly and piously my
realm and subjects." After his death, wars filled the
land again ; and, in 1066, another invader appeared
in the Channel.

This new soldier of fortune was William, the Duke of
Normandy, from northern France. He was the de-
scendant of a piratic Norse chieftain who had raided
the coasts of France and then settled down there as a
vassal of the French king. William himself was a born
fighter of great strength and dreadful cruelty. " So stark
and fierce was he," wrote a chronicler of his time, " that

THE RISE OF NATIONS

175

none dared to resist his will." None was strong enough
to bend his bow or wield his heavy battle-ax.

As he looked about for more land and booty, William
had fixed upon England. At the battle of Hastings,
in 1066, he de-
feated and killed
the English king,
Harold, and seized
his realm. After a
little while he ex-
tended his stern
rule to the borders
of Wales and Scot-
land. He divided
the land among his
warriors, who be-
came the landlords
of England. But he
was careful to keep
all the nobles well in
hand, so that none
could set himself
up as king or defy

, . ENGLAND UNDER WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR

the royal power.

Under the Norman kings, England became a united
and powerful country. The king kept order in the
land ; peasants and merchants could live and work in
peace. An old monkish chronicler, writing of the deeds
of William the Conqueror, said : " Among the good

176

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

things, is not to be forgotten the good peace that he
made in his land ; so that a man who had any trust
in himself might go over his realm with his bosom full
of gold, unharmed. No man durst slay another, no

matter how great
might be the
wrong done to
him. . . . The
king was very
harsh and took
from his subjects
many a mark of
gold and many a
hundred pound of
silver, all the which
he took, by right
and unright."
Though the king
was harsh, the land
had peace. From
the Norman con-
quest to the pres-
ent day, England
has remained
united. There were a few civil wars, but the land was
not continually torn and ravaged by warring feudal
princes. This good fortune was due in the beginning
to the strong kings who kept the feudal lords from
fighting one another.

From an old print

KING JOHN SIGNING MAGNA CARTA

THE RISE OF NATIONS 177

King John and Magna Carta. Though the Norman
kings and their successors were powerful in England,
they were not allowed to rule just as they pleased.
When King John undertook to tax, punish, imprison,
and in other ways oppress his people, the barons and
the high authorities in the Church united against him.
They met at Runnymede in June, 1215, and forced
the king to promise to abide by certain rules.

These rules were written down in a Great Charter
(Magna Carta) which is prized by the English-speaking
people to-day along with such documents as the Dec-
laration of Independence. By the charter, certain dues
which the feudal lords had to pay the king were fixed
at definite sums. The rights of the clergy, including
their property, were protected. The citizens of all
cities were to enjoy their ancient customs and priv-
ileges undisturbed. No freeman was to be tried and
imprisoned by the king in an arbitrary manner. Justice
was not to be sold or delayed by the king's officers.
Only those who knew the law of England and meant
to observe it were to be appointed royal sheriffs and
judges. Certain taxes -- though by no means all
taxes -- were to be levied only with the consent of the
landlords who had to pay them.

In time a wonderful fiction grew up about the Great
Charter. It was believed that Magna Carta guaranteed
trial by jury to all persons arrested for crimes. It
was also believed that, according to the Charter, no
taxes could be laid without the consent of the people.

1 78 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

In after years, when any one did not like the king's
deeds, he said that such ways were forbidden by the
Great Charter. The fact is that the people often thus
read into the Latin words of the Charter a meaning
that was not really there. It cannot be said with truth
that the mass of the English people, who were serfs,
were meant to derive any special benefit from it.
Still, the Great Charter is a justly famous landmark
in English history. It did declare that the king could
not do as he pleased in all matters. It also declared
that in some cases he could not act without the consent
of at least a few Englishmen.

The Rise of the English Parliament. The son and
the grandson of King John adopted a custom that also
had a strong influence on all the later history of England
and America. Since they were in dire straits for
money, they called on certain of their subjects to help
them get it. They asked the bishops, archbishops,
and all the barons of high rank to meet them in person.
They also invited each town and county to send repre-
sentatives to the meeting. These representatives were
chosen by the well-to-do men of the towns and the land-
lords of the counties who had money to give the king.

In time, such meetings between the king and certain
of his subjects became a regular custom. So arose
the English form of government. The lords and the
higher clergy sat together during these sessions and
were known as the House of Lords. The representa-
tives of the towns and counties sat together and were

THE RISE OF NATIONS 179

known as the House of Commons. The two houses
together were called Parliament. The term itself comes
from a French word meaning " to speak." Parliament
spoke to the king about taxes and such matters.

In the beginning, the chief business of Parliament
was to settle upon taxes for the king's treasury. It was
not long, however, before Parliament in return for the
taxes that were paid began to petition the king for
changes in the laws that had been made by him. If
the king approved a petition, it was accepted as a law of
the land. Thus Parliament began to make laws itself.

Gradually the rule was fixed that, save on rare occa-
sions, the king was to make no law and lay no tax
without the consent of Parliament. After a while
Parliament ceased even to petition the king for new
laws. It drew up its own law in the form of a bill.
If the king approved the bill, it became a law. If
the king said, in Latin, Veto, " I forbid," then it did
not become a law. Although the king kept this right
of veto for many centuries, still he generally consulted
Parliament, which represented the taxpayers, when he
wanted new laws. Such was the origin of representa-
tive government. Though other countries, as well as
England, had this plan of government in the middle
ages, it was brought to American soil directly from Eng-
land by the first colonists (First Book, p. 55). It is
our plan of government to-day.

The Growth of the National English Literature.
The uniting of English territory meant the uniting of

l8o OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

English minds --the forming of a national mind, so
to speak. This was, like everything else, a slow pro-
cess. The efforts of Alfred the Great to create a
national English literature had been almost forgotten
in the turmoil that followed his death.

The Norman conqueror, William, brought with him
an army of priests to whom English was a foreign
tongue. He himself and his barons spoke the French
of Normandy ; so that language was the language of
the royal castle and the law courts. Judges rendered
their decisions in French. Children had to learn it
in the schools. For royal decrees and legal documents,
like Magna Carta, Latin was generally used. Even
the accounts of merchants and stewards on the great
estates were usually kept in Latin. When William
compiled a record of the lands and property of Eng-
land for taxation, known as the Domesday Book,
everything was put down in Latin. Only for a few
chronicles and stray writings was the English tongue
used.

Nevertheless the conquerors could not force their
language on the masses. In field and workshop, Eng-
lish was in daily use. Even the descendants of Nor-
man barons had to learn English in order to deal
with their subjects. By 1362, the use of French had
become uncommon. In that year the order went
forth that English should be used in the courts of
law. In a few more years, it took the place of French
in the schools and the acts of Parliament were written

THE RISE OF NATIONS 181

in it. At length, sermons were preached in English.
All that was then needed to make the humble language
of the people a national language was its use in great
poems and books. In time, these also appeared.

Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales. First among the
masters of English literature was Geoffrey Chaucer,
the son of a London wine merchant, born about 1340.
Unlike most learned men of that time, he was not a
priest. He was, for a short period, a soldier ; then
minister of the king on missions to various Italian
cities ; and finally he was a member of Parliament and
a government officer.

His greatest work, Canterbury Tales, begun about
1384, is justly famous even to this day. It is a vivid
picture of English life in that age. It purports to be
a collection of stories told by some pilgrims stopping
at an inn on their way to the shrine of a saint at Canter-
bury. For the clergy as a class, a monk, a friar, a
poor parson, and a " sweet prioress " speak ; a lawyer,
a doctor, and a clerk spin their yarns ; a good wife
from Bath, a merchant, a tailor, a plowman, a weaver,
a miller, and other artisans add their tales to the
common store. The language of the poem is English.
Though many of the words are strange to us and the
spelling seems queer, we can read it to-day with a
little help from a dictionary of old English. High
school students usually read passages from it.

Here we have for the first time a great English poem
which deals not with heroes or saints and martyrs,

1 82 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

but with the people of everyday life. The scholar
who loved his Latin book could laugh over it, and so
could the humblest person who could read English.
In a little more than fifty years after Chaucer's death
in 1400, the printing press was to spread copies of
his stories broadcast over his native land.

William Caxton and the Printing Press. It was in
1476 that the first printing press was set up in London.
It was brought into England by William Caxton, who
had spent many years as a merchant in Bruges and
had there learned the art of printing. At first Caxton,
besides printing for his customers, translated many
books from French and Latin. He brought them out
in the English form, employing as far as possible
" the common terms that be daily used." School-
boys could then get, for a few pence, copies of many of
Cicero's writings in English as well as in Latin.

But Caxton was more than a translator. He wanted
to help perfect the English language and to give to
readers the best writings in that tongue. In fact,
he printed all the English poetry that was thought
worthy in his day. Naturally, he brought out a fine
edition of the Canterbury Tales. " That worshipful
man, Geoffrey Chaucer," he said, " ought to be eter-
nally remembered." In due time, books in English
crowded aside those of Latin authors and French
romancers. An English national literature was created.
This English literary inheritance has had a powerful
influence upon our own country.

THE RISE OF NATIONS 183

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. i. What does modern civilization owe to the kings of me-
dieval Europe? 2. On p. 162 several bonds uniting people
into nations are named : a common language, a common litera-
ture, a common system of education, .a common system of laws,
a uniform monetary system, a common religion, a strong central
government, and means of carrying on commerce among all parts
of a country. Which of these have been most important in
making the United States a nation? 3. Some of these things
tend to-day to unite the peoples of Europe; and yet Europe is
made up of many nations. What would probably have to take
place before all of Europe could be united in the sense in which
our people are united ?

II. i. Why is the name of Clovis remembered? 2. How
long after the fall of Rome did Charlemagne die? 3. What
is meant by the Holy Roman Empire ? In what ways did it differ
from the ancient Roman empire ? 4. In what important ways
did the early history of Spain differ from the early history of
France? 5. Find out something about the religion of Moham-
med and his followers. How does it differ from Christianity ?
What city in Europe now follows the religion of Mohammed ?

III. i. Why are the English people sometimes called the
Anglo-Saxons ? Find on the map the regions from which the
different peoples came that successively conquered England.
2. As England was invaded from the east and south, the original
inhabitants were pushed to the west and north ; find on a map
the regions in which they might have found refuge from the in-
vaders. Perhaps you can think of some reasons that will explain
why the people of Wales and Ireland and of the north of Scot-
land are even to-day in many ways different from the people of
England. 3. Why has the year 1066 somewhat the same im-
portance in English history that the year 1776 has in American
history ? 4. For three centuries after 1066 the French Ian-

1 84 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

guage was the official language of the English government; how
would you explain this ? 5. What classes were chiefly bene-
fited by the Magna Carta ? 6. How did the term "parlia-
ment" originate? In what ways did the English Parliament
in its early days differ from our Congress ? Why was develop-
ment of the power of Parliament to control taxes so important ?
7. What is meant by "representative government"? In what
respect is it true that the development of representative govern-
ment in England is a part of American history ? 8. In what
ways did Chaucer and Caxton help to unify the English peo-
ple and thus to make the English nation ?

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

i. For the Holy Roman Empire (p. 166), see map on p. 277.
Compare its extent with the extent of the ancient Roman empire
(p. 53) and with the extent of modern France (map facing p. 436).
2. What modern countries are included in the territory covered
by the empire of Charlemagne (map, p. 164) ? 3. What terri-
tory belonged to France in the fifteenth century that now belongs
to her neighbors ? Answer this question by comparing the map on
p. 167 with the map facing p. 436. 4. Explain, by reference to
the text, why the map of England on p. 175 is simpler than that
on p. 173. 5. Make a list of the names of places in this chapter.
Try to locate each name on one of the maps in this chapter.
Which places cannot thus be located ? Why ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

BEST, S. M. — Merry England; Macmillan.

DALE, LUCY — Landmarks of British History, i-viii ; Longmans.
MACGREGOR, MARY — The Story of France, i-xiv; Stokes.
MARSHALL, H. E. — A History of France, i-xxiv ; Hodder and

Stoughton.
MORRIS, CHARLES — Historical Tales — English; Lippincott.

THE RISE OF NATIONS 185

QUENNELL, M. AND C. H. B. — A History of Everyday Things in

England, Parts I and II ; B. T. Batsford, London.
TAPPAN, EVA M. — England's Story, i-v ; Houghton Mifflin.

Hero Stories of France, i-xiii ; Houghton Mifflin.

Heroes of the Middle Ages, xix-xxii ; Harrap.
WARREN — Stories from English History, i-v, viii-xiv ; Heath.

CHAPTER VIII

THE GROWTH OF WORLD COMMERCE AND
EXPLORATION

AFTER securing their unity, the new nations, Spain,
France, and England, were ready for the next historic
task — the great work of exploring, conquering, and
settling a New World. North and South America
were soon to be discovered, in a search for a water
route to India and China. In time commerce and
industry were to overshadow, in importance, agriculture
— the mainstay of the people in the middle ages.
Business men and industrial workers were to rival in
numbers landlords, clergy, and peasants. Industrial
and trading cities were to spring up all over western
Europe.

In short, with the unity of the three nations, Europe
was going over into a new epoch — out of the middle
ages into modern times. The history of Europe was
now to pass beyond Europe itself to the uttermost
parts of the earth, where new nations were to be founded
and trade carried on. The governments of Spain,
France, and England, especially, were to grant money
to explorers, charter companies, and build fleets of
ships. They were to engage in three hundred years

1 86

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION

187

of warfare for the possession of trade and lands beyond
the seas.

THE GROWTH OF TRADE FROM EARLY TIMES

Commerce in Ancient Times.

ever, did not burst upon man-
kind all at once. It was like
the flowering of a slowly grow-
ing plant. Commerce among
nations began in the distant
past. All the great countries
of antiquity had their ships,
their warehouses, and their
merchants. The people of
Egypt, Babylonia, Persia,
Greece, Rome, Carthage, and
other ancient states, each in
turn, built up trade in the
Mediterranean basin.

East and West, adven-
turous merchants and sailors
looked for new markets and
new supplies. King Solomon's
men brought gold, silver, ivory,
and peacocks all the way from
India to Palestine. Alexander
the Great, looking for more
worlds to conquer, led his
army to the very borders of

This new age, how-

Metropolttan Museum

ANTIQUE SILK FROM THE FAR
EAST

1 88 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

India. Though an early death cut short his plans,
Greek merchants opened up a rich traffic in Indian
goods. Herodotus, the Greek historian, said that
India was the wealthiest and most populous country
on earth. Even more distant China was known to
the ancients, by the name of Seres. It was often
mentioned in the legends of the Persians. Among the
records of China is an account of a Chinese prince who,
in the year 985 B.C., made a journey into the remote
lands of the West and brought back with him skilled
workmen and many curiosities.

The Romans made much of their trade with the Far
East. A Roman writer of the first century after Christ
complained that Arabia, India, and China drained
Rome of millions of dollars of gold annually to pay
for silks and other luxuries. In the later days, when
the Roman empire stretched from Britain to Arabia,
the trade was immense. In the markets of the city
of Rome could be seen tin, lead, and hides from Britain
and iron from Gaul, as well as silks, spices, and precious
stones from India and the distant East. We are told
that one Roman merchant carried on the same voyage
from Egypt to Rome a great obelisk, 200 sailors, 1200
passengers, 400,000 Roman bushels of wheat, and a
cargo of linen, glass, paper, and pepper. In the cities
of the Roman empire, there were to be found huge
warehouses of the merchants who made princely for-
tunes from trade.

Commerce in the Middle Ages. As the Roman

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION

189

190 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

empire fell to pieces, its vast trade decayed. Ware-
houses closed their doors. The families of rich mer-
chants became poor. The silks, spices, and precious
jewels of the East were seen no more in the market
places. The huge and bare stone castles of feudal
lords took the place of luxurious Roman villas. Each
locality came to depend upon itself for practically all
the necessities of life and most of the few luxuries
that were enjoyed. The merchants who ventured
abroad were likely to be set upon by thieves and robbed
of their goods.

Still, in the worst of times, trade did not vanish
altogether. Though the wide-reaching Roman roads
were no longer kept in repair, they offered ways for
the adventurous trader to journey from land to land.
Even the most fortunate community could not supply
all its wants. Iron and salt, at least, usually had to
be brought from some place more or less distant.
Some lands were better for grain, and others for cattle
and swine. So it came about that even in the midst
of the decline of old Rome a little traffic was kept going.

In the course of time, new market towns arose.
Some of the old Roman cities, too, after a period of
idleness showed signs of life again, or new towns
were built upon the ruins of the old. The monasteries
inhabited by Christian monks, which dotted every
country, became centers to which men journeyed from
far and wide. In them the wayfaring merchant could
always find a place to sleep and something to eat.

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION

191

At certain favorable points, annual fairs were held,
at which local goods were traded for iron, salt, and other
merchandise. At other favorable points, market towns
sprang up, often under royal protection. In the days
of Alfred the Great, English merchants journeyed often
to the continent to trade at the French fairs, even as
far away as Marseilles.

CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE

From an old print

The Crusades and Commerce. By a strange stroke of
fortune, the trade of Europe was increased by the rise
of the Mohammedans (p. 169), who threatened to
overwhelm Christendom. All the eastern and south-
ern shores of the Mediterranean, including Palestine
with the tomb of the Savior, fell into their hands.

192 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

To rescue the Holy Land from the Mohammedans,
the Europeans of all nations began, in 1096, a series
of wars known as the Crusades. These lasted for more
than two hundred years. Kings, princes, knights,
common soldiers, monks, peasants, artisans, and even
little children flocked to the armies that made the
perilous journeys to the distant Palestine. In these
crusades, thousands of people perished by the wayside
or on the battlefield. Other thousands lived to make
their way home, bearing stirring tales of their adventures
and of the countries through which they had passed.

The tomb of the Savior was not permanently won
for Christendom by the crusaders. As often happens,
the results were very different from what had been
expected. Instead of hating the Mohammedans and
all their ideas, the crusaders were deeply affected by
their way of living. Men from England, France,
Germany, and Spain acquired new wants and tastes
as they beheld the luxuries of the East. They were
no longer content with the rough life they had led.
Henceforth they must have spices, silks, tapestries,
rugs, gold and silver ornaments, and precious stones
from the East. Their neighbors caught the spirit as
they heard wondrous stories of far countries, rich in
luxuries.

Moreover, enterprising persons from western Europe
had seen the splendor of Constantinople, where the
remnants of Rome's former glory were to be found.
Adventurers then learned how to traffic with the

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION

193

merchants of the
East and heard
from them many
tales of India and
China. Especially
did the Italians
profit from the
crusades. The mer-
chants of Genoa
and Venice heaped
up great fortunes
by selling supplies
to the crusading
armies. In the
train of the vic-
tors, they founded
colonies and trad-
ing centers on
the eastern shores of the Mediterranean.

EUROPEAN ATTENTION FIXED UPON THE EAST

The Steady Growth of Oriental Trade. For more
than two hundred years after the seventh and last
great crusade, in 1272, trade in eastern wares steadily
grew in volume. During this period, the Italians
abandoned the long overland route to England through
France and adopted the plan of sending their
goods by ships through the Strait of Gibraltar. The
great mercantile houses of Genoa, Florence, and Venice

From an old print

SALADIN, A MOHAMMEDAN WARRIOR

194 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

had their branches in The Netherlands and England.
They bought lead, tin, wool, and alum from the English
and gave in exchange wines, tea, silks, spices, perfumes,
porcelains, precious stones, tapestries, and rugs. In
vain did English moralists lament that their country-
men were trading useful things like tin and wool for
spices, sweet wines, and other trifles " which fatally
blur our eyes." Englishmen learned to like luxuries
so much that preaching against " fancy goods " could
not stop their sale.

The Italians made great profits from this trade.
They founded banks and lent money to kings engaged
in wars. French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and
English merchants looked with envy upon the gains
of their Italian rivals and longed to get into " the golden
East " themselves. Indeed, later in the fifteenth cen-
tury English merchants began business for themselves
in the eastern Mediterranean. By that time all
western Europe was deeply stirred over Oriental and
Indian trade.

The Old Trade Routes. The goods which were
enriching the Italians and delighting the purchasers
in western Europe came to the West by many routes,
all of which led through the Mediterranean. One or
more overland lines extended all the way from Peking,
China, to the Black Sea and Constantinople. Another
line stretched from India through the Persian Gulf and
the city of Bagdad to Constantinople. Still other routes
ran through the Red Sea to ports on the Mediterranean.

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION

195

196 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The overland journeys were made by long trains
of camels heavily laden with boxes and bales of mer-
chandise. These trips were, at best, perilous and
expensive. Goods from India had to be packed and
unpacked many times. For example, they were
carried overland to the ports on the west coast of India ;
there they were placed on board ship and carried to
the headwaters of the Persian Gulf ; at that point
they were put on camels and taken overland to the
shores of the Black Sea ; thence they went by boat
to the Constantinople market. At Constantinople
the goods passed into the hands of Italian traders
who shipped them, perhaps, to Venice. Venetian
merchants then carried them to Marseilles and over-
land through France to the English Channel, thence
by boat to London, and from London often to a final
destination in some inland town.

The cost of freight for such a journey was necessarily
heavy, and each merchant through whose hands the
goods passed took his toll of profits. A pound of
cinnamon often sold in an English or German market
for twenty-five times its original cost in India. The
losses, too, were great. The land was infested by
robbers and the sea by pirates. Wars were constantly
being waged between the Italians and the Turks.
When the latter, in 1453, captured Constantinople,
the greatest trading center of the Near East passed
out of the hands of Christians and into the control of
the hated " infidels." Long before that event, how-

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION 197

ever, the Italians had begun a search for a water route
around Africa.

The Travelers to the East. Western people were
not content merely to receive goods from the East.
Naturally, they became curious about the countries
from which silks and spices came. They wanted to
know more about the fabled lands and to see them
with their own eyes. Christian missionaries, daunted
by no perils, went to convert the heathen. A writer
of the third century, telling of successful missions,
declared : " We can count up in our reckoning things
achieved in India, among the Chinese, Persians, and
Medes." In 1245 a missionary was sent by the pope
far beyond the Black Sea into " the land of the Great
Khan." On his return this man wrote a lively account
of his visit. He praised highly the people of Cathay,
as he named the land of the Chinese ; he vowed that
their country was " very rich in grain, wine, gold,
silver, silk, and everything which tends to the support
of mankind." Ten years later another missionary,
sent by the king of France, came back and told aston-
ishing tales of " little fellows ?: with " very narrow
eyes," some of whom lived in a town that had
" silver walls and gold battlements."

A few more years passed and two famous Venetian
merchants, the Polo brothers, went overland to China
and visited the emperor of the Mongols at Peking.
On a later visit, they took with them young Marco
Polo, who stayed many years in China. Marco jour-

198 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

neyed from city to city and learned about the trade
and habits of the Chinese.

When he returned to Venice in 1295 bringing dia-
monds, rubies, and sapphires, he stirred the whole
city by his stones. He boasted to his friends of his
exploits ; these were set down in a book, which de-
scribed at great length the land he had visited. He
told of the Chinese emperor's splendid palace with
its walls of burnished gold and silver, its jeweled panels,
and its gorgeous tapestries. He told of his visit to the
royal court where, he said, princes wore robes of silk
and beaten gold and girdles set with precious stones.
Never had such a tale appeared, except in fairy stories.
Polo's book was in great demand. It aroused the
interest of all who read it — kings and princes, as well
as merchants and sailors.

The Spread of Knowledge about the East. After
the Polos' day, many new books were written about
Asia. In 1307, a monk from Armenia, who lived in
France, wrote a geography of Asia with valuable his-
torical notes. An Italian commercial agent, Pego-
lotti, published a handbook and guide for merchants
doing business with the Far East. He explained how
goods were packed, money exchanged, and tariffs
paid. He carefully described the trade routes and
gave good advice about traveling in safety and comfort.
This book shows clearly that the road to Cathay was
often traveled and that a vast amount of goods was
handled by the merchants. Among the things listed

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION 199

by this writer were copper, pepper, cotton, madder,
oil, flax, ermines, furs, pearls, almonds, sulphur, and
nutmegs, cinnamon, and other spices.

By 1350 there were probably merchants in every
large town from London to Venice who could talk
intelligently about the long routes to the East and
about India and China. Monks in the monasteries,
merchants in their shops, sailors and longshoremen at
the docks, and many a scholar poring over his books
by that time knew something about "the fabled East."

THE SERVICE OF SCIENCE AND LEARNING

The Making of Geographies. While merchants
and travelers were going to and from the East, bearing
tales of endless wonder, geographers were busy too.
They pieced together bits of information and began to'
draw maps of Asia. As the beginning for their work,
they had the writings of the ancients. Greek scholars,
long before the time of Christ, had taught that the
world was round. Moreover, they had written many
books about geography. Some fragments of Greek
writings had been copied down by a famous geographer,
Claudius Ptolemy, who lived in Egypt. In the second
century after Christ, Ptolemy wrote a great deal about
the lands and waters of the earth.

Though Christian writers thought of the other
world rather than of this, they did not by any means
neglect geography. One of them, writing in the sixth
century, seems to have been well acquainted with

200 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

India and shows a knowledge of the ancient Greek
writings. Another, in 1306, drew a map which showed
Africa ending in a point. Still another, Fra Mauro,
a lay brother in a Venetian monastery, made, about
1459, his unique map of the world in which he used
the knowledge gained by Marco Polo and other trav-
elers. Mauro's map gave a very clear idea of the
Mediterranean basin and western Europe. It also
showed (i) Africa with the water route all around
it, (2) the Indian Ocean, and (3) a rough outline of
Asia with the Ganges River rudely drawn. With much
truth, men mixed many errors and all kinds of absurd
guesses ; but keen minds were slowly separating the
truth from the rumors.

Toscanelli. Perhaps the most famous of these
early geographers was Toscanelli, an astronomer and
librarian, who lived in Florence until his death in 1482.
He early became interested in stories of travel, includ-
ing those of Marco Polo. Through the busy years of
a long life, he worked steadily at geography until his
fame spread far and wide. Navigators went to talk
with him and princes sought his advice. Toscanelli
finally came to believe that the world was round and
that India could be reached by sailing west. He wrote
a letter and made a map giving his ideas. Though
the map was lost, the letter was kept and from it we
can see clearly what was in Toscanelli's mind. It
is thought that Columbus had both the letter and the
map when he sailed in 1492 ; but this is not known.

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION 2OI

Knowledge of the Earth's Shape. Naturally, as
men studied geography they came to think more and
more about the shape of the earth. It was the common
view that the earth was flat. It seemed flat, and nearly

From an old print

PERILS OF THE DEEP

everybody took the appearance for the truth. Still
there had been, from very early times, a few scholars
who believed it to be round (p. 199). Aristotle, as early
as the fourth century B.C., taught that the earth was a
globe. Nearly four hundred years later, the geogra-
pher Strabo said that this theory was sound ; so also
did Roger Bacon, an English monk who lived in the
thirteenth century. He even went so far as to say that
India could be reached by sailing west from Spain.

202 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Science of Navigation. While the map-makers
were busy tracing the shape of continents, other men
of science were finding ways of guiding ships over
pathless oceans. Sometime in the thirteenth century
there appeared among the sailors of Europe a tiny
instrument that made it possible for them to tell di-
rections even on the darkest night. This tiny thing,
the compass, was invented by some unknown genius.
The date of the invention is likewise unknown. In
English books written about 1180, we read of a " needle
on a pivot which revolves until the point is north."
In a little while every ocean-going ship had its compass.
As the years passed, other sailing instruments were
made. The astrolabe was improved so that the sailor
could find his distance from the equator by taking the
height of the sun. When the time came for the voyages
which revealed the New World, sea captains could hold
their ships to a given course and keep a record of their
sailing.

NAVIGATORS, EXPLORERS, AND CONQUERORS

The Navigators. As travelers and scholars gained
knowledge, men of affairs applied it. Italian sailors
took the lead. They chafed at the expense of trade
by the overland routes and wondered about a water
route around Africa. They had found it easy to sail
out through the Strait of Gibraltar and far north to
England. It occurred to them, naturally enough, that
it would be equally easy to sail south around Africa.

THE AGE OF DISCOVERY
203

204

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

As early as 1292 they tried it; but at length they
gave it up as hopeless.

The Italians, however, aroused the interest of the
Portuguese. On their way to and from the ports of
The Netherlands and England, Italian seamen often
put in at Lisbon. Many a one stayed to make his

home in Portugal. The
Portuguese were likewise
moved by the huge profits
which the Italians made on
Oriental goods. They began
to think about a new route to
Persia, India, and China. So
it happened that Portuguese
sailors became the pioneers
in the work of exploring the
high seas.

The way for this great work
was made easier by the labors
of a son of the

From an oia print
QUEEN ISABELLA, THE PATRONESS king, Prince Henry, famOUS in

history as "the Navigator."

Though brave in battle and skilled in military science,
he turned from the arts of war to the arts of peace.
He refused a high military command. He chose instead
to live on the lonely cape of Sagres at the remotest point
of Portugal looking out southwest to the sea. There
he built a home and an observatory. There he brought
together astronomers, geographers, and map-makers.

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION 205

He sent expedition after expedition down the coast
of Africa in search of the southern passage to the
Indies. Out of his own purse he bought maps and
books. He maintained a school in which seamen were
trained to sail their ships according to the best plans
that science could afford.

Prince Henry's men discovered Madeira and the
Azores. They rounded Cape Bajador, nearly a thou-
sand miles to the south of Sagres on the African coast.
They sighted the waters of the Senegal River flooding
out to the sea. They swept away the myths about
the dangers of long sea voyages. As a result Prince
Henry, in putting aside military glory, found lasting
fame as a helper of mankind. When he died, in 1460,
he left behind a large band of skilled sailors who carried
on the good work he had so nobly begun.

The Great Explorers. The men who carried forward
the work of Prince Henry the Navigator found a water
route to India and discovered a new world (First Book,
pp. 1-50). A Portuguese sailor, Bartholomew Diaz,
in 1486 rounded the point of Africa and gave it the
name of the Cape of Good Hope, a sign that the victory
over the seas was soon to be won. Six years later
Columbus, bearing the flag of Spain, made the first
of his four famous voyages that were to unfold a new
continent to European eyes. A little later came the
astounding news that Vasco da Gama had rounded the
Cape of Good Hope, sailed straight to India, and re-
turned home safely to Portugal (1497-99).

206

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

About the same time, John and Sebastian Cabot, in
the service of the English king, sailed to the coast of

North America
and gave to Eng-
land a claim to its
eastern shores. In
1507 the new con-
tinents were chris-
tened America in
honor of the ex-
plorer, Amerigo
Vespucci, who, it
was claimed, made
four voyages of
discovery to the
New World.

In 1519 Ma-
gellan decided to
outstrip his fellow
explorers by sail-
ing all the way
around the world.
He perished on
the journey, but
some of his sailors
completed the historic voyage three years afterwards.

A little more than ten years later, the king of France
took a hand in the new enterprise. He sent out one
of his bravest sailors, Cartier. This bold seaman ex-

From an old, print

COLUMBUS ON THE DECK OF His SHIP

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION

207

plored the St. Lawrence River and laid claim to the
St. Lawrence basin.

Within fifty years of Columbus' first voyage, there
was a lively trade between Europe and India. Hun-
dreds of islands and two vast continents in the western
hemisphere were rapidly being opened up.

From an old print

SPANISH CONQUERORS DESTROYING MEXICAN IDOLS

The Spanish Conquerors. Leadership in exploring
the mainland of North and South America was under-
taken by warriors bearing the banner of Spain and by
missionaries bearing the cross of Christ. One of the
great Spanish warriors, Ferdinand Cortez, in 1519
discovered Mexico — a vast empire with fertile farms,
prosperous cities, and great stores of gold and silver.

208 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

In a short time he conquered Mexico, looted its treas-
uries, and subjected it to Spanish rule.

Another warrior, Pizarro, soon afterward heard of
Peru, another rich country to the south. With a hand-
ful of soldiers he overthrew the native king. In a short
time, he raised the Spanish flag over the dazed and
beaten natives, and carried off tons of precious metals.

A third Spanish captain, De Soto, sought fame and
wealth by making an expedition into Florida and the
wilderness to the west. Instead of great cities, how-
ever, he found a few native Indians living in wretched
huts ; instead of fortune, he met his death on the
banks of the Mississippi River. Other explorers, work-
ing northward from Mexico, penetrated the territories
now included in Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico,
planting the Spanish flag in many a trading post and
mission which they founded.

Before the sixteenth century was half over, the
Spanish king had a vast empire in the two Americas.
Streams of gold and silver were pouring into his country.
The sails of Spanish galleons were seen amid the curi-
ous junks in Chinese harbors ; in the strange waters of
Java, Sumatra, and India ; in the ports of West India
and both Americas ; and bending before the storms
of two capes, Good Hope and the Horn.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. Why was a more extensive commerce possible in the
days of the Roman empire than after the fall of the empire ?

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION 209

(Think of the ways in which a large number of small, independent
states would make the transportation of goods over long dis-
tances a difficult undertaking.) 2. What effect, if any, did the
supreme importance of religion during the middle ages have upon
commerce ? (For example, would there be so great a demand
for luxuries?) 3. The Romans built splendid roads throughout
the empire ; how would these roads have been likely to fare when
the empire was split up ? 4. How would the lack of a. strong
law enforced by a central government affect the safety of travel ?
5. What were the " Crusades," and what was their most important
influence on the life of Europe ? How long after the fall of Rome
was the first crusade undertaken ?

II. I. When trade between western Europe and the eastern
countries had once been reopened, what decided advantage did
the Italian cities have for controlling the trade ? 2. Trace
on the map (p. 203) the routes by which goods from China and
India were brought to Italy, Spain, France, and England.
3. How did the capture of Constantinople by the Turks affect
this trade? In what other way have we found that this event
influenced western Europe ?

III. i. Why was it difficult for people living in the middle ages
to think of the earth as a sphere ? What reasons have you learned
from your study of geography to justify your belief that the earth
is round ? Which of these reasons may Aristotle have thought of
as a basis for his belief that the earth was round ? 2. Why was
the compass so important an invention ? How had the Romans
been able to manage their navigation of the Mediterranean Sea
without such instruments ? 3. What advantage did the astrolabe
give to the navigator ?

IV. i. The Italians found it possible to sail their ships through
the Strait of Gibraltar and thence north to England. Why was
the southern route around Africa so much more difficult ?
2. Why is Prince Henry the Navigator remembered as one of
the great benefactors of mankind ? What important events

210 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

grew out of the work of Prince Henry? 3. Who finally dis-
covered the "ocean route" from western Europe to India?
4. In the attempts to discover this route, the Western world
had been discovered. Which turned out in the end to be the
more important event, and why ? Which was considered at the
time the more important event, and why ?

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. Trace on the map on p. 203 as many as you can of the voy-
ages described in this chapter; of the land journeys. 2. What
line on that map separates the northern from the southern hem-
isphere ? All the nations of any importance at the time of Co-
lumbus lay entirely in the northern hemisphere. How, then, can
you explain the fact that so many of the important voyages of
discovery were partly or chiefly in the southern hemisphere ?
3. Would Columbus have seen the value of the Suez Canal ? Of
the Panama Canal ? Would Magellan ? 4. What continent did
Magellan just miss discovering? 5. Marco Polo's trip to China
was entirely overland. He started from Acre (Akka) in Asia
Minor and traveled through Persia, over the Pamir Plateau,
through what is now eastern Turkestan, and across the Desert
of Gobi to Shangtu, in northern China. Trace this route on the
map on p. 203. Compare this map with the map of Asia in your
textbook in geography, and estimate the great distance that Polo
traveled, and see why it took him four years to make the journey.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

BLYTH, ESTELLE — Jerusalem and the Crusades; Dodge.

GRAY, G. Z. — The Children's Crusades; Houghton Mifflin.

HALL — The Boy's Book of Chivalry, xi-xv.

O'NEILL — The Story of the World, xxi, xxiv, xxx.

TAPPAN — Heroes of the Middle Ages, xxvi-xxxvi.

VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), xxxiv, xxxviii, xli.

WARREN — Stories from English History, vii.

COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION 211

SUGGESTIONS FOR REVIEW OF CHAPTERS V-VIII

1. If we think of the middle ages as beginning with the fall
of Rome and ending about the time of the discovery of America,
how many years did this period cover ? Compare this with the
period covered by recorded history up to the fall of Rome ; with
the period between the first Roman kings and the fall of Rome ;
with the period between the discovery of America and the pres-
ent time; with the period of our national history (from 1776
to the present time).

2. Make a list of ten events and topics occurring during the
middle ages that you consider the most important ; for example,
the spread of Christianity, the rise of nations, the invention of
printing, and the journey of Marco Polo. Arrange these in the
order of their happening, and then try to rearrange them in the
order of their importance, giving reasons for the importance as-
signed to each. Keep this list, for you may change your mind
on some points as you go on with your study of modern history.

3. Let each pupil think of this question: Who are the prom-
inent persons of medieval history that you would like best to
know? Then take a vote and have "reception committees"
appointed to gather information about these persons and through
this information bring the persons themselves to meet the class.

HISTORY STORIES, MYTHS, AND LEGENDS FOR
CHAPTERS V-VIII

BALDWIN, J. — Stories of Siegfried; Scribners.

The Story of Roland ; Scribners.

BUTLER, ISABEL — The Song of Roland; Houghton Mifflin.
CHURCH, A. J. — Stories of Charlemagne; Macmillan.
DASENT, G. W. — Norse Fairy Tales; Lippincott.
DUTTON, MAUDE B. — Little Stories of England; American Book.
HAAREN, J. H., AND POLAND, A. B. — Famous Men of the Middle
Ages ; American Book.

212 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

LAMPREY, L. — In the Days of the Guild; Stokes.

Masters of the Guild; Stokes.

LANIER, SIDNEY, (Editor) — The Boy's Froissart; Scribners.
LANIER, SIDNEY — The Boy's King Arthur; Scribners.
PYLE, HOWARD — Robin Hood; Dutton.

STEIN, EVALEEN — Our Little Norman Cousin of Long Ago; Page.
STEPHEN, JAMES — Irish Fairy Tales; Macmillan.
WINSLOW, C. V. — Our Little Carthaginian Cousin of Long Ago;
Page.

CHAPTER IX

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

WHILE kings were building up their power in Europe
and bold explorers were opening America for settle-
ment, the old dispute between the pope and the monarch
-Church and State — broke out afresh. As you will
remember, Christianity was at first the belief of small
and persecuted groups of people. Three centuries
later, it was made the official religion of the Roman
empire. The pope at Rome became the head of the
Church. After the downfall of the Roman empire,
there appeared many kings in Western Christendom,
who often quarreled with the pope, although they
were loyal to the Catholic faith. For a time the
quarrels ceased ; but in a little while after the year
1500 they were renewed. Before this new dispute
was ended, several nations had denied altogether the
right of the pope to control in religious matters, and
a number of new religious denominations had come
into being. These sects were known as Protestants
because they protested against the Catholic faith.
The religious movement which filled the sixteenth
century with turmoil was known as the Protestant

Reformation.

213

214 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

For more than a century, Europe was torn by religious
wars between Catholics and Protestants. There
were civil wars and there were wars between nations.
The contending factions burned or otherwise cruelly
punished many of their opponents. Thousands of
people were driven by this religious persecution to
seek refuge in America. The masses everywhere were
aroused by the disputes of kings and preachers as well
as by the disputes of kings and the pope. They began
to take a deep interest in matters of the mind and to
read the Bible for themselves and hold their own opin-
ions. Thus popular education on a wide scale was
started in the age of the Reformation. The people at
large had never read anything before. So we may
truly say that the sixteenth century is among the most
important periods in the long history of mankind.

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION IN GERMANY

Early Criticism of the Church. Although the Prot-
estant revolt against the authority of the pope in
the sixteenth century first took form in Germany,
there had been criticism of the Church in other coun-
tries. Indeed, from time to time during the middle
ages, attacks had been made both on the pope and on
the Catholic faith itself. The kings of France and
England, though loyal Catholics, had many times
complained bitterly because the pope had appointed
Italian clergymen to high church offices within their
realms. They had also complained because the pope

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 215

had collected so much money in fees and contributions
from their subjects.

In 1393 the English king had his parliament pass
a law forbidding Englishmen to take offices in the
Church without the king's consent. It declared that
all who refused to obey should be punished. About
the same time an English priest, John Wyclif, openly
taught that all the property of the Church in England
could be seized by the king and used for public purposes.
He also said that the service of a priest was not neces-
sary for salvation ; that any person could approach
God directly, without the aid of anyone else.

The followers of Wyclif were easily put down in
England ; but, far away in Bohemia, John Huss
spread similar ideas freely for a long time. At last,
however, he was condemned and burned as a heretic.
Protests against the Church then died away and its
authority seemed unquestioned.

Growth of Criticism. At the opening of the six-
teenth century, there came another outburst of criticism
against the officials and practices of the Church, this
time in Germany. The attacks were at first confined
to certain minor matters. It was said that the monks
were often lazy and worthless fellows who lived by
begging. It was alleged that the fees charged by
priests for marriages, burials, and managing the prop-
erty of deceased persons were too high. Complaints
were made against the exemption of Church property
from taxation ; it was said that its property should

216

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

be taxed like that of any citizen. The bishops and
other high church officers who had great wealth were
accused of living in luxury, while the poor village
priests often had scarcely enough to keep soul and
body together. Above all, the critics objected to the

large sums of German money
that were paid each year to
the Church at Rome.

The leaders in such criti-
cism were sometimes priests
themselves who attacked
what they called the " abuses"
in the Church. Among them
was a gentle and witty scholar
of Holland, Erasmus, who
thought that there should be
a reform but not an over-
turning of the Church. In a
little book called The Praise
of Folly, he poked fun at the monks and laughed at
scholars who disputed all day over some foolish ques-
tion, such as " How many angels can stand on the
point of a needle ? " Erasmus laid great stress on right
living. He thought that selfish and corrupt men should
be forced out of high places in the Church. He de-
clared that men should care more about the teachings
of Christ and less about his images. Yet Erasmus
was loyal to the Catholic Church and wanted reforms
to be brought about gradually and without anger.

From ara old print

ERASMUS

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 217

Martin Luther and the Revolt against the Pope.

Far different from other reformers in the Church was
a German monk, Martin Luther, who lived at the same
time as Erasmus. Though the son of a slate-cutter,
he had been able to obtain a university education and
to devote himself to the study of law. Against the
wishes of his parents he entered the priesthood and
became an Augustine monk. Shortly afterward he
was made a teacher of theology in the university of
Wittenberg, in Prussian Saxony, some fifty miles
southwest of Berlin.

While Luther was busy teaching, a Dominican monk
came to Wittenberg to raise money for the Church.
Luther was stirred to anger by some things that were
said and done by this monk. He thereupon wrote
out ninety-five theses, or statements of ideas that he
believed to be true. Among other things he said
that any Christian who felt truly sorry for his sins
would be forgiven. He added that a common man
might very well ask why the pope, who was very rich,
did not build St. Peter's with his own money instead
of " taking that of the poor man." This was in 1517.

Three years later Luther and his writings were con-
demned by the pope. Luther answered by burning
the decree which condemned him. The break had
come. Luther denied the authority of the pope and
declared that many beliefs taught by the Church were
errors. Above all he thought that man was to be
saved, not by good works, but by repenting of his sins

218

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

and by having faith that God's justice would save the
repentant sinner.

Luther kept on teaching his doctrines, protected by
a powerful German prince, until his death in 1546.
He made a translation of the Bible into the German
language for the use of the common people. He wrote

un old print

MARTIN LUTHER AND THREE FAMOUS PROTESTANT SCHOLARS

hundreds of letters and books on religion. He appealed
to the German princes to bring about reforms in the
Church. But he was strongly opposed to the idea that
people should take the matter into their own hands.

The Lutheran Church. At first, those who did not
like Luther made fun of his followers by calling them

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 219

Lutherans. This term of scorn was finally accepted
by them as a term of honor. As the years passed, many
German princes adopted certain of Luther's teachings
and defied the authority of the pope. They also seized
much of the property of the Church and monasteries
that lay within their realms. When an attempt was
made to restore Catholic beliefs in Germany, a number
of them signed a great " protest " against it.

All efforts to bring about agreement between the
pope and the Protestants were vain. In 1530 a docu-
ment was drawn up, known as the Augsburg Confession,
in which the main ideas of the German Protestants
were fully set forth. This Confession became the
basis of the new Lutheran faith and is so regarded by
Lutheran churches everywhere to-day.

Within ten years after Luther's death, the states of
northern Germany and Norway, Sweden, and Den-
mark had broken away from Rome and had become
Protestant countries. All of them in adopting the
new faith added to it the title Evangelical, which
Luther himself had used to describe his doctrines.
As evangel meant the " gospel," Luther said that he
was merely going back to the gospel as taught by
Christ himself.

The two centuries which followed Luther's age were
full of woe for Germany. There were many religious
wars among the Germans themselves. The Catholic
king of France waged war after war on the Germans in
order to get more territories along the Rhine. In many

220 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

cases these territories were inhabited by Protestants.
Beginning late in the seventeenth century, the Prot-
estants turned, especially, to America as a refuge.
Thousands of them fled across the ocean to the English
colonies, mainly to Pennsylvania (First Book, p. 74).
In the nineteenth century, after the religious causes
for leaving their homeland had largely disappeared,
Germans continued to come to America in great
numbers.

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

Henry VIII and the Break with the Pope. When
Martin Luther opened his stormy career as a reformer
in Germany, England had a powerful king by the name
of Henry VIII. Far from approving Luther's ideas,
Henry wrote a book in which he sharply condemned
them. In a few years, however, he himself was engaged
in a desperate quarrel with the pope. He wanted to
divorce his wife, Katherine of Aragon, and to marry a
woman of his Court, Anne Boleyn. The pope refused
his appeal for a divorce and Henry was very angry.
Katherine's nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor, had
just seized the city of Rome and really held the pope
a prisoner. Henry charged that the pope was afraid
to grant the divorce on that account.

In his wrath, Henry declared that he, himself, would
be sole master in England. So he got his divorce
from an English court. Then, in 1534, he compelled
his parliament to pass a law making him " the only

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 221

supreme head on earth of the Church of England."
He thereupon seized the land owned by the monasteries
and divided much of it among his favorites.
He took to himself the right to appoint bishops and
other high officials in the Church. He forced all the
clergy to accept the new order. Those who refused
were harshly treated. Some were banished, others
were burned, and others were beheaded. In denying
the authority of the pope over England, however,
Henry at first made no important changes in the faith
and services of the Catholic Church. Indeed, he
treated those who wanted religious changes as savagely
as he did those who did not want to disown the pope.

The Growth of Protestantism in England. After
Henry had cast off the rule of the pope, he found it
hard to suppress those who began to cast off the Catho-
lic faith too. In attempting to do this, he drove many
of his subjects to Germany. There they learned the
doctrines of Martin Luther and became converts.
Fired with new zeal, they slipped back into England
to spread his ideas.

In a little while England, too, was affected by these
preachers of reform. Some of them turned away from
the leading ideas of the Catholic religion. Others
declared that the images and stained windows in the
churches were " idolatrous." Others denounced fast
days and holy days.

When Henry died and the crown passed to his son,
Edward VI, in 1547, the Protestants triumphed.

222 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

New articles of religious faith were drawn up and all
English people were forced to adopt them. Although
the Catholic religion was later restored for five years
under Queen Mary, it was impossible to hold to the
old order. England was destined to be Protestant.

The Established Church of England. In 1558
Queen Elizabeth came to the throne. Soon after
she was crowned, the parliament adopted a form
of Protestant faith for all Englishmen again. By a
law known as the Act of Supremacy, the power of the
pope over England was once more denied. The queen
was declared to be supreme in religious matters. A
creed of .thirty-nine articles of faith was written down
and every one was ordered to accept it. A uniform
service for all churches was prepared and all clergy-
men were forced to follow it. In short, a Church of
England was established by law. Its faith and services
were fixed by law. All people were required to attend
its services and believe in its doctrines. Punishments
were fixed for those who refused to obey.

Moreover, the power of the sovereign was greatly
enlarged. The queen could appoint all bishops and
archbishops and forbid the clergy to hold meetings
without her consent. To call the queen a heretic
was treason. To attend mass was made a crime.
When a bishop complained to Queen Elizabeth against
the seizure of some of his lands, she scornfully told
him that she had made him and would unmake him
if he did not yield the property at once. . Both Catholics

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 223

and Protestants who openly rejected the Established
Church were cruelly punished. Having set up this
new order, Elizabeth and her advisers thought that
peace would come to the troubled realm.

Puritans and Separatists. But there was to be no
peace. The system was hardly agreed upon before
some persons sought to change it. A very powerful
group, which grew steadily in numbers, wanted to
" purify " the new church. They wanted to do this
by omitting parts of the service, taking images away
from church buildings, and making other reforms.
They were therefore nicknamed Puritans by their
enemies, and they proudly adopted the title. This
group, or party, did not, however, seek to overthrow
the Church of England or to deny its authority.

It was certain members of this body of reformers
who, after struggling against the king and the church,
fled to America in 1629 and founded the Massachusetts
Bay colony (First Book, pp. 59-65). Even when the
Puritans sailed away, they were counted members
of the Church of England ; and -such they remained
for a while after they reached America. In time, how-
ever, they left the English church and formed little
groups of their own — congregations — for religious
worship. Such was the origin of the Congregational
churches to be found all over New England and in
other parts of the United States to-day.

Along with the Puritans there sprang up in England
another Protestant group that utterly rejected the

224 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Church of England. They flatly declared that it was
no true church, that its services were idolatry, and
that its bishops had no lawful power over Christians.
They asserted that the rightful form of church was
described in the New Testament as a simple congre-
gation composed of all those who believed in Christ.
A church, they said, " is a company or number of
Christians or believers who by a willing covenant
made with their God are under the government of
God and Christ and keep his laws in one holy com-
munion." Members of this sect were called Separatists,
because they proposed to separate entirely from the
Church of England and set up independent congrega-
tions of their own. Of course, the king did not like
the Separatists at all. They were always in danger
of punishment. So many of them fled from the realm.
It was the members of this group that founded the
colony of Plymouth in 1620 (First Book, pp. 57-59).

The Increase in Religious Sects. Some of those
who drifted away from the Church of England believed
that a certain form of baptism was necessary to sal-
vation. John Bunyan, the author of Pilgrim's Progress,
held this view. So did Roger Williams, of Rhode Island
(First Book, pp. 62-63). He is sometimes called the
founder of the Baptist churches in America. From
small beginnings sprang the Baptist congregations of
the United States, which now have nearly ten million
members.

One powerful body of Separatists, or independents,

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

225

was the Presbyterians, who were especially strong
in Scotland and the north of Ireland. They counted
among their great teachers John Calvin of Geneva
and John Knox of Edinburgh. Like the other inde-
pendents, the Presbyterians were oppressed by the
English government. Shortly after the English colo-

THE COTTAGE OF JOHN BUNYAN IN ENGLAND

From an old print

nies were founded, they therefore flocked to the New
World also. In New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the
inland sections of the South they were very numerous.
They took the lead in the western movement toward
the Mississippi.

Another sect that rejected the Established Church
was the Quakers, or, as they called themselves, the

oHillsboro
o Raleigh
NORTH CAROLINA

EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 227

Friends. They followed the teaching of George Fox.
One of their leaders, William Penn, founded the colony
of Pennsylvania. There the Friends were free to wor-
ship God according to " the light " which they had
received. They granted this same religious freedom
to others.

The dissenters from the Established Church usually
combined with their religious views a dislike for the
government of England because it tried to force on
them the religion made lawful by the parliament.
So they carried with them to America political as well
as religious ideas. They found it possible even to
work with the Catholics, who had founded Maryland,
in the great War for American Independence (First
Book, pp. 55-56).

RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLT
Religious Wars. For more than a hundred years
Europe was filled with religious wars, civil and
international. The Dutch in The Netherlands, then
under the rule of the Catholic king of Spain, became
Protestants. Soon afterward, they rejected the rule
of their sovereign. In a terrible war they won their
independence, which was recognized in 1648.

In France, Protestants known as Huguenots began
to appear shortly after Luther defied the pope, but by
stern measures the government kept them from becom-
ing very powerful. Still they were numerous enough
to excite the alarm of the Catholics. France was

228 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

divided into two parties and civil wars followed.
Finally, in 1598, the king issued the Edict of Nantes,
which gave a certain toleration to the Protestants.
This Edict was in force for nearly a hundred years.
Then it was revoked by Louis XIV. All Frenchmen
had to be Catholics or run the risk of punishment.
Huguenots were persecuted. Thousands of them fled
to England and Prussia. Others came to America.
New Rochelle, in New York, was one of the places
founded by Huguenots. It was named after their
old home, Rochelle, in France.

For a time after Luther's day the Protestant and
Catholic princes in Germany managed to live on fairly
good terms. Afterwards, however, they began a
bloody strife known as the Thirty Years' War (1618-
48), which at length involved France, Spain, Sweden,
and Denmark as well. This was a terrible war. Hun-
dreds of German villages were utterly destroyed ;
some cities lost half or more of their inhabitants ;
and the whole country was left helpless and poverty-
stricken. In the end neither party was victorious.
Neither of them could master the other. As a result,
toleration for all branches of the Protestant faith was
granted in Germany.

Religious Persecution. In addition to open religious
wars there were persecutions within each of the coun-
tries where religious disputes appeared. The Catholic
Church had always required strict obedience to its
authority. Long before Protestantism appeared, it

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

229

had turned heretics who would not repent over to the
government to be punished. This practice the Catho-
lics continued in
those countries
where they re-
tained their power.
Protestants, on
the other hand,
while they object-
ed to such cruel
treatment for them-
selves, often re-
sorted to it in their
own time of tri-
umph. Lutherhad
no more thought
of allowing every
man to worship
God according to
his own conscience
than had the pope
at Rome. The very
idea was hateful
and dangerous in
the sight of both
parties in the sixteenth century. Catholics impris-
oned, banished, and burned Protestants. In their
turn many Protestant sects treated Catholics in the
same way. They even punished with the same severity

From an old print

ENGLISH JUDGES CONDEMNING PROTESTANT
DISSENTERS TO PRISON

230 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

other Protestants who differed from them. When
Henry VIII in England broke with the pope he burned
many sweet-spirited and noble Catholics, like Sir
Thomas More, who were unable to accept him as the
head of the Church. Likewise he put to death equally
sweet-spirited and noble Protestants who would not
do his will or who sought to make changes in religion
which he did not approve. So it happened that
thousands of men and women, Catholics and Prot-
estants alike, were ready to flee to America when it
was opened for settlement.

When religious persecution died away in western
Europe, it was kept up in eastern Europe. The
Russians and Poles persecuted the Jews, and the Turks
persecuted the Christians. Even in our own time,
religious persecution goes on in many regions. Thus
for more than three hundred years the desire to escape
from religious oppression has been one of the powerful
motives that sent emigrants to America.

The Growth of Toleration. As we have said, few
of the early Protestant sects believed that every one
should have the right to choose his own religious faith
or to belong to no church if he so decided. With some
exceptions each sect was in fact as eager to compel
every person to accept its faith as the Catholic Church
had been in the middle ages. The idea of complete
religious freedom seemed as distasteful to the early
Lutherans and Puritans as it had to the Catholics.

Nevertheless, after centuries of persecution the

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 231

spirit of toleration gained ground. Nobler ideas and
gentler manners helped. People became weary of the
turmoil and hatred born of persecution. Then, as
the sects grew in numbers in spite of persecution, no
one of them could suppress all the others. Finally,
as interest in worldly affairs increased, religious dis-
putes died down. As if by accident rather than by
design, the enlightened people of every religious de-
nomination gave up the idea of punishing those who
differed from them. They finally adopted the modern
notion that " every one has a right to worship God
according to the dictates of his conscience."

Though America did not at first escape entirely from
the Old World heritage of religious intolerance, it did
lead all mankind toward the ideal of religious freedom.
The first amendment to our Constitution provided that
Congress should make no law " respecting an estab-
lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof." This clause, adopted in 1791, was a land-
mark in the long struggle for religious toleration.

Translations of the Bible. The Protestant Reforma-
tion brought with it wars and persecutions, but it
also aroused a new interest in reading the Bible and
other religious books. The Old Testament had been
written originally in Hebrew and the New in Greek
- both languages which were utterly foreign to the
peoples of western Europe. To overcome this diffi-
culty, a translation of the Bible had been made into
Latin about the end of the fourth century. This

232 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

edition, approved by the Catholic Church, was called
the Vulgate, because it was in the tongue of the multi-
tude— vulgus meaning in Latin " the people." From
time to time parts of the Bible had also been translated
into German, English, French, and other languages.
For example, many long passages had been done into
Anglo-Saxon in the reign of Alfred the Great, and the
whole Bible was translated about 1383 by the English
reformer, John Wyclif.

The revival of learning (p. 147), which gave stu-
dents a special interest in the Greek language, led
them to turn with new zeal to the life of Christ. It
was to be found in the New Testament, written in Greek
by those who knew him and had labored and suffered
with him. Speaking of the Gospels, Erasmus, a leader
of the "New Learning," wrote: " Were we to have
seen him with our own eyes, we should not have so
intimate a knowledge as they give us of Christ, speaking,
healing, dying, rising again, as it were in our very
presence." Then, in a burst of enthusiasm, he ex-
claimed : " I wish that they were translated into all
languages, so as to be read and understood not only by
Scots and Irishmen but even by Saracens and Turks.
I long for the day when the husbandman shall sing
portions of them as he follows the plow, when the
weaver shall hum them to the tune of his shuttle, when
the traveler shall while away with their stories the weari-
ness of the journey." The wish was fulfilled, but not
always by translators belonging to the Catholic Church.

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 233

The great translations into German and English
were made by Protestants, who naturally enough gave
a Protestant meaning, wherever possible, to the Hebrew
and Greek words. Martin Luther, as we have seen,
prepared for his followers a German Bible in the lan-
guage of the common people. About the same time
several versions appeared in English. As some con-
fusion arose from the various versions of the original
tongues, an official English translation, under the di-
rection of King James I, was published in 1611. This
was the famous King James or Authorized version.
For nearly three hundred years it was the accepted
English edition of the Holy Scriptures and was used
by all English Protestant denominations. The Roman
Catholic clergy also brought out an official Catholic
version in English known as the Douay Bible.

It is impossible to overestimate the influence of the
King James version of the Bible on English life and
thought. The masses, who had known, the Old and
New Testaments only through the teachings of priests,
could now read for themselves. For a long time the
Bible was almost the only book which the common
people had. It was at once their guide to ancient
history, their collection of marvelous stories, their
record of human trials and sufferings. In it they
found words of thanksgiving for joyous occasions and
words of solace in hours of death and sorrow.

That was not all. The very language of the English
edition made a deep impress upon all English literature.

234 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The translators chose the clear and simple words of
everyday usage, and so they set a model of style for
English writers of all times. Leaders in American
affairs as far apart in centuries as William Penn and
Abraham Lincoln found inspiration in the noble
thoughts and clear language of the Bible. When
Lincoln opened his Gettysburg address with " Four
score and seven years ago," he used the old and
simple style of the Bible.

The Spread of Education. The Bible was also a
book of education. Thousands of humble folk, who
had never been in school a day, learned to read in order
that they might study it for themselves. An English
bishop lamented that " cobblers, tailors, felt-makers
and such-like trash " were taking it upon themselves
to study the Bible and teach its message to their neigh-
bors.

Whoever has the power to read has open before him
a gateway to. knowledge which is closed to illiterate
persons. Those who learned their letters by poring
over the Bible were later able to read the plays of
the great Shakespeare, as well as books and pamphlets
on politics and other subjects. By seeking knowledge
in religious matters, they learned about " the mysteries "
of kings and governments. Thus the translations of
the Bible helped to prepare the people to govern them-
selves.

The Reformation also helped greatly in the spread
of schools for the masses. In the middle ages, the

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 235

idea of giving every one an education was not looked
upon as practicable or desirable. The schools were few
and colleges were mainly for the training of men who
wished to enter the priesthood. As the various Prot-
estant congregations sprang up, however, the members
of each were careful to bring up their children in their
own faith. Schools were founded to teach children to
read the Bible and to instruct them in religious doc-
trines. Thus the ability to read became more wide-
spread than ever before in human history. Puritans,
Presbyterians, Baptists, and other denominations, in-
cluding the Catholics, all established schools in which
their religious views were taught. Every college
founded in America in colonial times, except the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, was established by a religious
denomination to train young men in its faith and serv-
ices. The natural sciences, like botany, chemistry,
and physiology, received no more attention in the first
Protestant schools than they had in the universities of
the middle ages.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

I. I. What is the meaning of the word "Protestant" as ap-
plied to the Protestant churches ? 2. For how long a time was
the Catholic Church supreme in western Europe ? (Recall the
time of Constantine the Great and consider 1517 as marking the
beginning of the Protestant Reformation.) How does this com-
pare with the period from the beginning of the Protestant Reforma-
tion to the present time ? 3. Why are the names of John Wyclif
and John Huss remembered ? 4. One complaint against the

£36 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Catholic Church was that its property was free from taxation ;
is church property free from taxation to-day? 5. How did the
views of Erasmus differ from those of Wyclif and Huss ? 6. Can
you think of any reasons that will explain why the revolt against
the Church came first from the clergy rather than from laymen ?
7. How did Luther's views differ from those of Erasmus ? Why
is Luther rather than Wyclif or Huss regarded as the founder of
the Protestant churches ?

II. i. What were the important differences between the
Protestant Reformation in Germany and in England ? 2. What
is meant by an "Established Church"? In what ways did the
Established Church of England resemble the Catholic Church ?
How did it differ ? How did it differ from the Lutheran Church ?
In America to-day, the Protestant Episcopal Church most closely
resembles the Established Church of England. If there is such
a church in your community perhaps you can find out some of
the ways in which it differs from other Protestant churches ;
for example, in the conduct of its services, the construction of
the church building, the dress of the clergy. 3. How did the
Puritans and the Separatists resemble each other ? In what
important respects did they differ ? 4. In what ways did the
Baptists, the Presbyterians, and the Quakers differ? 5. Make
a list of the religious sects represented in your community. (Prob-
ably some of them are not mentioned in this chapter.) If possible,
find out something about the origin of these various sects.

III. i. Give as many reasons as you can to explain why the
multiplication of religious sects gave rise to so many wars during
the period that we are studying. 2. What is the difference
between a "civil" war and an "international" war? Which of
the three wars mentioned in the text were civil, and which were
international? 3. What is meant by "religious toleration"?
4. In what important ways did intolerance and persecution in
Europe influence our country ? What American colonies were
founded by people who sought religious freedom? 5. People

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

237

naturally regard and cherish the idea that they have fought for
and suffered for; perhaps you can give some of the reasons that
explain why the people of western Europe and of North America
now believe so firmly in religious toleration. You might well
think of this as an ideal for which a great price has been paid.
What was the price ? 6. Another great ideal had its birth in
the troubled times which we are studying; namely, the ideal
of "universal" education — that is, the education of all of the
people in at least the rudiments of learning. In what way did
the Protestant Reformation make a universal knowledge of read-
ing important? In what other ways did the multiplication of
religious sects promote education ?

ERA op THE REFORMATION

238 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

BEST — Merry England.

CREIGHTON, LOUISE — Stories from English History, xxx-xxxiii,

xxxviii ; Longmans.

DALE — Landmarks of British History, viii.
O'NEILL — The Story of the World, xxxi.
VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition}, xliv.
WARREN — Stories from English History, xvii.

CHAPTER X

THE GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND

THE Protestant Reformation, at first, left unchecked
the power of kings, landlords, and clergy. Wherever
the Catholic Church was overthrown, another church
was set up in its stead and the people at large had
to accept the new faith as they had the old. In
this change, Protestant kings really got more power
for a time because they were enriched by the property
they took from the Catholic Church. But their sudden
gain was destined to be short-lived in England. The
Protestant revolt there was followed in the next cen-
tury by a political revolt against the king himself.
This was the first of the great democratic revolutions
that have swept through the world during the past
three hundred years.

THE OLD POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CLASSES IN ENGLAND

The King and the Established Church. The acts of
James I helped to start the English political revolution.
When he was crowned king of England in 1603, he found
himself in a place of great power. He could appoint all
the officers high and low without the consent of Parlia-
ment. He alone could permit men to form companies

239

240

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 241

to explore, colonize, or trade beyond the seas. All land
which was discovered belonged to him, and he could
grant it to individuals or companies at his pleasure.
He could issue royal orders which were as binding on
his subjects as the laws of Parliament.

The Church of England added to his strength. All
Englishmen, as we have seen, had to be members of
it and obey .its commands. The king appointed the
archbishops and bishops, who governed the Church
and watched over the clergy of lower rank. Every-
where the Church taught that obedience to the king
was obedience to the will of God.

The Nobility. The power of the king was also in-
creased by the help he had from the nobles. They were
few in number and no common man could become
a noble unless the king raised him to that rank and
gave him a title. Much of the land of England, how-
ever, was owned by these great lords — dukes, earls, and
barons. On their lands they were very powerful,
although they could no longer defy the king as their
ancestors had done (p. 177). They were not independ-
ent. They were courtiers. They held high offices
under the king and served him in many ways in war
and peace.

The Country Gentlemen and the Merchants. Below
the nobility in rank were the large landowners who did
not possess noble title. They were usually called " the
country gentry." They had large estates, tilled by peas-
ants, and lived in handsome manor houses. They

242

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

often served as members of the House of Commons, and
there boldly asserted that the king could not tax
them without their consent. They were not often seen
at the royal court and received few favors from the
crown. They were proud and independent in spirit.
It was they who led in all efforts to curb the power of
the king. From this class came men like Cromwell and

From an old, print

THE MANOR HOUSE ON AN ENGLISH ESTATE

Hampden, who, in the days of revolution, defied the
king. From this class also came men like John Win-
throp and John Endicott, who migrated to the New
World and made the beginnings of a new nation there.
Even more independent in spirit were the English
merchants. They grew steadily in numbers as the

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 243

trade of England multiplied. They did not own vast
landed estates. Their wealth was in shops, ware-
houses, and ships. Their ranks were not closed to out-
siders, for any successful business man could secure a
place among them. The seats of the merchants were in
the towns like London, Bristol, Plymouth, and Man-
chester. Representatives of the towns in Parliament
were usually merchants or neighboring landed gentry.

These two classes, welded together, led in the rev-
olution that overthrew the king in 1649. In fact,
they made themselves the ruling classes of England
before the end of the century.

The Other Ranks. Among the masses there were
three distinct groups. There were, first, the yeomen,
who were the free and proud owners of small farms.
Sometimes they worked with their own hands at
the plow and at threshing.

The second and most numerous group was composed
of the agricultural laborers. They were descendants
of the former serfs. Serfdom itself had disappeared
in England, and the former bondmen had become land-
less men who worked for wages on the great estates.
They were usually poor and wretched, and just at this
time their lot was becoming harder. The landlords
found it more profitable to grow wool than to raise grain,
and turned their fields into pastures. Thousands of
acres of land were withdrawn from cultivation ; laborers
and their families, therefore, had to leave the soil for
the poorhouse or for a life of semistarvation in the

244 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

towns. The writings of this time are burdened with
complaints about the " surplus of people." Sending
people to America was therefore looked upon as a way
of getting rid of the surplus population.

It was from the yeoman stock and the class of agri-
cultural laborers that most of the immigrants to
America were first drawn.

More fortunate than the agricultural laborers were
the artisans, the skilled workmen of the towns. English
trade grew by leaps and bounds after the discovery
of the water routes to India and the New World.
English cloth and cutlery were famous in Russia and
India for their quality and finish. English weavers,
dyers, cutlers, potters, and other skilled workmen
supplied the goods which were exchanged for spices,
tea, sugar, and the commodities of the East and West.
The artisans, like the merchants, were often inde-
pendent in spirit. Their numbers increased as foreign
trade grew. They made the articles which the mer-
chants carried to distant lands. Anything that helped
trade helped them. Anything that interfered with
trade injured them. Naturally they took the side
of the merchants, who wanted the king to let them
alone. Among the officers in the revolutionary army
which overthrew King Charles I there were tailors,
brewers, linen drapers, weavers, and silk merchants.
Since the artisans usually had little difficulty in finding
employment in England, they did not at first take
kindly to migration to America.

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 245

A CENTURY OF REVOLUTION

The Arbitrary Conduct of Kings — Divine Right.

The English people in general seem to have been
fairly well contented when James I came to the throne
in 1603. If he had been moderate in conduct, mild in
speech, and willing to make terms with the people,
there doubtless would have been little trouble in Eng-
land. But James and his son, Charles I, whose
combined reigns lasted from 1603 to 1649, were poorly
fitted to deal with a nation that had any pride.

Both of them taught and practiced the doctrine of
divine right - - that kings had power from God and
could do no wrong. James I was especially haughty
in talking about his own " majesty." " The state of
monarchy," he informed Parliament, " is the suprem-
est thing on earth, for kings are not only God's lieu-
tenants upon earth and sit upon God's throne, but
even by God himself they are called Gods." That
was not enough for him. He added : " As to dispute
what God may do is blasphemy, so it is sedition in
subjects to dispute what a king may do in the height
of his power." No one could teach, preach, or publish
a book without a license from royal officers, and
anyone who questioned the king's rights and claims
was liable to severe punishment.

In addition to teaching the doctrine of divine right,
James and Charles both treated their subjects haughtily
and harshly. They levied taxes without the consent

246 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

of Parliament. They compelled their wealthy subjects
to lend them money. They imprisoned men like John
Hampden who would not pay taxes laid by royal order.
They encouraged the Church of England to hunt down
and turn over for punishment those who refused to

From an old print
ONE OF KING CHARLES I's OFFICERS, CONDEMNED BY PARLIAMENT,

ON THE WAY TO THE SCAFFOLD

obey its commands. They dismissed judges who
failed to carry out their decrees. If Parliament com-
plained, the members were sent home.

The House of Commons Opposes the King. Leader-
ship in opposing the king fell to the House of Commons.

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 247

In that body the country gentlemen and the merchants
were masters, and to them taxation without their con-
sent was especially hateful. They firmly but respect-
fully informed the king that they would not grant him
large sums of money while he treated them as if
they had no rights. Since they held the purse strings,
they compelled him, in 1628, to approve the Petition
of Right — a document often placed with Magna Carta
(p. 177) among the great landmarks of English history.

In the Petition of Right, three important principles
were laid down : (i) no one should be imprisoned with-
out a regular trial ; (2) a royal decree setting up the
rule of army officers should be revoked ; and (3) taxes,
loans, and gifts collected without consent of Parlia-
ment were unlawful.

King Charles made these promises only to break
them. He then ruled for eleven years without calling
Parliament together. When at length he needed money
and summoned Parliament, in 1640, he found it in an
angry mood. It had two of the king's closest advisers
put to death ; it set free the victims of the king's anger
who were in prison ; it abolished two of the high
courts that had helped the king to oppress his subjects.
Finally Parliament demanded control over the army,
which the king claimed as his own.

Civil War. — Oliver Cromwell. Charles, angry and
frightened, refused to give up his power over his soldiers.
He knew that, if he lost the army, he would be help-
less. So he decided to fight for his rights and raised

248

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the royal battle flag in 1642. The northwestern part
of his kingdom came to his aid ; that is, the old and

feudal part. Against him were the more populous
counties and the thriving towns.

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 249

Under the leadership of a stern warrior, Oliver Crom-
well, the revolutionary army overcame the king's troops
in a civil war. King Charles was taken prisoner,
tried, and executed. A Commonwealth, or Republic,
was then proclaimed in England.

The Religious Revolt. United with the revolt
against the king was another revolt against the
Church. That, too, came gradually. When James
ascended the throne, there was already in England
a small party of reformers who wanted to make minor
changes in the church services. As we have seen
(p. 223) they were known as Puritans. They handed
James a respectful petition on reform, but he scorn-
fully laughed at them. " If this be all your party
hath to say," he shouted at the spokesmen of the
Puritans, " I will make them conform themselves or
else harry them out of the land."

By this sharp speech, says the English historian
Gardner, James " sealed his own fate and that of Eng-
land forever." And it might be added, " the fate of
New England as well," for the people whom he " har-
ried " out of the land went across the sea to seek liberty
of worship for themselves.

The Puritans, though surprised at the king's curt
refusal to listen, kept on demanding reforms. They
were joined in their attacks on the Established Church
by another group --the Separatists or Independ-
ents (p. 223). The Puritans wanted to make minor
changes in the Church ; the Separatists rejected that

250 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Church entirely. Though they differed in their views,
Puritans and Independents united in opposing the
control exercised over them by the king and Church.
They were both persecuted and punished. More than
one man had his ears cut off and his cheeks branded
with hot irons for attacking the Church. Men who
were imprisoned for refusing to pay illegal taxes found
as their companions in jail men who held unlawful
religious opinions. So religion and politics were com-
bined. Thus the revolt against the king became a
religious revolt. When the monarchy was pulled down
in 1649, the power of the Church was broken.

The Dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell. After the
monarchy and the Church were overturned, the revo-
lutionists had to face the difficult task of creating
a form of government for themselves. Then their
troubles began in earnest. Before long, they were di-
vided among themselves and began to quarrel one with
another. Some wanted only a few changes in the Eng-
lish form of government. Others wanted many changes.

In the end, the great soldier who had led the revolu-
tion, Oliver Cromwell, came to the top as dictator
He ruled England with an iron hand ; so there was no
liberty, after all. He punished those who would not
obey him, collected taxes at will, and governed in a ruth-
less fashion. While he lived, he kept the government
going. After his death, in 1658, his poor, weak son was
unable to control England. Two years later the elder
son of Charles I was called to the throne as Charles II.

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 251

252

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Chastened Monarch. The crowning of Charles II
could not undo the work of Cromwell and the revolu-
tion. The Church of England was " established "
again. The bones of Cromwell were dug up and hanged
in chains, but the spirit of revolt was still abroad in

From an old print

KING CHARLES II GREETED BY His SUBJECTS ON BEING
CALLED TO THE THRONE

the land. Many of the men who had helped to put
Charles I to death were executed, but the methods of
James I and Charles I would never be tolerated again
in England.

Charles II was lazy and loved pleasure. He was

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 253

careful not to walk in the footsteps of his father
and grandfather. He said that he wanted to keep his
crown on his head and his head on his shoulders.
He succeeded. For twenty-five years he reigned, and
then died peacefully in his bed.

James II and the Second Revolution. James II,
Charles' brother and successor, was a different sort of
man. He was a sincere Catholic and earnestly strove
to bring England back to the old faith. At the same
time, he was as harsh in manner as his father,
Charles I. He laid taxes, arrested his subjects, and
set aside laws as if he were a czar rather than a king
under the control of Parliament. After three years
of his rule, his -discontented subjects rose in their
wrath and expelled him. To save his neck, he fled
from England in 1688. Parliament called to the throne
his niece, Mary, and her husband, William, the Prince
of Orange in Holland.

THE RESULTS OF THE REVOLUTIONS
The Supremacy of Parliament. Before giving the
crown to William and Mary, Parliament passed a
law, known as the Bill of Rights, which set forth the
chief results of the revolution. This bill is as famous
in English history as the Great Charter (p. 177) and
the Petition of Right (p. 247).

The Bill of Rights first set forth the evil deeds of
James II. Then it declared that the king could not
set aside the laws, levy taxes, or keep a standing army

254 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

in time of peace without the consent of Parliament.
The Bill also declared certain rights of persons. It
proclaimed freedom of speech for members of Parlia-
ment, the right of the people to petition the king, and the
right of Protestant subjects to bear arms. It forbade
cruel and unusual punishments and excessive fines.
Some of the very language of this Bill of Rights is
to be found in the Constitution of the United States,
especially in the amendments.

The great document was read by an agent of Parlia-
ment to William and Mary, and they agreed to abide
by it. Thus Parliament became supreme in England.
" We accept what you have offered us," said William.
Divine right was dead in England. Shortly afterwards,
an act of Parliament was passed granting religious
toleration to all except Catholics and Unitarians.
Henceforward Protestants could hold religious meet-
ings and worship God according to their consciences.
Many years were to pass, however, before religious
freedom was granted to all.

The English Constitution. It was by such laws as
Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights that the English
system of government was fixed. The English people
never held a national convention to draft a complete
constitution. A great deal of their plan of government
is not written down at all. It is unwritten, that
is, consists of customs that have grown up through
the years. That part which is written consists of impor-
tant laws like the Bill of Rights.

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 255

The Meaning of the Revolutions for America. Dur-
ing this long and bitter contest in England every
English colony in America, except Georgia, was founded
(First Book, pp. 51-78). The religious disputes before
and during the first revolution drove many Puri-
tans and Separatists to New England. On the other
hand, while the Puritan party was supreme under
Cromwell, many of the king's friends, Cavaliers as
they were called, were forced to flee to Virginia for
safety. Henceforward, England's interest was to be
mainly colonial and commercial, and her activities
were to spread to every part of the world.

The revolt against the harsh power of the king in
England also meant more freedom for the American
colonies to grow up in their own way and to manage
their own affairs. James II had attempted to subdue
the American colonies as well as his subjects at home.
The Americans therefore rejoiced when they heard
of his overthrow. With James II passed away the
last arbitrary English king for many a year. Seventy
years, in fact, were to pass before another English ruler
undertook to meddle personally with American affairs.

After William and Mary were dead, the crown
passed to Mary's sister, Anne. Then it went to George

I, a great-grandson of James I, a German prince who
did not even know the English language and to the
end cared only for his German home. His son, George

II, learned to speak English with an accent, but never
undertook to rule harshly in England. He married

256 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

a German wife, and preferred to live in his German
palace. During the reigns of these sovereigns, that
is, from 1688 to 1760, the English colonists in America
were free to go their own way as far as the king was
concerned. Not until George III came to the throne,
in 1760, was royal meddling in American affairs re-
newed.

How the Ideas of American Independence Took Form.
The English revolution of 1688 not only weakened
the power of the king at home ; it proclaimed ideas of
human rights which were many years later used by
Americans in their revolt against George III.

These ideas were best set forth in the works of John
Locke, a writer of singular power. He was the son
of a Puritan gentleman, a graduate of Oxford Univer-
sity and a student of government. About the time
that James II was overthrown, Locke published a
book in which he attacked the theory of divine right
and asserted, instead, the rights of the people. He
declared that men were born with a right to freedom
and equal opportunity; that the end of government
was the good of mankind. Then he went on to say
that whenever any government violated the life, liberty,
and property of the people, the people had a right
to abolish it and establish a new one that suited them
better.

Here, in other words, are the doctrines set forth in
the American Declaration of Independence. Thomas
Jefferson, the author of the Declaration (First Book,

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 257

pp. 132-136), was familiar with the writings of Locke.
From them, no doubt, he drew many of his ideas.
So the defense of the English revolution of 1688 was
to become the defense of the American revolution
of 1776.

Europe Aroused. On the continent of Europe, as
well as in the American colonies, the English revolution
made a great stir. Kings and princes were shocked
at the uprising of the English people. It was the
first disturbance of the kind since the days of ancient
Rome and there was no telling how it would end.
" The news of the king's death," says the historian
Green, " was received throughout Europe with a thrill
of horror. The Czar of Russia drove the English
envoy from his court. The ambassador of France was
withdrawn on the proclamation of the republic. Hol-
land took the lead in open acts of hostility."

Though kings and princes were shocked at the
English revolution, the people of Europe became inter-
ested in English ideas. In a hundred years, the king,
nobles, and clergy of France were to be overthrown
just as they had been in England. All the famous
French thinkers who prepared the minds of the French
people for their uprising either studied in England
or were familiar with English writings. The works
of Locke were translated into French and studied by
French popular leaders. The English ideas of (i) a
free press, (2) a limited monarchy, (3) a supreme
Parliament representing the nation, and (4) a moderate

258 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

religious toleration spread far and wide in France.
Just one century after William and Mary faced the
English Parliament and agreed to abide by its laws,
the French king, Louis XVI, faced the French nation
and learned that he was no longer master in his realm.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. i. What is the difference between a religious revolt or
revolution and a political revolution ? Which of these two kinds
of revolution was represented by the American War for Inde-
pendence ? 2. In what ways did the revolt against the Church
increase the power of the kings? 3. State the important dif-
ferences among the following ranks or classes in England : the
king, the nobility, the landed gentry, the merchants, the yeomen,
the artisans, the farm laborers. Which of these classes would be
likely to side with the king in case of a quarrel, and why ? Which
would be likely to unite against the king ?

II. I. W7hat is meant by the "divine right" of kings? Try
tc imagine what life in our country would be like if we had a king
who believed in "divine right" and who ruled as James I and
Charles I ruled England. 2. Why did the landed gentry and
the merchants especially dislike to have the king levy taxes as he
pleased ? Why would they be likely to object to this more than
the yeomen, the artisans, and the laborers? 3. Of the three
important principles laid down in the Petition of Right, which
one do you consider the most important, and why ? 4. How
did it happen that the political revolt in England became also a
religious revolt? 5. We all agree that Americans should know
something about their own great heroes like Washington and
Franklin ; are there any reasons why Americans should also re-
member the name of Oliver Cromwell ? 6. What is meant by
a "dictator"? Do you think that a "dictatorship" like that of
Oliver Cromwell is ever justified ? Give reasons for your answer

GREAT POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND 259

III. I. What liberties did the people of England gain through
the Bill of Rights ? What important powers were thereafter lost
to the kings ? 2. How does the English constitution differ
from the constitution of our country? 3. How did the English
Revolution influence American history ? 4. In studying chap-
ter ix, we found that two great ideals grew up after the Prot-
estant Reformation, — the ideal of religious toleration and the
ideal of universal education. In the present chapter, what other
ideals have been seen to take form? 5. "Freedom of speech"
is generally thought of as the right to criticize the acts of those
in positions of authority, especially in the government; why
was this an advance over the "divine right" of kings? Does
"freedom of speech" mean that anyone can say anything that he
pleases ? What might happen to a man who said something
untrue about another person with the result that this person's
reputation was injured ? Even to-day it is generally believed
that "freedom of speech" in time of war must be restricted;
give reasons that justify this belief. 6. Another ideal established
by the English revolution was the one that played so important
a part in the American War for Independence, — "Taxation with-
out representation is tyranny." Explain the meaning of this.
Are you "represented" in the bodies that levy taxes in this coun-
try ? How? 7. A third ideal might be called "humaneness
in government." Both the Bill of Rights and our own Constitu-
tion forbid "cruel and unusual punishments." What punish-
ments mentioned in this chapter as having been practiced by the
English kings could not be inflicted by courts of law in our coun-
try to-day? 8. Still another ideal is represented by the "right
of trial by jury." What is a "jury"? Why is a trial by jury
likely to be fairer than a trial by a single judge ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

CREIGHTON — Stories from English History, xxxix-xlii.
DALE — Landmarks of British History, ix.

260 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

MARSHALL, H. E. — Through Great Britain and Ireland with Crom-
well; Stokes.

O'NEILL — The Story of the World, xxxiv.
VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), xlv, li.
WARREN — Stories from English History, xxvii-xxviii, xxxii-xl.

CHAPTER XI

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

The Influence of Discovery and World Commerce.

The age of the Protestant Reformation and the English
revolution was also an age of vast changes in the com-
merce and industry of Europe and in the life of the
people. Huge fortunes were made out of the trade
opened by Columbus, da Gama, and Cortes. As most
of the profits went to merchants and traders, the busi-
ness classes grew in power. At length they more
than rivaled in wealth and numbers the nobles and the
clergy. Their profits, added to the gold and silver
drawn from the mines of the New World, furnished
the capital for business enterprises on a huge scale.

The amount of money in the hands of the people
was larger than ever before. Many a serf, by the sale
of farm produce, was able to pay his landlord in cash
and thus became a renter instead of a bondman. Some
of the serfs, by careful saving, managed to buy their
plots of land outright. So free peasants began to take
the place of people bound to the soil. At the same time,
the money in circulation helped business in the towns.
The demand for manufactured goods increased, and

so did the number of artisans. Then began the drift

261

262

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

of the people to the towns in search of employment —
a drift that has kept up steadily until our own day.

Commerce, while making these changes within the
nations, also became a powerful cause of wars among
them. Princes had long fought over territory in

From an old print
A SUGAR MILL IN THE TROPICS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Europe. Now whole nations were to wage wars for
territory and trade in all parts of the world for tea,
sugar, coffee, and spices.

The chief rivals in this new form of warfare were
five in number, (i) The Portuguese. As we have seen.

CHIEF LUROPEAN RIVALS
263

264 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

they led in the work of exploration. They opened the
waterway to India and built up a rich trade there.
They also founded the colony of Brazil in the New
World. Portugal, however, lost her lead in 1580 when
she was conquered by Spain. (2) The Spaniards.
Through the exploits of her own seamen, Spain claimed
nearly all of the New World and enjoyed most of
the East Indian trade. By conquering Portugal,
her power and possessions were greatly increased.
(3) The Dutch. The people of The United Nether-
lands were once subjects of the king of Spain ; but, as
we have said, they finally revolted and became the
rivals of Spain in trade. They sent their first expe-
dition to India in 1595. They seized many of the
trading posts formerly held in the East Indies by the
Portuguese and they have managed to hold some of
them to the present time. (4) The French. The king
of France, not to be behind his neighbors, sent his
sailors west and east and laid claim to much of North
America and to parts of India. (5) The English.
Though they came late upon the scene, the English
soon surpassed all their rivals in the number of their
merchants, sailors, and battleships. By building a
mighty navy, England became mistress of the seas -
the greatest sea power that the world had ever seen.

THE COMMERCIAL TRIUMPH OF ENGLAND

Victory over the Spanish. The English king had
sent John Cabot across the Atlantic five years after

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

265

Columbus made his first voyage (First Book, pp. 26-29) ;
but nearly a hundred years passed before the English
people began to trade and form colonies.

When the English finally began to go abroad, they
turned their attention to America, where the Spanish

From an old print

A SPANISH MISSION IN CALIFORNIA, BUILT WHEN SPAIN
RULED THE SOUTHWEST

were making huge fortunes. Defying the king of
Spain, English sailors raided his towns in the West
Indies and Central and South America. They at-
tempted to plant colonies in parts of North America
which he claimed. One of them, Sir Francis Drake,
sailed all the way around the world (1577-80), looting

266 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Spanish ships and trading posts as he went (First
Book, pp. 38-44).

The king of Spain could not contain his wrath when
he heard of Drake's exploits, and made ready for war.
In 1588, he sent a powerful fleet of battleships, the
Armada, to the English Channel to drive his English
rivals from the sea. Instead of winning a great victory,
the Spaniards suffered a terrible defeat (First Book,
pp. 45-47). Spanish sea power was badly crippled and
the English no longer feared it.

Still, Spain managed to hold most of her colonies
until the nineteenth century. She held for a long time
all of America from what is now the southern part of the
United States down to the tip of South America,
except Brazil, which was Portuguese. She owned
Cuba and most of the West Indies. She also held
the Philippines and other islands in the East (First
Book, pp. 192, 372-375).

The Triumph of the English over the Dutch. The
Dutch, as well as the English, profited from the down-
fall of the Spanish Armada. They too were mortal
enemies of the Spanish. They rapidly pushed forward
their trade with India and made huge sums of moaey
by carrying goods to England for sale. Seeing large
profits going to their Dutch rivals, the English in 1651
passed a law against them, known as the Navigation
Act. This law forbade foreigners to carry into Eng-
land in their ships any goods except those which they
had grown or made themselves.

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 267

Within twenty-five years, there were three wars
between England and Holland. In the second of these
contests, the English wrested from the Dutch their
rich province of New Netherland in America. In

From an old print
A VIEW OF NEW AMSTERDAM IN NEW NETHERLAND

1664, the old governor at New Amsterdam surrendered
with a heavy heart to the British and lowered his flag.
New Netherland became New York (First Book,
PP- 65-73).

268 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Still the Dutch were not daunted ; their fleet swept
up the Thames and burned English war vessels even at
the docks. The English paid back their foes for this
defeat in a few years. They joined the French in a
war on The Netherlands, which proved very costly to
the Dutch in men and money.

After this affair, the Dutch could no longer hope to
rival the naval power of England. Still they were
permitted to retain many of their islands in the East
Indies, including Java and Sumatra. They held, until
1815, the Cape of Good Hope, which they had seized
many years before. For a long time after the close
of the third war, in 1674, the English and Dutch were
at peace. Indeed, when the Prince of Orange be-
came king of England, as William III (p. 253), the two
nations united in wars on a common rival, the king of
France.

THE CONFLICT BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN
INDIA AND NORTH AMERICA

India in the Year 1600. When the English first
began to trade in the East, India, a vast peninsula
jutting out from southern Asia, was a great empire.
The land was occupied by tens of millions of people
mainly engaged in tilling the soil. There were many
cities filled with wonderful temples and palaces. There
were libraries stocked with books written by some
of the world's wisest thinkers. Indian weavers made
silks and linen finer than any European artisans could

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

269

make. Rich Indian merchants and princes had huge
stores of gold, silver, and precious stones. In a word,
India was a highly civilized country. The various
peoples of India, however, differed in race and lan-
guage. They were held together as one nation merely
by the power of a
strong emperor, the
Great Mogul, as he
was called by the
English.

The English and
French Gain a Foot-
hold. Ini6oo,some
English merchants
formed an East
India Company to
trade in the Far
East. Soon they
were sending fleet
after fleet of mer-
chant ships around
the Cape of Good
Hope to Indian
ports. The new-
comers were welcomed by the natives and were per-
mitted to build factories, or warehouses, in certain cities.
The Great Mogul ordered his governors to "give them
freedom answerable to their desires, to sell, buy, and
transport into their country at their pleasure." The

TAJ MAHAL, A MARVELOUS TOMB BUILT BY
AN INDIAN EMPEROR FOR His WIFE

270 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Dutch and the Portuguese, who were already in India,
could do nothing but make the best of the situation.

Likewise, when the French merchants came in 1669,
they too were allowed to trade by the Mogul, and to
build their warehouses as the other Europeans had done
before them. By the opening of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the merchants of the rival European nations
were doing a thriving business in tea, silk, and other
Indian goods.

The Decline of the Mogul Empire. While the Mogul
empire lasted, the European traders in India could go
about safely and transact business without fear of rob-
bers or tax gatherers. This peaceful state of affairs came
to an end in 1707. In that year Arungzebe, the last
of the great Indian emperors, died, leaving no son strong
enough to hold together the vast heritage. Then the
empire began to dissolve. Local princes, nawabs
(nabobs), and rajahs, like feudal lords in Europe in
the middle ages, declared their independence. At once,
they began to struggle one with another to gain more
territory. India became a scene of disorder and war-
fare like Europe after the fall of Rome.

The English Conquest of India. Both the English
and the French in India were quick to see their chance.
They soon learned that a powerful army could conquer
all India, section by section. The French governor,
Dupleix (pronounced Duplex), fortified the town of
Pondicherry. He then organized bands of native sol-
diers, called by the English sepoys, and, in 1741, began

271

272

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

a career of conquest. About the same time an Eng-
lish leader, Robert Clive, determined to gain all he
could for the English East India Company. Whenever
England and France were at war in Europe, and some-
times when they were not, their agents in India fought
for mastery over the crumbling Mogul empire.

THE MODERN RAILWAY STATION AT BOMBAY, INDIA

In the Seven Years' War (1756-63), the triumph of
the English was quick and final. The French were
defeated and driven out of India. They were allowed
to keep a few trading centers, but they had to give
up all hope of subduing India.

That task was undertaken by the English. By a long

TtiE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 273

and gradual process, they overcame one Indian prince
after another until the whole Mogul empire passed
under their control ; rather, we should say under the
control of the English East India Company. Thus the
agents of a trading company became the rulers of
an empire. They ruled it until a terrible native revolt,
known as the Sepoy Rebellion, broke out in 1857. Then
the English government set aside the Company and
took over the control of Indian affairs itself. About
twenty years later, Queen Victoria, with pomp and
ceremony, was proclaimed " Empress of India."

The Triumph of the English in Canada. The contest
in India was only one part of the mighty struggle
between the English and the French over foreign
possessions. They waged war upon each other on the
banks of the St. Lawrence as well as on the banks of
the Ganges.

While the English were building their thirteen col-
onies on the Atlantic coast, the French occupied Canada
(First Book, pp. 83-92). From their base in Canada,
French pioneers explored the Great Lakes, the Ohio
Valley, and the Mississippi basin. They took posses-
sion of the land and named it Louisiana in honor of
the Grand Monarch, Louis XIV. They founded towns
at Montreal and at New Orleans and built forts here
and there in the vast wilderness between these two
towns. They threatened the western borders of the
English colonies, especially Virginia and Pennsyl-
vania.

BRITISH AND FRENCH RIVALS IN NORTH AMERICA
274

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 275

It was on this border that the French and Indian
War broke out. In 1755 occurred the defeat of Gen-
eral Braddock, the English commander (First Book,
pp. 92-101). From the forests of Pennsylvania the
war spread to Europe, where it was known as the
Seven Years' War. The English minister, William
Pitt, bent every energy to bring ruin upon France,
and was successful.

At the end of the war in 1763, Canada and most of
the territory east of the Mississippi passed under the
British flag. Well could Pitt boast that England was
victorious at once in America and in India, " the umpire
of the continent, the mistress of the sea." As colo-
nial powers, the Dutch were humbled, the Spanish
reduced to a low rank, and the French crippled by
the triumphant British on land and sea. Proudly could
the English historian write : "The Atlantic was dwin-
dling into a mere strait within the British empire."

THE BALANCE OF POWER IN EUROPE

How the Idea Arose. The wars over trade and ter-
ritory in all parts of the world were accompanied, as
we have hinted, by wars in Europe itself. This
was of course nothing new. From the downfall of the
Roman empire onward, war had been the chief business
of kings and princes. The trade with lands beyond the
seas, discovered by the explorers, only gave new rea-
sons for fighting. The rulers of Europe only found
fresh excuses for pouncing upon their neighbors and

2/6 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

seizing their territory. Wars became more deadly
and more costly than ever, and there was always danger
that some one country, like Rome of old, might become
supreme over all Europe.

In this state of affairs, diplomats invented a scheme
known as " the balance of power." It was their idea
to form alliances among nations in such a way as to
prevent any one of them from becoming the master
of all Europe. It was cold-blooded business. Kings
made alliances and broke them with as much ease as
they changed their clothes. They embraced a brother
king one year and waged war on him the following year,
if he became too powerful. Soldiers fought under one
flag one year and under another flag the next year —
with equal zeal. Such was the chief diplomatic interest
of England, Spain, France, Holland, and Austria for
nearly three centuries. In the eighteenth century two
new powers came upon the scene : Prussia, under the
Hohenzollerns ; and Russia, under the Romanoffs.

England and the Balance of Power. In this game,
England played a peculiar part. English kings had
once fought in France with a hope of winning French
territory, but they had long ago given up that project.
Still, England had a keen interest in the balance of
power in Europe. In the first place, she knew that
if any king became supreme on the continent, he
would soon attempt to cross the Channel and invade
her island home. In the second place, England was
often at war with Spain, Holland, and France over

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

277

foreign trade and territories. Thus she was deeply
concerned in all quarrels that promised to increase
her possessions in India or North America or to
enlarge her trade at the expense of her rivals. To
trace the history of the balance of power, therefore,

WESTERN EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

we must go over in another way the period which we
have just treated.

The Grand Alliance of 1689 against France. After
the decline of Spain and Holland, England's greatest

278 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

rival in Europe, as we have seen, was France. Under
an ambitious and warlike king, Louis XIV (1643-1715),
France sought to become a world power. Besides
starting colonies in various parts of the world, Louis
tried to annex some of the land now included in
Belgium. That brought him into a conflict with the
Spanish king, to whom the territory coveted by Louis
then belonged. Louis was also bent upon adding to
France lands to the east as far as the Rhine River.
That aroused the ire of several German princes and
particularly of the ruler of Austria.

The king of England, William III, hearing about
Louis' plans, set to work to defeat them. He
brought Holland, Spain, and Austria into a com-
bination against France. England commanded the
sea and sent troops to the continent to aid her allies
in attacking France on the landward side. The proud
Louis, after eight years of fighting, was forced to make
a humiliating peace.

The Grand Alliance of 1701 against France and Spain.
It was not long, however, before a new cause of war
arose. In 1700, the childless king of Spain died, leav-
ing his immense realms in the Old World and the New
to a grandson of Louis XIV. Thus both France and
Spain were in the hands of one royal family. Both
were European powers of high rank. Both held
great domains in the New World. Both were rivals
of Great Britain for trade in the Far East and the
Far West.

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 279

The peril to the English empire was undoubtedly
great, and English statesmen were quick to scent the
danger. The peril was equally great for the Dutch
and the Austrians. So by skillful management William
III was able to unite England, Holland, and Austria
in an alliance against France and Spain in a long
war that broke out in 1701 and lasted until 1713.
This conflict was known as the War of the Spanish
Succession.

When peace came at last, England was amply
rewarded. The fear that Spain and Spanish America
might be united with France had been the chief reason
for the war. That fear was now removed. It was agreed
that the crowns of Spain and France should never be
united. In addition England obtained from France
Newfoundland, Acadia, and Hudson's Bay in America.
She wrested from Spain Gibraltar, the fortress that
guards the entrance to the Mediterranean, and Minorca,
an island not far away.

England and Prussia against France, Austria, and
Spain. Distracted Europe was not to enjoy peace
very long. In 1740, Frederick the Great, the king of
Prussia, and Louis XV, the king of France, united
in a war to despoil Austria. They had started on the
enterprise when England took a hand in the fray
also. She furnished money to hard-pressed Austria
and gave military assistance. This war, too, spread
to America, where it was known as King George's
War.

280 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Peace came in 1748, but lasted only for a few years.
Seven years later the French and English came to blows
in the western part of Pennsylvania (p. 275). There
the pioneers of the two nations met in deadly combat.
War then flamed up in two hemispheres. As France now
won Austria over to her side, England arranged a new
balance of power. She united with Prussia against
her old ally, Austria, and her ancient enemy, France.
Troops were sent to aid Frederick the Great, the
Prussian king, and English gold was poured into his
treasury.

In America, General Wolfe astounded Europe by
his brilliant conquest of Quebec (First Book, pp. 98-
101). In India, Robert Clive achieved a victory no
less important at the battle of Plassey, in which he
overwhelmed the French and their Indian allies. " We
are forced to ask every morning what victory there is
for fear of missing one," exclaimed a witty English-
man as the news of one triumph after another poured
into London.

In the end, England's arms were victorious every-
where. France was impoverished and weakened in
Europe. She was forced, as we have seen, to give
up her colonies in North America as well as in
India. Canada became English. The name of William
Pitt, the great English minister who brought Eng-
land to such a pitch of power, was known and feared
around the world. Even the former French strong-
hold at Fort Duquesne, in western Pennsylvania,

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

281

282 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

was christened Pittsburgh in his honor. Louisiana,
beyond the Mississippi, was handed over to Spain.
Prussia became now a strong military country
and was in time to become master of all the German
states.

The American Colonies, France, Holland, and Spain
against England. It was to France, smarting under the
ruinous defeat of the Seven Years' War, that the
American revolutionists turned for help in 1776 (First
Book, pp. 136-142). French statesmen saw that the
time had come to call the New World into the Euro-
pean balance of power. There were many Frenchmen
who sympathized with American ideas ; but the king
of France did not. He saw in the possibility of Amer-
ican independence merely a check on the immense power
which England had won in the world. He at first aided
the Americans secretly with money and arms. In 1778
he made a treaty of alliance with them. Then French
battleships and military forces were sent to help the
American colonies in their struggle against Great
Britain.

Spain and The Netherlands, old commercial rivals,
also joined in the war on England.

The outcome of this new balance of power was the
defeat of England and the independence of America.
Henceforward, the diplomats of Europe, in their
schemes for war and empire, had to reckon with a new
republic across the Atlantic. In Benjamin Franklin
(First Book, pp. 136-143), the American minister who

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

283

284 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

brought about the alliance with France, they had found
a supreme master of their art.

England's Combinations against France (1793-1815).
England and France were at peace only for a short
time after the American War for Independence.
In 1793, they began a fresh series of wars that
lasted, except for a short break, until 1815. When
this new series of conflicts opened, the French
had begun their great revolution (below, pp. 299-
309). They had executed the king and set up a
republic.

George III and the English ruling classes were dread-
fully frightened at this outbreak so near at hand, in
the same way that the French king had been alarmed
at the English revolution a hundred years before
(p. 257). When the French occupied Belgium, they
were still more frightened. Then the old commercial
and colonial jealousy flamed up again. England gave
money to Holland and Prussia and formed a combi-
nation against France.

At this turn in events, a great military commander,
Napoleon Bonaparte, rose to the head of affairs in
France (below, p. 310). For a long time he was vic-
torious on land over all combinations formed against
him. On the sea, however, the British beat him in
every battle. At last, in 1815, Napoleon, with all
Europe against him, was overthrown at the battle of
Waterloo. The credit for the triumph over Napoleon
seems about equally divided between the English and

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

285

the Prussians, who fought side by side against the
French.

In the Napoleonic wars, as in the wars of the
preceding century, England's gains were colonial.
She took the Cape of Good Hope, which became
the basis of her empire in South Africa. She ob-

Vrom an old print

CAPE TOWN TRANSFERRED TO THE BRITISH DURING THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

tained certain French islands in the West Indies,
ajid she added the island of Ceylon to her growing
empire in India. Not until a hundred years later,
at the outbreak of the World War in 1914, was
England again seriously threatened by any continental
power.

286 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. From a study of the first two paragraphs of this chapter,
discuss two important ways in which the exploration and settle-
ment of the Americas changed the life of European peoples.
2. What is meant by the word "rivals"? Locate on the map
facing p. 436 the five nations that were rivals for the commerce of
the world during the period covered by this chapter. Can you
think of any reasons that will explain why such countries as Italy,
Greece, Germany, and Russia were not so much interested in world
commerce as were these five nations? 3. Locate on the map
the principal parts of the world with which the Spanish early car-
ried on commerce ; the Dutch ; the French.

II. I. Point out on the map the extent of the Spanish pos-
sessions in the Americas during this period. Locate Spain's
principal possessions in the Far East. 2. Why is the name
of Sir Francis Drake remembered? 3. The English victory
over the Spanish Armada is considered one of the most important
events in English history. Why ? 4. How did the English
Navigation Act aid English shipowners ? 5. In what way did
the struggle between the English and the Dutch influence American
history ? 6. Locate the Dutch possessions in the Far East on
the map on p. 271.

III. i. How was India reached from Europe before the Euro-
peans learned how to sail their ships around Africa ? 2. Recall
why great civilizations grew up in the Nile and Euphrates valleys.
Are there similar reasons that will explain why India was a favor-
able place for the development of a civilized people ? 3 . How were
the people of India held together at the time when the Europeans
opened an extensive sea trade with them ? In what way was the
history of India thereafter like the history of Rome ? 4. " Both the
English and the French in India were quick to see their chance."
Explain this statement and tell what each hoped to gain by conquer-
ing India. About how long had the English been interested in India

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 287

before they secured complete control of the country ? In what
important way does the present control of India by the English
differ from their control in the early days ? 5. The English
people were also interested in North America. Did this interest
differ in any respect from their interest in India ? If so, explain.
6. Point out the extent of the French and English possessions
in North America just before the Seven Years' War. 7. What
were the chief interests of the French in making settlements in
North America ? How did these differ from the interests of the
English ?

IV. i. What is meant by an "alliance" among nations?
How would such alliances help to prevent any one nation or king
from becoming master of all the rest? Why are alliances not
always successful in doing this ? 2. Why was England interested
in keeping any one nation on the continent of Europe from becom-
ing supreme? 3. Locate on the map facing p. 436 the lands
that Louis XIV wished to add to France. Locate the countries
that made an alliance against him. Why was the war that
followed, which led to fighting between the English and French in
America, known to the English colonists as King William's War ?

4. Spain was against France in the war just referred to; how did
she come to be allied with France in the next great war ? Locate
the new possessions that England gained in this war. Find out
what this war was called by the English colonists in America.

5. How many years elapsed between the War of the Spanish
Succession and King George's War ? What nations were allied
in the latter war? 6. How many years passed between the
close of King George's War and the opening of the Seven Years'
War? The last-named war differed from the earlier wars by
starting in America. How did it start? Locate the European
nations that later took part in it and tell which were in alliance
with the English and which with the French. 7. What Euro-
pean country that we have heard very little about up to this time
now becomes important ? _ 8. What were the principal results

288 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

of the Seven Years' War for England ? For our country ? For
France ? 9. What was the first alliance entered into by the
United States ? In what important way did this influence the
" balance of power" in Europe? 10. With what countries did
England make an alliance in order to crush Napoleon ?

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

1. Study the map of Asia in your textbook in geography.
What mountains bound India on the north ? Perhaps you can
find some facts about these great mountains that will explain why
they have been a real protection to India.

2. One of the chief purposes of your study of geography is to en-
able you to recognize and to locate in your " mind's eye " the impor-
tant places which you encounter in your reading. This chapter con-
tains many such names, but no more than you would find on the
front page of an ordinary newspaper.

Hold a class contest to find out who can put the largest number
of place-names in this chapter in the proper column. The follow-
ing will be the headings of the columns : Hemispheres ; Conti-
nents ; Oceans ; Archipelagoes ; Islands ; Lakes ; Rivers ; Straits ;
Bays ; States ; Modern Countries ; Former Countries ; Cities of
General Importance ; Cities Mentioned for Historical Importance.
The following places, listed here alphabetically, are all mentioned
in this chapter and should be classified in this way : Acadia, Asia,
Atlantic, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Central America,
Ceylon, Cuba, East Indies, England, English Channel, Europe,
Fort Duquesne, France, Ganges, Gibraltar, Good Hope, Great
Lakes, Holland, Hudson ('s) Bay,. India, Java, Louisiana, Minorca,
Mississippi, Montreal, Newfoundland, New Netherland, New
Orleans, New World, New York, North America, Ohio, Old World,
Pennsylvania, Philippines, Pittsburgh, Plassey, Pondicherry,
Portugal, Prussia, Quebec, Rhine, Russia, South Africa, South
America, Spain, St. Lawrence, Sumatra, Thames, Virginia, Wa-
terloo, West Indies.

THE RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 289

3. Hold another class contest to see who can locate correctly the
largest number of these places on an outline map of the world.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

CREIGHTON — Stories from English History, xlviii-xlix.
DALE — Landmarks of British History, x, xi.
MARSHALL — A History of France, Ivi, Ivii.
O'NEILL — The Story of the World, xxxviii-xlii.
TAPPAN — Hero Stories of France, xiii-xxi.

CHAPTER XII

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

WHILE English sailors and soldiers were beating the
forces of the French king on sea and land, English
ideas were spreading f among his subjects and helping
to destroy his power at home. Moreover, his wars -
including his aid to the United States in the War for
Independence — added to his debts and increased the
taxes laid upon his subjects.

As the burdens grew heavier, the French people
listened more eagerly to writers who told them how, in
England, the king could not collect taxes without the
consent of Parliament. The influence of the English
revolution was made even greater by the American
revolution. The Americans had thrown off the rule of
the king altogether and had set up their own plan of
government. French soldiers like Lafayette had helped
in the American war for independence and had carried
back to France stories of what they had seen and heard
in the New World.

Thus many things prepared the way for a revolution
in France like that which had occurred in England a
hundred years before. When the upheaval came,

Frenchmen proclaimed the democratic ideas which the

290

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

291

Americans had recently set forth in their Declaration of
Independence.

THE OLD ORDER IN FRANCE

The General Situation in Europe. On the eve of

the French Revolution, nearly all the people on the
continent of Europe were ruled by absolute monarchs.
The Bourbons in France and Spain, the Hohenzollerns

From an old print

THE GALLERY OF THE ROYAL PALACE AT FONTAINEBLEAU (FRANCE)

in Prussia, the Hapsburgs in Austria, and the Romanoffs
in Russia could all boast of almost unlimited power.
The minor princes of Germany and Italy were no less
supreme in their tiny realms. In only a few places,
like Switzerland, Holland, and Scandinavia, did the

292 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

people have any share in their own government, as they
had in England and in the United States. Everywhere
else on the continent the masses were subjects and
most of them were still serfs. Everywhere feudal land-
lords and the clergy enjoyed a great deal of the power
which had been theirs in the middle ages.

In the magnificence of the king, the splendor of his
court, and the authority of the clergy, France stood out
above all other monarchies of Europe. She was the
model and envy of all other kingdoms. Treaties among
nations were written in the French language. French
manners, French styles, and French plays became
fashionable among society people everywhere from
Madrid to St. Petersburg.

The French King. The powers of the French
king seemed boundless — even greater by far than
those of the English king had been before the Puritan
revolution of the seventeenth century. His word was
law. Any decree which he issued had to be obeyed.
He could lay taxes at will without asking the consent
of the taxpayers. He could spend the money as he
pleased. By his mere signature on a piece of paper,
he could put anyone in prison without trial and keep
him there as long as he wished. He could make alli-
ances with other kings and princes, either secretly or
openly, and thus involve his country in all kinds of
troubles. He could declare war or make peace at
will. He appointed and removed all high officers
and could compel them to carry out his wishes.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

293

294 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

As may be imagined, the expenses of the king were
enormous. In addition to the ordinary costs of govern-
ment, there were the heavy charges for wars entered
into for glory or the conquest of new territory. The
king kept up many costly mansions and had armies of
servants. The royal palace at Versailles alone is
said to have cost more than fifty million dollars. The
upkeep of the spacious buildings and gardens was a
drain on his treasury. The king also had about him
hundreds of courtiers who lived upon his bounty and
encouraged him in wasting money. To meet his bills,
the king merely issued orders on the treasury. When
the treasury was empty, he borrowed. At no time
did he publish any statement showing what his receipts
and expenditures had been. The finances of his king-
dom he deemed a matter of no concern to the taxpayers.

Indeed the king's subjects had been well schooled
to accept this system without grumbling. It was
still a regular saying in Europe that " the king can do
no wrong." In Protestant Prussia and in Catholic
France alike, the people were taught the belief that the
king ruled by the favor and will of God. This idea
of divine right, which had once been proclaimed by
English kings, was thus summed up by a celebrated
French bishop : ' Rulers act as the ministers of God
and as his lieutenants on earth. . . . Should God
withdraw his hand, the earth would fall to pieces ;
should the king's authority cease in the realm, all would
be confusion. . . . The royal power is absolute. . . .

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 295

The will of the people is included in his." Wicked
kings were accountable to God for their misdeeds,
but they were to be obeyed by their subjects.

The Nobility. The French king had stanch friends
among his nobles, a class of great landlords. Each
noble owned an estate, sometimes of thousands of
acres, tilled by tenants or by serfs. His birth and rank
set him off from the mass of mankind. The noble-
men, too, had many special rights. They escaped all
the heavy taxes. They held all the high and important
offices in the army and in the government. They
crowded about the king's court and got favors from him.
They spent the rents collected from their estates in
lavish entertainments. They were happy when the
king let them render him the meanest service ; at the
same time, they looked down upon merchants and
peasants as inferior beings.

The Clergy. Like the nobility, the French clergy
formed a distinct class. They were more powerful
than the clergy in England. This was because the
Protestant revolt had been stifled in France and
there were no strong Protestant sects to dispute their
authority. The priests were set apart for spiritual
duties. Their religious garb marked them off from
the mass of the people. j

Though the village priest was usually very poor, many
of the monasteries and the higher clergy — especially the
bishops and archbishops — were very rich. About one
fourth of the land of France belonged to the Church.

296 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The clergy were exempt from taxes, but they had
to give large sums for the support of the poor and the
sick. They had control of all education. They chose
the subjects to be taught and were themselves the
teachers. They could suppress books which they did
not approve. They could collect taxes, or tithes, for
their own support, and punish people who violated the
laws of the Church. They were powerful also as
advisers of the king and as leaders of opinion.

The Third Estate. All the rest of the French people
were known as the third estate, or third class. The ma-
jority of people everywhere in Europe were peasants
and lived by tilling the soil. Unlike the agricultural
laborers in England, many of them in France were still
serfs. In Prussia, Austria, and Russia, serfdom was
about the same as it had been in the middle ages. The
serf was not a slave ; that is, his master could not sell
him at the market. But he was still bound to the soil.

The leaders in the third estate were merchants,
manufacturers, and lawyers, rather than peasants or
artisans. With the growth of world trade in the
eighteenth century, the French merchant class had
grown in numbers and wealth. Their warehouses in
India and China, their fleets and their long lines of
wharves and docks bore witness to their energy and
power.

The merchants felt that they were the equals of
anyone, but they had to pay heavy taxes and enjoyed
no favors at the king's court. It is not surprising that

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 297

they did not like the inferior position in which they
were placed. They had to obey royal laws, yet they
were denied all voice in making them. In the govern-
ment of France, the richest merchants, like the humblest
peasant or artisan, had no rights. In opposing absolute
authority of the king, therefore, all these people had a
common interest.

Newspapers, Books, and Public Opinion. The lot of
most editors and writers in those old days was not
a happy one. If they praised the clergy and flattered
the king, they were rewarded with money and positions ;
but it was a blind person who could not see abuses that
cried aloud for remedy. So a host of writers began to
call for reform. Some complained about the high-
handed actions of royal officers, others about heavy
taxes, and others about the special privileges of the
clergy and the nobility.

The critics, however, had a hard time. Some of
their books were seized by royal officers and others
were burned by the hangman. Many a brilliant writer
was fined or shut up in prison. Among those punished
were some of the ablest men of France. One of them
wrote in favor of toleration for all religious faiths ; his
book was declared to be " seditious " and was burned.
Another writer, Voltaire, was imprisoned twelve months
on the charge that he had written a criticism of the
king, Louis XIV. An abbot who wrote an amusing
story about a princess was promptly ordered to jail.

As prisons, fines, and exile did not stop criticism,

298 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

stronger measures were taken. In 1764 the French
king decreed that no book should be published that
dealt with political questions. A few years later, the
government threatened with death any writer who ex-
cited the public mind, or attacked religion, or said any-
thing about royal finance. These heavy penalties also
failed to crush the critics. Thereupon a high officer of
the king proposed that no books should be printed ex-
cept on a press owned by the government and managed
by royal agents. This last plan was not carried out.
A revolution, which overthrew the entire system, pre-
vented it.

THE PEOPLE REVOLT

The Opening Scenes. When Louis XVI came to
the throne of France in 1774, he found himself an
absolute monarch, but heavily in debt. His grand-
father had spent huge sums in the French and Indian
War, and had lived extravagantly besides. The new
king thought for a while that he would undertake
reforms. In this he was unsuccessful. Every time he
cut off the salary of a nobleman or reduced a pension a
great cry went up from the victim. It seemed easier
to drift along in the old reckless way, so Louis chose
that course. Moreover, as we have seen, he added to
his debts by joining with the Americans in 1778 in
their war against England (First Book, pp. 136-142).
In a few years Louis XVPs treasury was empty and he
was practically bankrupt. Then he called upon) the

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 299

nobles and the clergy for help, only to meet with a
flat refusal. This was in 1787, the year that the Con-
stitution of the United States was drafted at Phila-
delphia.

The Estates General. Being at his wits' end for
money, the king was forced to call upon the nation
in 1789. So he summoned a grand national parliament
representing the three "estates" —the clergy, the nobil-
ity, and the Third Estate. This assembly, known as the
Estates General, was the first of the kind France had seen
for more than a hundred years.

The representatives of the Third Estate came in a
very serious mood. They resented the way in which
the king and his ministers had ruled — the waste of
money ; the injury to business ; the persecution ; and
the indifference to the welfare of the French people.
They debated their grievances with much heat. They
invited the clergy and the nobles to sit and vote with
them instead of forming two separate houses. When
the clergy and the nobles refused, the Third Estate,
in a revolutionary outburst, declared itself to be " the
National Assembly." It solemnly vowed that it would
not dissolve until it had drawn up a constitution for
France. The clergy and nobility found themselves face
to face with a new ruler, the French nation, speaking
through its representatives.

The Peaceful Revolution. It was in the spring of
the very year that George Washington was inaugurated
first President of the United States (First Book, pp.

3°°

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

154-155) that the French nation set out upon a road
of reform that led to revolution. On July 14, 1789,

ten days after the Americans celebrated their thirteenth
anniversary of independence, the people of Paris at-

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 301

tacked the Bastille, an old royal prison, and destroyed
it. In memory of this event, the I4th of July has
become the chief national holiday of France.

For two years the French National Assembly issued
decrees of reform. It abolished the dues owed by serfs
to their lords. It swept away the special rights and
privileges of the nobility. Everywhere the serfs and
peasants became free. It issued a Declaration of the
Rights of Man. It took away from the king the right
to make laws, lay taxes, or imprison at will. It
declared in favor of religious toleration and freedom of
press and speech. The Assembly decreed that the
property of the Church should belong to the nation,
and provided that the clergy should be paid from
public funds. It drew up a constitution for France.
It did not overthrow the king, but it did provide that
laws were to be made and taxes voted by a legislature.
This legislature was to be elected by all the men who
paid a certain amount of taxes. Thus, in two years,
the old order was swept away in France. Very little
blood had been shed. The French nation was attempt-
ing to govern itself and the king accepted the reforms.

Americans Hail the New Day in France. The
reforms of the National Assembly, especially the new
French constitution, were greeted with general applause
in the United States. " Liberty will have another
feather in her cap," wrote a Boston editor. " In no
part of the globe," declared John Marshall of Virginia,
" was this revolution hailed with more joy than in

302 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

America." The main key of the old Bastille was sent
to George Washington as a memento and accepted
by him as " a token of the victory gained by liberty."

France Slipping into Disorder. In the midst of
the rejoicing, however, there were omens of trouble.
French nobles who had lost their privileges fled across
the Rhine. There they tried to get help in a plan to
invade France, " free the king," and restore the old
system. Louis himself showed his bad faith by at-
tempting to escape from his realm. When he was
captured and brought back, the people were in an angry
mood.

Some agitators began boldly to demand a republic.
Hundreds of non-taxpayers in Paris assembled on a
great drill ground (Champs de Mars) to petition for the
right to vote. They came to blows with the soldiers
and many of them were killed. All France was wildly
excited.

The kings of Austria and Prussia announced that
they were ready to advance with their armies and re-
store Louis to his old rights as a brother sovereign.
France answered by a declaration of war on Austria
and was defeated in the first battles. Then Prussia
joined Austria and set her armies in motion. The
French nation was in extreme danger of an armed in-
vasion. In the midst of the excitement, a mob broke
into the king's palace, forced him to put on a red liberty
cap, and compelled him to drink to the health of the
people. Volunteers from all parts of France came pour-

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

303

ing in to defend their country. One little band of
them from Marseilles came marching along singing a
stirring hymn -- the Marseillaise — which became the
hymn of the revo-
lution and later of
the republic.

The Reign of
Terror. In this
hour of peril, a na-
tional convention
was elected. Mod-
erate men who
favored the king
were brushed aside
by radical repub-
licans, known as
Jacobins. In Sep-
tember, 1792, the
convention abol-
ished the monarchy
and announced the
first French Re-
public. Within a
few months, it
tried the king, condemned him to death, and executed
him. In a short time, too, the queen, Marie Antoinette,
was sent to the scaffold. The English king, George III,
went into mourning. All England, forgetting the ex-
ecution of its own king, Charles I, long before, was

from an ola print

THE KING OF FRANCE SEIZED BY A MOB

304 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

alarmed. In February, 1793, France and England were
at war. As the revolution was in grave danger of being
crushed by outside enemies and by the factions within
France, the convention put all power into the hands of
a committee known as the Committee of Public Safety.
For more than two years, France was governed by

From an old print

THE TRIAL OF Louis XVI

a small minority of men who ruled with an iron hand.
This period is called the Reign of Terror. Hundreds of
royalists were executed with scarcely the semblance of
a trial. Moderate men, who hated bloodshed and
were not zealous enough for the revolution, were exiled
or sent to the scaffold. Uprisings of the peasants
against the republic were stamped out. The clergy,
who refused to accept the new order, were sternly pun-

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 305

ished. Powerful men rose to leadership in swift suc-
cession, each more radical than the man before him.
Marat, Danton, and Robespierre each, in turn, led in
the revolution and then perished on the scaffold or at
the hands of an assassin.

Meanwhile, war was going on with all Europe. In
spite of this, more extreme reforms were being under-
taken and a new constitution was being drafted. The
mass of Frenchmen, who had been denied the right to
vote by the first constitution of 1791, were given this
right — a thing that seemed very dangerous at that
time.

Reaction against Terror. Finally, the country be-
came sick of bloodshed and disorder. A new govern-
ment was established in 1795. It was republican in
form. It was arranged that there should be a parlia-
ment consisting of two houses and an executive
department composed of five men called the Directory.
For four years (1795-99) France was governed under
this plan.

The Reign of Terror was over, but the country was
still at war. Victory on the battlefield was taking the
place of defeat, however, and the kings of Europe were
frightened. With republican armies launched on a
career of conquest in Europe, all the monarchs and
nobles and clergy trembled for their own safety. They
were to have no peace for twenty years.

American Opinion on the French Revolution. Dur-
ing these stirring years in France, a great discussion

306 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

of the situation was taking place in the United States.
The Americans also were being agitated by politics
and were dividing into two parties. The Federalists
were being formed under the leadership of Alexander
Hamilton and the Republicans under Thomas Jefferson
(First Book, pp. 154-160).

Hamilton and his followers did not have great faith
in popular government. Few of the Federalists be-
lieved in giving the vote to men who owned no prop-
erty, as the French radicals had urged. Indeed, the
Federalists looked with real alarm upon the spread
of French democratic ideas. They said that the rad-
icals were to blame for all the disorders in France, and
they denounced the Jacobins as " anarchists "' and
" criminals."

The followers of Jefferson, on the other hand, said
that, on the whole, the French republicans were trying
to do the right thing. They were sorry about the
reign of terror, but they laid the blame rather on the
king's friends and the nobles who wanted to overthrow
the revolution and restore the old order. The Jeffer-
sonians admitted that many terrible things had been
done by the revolutionists, but they said that most
of them had been necessary in the interest of the
people. They pointed to the misdeeds of Louis XVI
and asserted that the king and his friends had brought
all the trouble on themselves. So Jefferson's followers
formed " Democratic " societies and held banquets
in honor of the French Republic. They said that the

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 307

kings of England, Austria, and Prussia were tyrants
waging war on republican France in order to restore
the monarchy.

The United States Involved. While the people
debated theories of government, the American govern-
ment had practical problems to face. France, at war
with England, called upon President Washington for
aid. France claimed that the United States was bound
to help her under the terms of the treaty of 1778.
Many American citizens at the same time clamored
for war against England. President Washington,
unmoved by all the uproar, declared that the United
States would remain neutral. When the French
minister to the United States went about making
speeches in this country to secure aid for France, Pres-
ident Washington asked the French government to
order him home. Under the rules of war both England
and France began to search and seize our ships and
goods on the high seas.

Very soon France and the United States were on
the verge of war. President Adams, who followed
Washington, sent a special mission to Paris seeking
peace. It was not received with courtesy, and secret
demands were made upon it for (i) apologies for past
conduct and (2) money in the form of bribes. President
Adams then told Congress about these outrageous
demands, naming the Frenchmen who made them
simply as " Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z."

This aroused the whole country. Even Jefferson'?

308 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

party turned against France. In fact, war on France
actually started at sea, though it did not last long.
A peace was soon patched up.

About the same time, the Federalists tried to shut
out all further French influence by passing two severe
laws, known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. The first
of these laws authorized the president to expel any
alien agitator from this country ; the second laid
penalties on those who criticized the government of
the United States. These laws were bitterly attacked
by the party of Jefferson and became the subject of
violent dispute (First Book, pp. 159-160).

The French Revolution and European Opinion.
England had alarmed the world by her revolution a
hundred years before. Now it was the turn of France
to terrify governments everywhere. In England, it
is true, a few leaders rejoiced during the first stages
of the French revolution and declared that England
needed similar reforms ; that her earlier revolutions
had not been democratic enough. Most Englishmen,
however, were up in arms against everything French
and denounced as " Jacobin " anyone who proposed
the slightest change in the English government. One
of them, Edmund Burke, who had once handsomely
championed the cause of the Americans (First Book,
pp. 116-118), savagely attacked the French and de-
manded a union of kings to make war on them.

King George's officers seized and threw into prison
citizens who declared that the vote should be given to

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

309

every Englishman whether he owned any property
or not. " The right of universal suffrage, the subjects
of this country never enjoyed," said one of the king's
judges, " and were they to enjoy it, they would not
long enjoy either liberty or a free constitution." Men
who expressed ap-
proval of French
ideas, even pri-
vately, were liable
to be fined and im-
prisoned.

In Austria, Prus-
sia, and Spain, as
well as in England,
the ruling classes
were thoroughly
alarmed. They
feared that revolu-
tionary ideas about
liberty, democ-
racy, and republics
would upset every
throne and destroy
the rights of the

nobility and the clergy. French popular leaders talked
as if the millennium had come. Kings and nobles,
on the other hand, thought the world was crumbling
into ruin.

NAPOLEON I, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH

310 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

The Remarkable Career of Bonaparte. Among the
officers in the French army at the outbreak of the
revolution was a young man destined to become the
master of France and nearly all Europe. His name was
Napoleon Bonaparte. He was only twenty-three years
old when Louis XVI was executed in 1793, but in the
war that soon followed he proved that he was an able
artillery officer. In 1795 he endeared himself to the
French government by using his guns on a crowd of
citizens bent on overturning it.

The next year, Bonaparte was chosen commander
of the French army sent against the Austrians in Italy.
In one battle after another, often against great odds,
Bonaparte defeated the enemy and made himself mas-
ter of all northern Italy. He astounded the world by
his brilliant exploits.

Having beaten Austria, he decided to strike England
by attacking Egypt. In this way he threatened Eng-
lish trade in the Mediterranean. He also hinted that
he would go on until he destroyed English rule in India.
Bonaparte was readily victorious over the Turks in
Egypt ; but his fleet was destroyed by the English com-
mander, Nelson, in the famous battle of the Nile in 1798.

Bonaparte as Consul and Emperor. As things were
not promising in Egypt, Bonaparte hurried back to
France. In 1799, with the aid of soldiers, he over-
threw the Directory. Thereupon he made himself

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

head of the government as First Consul and reduced
the power of the parliament to a shadow. With an
iron hand, like Oliver Cromwell, he put down all oppo-
sition — that of royalists and radicals alike. He said
that France needed " order," and he established order

NAPOLEON'S CARRIAGE

by the sword. He said that France loved " glory,
by his conquering armies he gave her glory.

At the same time, he steadily increased his own power.
In 1802 he was made consul for life instead of a term
of years. Two years later, he was made Emperor of
the French, and crowned himself with great ceremony

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 313

in the beautiful cathedral of Notre Dame, with the
pope looking on. He created a new court on the model
of Louis XVFs and founded a new nobility. He
strictly censored books and newspapers. He ordered
editors not to print news " disagreeable to France."
He required teachers in the schools to praise his name
and his deeds and to make pupils do the same. France
had a new despotism, more thoroughgoing than the
despotism of the Bourbon kings had been.

Napoleon's Conquests. " What the French want,"
Napoleon declared, " is glory. . . . The Nation must
have a head rendered illustrious by glory and not by
theories of government." In keeping with this idea,
Napoleon was at war, save for a few months, during
his entire rule. He found France at war in 1793,
and he kept it up until 1815 with only one short
breathing spell. By blows swift and terrible he over-
came the armies of all nations massed against him.

By 1810, Napoleon was the master of Europe. He
was Emperor of the French, King of Italy, and " Pro-
tector " of a league of German states. The borders
of France had been extended to the Rhine and in-
cluded what is now Belgium and Holland. His brother
had been placed on the throne of Spain, and his
brother-in-law on that of Naples. Only on the sea was
he baffled. There England's navy reigned supreme.
Indeed we may look upon the Napoleonic wars as a
part of the old commercial struggle between England
and France (p. 268).

314 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Napoleon's Downfall. When, in 1812, Napoleon
at last tried to conquer Russia, he made a fatal mis-
take. He could not fight against winter and famine.
So he beat a hasty retreat. All the leading countries
then turned against him. He was defeated at Leipzig
in 1813. The next year he was sent into exile on
the island of Elba.

Once more Napoleon tried his fortune. He escaped
from Elba, gathered an army about him, and promised
France " peace and liberty." The kings of Europe
proclaimed him an outlaw. On June 18, 1815, their
armies, with the Duke of Wellington in the lead, over-
whelmed Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo. This
time Napoleon was sent far away to St. Helena, an
island in the South Atlantic Ocean. There he was
guarded day and night until his death in 1821. Twenty
years later the French brought his body back home and
placed it in an imposing tomb at Paris, where it rests
to-day.

America and the Napoleonic Wars. The long wars
between England and France gave both of them an
excuse to prey upon American commerce. French
cruisers seized American ships and goods bound to
England. The English did the same thing to ships
and goods bound for France. Still they were not satis-
fied. They searched American ships for British-born
sailors, and carried away some who were really Ameri-
can citizens. All through Jefferson's eight years as
President seizures by the French and the English went

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

3IS

316 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

on, trying American patience to the utmost. Finally,
in Madison's administration, in 1812, Congress declared
war on England, opening a conflict for more than two
years (First Book, pp. 181-190).

One great advantage came to the United States
from the long struggle among the European powers.
That Was the purchase of the Louisiana territory in
1803. Napoleon had compelled Spain to cede it to
him three years before ; then, fearing that England
might wrest it from him, he quickly sold it to the
United States. So much at least America owes to the
career of Napoleon Bonaparte.

The Results of the French Revolution. When
Napoleon was overthrown, in 1815, the Bourbons were
restored to the kingdom of France ; but the old order
was not brought back again with them. The power
of the clergy and the nobility had been badly broken ;
they never fully recovered their ancient position. The
king, moreover, could no longer make laws without
the consent of a parliament. The age of Louis XVI
had passed forever.

In addition, all Europe was in ferment with new
ideas. Everywhere people talked of the " rights of
man," even in distant Russia. It was said that all
men, rich and poor, noble and common, should be
equal before the law ; that men had a right to make
their own laws and levy their own taxes. Religious
toleration was widely accepted in theory and some-
what in practice. Everywhere people talked of new

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 317

things. Even the idea of votes for women was ad-
vanced. Freedom of speech and press lived on in
spite of many difficulties. The notion of free public
schools had been put forward during the revolution.
It was not put into practice then, but it continued
to live in the minds of the people.

Feudalism was tottering to its final fall. Napoleon
had abolished the rights of the nobility in Italy and
Spain by force of arms and by imperial decrees. Thou-
sands of the great estates owned by landlords were
broken up into small farms tilled by their owners.
New " peasant democracies " began to take the place
of aristocracies.

Though attempts were made everywhere to undo
the effects of the French revolution, they were not
successful. All western Europe was passing out of
the feudal and clerical age. Even in Germany the
two or three hundred petty princes whom Napoleon
overthrew were never restored. The Holy Roman
Empire (p. i66)--long a mere shadow empire -
which he destroyed was never called to life again. The
rulers of Prussia and Austria tried in vain to stop the
spread of French notions among their subjects. Even
far-away Russia could not escape the influence of the
French example. Though they did their best, kings
and czars could not blot out the history of the past
twenty-five years. The day was to come when echoes
of the Marseillaise would be heard in the streets of
Berlin, Vienna, and St. Petersburg.

318 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. Compare the condition of the common people of France
with that of the common people of England in the early part of
the eighteenth century. Study the powers that the French king
had at that time (p. 292) and tell what bodies have these powers in
our country to-day. 2. Compare the account of French classes
(king, nobility, and common people) given in this chapter vith
the account in chapter x of the classes in England. In wnich
country were the nobles the more powerful ? The clergy ?

II. I. Why is the first revolt of the people against the French
king called the "peaceful revolution"? Can you think of any
reasons that will explain why the common people of France began
their revolution with an attack on the royal prison, the Bastille ?
What kind of prisoners were probably kept there ? 2. How did
the first two years of the French revolution differ from the first
two years of the American revolution? 3. Why were the kings
of surrounding nations anxious to see the French king restored to
his old position of power ? 4. England had already made long
advances toward democracy; why, then, were the English people
ready to make war on the new French republic ? 5. In what
important ways did the French government between the years
1795-99 differ from our government to-day? 6. At the out-
set of the French revolution many if not most Americans were
sympathetic with the French people. Later there was a strong
feeling against them. Make a list of the reasons for this change
of opinion. 7. What is meant by "neutrality" in war? Why
did Washington wish to have the United States remain neutral in
the war between the new French republic and England ?

III. I. How did it happen that a young man like Napoleon
could come into power so quickly ? 2. Compare Napoleon with
Cromwell and with Washington. Which of the three do you
admire the least, and why? With what military leader of the
ancient world would you compare Napoleon ? 3. What reasons

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 319

can you think of that will explain why the conquest of Russia and
of England was too great a task even for Napoleon ? 4. The
battle of Waterloo is regarded as one of the most important, or
" decisive,' ' battles of history. Why ? 5. What were the effects
of the Napoleonic wars in America ? In Europe ?

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. From the map on p. 312, find out why the kings of Austria
and Prussia, as told on p. 302, took such interest in the French
revolution. 2. By a study of the map just referred to, find out
what modern nations were included in the empire of Napoleon
at its greatest extent. 3. Locate Waterloo.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING
FOR PUPILS

BIRKHEAD, ALICE — The Story of the French Revolution; Crowell.

DALE — Landmarks of British History, xix.

DUTTON, MAUDE B. — Little Stories of France, pp. 132-171 ; Amer-
ican Book.

FINNEMORE, J. — Peeps at History, France, x-xv; Adams and
Black.

MACGREGOR — The Story of France, Ixix-lxxiii.

MARSHALL — A History of France, Ixxvi-lxxxii.

MORRIS, CHARLES — Historical Tales, France, xxi (p. 233), xxx;
Lippincott.

O'NEILL — The Story of the World, xliii.

TAPPAN — Hero Stories of France, xxxi.

VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), xlvi, lii-lv.

FOR TEACHERS

ASHLEY, R. L. — Modern European Civilization, vi-vii ; Mac-

millan.
TARBELL, IDA M. — Napoleon; Macmillan.

320 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

SUGGESTIONS FOR REVIEW OF CHAPTERS IX-XII

I. i. Make a list of the most important events that are de-
scribed in these four chapters. Arrange these first in the order
of time, and then try to rearrange them in what you think to be
the order of their importance. 2. How many years passed be-
tween the discovery of America and the end of the Napoleonic
wars ? On the blackboard draw a line six feet long. Let the left
end of the line mark the fall of the Roman empire and the right
end the close of the Napoleonic wars. Place a mark at the proper
point indicating the discovery of America. Make other marks
indicating what you consider to be the most important dates of
these two periods.

II. I. What great rights did the common people of Europe
gain during the period covered by these four chapters ? In what
countries did the common people make the greatest progress during
this period ? In what countries did they make little or no progress ?
2. Make a list of the persons mentioned in these five chapters
who in your judgment did the most for their fellow men. Have
committees appointed to find out all they can about these men
and to report to the class the important facts about their lives and
the reasons which justify us in learning about heir deeds and
honoring their memories.

CHAPTER XIII
THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY

The Slow Progress in Industry in Olden Times.

All the revolutions in empires, kingdoms, and republics
which filled the pages of history down to the eighteenth
century made few changes in the way in which the
mass of the people lived and worked. The great
nations of antiquity rose and fell ; city-states flourished
and withered ; commercial towns sprang up and de-
cayed ; Rome spread out her broad empire and then
broke into pieces; kings and princes fought for centuries
over fragments of territory ; constitutions were framed
and parliaments created. All the while the mass of
the people in Europe -- the peasants with their hoes,
the artisans at the forge, the women at the loom -
went on with their work as usual. All the while they
were using the few crude and simple tools that had
been invented in the early days of mankind. Through-
out their long history, the English and the French, like
the Greeks and the Romans, had made few improve-
ments in the plow, the wagon, or the loom. Wheat
was cut with a sickle and threshed with a flail,
almost as in the first days of agriculture. Through

321

322 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

the two thousand years and more of their progress,
the Greeks and Romans made little advance over the
crude methods of the earliest times. Indeed, they
both looked with scorn upon all hand labor and

Keystone View Co.. Inc.

SPINNING BY HAND IN JAPAN TO-DAY

thought it beneath the dignity of any educated person
to care about making better tools or making the bur-
den of toil lighter for human beings.

All during the middle ages, the age of discovery, the
Protestant Reformation, and the English political
revolution, the same ways of working were continued.

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 323

When King John was forced to grant Magna Carta,
the plow used in the fields of England was modeled
on the same lines as the plow introduced by the Romans
when Britain was a province of their empire. When
the Pilgrims set sail for America in 1620, the women
of England spun and wove cloth by hand, as their
ancestors had in the days of King John. The lumbering
stagecoach and the creeping sailboat were the chief
means of travel and trade. In order to secure a bare
livelihood, to say nothing of comforts and luxuries,
the masses had to spend laborious days digging, sowing,
reaping, spinning, and weaving. The sons and daugh-
ters of peasants became peasants ; they lived and died
in the village where they were born. The sun rose and
set with serene monotony on changeless days of toil.

A Sudden Revolution in Industry. Then suddenly,
about the middle of the eighteenth century, there began
a series of remarkable inventions which in time turned
upside down the old world of peasants and artisans.
New ways of working, living, trading, and traveling
were discovered. A new age was opened — our modern
age of steam and machinery, gigantic factories, smoky
industrial cities, roaring furnaces, thundering expresses,
ocean steamships, mysterious electric instruments, and
swift automobiles and airplanes.

As time went on the inventors worked faster and
faster. The man with a hoe, bowed by the weight
of centuries, was startled to find a tractor driven up
beside him. Women, bending over their shuttle day

324 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

and night, could not weave cloth fast enough by hand
to compete with the flying shuttle driven by steam ;
so they were drawn forth by thousands to the factories
to tend steel fingers that flew with lightning speed
and knew not weariness. The place of the stagecoach
was taken by the railway. The lazy sailing vessel was
nosed aside by the ocean greyhound that sped over
the Atlantic in less than six days. Coal and oil drawn
from the earth in huge quantities gave heat and
light for multitudes whose ancestors for centuries
had shivered in darkness.

The Idea of Progress. Industrial events brought
changes in the life of the people as no political events
had ever done. Peasants left the soil and went into
industrial towns or across the sea in search of employ-
ment. Women and girls, for the first time, worked
in factories and were paid in money for their labor.
Millions learned to read and write. The idea of prog-
ress — of endless improvement in the lot of mankind
- seized upon the minds of humanity. Those who
labored at the plow, the forge, and the loom no longer
accepted in silence any fate that befell them ; they
declared they would be citizens, voters, and architects
of their own fortunes. The age of democracy — the age
of the people — burst upon the astonished world.

This marvelous epoch of progress was opened by
obscure artisans, mechanics, and smiths who, with end-
less patience and in the face of trials and discourage-
ments, made one ingenious machine after another.

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY

325

They were benefactors of mankind who have never
figured largely on the pages of history. Nevertheless
they did more to change and improve the lot of the
people than all the generals and statesmen that ever

From an old -print

CARRYING FREIGHT IN ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

lived. So great was the change which they wrought
in the life of Western nations that it has rightly been
called the industrial revolution. In this work of inven-
tion, America did a lion's share.

STEAM POWER

The Uses of Power. If you will stop to think about
the things you use in daily life, you will find that power

326

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

has been employed to fashion them. Nothing can be
made without the use of some kind of power. Take,
for example, a loaf of bread. Power is used to break
the ground, sow the seed, reap the grain, grind the
flour, and knead the dough. So with everything we use.
In olden times the power of men, women, children,
and beasts, of wind and water, was used to turn wheels

From, an 6ld print
AN ENGLISH WATER MILL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

and make goods. But animal and human power is
limited ; the wind is fickle ; and waterfalls are found
only in certain places. As long as mankind had only
these sources of power, the output of goods was nec-
essarily small.

James Watt and the Steam Engine. In 1736 there
was born in Scotland a genius who was to place un-
limited power at the service of mankind. His name

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 327

was James Watt. A story is told that he got the idea
of using steam power by watching the steam in his
mother's teakettle push the lid up. Unfortunately
this pretty tale is a fiction.

Long before Watt was born, the power of steam was
known and many men had attempted to harness it.
The furnace and boiler had been invented to generate
steam. A steam engine had been devised that would
push a pump handle up and down ; but it was a very
awkward thing and would not turn a wheel.

Watt, who was a skilled mechanic at the University
of Glasgow, had in his collection of models a small
steam engine of the old, crude type. It was while
working on this machine that he got the idea of a better
engine. He made his first invention in 1765 and took
out his first patent four years later.

Watt made two important advances. He cut down
the waste of coal in generating steam and he fixed the
engine so that it would turn a wheel.

As he was a poor man, he had to form a partnership
with Boulton, a man of money, in order to manufacture
his engines. For many years the two men built en-
gines at Birmingham, in England. Watt kept on
making improvements in the engine until his death in
1819. Thanks to his labors, there was henceforward
no limit to the amount of power for the making of
goods. It is estimated that the steam engine " has
added to human power the equivalent of a thousand
million men."

328

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

THE BOYHOOD OF JAMES WATT

from an old print

The Steamship. Power is necessary for carrying
goods from place to place as well as for making them.
On the sea, wind and oars had always been used to
drive ships. On land, horses, asses, and oxen were
employed to drag carts and wagons. How slow those
old methods were ! How natural that some one should
think of using the steam engine to drive ships and
wagons ! Indeed, other men in Europe and America were
already thinking about it when Watt took out his
first patent. It so happened that the honor of making
the first successful steamboat was won by an American,

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY

329

Robert Fulton (First Book, pp. 221-224). It was 'm the
year 1807 that he sent his steamboat, the Clermont, up
the Hudson River and back again. This was a great
triumph for Fulton, but it is due to truth to say that
a part of the honor belongs to Watt. Fulton used in
the Clermont a steam engine made by Watt and Boulton
at Birmingham. In fact, Fulton had visited England
himself and had learned much there about the use of
steam. He tried to interest the great Napoleon in

Natural History Museum
MODEL OF AN EARLY PADDLEBOAT MADE YEARS BEFORE THE Clermont

his ideas before he found help in the United States.
The Steam Railway. While Watt and Fulton were
busy with their machines, other men were at work
trying to apply steam to driving wagons. The very
year in which Watt took out his first patent, a French
inventor, Cugnot, made a steam wagon which carried
four persons along a road at the rate of a little over
two miles an hour. An engine built according to his
plans in 1770 is still to be seen in the industrial mu-
seum in the city of Paris A

330 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

A few years later a workman in the shops of Watt
and Boulton in Birmingham made a small steam car-
riage which, we are told, ran a mile or two carrying " a
poker, a fire shovel, and a pair of tongs." In 1804, a
Cornish engineer, Richard Trevithick, built in Wales
a locomotive which drew along a tramway five wagons
with a thirteen-ton load at the rate of five miles an
hour. Likewise in other parts of Great Britain, other
inventors were busy with the idea of steam locomotion.

In 1825, there was built in the north of England the
first public steam railway in the world, running from
Stockton to Darlington, a distance of about twenty
miles. George Stephenson planned and drove the
first locomotive over the line. With the completion
of the Manchester and Liverpool system in 1830, the
age of steam railways was begun. Within twenty-five
years, the principal cities of western Europe had rail
connections with one another. George Stephenson
was praised as one of the first inventors of all times.
In truth, however, a great deal of credit for patient
experiments belonged also to other men who failed to
make a business success of their locomotives.

THE INVENTION OF MACHINERY

Old Ways of Spinning. While James Watt was
improving the steam engine to take the place of human
power, other inventors were making machines to take
the place of arms and fingers. The earliest of these

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY

331

inventions were in the textile industry ; that is, for
spinning yarn and weaving cloth.

From ancient times woolen threads had been spun
by hand. The spinner placed a bunch of wool on a
stick known as a distaff *, drew out a few fibers, twisted
them together, and attached them to a stone called
the whorl. The whorl was then given a sharp stroke
and allowed to drop down, turning rapidly around.
When a few feet were spun the thread was wound on a
stick and the process of drawing and twisting repeated.
As you may imagine, it was slow and tedious work.
The spinning wheel, which came into use in the
later middle ages, was a vast improvement on the
distaff ; yet it too was slow. The spinner could spin
only one thread at a
time.

The Old-Fashioned
Loom. Weaving was

also done by hand.
The weaver fastened
stout threads, called
the warp, in parallel
rows on a round pole
and attached the loose
ends to a second pole.
The poles were then
fastened a few feet
apart, thus stretching
out three or four feet

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Natural History Museum

DIAGRAM SHOWING now WEAVING Is DONE

332 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

of the warp. The weaver took finer thread, called the
weft, and wound it on a stick or shuttle. All was now
ready for weaving. The shuttle was pushed in and
out between the threads of warp. Forward and back
went the shuttle lacing the weft with the warp and
making cloth. The hand loom generally in use in the
eighteenth century was little more than a wooden frame
for holding the warp in place while the weaver oper-
ated the shuttle.

The Spinning Jenny. At the very time when James
Watt was making his first improvements in the steam
engine, a clever mechanic at Blackburn, England,
James Hargreaves, was working on a machine for spin-
ning several threads at once. About 1767, two years
before Watt's first patent, Hargreaves built a machine
which he called a "jenny" (perhaps after his wife).
His machine had eight spindles instead of one and
could be operated easily by a child.

The Factory System. A year later an English barber,
Richard Arkwright, took out a patent for another
spinning machine. He made several of them and
drove them all by a water wheel. For this reason he
is called " the father of the factory system." By this
time scores of mechanics were trying to perfect the
spinning jenny. At last there was built a machine
which spun several hundred threads at a time and
required the attention of merely one or two boys or
girls to mend the threads when they broke.

The Power Loom. The invention of the spinning

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY

333

machine, of course, increased immensely the output of
yarn. The weavers then had to " speed up." It was
not strange, therefore, that inventors should think
of improving the old-fashioned and slow hand loom.
Indeed, as early as 1738 an English mechanic, John

GLIMPSE OF A MODERN SPINNING MACHINE IN A FACTORY

Kay, hit upon the idea of driving the shuttle to and fro
by means of a lever or handle attached to the loom.

For nearly fifty years no other important improve-
ments were made. Then, just as the American revolu-
tion was coming to a close, an English clergyman,

334 °UR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Edmund Cartwright, began to work on a loom that
could be driven by power. By 1787, he had his machine
in operation. It was a cumbersome affair, at first,
but year after year it was improved and refined. At
length a loom was perfected that would throw the

A MODERN LATHE TO TURN HEAVY IRON WORK

shuttle to and fro four hundred times a minute and
weave the most complicated patterns.

Iron and Steel. When the age of invention opened,
the methods employed in making iron were almost as
crude as in Caesar's day. Charcoal was used to melt
the ore, and hand bellows to furnish the blast for the

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 335

very hot fire required. Small pieces of iron were
tempered into steel by a slow hand process. As long
as such tedious methods lasted, invention in other fields
was limited, for machines are nearly all made of iron
and steel. Without them, there .could be no railways,
steamships, or steam engines, to say nothing of spinning
jennies, looms, and a thousand other useful machines.

The situation was fully understood by many inven-
tors, and about 1750 they started a revolution in the
iron industry. At that time coal was first applied to
smelting iron ore. In a few years the bellows were
thrown away and the blast was furnished by compressed
air from iron cylinders. Within forty years, the steam
engine was harnessed to drive the air-blast machine.
In the course of time, hot air was substituted for cold
air, and a way was discovered for changing iron into
steel in immense quantities as it poured from the fur-
nace.

The Flood of Inventions. As soon as the human
mind was turned to invention, there seemed to be no
limit to its powers. The Greek philosophers had
scorned the practical arts ; the modern nations glorified
them. Every year the patent offices of the European
countries had to make room for new contrivances.

From America, Europe borrowed the telegraph and
telephone (First Book, pp. 228-231). The idea of a
cable under the Atlantic Ocean was also American, but
European capitalists helped to realize it in 1866. In
many fields Americans and Europeans exchanged ideas.

336

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

They learned from and taught each other. Invention
became international.

Every branch of industry and agriculture was trans-
formed by machinery and steam. The inventor tri-
umphed over Nature. He harnessed her power to turn

his wheels. He devised millions of supple fingers to
take the place of human ones. He discovered a real
fairyland of science. At the touch of his magic wand,
cloth, knives, forks, spoons, plates, cups, saucers, shoes,
lumber, nails, typewriters, sewing machines, reapers,

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 337

automobiles, telephones, telegraph instruments, loco-
motives, and electric lights flowed in avalanches from
his giant factories. So it became possible for the
masses to have comforts and even luxuries once denied
to kings and princes. Surely the inventor deserves
a place in history as well as the warrior and the politi-
cian.

THE MEANING OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Era of the Business Men. Before the age of
;>team and machinery, agriculture was the chief occu-
pation of the people; landlords and clergy were the
leading men of affairs. As we have seen, these men
held the high offices in the government under the king's
authority. They directed the thought and labor of the
people. Commerce, it is true, called into being a large
class of merchants ; but as long as the goods were made
only by hand, the opportunities for trade were limited.

With the age of Watt and Fulton came the modern
business men. They raised the money for factories
and machines, organized industries, and brought to-
gether hosts of workers. They planned railroads and
steamship lines. They searched the four corners of
the earth for markets in which to sell the goods they
manufactured. They advertised and " pushed " their
wares, putting new things before the people, creating
new wants, and so making fresh business all the time.

Ever alive to chances for greater profits, the business
man discarded old methods, " boosted " new ideas,

338 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

and encouraged " progress." The medieval merchant
had been a man of progress as compared with the
landlord ; but the business man put all the drive of a
steam engine into " making things move." The ox
cart, the hand loom, the sickle, and the flail were made
obsolete by his railway, power loom, reaper, and thresh-
ing machine. Through their energy, their wealth, and
their ingenuity the business men became more powerful
than the clergy and nobility put together.

The Industrial Workers. The steam engine and
machinery also changed vitally the position of working
people. In olden times, when tools were simple and
cheap and operated mainly by hand power, every
enterprising young man could look forward to the day
when he would own a set of tools and be his own master.
It is true that a clever mechanic sometimes gathered
several hand looms under a single roof and hired em-
ployees to operate them. Still there was little to be
gained by this. Goods could not be made more cheaply.
As long as weaving was done by hand, the loom was
usually found in the home and all the family took part
in making cloth.

With the coming of steam and machinery, hand tools
were driven out of business. The slow and weary
arms of men and women could not compete with the
swift and tireless steam engine. Therefore, in place
of the small shop there came the vast factory. Work-
ing people — men, women, and children -- went out
of their homes to tend machines in huge mills. They

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY

339

340 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

no longer owned the tools with which they worked.
They were employees of the men who furnished the
capital to buy the machinery. They could seldom
expect to become employers themselves.

Thus there grew up in Europe a large class of people
who did not own land or tools and who depended for
a livelihood upon the sale of their labor to factory
owners. In order to increase their wages and reduce
their hours of work, employees in the leading trades
formed trade unions. So the working classes drew
together. Many strikes and long contests between
employers and employees resulted from the efforts of
trade unionists to better their lot.

The Growth of Industrial Cities. All through an-
tiquity and the middle ages, the great mass of the
people lived in the country and worked on the land.
At the time of the French revolution, perhaps nine
tenths of the people of Europe were peasants or arti-
sans living in small villages.

The steam engine and machinery made a revolution
in their lives. The factory was a great magnet which
drew men and women and children into the towns.
Important centers of trade and industry became gi-
gantic cities. At the end of the nineteenth century
most of the people of England were city dwellers.
Ancient Rome at the height of her glory had about
five or six hundred thousand inhabitants ; modern
London has about seven millions. Within a radius of
thirty miles of Manchester there were, in 1920, about

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 341

fifteen million people, nearly all employed in factories,
mines, and shops.

Industrial Panics. These huge industrial cities were
helpless without trade. They could grow no food or
raw materials, like wheat or cotton, for themselves.
If business was poor, factories were shut down and
working people were unemployed. The peasants in
the country usually had something to eat and wear.
They could produce these things for themselves if they
could not buy them. The industrial workers in the
towns, on the contrary, were at the mercy of the market.
If the demand for cloth or shoes fell off, there was a
falling off in the demand for labor to make them.
About every ten or fifteen years during the nineteenth
century, the cities of Europe suffered from a panic
and bad business conditions. Thousands were unem-
ployed and driven into poverty. Certainly the lot
of many industrial workers was not to be envied by the
peasants on the land.

The Contest of Industry and Agriculture. After the
invention of the steam engine, industry steadily gained
in importance as compared with agriculture — that
is, in the number of people employed, the money in-
vested, and the profits made. As England was the
original home of the industrial revolution, so England
took the lead as an industrial nation. By the end of
the nineteenth century, four fifths of the English people
were engaged in factories, shops, offices, mines, and
warehouses, and lived in cities ; only one fifth remained

342

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 343

in agriculture. Germany stood next with two thirds
of her people in industrial and business pursuits and
one third on the soil. France was about equally divided
between town and country. In Italy, Austria, and
parts of Russia, industry was growing steadily, but not
as rapidly as in western Europe.

In fact, in northern, eastern, and southern Europe ag-
riculture held its own during the nineteenth century as
the chief occupation of the masses. There the tillers
of the soil, with a few machines to help them, worked
the land with hoes and spades as their forefathers
had done in the middle ages.

In many places, especially Ireland, Italy, Poland,
Russia, and Hungary, the land was not divided into
small farms but was mainly held in great estates by
rich landlords. Serfdom had practically disappeared
by 1861, but millions of European peasants did not
own any land. The landlords would not break up
and sell their estates. So the peasants were not able
to buy land. They had to work as renters or day
laborers, if they found work at all. As their num-
bers multiplied, it became more and more difficult to
find employment. There were few factories in those
countries and, as time went on, the working people
had to search far and wide for opportunities to earn
a livelihood.

Resulting Migration. Amid these changing condi-
tions, the fixed ways of living common in the middle
ages were broken up. Peasants whose ancestors

344 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

had lived undisturbed in their native villages for a
thousand years were drawn into industrial towns.
Millions of working men and women began to move
to and fro. Artisans in search of employment or seek-
ing to improve their lot went from city to city.

At the same time migration from nation to nation
set in on a large scale. Peasants from all parts of
Europe went across the sea in throngs to find homes in
North America, South America, or Australia. More-
over, there were constant changes in migration itself.
As industries multiplied in England and Germany,
for example, the growing populations of the rural
districts found work in neighboring factories. English
and German migration to America, therefore, fell off
until by 1890 it had dwindled to a small stream.

By that time, however, the emigration to the United
States from the farming regions of Scandinavia, Italy,
Austria-Hungary, and eastern Europe generally, as
well as from Ireland, had become very large. Of the
1,058,000 Europeans who entered the United States
in 1914, one of the years of heaviest immigration, more
than one half were from Italy, Austria-Hungary,
Ireland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. Whoever
would understand America to-day, therefore, must look
across the ocean to the lands whence came so many
million citizens.

The Influence of the Railways. By connecting the
chief cities of the same country, the railways built
up national trade. They enabled certain districts to

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY

345

engage in iron or cloth manufacture and to rely upon
other sections for food and fuel. The most backward
and out-of-the-way places were brought into touch
with the most progressive business centers. For ex-
ample, a Frenchman from the north of France, who

View Co., Inc.
AN AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE READY FOR SHIPMENT TO CHINA

had scarcely ever seen a Frenchman from Marseilles,
could now make a journey to that city in about fifteen
hours. Newspapers could be carried quickly from one
section to another ; they helped to give the people a
larger outlook and to overcome local jealousies. In a

346 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

word, railways tended to unite all parts of the same
nation and to foster the spirit of nationalism (see
below, p. 354).

Then the railways overleaped national boundaries.
The railway companies of different nations arranged
to run cars from one country to another, and indeed
across many countries. Long before the end of the
nineteenth century, it was possible to take a through
car from Paris to Berlin and St. Petersburg, or from
Paris to Rome, or from Paris to Milan, Venice, Athens,
or Constantinople. When larger and larger engines
were built, the speed was increased until the journey
from Paris to Constantinople could be made in three
days. It took Caesar's legions more than a month
to march from Rome to Paris ; the steam locomotive
can make the trip easily in twenty-four hours.

Railways thus became important factors in extending
trade and preparing for war. The Germans, for
example, planned a long line extending from Berlin
to Constantinople and Bagdad. This was to bind
Turkey and western Asia into a close union with central
Europe. In this way, the Germans hoped to draw
to themselves much of the trade that had once been
carried by British merchant ships. The English were
equally busy with plans for a railway line from Cairo,
Egypt, to Cape Town far away at the southern tip of
Africa. At the same time, Germany, France, and Russia
were building railway lines to their frontiers. These
were to be used in sending forward troops and supplies

347

348 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

in case of war. So the railway, which helped so much
to unite nations, also served to divide them and prepare
them for war on a vast scale.

The Influence of the Steamship. The steamship
brought about quick, safe, and cheap communication
between the most distant parts of the earth. Thus
millions of Europeans were enabled to use tea, coffee,
sugar, and other tropical products for the first time.
Great manufacturing districts, such as those around
Manchester in England, came to depend upon raw
cotton bought in Egypt and the United States and
upon the sale of their cloth in all parts of the world.

Equally important was the effect of the steamship
on emigration to the United States. In colonial times,
a European workman often had to bind himself to
labor for a term of at least five years to pay his passage
to America (First Book, p. 76). Toward the end of
the nineteenth century, the steerage fare from Liverpool
to New York sometimes fell as low as $25. At the
most, not more than a few weeks' labor served to pay
the cost of the voyage. Consequently millions of the
poorest people of Europe came to America. More-
over, the steamship companies were always bidding
against one another to get passengers. They sent
advertisements and agents into the highways and by-
ways of Europe ; they offered special favors to all who
would buy tickets to America. So the stream of mi-
gration swelled with the passing years.

Cheap passenger rates also had another striking

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 349

effect upon migration. In the old days when the
voyage was so costly, those who went to America went
to stay. When the cost of their passage fell to $25 or
$30, thousands of Europeans went to the United States
merely to make money. After they had made it, they
returned home and bought land for themselves. More-
over, thousands went back and forth, having no fixed

A GREAT TRANS-ATLANTIC STEAMSHIP

home anywhere. This meant that the United States
acquired many residents and workers who were not
citizens -- many residents who cared little about the
fate of America and a great deal about making money
out of America in a hurry.

The steamship also introduced new and serious
elements into warfare. It brought closer together
countries that were once separated by journeys of

350 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

weeks or months. A steamship can now cross the
Atlantic in less time than it took George Washington
to go from Philadelphia to Cambridge, in 1776, to take
command of the American army. The very fact of being
brought so close to Europe has made warfare at sea
more serious than ever. Nations have grown to de-
pend heavily upon trade by sea and upon food brought
in ships. When war occurs, the country with the
strongest navy can cut off the trade and the food of
its enemies. This is what Great Britain did to France
during the Napoleonic wars and to Germany during the
World War that opened in 1914. So sea power has
become one of the mighty factors in shaping the world's
history. It was a great factor in the day of the sailing
vessel. It is greater still in the day of the steamship.

The Contest for Natural Resources. Besides mak-
ing all these changes in the life of the peoples of Europe,
steam and machinery added fresh sources of dispute
among nations. In ancient times 'and in the middle
ages, the masses of the people lived on bread, wine,
and olive oil. They had only a few simple garments,
and they usually slept on piles of straw. Their wants
were supplied from materials at hand. Bread came
from the fields and cloth from the backs of sheep.
Each community and each nation met nearly all
its own needs and did not depend very much on its
neighbors.

With the invention of the steam engine and machin-
ery, this local independence came to an end. Few

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 351

nations have all the raw materials used in their indus-
tries. If a nation does not have iron and coal, at least,
it lacks the chief elements of industrial success. It
must either get these things by trade or obtain ter-
ritory in which they are to be found. For this
reason, Germany reached out to get possession of
French iron mines in Alsace-Lorraine. England likewise
reached out to get petroleum in Mesopotamia and
coal in China. Modern industry, therefore, with its
need of vast supplies of raw materials made great
changes in the relations of nations, just as it changed
the relations of people within each nation. Nations
that had formerly fought for territory to be tilled by
their peasants or pastured by their flocks, now be-
gan to fight for territory on account of the wealth that
lay beneath the soil.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. Preceding chapters have told of the English revolution,
the American revolution, and the French revolution. We have
learned that such revolutions are called "political." The present
chapter tells about the "industrial revolution." In what im-
portant ways did the industrial revolution differ from the polit-
ical revolutions ? In what way did the industrial revolution
differ from the earlier "religious" revolution (see chapter ix) ?

II. i. Make a list of the different kinds of power that are now
used. Which of these were used by primitive men (chapter ii) ?
Which were used by the Romans? 2. In what way did the
invention of the steam engine "place unlimited power at the
service of mankind" ? 3. Why is Watt's name so much better
known than are the names of the inventors who first used steam

352 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

power to operate pumps ? 4. Can you think of any reasons that
will explain why the use of steam was at first much more successful
in moving boats on the water than in moving cars on the land ?
5. Compare the work of Watt, Fulton, and Stephenson. Of
the three, whom do you regard as rendering the greatest service,
and why ?

III. I. What progress had been made in spinning and weaving
before the use of steam power ? The earliest textile mills were
operated by water power. Is water power still used for this pur-
pose ? (Find from your geographies where the important centers
of textile manufacturing in America are now located.) In what
way did the introduction of steam power help the textile industry ?
2. How did the increased use of machinery increase the demand
for iron and steel ? What improvements were made in the pro-
duction of iron and steel because of this demand? 3. This
chapter has dealt in part with three great topics : the appli-
cation of steam power to transportation by sea and land ; the
development of the textile industry through improved machinery
and the use of power ; the development of the iron and steel in-
dustry. Think of the various ways in which these three kinds of
progress helped one another.

IV. I. Tell why, after the industrial revolution, the "business
man became more powerful than the clergy and nobility com-
bined." 2. In what ways did the workers benefit by the in-
dustrial revolution ? In what ways were they perhaps as badly
off as they were before? How did they try to better their con-
dition? 3. How did the industrial revolution make possible
the growth of great cities ? Why was it impossible for these huge
cities to grow up before the use of steam power in transportation ?
In manufacturing ? 4. How does the life of the workers in the
great cities compare to-day with the life of the peasants and artisans
during the middle ages? 5. Locate on the map facing p. 436
the principal industrial countries of Europe to-day. Locate the
principal agricultural countries. From what countries have most

THE AGE OF STEAM AND MACHINERY 353

of the recent immigrants to the United States come ? Why ?
6. In what important ways in addition to carrying foodstuffs
and manufactured goods have railroads and steamships changed
modern life ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

DARROW, F. L. — The Boy's Own Book of Great Inventions;

Macmillan.

HOLLAND, RUPERT S. — Historic Inventions, iv, v; Jacobs.
MARSHALL, H. E. — An Island Story, xcvi ; Stokes.
QUENNELL — A History of Everyday Things in England, II, iii to

p. 166.

VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), Ivii, Iviii, lix.
WARREN — Stories from English History, pp. 383-406.

CHAPTER XIV

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The Idea of Nationalism. Almost every one has a
love for the place where he was born. All persons are
likely to be proud of their own town, their state, their
country. . People feel more fellowship with those that
speak their own language and belong to their own race
than they do with those who speak other languages and
belong to other races. This love of the homeland and
feeling of fellowship is the spirit of nationalism. The
whole idea is summed up in such slogans as " Italy for
the Italians" and "Poland for the Poles." It was
defined by President Wilson during the World War in
this manner : " No people must be forced to live under
a sovereignty under which it does not wish to live. No
territory must change hands except for the purpose of
securing to those who inhabit it a fair chance of life
and liberty."

Slow Growth of Nationalism in Olden Times. The
rulers of the ancient world had no respect for nation-
alism. Egyptian, Babylonian, and Persian conquerors
showed no regard for races and nations as such but
subdued them all with equal severity. The Romans

354

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 355

brought within their broad empire the swarthy African
as well as the fair Briton. They prevented wars of
races by uniting them all under one rule. The Catholic
Church, in many ways the heir of the old Roman
empire, likewise made no distinction among nation-
alities. " Of one blood are all races of men," ran the
language of the Bible ; so the Christian ideal was that
all men should join in one religious brotherhood under
one head, the pope at Rome. The very word Catholic
means " universal " or " all-embracing." The idea of the
Church was peace and the union of nations rather than
a sharp division of them along lines of race and language.

The Practice of European Kings. The Church, how-
ever, was not strong enough to keep peace and hold
all Christendom together. As we have seen, numerous
kings and princes rose and flourished in feudal Europe.
They paid no more attention to the " rights of nations "
than did the imperial despots of antiquity. In their
numerous wars they were always trying to bring new
subject races under their swords. At peace settle-
ments, they handed peoples and territories around as
if they were so much property. This was such a com-
mon practice that the peoples bartered and sold by
kings and princes seldom made any protest. In fact,
one king was so like another that a change of masters
made little difference.

Western Europe Contrasted with Central and Eastern
Europe. As we have seen, France, England, and
Spain had become nations by the close of the middle

356 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

ages. Each of them was ruled by one king and had
a national language and literature. For hundreds of
years, however, central and eastern Europe made little
or no 'advance in nationalism. There many a race
was divided and ruled by different kings. There it
was a common thing for the same king to have, as
his subjects, people of different races and tongues.
Germans, Italians, Poles, Czechs, Serbs, Rumanians,
and many other races were divided, handed about, and
ruled without any respect for their wishes.

The Settlement of 1815. This treatment of races
was so common that few princes or governments ever
thought of changing it. When the royal diplomats
met in 1815, after the overthrow of Napoleon, they
showed no respect for the rights of peoples. They
found the Germans divided among many princes, and
they left them divided. They found the Italians distrib-
uted among half a score of rulers, and they left them
about as they were. They saw the Poles divided into
three groups, ruled by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and
they made no change in that situation. None of these
royal agents thought of criticizing the czar for holding
down Finns, Swedes, Letts, and Poles by force. None
of them dreamed of attacking the emperor of Austria-
Hungary for keeping nine distinct races under his
scepter. They thought him clever when he took as his
motto " Divide and rule " and when he called in one of
his subject races to crush an uprising of another.

The Awakening of Nationalism. On the surface of

357

358 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

things it appeared in 1815 as if this old custom of divid-
ing and bartering races could go on forever. Soon,
however, the spirit of nationalism began to upset the
plans and confidence of kings. The idea of nationalism
had been deeply planted by the French revolutionists
when they boldly announced that the people, not kings,
had the right to make laws and levy taxes. It was
only a slight step forward to declare that any people
or race also had the right to choose its own government
and governors.

The idea thus planted had been nourished by Napo-
leon. He called on Italians, Germans, and Spaniards
to cast off their kings and princes. At the same time,
he himself acted like a tyrant toward them when they
did. Then the Italians and Germans began to plan to
get rid of him. It was when all Germany lay pros-
trate under the heel of Napoleon that German orators
and teachers began to appeal to the people to rouse
from their slumber, shake off their chains, and assert
their rights as a nation.

Other forces, too, helped to create a national feeling.
When railways came, they bound together the different
sections of the same country. Trade cemented the ties
of blood between these sections. Newspapers and
books, circulating widely, gave to the same race common
ideas and common hopes. The schools and the press
overcame local dialects and gave a common tongue to
each people. Poets, men of letters, patriot orators,
in ballad, song, editorial, and stirring speech, praised

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 359

the glories of their respective races and called for unity.
In time, therefore, armies that had once fought for
the glory of princes were ready to fight for national
glory and independence. Then kings and princes began
to take note of this national spirit among the people
and to use it cleverly for their own ends.

How GERMANY AND ITALY BECAME NATIONS

The German Confederation. A slight step had been
taken toward German' unity in 1815. It was then
agreed that the thirty-four states, each ruled by a
prince, and the four free towns, governing themselves,
should be bound together in a union or confederation.
It was, however, a very loose union, something like
that of the American states under the Articles of Con-
federation (First Book, pp. 149-154). Moreover, it
was not a union of people, but of sovereign princes and
free cities. The parliament or congress set up for this
confederacy was only a council of diplomats, chosen by
the princes and the cities. It had very little meaning
for the whole German people.

There were several reasons for this. The most
important was the jealousy of the princes. Each of
them wanted to keep his full power over that section
of the German people which he himself ruled. The
kings of Prussia, Austria, Saxony, Bavaria, and Wur-
temburg all cared more for their own little realms than
they did for a German nation.

The Movement for National Unity. Nevertheless

360 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

three important factors in Germany were working for
unity.

1. The king of Prussia was ready to have unity at
any time — if he could be master of the whole empire.

2. Merchants and manufacturers wanted unity.
That would mean abolishing the taxes on trade be-
tween the German states, freedom of trade in Germany,
and a duty on imports from foreign countries which
would make it harder for foreigners to compete with
Germans. In this they had before them the example
of the United States.

3. The third force making for unity was the activity
of those who longed to see the German people united
under a constitution of their own making. They
thought they could carry out their design in 1848,
when there was a general revolution against kings all
over Europe. A congress of German delegates met
at Frankfort, debated for many weeks, and drew up a
national constitution. They could not, however, put
it into effect because the king of Prussia, who despised
the rule of the people, opposed it. He was waiting for
his chance to bring about unity by the sword and to
make himself master. He therefore persecuted those
who pleaded for union and democracy. He drove from
the land thousands of the friends of liberty, many of
whom settled in the United States. Among them was
Carl Schurz, who served with honor in the Union army
during the American war between the states and as
an officer in the federal government in after years.

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 361

Bismarck and Prussia. In 1861, the king of Prussia
called to his aid one of the most ingenious and powerful
statesmen of modern times, Otto von Bismarck. These
two men then set out deliberately upon the task of
uniting Germany, " by blood and iron," under Prussian
control. They enlarged the Prussian army. When
the Prussian parliament refused to vote taxes, they
collected the taxes anyhow. They waged war on the
king of Denmark and wrested Schleswig-Holstein from
him in 1864. They waged war on Austria and drove
it out of the German union. They broke up the old
Confederation of 1815 and formed a new system known
as the North German Confederation.

The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire.
They picked a quarrel with Napoleon III, who had
managed to make himself emperor of the French.
Napoleon III was a man as ambitious as his famous
uncle, but he had less ability. In 1870 France declared
war on Prussia and was badly defeated. As a result,
the Germans took away from France the two provinces
of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time, four South
German states, still outside the union, joined the
German Confederation. The Confederation itself was
turned into an empire. The king of Prussia was
crowned first German emperor on French soil in the
royal palace at Versailles in 1871.

Nearly all Germans, except those in Austria, were
at last united — and with them many Danes, Poles, and
French, in spite of themselves. From a people once

362

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 363

divided and the prey of foreigners, the Germans had
become a powerful military nation. They now had an
imperial ruler of their own and were feared through-
out Europe as the French had once been.

Italy in 1815. The Italians, unlike the Germans,
were not even united in a loose confederacy by the
Vienna settlement of 1815. On the contrary, Italy
was made up of many independent states. In the
north, Austria owned Lombardy and Venetia outright,
and members of the Austrian family ruled over three
little duchies besides. Across the center of the penin-
sula were the independent States of the Church, gov-
erned by the pope. In the south was the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies under the sway of Spanish Bour-
bons. The island of Sardinia and Piedmont on the
mainland were governed by the king of Sardinia.

Most of the Italian sovereigns were equally interested
in keeping the country divided and in putting down
all ideas of popular government. Austrian military
bands played in St. Mark's square in Venice to amuse
the people, but the Venetians were not allowed to
discuss politics or independence.

Mazzini and the Spirit of Italian Nationalism.
Many Italians of the younger generation refused to
be contented with their lot. They remembered that
Italy had once been united under Rome. They re-
called the glories of the ancient republic and of the
Roman empire. They appealed to the people to arise,
cast off the yokes of princes, and form an Italian nation.

364 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Among the leaders of this movement was Joseph
Mazzini (1805-1872), an eloquent speaker, a moving
writer, and a brave man of action. He formed a so-
ciety, known as Young Italy, which aimed at Italian
unity under a republican form of government.
" Young Italy," he said, " is a brotherhood of Italians
. . . who are convinced that Italy is destined to become
one nation, convinced also that she possesses sufficient
strength within herself to become one." For nearly
fifty years he preached the gospel of unity, fearing not
prison, exile, or battlefield. In 1848, when all Europe
was in revolution and the Germans at Frankfort were
trying to make a national constitution, Mazzini and
his followers seized the city of Rome and declared a
republic. The attempt failed, and Mazzini was driven
into exile.

Cavour and Victor Emmanuel. The next year there
came to the throne of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel,
who desired Italian unity provided it could be brought
about under his management. Moreover, he had a
clever minister, Count Cavour, who ardently hoped
that Sardinia might play in Italy the part played by
Prussia in Germany. He did not believe that a republic
was possible ; but he thought that the king of Sardinia,
with the aid of France, might drive out the Austrians,
overthrow all the other princes, and become supreme
in Italy.

For many years Cavour worked hard to bring this
about. In 1859 the time seemed ripe to launch the

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 365

scheme by a war against Austria. Supported by
Napoleon III, Victor Emmanuel defeated the Austrians
at Magenta and Solferino and added Lombardy to
his kingdom. Soon uprisings occurred in other parts
of Italy in favor of unity. Within a little more than a
year, all Italy, except Venetia and a small part of the
domains of the pope at Rome, was united. In February,
1861, Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy.

Garibaldi and His " Red Shirts." The work of
bringing the Two Sicilies into the kingdom was largely
done by the patriot Joseph Garibaldi and his band of
" Red Shirts," as they were
called on account of their
uniforms. Garibaldi had
been active in Mazzini's
Young Italy society and
had suffered persecution
and exile. For a while he
had been a candle maker
on Staten Island in the
harbor of New York.

The war on Austria in
1859 gave him a chance
to fight for Italian unity.
The next year, with the
aid of his faithful follow-
ers, he overthrew the king of the Two Sicilies. By
a vote of the people, southern Italy then joined the
North. Garibaldi was hailed as a national hero.

GARIBALDI

From an old print

366 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Unity Finally Achieved. When the new kingdom
was formed, Venetia was still under Austrian rule and
Rome was governed by the pope. Cavour said : " To
go to Rome is for Italians not merely a right — it is a
stern necessity." Austria, however, was very powerful
and the pope was protected by French troops. Yet
the opportunity desired by Cavour and Victor Em-
manuel came. In 1866 Austria was at war with Prussia.
The Italians were then able to obtain the coveted
Venetia. Four years later Napoleon III was badly
beaten by the Prussians and the French garrison was
withdrawn from Rome. Thereupon Victor Emman-
uel's troops took possession of the " Eternal City,"
in spite of the protests of the pope. In 1871 the
papal domains were annexed to Italy.

King Victor Emmanuel, amid the cheers of the people,
entered Rome and made it the capital of the Kingdom
of Italy. The dream of the patriots, Mazzini and Gari-
baldi, had in part come true. Italy was not a republic
as they had hoped ; but it was united, and it had a
national parliament, one branch of which was elected.
Only a few Italians now remained under Austrian rule
outside of the union. They, too, were brought into the
family at the end of the World War in 1918.

Victor Emmanuel II was everywhere regarded as
the founder of united Italy. After his death in 1878
the grateful nation erected in Rome, not far from the
old Forum, an imposing monument in his honor that
recalled the glories of the Roman empire.

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 367

368 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

NATIONALISM IN EASTERN EUROPE

The Rule of the Turk. While the Germans and
Italians were drawing together in national unity, a
number of races in southeastern Europe -- Bulgarians,
Serbs, Rumanians, Greeks, and Montenegrins -- were
striving with might and main to cast off the rule- of
an alien monarch, the Turkish sultan. For hundreds
of years they had been restless under the sway of a
government that was foreign in race and religion. It
was in 1453 that the Ottoman Turks, the followers of
Mohammed (p. 169), took Constantinople. They drove
steadily westward, hoping to bring all Europe under
their control. In 1683 they were at the very gates of
Vienna. Then the tide turned. They were slowly
beaten back by the Austrians, Poles, and Hungarians.

At the opening of the- nineteenth century, Turkish
rule in the region of southeastern Europe known as
the Balkans extended over many subject races. All
the territory from the Adriatic Sea northeastward
beyond the mouth of the Danube was held by Turkish
officers and soldiers. The sultan was absolute in his
authority and harsh in his manner of government. He
laid heavy taxes upon the conquered provinces and
held his subject peoples down by the use of military
force. To quarrels over government and taxes were
added religious and racial disputes. The masters were
Mohammedans and Turks. The subjects were nearly
all Christians and of different races from their mas-

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 369

ters. Now and then the spirit of nationality, always
smoldering, flamed up into civil war in which terrible
deeds were done by both parties.

The Rise of Independent Balkan States. The first
people to break the Turkish rule were the Serbs, who
by desperate efforts won the right of self-government
in 1817, under the leadership of Milosh Obrenovitch,
a national hero. It was not until sixty years later,
however, that the Serbs were able to proclaim their
complete independence in the streets of Belgrade, their
capital. In doing this they had the aid of Russia. A
Serbian prince was chosen king.

The example set by the Serbs in 1817 was soon
followed by the Greeks, who also longed to be free
from Turkish rule and to revive the ancient glories
of their own land. Inspired by stirring appeals from
patriot orators, they, too, rose in a desperate revolt.
They proclaimed their independence, and called upon
the Christian world for help. From all over Europe
soldiers flocked to the aid of the Greeks, and supplies
were sent from distant lands. Even in the United
States, meetings were held to arouse public sentiment
in favor of the Greek revolution.

Fair Greece ! Sad relic of departed worth !
Immortal, though no more ; though fallen, great !
Who now shall lead thy scattered children forth
And long accustomed bondage uncreate ?

So wrote the English poet, Byron, who answered his
own question by giving his life to the Greek cause.

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

In 1832, the powers of Europe recognized the inde-
pendence of Greece and chose Prince Otto of Bavaria
as the king of the new state.

Nearly half a cen-
tury passed. Then
in 1878, with the
military assistance
of Russia, Rumania
and Montenegro
won their independ-
ence. At the same
time Bulgaria ob-
tained the right of
self-government,
though it had to pay
tribute to the sultan
at Constantinople.
Even that burden
was cast off in 1908
and complete free-
dom from Moham-
medan control was
secured. German
princes, as a result of action by the European powers,
were chosen as kings of Bulgaria and Rumania. A
local prince was made head of tiny Montenegro.

Balkan Troubles. Independence by no means
brought peace to the Balkans. The Turks still held
much territory in Macedonia. Thousands of Serbs

From an old print

GREEK PATRIOTS MOURNING THE DESTRUCTION OF
ONE OF THEIR CITIES IN THE WAR FOR INDE-
PENDENCE

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 371

and Rumanians still lived under the Austrian emperor
and longed to join their independent countrymen.
The Serbs, Rumanians, Bulgars, and Greeks were not
satisfied with their boundaries. The races were so
mixed that it seemed impossible to fix boundary lines

tS3 Slovenes
^ Serbo-Croats
HXS Slovaks • Italians

Poles 123 Rumanians
F^s] Ruthenians Y77/\ Magyars

NATIONALITIES IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

which pleased them all. The result was constant
turmoil among the Balkan states.

Finally the murder of the Austrian archduke by a
Serb in July, 1914, was a firebrand that set the whole

372 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

world aflame. Then opened the terrible war that
raged until 1918, involving countries as far apart as
the United States, China, and Brazil. At the close
of that war another effort was made to settle the affairs
of the Balkans (see below, p. 436).

Nationalism Suppressed in Austria-Hungary. While
some of the Balkan races were shaking off the rule of
the sultan, their kinsmen in Austria-Hungary were in
a constant state of unrest. This empire had been
built up through the long centuries by the Hapsburg
family, whose members were always busy conquering
new lands by arms. At the opening of the nine-
teenth century Austria-Hungary embraced Germans,
Magyars, Hungarians, Rumanians, Italians, Czechs,
Slovaks, Poles, Croats, Serbs, and Russians. In
Austria proper the Germans were in the lead ; in
Hungary the Magyars, although for a long time the
emperor and his German advisers at Vienna kept a
strong hand on all sections and all races.

Against this strict rule the subject peoples early
began to protest. In 1848 they revolted. The next
year the Hungarians declared their independence and
chose the patriot Louis Kossuth as their governor.
In a few months the armies of Austria, aided by Russia,
came down upon the Hungarians and took away their
liberty again. Kossuth, driven into exile, was brought
to the United States in an American war vessel. There
he was received as one of the world's heroes.

Though conquered, Hungary won a certain degree

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 373

of freedom. Later it was permitted to take its
place as an equal beside Austria under a common
ruler. The Czechs, Slovaks, Rumanians, Serbs, and
other peoples under the control of Austria-Hungary,
however, were not so fortunate. So they kept up their
restless agitation for independence until they got it
after the World War (see below, p. 436).

Nationalism in Russia. Following the examples set
by the Hohenzollerns and Hapsburgs, the czars of
Russia had added to their dominions any territory they
could seize or conquer. By this method they extended
their empire from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean.
At the same time, they brought under their scepter
Finns, Lithuanians, Latvians or Letts, Esthonians, Poles,
Jews, Tartars, Armenians, Mongols, and Georgians.

All the subject peoples were ruled, as indeed were
the Russians themselves, by the absolute power of
the czar. Though serfdom was abolished in 1861,
the people were not given any voice in their gov-
ernment. Moreover, the czar did all he could to
' Russify " the aliens ; that is, compel them to take
the Russian language and customs instead of their
own. This process was a bitterly hated one ; many
and long were the protests and struggles against it.
Yet the might of the czar, with his spies and his
armies, was too much for the stoutest opponents.
Not until the World War broke up the Romanoff
empire were the various subject nations released from
Russian control.

374 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Dangers of Extreme Nationalism. The long strug-
gles of European races for unity and independence
were accompanied by many heroic deeds and sac-
rifices. Thousands of men and women gave up their
comfort, their safety, and even their lives that their
countries might win the right of self-government.
We owe to this spirit of devotion many an inspiring
poem and many a noble deed.

There was, nevertheless, another side to the spirit
of nationalism. Those who were loudest in claiming
their own right to liberty were often the very first to
oppress others. Volumes could be filled with examples
of such cruelty chosen at random from the pages of
European history. Moreover, the spirit of nationalism
easily grew into the spirit of arrogance. Pride in race
and nation gave way to boasting and contempt for
other nations.

So nationalism, inflamed by orators, became one of
the most dangerous forces in the world. When kings
fought for their own ends they usually had small armies
of hired soldiers. When nations began to fight, all
the energies of united peoples were enlisted. It re-
mains to be seen, therefore, whether nationalism can
be kept within bounds and made safe for humanity
or whether it is to fill the world with endless wars.

Nationalism and Immigration to America. The
many hard struggles of European peoples which we
have just recounted have a very close relation to Ameri-
can history. The United States was a place of refuge

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 375

for revolutionary leaders, like Schurz, Kossuth, and
Garibaldi, when their plans for national independence
and unity went wrong. In addition to the leaders,
thousands of people from all the subject races of Europe
flocked to America in search of freedom. The American
people began to speak of the United States as " the
asylum of the oppressed of all nationalities," and en-
couraged immigrants to seek homes in our country.
Once here, the Germans, Irish, Poles, Jews, and other
races still kept in touch with their native lands. They
formed societies and raised money for the benefit of
those who were keeping up the battle for freedom at
home. They often urged the government of the United
States to give aid to those they had left behind. Thus
many strong ties were formed between the New World
and the Old.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. What is meant by the "spirit of nationalism"?
2. Study the statement by President Wilson (p. 354). Find what
the word "sovereignty" means. Under the sovereignty of what
nation do you live ? Under what sovereignty are the people of
Canada ? The people of the Philippine Islands ? The people of
India ? What was Mr. Wilson's plan for deciding under what
sovereignty a people should live? 3. How does this differ from
the way in which the ancient and medieval kings treated conquered
peoples ? 4. Why are a common language and a common liter-
ature so important in giving to a people the spirit of nationalism ?
5. What is meant by a "dialect" ? Persons who speak the same
language but use different dialects often find it hard to understand
one another. How would the establishment of schools and news-

376 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

papers overcome this difficulty and make it possible for larger
numbers of people to have a common spirit of nationalism ?
6. Some people believe that a single language may sometime be
developed to replace the different languages now in use. What
hopes do these people probably have in mind in suggesting a
universal language ? Why would it be more difficult to establish
such a language than it has been to overcome the differences in
dialects ?

II. i. How does a "confederation" differ from a "union"?
In what important ways did the German Confederation formed in
1815 differ from a true nation? 2. How did the Prussian king
and Bismarck bring about national unity in Germany ? How had
the delegates of the people who met at Frankfort in 1848 hoped to
build a German nation ? In your judgment, which was the better
way, and why? 3. How did the Franco-Prussian War come
about ? What were its important results ? 4. What were the
important differences between the way in which the German
people were made into a nation and the way in which the Italian
people became a nation ? Compare the work of Mazzini, Victor
Emmanuel, and Garibaldi with the work of Bismarck and the
king of Prussia.

III. i. Find out in what ways the Mohammedan religion
differs from the Christian religion. 2. In 1815 the people of
Italy had a common language and a common religion, but were
divided among different sovereignties. How did this condition
differ from that of the people of Turkey? 3. Give as many
reasons as you can to explain why the formation of free nations in
southeastern Europe was more difficult than in western Europe.
4. Compare conditions in Austria-Hungary in 1815 with con-
ditions in Germany, Italy, and Turkey at that time. 5. In
what ways did the rulers of Russia attempt to build a great
Russian nation ? With what results ? 6. What has the study
of this chapter taught you about the things that make a group
of people into a true nation ? What are some of the dangers of

NATIONALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 377

extreme nationalism ? (For example, can peoples as well as kings
be cruel and tyrannical ?) Can you think of any steps that a
nation might well take to avoid these dangers ?

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. Compare the map of Europe in 1815 (p. 357) with the map
of Europe to-day (facing p. 436). What countries that are now
united were then divided under different sovereignties ? What
nations then divided are now united ? 2. How did the growth of
the "rule of the people" as opposed to the rule of kings help to
make the changes that you find in comparing the two maps ?
3. Make a list of the names of places mentioned in this chapter, as
was done for chapter xi on pp. 288-289. Then arrange them in
columns as you were there instructed to do. Add any new
columns that may be necessary.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

FELLOWS, GEORGE E. — Recent European History, iv-vi; Sanborn.

O'NEILL — The Story of the World, xlv.

VAN LOON — The Story of Mankind (School edition), liv-lvi.

CHAPTER XV
THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

Attempts to Set the Clock Back. The French
revolution, like the English and American revolu-
tions before it, let loose in the world a flood of ideas
about the right of the people to govern themselves,
especially the notion that all men are equal. During
the Napoleonic wars that followed the revolution,
French thinkers stirred Europe with ideas of great
reforms. Princes were overthrown in many countries,
the property of the Church was seized, and serfs
were freed. The common people, who had hitherto had
no voice in affairs, began to think and to discuss public
matters as never before in the history of the world.

After the final defeat of Napoleon, however, many
longed to see the " good old times " again as they
were before the revolution. Those who had suf-
fered from the loss of property or feudal privileges
sought to get back lost wealth. There were also others
who believed that the entire revolution had been a
terrible wrong and mistake. These helped to restore
the kings and princes and to give the Church its for-
mer power.

378

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY 379

So it happened that a " reaction ': followed the
defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. In Italy,
Spain, and many German states, rulers were put upon
their thrones again and given their former absolute
power over their subjects. Prussia, Russia, and Aus-
tria, which had felt the effects of the revolution least,
continued to be ruled by absolute monarchs as in olden
times. The very idea of a constitution giving the
people any power of self-government was condemned
by all the leading kings on the continent. In Spain,
for instance, advocates of constitutions were liable to
the death penalty.

Certain Gains for Democracy. Though kings and
princes were restored to their thrones with much
pomp, the clock could really not be turned back. In
France, a member of the old royal family was crowned
as Louis XVIII, but he could no longer rule despot-
ically. A parliament was set up and a large number
of Frenchmen were given the right to vote. Taxes
could no longer be levied or laws made without the
consent of at least some of the people. Serfdom was
gone from France and most of Germany forever.
Everywhere in western Europe leaders among the
peasants, artisans, and merchants boldly continued to
discuss their rights and to question the power of
princes.

380 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

DEMOCRACY IN FRANCE

The Revolution of 1830. The kings soon found
how deeply the revolution had stirred the world. The
ruler of France thought he could give to the nobility
and the clergy the position that they had once held.
He thought also that he could control the press and
stop popular criticism of his government. He soon
learned a lesson.

The people rose against Charles X, the brother and
successor of Louis XVIII, in 1830 and forced him
to flee from the realm. Among the leaders of the up-
rising was Lafayette, who had helped Washington
establish the American republic and who had taken
part in the first French revolution. Attempts were
made once more to abolish the monarchy in France.
Although these attempts failed, the crown was taken
away from the Bourbon king and given to Louis
Philippe, who belonged to another branch of the family.

Louis was called king of the French by <:c the will
of the nation " as well as by " the grace of God."
Moreover, he aped the simple manners of republican
presidents. He did not make a great display of pomp
and ceremony, but went about the streets carrying
with him a green umbrella for sun or rain. More men
were given the right to vote for parliament. The
clergy and nobility were forced to one side, and the
government of France passed mainly into the hands
of business men.

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY 381

The Revolution of 1848 - - Republic and Empire.

Louis chose advisers who opposed all further changes.
One of them said that there were not more than one
hundred thousand men in France who were capable
of voting with intelligence and independence. This
angered many people, especially the workingmen of
the towns who did not have the right to vote under
the constitution of 1830. Their discontent increased
until in 1848 it broke out in another revolution.
Louis Philippe was forced into exile ; a republic was
proclaimed ; and a national convention was elected to
draw up a new constitution. In all this the work-
ingmen took a prominent part, in the hope of im-
proving their condition. Women appeared in greater
numbers as advocates of woman suffrage.

As in the first revolution, things went peacefully
for a while. Then violence followed. The govern-
ment would not provide work for thousands of unem-
ployed workingmen and terrible fighting took place
once more in the streets of Paris. Peace was at last
restored by the sword and the new constitution pro-
claimed. It made provision for a president for a
term of four years, as is the case in the United States.

At the first election, to the astonishment of the
world, Louis Napoleon, a nephew of the great warrior,
Napoleon I, was chosen president of the French re-
public. Like his famous uncle, he began to scheme
to make himself master of France. Within a few
years he actually induced the voters to elect him

382 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

" Emperor of the French." So the third French
revolution, like the first, ended in an empire.

The Crisis of 1870 and the Third Republic. Na-
poleon III thought of pleasing the French by giving
them " military glory." He therefore joined England
in a war on Russia in 1854. He helped the Italians
drive the Austrians out of part of Italy. He tried to
turn Mexico into an empire as an offset to the power
of the United States in the New World. Then, in
1870, he became involved in a war with Prussia. This
last adventure proved to be his ruin. His armies were
defeated and he was taken prisoner.

Thereupon leaders in Paris proclaimed a republic
once more. While the German armies were still on
French soil, an election was held for a national assem-
bly. After many months of debate, this assembly
completed, in 1875, a new constitution. France was
a republic for the third time. All adult males were
given the right to vote. The hope of the extremists
of 1791 was at last realized. France had a president
elected by the parliament for a term of seven years
instead of a king ruling for life.

DEMOCRACY IN ENGLAND

The Old Parliamentary System. In the early part
of the eighteenth century, England had stood out
as the home of liberty in the Old World (pp. 245-254).
The king could not make laws and levy taxes as he
pleased. He could appoint and dismiss his mini-

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY 383

sters, but the taxing and lawmaking power had
passed into the hands of Parliament. The king's
officers did not censor the press ; editors freely dis-
cussed politics and criticized the deeds of the king's
ministers. Most of the writers who prepared the way

From an old print
AN ENGLISH ELECTION SCENE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY : SOLICITING A VOTE

for the French revolution gained their leading ideas
from the English system of government.

Still England of that day --the England against
which America waged her war for independence — was
far from a democracy. The king enjoyed high au-

384 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

thority. He could choose his own ministers. He could
get Parliament to approve almost anything he wanted.
By using money to bribe voters in elections and by
promising offices to members of Parliament who voted
for his plans, the king could nearly always get his own
way.

In fact Parliament usually thought as the king did.
The House of Lords consisted mainly of nobles, whose
number the king could increase by appointing his
friends. The members of the House of Commons
were elected by popular vote, but they did not speak
for the mass of the people. Great cities, like Leeds
and Manchester, which had grown up recently, had
no members in the Commons. On the other hand,
a country village with only a handful of residents had
two members in the Commons. In all England there
were only about 160,000 voters out of about eight
million inhabitants ; that is, only about one man
in ten had the right to vote for a representative in
Parliament.

The Demand for Reform in England. When
George III came to the throne in 1760, the demand
for a reform of Parliament had already been heard in
England. Some leading statesmen asked that the
little villages be deprived of their members in the
House of Commons. They also proposed that the
new cities be given representation.

This spirit of reform was quickened at first by the
French revolution. The government that was es-

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

385

tablished in France in 1791 was far more democratic
than that of England, and societies were formed in
England to urge a peaceful revolution there. The
reign of terror that soon began in Paris, however,
frightened the English. The very idea of any change,
even a slight one, was then denounced as dangerous.
The Four Great Reform Bills. It was not until
after the overthrow of Napoleon in 1815 that parlia-
mentary reform was again widely debated in England.
Then began a long struggle
which did not end until our
own time. England was made
more democratic, however, not
by violent revolution, but by
gradual reform. There was a
great deal of extreme talk but
little disorder connected with
it. William Ewart Gladstone,
long the leader of the Liberal
party, which favored reform,
and Benjamin Disraeli, head of
the Tory party, which favored

i 11 i r 1 1 1 from an oia pni

the old order, finally agreed WlLLIAM EwART GLADSTONE

upon the idea of votes for

all men in time to prevent revolution.

By three great reform bills, passed by Parliament
in 1832, 1867, and 1884, the right to vote was gradu-
ally extended — each time to a wider circle of men.
Before the end of Queen Victoria's long reign, which

From an old print

386 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

extended from 1837 to 1901, practically every man in
England who had a settled home could vote.

At the opening of the twentieth century, woman
suffrage, or the right of women to vote, became a live
issue; and in 1917 Parliament passed the most sweep-
ing reform bill of all. Suffrage for all men was es-
tablished, and .nearly all women thirty years of age
or more were given the vote. By this law England
became the first of the great nations to grant the vote
to women.

The Modern English System. While more peo-
ple were gaining the right to vote in England, steps
were taken to give more power to the voters. The
demand was made that the king should give up his
right of choosing his own ministers. George III,
(First Book, p. 103) stoutly resisted it, but before the
end of his reign in 1820 he had been forced to yield.
From that time forward, the actual government of
England was in the hands of a group of ministers,
known as the Cabinet. They are selected by the party
having a majority in the House of Commons.

By long disuse, the king also lost his veto power
(p. 179). The House of Lords remained, but in
1911 it was shorn of its power to block bills passed
by the lower house. Thus, by a gradual process, the
English government became even more democratic
than the French plan of 1791 which had alarmed the
people of England at that time.

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

387

388 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

DEMOCRACY IN ITALY

The King. We have seen how the king of Sar-
dinia took the lead in uniting all Italy under his au-
thority. It was in this way that Victor Emmanuel II
made himself a national hero. His grandson, Victor
Emmanuel III, fell heir to the glory of the house,
though not to its popularity. There have been at
all times many Italians who favored a republic for
their country ; yet the king has managed to keep his
crown through all the changes of the past decades.

The Italian Parliament. The history of the pres-
ent Italian form of government runs back to 1848,
when Italy, like France, was the scene of a revolution.
In that year, the king of Sardinia granted a constitu-
tion to his subjects. He created a senate, or upper
chamber, composed of men selected by himself ; and
he established a lower house, or chamber of deputies,
elected by the voters. When the king of Sardinia
became king of all Italy, this charter of 1848 became
the constitution of the kingdom of Italy.

Some changes, however, were made in it from time
to time. At first, a large majority of the men were
denied the right to vote. In 1895 nearly every man
who could read and write and lived regularly at one
place was given the ballot. Owing to the backward
state of education, however, this law still deprived
hundreds of thousands of a share in their government.
Finally, in 1918, in the midst of the World War, Italy

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY 389

gave the vote to all men over twenty-one years of age
and also to men under that limit who had served in
the war. Thus the democracy of manhood suffrage
was established in the Italian kingdom.

Only one branch of the Italian parliament, however,
is elected by the voters. The senate was left unchanged
by the various reforms. As in the beginning, it is
still composed of the princes of the royal family and a
number of distinguished men appointed for life by
the king. Still, in choosing senators it is the prac-
tice of the king to select men who are eminent in liter-
ature, science, or public office. On this' account the
Italian senate differs from the English House of Lords,
composed mainly of noblemen, and the American sen-
ate, composed of members elected by the voters.

DEMOCRACY IN GERMANY

The Prussian Monarchy. Prussia was the leader
among the German states. It had more territory
and more inhabitants than all the others put together.
The Hohenzollern family that ruled Prussia had, as
we have seen, built up its kingdom by conquering and
annexing neighboring lands. Prussian kings, there-
fore, relied mainly upon the army to keep them in
power. They also had the support of a very rich and
haughty nobility that owned large estates. Thus
supported, the Hohenzollerns could scorn the very
idea that the people should decide for themselves what
was good for them. They claimed to hold their

390 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

crowns " by the grace of God," as had their ancestors
in olden times.

The Prussian System. Still the Prussian kings
could not stamp out entirely the idea of democracy.
Their subjects, like the French and the Italians, were
stirred by the thought of self-government. In 1848,
the Prussian people, especially in Berlin, followed the
French example in Paris and rose against the monarch.
Because he feared something worse, the king of Prussia
" graciously granted " a constitution to his subjects.
He gave up none of his claims to rule by divine right,
but he did create a parliament. One of the branches
was composed mainly of the great landlords, who had
no more liking for democracy than did the king him-
self. In the other branch, the people were given a
voice. It was, however, only a slight voice. Two
thirds of the members in it were elected by a small
minority of rich men, while the masses could elect only
a third. This was the Prussian system that lasted
until the close of the World War (see below, p. 445).

The German Empire. When the German empire
was created in 1871 (p. 361), the king of Prussia
was chosen emperor and care was taken to keep the
German people subject to royal authority. A par-
liament was established, but the lion's share of power
was given to the upper house or Imperial Council.
This council was made up of agents chosen by the
twenty-two German princes and the three free cities.
The lower house was elected. All adult males were

CENTRAL EUROPE IN 1871
391

392 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

given the vote ; but their representatives in parlia-
ment could do very little except talk. The emperor
appointed and dismissed ministers at will.' In the
making of war and peace, the elected branch of the
government had no voice. William II, the last of the
Hohenzollerns, who was forced to give up his throne
in 1918, talked like the despotic Louis XIV. " Look-
ing upon myself as the agent of the Lord," he once
said, " I go my way without regard to the opinions
and sentiments of the day. . . . The only pillar
upon which the realm rested in my grandfather's day
was the army. So it is to-day."

Such was the system that made it possible for a
very few people to rule the whole German empire.
Loud and long were the protests against it, but they
were without avail until after the defeat of Germany
in the World War (below, p. 434).

DEMOCRACY IN SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE

Austria-Hungary. Like the Hohenzollerns in Prussia,
the Hapsburgs, who ruled in Austria-Hungary, had
little liking for democracy. They had built up their
dominions by the sword ; they depended upon the
sword to hold their varied collection of peoples
together. Still, even they could not stop the spread
of new ideas. They, too, were forced to grant favors
to their subjects. To each of their two realms they
gave a constitution which provided for one house
elected by popular vote.

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY 393

Step by step, however, Francis Joseph, the Haps-
burg emperor from 1848 to 1916, fought the rising power
of the people, until in 1907 he was forced to give
the right to vote to all men in Austria. In Hungary,
on the eve of the World War, only tax-payers could
vote. In both realms, the branch of the parliament
elected by the voters was kept in close rein by a
House of Lords and by royal power. In neither
realm were the highest officers controlled by the par-
liament or the people. As in the case of Germany,
it took the crisis of the World War and bitter defeat
to overturn the authority of the Hapsburg monarchy
(see below, p. 450).

The Balkan States. When the peoples of south-
eastern Europe — the Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, and
Rumanians — escaped one after the other from the
rule of the Turks (p. 370), they made beginnings
in democracy. In each case a king was chosen, usu-
ally on orders from the chief countries of Europe,
especially Germany, Russia, and England. In each
case also a parliament was created and a portion of
the men given a voice in the management of public
affairs.

RISE OF DEMOCRACY IN RUSSIA

The Despotism of the Romanoffs. — Of all the

countries of Europe, Russia was the last to feel the
force of the French revolution. Like Prussia, it,
too, had been built up by its army. Under the power-

394

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

ful family of the Romanoffs it became the most wide-
spread despotism in the modern world. The czar
ruled absolutely from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific

Ocean. On the eve of the
World War he had over
180,000,000 subjects, nearly
twice the population of the
United States.

The great Russian mon-
archy rested upon founda-
tions that seemed very solid.
There was, in the first place,
a huge and powerful army
which the czar commanded as
he liked. In the second place,
there was the Russian Church,
which taught his subjects obe-
dience. From the highest of-
ficial to the humblest village
priest, the Church supported the monarch. It depended
upon him for favors and in turn helped him hold the
people in subjection. In the third place, no criticism of
the czar was allowed in newspapers, books, or public ad-
dresses. Spies and policemen searched high and low for
anyone who said that the people ought to rule or that
great changes ought to be made in the government.
Finally, there was the ignorance of the masses. Most
of the people were peasants. They had been freed
from serfdom, but they were without education

THE FORMER RUSSIAN EMPEROR,
NICHOLAS II

396 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

and bent to the very ground with poverty, taxes, and
wars.

The Revolution of 1905. Each czar tried to
prevent democratic ideas from creeping into Russia.
Leaders who talked about reforms were whipped,
imprisoned, or exiled to distant Siberia. They re-
sponded by attempts to assassinate the czar or his
officials and by acts of terrorism. The brutality on
both sides was shocking. Meanwhile democratic ideas
slowly spread among the Russian people. It was
impossible to keep the doors and windows of Russia
sealed.

When Russia was defeated in a war with Japan in
1905, the country was filled with famine and misery.
Then the people rose in a desperate revolt against
autocratic rule. Only by using the police and the
army was the czar able to keep his throne. Still, as
in the case of other monarchs, he had to pay the price
by allowing the people a voice in his government.
He created a national parliament, called the Duma,
but he was careful to see that the landlords and his
agents controlled it. Peace was bought for a short
time. Then, in the midst of the World War, the czar
was overthrown and his whole system broken to bits
in a revolutionary outburst (see below, p. 446).

DEMOCRACY IN THE ORIENT

Japan. - - When Japan was opened to the Western
world in 1854, the Japanese people began to take an

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

397

interest in Western customs and ideas of government.
Students and travelers from Japan visited America
and Europe and took back reports of what they had
seen and learned.
At that time, Japan
was very much like
the Europe of the
middle ages. The
mikado, or emperor,
ruled as absolutely
as any medieval
king. The country
was divided into
great estates owned
by feudal lords and
tilled by serfs. The
masses could not
read or write and
accepted without
question the com-
mands of the em- @ Keystone vlew C0t

peror. To most THE "FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL" IN JAPAN. (NOTE
. . , , THE SANDALS, WHICH MUST BE LEFT OUTSIDE)

Japanese this old

order seemed satisfactory ; but they could not pre-
vent Western ideas and customs from creeping into
Japan.

In 1871 the chief privileges of the nobles were
abolished, as those of France had been in 1789. At
the same time the serfs were set free. Soon the

398 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

demand for a share in the government was heard.
The emperor, wiser than some Western monarchs,
did not wait for a violent revolution. He chose a
commission of u wise men" to study the question of
government, and in 1889 gave a constitution to his
empire. He kept the right to appoint his own minis-
ters and to command the army and navy ; but he
created a parliament to aid in making laws and laying
taxes. He formed one house out of the nobles and
princes of Japan. The lower house, he arranged,
should be elected by the voters. Since he was in no
mood to try extreme ideas, he limited the right to
vote to the well-to-do.

After a few years a cry went up for <:i more de-
mocracy." Leaders demanded the vote for all Japanese
men, and even woman suffrage was heard of in the
land of the mikado. At the close of the World War,
Japan seemed threatened by a revolution. In 1920
the parliament passed a bill giving the right to vote
to many more of the emperor's subjects.

But Japan is by no means a democracy in the Eng-
lish or American sense of the word. On the contrary,
it is still very much like Prussia under the Hohenzol-
lerns (p. 390). The Japanese constitution, like that
of old Prussia, was granted to the people by the em-
peror and can be taken away by him. The masses
are taught that the emperor rules by divine right and
the constitution declares that he is " the head of the
empire, combining in himself all power of state." The

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

399

400

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

401

emperor is surrounded by a small group of men each
of whom is the leader of a powerful political party.
They are his close advisers. They are supported by
the landlords, manufacturers, and business men of
Japan, numbering about. 125,000 out of seventy mil-
lion people. These form the ruling class of Japan.

A GROUP OF REPUBLICAN CAVALRY OFFICERS IN CHINA

They hold all the important public offices. They
are feared and respected by the masses. Japanese
religion and education both teach reverence for the
emperor as the greatest virtue.

China. The changes which affected Japan like-
wise stirred the unwieldy Chinese empire. For thou-

402 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

sands of years it had slumbered on under the sway of
its emperors. Then it was suddenly aroused by an
invasion of European and American traders and mis-
sionaries. Chinese students and business men began
to travel in Western countries. and on their return home
set about " modernizing " China.

The mass of the Chinese people knew little more
than their ancestors had known four thousand years
before. Still the reformers could not wait for slow
growth. They overthrew the monarchy in 1912 and
established a republic, with a president and a parlia-
ment.

Instead of the prosperity that was expected to re-
sult from the revolution, there came civil war and
years of trouble. Leaders of the army, especially in
the north, longed for the return of a strong monarch.
Leaders in the south, where the merchants were
numerous, clung to the idea of a democracy. Both
parties claimed to speak for China, but neither of
them was able to establish itself firmly in the entire
country. North China, however, won recognition
from other countries.

DEMOCRACY AND CIVIL LIBERTY

The Rights of Man. The French revolution, the
industrial revolution, and the rise of democracy all
worked together for a new kind of liberty. In the
middle ages the fate of nearly every man was fixed
at birth. The son of a peasant became a peasant and

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

4°3

the son of a nobleman belonged to the aristocracy.
In the modern age such old customs have become less
rigid. As far as the law is concerned, every man is
free to choose his own calling. He may go and come

MRS. EMMELINE PANKHURST, ENGLISH WOMAN SUFFRAGE LEADER, SPEAKING

IN LONDON

at will within the nation to which he belongs. He may
even be free to emigrate to some other part of the world
to make his home. He is free, too, to think for him-
self and to choose the church to which he wishes to

404 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

belong. He may join any political party, and express
his views on any subject. All these rights are known
as civil liberties.

The Rights of Women and Children. - - Women and
children, even more than grown-up men, were affected
by these new rights. In the middle ages, a woman had
practically no choice except to labor as a housewife
or as a peasant in the fields or to enter a convent as a
nun. In the modern age, women not only vote ; they
may choose any one of many fields of industry or busi-
ness. They may engage in a profession such as medi-
cine, or they may take up teaching, literature, or art.
They may earn their own wages and spend them as
they please. They may hold public office.

Even little children share in the new order of things.
In old Rome the father had the power of life and death
over his wife and children. To-day parents must
allow their children to attend school. If they are
cruel, their children may be taken away from them.
Usually boys and girls may choose any life work for
iwhich they have talent. Public schools are open to
them so that they may get a training for the work they
select for themselves. In a way, therefore, we may
call the age of democracy " the children's age."

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. What is meant by the word "reaction" as used in the
third paragraph of this chapter ? Reactions almost always follow
severe wars ; can you think of any reasons for this ? 2. What is

THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY 405

meant by the statement, "... the clock could really not be
turned back" (p. 379) ? In what ways did those who came into
power after the downfall of Napoleon attempt to "turn the clock
back" ? 3. How many years elapsed between the beginning of
the first French revolution and the second revolution ? Between
the second and the third revolutions ? 4. Napoleon III is some-
times referred to as "Napoleon the Little"; why? 5. What
were some of the differences between the government of France
under the "Third Republic" and the government under the
" First Republic" ? In what ways does the government of France
to-day differ from the government of our country ?

II. i. Compare the power of the English king under the old
parliamentary system with the power of the French king just
before the first French revolution (see pp. 292-295). Why was
England at that time "still far from a democracy"? 2. How
could it have come about that a large city like Manchester sent
no representatives to the House of Commons when many small
villages had two members each ? (What great movement was
taking place which caused the rapid growth of the cities ?)

3. How did the progress toward democracy in England differ
from the progress toward democracy in France ? In America ?

4. In what important ways does the government of England
to-day differ from the government of our country ?

III. I. What advance toward democracy was made by Italy
in adopting the charter of 1848? 2. What further advances
were made in 1918? 3. Compare the present government of
Italy with that of the other countries mentioned in this chapter.

IV. i. Can you think of any reasons that will explain why
the kings kept their power in Germany longer than they did in
England, France, and Italy ? 2. How did the imperial council
of the German empire differ from the House of Lords in England,
the French parliament, and the Italian senate? 3. Why was
the "lower house" of the German parliament less powerful than
the English House of Commons ?

406 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

V. What reasons can you give to explain why the development
of democracy in southeastern Europe has been much slower than
in western Europe ? (Recall the difficulties that the growth of
free nations have met in these countries.)

VI. I. How did the rulers of Russia manage to hold their
power for so long a time ? What effect did the location and size
of the Russian empire have on the growth of the idea of democracy ?
2. The Russian czars did not favor free schools for the common
people. What effect would the lack of education be likely to have
on the success of democratic government when it did come ?

VII. I. Compare the growth of democracy in Japan with the
growth of democracy in England, France, and Germany. 2. In
what ways does the government of Japan more closely resemble
the government of Germany before the World War than the
government of England and France? 3. Why has democratic
progress been slower in China than in Japan ? (Compare the
two countries as to size and location.)

VIII. I. Lord Bryce, a famous English scholar and statesman,
defined democracy as "the rule of all the people as contrasted
with the rule of a special group or class." What do you think of
this definition ? 2. How has the growth of democracy helped
the "common people" ? (Compare the way in which the common
people lived in the middle ages with the way in which they live
to-day.) How have women and children benefited from the growth
of democracy ?

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING
DALE — Landmarks of British History, xiii.
MACGREGOR — The Story of France, Ixxxiv, Ixxxvii.
MARSHALL — An Island Story, c.
TAPPAN — England's Story, xxxiv, xxxv.
WARREN — Stories from English History, pp. 406-417.

CHAPTER XVI

THE IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS

THE growth of industry, the rise of democracy, and
the spread of national spirit all worked together to
make more intense the age-long rivalry among European
nations. It was hoped that they would bring peace,
and yet the most terrible war of all history has taken
place in our own time.

As the mills and factories multiplied in Europe,
business men of all nations became more and more
active in selling their manufactured goods. They
searched out markets for their wares in every quarter
of the globe — in Asia, South America, and Africa.
The competition among them became keener and keener.

With the rise of democracy, moreover, the masses
demanded more than the coarsest food and the barest
necessities of life. They called for tea, sugar, coffee,
and spices ; they insisted on having better houses and
better clothing ; they came to regard as essential to
their happiness goods that had to be brought from
the ends of the earth. Thus, in a way, the business
men pushing out to conquer new markets and outdo
their rivals helped to bring about modern democracies.

407

408 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Finally, the spirit of nationalism served to increase
strife among European countries. In the name of
national pride and honor, governments sought to add
to their colonial possessions and increase their foreign
trade. In the name of nationalism, all European
countries except England put tariffs on imports from
other lands. In the name of nationalism, armies and
navies were enlarged and other preparations were
made for war on a vast scale. So nationalism widened
out into the feverish contest for trade and territories
known as imperialism. All the old rivalries of kings
and princes, all the old contests of merchants and
traders were stirred anew and in 1914 burst into the
terrible conflict known as the World War.

EUROPE IN THE ORIENT

The Awakening of the Far East. The chief center
of the new European imperialism was in Asia. There
opportunities for trade were especially inviting. The
Chinese and Japanese were skilled in many industries
and arts. They had tea, silks, rice, spices, and other
valuable products to sell, and the profits to be made
out of the commerce were huge. Many difficulties,
however, at first stood in the way of trade. The
Chinese did not welcome Europeans. They would
give foreigners only a limited right to traffic in cer-
tain places. The Japanese were equally proud.
Though more willing to trade with the Europeans,

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 409

they resented the coming of Christian missionaries in
great numbers. Finally they became so hostile that
they drove out the aliens altogether and made severe
laws against foreign commerce of any kind. For more
than two hundred years, both China and Japan were
almost sealed to the outside world.

A FAMOUS CHINESE TEA HOUSE IN SHANGHAI

They could not, however, keep their ports abso-
lutely closed to the ever active foreigners. In 1842
England waged war on China and forced her to open
certain coast cities to general trade. Eleven years
later, the United States government sent a commis-
sion, headed by Commodore Perry, to Japan to open

410

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 411

relations with the Japanese government. Frightened
by the experience of the Chinese, the Japanese regret-
fully agreed to receive the commission. From that
time forward the commercial nations of Europe, as
well as the United States, have steadily increased
their business with China and Japan.

China and Japan Contrasted. The fates of the
two Oriental countries, after they were opened to
world trade, proved to be very different. Huge China
fell a prey to the foreigners. The French seized vast
territories in the southeastern part of the empire.
The British established themselves at Hong Kong
and Wei-Hai-Wei. The Germans in 1897 laid hold
of the Shantung Peninsula. The Russians pressed
in from the northwest and helped themselves. For
a time it looked as if China might be seized entirely by
foreigners.

What a contrast Japan presented ! More secure
in her island home, she grew into a strong industrial
and military power. In 1894 sne even attacked
China herself and was easily victorious. The Japa-
nese would have taken a large slice of Chinese terri-
tory then if France, Germany, and Russia had not
prevented it.

Japan nursed her secret longings for ten years.
Meanwhile she prepared a huge army and navy and
made a treaty of alliance with Great Britain. All
ready for the fray, she declared war on Russia in 1904
and overwhelmed the czar's troops and battleships.

4I2

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Japan then took most of Russia's Chinese territory.
A few years later, Japan occupied also the Chinese
province of Korea, which she had long coveted.

The " Open Door " Policy. In this mad scramble
of the powers to seize Chinese territory, the United
States refused to join. It declared that China should

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not be broken into bits and distributed among for-
eigners. It said that China should be preserved for
the Chinese and that all countries should have merely
general trading privileges with the Chinese people.
This was called the policy of the open door, so well
known in America and so appreciated by the Chinese

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 413

themselves (First Book, pp. 380-384). Between her
attempts to beat off foreigners bent on her ruin and
her efforts to establish a republic, China had appall-
ing problems to solve. Knowing that Japan was de-
termined to dictate to her, if possible, China turned
to the United States for advice and support.

EUROPEAN OCCUPATION OF AFRICA

Exploration. By a strange stroke of fortune, Africa
was the last of the great continents to be explored
and seized by European powers. At the opening
of the nineteenth century, it was so little known
that it was properly called " the dark continent."
The Egyptians, heirs of the ancient civilization of the
Nile Valley, still had some dealings with the outside
world. There were several trading ports along the
Mediterranean coast also. The Dutch, French, and
English, moreover, had visited the Atlantic shores
to seize slaves for American markets. The Dutch
had even planted a colony at the Cape of Good Hope,
which had fallen into the hands of the English during
the Napoleonic wars. The heart of the continent,
however, was wholly unknown until after 1850.

The work of opening Africa was undertaken by
intrepid explorers, among whom David Livingstone,
the life-long missionary, was perhaps the most famous.
For more than twenty-five years he traveled about
in the heart of Africa. Once he was lost for a long time.
The task of finding him was undertaken by Henry M.

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

NATIVE POTTERY MAKERS IN AFRICA

Stanley, a writer for an American newspaper. After he
had gone into the fever-laden jungle and rescued Liv-
ingstone, Stanley continued his travels. He made
the world familiar with Africa through many a thrill-
ing story of adventure. His wonderful tale, How I
Found Livingstone, ranks high among the books of
travel written by Americans.

The Partition of Africa. Before the explorers had
completed their work, the leading countries of Europe
began a general scramble to get African territory.
England, France, and Germany were in the lead, with

30° 20° 10° 0°

40° 50° 60°

AFRICA

416

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Italy not far behind. To the first of these countries

fell the largest share.

The English gained control of Egypt in 1882. They

likewise pressed
steadily inland
from their foothold
at the Cape of Good
Hope (p. 268). The
old Dutch settlers,
the Boers, fled be-
fore them into the
interior and estab-
lished two re-
publics of their
own. As they ad-
vanced, the Eng-
lish came to blows
with these repub-
lics ; after a short
and bloody war,
which opened in
1899, they brought
the Boers under

their flag. At various points on the east and west

coasts of Africa, English explorers, traders, and soldiers

staked out huge claims for their country and discovered

gold and diamond mines.

The French were not far behind the English. They

annexed Algiers in 1843; they added Tunis later;

THE HOISTING MACHINE AT AN AFRICAN
DIAMOND MINE

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 417

they seized vast reaches of territory in the Sudan and
along the Congo River ; and they got the upper hand in
Morocco. Under French direction the Suez Canal was
built in 1859-69. The Germans, after founding their
empire in 1871, began to follow the example of England
and France. Between 1884 and 1890 they laid hold
of immense areas in Southwest and Southeast Africa.
Meanwhile the Italians conquered Libya and a strip
of Abyssinia. The Belgians carved out for themselves
a large state south of the Congo River. The Portu-
guese managed to keep a huge African territory occu-
pied during the early days of their explorations.

By the opening of the twentieth century, the
dark continent, with its millions of natives, had been
explored and divided among European commercial
rivals. An immense trade in rubber, ivory, coffee, and
other products was built up with Europe and America.

EUROPEAN INTEREST IN LATIN AMERICA

The Revolt of the Spanish Colonies. Owing to the
rivalry of European nations for trade and colonies,
it was impossible for Latin America — Mexico, Cen-
tral America, South America, and the islands of the
Caribbean -- to escape the European invasion. At
the opening of the nineteenth century nearly all of
this region belonged to Spain. The most important
exception was Brazil, which was Portuguese.

The people of the Spanish territories consisted of
Spaniards, many of mixed native and Spanish blood,

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IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 419

and a large population of pure native stock. The
natives were almost wholly illiterate and had no
knowledge of government on a large scale. Catholic
missionaries had converted the natives to Christianity
and Spanish soldiers had ruled them. Spanish, often
in the form of a dialect, was their language.

Such was the state of affairs when, in 1808, Na-
poleon conquered Spain and placed his brother on
the Spanish throne. This was followed by the revolt
of the Spanish colonies in America. Beginning in
1810, one colony after another declared its independ-
ence. Simon Bolivar was the hero-leader in this
South American revolution. Within a few years all
the mainland colonies had thrown off the rule of the
mother country. Napoleon was deposed and the old
king of Spain was restored to his throne ; but the for-
mer colonies clung to their newly won independence.

Then the king of Spain talked about conquering
them by force of arms. He asked his brother mon-
archs in Europe to help him do it. In 1822 a congress
of royal agents met at Verona to consider, besides other
things, plans for putting down the rebellion in America.

The Monroe Doctrine. The United States was
alarmed by this conference at Verona. So also was
England, because her merchants had built up a big
business with the Spanish-American republics after
they threw off the rule of Spain. The kings of Europe
did not lend the king of Spain ships and soldiers to
conquer his former colonies. Nevertheless the presi-

420

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

dent of the United States, James Monroe, feared that
they might do so. Since he knew that he had the sup-
port of England, he gave to the world in 1823 the mes-
sage, or doctrine, which still
bears his name (First Book,
pp. 192-194). He warned
the kings of Europe against
making any attempt to restore
the rule of Spain or to annex
new territories on the Amer-
ican continents. He told them
bluntly that such actions
would be regarded as un-
friendly by the United States.
This was a clear hint that
any attempt of that kind
would be met, if necessary, by force of arms.

Europe's Interest in the Monroe Doctrine. By his
message President Monroe said, in effect, that the
United States would protect all independent Latin-
American states against European governments.
This proved in time to be a serious matter for us. It
meant that every time any of those states had a dis-
pute with any European country, the United States
was concerned in the affair. It meant also that all
nations in their dealings with Latin America had to
be on their guard against breaking the rules of the
Monroe Doctrine.

More than one grave result flowed from this doc-

JAMES MONROE

\ I I GENERAL DRAFTING/CO. INC

110° 100°

80° 70°

50° 40° 30° 20° 10°

SOUTH AMERICA

422 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

trine. During the American Civil War, Napoleon
III, the emperor of the French, took a hand in Mexi-
can affairs. He attempted to set up one of his
princely friends, Maximilian of Austria, as emperor
there. When the Civil War was over, our govern-

ON A SOUTH AMERICAN SHEEP RANCH

ment was free to act in the case. It warned Napo-
leon against violating the Monroe Doctrine. He took
the warning seriously and withdrew his soldiers. He
knew that our President was ready to send an army
to Mexico to enforce the American policy.

In 1895 another question was raised. England and

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 423

Venezuela fell into a dispute over the boundary of
British Guiana. Venezuela claimed that England
was trying to get some of her territory. President
Cleveland took up the matter and called attention
to the Monroe Doctrine (First Book, p. 364). For
a time it looked as if there might be war between Eng-
land and our country ; but fortunately it was avoided
by peaceful settlement.

About ten years later, Germany had a quarrel with
Venezuela over the payment of debts due her citizens
and there was talk of war. This time President
Roosevelt sent the German emperor a sharp warning,
which was finally heeded. So another Latin-American
problem was solved without resort to arms.

Sources of Difficulty in Latin America. The chief
concern of European countries in Mexico, Central
America, and South America was about trade, money
matters, and industries. European business men
built up a profitable trade in those countries. They
established warehouses, stores, and factories. They
invested huge sums of money in oil wells, mines, land,
and railways. They lent money to all the govern-
ments and to many private companies. It was there-
fore to their interest to see that order was maintained
and business kept going.

Now it happened that after the revolt against Spain
there were many revolutions and wars in Latin
America. Every one of them upset business and made
it hard to collect debts. This often led European

424

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

AN ENGLISH BANKING HOUSE IN BUENOS AIRES

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 425

statesmen to say in effect : "The United States ought
to keep order in Latin America. If it will not do
this, then it should allow us to protect our business
and collect debts by force of arms if necessary."
Thus the United States was placed in a difficult posi-
tion. Latin America was glad to have help against
Europe ; but it resented the idea that our govern-
ment should interfere in any other way. The United
States, therefore, had (i) to meet the demands of
European business men and investors ; and (2) at
the same time to keep the friendship of the countries
to the south of us.

The Caribbean. The interest of Europe in this
hemisphere has been by no means confined to the
mainland. It has extended to the great chain of is-
lands which stretch almost all the way from the coast
of Florida to the coast of Venezuela. Owing to the
voyages of Columbus and other explorers, Spain early
claimed all of them ; but in the course of time one
island after another was taken away from her. Near
the close of the nineteenth century her dominions
consisted of only Cuba, Porto Rico, and a few minor
islets. In 1898 came the war with the United States
(First Book, pp. 372-375). This put an end to Span-
ish power in the West Indies. Cuba became inde-
pendent and Porto Rico was ceded to the United
States.

The fate of the other islands in the Caribbean has
been strange indeed. Haiti went to France, one

426 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

part in 1697 and another in 1795. While Napoleon I
was emperor of the French, the slaves on the island
revolted, and after a terrible struggle set up two little
republics, Haiti and Santo Domingo. After a stormy
career of more than one hundred years, both of them
were brought under the direction of the United
States by President Wilson. The Virgin Islands
near by were bought from Denmark by the United
States in 1917.

In the midst of all these changes, Great Britain
continued to hold her score or more of islands scat-
tered all the way from the Bahamas near Florida down
to the Windward Islands near the coast of South
America. France also managed to retain several
of the islands which she had acquired from time to
time since the seventeenth century. Thus two of
the great powers of Europe held bases for their ships
in American waters not far from the Panama Canal
(First Book, pp. 424-427).

THE WORLD WAR --1914-18

The Background of the War. We have already
seen how the chief countries of Europe engaged in
long and terrible wars over trade and territories in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (chapter xi).
We have also noted how the same rivalry flamed
up in the desperate Napoleonic wars (pp. 310-
314). Although there was no general European war
for a hundred years after the overthrow of Napoleon,

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 427

the world was filled with local conflicts. England,
France, Germany, Italy, and other European powers,
as they extended their colonies in Asia and Africa,
were almost constantly fighting natives somewhere
in their empires.

There were, moreover, many local wars in Europe.
In 1854 England and France joined the Turks in a
terrible struggle in the Crimea against Russia. Later
France and Italy united in a military campaign to
drive the Austrians from Italian soil. In 1866 Prussia
fought a six weeks' war with Austria and drove her
out of the German Confederation (p. 361). Shortly
afterward came the Franco-Prussian War, which broke
out in 1870 and ended in the defeat of France (p. 361).

The Growth of German Power. Triumphant over
France, Germany entered upon a new military and
business career. Her industries grew by leaps and
bounds as she extended her trade in every part of the
globe. She developed the best equipped and most
powerful army in the world. Her business men began
to compete sharply with British merchants in every
market. Germany then began to build a strong navy
to rival Great Britain on the sea. She made an
alliance with Austria and Italy known as the Triple
Alliance. Austria-Hungary and Turkey were brought
under German influence. Together they planned a
united " Middle Europe " stretching from the banks
of the Rhine to Constantinople. The German em-
peror, William II (p. 392), declared that he had re-

428 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

ceived his throne from God and warned his soldiers
that his word was law.

The Alliance between France and Russia. The growth
of German power alarmed the other countries of Europe,
especially England, France, and Russia. Taking the
situation into account, France and Russia formed an
alliance in 1892. They agreed, in case of an attack
by Italy, Germany, or Austria, to join forces and to
wage war together to the end, making no separate
peace. The Germans looked upon this agreement as
a menace and redoubled their military preparations.

The Understanding between England and France. A
few more years passed. Then England and France,
forgetting their ancient rivalry and grudges, began to
draw together. They did not make a formal treaty
of alliance. The governments of the two countries
simply ordered their military and naval experts to
hold " consultations " as to what they would do in
case of a war with Germany. These conferences be-
gan in 1906. Thus there was created, as the British
foreign minister later said, " an obligation of honor "
to help France in case of an attack by Germany.

The Treaty between England and Russia. The next
year, England and Russia also laid aside their quar-
rels. They made a treaty settling several disputed
points without forming a regular alliance. Later, how-
ever, British and Russian naval officers were ordered
to discuss a combination of forces in case of a war
with Germany.

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 429

The German emperor declared at the time that Eng-
land, Russia, and France were working for war. He
added that Germany would take counter measures.
This was what a large military party in Germany,
eager for war, desired. The flames of war were just
on the point of bursting out and setting the whole
world on fire.

The Outbreak. The stage of Europe was all set
for war when on June 28, 1914, the archduke of Aus-
tria and his wife were murdered while on a visit to
the Austrian province of Bosnia. The archduke was
the heir to the Austrian throne. His assassin was a
Serb who resented the rule of the Austrians over peo-
ple of his race (p. 371) and desired to see all Serbs
united under Serbia.

Austria was in great excitement at once. She ac-
cused the Serbian government of aiding in plots de-
signed to arouse the Serbs in Austria against their
lawful sovereign. Austria then made humiliating de-
mands upon Serbia. Russia, fearing the growth of
Austrian power in southeastern Europe, encouraged
Serbia to stand firm. Serbia, however, yielded on
most of the demands. Still Austria, not satisfied,
declared war on her.

Meanwhile the German government had assured
Austria-Hungary of its support at all costs. Russia,
learning that the Austrians were ready for war, made
ready her own troops. While Europe trembled on
the brink of war, England urged a settlement of the

43° OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

quarrel at an international conference or by arbitra-
tion. Germany refused to force this peaceful advice
upon her ally, Austria-Hungary.

Hearing that the Russian army was ready for war,
the German government demanded that the czar
send his troops home. The czar refused. There-
upon Germany, on August I, 1914, declared war on
Russia. France, by her ties with Russia, was also
brought in. Germany called upon her to remain
neutral. Knowing that Russia would thus be beaten
and that her own turn would then come, France re-
plied that she would " have regard for her interests."
On August 3, Germany declared war on France.

Belgium. Having failed to secure a peaceful set-
tlement of the trouble between Serbia and Austria-
Hungary, England's next steps seemed uncertain.
At this point the German army was marching on
France, not directly, but toward Belgium, which lay
between Germany and the northern border of France,
Now the chief powers of the world had, long before,
solemnly agreed that they would regard Belgium as a
neutral country. They had promised not to send
armies into her territory. Germany, as well as the
other countries, was bound by this pledge. Belgium,
however, was an almost defenseless nation ; and the
border between France and Belgium was lightly forti-
fied. The Germans, therefore, decided that they
would march through Belgium. Thus they planned
to strike a terrific blow at France in her weakest spot

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 431

and quickly capture Paris. They first asked per-
mission of the Belgians, only to meet a proud refusal.
Then they prepared to march on Belgium as an enemy.

England and Belgium. Before invading Belgium,
however, the Germans tried to find out what position
England would take in the matter. The German
ambassador in London asked the British foreign min-
ister whether England would remain neutral if Ger-
many did not invade Belgian territory. The British
minister refused to bind himself, adding : " I do not
think that we could give a promise of neutrality on
that condition alone." That was on August i.

The next day, England informed France that, if
German battleships came out into the channel to attack
the French coast, the English navy would help protect
it. Two days later, the English government told
the king of Belgium that it would expect him to re-
sist, by all means in his power, an attempt of the Ger-
mans to enter his country. On the same day, Eng-
land demanded of Germany that she keep out of Bel-
gium. Germany refused and marched into Belgium,
making war on her. On August 4, England was at
war with Germany.

The World War. So during the first week of
August, 1914, the war opened. Austria-Hungary
and Germany were lined up against England,
France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, and Montenegro.
Soon Japan came to the help of its ally, England.
Italy remained neutral until 1915, when it joined the

432 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

powers against Germany and Austria. In the course
of time, the war widened to include the United States,
Rumania, China, Brazil, and other countries in the
line-up against Germany and Austria ; while Turkey
and Bulgaria took the part of Germany and Austria.
The fires of war encircled the globe. The conflict,
therefore, became known as the World War.

DESTRUCTION OF FRENCH COAL MINES BY THE GERMAN ARMY

The Course of the War. The German army
plunged through Belgium into France and was checked
only by the heroic efforts of the French and British
at the first battle of the Marne in September, 1914.
It then retreated to northern France, dug trenches,
and stood fast.

Far in the east, the armies of Russia and Germany
swayed forward and back until, in 1917, the Russian
czar was overthrown by a revolution at home. Rus-

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 433

sia fell into the hands of men of extreme views known
as the Bolshevikiy who made peace with Austria and
Germany, paying a terrible price for it. The Ger-
mans and Austrians also overran Serbia and Rumania
and helped the Turks to beat off the attacks by the
British. The Italians battled in the mountains along
their northern border against the combined forces of
Austria and Germany.

Never before in the history of mankind had the
world beheld such a dreadful spectacle. Millions of
armed men, supported by huge cannon, poison gas,
airplanes, machine guns, armored cars or u tanks,"
and a score of other deadly weapons waged war day
and night with awful carnage. For nearly three years
they kept it up without reaching a decision. Then
the sword of the United States was thrown into the
scale.

America and the World War. As in the case of
the Napoleonic wars a hundred years before (p.
314, and First Book, pp. 181-187), American trade
on the sea was disturbed by the war in Europe.
England's navy at the outset blockaded the coast of
Germany and cut off her commerce at sea, including
of course her trade with the United States. Germany
protested against the British blockade. The United
States also objected to certain features of it.

Then Germany startled the world by declaring
that her submarines would sink ships, passengers,
and crews engaged in trade with her enemies. Against

434 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

this policy, President Wilson protested vigorously but
without success. German submarines sank American
ships and took American lives.

America's answer all the world knows. In April,
1917, the United States entered the war against Ger-
many. More than two million American soldiers
crossed the sea to France; American ships joined in
the hunt for submarines. American sailors and sol-
diers fought bravely on the battlefield and on the sea.
General John J. Pershing commanded our army in
France.

The End of War. Against such a union of forces
as were now brought into the field, Germany and
Austria-Hungary battled in vain. The French, Eng-
lish, and American forces on the French front, under
General Foch, drove against the Germans with over-
whelming might. The Italians kept up the fight on
their front also.

In the summer of 1918, the Germans began to give
way. In October the Austrians sued for peace. In
November the Germans became panic-stricken. The
German government in the hour of defeat also begged
for peace. On November 1 1 a truce was signed.
The long and deadly war was at an end. The German
emperor was forced to give up the throne and flee
into Holland. Then a revolution transformed his em-
pire into a republic.

The Treaty of Peace. — The final terms of the
peace were drawn up at Paris and signed in 1919.

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 435

436 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

President Wilson went there in person to take part in
the conference. In fact, Woodrow Wilson, president
of the United States, Lloyd George, the British prime
minister, Georges Clemenceau, the French premier,
and Vittorio Orlando, the Italian prime minister, were
the leading figures in the grand congress of victors
that decided the fate of Germany, Austria-Hungary,
and their allies.

In the general settlement, Germany was disarmed ;
her battleships were taken from her; she was ordered
to pay a huge indemnity for the damage she had
wrought ; and she was forced to give Alsace-Lorraine
back to France.

Austria-Hungary was broken up and the several
races under its rule were given independence (below,
chapter xvii). Italy secured from Austria a large strip
of territory along the Adriatic Sea.

The German colonies in Africa were turned over
to England and France. The German islands in the
Pacific Ocean north of the equator were placed under
the control of Japan. German rights in China were
also given to Japan, much to the discontent of the
Chinese, to whom they originally belonged.

French, English, Belgian, and American troops en-
tered Germany to hold certain towns and provinces
until the terms of the treaty should be fulfilled.

Finally, under the leadership of President Wilson,
a plan to unite all the countries of the world in a League
of Nations was included in the treaty. Its purpose

EUROPE AFTER

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 437

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 439

was to prevent wars and settle disputes by peaceful
methods.

Although the other countries in the World War,
except China, ratified the treaty of 1919 with Ger-
many, the United States rejected it. The Senate
refused to approve it even with amendments. In
the presidential campaign of 1920, the Republican
candidate, Warren G. Harding, strongly denounced
the League of Nations. After he became President,
he refused to have anything to do with it. In the
summer of 1921 Congress by a simple resolution de-
clared the war with Germany and Austria-Hungary
at an end. A few months later brief treaties were
made with Germany and Austria-Hungary.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. What is meant by the word rivalry? Can you find
examples of rivalry among the merchants of your own town ?
What rivalries are there between your town and neighboring
towns ? What are some of the good things about rivalry ? What
are some of the dangers ? 2. In what ways did the growth of
industry increase the rivalry among modern nations? 3. How
did the growth of democracy influence this rivalry ? 4. The
text states that the spirit of nationalism increased rivalry. Can
you think of any way in which the rivalry may also have intensi-
fied the spirit of nationalism? 5. Why is the rivalry among
nations which is discussed in this chapter called "imperial"
rivalry ?

II. I. Why did the European nations wish to trade with China
and Japan ? 2. A certain amount of trade with these countries
had been carried on by European merchants in early times (see

44°

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

ch. viii). What reasons may China and Japan have had for
wishing to stop trade with Europe ? 3. How was trade reopened
with China ? With Japan ? 4. What effect did trade with
Europe have upon Japan ? Why was the effect on China so dif-
ferent ? 5. What important differences have there been be-
tween the policy of our country toward China and the policies of
the European nations ?

III. I. What reasons can you give that will explain why
''Africa was the last of the great continents to be explored and
seized by the European powers " ? 2. What led David Living-
stone to explore central Africa ? What different motives did the
European nations have in beginning their "general scramble to
get African territory" ? 3. In what ways would European trade
with central Africa differ from European trade with China and
Japan ? 4. For what other purposes besides trade may the

' European nations have wished to secure African territory ?
(Think of the growing populations of these nations and limited
space in which they had to grow.)

IV. I. What is meant by Latin America? What countries
are included under this term ? 2. How did the rule of Spain
on the American continent differ from the English colonial rule ?
3. When the English colonies became independent they established
a single nation ; when the Spanish colonies threw off the rule of
Spain they formed several independent nations. Can you think
of any reasons that will explain this difference ? 4. Why was
the United States alarmed by the conference at Verona ? What
danger to this country would there have been in the reconquest
of the Latin-American colonies by Spain? 5. The Monroe
Doctrine states a very important "policy" of the United States.
What are some of the differences between a policy and a law?
What other important American policy has already been referred
to in this chapter ? Perhaps you can think of other policies that
our country has adopted. 6. What problems has the Monroe
Doctrine given rise to in connection with our relations to European

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 441

nations ? What difficulties have we had with the Latin-American
countries themselves because of this doctrine ? 7. What ter-
ritories are included under the term Caribbean ? What possessions
does the United States now hold in the Caribbean ? 8. With
the exception of Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, the islands
•of the Caribbean are small and not very important for purposes of
trade. Why, then, would European nations wish to hold these
islands as colonial possessions ?

V. i. How many years elapsed between the close of the Na-
poleonic wars and the opening of the World War ? 2. What
important conflicts among European nations took place during
these years ? 3. Review the differences between the government
of Germany before the war and the governments of England,
France, and Italy (ch. xv). Which of the three kinds of govern-
ment would be most likely to develop a desire for war and to
prepare for a war of conquest ? Why ? 4. Why did the growth
of German power alarm England, France, and Russia ? What
steps did they take to meet the danger ? What effect did their
action have upon Germany ? 5. What was the immediate cause
of the outbreak in 1914 ? Why did Russia stand by Serbia in her
trouble with Austria ? 6. What brought France into the con-
flict ? 7. The German invasion of Belgium was an act that had
a great deal to do with setting the civilized world against her.
Why was this act so strongly denounced even by neutral nations ?

8. What effect did the invasion of Belgium have upon England ?

9. The battle of the Marne will probably be known for centu-
ries to come as one of the decisive battles of history. Why ?

10. What finally led the United States to take part in the war?
With what result? n. Discuss the important settlements
decided upon by the Peace Conference. Why did the people of
the United States refuse to ratify the peace treaty and to join the
League of Nations? 12. What important revolutions took
place during the war and immediately after? Can you give any
reasons for these revolutions ?

442 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES

I. If possible, secure a copy of a textbook in geography that was
printed before 1919. Compare the maps of Europe, Africa, the
Caribbean region, and South America with the corresponding
maps on pp. 415, 418, and 421 and facing p. 436 of this book..
What new countries do you find as a result of the World War ?
Make a summary of the other changes that you observe. Com-
pare this summary with those that you find in your regular text-
book in geography if that has been printed since 1919.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

BENEZET — The Map of Europe, xiii-xxi.

BENEZET, L. P. — Young People's History of the World War ;

Macmillan.
O'NEILL — The Story of the World, xlvi, xlvii.

SUGGESTIONS FOR REVIEW OF CHAPTERS XIII-XVI

1. These chapters have told the story of three great develop-
ments of the modern world: (a) democracy; (b) industry;
(c) nationalism. An important event in the growth of democracy
was the French revolution. Another was the enactment of the
" reform" bills in England. Name as many other important
events associated with the modern development of democracy as
you can find in your review of these chapters. In the same way,
make lists of the important events that mark the growth of in-
dustry and of nationalism.

2. The period of nearly a century and a half covered by these
chapters has witnessed many political revolutions. Draw a line
six feet long on the blackboard to represent the years between
1789 and the present time. Mark at the proper places on this
line the years when important political revolutions have taken
place.

IMPERIAL RIVALRY OF EUROPEAN NATIONS 443

3. Under the line just mentioned draw another line of the same
length representing the same period, and place marks indicating the
important wars. How does the position of the marks indicating
revolutionary years compare with that of the marks indicating
the war years ?

4. Make a list of all the persons mentioned in these four chapters.
Try to group these persons under the following heads : (a) heads of
nations (including kings, emperors, and presidents) ; (b) statesmen
or political leaders; (c) military and naval leaders; (d) sci-
entists ; (e) inventors ; (/) leaders in social reforms ; (g) writ-
ers ; (h) explorers. Perhaps you will find some that should be
placed in more than one group. Pick out those in each group
who, in your judgment, best deserve to be remembered because
of the good that they have done for humanity. Vote on the five
that you would like best to know more about and have committees
appointed to make the class well acquainted with these persons
and their work.

CHAPTER XVII
EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME

THE treaty that closed the World War did not bring
peace among the nations of Europe. Neither did it
give contentment to the people of the various coun-
tries engaged in the war. The conflict had been so
long and so bitter that the world could not settle down
in quiet at once. All the nations of the earth had
been deeply stirred by the struggle. A score of kings
and princes had been overthrown. In central Europe
new republics had been established in place of former
monarchies. Millions of men had been killed or
wounded. Women had been made widows. Chil-
dren had been orphaned. Business had been turned
mainly to the making of supplies for war. It could
not be turned back in a day to a peace basis. Heavy
debts had been created. Someone had to pay them;
so taxes were increased almost to the limit of endur-
ance. It was clear that it would take years to bring
Europe out of the distress into which it had fallen.

THE DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF THE NATIONS
The German Revolution of 1918. Among the
important results of the war was the collapse of the

444

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME

445

German empire — the empire which had been pro-
claimed with such pomp in 1871. When it was clear
that the German army was defeated on the field of
battle, a revolutionary government was formed in

GERMAN SOLDIERS AND CIVILIANS CHEERING THE DECLARATION OF THE
REPUBLIC IN NOVEMBER, 1918

Berlin. The kaiser, as we have seen (p. 434), was
forced to flee from the realm. All the kings, princes,
and dukes who ruled in the states of the former em-
pire were likewise overthrown. The next year, after
a long debate, a new constitution was adopted in Ger-

446

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

many. The first article declared that " the German
empire is a republic. Political power springs from the
people." Provision was made for a president and a
parliament, both elected by the German people, women
as well as men having the vote. During the same
crisis, new constitutions were drafted for the several
German states. Each one of them was made a re-
public and given a popular form of government.
Even Prussia became democratic.

The Revolution in Russia. Far more disturbing
to the rest of the world than the upheaval in Germany
was the collapse of the Russian empire. As we have
seen, the czar narrowly escaped losing his throne in
the misery that grew out of the war with Japan. Dur-
ing the World War he finally met his fate. In 1917
popular discontent in Russia broke out in riots. An
attempt was made to create a parliament on the Eng-
lish model. In a short time the discontent grew
into a revolution. The czar was deposed and after-
ward murdered.

The effort to establish a republic along American
lines failed. All power was seized by committees, or
Soviets, of soldiers, sailors, peasants, and workingmen.
These committees were controlled by the Bolsheviki
(p. 433). In the name of the working class they took
possession of the government offices, the railways,
factories, private houses, land, and other property.
They decreed : (i) that all lands, mills, mines, and
forests should belong to the government and (2) that

447

448 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

all should work for the government. This scheme is
called communism because all things are owned and
used in common. As we have seen (p. 94), this was
an idea sometimes discussed by the Greeks. Plato
argued in its favor. Aristotle advanced strong argu-
ments against it. All through the centuries it was
discussed, and some attempts were made to put it into
practice, but without success.

Under the leadership of two men, Lenine and
Trotzky, the Bolsheviki, though a small minority of
the Russian nation, managed to control the govern-
ment. They used the army to put down opposi-
tion. They suppressed all criticism. They impris-
oned or executed those who rose against them.

Though the Bolsheviki claimed to have nothing
but the interest of the people at heart, they were un-
able to bring prosperity to Russia. The peasants in-
sisted on owning the soil they tilled; so that point in
the communist program had to be given up. After
the Bolsheviki had driven out the capitalists and man-
agers of factories, they found that they did not know
how to run the business concerns themselves. They
were unable to supply the people with manufactured
goods. Their troubles were made worse because
several other countries, including the United States,
refused to trade with them because it was uncertain
whether foreign property would be protected and just
debts paid. To all these difficulties were added wars
and famines. Several Russian generals raised armies

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME

449

and attempted to overthrow the Bolsheviki. In this
effort some of the generals had the aid of England,
France, and the United States.

In fact, there was widespread alarm among all
other nations. They strongly upheld the right of

private persons to own farms, houses, factories, mines,
and other property. The Bolsheviki appealed to the
workingmen of the world to unite, to overthrow their
governments, and to establish communism on the
Russian model. In many parts of Europe working-
men gave heed to this appeal and tried to seize the

450

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

factories. In Germany and Hungary, especially, these
attempts resulted in much bloodshed. Though they
were put down, they left behind many traces of
bitterness.

Meanwhile, the Bolsheviki in Russia still held
to the government. In many ways, however, they
changed their tactics. They let the peasants keep
their land. They called back managers to run the
factories. They admitted that for one reason or an-
other their plans had not brought prosperity to Rus-
sia and prepared to change them. In time Eng-
land, Germany, and Italy began to trade again with
Russia. When a great crop failure in 1921 led to a
terrible famine, the people of the United States gave
millions of dollars to aid the starving Russians.

New Republics Formed from Russia. In addi-
tion to undergoing a revolution, the empire of the czar
was broken into many parts. Four new states on the
Baltic — Finland, Esthonia, Lithuania, and Latvia -
were made independent republics. Far to the south,
beyond the Caucasus mountains, Georgia and other
provinces were freed from the dominion of the Russian
government. Away to the east, a part of Siberia
broke off and carried on its own government as if en-
tirely independent.

The Collapse of Austria-Hungary. In the general
overturn that followed the World War, the Austro-
Hungarian empire also went to pieces. It had been, as
we have seen (pp. 356, 371), a strange array of many

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME

451

peoples held together by the power of the Hapsburgs.
In the name of " nationalism " several of the subject
races had long clamored for independence. After
the United States declared war on Austria-Hungary,
President Wilson announced that all the peoples ruled
by the Hapsburg emperor should have the right to
choose their own destiny " as members of the family
of nations." That was the same as saying that Aus-
tria-Hungary should be broken up.

That is what happened when the Austrians and
Hungarians were beaten. The Rumanians in Hun-
gary were joined with their kinsmen across the border
in Rumania. Czechoslovaks were united in a re-
public under the presidency of a patriotic leader,
Thomas Masaryk. To the south, the Italians were
transferred from Austria to Italy ; while the southern
Slavic peoples were merged with Serbia in the great
state of Yugoslavia. Hungary, much reduced in
territory, was made independent. Austria was
brought down to the level of a petty state with about
seven million German inhabitants. The peace con-
ference did not permit the Austrians to join the Ger-
man republic.

The break-up of Austria and Hungary brought
about domestic troubles of the gravest kind. Aus-
tria, cut off from her former provinces and burdened
by debt, sank into poverty. Hungary went through
a revolutionary crisis. It first fell into the hands of
a communist party like that in Russia, and later

452

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

into the hands of a military dictator. It was then
disturbed by an attempt of the former ruler, Charles,
to recover his throne — an attempt that ended in
failure.

All the new little states carved out of the former

<g) Keystone View Co., Inc.

A GLIMPSE OF MODERN HUNGARY

Austrb-Hungarian empire quarreled with one another.
They suffered from business panics. The great impe-
rial network of railways was broken up. Tariffs were
levied on goods passing between separate countries.
Separate systems of coinage were established. Indus-
tries suffered. It remains to be seen whether the

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME

453

nationalism that brought self-government can also
bring peace and prosperity.

The Rebirth of Poland. In the general crash of
1918, the hopes of Poland rose. The independence
of that country had been utterly blotted out since
the eighteenth century. In three " partitions " be-
ginning in 1772, Russia, Austria, and Prussia fell upon
Poland and divided the country among themselves.
The Poles resisted heroically. The brave Kosciusko,
who fought for American independence under Wash-
ington, led in one of the desperate struggles for liberty
in his own country, but was overcome by superior
numbers. Again and again the Poles tried to free
themselves. Finally their opportunity came in the
defeat of two of their historic enemies — Austria and
Germany --and in the collapse of the third, Russia.
President Wilson included among his " Fourteen
Points " (First Book, p. 444) the independence of
Poland. At the peace conference in Paris, the dream
of Kosciusko was realized. The Poles were united
and given a place among the nations.

The Balkan Region. All southeastern Europe, the
source of so much trouble to the world, was likewise
greatly changed by the World War. The Serbs and
their kinsmen were united in the kingdom of Yugo-
slavia, as we have said (p. 451). Rumania was en-
larged by additions of territory from Hungary and
Russia. The Turks lost nearly all their territory in
Europe. They were allowed to keep their capital at

454

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME

455

Constantinople, but the Bosporus was put under the
control of an international commission. The Greeks
recalled their king, who had been driven out during
the war, and revised their plan of government.

The Revolt of the Irish. Seeing the Poles, Finns,
and other races of Europe receive their independence,
the Irish became more determined than ever to throw
off the rule of Great Britain. They had been con-
quered by English armies centuries before, but they
had always chafed against their forced union with
England. A large party among the Irish people had
demanded self-government or " home rule " as early
as 1828, and the idea was steadily kept alive.

After several generations of argument and dispute,
the English government was about to grant a certain
kind of home rule when the World War broke out.
While the war was on, a party known as Sinn Fein
(pronounced " Shin Fane " and meaning " Ourselves ")
came out boldly for independence. It declared Ire-
land to be a free republic. It elected a provisional
president, Eamonn de Valera. It sent him to America
to get support. Americans, so many of whom are
of Irish descent, were much moved by monster public
meetings. Irish sympathizers even asked Congress to
recognize the Irish republic.

Meanwhile Ireland was the scene of dreadful strife.
England refused to recognize the republic and sent
soldiers to put it down. At the same time a conflict
arose in Ireland itself. The northern part of the is-

456

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

land had been settled long ago by immigrants from
England and Scotland who had never favored home
rule or independence. Moreover, there were some
of the native Irish who did not approve of independ-

l it ic Co., Inc.

ENGLISH SOLDIERS PREPARING TO LEAVE IRELAND

ence. Thus there were really two wars in Ire-
land - - one between English soldiers and the Sinn
Fein ; the other between the friends and the enemies of
independence. The long strife was attended by all
the horrors of irregular warfare. Murders and counter-
murders filled the island with misery.

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME 457

Weary at last of the bitter conflict, both parties
were ready to consider terms in 1921. Lloyd George
(p. 436) invited an Irish delegation to London to dis-
cuss the matter. On December 6 they signed an
agreement establishing the Irish Free State. It was
understood that Ireland was to be one of " the
group of nations forming the British commonwealth
of nations." The British and Irish parliaments soon
approved the agreement signed at London, and thus it
seemed that an age-long quarrel was to be settled
peaceably. However, the Irish people were divided
over the question of accepting the agreement.

Debts, Taxes, and Money. Every European
country came out of the World War staggering under
a burden of debt and taxes. England owed about
$3,500,000,000 in 1914 and something like $40,000,-
000,000 in 1919. Taxes were likewise increased, until
in the case of the very rich the government took
more than one third of their net income. At the out-
break of the war, the national debt of Italy was reck-
oned at $2.90 for every man, woman, and child in
the kingdom. At the close of the war the debt stood
at about $11 each. This was a terrible burden. To
pay the interest on this debt, the Italian parliament
had to resort to heavy taxes. In fact, taxes were laid
on nearly everything. There were, for example, taxes
on hotel bills, on articles of luxury, and on clothes,
as well as on houses, lands, and incomes. The Ger-
mans had, in addition to the cost of their war, the

458 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

obligation of paying billions of dollars to the victors
to meet the heavy damages done during the war.

In short, every European country was very much
like a person who has most of his belongings in a pawn
shop and little prospect of ever getting them out
again. Furthermore, they had all issued great quan-
tities of paper money. Silver and gold were driven
out of circulation except in England and paper
bills took their places. The money of Europe, as
measured in American dollars, fell in value until the
results were absurd. The Russian ruble, once worth
fifty cents, dropped steadily until it took several hun-
dred to equal one cent. The German mark, once
reckoned at twenty-five cents, fell below a half of a
cent. The Italian lire, worth twenty cents before the
war, was worth less than four cents in 1921. This,
of course, made it extremely difficult for the countries
having money of such low value to trade with the
United States. They could not afford to buy Ameri-
can goods. This helped to bring on a business depres-
sion in our own country.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The Armed Peace. The close of the World War
diminished none of the ancient grudges of Europe.
Indeed it left most of the old ones still intact, and
added many new ones. It brought no end to the huge
expenditures for war purposes. Germany, it is true,
was forcibly disarmed ; but France, fearing a revival

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME 459

of German power, kept an immense standing army.
England and Japan continued to enlarge their navies
(p. 428). Russia kept a great army ready for any emer-
gency. The new republics created out of Russia and
Austria-Hungary quarreled with one another over
boundaries and many other matters. The Greeks and
Turks immediately began to fight over territory. The
Poles and Russians fought for a variety of reasons.
The Germans began to write and publish books about
" the next war." In short, instead of putting an end
to war, the peace signed at Paris seemed to be more
like a truce than a final settlement.

Trade Hampered by Rivalries. The new states
created by the war began at once to put up tariffs
against goods from neighboring states. In the old
days, one could travel from the French to the Russian
border by passing through only one country. After
the war it was necessary to go through three or four.
This meant that at every frontier travelers had their
baggage searched. Since free trade among the peo-
ples of Europe was hampered by so many barriers,
business was bad everywhere. Some countries could
not get raw materials and had to close their factories.
In other countries mills were shut down because the
output could not be sold. In general, Europe sank
into a distressing state. There was unemployment
and poverty for working people and ruin for capitalists
and business men. In short, Europe was " sick "
and apparently could not find a way to get well again.

460 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The United States and Demoralized Europe. Af-
ter the war was over, the United States withdrew
nearly all its soldiers from Europe. Only a few thou-
sand were left in Germany awaiting the final settle-
ment. At the same time, the United States refused
to join the League of Nations formed at Paris in 1919,
and made a separate peace with Germany and Austria
in 1921 (p. 439). It looked as if our country were try-
ing to withdraw as rapidly as possible from Euro-
pean affairs.

Complete withdrawal, however, was impossible. In
the first place, our former associates in the war,
especially England and France, owed us billions of
dollars borrowed during the struggle. Years passed
by and still they did not arrange to pay interest or
principal. How and when they could pay became a
serious problem. They did not have the gold with
which to pay. If they paid in goods, that would mean
" dumping " manufactured articles into America to
the injury of American industries.

In addition to this huge war debt, Europe owed
private American capitalists immense sums. Nearly
all the countries of the Old World had turned to
America for money. France had borrowed huge
sums here. So had Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, and
Denmark. Even European cities, like Paris, Berne,
and several Danish towns, had borrowed from
American bankers. Whenever one of the loans fell
due, it was customary to float another loan in America

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME 461

to get money to pay it. Often seven or eight per cent
interest was charged on such loans, whereas most
Liberty Bonds drew only four and one quarter per cent.
To help the business of money lending, branches of
American banks were opened in England, France,
and other countries. In this way the United States,
which had once borrowed money in Europe to develop
its lands and factories, now became the banker for
Europe.

The United States was also affected by the state
of European trade. Before the World War, America
sold goods to the annual value of about $1,500,000,000
in Europe. During the war, the exports, mainly
war materials and supplies for the armies, multiplied
threefold --this in spite of the fact that business
with Austria and Germany was stopped altogether.
After the war came a great " slump." The demand
for war supplies was cut off entirely. The European
countries, in debt and impoverished, could not buy
heavily in American markets. American trade with
Russia disappeared almost entirely. Trade with Ger-
many, once running into the hundreds - of millions
each year, could not quickly be restored to its former
importance.

All these things working together seriously hurt
American business. Factories and mills cut down
their output, turned off numbers of their employees,
and in many instances shut up entirely. Thus in
peace, as in war, it was seen that the state of affairs

462 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

in Europe was a matter of concern to America. Once
again it was made clear that America does not live to
herself alone. The price of wheat in the warehouses
of Minneapolis, the wages of New England factory
workers, and the earnings of Southern cotton planters
depend in a large measure upon the business pros-
perity of the world.

The Orient. Events in the Far East made this
dependence still plainer. Japan came out of the con-
flict richer and more powerful than ever. She had
crushed one of her great rivals, Germany, and had
seized German property and privileges in China. She
was further strengthened by the downfall of Rus-
sia, another serious rival. Thus Japan had a free
hand in extending her trade on the mainland of Asia.
Having learned from the World War the importance
of a strong navy, Japan laid out a great program for
increasing the number of her battleships. United
with Great Britain by an alliance, Japan prepared to
become the ruler of the Orient. She announced a
sort of Monroe Doctrine to the effect that everything
Oriental was mainly her affair. Thus the slumber-
ing nation which the United States had helped to
awaken more than fifty years before had become one
of the first powers of the world.

The rise of Japanese power brought new problems
for the United States. Japan claimed the right to
direct affairs in weak and disorderly China, where the
citizens of many countries, including Americans, had

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME

463

trade, factories, railways, and mines. With the in-
crease of her navy and the growth of her population,
Japan became very sensitive about the treatment
of her citizens in foreign countries. Especially did
she resent their exclusion from the United States and
from Australia. This was very embarrassing. It dis-
turbed Japan's close ally, Great Britain, because Aus-

Vtew Co., inc.

A MODERN IRON MILL IN CHINA

tralia is a part of the British empire. It raised
alarm in the United States, for the Americans had
firmly made up their minds to exclude the Japanese.
The eyes of the world, therefore, became fixed on the
Pacific Ocean, where three great nations, Japan, Eng-
land, and the United States, had vital interests and
China was trying to defend herself.

464 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

The Great International Conference at Washing-
ton. In view of this state of affairs, President
Harding, in 1921, invited England, France, Italy,
Japan, Belgium, The Netherlands, Portugal, and China
to send delegates to Washington to discuss ways and
means of settling disputes in the Pacific and of cutting
down expenditures for armies and navies. They all
eagerly accepted the invitation. Their eagerness
showed that they, too, were alarmed over the plight
of mankind and wished to find some way to a better
understanding among the nations. It was a historic
moment when, in November, 1921, the ministers of
these nations met in Washington to consider the
fate of the world. Mr. Hughes, our Secretary of State,
Startled every one by proposing an immediate reduc-
tion in the navies of the leading countries. This
promised to cut down the heavy expenses for naval
armaments. Many of the troublesome questions con-
nected with China and the islands of the Pacific were
discussed at great length with a view to keeping the
peace in the Far East.

Before the conference closed in February, 1922,
many important steps had been taken. The leading
powers agreed to limit the number of their warships for
a period of ten years. England, France, Japan, and
the United States signed a "four power" treaty prom-
ising to respect one another's islands in the Pacific
and to hold conferences when serious disputes arose
over them. The alliance between England and Japan

EUROPE IN OUR OWN TIME 465

was publicly dissolved. The powers agreed to limit
the use of submarines and poison gas in warfare. Ja-
pan bound herself to give Shantung back to China on
certain conditions. The independence of China was
guaranteed ; equal rights to trade in China were pro-
claimed. After they were drawn up, these treaties
were laid before the various countries concerned for
approval.

The conference showed how deeply America was
involved in world affairs. Hereafter other countries
will write an American background to their history.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. i. Our study of previous wars has taught us that a long
conflict is likely to be followed by a period of reaction. In what
ways was the World War of 1914-18 more serious than any war in
the past ? Why were the difficulties of a satisfactory settlement
much greater than in other wars ? 2. What changes took place
in the government of Germany as a result of the German revolu-
tion of 1918 ? 3. How did the results of the Russian revolution
differ from those of the German revolution ? 4. What is meant
by "communism" ? It is generally agreed that communism in
Russia has been a most disastrous failure. Why would communism
be likely to fail in any great modern nation ? 5. The government
of Russia under the Bolsheviki is, in theory, a government by the
working classes, farmers, laborers, and factory workers. In your
judgment, is this true democracy ? Give reasons for your answer.
In actual practice, the government by the Bolsheviki, most people
believe, has not been even a government by the working people,
but really a government by a very small group of men. Why
would popular government of any sort be difficult to establish in
Russia ? (Think of the size of the country and remember that

466 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

more than half of the people are unable to read.) 6. How were
the Polish people divided in 1772 ? In what way did the decision
of the Peace Conference in 1919 "realize the dream of Kosciusko" ?
7. Why should the nations of western Europe object to Turkish
control of the Bosporus ? What have they done to prevent such
control ? 8. How did the Irish Free States come into existence ?
What other countries belong to the " British Commonwealth of
Nations" ? What important British possessions are still not
parts of this commonwealth ? 9. WThat is meant by a "national
debt" ? From whom did our country borrow money during the
World War ? In what ways do the national debts of the European
countries resemble our national debt ? Do they differ in any
important respect ? What is meant by interest on a debt ? How
is the interest on our national debt paid ? What is the difference
between the principal of a debt and the interest ? 10. We use
paper money in this country, but not the kind of paper money
that the European countries have issued. What is the difference ?
Do you know of any occasion when our government issued paper
money similar to that which is now used by the European nations ?
II. i. Why is the period following the Peace Conference re-
ferred to as one of "armed peace" ? 2. In what ways would
the formation of so many new nations make trade among the
European countries difficult ? 3. How has the poverty of Europe
affected our country ? 4. What events led to the calling of the
Washington Conference on the Limitation of Armaments, and
what were the important results of this conference ?

CHAPTER XVIII
THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE

WHAT a marvelous sweep there is in the history of
mankind from the stone age to the age of electricity !
The record opens with the poor and almost helpless
cave man cowering before the lightning's flash ; it
closes with Marconi harnessing electricity to send mes-
sages around the world by the wireless telegraph. The
primitive herdsman counts his flock by notches on
a stick ; the modern mathematician measures the
93,000,000 miles between the earth and the sun and
reckons the time that it takes light to fly to our
planet from the most distant star.

The primitive tribes of ancient days looked upon ha-
tred of their neighbors as the greatest virtue and waged
endless wars on one another. Modern nations do not
consider all foreigners " barbarians " as did the Greeks ;
nor do they look upon constant warfare as natural and
necessary. They are eager to exchange goods and ideas
and to welcome travelers. Though wars continue to
plague mankind, there are millions of people all over
the earth who are laboring to find a plan for ending that
savage way of settling quarrels. The history of man-
kind is indeed a wonderful story. In spite of many

467

468 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

sad, dark pages, it reveals to us a growth of human
powers that fills us with awe. Moreover, it inspires
us to act well our part in our day, so that the future
may be more splendid than the past.

The Preceding Ages and Modern Times Contrasted.
The story is all one, though we have divided it, for
convenience, into ancient, medieval, and modern times.
The beginnings of most of our ideas may be traced
back through the middle ages to the nations of an-
tiquity, as we have seen. Still the modern age presents
some very clear contrasts to the ages that preceded it :

I. We know, for one thing, a vast deal more about
the world -- about the earth at our feet, the hills that
tower above us, the stars that shine down upon us,
and life around us --than did our remote ancestors.
Medieval learning was mainly religious. It had to do
with the world to come ; and the priests, or clergy,
were the only learned class. Modern learning deals
chiefly with this world. In the modern age we have
thousands of teachers, scholars, and scientists who are
not clergymen.

. 2. In the modern age too — and this is very impor-
tant -- knowledge is far more widely distributed among
the people than in the former ages. Schools, museums,
newspapers, books, magazines, lectures, motion pictures,
and the radio convey to the masses the information
that was once limited to a mere handful of students.

3. The modern age is a ;c progressive "' age. In
medieval times, there was little change in the way

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 469

people lived and worked. The idea of constant im-
provement in implements, tools, machines, business
methods, home comforts, and travel was not the lead-
ing idea. To-day, in every field, " improvement " is
the most striking watchword,

4. In the modern age, literature, art, science, and
opportunity are not for the privileged few only, but
for the many. Any one, man or woman, boy or girl,
who has talent may choose almost any calling. Even
the old ideal that every person who worked at any of
the arts should first be trained in ancient models has
been scornfully, too scornfully, rejected.

In the modern age a writer or artist may pick his
own subjects. He is not dependent, as in ancient
Egypt, upon the whim of a king or, as in the middle ages,
entirely upon the taste of some rich person. The mar-
ket, so to speak, is now very wide and varied. There
are newspapers, magazines, and publishers eager to
discover new genius. There are hundreds of institu-
tions for training. There are scholarships, prizes, and
exhibits which permit those with special abilities to
pursue the lines of work for which they are fitted.

MODERN KNOWLEDGE

Its Variety. The range of modern knowledge is
very wide. We have only to take up a good encyclo-
pedia and run through its thousands of topics in order
to see how many things have been carefully studied.
The variety is always increasing. Fresh topics are be-

470 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

ing added daily. An encyclopedia grows out of date
in a few years, nay, in a few months. Think of the
topics that were not included at all fifty years ago,
such as airplanes, wireless telegraphy, radio telephones,
automobiles, and gas engines, to mention only a few.

Our knowledge is not only more varied ; it is more
accurate and can be more safely depended on. In
many of the medieval histories all kinds of rumor and
idle tales were set down as gospel truth by the old
chroniclers. To-day great efforts are being made to
write histories that present facts rather than rumor.
Compare, too, the geography that any present-day
school child may have with the poor collection of maps
that Columbus owned. Columbus knew very little
about lands outside of western Europe, and much that
he believed was wrong. For a small sum one may buy
a geography to-day that plots out with painstaking
accuracy and describes clearly the most distant lands,
seas, islands, and rivers. It tells us not only about the
shape of the continents, but also about the peoples of
various lands, their occupations, the climate, soil, and
products. The modern world knows far more than
the middle ages and what it knows is more accurate.
It even knows more of the middle ages themselves
than the wisest men then living knew.

Natural Science. It is in the field of natural sci-
ence especially that the modern times show the greatest
progress. Even in the oldest science, astronomy, won-
derful steps have been taken. Men like Galileo, Co-

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE

471

pernicus, and Newton revealed to mankind the starry
heavens and their laws, the revolution of the planets
and the orbits of the comets.

Ever since the seventeenth century startling prog-
ress has been made in every field of medicine. William
Harvey, in 1628, published his great book showing
the working of the human heart and the circulation
of the blood through the body. Diseases which were

472

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

once thought hopeless can now be cured. The surgeon
can perform delicate operations without torturing his
patient. Such scourges as smallpox and yellow fever
have been almost entirely stamped out. Ways have
been found to control diphtheria and typhoid fever.

Fewer persons die
in infancy and child-
hood, and many
more live to old age.
In chemistry, the
discoveries of the
modern age have
been brilliant and
startling. Chemists
have broken up
simple things, such
as a lump of coal or
a grain of corn, into
an astoundingnum-
ber of elements.
Out of coal the
chemist can make,
amongother things,
illuminating gas,
tar, oils of various
kinds, paints, perfumes, dyestuffs, flavoring extracts, in-
digo, explosives, roofing materials, paving materials,
and lampblack. Corn was once used only as grain
for cattle and hogs, or when ground into meal as food

MADAME CURIE, A FAMOUS FRENCH SCIENTIST,
IN HER LABORATORY

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 473

for mankind. Out of corn the chemist to-day makes
table oil, soap, glycerin, rubber substitute, table starch,
laundry starch, syrup, sugar, glue, and oil cake.

Students of animal life, called zoologists, have
studied, classified, and described millions of forms
of animal life, ranging from the tiniest creatures that
can be seen only under the microscope to the giant
beasts of the African jungle. Students of rocks, geolo-
gists, have studied the layers of the earth's surface
and the way in which metals and stones have been
scattered about. They have read the story of creation
as revealed in plain, mountain, river, and valley. The
botanists (students of plants) have done the same thing
for all plant life. They have discovered tiny plants
called bacteria, some of which are very harmful and
others very useful. They have found ways of improv-
ing plants and even of developing new kinds of fruits
and vegetables. Chemists and. botanists have united in
discovering the kinds of plants best suited to certain soils
and the kinds of fertilizers that produce the best crops.

Workers in the field of physics have revealed the
workings of natural forces. They know how to gen-
erate and use electricity. They can tell beforehand
how much power a rushing river will give if made to
turn a water wheel. They can tell how strong a piece
of steel must be to bear a certain load, whether it be
used in a bridge or in a towering office building. In all
the fairy tales there is nothing more wonderful than
in the true stories of modern natural science.

474 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Knowledge of the Human Race. Along with the
study of the natural world inhabited by mankind there
has been undertaken an equally zealous study of man-
kind itself. One group of workers, called archeolo gists,
has dug up the ruins of ancient civilizations and shown
us how the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Ro-
mans lived. Another group has studied the North
American Indians, the Eskimos of the North, the pyg-
mies of Africa, and many other backward races, and de-
scribed their habits, their languages, and their religions.
Historians, instead of relying on idle tales and rumors,
have sought to separate the truth from error and to
tell as accurately as possible about the past of hu-
manity.

Economists have studied the ways in which goods are
produced and distributed among the various classes of
each nation. They keep track of the bales of cotton,
the pairs of shoes, the yards of cloth, and the countless
other products turned out each year. They receive
reports from all parts of the world as to the way in which
the farm crops are growing, and make shrewd guesses
as to the prices of corn, wheat, and cotton for the com-
ing season. Economists also study the ways of ad-
vancing business prosperity, how to improve the con-
ditions of wage earners, and how to get rid of unde-
served poverty. The human race --its habits, cus-
toms, beliefs, industries, crimes, diseases, and achieve-
ments -- receives in the modern age more attention
than ever before in history.

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE

475

How Knowledge Is Distributed and Used. Modern
knowledge, unlike that of the ancient world or the
middle ages, is not limited to a single class — a small
group of learned men. It is spread broadcast through-
out the length and breadth of the civilized world.
Once it was the excep-
tional person who
knew how to read and
write. Now, in our
country, in western
and northern Europe,
in Canada, Australia,
South Africa, New
Zealand, and in Japan,
it is the exceptional
person who does not.
Newspapers, maga-
zines, books, and mo-
tion pictures carry
daily to the people the
results of study in
every field. In the
middle ages only a very
rich man could have a
library of any size.
Owing to the printing
press, any one can now buy for a few dollars an ency-
clopedia or a small library of informing books.

Thanks to the public schools, no one needs to have the

476 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

gateways of knowledge closed against him. " Is it not
strange," wrote a very wise man, " that a little child
should be heir to the whole world ? " Yet it is true.
A little child taught to read and write and set on the
way to knowledge at school or in the home is heir to all
the wisdom of the ages --to all the past. He is there-
fore better prepared to understand his own times. In
an age of democracy when all adults, men and women
alike, take part in their own government, it is fitting that
knowledge should be democratic ; that is, open to all.

Modern knowledge is also applied knowledge. The
ancient ruling classes scorned mechanics and trades.
Learned men did not apply their knowledge. They sat
about and talked and dreamed and wrote. The clergy
of the middle ages did not look down upon honest work,
but they did not labor hard at improving plows, invent-
ing better water wheels, or making fields to yield larger
crops. In other words, they were not mainly con-
cerned with using their knowledge to lift the burden
from mankind. Modern knowledge, on the other hand,
is used to solve man's problems. Chemists not only
learn the substances of which the world is made ; they
apply chemistry in all manner of ways from multiplying
the bushels of corn that can be grown in a field to kill-
ing the disease germs that lurk in a fever-laden swamp.
Men and women to-day want to know things not merely
for the sake of knowing, but for the sake of conquering
disease, pain, drudgery, and poverty --for the sake of
making the world a happier place in which to live.

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 477

THE IDEA OF PROGRESS AND REFORM

The Idea. Life in the middle ages, as we have seen,
was slow to change. The peasant in the field, the smith
at his forge, the housewife at the fireside, went about
their duties in almost the same way from generation to
generation. In modern times change is continuous. A
business man throws aside a machine that cost thousands
of dollars because a better one has been invented. The
housewife cooks with wood, then with coal, then with
gas, then with electricity. The farmer sells his oxen
and buys horses, sells his horses and buys a tractor and
an automobile. The skilled machinist moves from Scot-
land, Italy, or Rumania to South America or the United
States to better his living conditions.

The idea of progress was not wholly unknown to the
ancients. The Roman poet Lucretius took serious note
of the fact that mankind had passed through the stone,
bronze, and iron ages. Other ancient writers sometimes
spoke of the movement of the human race from stage to
stage. But it was the nineteenth century which made
the idea of growth the very center of all thought. Three
great Englishmen, Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer,
and Thomas H. Huxley, did more than any others to
apply it. Out of their teachings rose the common be-
lief of scientists that the world we see about us, from
the plants in the garden to the ideas in our brains, is the
product of slow, gradual growth extending over thousands
of years.

478 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Improvement — the Watchword. Coupled with the
idea that the world is constantly changing is another idea
equally important : namely, that by taking thought and
making combined efforts mankind may make improve-
ments in every direction. Humanity is at work to im-
prove schools, highways, houses, prisons, public health,
and charitable institutions. Business men, working
people, teachers — men and women — have come to-
gether, or organized, for the purpose of bettering the
lot of mankind. Societies or organizations have been
established to oppose war, to fight disease and poverty,
and to help little children. There is scarcely an ill that
besets mankind which is not studied and attacked in the
modern age. If a plague sweeps down upon a country, its
inhabitants do not view it as an act of God, as they did
in former times. They seek to discover the germ that
caused it and to destroy it by science.

Modern political parties in Europe are all striving
for reform and improvement. There is not a party that
has for its motto : " Keep things just as they are." All
agree that the life of the people must be made better ;
that poverty, disease, unemployment, and overcrowd-
ing in the great cities must be attacked and removed.
" I cannot help hoping and believing that before this
generation has passed away we shall have advanced a
great step toward that good time when poverty and
wretchedness and human degradation . . . will be as
remote to the people of this country as the wolves
which once infested its forests." These are the words

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 479

of Lloyd George, the premier of Great Britain and the
foremost political leader in that country. They fairly
represent the spirit and purpose of the modern age.

To give mankind true prosperity is the aim of the
modern statesman. The ancient world accepted pov-
erty and misery as the fate of all who labored. Thus
we see how far mankind has advanced since the days
of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Not even the wisest
Greek philosopher included the whole mass of people in
his plans for a better world. He thought only of the
richer and more favored classes and left out of account
those who toiled.

The Churches and Reform. Religion as well as
science has entered into the spirit of the new idea of
progress. The improvement of the life of mankind is
one of the noblest ends of Christian service. A powerful
Protestant church in England declared that "the efforts
of Christians should be directed not merely to attack-
ing particular evils as they arise, but to discovering and
removing the roots from which they spring."

In 1891 the great leader of the Catholic Church, Pope
Leo XIII, declared, " There can be no question what-
ever that some remedy must be found and found quickly
for the misery and wretchedness pressing so heavily and
so unjustly at this moment upon the vast majority of the
working classes." Thus from the Eternal City, where
Roman emperors had once ruled with utter disregard for
the fate of the masses, came a call to lighten the burdens
of mankind.

480 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

All over Europe, churches of every denomination have
added to their religious and charitable duties that of
aiding in many movements for human betterment.
They have set before them the goal of a better hu-
manity in this world as well as the salvation of souls for
the next world.

LITERATURE AND ART

Contrast with Ancient Times. The ancient forms of
literature — poetry, drama, and history -- have all
been continued in the modern age. During the past
three hundred years all European countries have made
splendid additions to the general store of literature.
The English Shakespeare and the German Goethe rank
with the best poets that the ancient world produced.

In our time there is a wider distribution of learning
among the people. Greek and Roman authors wrote
usually for a small class of persons. Modern authors
write for the masses and are hardly satisfied unless their
books are read by the people of many lands. The
classical authors usually wrote with a certain pomp and
loftiness. The best modern writers aim at simplicity,
directness, and clearness in style. They write for the
people, in the tongue of the people.

The most striking additions to literature in the mod-
ern age are the novel and the short story. Forerunners
of the novel, to be sure, are found in old ballads and
fables, but it was the modern age that brought to the
front the long story and the short dramatic tale.

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 481

In Great Britain, Sir Walter Scott made the feudal
age live again in his novels. His Ivanhoe and Quentin
Durward will be read by boys and girls as long as there is
any interest in medieval times. Somewhat later Charles
Dickens pictured the customs of England in a score of
stories which have few rivals. We can still laugh and cry
over Nicholas Nickleby and Oliver Twist. In her Silas
Marner, George Eliot 'tells a vivid story of English
country life during the early years of the nineteenth
century. In such books we can gain an insight into the
manners and customs of the past.

In France, Victor Hugo made equally wonderful pic-
tures of the life of his countrymen. His Les Miserable*
has all the thrill of the melodrama. At the same time
it describes the common life of France at the opening of
the nineteenth century.

The novel, it will thus be seen, has not been confined
merely to interesting tales. It has been used for a
variety of purposes — to portray the life and spirit of a
time, to describe an historical period and the great char-
acters in it, or perhaps to expose a great wrong. For
example, Charles Kingsley in his Alton Locke aroused
all England by showing the bitter suffering that existed
among the working classes in the reign of Queen Victoria.
Being far more widely read than any other form of
literature, the novel holds a high and influential place
in the thought of Europe. It holds the same place in
American interest. European and American novelists
have greatly influenced each other's work.

482

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Art and Architecture. Modern painters do not de-
vote their talents mainly to Biblical scenes or pictures
of saints. They take up every imaginable theme : land-
scapes, animals, portraits of distinguished and undis-
tinguished people, glimpses of cities from palaces to the
slums, cottages by the wayside, or ships swinging at
anchor. They consider nothing too high or too humble
for their brushes and their skill. Sculptors likewise
represent simple subjects. All this variety stands in sharp
contrast to the limited range of work done by the Greeks
and by the painters and sculptors of the middle ages.

In buildings also there is a far wider range for the
artist. To the cathedral and the gild hall, he has added
towering office buildings, railway stations, city halls,
state capitols, and schoolhouses.

The architecture of homes has been greatly improved.

Photo by Geo. F. Clifton

AN AMERICAN SCHOOL BUILDING (Los ANGELES)

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE

483

The Greek architect who planned an exquisite temple
was content to live in a house that would now be re-
garded as a hovel. To-day the governments of Europe,
especially of England and Germany, are calling

Metropolitan Museum

A CORNER OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM IN NEW YORK CITY —
AN EXHIBIT FROM ANCIENT GREECE

architects to design homes for working people and are
seeking to combine beauty with comfort. Even the
idea of planning entire cities from the point of view of
comfort, health, and good taste has been accepted in
Europe, as it has in America.

484 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

So we may say that art, as well as literature, is touched
by the democratic spirit of the age. Every great Euro-
pean city has its art galleries and museums open to the
public where any one can study the best works of all times.
Americans are constantly adding European and Oriental
treasures to their own galleries.

THE UNITY OF THE MODERN WORLD

International Law. Among ancient savages there
was no limit to the cruelty that might be practiced in
wars ; prisoners might be killed or enslaved. In times
of peace there was little or no commercial intercourse
among the various tribes. After settlement upon the
land took place, trade among nations became both nat-
ural and common, but wars were frequent and tribal
hatreds continued to flourish.

Slowly, however, there was growing up through the
centuries the belief that certain rules of right and justice
ought to govern the relation of nations to one another.
In 1625 a celebrated Dutch writer, Hugo Grotius,
published a great work on war and peace in which he
discussed this subject. His book is regarded as the be-
ginning of modern international law. After the day of
Grotius all Western countries recognized that there were
certain rules of conduct which they should follow in
dealing with one another. These rules were sometimes
defined by express agreement among nations. They
were laid down in books on international law. They
were used by judges who were often called upon to

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 485

decide disputes involving the law of nations. Writers
on the subject had before them the ideal that all the re-
lations of nations with one another might be fixed clearly
in law. Accordingly, they argued, disputes among coun-
tries might be settled in courts just as are quarrels and
disputes among citizens.

The Union of the Nations. Closely connected with
the growth of international law was the desire that the
nations should form a union or league among themselves
to keep perpetual peace. In 1610 there was published
a Grand Design, prepared by the Duke of Sully, a minis-
ter of the French king. The Duke proposed to create
in Europe a " Christian Republic " composed of the
fifteen independent nations. Some seventy years later
William Penn, founder of the colony of Pennsylvania,
issued a tract on that subject. He advocated creating
a European parliament with full power to compel all
nations to keep the peace. From that time forward the
idea appeared in many forms. In 1899 and again in
1907 a peace conference was held at The Hague in Hol-
land on the call of the czar of Russia. All nations sent
representatives, but only one agreement of importance
was reached. A high court of arbitration was created.
Nations might submit their disputes to this court if
they saw fit, but they did not bind themselves to do so.

During the World War, when all mankind was sick
of bloodshed, President Wilson declared that the war
must end in the establishment of a League of Nations to
keep peace. As we have already seen, he succeeded in

486

OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

creating the League, but it was rejected by his own
country. Nevertheless nearly all the other nations of
the world joined it, and the first session of the World
Assembly was held at Geneva in the autumn of 1920.

THE PEACE PALACE AT THE HAGUE

The future of the League was, however, very uncertain,
especially with the United States on the outside.

Civilization Is International. Whatever may be the
fate of the League of Nations or the outcome of confer-
ences such as that called by President Harding (p. 464)
or a later conference of European nations at Genoa to con-
sider ways and means to better the condition of Europe,
civilization in the modern age is less and less divided by
the boundaries between nations. All civilized countries
tend to become alike in ways of living. Their people

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 487

wear similar clothes ; they have street cars, automobiles,
and electric lights ; they consume similar goods ; they
exchange professors and students ; they have the same
industries and problems. More and more they are
coming to have the same ideas or standards of what is
right and what is wrong.

Nations not only tend to become alike ; they are
drawn together by a thousand ties. Trade among them,
the exchange of ideas, the increase of travel, and the
growth of international societies draw them into a sort
of world unity. There is not a single important
interest of mankind that does not concern all nations.
The Roman Catholic Church has churches and mis-
sions all over the world. The Protestant denominations
hold world congresses. The flow of scientific ideas from
nation to nation is constant, and the workers in the
several fields hold frequent international conferences.
The Red Cross and agencies for the improvement of pub-
lic health know no national boundaries. Relief work
of every kind goes on regardless of political boundaries.
Every plan of human betterment, every branch of knowl-
edge, has the world for its field.

America and the Future. In the midst of this strik-
ing unity of all the world, there is room for each nation
to develop its own powers and do its own work. As the
Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans made their
gifts to humanity, so America has its mission to fulfill.

To-day we stand at the opening of a new epoch. Our
country began as weak and straggling settlements on the

488 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Atlantic coast. For a long time it had to depend on the
Old World for nearly everything except the roughest
necessities of life. It looked to Europe for the finer
manufactured articles and for books, music, art, and
science. It sought there the money with which to de-
velop its natural resources and build its factories. To
Europe it turned for immigrants to till its wide reaches
of vacant lands. For nearly two hundred years our
land was a province of the British empire.

Now all that has been changed. Our country has be-
come a great and independent nation. It has spread
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Its vacant lands have
been taken up. The continent has been spanned by
railways. The wilderness has been cleared and turned
into farms. America has become the first manufactur-
ing country of the world. It no longer tries to entice
more immigrants to its shores. On the contrary, Con-
gress searches for ways to cut down the number that
would come. America has grown up. It is of age.

The new era before us, therefore, presents new tasks.
One of them is the task of drawing the millions of
foreigners already here into the main stream of Ameri-
can life. A second is to conserve and make better use
of our natural resources. A third is to improve our
ways of living in town and country. A fourth is to
bring forth our best powers in science, art, literature,
and government — to encourage and appreciate Ameri-
can talent. This does not mean that we should spurn
our inheritance from the past or refuse to learn from

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE

489

our neighbors. It merely means that we should profit
by our splendid heritage from ancient, medieval, and
modern times. It means that we should keep for our
symbol that wonderful word Opportunity — not op-
portunity for wealth and power alone, but opportunity
for great achievements in the realm of the spirit.
Temples, palaces, amphitheaters, and even mighty cities,
may, as we have seen, crumble into dust, but the things
of the human spirit are everlasting.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

I. I. What are some of the important differences between the
modern age and ancient and medieval times ? Can you add to
the list of differences given in the text (pp. 468-9) ?

II. i. Of the subjects that you are studying in school, which
would you group with the "natural sciences"? Which with
"knowledge of the human race" (sometimes called the "social
sciences")? 2. The work of the botanists has been very help-
ful to farmers. Do you know of any way in which the work of
the botanists has helped the physician ? How has the chemist
aided the physician ? How has the chemist helped the farmer ?
What occupations have probably been helped most by the stu-
dents of physics ? 3. Of what value is it to know about the habits
and customs of backward races ? 4. What problems do the econ-
omists study ? In what ways may the results of their study be
helpful to mankind ? 5. Why has the distribution of knowledge
been so important in making the modern age different from the
ages that went before ? In what way does the public school help
in the distribution of knowledge ? In what way do newspapers
help ? Some people believe that the radio telephone will become
one of the most important agencies in distributing knowledge.

490 OUR OLD WORLD BACKGROUND

Can you think of any advantages that the radio telephone may
have over newspapers and books for this purpose ?

III. i. In ancient and medieval times the life of each genera-
tion was much like the life of the generations that preceded it and
followed it. Find out from talking with your fathers and mothers
how your life to-day differs from the way in which they lived as
children. Most of you have grandparents still living. Find out
how their childhood differed from your childhood and from that
of your parents. Perhaps they can tell you something of their
parents and the way in which they lived as children. Thus you
will be able to learn something of the changes that have been
brought about in three or four generations. 2. What societies or
organizations in your neighborhood are working for the improve-
ment of the conditions under which people live and work to-day ?

3. Find out what changes or improvements are being sought by
the political party of which your father or mother is a member.

4. What are the churches in your town or city working for in the
way of town or city improvement ? 5. In some schools, the boys
and girls form clubs to help in the improvement of the school and
the care of the school grounds, or to help keep the streets free from
rubbish and the yards and gardens of their homes attractive.
In many of the country schools, the boys and girls have " corn clubs "
and "poultry clubs" and try in their gardens and poultry yards at
home to raise better crops and better chickens. In what ways are
the children of your school working for progress and improvement ?

IV. I. What are some of the important differences between
the literature of the ancient world and that of the modern world ?
2. Why is the novel "more widely read than any other form of
literature" ? 3. By comparing in your own neighborhood old
houses with modern houses make a list of the important improve-
ments that modern methods of planning and building have made
possible. Ask your parents and grandparents to describe the
schoolhouses of their childhood. Compare these with the modern
schoolhouses that you know,

THE CULTURE OF THE MODERN AGE 491 -

V. i. With what kind of problems is international law con-
cerned ? 2. A person who breaks a state law or a national law
can be arrested and, if convicted after trial, he can be punished.
What can be done with a nation that breaks an international
law? 3. What forces are gradually bringing the nations of the
world together ? 4. How can our country help to keep the world
from another great war ?

VL Some people believe that, in spite of all that has hap-
pened during the long centuries of history, mankind is really no
better off than he was in ancient times. Do you agree with this ?
If not, what reasons would you give to prove that mankind after
all has made progress and that life is better to-day than it was in
the past ?

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

(Webster's International Dictionary)

ale, senate, care, am, account, arm, ask, sofa; eve, e"vent, 8nd, recent,
maker; Ice, 111; old, obey, orb, 6dd, connect; use, unite, urn, tip, circus,
menii ; food, foot ; out, oil ; chair ; go ; fcken, thin ; nature, verdure ; zh =
z in azure.

The numbers refer to pages. Where several references are given, the pages
on which the principal description is to be found are indicated by heavier type.

Abyssinia (ab'1-sln'f-d), 417

Acadia (d-ka'dl-d), 279

Adams, John (ad'amz), 307

Adriatic Sea (a'dre-at'Ik), 152, 368,
436

Aeschylus (eVkl-lus), 89

Aesop (e'sop), 4

Africa (af'rl-kd), 11 ; early map of.
200; first voyages around, 205;
European occupation of, 413-417

Alaric (al'd-rlk), 115, 137

Alaska (d-las'kd), 17

Alexander the Great (al'Sg-zanMer),
47, 187-188

Alfred the Great (al'frgd), 145, 172-
174, 180, 232

Algiers (al-jerz'), 416

Alien and Sedition Acts (al'ye'n), 308

Alsace-Lorraine (al-sas'-lo-ran'), 351,
361, 436

America (d-meVl-kd), naming of,
206 ; meaning of English revolu-
tions to, 255-256 ; and Napoleonic
wars, 314, 316 ; emigration to, 344,

348-349, 374-375; and the fu-
ture, 487-489. See also United
States

Anatolia (an'd-to'll-d), 13

Angelo, Michael (an'je"-lo, ml'ke"l),
141

Angles (an'gl'z), 115, 171

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (an'glo-sak'-
swn), 143

Anne, Queen of England (an), 255

Aphrodite (af'ro-di'tl), 96

Apollo (d-p61'o), 96

Aquinas, St. Thomas (d-kwi'nds),
132

Arabia (d-ra'bl-d), 52

Arabs (ar'abz), 12, 169

Aragon (ar'd-g6n), 170

Ares (a'res), 96

Argos (ar'gSs), 48

Aristotle (ar'is-t6t"l), 61, 89, 90,
93, 95, 98, 146, 201, 448

Arizona (ar'I-zo'nd), 208

Arkwright, Richard (ark'rlt), 332

Aries (arlz), 66
493

494

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

Armada, Spanish (ar-ma'dd), 266

Arungzebe (6'rtmg-zeV), 270

Asia (a'shd), 11, 198

Asia Minor (a'shd ml'ner), 43

Athena (d-the'nd), 96

Athens (ath'enz), 48, 49, 50, 58, 64,

65, 85; social classes in, 57, 60-

61 ; temple in, 80 ; education in, 93
Atlantic Ocean (at-lan'tlk), 324
Attica (at'i-kd), 50
Augsburg Confession (ouks'boorK),

219

Augustine (6'gws-tm), 127
Augustus (6-gus'tws), 54, 100
Australia (6s-tra'll-d), 11, 37, 344,

463
Austria (6s'tri-d), 278, 280, 296, 302,

317, 344, 359, 361, 363, 364, 365,

366, 371
Austria- Hungary (6s'trf-d-hun'gd-rl) ,

372-373 ; democracy in, 392-393 ;

in World War, 429-439; collapse

of, 450-452
Azores (d-zorz'), 205

Baal, Temple of (ba'al), 79
Babylon (bab'I-l6n), 43-44, 64-66,

75, 79

Babylonia (bab'I-lo'nl-d), 42-47, 86
Bacon, Roger (ba'k'n), 201
Bagdad (bag-dad'), 194, 346
Bahama Islands (bd-ha'md), 426
Balkan States (bal-kan'), 368-372,

393, 453, 455

Baltic Sea (bdl'tlk), 373, 450
Baptists (bap'tlsts), 224
Bastille (bas-tel'), 300, 301, 302
Bavaria (bd-va'rl-d), 359
Belgium (beTjI-to), 20, 430-431
Belgrade (bel'grad') , 369
Benedict, St. (ben'S-dlkt), 131

Beowulf (ba'o-wiilf), 88
Berlin (bur'lm'), 2, 317
Berlin-Bagdad railway (bur'lm'-bag-

dad'), 346

Bible (bi'b'l), 89, 231-234
Bill of Rights, English, 253-254
Birmingham, Eng. (bur'mmg-am),

327
Bismarck, Otto von (bls'mark, 6t'to

f6n), 361

Blackburn, Eng. (blak'bwrn), 332
Black Sea, 194, 196, 197
Boers (boorz), 416
Bohemia (bo-he'ml-d), 215
Bojador, Cape (b6j'a-dor'), 205
Boleyn, Anne (bdol'In, an), 220
Bolivar, Simon (bo-le'var), 419
Bolivia (bo-hVl-d), 13
Bolsheviki (b6l'sh6-ve'ke), 433, 446-

450

Bonaparte, Napoleon (bo'nd-part,
nd-po'le-un), 284-285. See Na-
poleon I

Bosnia (b6z'nl-d), 429
Bosporus (b6s'po-rws), 455
Boulogne (boo'lon'y'), 13
Boulton, Matthew (bol'tun), 327, 329
Bourbons, French (boor'biinz), 291,

316, 380; Spanish, 363
Braddock, General (brad'wk), 275
Brazil (bra-zll'), 264, 266, 418, 432
Bristol, Eng. (brfs'twl), 151, 243 .
Britain (brlf'n), 52, 171-172; con-
version of, to Christianity, 127-128
Bronze Age (br5nz), 28-30
Buenos Aires (bwa'nos I'ras), 424
Bulgaria (bdol-ga'rl-d), 370, 393
Bunyan, John (bun'ydn), 4, 224
Burke, Edmund (burk), 308
Bushmen (bdosh'men), 37
Byron, Lord (bl'rftn), 369

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

495

Cabot, John (kab'wt), 4-5, 206, 264
Cabot, Sebastian (se--bas'chtfn), 206
Caesar, Julius (se'zdr, jool'yws), 8,

52, 54, 63, 91, 149; Commentaries

of, 91, 92

Cairo, Egypt (ki'ro), 346
Calvin, John (kal'vm), 225
Canada (kftn'd-d/d), 11, 273, 275
Canterbury Tales (kan'ter-ber-I), 181-

182

Canute (kd-nuf), 174
Capet, Hugh (ka'pSt, hu), 167
Cape-to-Cairo railway, 346
Cape Town (kap toun), 346
Carolingians (ka'ro-lm'jl-dnz), 163-

167
Caribbean region (kar'I-be'an), 417,

426-426

Carthage (kar'thaj), 52, 60, 64
Cartier, Jacques (kar'tya', zhak), 206-

207

Cartwright, Edmund (kart'rit), 334
Castile (kas-teT), 170
Catacombs (kat'd-komz), 104
Cathay (kd-tha'), 197, 198
Cato (ka'to), 59

Caucasus Mountains (ko'kd-sus), 450
Cavaliers (kav'd-lerz'), 255
Cavour, Count (ka'Vdor'), 364-366
Caxton, William (kaks'twn), 182
Central America, 11, 417-426
Central Park, 1
Ceylon (s6-16n'), 286
Champs de Mars (shaN' de" mar'),

302
Charlemagne (shar'13-man), 164-167,

170
Charles I of England (charlz), 244,

245-249

Charles II of England, 250, 252-253
Charles X of France, 380

Charles, ex-Emperor of Austria, 452
Chaucer, Geoffrey (cho'ser, jgf'rl),

181-182
China (chl'nd), 11-12, 19, 86-87, 151,

188, 197-198, 208, 351, 408-411;

growth of democracy in, 401-402;

and Japan contrasted, 411-413;

policy of United States toward,

412-413; after World War, 462,

463, 465
Cicero (sls'er-o), 6, 8, 61, 90, 92, 149,

154
Clemenceau, Georges (kle'maN'so',

zh6rj), 436

Cleopatra (kle'6-pa'trd) , 52
Clermont (kler'mSnt), 329
Cleveland, Grover (klev'ldnd), 423
Clive, Robert (kliv), 272, 280
Clovis (klo'vls), 126, 163
Cologne (k6-lon'), 151
Colosseum, Rome (k6ro-se'&m), 65,

81, 91, 103
Columbus, Christopher (ko-ltim'bus,

kris't6-fer), 10, 31, 106, 137, 152,

171, 200, 205, 206, 470
Congo River (k6n'go), 417
Congregationalists (kon 'gre"-ga'shtin-

al-Ists), 223
Constantino (k5n'stan-ten), Arch of,

Constantine, Emperor, 104
Constantinople (kSn-stan'tt-no'p'l),

116, 141, 147, 192, 194, 196, 368,

454, 455

Copernicus (k6-pur'nl-kus), 470-471
Corinth (kSr'mth), 48
Cortez (kor'tez), Ferdinand, 207-208
Coster (kSs'ter), 149
Crimea (krl-me'd), 427
Cromwell, Oliver (krSm'wel), 242,

247-250, 311

496

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

Crusades (kroo-sadz'), 192
Crusoe, Robinson (kroo'so), 32
Cuba (ku'bd), 17, 266, 425
Cugnot (ku'nyo'), 329
Curie, Madame (kii're7), 472
Czechoslovakia (chS K'6-slo-vak'I-d) ,

451
Czechs (chgKz), 356

Damascus (dd-mas'kws) , 102
Dante (dan'teO, 142, 144
Danton (dax'toN'), 305
Danube River (dan'ub), 47, 368
Darwin, Charles (dar'wnr), 477
Davis, Jefferson (da/ vis, j8f er-swn), 19
Declaration of Independence, 256-257
Defoe, Daniel (d6-fo'), 4
Delaware (deTd-war), 5
Demeter (de"-me'ter) , 96
Demosthenes (de"-m6s'the'-nez), 89,

90-91
Denmark (den'mark), 219, 344, 361,

426

De Soto (d6 so'to), 208
Diaz, Bartholomew (de'ash, bar-

th6l'6-mu), 205

Dickens, Charles (dlk'gnz), 8, 481
Discus Thrower (dfe'ktis), 83, 84
Disraeli, Benjamin (dlz-ra'li, bSn'jd-

mln), 385

Domesday Book (domz'da'), 180
Douay Bible (dod'a'), 233
Drake, Sir Francis (drak), 265-266
Duma (doo'ma), 396
Dupleix, Marquis (dii'pleks'), 270
Duquesne, Fort (doo-kan'), 282
Dutch (dtich), 264; war between

English and, 266-268

East India Company (est In'dl-d),
269, 273

East Indies (m'dlz), 268

Edward VI of England (fid'werd),
221

Egbert, King (eg'bert), 172

Egypt (e'jipt), 42-47, 52, 57, 86,
310, 347, 348, 416

Elba (6l'bd), 314

Eliot, George (eTl-wt), 481

Elizabeth, Queen of England (£-
hVd-beth), 222-223

Endicott, John (eVdI-k<5t), 242

England (mg'gland), 7, 13, 18, 20;
making of nation of, 171-182; the
Protestant Reformation in, 220-
227; political revolution in, 238-
258; commercial leadership of,
264-268 ; conflict between France
and, 268, 268-273; triumph of,
in Canada, 273-275; and Euro-
pean balance of power, 276, 278;
wars of, in 17th and 18th centuries,
278-286; industrial leadership of,
341; democracy in, 382-386;
and World War, 428, 431^39;
and Irish Revolt, 455-457

Erasmus (6-raz'mws), 216, 232

Eskimos (eVkl-mos), 12

Esthonia (6s-tho'n!-d), 450

Ethelbert (Sth'gl-burt), 127-128

Euphrates River (u-fra'tez), 43, 64,
72, 73

Euripides (u-rlp'I-dez), 89

Europe (u'r#p), trade of, 12-13;
American influence on, 14, 16;
at present time, 444-462

Faust,' Johann (foust, yo'han), 149

Federalists, 306

Ferdinand of Spain (fur'dl-nand),

170, 171
Finland (fm'ldnd), 450

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

497

Florence (fldr'ens), 139, 147, 152,

193

Florida (fl6r'I-dd), 208
Foch, General (f6sh), 434
Fontainebleau (foN'tgn'blo'), 291
Forum, Roman (fo'rum), 65, 92
Fox, George (f6ks), 227
France (frans), 18, 19, 20, 27, 284-
286; feudalism in, 120-125; rise
and growth of, 163-169; Protes-
tant revolt in, 227-228; conflict
between England and, in 17th
century, 268-275 ; combinations
of nations against, in 17th and 18th
centuries, 278-282 ; Napoleonic
wars in, 310-317 ; democracy in,
380-382; and World War, 428,
430-439

Francis Joseph (fran'sls jo'zgf), Em-
peror, 393

Francis of Assisi, St. (as-se'ze), 131
Franco-Prussian War, 361, 382, 427
Franklin, Benjamin (frank'lm), 1,284
Franks (franks), 115
Frederick the Great (frgd'er-Ik), 280
French and Indian War, 275
French Revolution, 14, 284, 290-317
Fulton, Robert (fool'twn), 329

Galen (ga'l&i), 62-63

Galilee (gal'I-le), 106

Galileo (gal'I-le'o), 470

Gama, Vasco da (ga'ma, vas'ko da),

205

Ganges River (gan'jez), 200, 273
Garibaldi, Joseph (gar'I-bol'dl), 365,

366, 375

Gaul (gol), 52, 66, 126, 163
Geneva (jg-ne'vd), 438, 483
Genoa (je"n'6-d), 152, 193; conference

of European nations at, 482

George I of England (jorj), 255

George II of England, 255-256

George III of England, 19, 256, 284,
303, 384, 386

Georgia (jor'jl-d), 450

Germans, invasions of Rome by,
115-116

Germany (jur'md-nl), 19, 317, 343,
344, 350, 351 ; Hanseatic League
in, 151 ; the Protestant Reforma-
tion in, 214-220; unification of,
359-363 ; democracy in, 389-392 ;
in World War, 427-439; revolu-
tion of 1918, 444-446

Gettysburg Address (geVIz-burg), 6,
234

Gibraltar, Strait of (j!-br6l'ter), 193,
202 ; fortress of, 279

Giotto (jot'to), 141

Gladstone, W. E. (glad'ston), 385

Glasgow, University of (glas'go), 327

Goethe (gu'te"), 480

Good Hope, Cape of, 205, 208, 268,
413, 416 ; taken by England, 285

Gothic architecture (gdth'Ik), 139

Goths (g6ths), 115, 169

Granada (grd-na'dd), 171

Grand Design, 485

Grand Monarch, 273

Great Britain (brlf'n), 455-457. See
England

Great Lakes, 273

Greece (gres), 47-50, 52, 57, 73, 88,
369-371, 393, 455 ; art of ancient,
82-84 ; literature of, 89-93 ; educa-
tion in, 92-94 ; religion of, 95-100

Grotius, Hugo (gro'sM-us, hu'go),
484

Guam (gwam), 17

Guiana (g6-a'nd), 418

Gutenberg, John (g<x>'t£n-be'rK), 149

498

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

Hague, The (hag), 19, 485, 486
Haiti (ha'tl), 17, 425-426
Hamburg (ham'burg), 13, 151
Hamilton, Alexander (ham'Il-twn), 7,

306

Hampden, John (ham'den), 242, 246
Hanseatic League (han'se-at'Ik leg',

151
Hapsburg family (haps'boorK) , 291,

372, 392-393, 451

Harding, Warren G. (har'dmg), 20,

439, 464, 486

Hargreaves, James (har'grevz), 332
Harold II of England (har'&ld), 175
Harvey, William (har'vl), 471
Hastings, battle of (has'tmgz), 175
Hawaiian Islands (ha-wl'yan I'landz),

17
Henry, Prince ("the Navigator")

(h&i'ri), 204-205
Henry VIII of England, 220-221,

230

Herodotus (h6-r6d'6-t#s), 89, 188
Hiawatha (hl'd-wo'thd), 88
Hohenzollern family (ho'en-tsol'ern),

276, 291, 373, 389, 390, 392
Holland (h6l'<Xnd), 19, 291
Holy Roman Empire, 166, 317
Homer (ho'mer), 88, 89, 90
Hongkong (h6ng'k6ng'), 13, 411
Horace (hfcr'as), 90
Horn, Cape (h6rn), 208
Hudson River (hud'sftn), 329
Hudson's Bay, 279
Hughes, Charles S. (huz), 464
Hugo, Victor (hu'go), 481
Huguenots (hu'ge-n6ts), 227-228
Hungary (hung'gd-ri), 343, 344, 372-

373, 392-393, 450-452
Huss, John (hus), 215

Huxley, Thomas H. (huks'll), 477

Iliad (n'I-<Xd), 89

India (m'dl-d), 151, 187-188, 193,
196, 200, 205, 208, 280; in 17th
century, 268-270; English con-
quest of, 270, 272-273

Indian Ocean, 200

Indians, North American, 21, 27, 31

Ireland (Ir'land), 343, 344, 455-457

Irish Free State (I'rlsh), 457

Iron Age (I'#rn), 30-31

Isabella I of Spain (Iz'd-bel'd), 106,
170, 171, 204

Isis (i'sls), 75

Italy (Ifd-H), 20, 73, 343, 354; so-
cial classes in ancient, 58-64 ; trad-
ing cities in, 151 ; leading medieval
cities of, 151-152; unification of,
363-366; democracy in, 388-389;
and World War, 431-439

Jacobins (jak'6-bmz), 303, 306
James I of England (jamz), 233, 239,

245, 249

James II of England, 253
Jamestown, Va. (jamz'toun), 10, 20
Japan (jd-pan'), 11-12, 86-87, 322,

396, 408-411; democracy in, 396-

401; China and, contrasted, 411-

413; in World War, 341; after

World War, 462-463
Java (ja'vd), 208, 268
Jefferson, Thomas (jeTer-s#n), 9, 95,

256-257, 306, 314
Jehovah (jg-ho'vd), 99
Jerome, St. (jg-rom'), 115
Jerusalem (jg-roo'sd-lgm), 64, 79, 101,

102

Jesuits (jeVu-Its), 131
Jesus Christ (je'zws krist), 100-101,

102-103
Jews (juz), 8, 101

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

499

John of England (j6n), 176, 177, 323
Jupiter (jod'pl-ter), 96, 100
Jutes (jutz), 171

Kalm, Peter (kalm), 14
Karnak, Temple of (kar'nak), 78
Katherine of Aragon (kath'er-m) ,

220

Kay, John (ka), 333
Kew Gardens (ku), 34
Khan, Great (Kan), 197
King George's War, 280
King James Version of Bible, 233
Kingsbridge, London (kmgz'brlj), 20
Kingsley, Charles (klngz'H), 481
Knox, John (n6ks), 225
Korea (ko-re'd), 412
Kosciusko (k6s'i-us'ko), 453
Kossuth, Louis (k<5-sooth'), 372, 375

Lafayette (la/fa-yeV), 1, 14, 290, 380

La Paz (la pas), 13

Latin America (lat'm d-meVI-kd) ,

417-426

Latvia (lat'vl-d), 450
League of Nations (leg), 436, 438-

439, 485, 486; refusal of United

States to join, 460
Leeds, Eng. (ledz), 384
Leipzig (llp'slk), 314
Lenine (le-nen'), 448
Leo III, Pope (le'o), 166
Leo XIII, Pope, 479
Leon (la-en7 ), 170
Libia (llb'I-d), 417
Libreville (lebr'-veT), 13
Lincoln, Abraham (llng'kftn), 3-4, 6,

19, 234

Lincoln, England, 151
Lisbon (hVbwn), 204
Lithuania (llth'u-a'nl-d), 450

Liverpool (hVer-pool), 13
Livingstone, David (llv'mg-st#n),

413-414
Lloyd George, David (loid jorj), 436,

457, 479

Locke, John (16k), 256
Lombardy (iSm'bdr-dl), 363, 365
London (Itin'dfln), 2, 20, 34, 66, 151,

196, 243, 340
Longfellow, H. W. (I6ng'fel-o), 88,

142

Lorraine (16-ran'), 361
Los Angeles, Calif, (los an'j6l-6s), 482
Louisiana (loo-e'zfi-an'd), 273, 282,

316

Louis Napoleon (loo'e'). See Na-
poleon III
Louis Philippe (loo'e7 fe'lep'), 380-

381
Louis XIV of France, 168, 169, 228,

273, 278

Louis XV of France, 280
Louis XVI of France, 258, 298, 299,

302, 303, 310, 316
Louis XVIII of France, 379
Loyola, Ignatius (loi-o'ld, Ig-na'shl-

fls), 131

Lucretius (lu-kre'sM-fts), 477
Luther, Martin (loo'ther), 217-219,

229, 233

Macedonia (mas'e'-do'nl-d), 47, 370

Madeira (md-de'rd), 205

Madison, James (mad'I-siin), 7, 316

Magellan, Fernando (md-jeT#n), 206

Magenta (md-jeVtd), 365

Magna Carta (mag'nd kar'td), 176,

177-178, 323
Mainz (mints), 150
Manchester, Eng. (man'chgs-ter),

243, 339, 340, 348, 384

5°°

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

Marat, Jean Paul (ma'ra', zhoN pol),

305

Marconi, William (mar-ko'ne), 467
Marcus Aurelius (mar'kws 6-re'lI-ws),

98-99
Marie Antoinette (ma/re7 aN'twa/n^t')

303

Mark, Apostle (mark), 101
Marne, battles of (marn), 432
Mars (marz), 96
" Marseillaise," 303, 317
Marseilles (mar-salz'), 196, 303, 345
Marshall, John (mar'sMl), 301
Marsiglio of Padua (mar-sel'yo), 144
Martineau, Harriet (mar'tl-no), 16
Mary I of England (rna'rl), 222
Mary II of England, 253-254
Maryland (meVi-ldnd), 227
Masaryk, Thomas (mas'd-rlk), 451
Massachusetts Bay Colony (mas'd-

choo'sgts), 223
Mauro, Fra (mo'ro, fra), 200
Maximilian of Austria (mak'sl-mil'-

y<m), 422

Mayflower (ma'flou-er) , 5
Mazzini, Joseph (mat-se'ne), 363-364
Mediterranean Sea (me"d'I-ter-a'ne"-

an), 8, 43, 49, 61, 187, 193, 194
Memphis (mSm'fls), 64
Mesopotamia (m6s'6-p6-ta'ml-d), 351
Metropolitan Museum, 75
Mexico (mek'sl-ko), 11, 207-208, 382,

417-426

Mikado of Japan (ml-ka'do), 397, 401
Milan (ml-lan'), 138, 152
Miletus (mi-le't&s), 48
Minerva (ml-nur'vd), 75
Minorca (mi-nor'kd), 279
Mississippi River (mls'i-slp'l), 208
Mogul, Great (m6-gul'), 269-270
Mogul empire, 269-270

Mohammed (mo-ham '6d), 169, 368
Mohammedans (md-ham'e'd-dnz),

169-170, 191-192
Monroe, James (mwn-ro'), 420
Monroe Doctrine, 419-423
Montenegro (mtin'te-na'gro), 370,

431

Montreal (mont're'-ol'), 273
Moors (moorz), 169-170
More, Sir Thomas (mor), 230
Morocco (mo-rSk'o), 417
Moscow (mes'ko), 2

Nantes, Edict of (nants, e'dlkt 6v),

228

Naples (na'p'lz), 80
Napoleon I (nd-po'le^n) , 20, 284-

285, 309, 310-314, 358, 378, 379
Napoleon III, 361, 365, 366, 381-

382, 422

Navajo Indians (nav'd-ho), 36
Navarre (nd-var'), 170
Nelson, Admiral (neTsiin), 310
Nero (ne'ro), 100
Netherlands, The (neWer-landz),

194, 227, 264

New Amsterdam (am'ster-dam), 267
Newfoundland (nu'fwnd-land'), 279
New Jersey (jur'zl), 225
New Mexico (m6k'sl-ko), 208
New Netherland (neWer-land), 5,

267

New Orleans (or'le-dnz), 273
New Rochelle (r6-sheT), N. Y., 228
Newton, Sir Isaac (nu'tun, sur I'zdk),

471

New York, colony (york), 5
New York City, 1, 85-86, 267, 483
Nicaragua (nlk'd-rd-ra'gwd), 17
Nicholas II of Russia (nlk'6-lds), 394,

396, 446

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

501

Nile River (nil), 43, 58, 72, 73, 82,

413

Nile, battle of, 310
Nimes (nem), 62
Nineveh (nln'e-ve"), 64, 75, 88
Norman Conquest (nor'mdn), 174-

176

North America, 11
North German Confederation, 361
Norway (nor'wa), 219, 344
Notre Dame, cathedral of (no'tr'

dam'), 313

Obrenovitch, Milosh (6-bre'no-vich,

me'lSsh), 369

Octavianus (6k-ta'vi-a'n£s), 54
Odyssey (6d'i-sl), 89
Orange, France (or'gnj), 66
Orient (o'ri-ent), 11-12; nations of,

42-47; art and artists of, 81-82;

literature of, 88-89; growth of

democracy in, 398-402 ; Europe

in, 408-413; after World War,

462-483
Orlando, Vittorio (or-lan'do, vit-o'-

rl-o), 436

Otto, King of Greece (6t'o), 370
Ottoman Turks (6t'6-mdn), 368-370
Oxford, Eng. (Sks'ferd), 146

Pacific Ocean (pd-slf'lk), 17, 463

Paestum (peVtwm), 50, 80

Palestine (pal'Ss-tln), 8, 64, 73, 100,
187, 191

Panama, Isthmus of (pan'd-ma'), 17

Panama Canal, 426

Pankhurst, Emmeline (pank'hurst),
403

Pantheon (pan-the'6n), 80

Paris (par'Is), 19, 20, 66, 314; medie-
val center of learning, 146 ; peace

conference at, after World War,

435-439, 453, 459
Parliament (par'li-ment), British,

178-179, 385, 386
Parthenon (par'the-nSn), 49, 97
Paul, Apostle (pol), 101, 102
Pegolotti (p6g'6-l6t'tl), 198
Peking (pe'king'), 194, 197
Penn, William (p6n), 227, 234, 485
Pennsylvania (p6n'sil-va'nl-d) , 220,

225, 227, 273, 275, 280, 282, 485
Pennsylvania, University of, 235
Perry, Commodore (per'I), 409, 410
Pershing, John J. (pur'shmg), 14, 434
Persia (pur'shd), 13, 47, 51
Persian Gulf, 194, 196
Peru (pe-roo'), 208
Peter, Apostle (pe'ter), 105
Petition of Right, English, 247
Pharaohs (fa'roz), 43, 86
Pharisees (far'I-sez), 101
Phidias (fld'I-as), 84
Philadelphia (fil'd-del'fi-d), 7
Philip of Macedon (ffl'Ip), 90
Philippine Islands (fiH-pin), 17, 266
Phoenicia (fg-msh'i-d), 61, 64
Picts (plkts), 171
Piedmont (ped'mSnt), 363
Pilate, Pontius (pi'ldt, pSn'shils), 101
Pilgrims (pil'grlmz), 323
Pilgrim's Progress, 224
Pisa (pe'sa), 152
Pitt (pit), William, 275, 282
Pittsburgh (pits 'burg), 282
Pizarro (pl-zar'ro), 208
Plassey (plas'6), 280
Plato (pla'to), 90, 93, 94, 448
Plebeians (ple-be'ydnz), 59
Plymouth, Eng. (pllm'wth), 243
Plymouth, Mass., 20, 224
Poland (po'land), 343, 354, 453

502

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

Polo, Marco (po'lo, mar'ko), 197-198,

200

Polo brothers, 197, 198
Pondicherry (p6n'di-sh6r'i), 270
Porto Rico (por'to re'ko), 17, 425
Portugal (por't$-gal) , 17 1 , 204, 262, 264
Presbyterians (pre'z'bl-te'ri-dnz), 225
Protestant Reformation, 213-237
Prussia (prush'd), 276, 280, 282, 294,

296, 302, 317, 359, 361, 389-390
Ptolemy, Claudius (tOl'S-ml), 199
Puritans (pu'rl-tdnz), 223, 249-250
Pyrenees Mountains (pir'g-nez), 115,

169

Quakers (kwak'erz), 225, 227
Quebec (kwfi-bek'), 280, 281

Red Sea, 194

Reign of Terror, 304-305

Republicans (rg-pub'li-kanz), 306

Rhine River (rln), 278

Rhode Island (rod I'land), 224

Robespierre (ro'bes-pyarO, 305

Rochelle (ro-sheT), 228

Romanesque architecture (ro'mdn-
6sk'), 139

Romanoff family (ro-ma'nof), 276,
291, 373, 393-396

Rome (rom), 2, 61-56, 57, 58, 64, 65,
85, 366 ; art of, 84 ; literature of,
90-91 ; education in, 92-94 ; re-
ligion of, 95-100; persecution of
Christians at, 103-104 ; acceptance
of Christianity at, 104-105; de-
cline of, 112-116

Roosevelt, Theodore (roz'e-vSlt), 6,
423

Rouen (rwaN), 150

Rumania (rdo-ma'nl-d), 370, 393,
432, 433, 453

Runnymede (run'I-med), 177
Russia (rush'd), 12, 276, 296, 343,
369, 370; Napoleon's campaign
against, 314; nationalism in, 373:
democracy in, 393-396; revolu-
tion of 1917, 446-450
Russo-Japanese War (rus'o-jap'd-
nez'), 411-412

Sagres (sa'grgz), 204, 205

Sahara Desert (sd-ha'rd), 43

St. Helena (sant hg-le'nd), 314

St. Lawrence River (sant 16'rens),

207, 273
St. Mark's, Venice (sant marks), 140,

363

St. Peter's, Rome (sant pe'terz), 367
St. Petersburg (sant pe'terz-burg),

317

Saladin (sal'a-dm), 193
Samoan Islands (sa-mo'dn), 17
Santo Domingo (san'to do-mm'go),

17, 426

Sappho (saf'o), 89
Sardinia (sar-dm'I-d), 363, 364
Saxons (sak'sunz), 115, 171
Saxony (sak'swn-I), 217, 359
Scandinavia (skan'dl-naM-d), 291,

344
Schleswig-Holstein (shlas'vlK-hol'-

shtin), 361

Schurz, Carl (shoorts, karl), 360, 375
Scots (sk6tz), 171
Scott, Sir Walter (sk6t), 481
Semiramis (sS-mlr'd-mls), 79
Seneca (seVe-kd), 91
Senegal River (s6n'e--gol'), 205
Separatists (sep'd-ra-tlsts), 224, 249-

250

Sepoy Rebellion (se'poi), 273
Sepoys, 270, 272-273

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

503

Serbia (sur'bl-d), 369, 393, 431, 433,

451

Seres (China) (s6r'6s), 188
Seven Years' War, 272, 275
Shakespeare, William (shak'sper) , 8,

9, 234, 480

Shanghai (shang'ha'I), 409
Shantung Peninsula (shan'toong'),

411, 465
Shelley, Percy Bysshe (shel'I, pur'si

bish), 71

Siberia (si-be 'rl-d), 398, 450
Sidon (sl'dwn), 64
Silvanus (sll-va'nus), 96
Sinn Fein (shin fan), 455, 456
Sistine Chapel, Rome (sls'ten), 141
Smith, John, 14

Socrates (s6k'rd-tez), 90, 93, 94, 100
Solferino (s6l'fe'-re'n5), 365
Solomon (s6l'6-m?m), 79, 187
Sophocles (s6f'6-klez), 89, 94
South America, 11, 417-426
Soviets (so-vI-Stz'), 446, 447
Spain (span), 19, 282, 284, 379; rise

of, 169-171 ; leader in commerce,

264
Spanish Succession, War of (span'-

Ish), 279

Sparta (spar'td), 48, 93
Spencer, Herbert (spgn'ser), 477
Stanley, Henry M. (stan'li), 413-414
Stephenson, George (ste'ven-s&n),

330

Stone Ages, 27-28
Strabo (stra'bo), 201
Sudan (soo'dan'), 417
Suez Canal (soo-eV), 417
Sully, Duke of (sul'I), 485
Sumatra (soo-ma'trd), 208, 268
Sweden (swe'den), 20, 219, 344
Switzerland (swrt'zer-land), 20, 281

Tacitus (tas'I-tus), 91, 149

Taj Mahal (taj md-hal'), 269

Terminus (tur'mi-nus), 97

Texas (teVsds), 208

Thames River (tSmz), 268

Thebes (thebz), 44, 48, 64

Thirty Years' War, 228

Tiber River (ti'ber), 51

Tigris River (ti'grls), 64

Tocqueville, Alexis de (t6k'vll, d-

Igk'sis de), 16

Toscanelli (tSs'kd-nfill), 200
Trafalgar (traf'dl-gar'), 283
Trevithick, Richard (trgv'I-thlk), 33o
Triple Alliance, 427
Trotzky, Leon (trSts'kl, le'wn), 448
Tunis (tu'nls), 416
Turkey (tur'kl), 368-370, 453, 455;

and World War, 432
Tyre (tir), 64

United States, 290, 292, 299-300,
305-308, 314, 316: policy toward
China, 412-413 ; and World War,
433-434; after World War, 460-
462; refusal of, to join League of
Nations, 439, 486. See also Amer-
ica

Ute Indians (ut), 34

Utica (u'ti-kd), 64

Valera, Eamonn de(vd-la'rd, e'd-rmm),

455

Venetia (ve-ne'shi-d), 363, 365, 366
Venezuela (vgn'S-zwe'ld), 423
Venice (ven'fe), 139, 140, 147, 151-

162, 193, 196, 198, 363
Venus (ve'n-fts), 96
Vergil (ver'jll), 90, 149
Verona (ve-ro'nd), 419
Versailles (vgr'sa'y'), 293, 294, 361

504

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF NAMES

Vespucci, Amerigo (vgs-poot'che, a'-

ma-re'go), 208
Vesta (ves'td), 96, 98
Vesuvius, Mt. (ve--su'vl-£s), 342
Victor Emmanuel II (vik'tor 8-man'-

u-61), 364-366, 388
Victor Emmanuel III, 388
Victoria, Queen of England (vlk-to'-

ri-d), 273, 385-386, 481
Vienna (vg-6n'd), 317
Virginia (ver-jin'i-d), 14, 255
Virginia, University of, 9
Virgin Islands (ver'jin), 17, 426
Voltaire (vol'tar'), 297
Vulgate (vul'gat), 232

Wales (walz), 330

Washington, D. C. (wosh'ing-tim),
international conference of 1921-
22 at, 20, 484, 483 ; National Mu-
seum at, 34, 35
Washington, George, 1, 7, 299, 302,

307

Waterloo (wo'ter-loo'), 285, 314, 379
Watt, James (w6t), 326-327, 328, 329
Webster, Daniel (weVster), 8
Wei-Hai-Wei (wa'hi'wa'), 411
Wellington, Duke of (weTing-tun), 314

West Indies (In'dlz), 17, 266, 285
William II of Germany (wil'yam),

392, 423, 427-428; downfall of,

434, 445
William III of England (Prince of

Orange), 253-254, 268, 278, 279
William the Conqueror, 174-176, 180
Williams, Roger (wil'yamz), 224
Wilson, Woodrow (wil'swn, wood'ro),

19, 354, 426, 434, 435, 436, 451,

453, 485

Winchester, Eng. (wm'che's-ter), 151
Windward Islands (wind'werd), 426
Winthrop, John (wm'thrftp), 242
Wittenberg (wit 'en-burg), 217
Wolfe, General (woolf), 280
World War (wurld wor), 18-19, 354,

366, 371-372, 392, 393, 396, 426-

439

Wurtemburg (wiir' tern-burg), 359
Wyclif, John (wik'lif), 215, 232

York, Eng. (york), 151

Yorktown (york'toun), 1

Young Italy, 364

Yugoslavia (yu'go-sla'vl-d), 451, 453

Zeus (zus), 96, 100

50490.3

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