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OUR  KOMAN  HIGHWAYS 


BY 


URQUHART  A$  FORBES 

OF   LINCOLNS    INN,    BARRISTER-AT-LAW 


AND 


ARNOLD  C.   BURMESTER 


1  Of  all  inventions,  the  alphabet  and  the  printing-press  alone 
excepted,  those  inventions  which  abridge  distance  have  done 
most  for  the  civilization  of  our  species.'— MACAULA.Y. 


LONDON 

F.    E.    ROBINSON   &   CO. 

20  GEE  AT  KUSSELL  STREET,   BLOOMSBURY 

1904 


145" 


PREFACE 

Ix  the  present  work  the  Roman  highway  system  in 
Britain  has  been  treated  from  a  historical  rather  than  a 
purely  archaeological  and  topographical  point  of  view, 
and  the  authors  have  therefore  abstained  from  attempt- 
ing any  detailed  examination  of  the  course  followed  by 
the  great  lines  of  road  with  their  numerous  ramifications 
— a  task  which  would  have  exceeded  the  limits  of  their 
work,  and  which  has,  moreover,  been  recently  very 
thoroughly  and  ably  performed  by  Mr.  T.  Codrington, 
M.I.C.E.,  F.G.S.,  in  his  'Roman  Roads  in  Britain,1 
Similar  exigencies  of  space  have  also  obliged  them  to 
considerably  curtail  their  notice  of  the  towns,  villas, 
and  other  monuments  of  the  Roman  occupation,  and 
also  to  compress  into  a  single  chapter  their  review  of 
the  long  period  occupied  by  the  gradual  conversion  of 
the  remains  of  the  old  Roman  road  system  into  that 
now  existing. 

They  hope,  however,  that,  despite  these  and  other 
shortcomings,  their  work  may  be  found  useful  at  the 
present  time  as  an  account  of  what  may  be  termed  the 

[  v] 


VI 


PREFACE 


first  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  development  of 
transport  in  these  islands.  The  importance  of  our 
highways,  which  has  long  been  overshadowed  by  the 
rapid  growth  of  our  railway  system,  is  once  more 
beginning  to  receive  due  recognition ;  and  that  the 
history  of  their  first  construction  is  not  unworthy  of 
attention  is  evident  from  the  somewhat  remarkable  fact 
that  the  recently  issued  Report  of  the  Departmental 
Committee  of  the  Local  Government  Board  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  subject  of  Highway  Administration 
recommends  the  partial  adoption  of  the  Roman  prin- 
ciple of  management  by  a  central  authority.  After 
pointing  out  that  the  development  of  new  forms  of 
traction  will  render  long  distance  through  traffic  as 
compared  with  traffic  local  to  the  district  or  even  to 
the  county  yearly  more  important,  the  Committee 
state  that : — 

'  The  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  trunk  roads  for  such 
traffic  appears  to  be  a  matter  for  national  rather  than 
for  local  or  county  provision.  The  selection  of  the 
roads  which  should  be  regarded  as  forming  part  of 
such  trunk  roads,  and  should  be  specially  subsidized 
by  the  State,  might  be  left  to  the  authoritative  body 
suggested  by  the  Royal  Commission.*  The  roads  so 
selected  might  be  known  as  National  Roads.  As  the 
State  would  be  making  a  special  contribution  to  these 

*  The  Royal  Commission  on  Local  Taxation. 


PREFACE  vii 

National  Roads,  it  appears  to  us  right  that  they  should 
be  maintained  subject  to  central  supervision.  This 
supervision  ought  to  be  obtained  by  means  of  a  central 
department,  which  might  be  a  department  of  the  Local 
Government  Board.'* 

It  was  to  their  national  character  and  their  manage- 
ment by  the  State,  as  representing  the  nation,  that  the 
Roman  roads  owed  the  excellence  of  construction  which 
has  preserved  them  as  the  basis  of  the  highway  system, 
not  only  of  this  country,  but  of  every  other  which  at 
any  time  formed  part  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

U.  A.  F. 
A.  C.  B. 

*  Report,  p.  10. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

HIGHWAYS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

PAGE 

Increased  interest  in  historical  objects  arising  from  the 
introduction  of  the  cycle  and  the  motor-car — Roman 
roads  the  forerunners  of  the  present  highway  system — 
Facilities  for  transport  the  primary  essentials  of  civiliza- 
tion— Antiquity  of  the  history  of  highways — A  journey 
through  Roman  Britain  sixteen  centuries  ago — Highways 
the  most  permanent  memorials  of  the  Roman  occupation 
— Numerous  sources  of  information  available  for  ascer- 
taining the  characteristics  of  Roman  civilization — The 
Roman  annexation  of  Britain  analogous  to  similar  annexa- 
tions by  modern  States — Effects  of  Roman  civilization 
on  the  population  of  Britain — Its  beneficial  results  still 
traceable — The  interest  of  the  Roman  highway  system 
to  the  modern  traveller — Plan  of  the  work  -  -  1-12 


CHAPTER  II 

BRITAIN   BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST 

Changes  in  the  physical  features  of  our  country  since  the 
earliest  historical  period — Forests  and  fens  formed  the 
tribal  boundaries  in  pre-Roman  Britain — And  were  the 
chief  natural  obstacles  to  Roman  road  -  makers — The 
greater  part  of  Scotland  at  that  period  forest  and  morass 
— Trees  indigenous  to  Britain — British  food  and  mineral 
[ix  ] 


x  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

resources  —  Manufactures  and  commerce  in  the  pre- 
Roman  period — Corn  and  men  the  most  valuable  assets 
of  the  island — Misuse  by  the  Romans  of  the  natural  re- 
sources of  Britain,  and  its  consequent  loss  by  them  -  13-25 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS 

The  task  of  the  Roman  road-makers  possibly  assisted  by 
British  tracks  already  in  existence — Divergency  of 
opinion  on  this  matter — Summary  of  our  information  re- 
garding pre-Roman  Britain — A  comparative  account  of 
the  civilization  attained  by  different  British  tribes — Their 
fortifications  —  Principal  settlements  —  Commerce  — 
Coinage — Religion — Indications  of  Mediterranean  influ- 
ences— Commercial  routes  necessitated  by  the  tin  trade 
— The  evidence  of  Caesar  regarding  British  roads — The 
opinions  of  modern  investigators  examined — Probable 
characteristics  of  pre-Roman  roads  in  Britain — Traces 
of  these  that  still  exist — Hindrances  to  their  construction 
on  a  comprehensive  system — British  civilization  progres- 
sive— At  its  highest  level  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  Con- 
quest— How  roads  may  be  obliterated — Localities  where 
pre-Roman  roads  may  most  probably  still  be  found  -  26-39 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  ROMAN  GARRISON   IN   BRITAIN 

Britain  primarily  a  military  dependency  of  Rome — The 
Roman  soldier  the  great  road-maker — Consequent  im- 
portance of  considering  the  size  and  composition  of  the 
Roman  army  in  Britain — Outline  of  Roman  military 
organization — Historical  summary  of  military  events  in 
Roman  Britain — The  progress  of  the  Roman  arms  ac- 
companied by  the  extension  of  Roman  roads — An  attempt 
to  date  the  construction  of  some  of  the  military  roads — 
Internal  communications  decay  together  with  the  Roman 
power — Collapse  of  the  Roman  power  in  Britain — 
General  remarks  on  Roman  military  policy  4<>55 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  EVOLUTION   OF  OUR   ROMAN   HIGHWAYS 

HAGE 

The  Roman  period  in  British  history — Its  duration — A 
universal  road  system  throughout  the  Roman  Empire — 
Roman  roads  originated  (i)  from  military  requirements, 
(2)  from  reasons  of  civil  administration,  and  (3)  from  com- 
mercial necessities — Consideration  of  historical  events — 
The  course  of  road  construction  and  the  extension  of  the 
system — Every  Roman  city  and  colony  a  centre  of  road- 
making  activity — Trade  routes  in  use  by  the  Romans 
immediately  after  their  conquest  of  Britain — Rapid 
growth  of  towns  in  Roman  Britain — Certain  periods 
conspicuous  for  road-making  activity  in  different  parts 
of  the  island  -  -  -  56-67 


CHAPTER  VI 

ROAD  SURVEYING  AND   ROAD   MAINTENANCE 

Classification  of  Roman  roads  into  public  and  private — 
Colonial  roads  intersecting  territories  of  colonial  cities 
and  of  frontier  fortresses  not  mentioned  by  legal  writers 
—The  centuriation  of  colonial  territories — Centurial 
stones  and  landmarks  indicating  boundaries  of  colonies 
— Examples  of  centurial  stones — Colonial  distinguished 
from  military  roads  in  writings  of  Roman  land-surveyors 
— The  greater  colonial  roads  were  public  and  the  lesser 
private  roads — Public  roads  maintained  by  the  State — 
Each  great  road  controlled  by  an  inspector-in- chief — 
This  office  (curator  viarum]  often  undertaken  by  the 
Emperors — Private  individuals  frequently  contributed 
large  sums  towards  road  maintenance — Evidences  of  the 
national  character  of  the  work — Excellence  of  con- 
struction and  extent  of  road  system  due  to  this  fact — 
Maintenance  of  the  lesser  country  roads  vested  in  the 
rural  authorities  -  68-79 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS  AND   BRIDGES 

PAGE 

Pioneer  roads — Discoveries  of  portions  of  such  roads  in 
the  peat  mosses  of  Scotland — Directness  of  the  great 
military  roads — Marshes,  rivers,  forests,  and  mountains 
no  obstacles  —  Structure  of  the  via  publics — Road- 
making  as  described  by  Vitruvius — His  description 
verified  by  excavations  on  the  Fosse  Way — General 
rules  modified  to  meet  particular  cases — Perfection  of 
roads  near  Rome — Such  perfection  rarely  existed  in 
remoter  provinces,  but  probably  was  found  in  a  few 
cases  in  Britain — Construction  of  Scottish  roads — Of 
lesser  cross  roads  and  country  roads,  etc. — Bridge  con- 
struction -  80-93 

CHAPTER  VIII 

MILESTONES,  POST-STATIONS,  AND   ROADSIDE   INNS 

Road  measurement — Difference  between  Roman  and  Eng- 
lish miles — Varieties  of  Roman  milestones  (milliaria) 
found  in  Britain — Milliaria  of  twenty-one  Emperors, 
from  Hadrian  to  Constantine  Junior,  discovered  in 
various  counties — The  milliarium  aureum  at  Rome — 
Provincial  milliaria  aurea— Claims  of  *  London  Stone' 
to  the  title— Governmental  post- stations— Roadside  inns 
— Posting-stations  and  inns  enumerated  in  some  of  the 
Roman  road  books — Defects  of  Itinerary  of  Antoninus 
in  this  respect — Inns  rarely  used  by  wealthy  travellers — 
Landowners  sometimes  built  roadside  taverns  for  the 
sale  of  their  wine  and  farm  produce  94-!°5 

CHAPTER  IX 

ROMAN   VEHICLES   IN   BRITAIN 

Two-wheeled  gigs  kept  at  governmental  posting-stations 
for  use  of  travellers— Drivers  punishable  for  careless 
driving — Varieties  of  British  vehicles  adopted  by  the 
Romans — British  war-chariots — The  covinus — The  car* 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

pentum — The  rJieda — The  petorritum — The  carruca — 
The  pilentum — The  currus  or  chariot  used  in  public 
games  and  triumphal  processions — The  plaustrum  or 
waggon  -  106-117 

CHAPTER  X 

ROMAN    TRAVELLERS 

Facilities  for  travelling  in  Britain  during  the  Roman  occu- 
pation greater  than  in  the  eighteenth  century — British 
highways  only  formed  a  section  of  the  Roman  highway 
system — Number  and  variety  of  travellers  on  the  Roman 
roads — A  Roman  army  on  the  march — Some  of  the 
Emperors  great  travellers — The  journey  of  imperial 
officials — Passports — Transport  of  merchandise — Traffic 
in  the  towns — Apparent  rarity  of  travel  on  horseback — 
Litters — Societies  formed  at  Rome  for  providing  a 
service  of  public  litters — Sedan  chairs — Journeys  of 
private  individuals — Speed  of  travelling — The  passion 
for  travel  originated  with  the  Romans — The  viaticum 
and  the  legativum — Continuous  stream  of  travellers 
between  Britain  and  the  Continent — Dover  and  Boulogne 
relatively  as  important  in  Roman  as  in  British  times — 
Legend  with  respect  to  Britain  current  in  Northern 
France  in  the  fifth  century  118-129 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN   BRITAIN 

Necessity  for  a  description  of  the  Roman  towns  of  Britain 
—Their  powers  of  self-government — Their  number  and 
importance — Their  destruction  extended  over  a  long 
period — Destructive  agencies — Silchester — Two  classes 
of  towns  in  Roman  Britain — Their  distinctive  features — 
Their  sites — Towns  most  numerous  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  island — Road  system  also  more  perfect  there — 
Dimensions  and  population  of  the  towns — London — 
St.  Albans  —  Caerleon— Chester  —  York — Gloucester  — 


xiv  CONTENTS 

RAGE 

Lincoln — Colchester — Other  towns — Roman  coins  in 
Britain — Spurious  coins — The  ground- plan  of  Roman 
towns — Roman  masonry — Sewers — Hypocausts — Pave- 
ments— Wall  decorations — Building  materials — The  fate 
of  the  towns  of  Roman  Britain  -  130-146 

CHAPTER  XII 

CAMPS  AND   FORTIFICATIONS 

Roman  defensive  works  include  camps,  temporary  and 
permanent,  and  the  great  frontier  defences — Distinction 
between  Roman  camps  and  those  of  earlier  date — Camps 
of  the  Neolithic  period — British  camps — Old  Sarum  and 
Maiden  Castle  types  of  the  latter — Roman  camps — 
Their  location  and  distinctive  features  have  in  many 
cases  been  obliterated  by  agricultural  operations  — 
Josephus  on  Roman  camps— Conversion  of  Roman 
temporary  camps  into  permanent  stations  and  fortified 
towns — Roman  camps  in  Scotland — Internal  arrange- 
ments of  Roman  camps  as  described  by  Polybius  and 
Hyginus — Roman  fortresses — The  fortified  frontier  line 
of  the  Cotswolds — The  fortresses  of  the  Saxon  shore — 
Disappearance  of  all  buildings  except  part  of  the  outer 
walls  of  these  castella  considered — The  frontier  walls — 
The  Wall  of  Antoninus  Pius — The  Wall  of  Hadrian- 
Unsolved  problems  —  General  description — Incidental 
remarks  -  -  147-168 

CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  OBLITERATION  OF  THE  ROMAN  HIGHWAY  SYSTEM, 
AND  THE  SUBSEQUENT  HISTORY  OF  MODERN  ROADS 

Existing  Roman  remains  survivals  of  fifteen  centuries  of 
obliteration — Objects  of  the  Roman  highway  system 
ceased  to  exist  on  withdrawal  of  the  legions — Un- 
favourable conditions  to  road-making  during  the  two 
succeeding  centuries  —  Portions  of  Roman  highways 
became  the  basis  of  a  new  national  system — Nomencla- 
ture of  the  new  system— The  four  great  roads — Are 


CONTENTS  xv 

PAGE 

mentioned  both  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman  laws — 
The  most  prominent  feature  in  the  mediaeval  road  system 
— Impetus  to  road-making  after  the  Norman  Conquest — 
Erection  of  castles,  monasteries,  and  fortified  towns — 
Large  amount  of  travelling  during  Middle  Ages — Royal 
Itineraries — Hospitality  to  travellers  at  monasteries  and 
castles — Fairs  and  markets — Growth  of  foreign  trade — 
Road  maintenance  under  the  common  law  and  the  feudal 
system — Aid  to  travellers  a  'pious  work' — Guilds  for 
making  roads  and  bridges — Grant  of  indulgences  for 
performance  of  such  works — Chapels  on  bridges — In- 
adequacy of  legal  provisions  necessitated  constant  appli- 
cations to  Parliament — Theoretical  provisions  for  safety 
of  travellers  equally  ineffective — Mediaeval  carriages — 
Coaches  not  generally  used  till  the  seventeenth  century 
— Travelling  on  horseback  almost  universal — Mediaeval 
system  sufficient  for  requirements  of  the  period — In- 
jurious effects  of  the  'Black  Death,'  of  destruction  of 
feudal  system,  and  of  dissolution  of  the  monasteries — No 
new  roads  constructed  between  1503  and  1702 — In- 
adequacy of  the  parochial  system  and  the  earlier 
highway  Acts — The  introduction  of  the  turnpike  system 
— Its  merits — Deplorable  condition  of  roads  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries — Growth  of  the 
turnpike  system  in  spite  of  strong  opposition — Mileage 
and  cost  of  turnpike  roads — Blind  Jack  of  Knares- 
borough — Roman  standard  of  excellence  not  regained 
till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century— Telford — 
Mileage  of  roads  constructed  by  him  in  Scotland — The 
Holyhead  road — Introduction  in  England  by  Macadam 
of  a  system  similar,  but  inferior,  to  that  of  Telford — 
Superiority  of  Irish  roads  due  to  the  grand  juries — 
Financial  difficulties  of  turnpike  trustees — Introduction 
of  the  railway  system  and  the  abolition  of  forced  labour 
on  roads — Condemnation  of  the  turnpike  system  in  1871 
— Expenses  of  highway  maintenance  thrown  on  rate- 
payers after  its  discontinuance  —  Existing  highway 
authorities — Comparison  between  the  Roman  and  the 
existing  highway  systems  -  -  169-190 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN   ROADS 

PAGE 

Sources  of  information  available  for  identification  of  Roman 
roads — Structure  and  characteristics — Milestones — Evi- 
dences of  centuriation — Coins,  funeral  monuments,  and 
altars,  etc. — Proximity  to  camps  and  stations — Evidences 
as  to  the  existence  of  camps— The  Fosse  Way,  Watling 
Street,  etc. — Contemporary  authorities — The  Geography 
of  Ptolemy — Richard  of  Cirencester's  Itinerary — The 
Itinerary  of  Antoninus  —  The  Notitia  Imperii  —  The 
Peutingerian  Table — The  Ravenna  Chorography  191-203 

THE  ITINERARY  OF  ANTONINUS  SO  FAR  AS  IT  RELATES 

TO   BRITAIN  -     204 

APPENDIX  I 
PTOLEMY'S  GEOGRAPHY,  BK.  n.,  CH.  HI.,  TABLE  3       -    213 


APPENDIX  II 

THE     DIAPHRAGMATA     OF     RICHARD     OF    CIRENCESTER 
COMPARED  WITH  THE   ITINERARY   OF  ANTONINUS       - 

APPENDIX  III 


216 


THE  NOTITIA  IMPERII,  SO  FAR  AS  IT  RELATES  TO  THE 
MILITARY  STATIONS  ON  THE  SAXON  SHORE  AND 
ALONG  THE  ROMAN  WALL  237 

APPENDIX  IV 

THE  STATIONS  MARKED  IN  THE  PEUTINGERIAN  TABLE 
CSO  FAR  AS  IT  RELATES  TO  BRITAIN)  COMPARED  WITH 
CORRESPONDING  PORTIONS  OFANTONINE'S  ITINERARY  241 

APPENDIX  V 

LIST  OF  ROMAN  TOWNS  AND  OF  SOME  OF  THE  ROMAN 
CAMPS  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTIES  IN  ENGLAND  AND  WALES, 


AND   SCOTLAND    - 


244 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


MAP  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN   -  -  Frontispiece 

MAP  OF  BRITAIN   BEFORE  THE  ROMAN   CONQUEST 

To  face  p.  13 

MAP    SHOWING  CONNECTION  BETWEEN   BRITISH  TRACK- 
WAYS AND   ROMAN    ROADS    IN    THE    MIDDLE  COTTES- 

WOLDS  (by  permission  of  J.  Sawyer,  Esq.)  -      39 

BOADICEA,  QUEEN   OF  THE   ICENI,  (from  the  statue  by 
Thomas  Thorny  croft)       -  -       55 

SECTION  OF  A  ROMAN   ROAD  AT  RADSTOCK  (by  permis- 
sion of  J.  McMurtrie,  Esq.,  F.G.S.)       -  -  85 
ESSEDUM  (Ginzrof)  -  107 
CARPENTUM  (Gmzrot)        •  -  in 

CARRUCA.  FROM  COLUMN  OF  TRAJAN  (Ginzrof)  -  112 
CARRUCA  (Ginzrof)  -  113 
WAR  CHARIOT.  FROM  AN  ANCIENT  LAMP  (Ginzrof)  -  Il6 
PLAUSTRUM.  FROM  A  BAS-RELIEF  ON  A  ROMAN  TOMB- 
STONE AT  LANGRES  (Ginzrot)  -  -  117 
OLD  ROMAN  GATEWAY,  LINCOLN  -  -  136 
FRAGMENT  OF  PAVEMENT  AT  ROMAN  VILLA,  CHED- 

WORTH       -  -  144 

BRITISH  CAMP  ON  MOUNT  CABURN   IN  SUSSEX  -  149 

[  xvii   ] 


xvm 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLAN  OF  A   ROMAN  CAMP,   AS  DESCRIBED   BY  POLYBIUS, 


IN  THE  PERIOD   OF  THE  EARLIER  EMPIRE 


-      153 


PLAN  OF  A  ROMAN  CAMP,  AS  DESCRIBED  BY  HYGINUS, 

IN  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  LATER  EMPIRE  -  153 

SECTIONS  OF  THE  WORKS  NEAR  THE  EIGHTEENTH  MILE- 
STONE WEST  OF  NEWCASTLE  AND  OF  THE  WORKS 
HALF  A  MILE  WEST  OF  CARRAW  (BrucJs  'Roman 

Wall]  p.  57,  Ed.  1853)     -  -    162 

TURRET  OF  HADRIAN'S  WALL  ON  THE  NINE  NICKS  OF 

THIRLWALL  -  -  164 

PORTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  WALL  ON  THE  NINE  NICKS 
OF  THIRLWALL,  NORTHUMBERLAND  (from  a  picture 

in  the  possession  of  H.  J.  IV.  Coulson,  Esq?)     -  166 

SOUTH      FOSSE     OF      VALLUM      BETWEEN     MAGNA     AND 

-flSSlCA  (from  a  drawing  by  Miss  M.  Coulson)  -     168 

BRITAIN      AS      REPRESENTED     IN     THE     PEUTINGERIAN 

TABLE         -  -  -  -  -  .  -      200 


CHAPTER  I 
HIGHWAYS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 

Increased  interest  in  historical  objects  arising  from  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cycle  and  the  motor-car — Roman  roads  the 
forerunners  of  the  present  highway  system — Facilities  for 
transport  the  primary  essentials  of  civilization — Antiquity 
of  the  history  of  highways — A  journey  through  Roman 
Britain  sixteen  centuries  ago — Highways  the  most  permanent 
memorials  of  the  Roman  occupation — Numerous  sources  of 
information  available  for  ascertaining  the  characteristics  of 
Roman  civilization — The  Roman  annexation  of  Britain 
analogous  to  similar  annexations  by  modern  States — Effects 
of  Roman  civilization  on  the  population  of  Britain — Its 
beneficial  results  still  traceable — The  interest  of  the  Roman 
highway  system  to  the  modern  traveller — Plan  of  the  work. 

ONE  of  the  most  notable  results  of  the  introduction  of 
the  cycle  and  the  motor-car  in  recent  years  has  been  the 
enormous  increase  in  the  number  of  people  who  are 
obliged  to  acquire  some  knowledge  of  the  geography  of 
their  own  country.  The  publishers  of  our  local  guide- 
books and  maps  for  tourists  must,  indeed,  have  reason 
to  bless  the  inventions  that  have  caused  so  great  a 
demand  for  their  especial  wares  by  the  ever-growing 
number  of  travellers  who  really  feel  an  intelligent 
interest  in  the  numerous  objects  of  historical  importance 
which  they  pass  in  the  course  of  their  rambles. 

1 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Though,  however,  it  would  probably  be  hard  to  find 
any  reliable  map  published  for  the  use  of  the  class  we 
are  considering  which  does  not  indicate  certain  roads  as 
Roman,  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  only  a  small 
minority  of  those  who  use  them  are  aware  that  these 
roads  were  the  forerunners  of,  and  in  many  respects 
anticipated,  our  present  highway  system.  The  provision 
of  facilities  for  transport  is  one  of  the  primary  essentials 
of  civilization;  and,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  an 
eminent  authority,  it  is  communication  which  makes 
traffic,  and  not,  as  is  sometimes  said,  traffic  which  makes 
communication.  Our  familiarity  with  highways  has, 
however,  bred  the  inevitable  contempt,  and  has  rendered 
us  oblivious  to  the  interest  attaching  to  their  very  ancient 
history ;  and  we  are  apt  to  forget  that  canals  and  railways, 
which  successively  superseded  them  for  certain  purposes 
of  transport,  were  only  rendered  possible  by  the  gradual 
development  of  the  highway  itself  out  of  the  primitive 
trackway  of  earlier  times. 

It  is  therefore  difficult  for  a  cyclist  or  a  pedestrian 
making  his  way  over  one  of  the  old  Roman  roads  to 
realize  that  its  foundations  were  probably  laid  more 
than  eighteen  hundred  years  ago,  at  a  time  when  a  large 
area  of  Britain  was  occupied  by  vast  forests  and  im- 
passable morasses : 

e  There  rolls  the  deep  where  grew  the  tree. 
O  earth,  what  changes  hast  thou  seen  ! 
There  where  the  long  street  roars  hath  heen 
The  stillness  of  the  central  sea.5 

Could  the  traveller  by  some  magic  influence  be  trans- 
ported back  through  some  sixteen  centuries  to  the 
reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  and  pursue  his  journey, 


HIGHWAYS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN      3 

either  drawn  at  full  speed  by  post-horses  in  a  Govern- 
ment conveyance,  or  proceeding  more  leisurely  in  his 
own  carriage,  he  would  feel  that  he  was  travelling  in 
some  foreign  country  which  had  as  little  resemblance 
to  the  Britain  of  to-day  as  that  bears  to  Bulgaria  or 
any  other  of  the  States  of  Eastern  Europe.  The  road 
itself  might  be  as  broad,  even,  and  well-kept  as  if  it 
had  been  the  work  of  Macadam  himself;  but,  with  this 
exception,  almost  everything  he  would  see  on  his  journey 
would  seem  as  unfamiliar  as  the  gilded  coach,  with  its 
armed  escort  and  train  of  baggage-mules,  the  sumptuous 
litter  borne  by  obsequious  slaves,  and  the  more  humble 
equipages  and  carts  which  he  would  pass  on  the  way. 
The  carefully-kept  banks  and  ditches  on  either  side  of 
it,  planted  with  elms  and  poplars,  supplying  leaves 
for  stock  on  the  farms  and  timber  for  domestic  use ; 
its  straightness,  and  the  mathematical  regularity  with 
which  not  only  the  curiously-shaped  milestones,  but 
also  the  Governmental  posting- stations  and  inns  were 
arranged  along  its  course,  would  all  appear  strangely  in 
contrast  with  the  picturesque  variety  of  the  winding 
roads  to  which  he  was  accustomed  ;  and  he  would  find 
that  these  characteristics  of  the  Roman  highways  con- 
trasted in  a  no  less  striking  way  with  the  wildness  of 
much  of  the  surrounding  scenery.  For  a  time,  perhaps, 
the  road  follows  the  course  of  a  river,  which  is  also 
enclosed  between  banks,  but  without  trees ;  and  then, 
crossing  the  very  centre  of  a  wide  morass  by  means  of  a 
perfectly  constructed  causeway,  it  climbs  straight  over 
the  steep  slope  of  a  rugged  hill  and  descends  abruptly 
into  the  valley  below.  Now  it  enters  a  great  forest,  in 
which  copses  of  oak — the  feeding-ground  of  large  herds 


4  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

of  swine — are  mingled  with  groves  of  birch,  yew,  holly, 
and  wych  elm,  and  dense  thickets  of  underwood  shelter- 
ing the  lairs  of  many  a  fierce  wolf  and  mighty  boar. 
Interspersed  with  these  are  broad  glades  in  which  cattle 
are  browsing,  and  emerging  from  one  of  them  the  road 
passes  into  a  richly-cultivated  country,  studded  with 
farms  and  villas,  and  traversed  by  frequent  by-roads  in 
which  the  earthen  banks  are  replaced  by  hedges.  The 
fields  are  measured  with  the  same  formal  precision  that 
characterizes  the  roads,  the  cornfields  are  mingled  with 
vineyards,  in  many  of  which  the  vines  are  trained  on 
elm -trees,  and  the  ploughs  and  many  of  the  carts  are 
drawn  by  oxen.  Here,  however,  the  quickset  hedges, 
wooden  palings,  and  stone  walls  enclosing  the  cultivated 
lands  take  away  much  of  the  unfamiliar  aspect  of  the 
country-houses  and  farms,  which  are  built  on  three  sides 
round  courtyards  open  on  the  fourth  to  the  road,  and 
are  chiefly  lighted  from  above,  with  their  few  windows 
principally  in  the  upper  stories.  At  length,  after 
traversing  a  tract  of  open  moorland  rising  gradually 
till  it  reaches  the  outlying  spur  of  a  range  of  hills, 
he  sees  his  road  running  straight  as  an  arrow  across 
the  plain  to  the  Roman  colony  to  which  he  is  journey- 
ing. Villas  grow  more  frequent  after  he  has  de- 
scended the  steep  slope,  some  of  them  approached  by 
small  avenues,  and  he  soon  finds  himself  driving  through 
a  suburb  without  the  city  walls,  with  straggling  rows  of 
shops,  rose-gardens,  and  cemeteries,  and  beyond  them 
a  cluster  of  thatched  huts  built  of  wattles  inhabited  by 
Britons,  who  have  taken  service  with  their  conquerors. 
He  passes  through  a  massive  gateway,  and  ends  his 
journey  amidst  the  unfamiliar  architecture  of  a  city, 


HIGHWAYS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN       5 

the  four  principal  streets  of  which,  as  straight  as  the 
highroad  he  has  just  left,  run  from  the  fortified 
pretorium  standing  in  its  centre  towards  the  four 
cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  and  which,  in  its  basilica 
and  forum,  its  theatre,  public  baths,  and  dwelling-houses, 
is  a  copy  in  miniature  of  Rome  itself. 

Detached  stretches  of  highway  such  as  this  furnish 
some  of  the  most  striking,  and  also  the  most  permanent, 
memorials  of  the  great  nation  which  constructed  them 
in  the  most  remote  province  of  its  vast  Empire.  As 
has  been  finely  said  by  the  author  of  '  Italy  and  her 
Invaders,1  c  not  even  the  Colisseum  of  Vespasian  or  the 
Pajfthe^on  of  Agrippa  impresses  the  mind  with  a  sense 
of  the  majestic  strength  of  Rome  so  forcibly  as  the 
massive  bulwarks  of  a  bridge  erected  by  Hadrian's 
cohorts  over  some  little  British  stream  unknown  to  the  } 
majority  even  of  Englishmen,  or  of  the  square  and  solid 
blocks  of  an  imperial  guard-house  on  some  remote  and 
solitary  Northumbrian  moor.'*  Considered  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  sites  of  camps  and  battlefields,  the  walls 
and  pavements  of  cities  and  detached  villas,  and  the 
mass  of  ornaments,  weapons,  and  utensils  which  have 
been  discovered,  buried  under  the  debris  of  succeeding 
ages,  throughout  a  large  part  of  England  and  Scotland, 
these  fragments  of  Roman  highways  constitute  a  body 
of  evidence  which,  when  supplemented  by  the  works  of 
contemporary  historians,  enables  us  to  form  a  clear  con- 
ception of  the  civilization  of  Roman  Britain. 

*  Hodgkin's  e  Italy  and  her  Invaders/  vol.  i.,  Introduction, 
p.  viii.  The  old  Roman  bridge  over  the  North  Tyne  at  Choller- 
ford,  and  the  Millcastle  at  Housesteads,  furnish  striking  illustra- 
tions of  the  truth  of  this  statement. 


6  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

The  great  road  system,  of  which  they  formed  a  part, 
provided  not  only  the  means  of  effecting  and  maintain- 
ing the  subjugation  of  the  island,  but  also  of  utilizing 
its  rich  natural  resources,  while  the  military  stations 
erected  on  its  course  formed  the  nucleus  of  flourishing 
cities.  This  system  was  therefore  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant agencies  in  the  development  of  the  Old  World 
civilization  as  it  existed  in  these  islands  from  the  middle 
of  the  first  to  the  close  of  the  fifth  century ;  and 
though  it  is  now  almost  forgotten,  this  period  in  our 
national  history  should  possess  an  especial  interest  in 
the  present  day,  since  it  was  the  result  of  identically 
the  same  process  of  acquiring  the  territories  of  semi- 
civilized  races,  and  imposing  the  civilization  of  the 
conquering  race  upon  them,  which  the  great  European 
Powers  are  now  engaged  in  carrying  on  in  Asia  and 
Africa. 

Britain,  which  now  occupies  a  position  in  many 
respects  curiously  similar  to  that  then  held  by  the 
great  Empire  which  annexed  it  in  the  first  century,  was 
to  the  Romans  an  unexplored  country  on  the  extreme 
western  limits  of  the  world,  the  natural  resources  of 
which  were  very  favourably  reported  on  by  the  traders 
of  their  Gaulish  provinces,  who  had  long  carried  on  an 
extensive  trade  with  its  inhabitants.  Its  addition  to 
their  dominions  was  therefore  as  natural  and  inevitable 
an  event  as  that  of  the  Punjaub  to  the  Indian  Empire 
or  of  the  territories  of  the  North  American  Indians  to 
those  of  the  United  States.  The  pretexts  advanced  for 
its  conquest — first,  the  assistance  given  by  the  Britons 
to  their  allies,  the  Veneti,  in  their  struggle  for  indepen- 
dence against  Caesar ;  and,  on  the  second  invasion,  the 


HIGHWAYS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN      7 

necessity  for  Roman  interference  in  a  dispute  respecting 
the  royal  succession  in  one  of  the  British  kingdoms — 
also  bear  a  curious  resemblance  to  those  advanced  in 
justification  of  the  annexations  of  European  States. 
Lastly,  as  in  the  case  of  the  majority  of  such  annexa- 
tions, when  the  subjugation  of  the  island  had  been 
completed  after  fifty  years  of  warfare,  we  find  the 
nationality  of  the  British  tribes,  whose  want  of  unity 
had  facilitated  their  conquest,  gradually  destroyed  by 
the  pressure  of  Roman  rule.  By  the  time  that  the 
province  had  developed  from  a  protectorate  under 
military  government  into  a  diocese  of  the  Prefecture  of 
Gaul — with  its  Vicar  or  Civil  Governor,  analogous  to 
our  Indian  Viceroy,  and  its  treasurer  in  London,  and  its 
Commander-in-Chief,  the  Count  of  Britain,  at  York 
— the  process  of  '  Romanization  '  was  complete.  Only 
in  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  Wales,  and  the  North  of  Scot- 
land— all  of  which  were  inhabited  by  tribes  practically 
unsubdued,  though  effectually  held  in  check,  and  which 
stood  in  much  the  same  relation  towards  the  Roman 
province  as  that  in  which  the  Afghans  and  other  frontier 
tribes  now  stand  towards  India — was  the  vitality  of  the 
native  Britons  maintained. 

Whether  modern  Western  civilization  is  destined  to 
prove  an  ultimate  benefit  to  the  Asiatic  and  African 
races  amongst  whom  it  is  now  being  so  widely  diffused, 
is  a  question  which  it  is  obviously  impossible  yet  to 
answer,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  effects  of 
Roman  civilization  upon  the  Britons  were  for  the  most 
part  purely  destructive.  Like  all  the  subjects  of  the 
Empire,  they  enjoyed  the  right  of  citizenship,  and  the 
majority  of  their  cities  were  governed  by  municipalities 


8  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

resembling  those  of  the  Italian  provinces.  They  spoke 
the  language  of  their  conquerors,  and  when  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  Empire,  an  organized  British 
Church  was  established,  the  Bishops  of  which  are  known 
to  have  attended  the  Council  held  at  Aries  in  A.D.  314. 
The  famous  heresiarch  Pelagius  and  the  missionaries 
St.  Ninian  and  St.  Patrick  were  Britons  or  Celts ;  and 
the  '  Confession  of  St.  Patrick '  (the  earliest  prose  work 
that  can  be  attributed  to  an  inhabitant  of  these  islands) 
shows  not  only  that  he  was  the  son  of  a  decurio,  or 
hereditary  municipal  councillor,*  but  also  that  Latin 
was  spoken,  and  that  a  Christian  Church  was  established 
as  far  north  as  the  banks  of  the  Clyde. 

The  Britons  displayed  the  same  eagerness  to  profit  by 
the  advantages  of  Roman  education  as  the  natives  of 
India  now  do  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of  an  English  one. 
In  Hadrian's  time  Britain  is  described  as  '  conquered  by 
the  Roman  schoolmaster,'  and  these  schoolmasters  are 
known  to  have  included  Greek  as  well  as  Latin  tutors.! 
We  know  of  the  existence  of  at  least  one  British  Uni- 
versity— that  of  Llantwit,  on  the  Glamorgan  coast, 
founded  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.,  of  which 
St.  Iltud  was  chancellor,  and  which  numbered  the 
chronicler  Gildas  and  the  bard  Taliessin  amongst  its 
students — and  its  establishment  in  such  a  remote  part 

*  According  to  Mr.  Coote,  the  author  of  'The  Romans  of 
Britain'  (p.  121),  St.  Patrick — Calpurnius  Patricius — was  the 
representative  of  the  Italian  gens  of  the  Calpurnii.  It  may  be 
added  that  various  centurial  stones  discovered  throughout  Britain 
bear  the  names  of  some  eighteen  other  Roman  families  whose 
descendants  were  settled  as  colonists  in  these  islands.  See  as 
to  this  post)  p.  74,  note  f. 

f  Cf.  Mommsen's  ( Roman  Provinces/  vol.  i.}  p.  194. 


HIGHWAYS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN      9 

of  the  province  makes  it  probable  that  there  were  others 
in  the  more  important  centres. 

But,  as  is  shown  by  the  bulk  of  its  monuments  and 
by  its  greatest  work,  the  Wall  of  Hadrian,  Britain 
remained  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  occupa- 
tion mainly  a  military  department  of  the  Empire — the 
province  farthest  removed  from  the  great  centre  of  the 
Old  World  civilization,  and  deriving  its  importance 
solely  from  its  wheat-crops  and  mineral  products,  from 
the  tribute  exacted  from  its  inhabitants,  the  recruits  it 
furnished  for  the  legions,  and  the  slaves  it  provided  for 
the  Roman  market.  The  civilization  of  the  Roman 
period  is  believed  by  some  to  have  been  at  its  zenith 
far  superior  to  that  enjoyed  in  these  islands  at  any 
subsequent  period  down  to  Elizabethan  times  ;*  but  this 
was  the  case  presumably  only  in  certain  favoured  dis- 
tricts, such  as  Gloucestershire,  Yorkshire,  and  perhaps 
Middlesex,  and  only  the  more  important  classes  among 
the  British  tribes  can  have  benefited  by  it. 

'  Temples  there  were,1  says  Kemble,  '  forums,  porti- 
coes, baths,  and  luxurious  feasts,  Roman  manners  and 
Roman  vices,  and  to  support  them  loans,  usurious  mort- 
gages, and  ruin.  But  we  seek  in  vain  for  any  evidence 
of  the  Romanized  Britons  having  been  employed  in  any 
offices  of  trust  or  dignity,  or  permitted  to  share  in  the 
really  valuable  results  of  civilization.'t 

As,  in  accordance  with  Roman  policy,  the  Britons 
enlisted  in  the  legions  were  almost  entirely  employed 
on  foreign  service,  and  the  legions  quartered  in  Britain 
were  recruited  from  every  province  of  the  Empire,  the 

*  ArchcKological  Journal,  vol.  xlvii.  (1890),  p.  365. 
f  ( The  Saxons  in  England/  vol.  ii.,  p.  281. 


10  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

population  at  the  close  of  the  Roman  occupation  had 
become  a  heterogeneous  mixture  of  all  the  nationalities 
in  Europe.  That  the  courage  and  physical  capacity  of 
that  population  was  not,  as  is  maintained  by  some 
writers,  hopelessly  deteriorated  by  Roman  civilization  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that,  after  its  abandonment  by  the 
Empire,  the  free  province  of  Britain  maintained  an 
equal  struggle  against  the  Picts  and  the  Saxons  for 
thirty  years,*  as  well  as  by  the  slow  progress  of  the 
Saxon  occupation ;  but  it  was  undoubtedly  due  to  that 
civilization  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  had 
then  long  ceased  to  be  British  except  in  name. 

Injurious,  however,  in  some  respects,  as  were  the 
effects  of  Roman  civilization  upon  that  portion  of  the 
British  race  which  came  within  its  operation,  it  pro- 
duced in  Britain,  as  in  other  provinces  of  the  Empire, 
results  of  an  entirely  different  character,  which  have 
been  of  the  highest  value  to  the  two  conquering  races, 
which  in  turn  succeeded  to  the  Roman  dominion  in 
these  islands. 

In  the  first  place,  the  Roman  Empire  bequeathed  to 
its  successors  the  tradition  of  organized  government, 
and  also,  in  its  municipalities,  examples  of  the  methods 
of  civil  administration  which  served  as  models  both  to 
the  Saxons,  who  were  already  familiar  with  their  work- 
ing on  the  Continent,  and  to  their  Norman  conquerors. 
Again,  we  are  indebted  to  the  Romans  not  only  for 
the  clearance  from  dense  primeval  scrub  and  under- 
growth of  the  river  valleys,  which  seemed  to  them  the 
most  favourable  localities  for  agriculture,  but  also  for 
many  of  our  existing  customs  with  respect  to  the  tenure 
*  '  The  Making  of  England/  pp.  26,  27. 


HIGHWAYS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN     11 

and  cultivation  of  land.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
Metropolis,  the  seats  of  our  two  archbishoprics,  and 
many  of  our  old  borough  towns,  occupy  the  sites  of  old 
Roman  cities  which  have  had  in  many  cases  a  practi- 
cally uninterrupted  existence  since  their  foundation. 
And,  lastly,  most  of  our  principal  highways,  and  in 
many  instances  our  railways,  which  are  as  indispensable 
to  our  national  existence  as  the  arteries  are  to  that  of 
the  human  body,  follow,  as  has  been  said,  the  lines  of 
the  great  Roman  road  system  on  the  course  of  which 
these  cities  arose. 

The  history  of  that  system,  which  is  thus  inseparably 
connected  both  with  our  own  and  with  the  Roman 
civilization,  therefore  offers  many  points  of  interest  to 
the  modern  traveller,  who  benefits  by  the  labours  of  a 
departed  civilizing  race.  An  immense  amount  of 
information  with  respect  to  the  Roman  occupation  has 
been  collected  by  the  laborious  research  of  antiquaries 
and  local  archaeological  societies  during  the  last  two 
centuries,  arid  many  valuable  works  have  been  written 
on  the  subject,  but  in  these  the  Roman  highway  system 
has  necessarily  received  only  a  cursory  notice.  The 
very  mass  of  this  material  and  the  number  of  the 
volumes  in  which  it  is  recorded  may  well  alarm  the 
ordinary  inquirer,  who  has,  perhaps,  neither  the  time 
nor  the  inclination  to  devote  long  hours  to  its  especial 
study,  and  it  is  therefore  the  object  of  the  present 
work  to  provide  him  with  a  modest  summary  of  the 
knowledge  thus  accumulated  with  respect  to  the 
Roman  highway  system. 

Of  the  two  maps  which  accompany  this  volume,  the 
first  indicates  some  of  the  physical  features  of  Britain  and 


12  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

the  positions  of  the  most  important  British  tribes  prior 
to  the  Roman  conquest,  while  the  other  is  a  delineation 
of  the  road  system  and  principal  cities  in  Roman 
Britain  at  the  time  of  its  abandonment  by  the  Empire. 
It  is  proposed,  after  briefly  reviewing  the  physical  and 
political  condition  of  Britain  when  the  Romans  began 
the  work  of  road -making,  to  describe  the  origin  and 
growth  of  their  highway  system,  the  methods  of  con- 
structing and  the  regulations  for  maintaining  it,  the 
Roman  vehicles  and  modes  of  travelling,  and  the  more 
important  cities,  camps,  and  other  works  which  still 
bear  witness  to  the  Roman  occupation.  An  account 
will  also  be  given  of  the  obliteration  and  eventual 
conversion  into  our  present  highway  system  of  the  old 
Roman  roads,  and  also  of  the  various  means  by  which 
these  roads  have  been  identified ;  and  the  text  of  the 
principal  contemporary  authorities  on  the  subject,  to- 
gether with  a  list  of  Roman  towns  and  the  more 
important  Roman  camps,  have  been  added  for  purposes 
of  reference  as  Appendices  to  the  work. 


CHAPTER  II 
BRITAIN  BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST 

Changes  in  the  physical  features  of  our  country  since  the 
earliest  historical  period — Forests  and  fens  formed  the  tribal 
boundaries  in  pre-Roman  Britain — And  were  the  chief  natural 
Obstacles  to  Roman  road-makers — The  greater  part  of  Scot- 
land at  that  period  forest  and  morass — Trees  indigenous  to 
Britain — British  food  and  mineral  resources — Manufactures 
and  commerce  in  the  pre-Roman  period — Corn  and  men  the 
most  valuable  assets  of  the  island — Misuse  by  the  Romans  of 
the  natural  resources  of  Britain,  and  its  consequent  loss  by 
them. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  physical  features 
of  Britain  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  were 
widely  different  from  what  they  now  are.  Great  as  are 
the  changes  that  since  then  have  occurred  in  the 
general  configuration  of  the  country,  it  is  probable  that 
the  alterations  in  such  details  as  the  areas  of  woodland 
and  cultivation,  and  even  in  the  character  of  the  vege- 
tation, are  far  greater. 

The  coast-line  itself  has  materially  altered  since  the 
time  of  the  first  landing  of  the  Romans,  owing  to  the 
following  causes.  Alluvial  soil  has  been  continuously 
washed  down  to  the  estuaries  of  the  rivers,  and  has 
there  formed  deposits.  In  other  places,  where  the 
shores  have  been  of  a  soft  and  friable  nature,  they  have 

[13] 


14  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

constantly  been  eroded  by  the  action  of  the  waves,  and 
the  stolen  material  has  often  been  swept  along  the 
coast  until  it  has  been  arrested  by  some  projecting  point 
of  land,  where  it  has  made  an  encroachment  on  the 
sea.  Finally,  though  to  a  comparatively  small  extent, 
as  was  to  be  expected  in  so  short  a  geological  period,  the 
upheaval  or  depression  of  the  coast-line  by  subterranean 
action  has  caused  a  gain  or  a  loss  of  land. 

As  regards  the  rivers,  they  were  generally  more  rapid 
and  also  more  constant  and  larger  in  volume.  They 
ran  in  shallower  beds,  and  the  flood  water  ran  off  more 
slowly.  They  were  fordable  in  far  more  places  than 
at  present,  and  it  is,  for  instance,  believed  that  the 
Romans  under  Aulus  Plautius  were  able  to  ford  the 
Thames  near  London  Bridge.  Springs  were  more 
plentiful,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  country  they  were 
nearer  the  surface.  The  general  drying  up  of  the 
country,  the  full  effects  of  which  are  only  now  begin- 
ning to  be  realized,  has  been  continuously  progressing 
with  the  destruction  of  the  forests  from  the  Roman 
times  to  the  present  day,  and  springs  and  river-beds  are 
believed  to  be  lower  now  than  they  have  ever  been  in 
historic  times.  The  great  forests  that  then  covered 
huge  areas  of  the  country  not  only  tended  to  increase 
the  rainfall,  but,  especially  when  they  spread  into  the 
alluvial  flats  and  river  bottoms,  acted  as  great  sponges, 
and  retained  water  which  at  present  runs  off  after 
every  heavy  rainfall.  The  Fens  were  of  much  greater 
extent  than  they  are  now,  and  south  and  west  of  the 
Wash  they  covered  an  area  of  at  least  sixty  miles  in 
length  from  north  to  south,  and  from  twenty  to  forty 
miles  in  width  from  east  to  west.  The  mouth  of  the 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  15 

Thames  was  a  wider  estuary  than  at  present,  and  pro- 
bably more  resembled  the  Wash  in  configuration,  while 
large  fens  and  salt  marshes  extended  along  the  shores 
of  Kent  and  Essex,  where  the  tidal  waters  are  in  our 
times  kept  back  by  embankments. 

It  is  worth  while  to  enumerate  the  more  important 
changes  that  have  occurred  since  Roman  times,  and  it 
will  be  convenient  to  begin  at  the  South-Eastern  Coast 
of  the  island,  as  being  the  first  point  of  communication 
between  Britain  and  Gaul. 

We  find  that  Pevensey,  Winchelsea,  and  Lympne, 
all  now  between  one  and  three  miles  inland,  were 
Roman  seaports  and  naval  stations,  and  that  Sand- 
wich was  then  a  small  island  between  the  mainland 
and  the  Isle  of  Thanet.  Two  branches  of  the  river 
Lyra,  or  Rother,  which  now  enters  the  English  Channel 
at  Rye,  formerly  flowed  out  by  Lympne  (Portus  Lemanis) 
and  West  Hythe,  and  are  now  silted  up.  So  late  as 
the  eleventh  century  a  hostile  fleet  was  able  to  sail  up 
the  Stour  to  Canterbury,  while  the  Witham  was 
navigable  by  the  Danes  up  to  Lincoln  and  the  Ouse 
up  to  Ely. 

Following  the  Eastern  Coast,  we  note  that  a  Roman 
fortress  stood  at  Reculvers  (Regulbium),  the  remains 
of  which,  now  practically  washed  away,  were  untouched 
by  the  sea  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  and  near  this, 
on  the  site  of  the  modern  village  of  Richborough, 
was  the  important  seaport  of  Rutupiae,  which  formed 
the  principal  station  for  landing  and  disembarking 
the  Roman  legions.  The  great  change  in  the  character 
of  the  Thames  estuary  has  already  been  noticed,  and 
the  Roman  station  of  Othona,  an  important  fort 


16  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

on  the  Saxon  shore  during  the  latter  years  of  the 
Roman  occupation,  can  now  only  be  identified  by  the 
remains  of  a  port  that  is  further  inland  than  the  old 
harbour  of  Bradwell  in  Essex;  while  Wisbeach  and 
Holbeach,  now  from  five  to  ten  miles  inland,  were  both 
towns  on  the  seashore  in  Roman  times.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  sea  has  encroached  on  the  coast  of  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk,  and  two  Roman  forts  have  disappeared 
beneath  it  between  Weybourne  and  Happisburgh. 

Further  north,  in  Durham,  Roman  remains  are  found 
in  the  sands  of  Seaton,  and  vast  submarine  forests  here 
extend  along  the  coast;  but  South  Shields,  where 
the  Romans  built  a  fort,  has  ceased  to  be  an  island. 
On  the  West  Coast  of  England  there  seem  to  be  fewer 
instances  of  change,  but  the  sea  has  in  places  en- 
croached on  the  coast  of  Lancashire;  while  we  learn 
from  Tacitus  that  when  the  Romans  invaded  Anglesea, 
the  channel  separating  it  from  the  mainland  was  then 
shallow  enough  to  be  forded  by  cavalry.  On  the  South 
Coast,  so  late  as  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
St.  Michael's  Mount  in  Cornwall  was  known  as 
St.  Michael's  on  the  Sea  Shore;  but  the  coast-line 
has  advanced  about  the  mouths  of  some  of  the  rivers 
in  South  Devon,  and  there  appears  little  doubt  that 
in  Roman  times  Portland  was  actually  an  island,  while 
Porchester  has  ceased  to  be  a  seaport,  owing  to  the 
silting  up  of  the  head  of  Portsmouth  Harbour.  In 
the  interior  of  the  island  we  find  that  the  Fen  districts 
and  forests  made  a  series  of  great  barriers  against  inter- 
communication. Kent  and  Sussex  were  separated  by 
Romney  Marsh  as  well  as  by  the  eastern  part  of  the 
great  forest  of  Anderida,  and  the  fens  of  Sedgemoor 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  17 

divided  two  British  principalities  ;  while  the  great  fresh- 
water swamps  caused  by  the  united  waters  of  the  Don, 
Ouse,  Trent,  and  Idle,  in  the  centre  of  which  stood  the 
Isle  of  Axholme,  combined  with  the  forests  of  Elmet 
in  Yorkshire,  Sherwood  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  the 
Peak  in  Derbyshire,  to  shut  off  Northumbria  from 
Southern  Britain.  The  Romans  drained  some  of  the 
Fens  and  threw  causeways  over  others  when  obliged 
to  take  their  roads  through  them ;  and  in  some  cases 
they  were  compelled  to  take  their  roads  through  the 
great  forests,  but  when  laying  out  their  military  ways 
they  avoided  doing  so  as  much  as  possible. 

Andreads  Weald,  or  the  forest  of  Anderida — the 
largest  of  the  English  forests — was  even  in  Alfred's 
time  120  miles  long  and  30  miles  broad,  and  extended 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Rother  across  Sussex  and  a  con- 
siderable distance  into  Hants,  and  its  real  dimensions 
may  at  one  time  have  been  even  greater.  In  Caesar's 
time  it  separated  the  Cantii,  Regni,  and  Belgae  from 
each  other.  The  forests  of  Essex  and  South  Cambridge- 
shire combined  with  the  Fens  to  draw  a  natural  boundary 
round  the  Iceni  in  East  Anglia,  and  the  great  Wire- 
wood  of  Worcestershire,  the  woods  of  Oxfordshire,  the 
Forest  of  Dean,  and  the  Somersetshire  marshes,  all 
contributed  to  the  isolation  of  the  British  tribes ; 
while  Selwood  Forest  in  Wiltshire  —  probably  the 
Verlucio  of  Antoninus'  Itinerary — formed  the  north- 
western boundary  of  the  Belgae,  which  tribe  was  also 
isolated  from  the  Durotrigae  in  Devonshire  by  the 
Silva  Alauna  (New  Forest),  and  protected  on  the  north 
by  the  forest  of  Speen,  which  may  have  spread  along 
the  valley  of  the  Kennet  from  the  still  existing  forest 


18  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

of  Savernake  to  Reading  and  Windsor.  It  is  this  last 
forest  which  probably  appears  in  Asser's  Saxon  Chronicle 
as  the  Bearrac  (or  Berruc)  Wood,  from  which  the  modern 
name  of  Berkshire  is  derived.  An  instance  of  the  survival 
of  a  British  name  under  a  Roman  disguise  is  found  in 
Gwent,  the  name  given  to  open  country  surrounded  by 
forests.  There  were  several  districts  termed  '  Gwent ' 
in  Britain,  and  the  word  was  Latinized  into  Venta,  and 
applied  to  towns  in  these  areas,  as  in  the  case  of  Venta 
Belgarum,  Venta  Icenorum,  Venta  Silurum.  Denbigh- 
shire so  late  as  the  fifteenth  century  remained  an 
immense  forest,  and  it  was  said  that  in  comparatively 
modern  times  a  squirrel  could  traverse  the  whole  length 
of  Warwickshire  by  leaping  from  tree  to  tree  in  the 
forest  of  Arden.  The  forests  near  Hadrian^  Wall  were 
in  course  of  time  cut  down  for  the  use  of  the  numerous 
stations  established  along  it,  and  were  probably  of  far 
less  extent  than  those  further  south. 

These  great  forests  influenced  the  direction  of  the 
Roman  roads  more  than  any  other  physical  cause,  and 
were,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  the  chief  agencies  in 
isolating  the  British  tribes  from  each  other.  The 
mountainous  districts  of  England  being  mainly  in  the 
north  and  west  of  the  islands,  were  of  less  strategical  im- 
portance, and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Roman 
roadmakers  had  little  dislike  to  steep  gradients,  but  a 
very  strong  objection  to  taking  a  road  through  a  dis- 
trict where  sudden  attacks  from  an  ambushed  enemy 
might  easily  be  made.  It  has  been  already  noted  that 
the  rivers  were  more  generally  fordable  than  at  present ; 
they  were  easily  bridged  when  necessary,  and  must  have 
appeared  insignificant  obstacles  to  the  constructors 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  19 

of  the   great   highways  of  Central    Europe  and  Asia 
Minor. 

In  Scotland  the  physical  difficulties  of  the  country 
were  far  greater  than  in  England,  and  a  colder  and  a 
wetter  climate  made  the  country  even  less  attractive  to 
invaders  from  the  South.  In  the  West,  to  quote  the 
author  of  '  Caledonia  Romana,1  '  the  country  of  the 
modern  Lennox,  covered  with  interminable  forests  and 
capped  by  perpetual  clouds,  proved  sufficient  to  arrest 
the  march  of  the  legions  while  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Dumbarton,  and  to  induce  them,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, to  set  up  the  altars  of  the  unyielding  Terminus 
at  no  great  distance  from  their  seaport  on  the  Leven.1* 
The  Clyde  itself  appears  to  have  flowed  at  no  very 
distant  epoch  round  Dumbarton  Castle,  and  in  several 
places  down  this  river  there  is  evidence  that  the  land 
has  encroached  on  the  sea.f  On  the  East  Coast  the 
entire  district  of  the  valley  of  the  Carron  appears  to 
have  been  covered  by  the  sea  when  the  Roman  forces 
held  the  Wall  of  Antoninus,  as  was  probably  the  whole 
of  the  plain  between  Grahamstown  and  Inveravon, 
where  a  road  has  been  cut  through  a  bed  of  fossil  oysters 
on  a  terrace  several  miles  from  the  sea ;  and  the  dis- 
covery of  a  whale's  skeleton  in  the  valley  of  the  Forth, 
some  twenty-five  feet  above  the  present  tide-level, 
points  to  a  general  upheaval  of  the  land  in  this 
direction. 

A  labyrinth  of  swamp  and  forest  covered  the  south- 
western portion  of  Dumfriesshire,  while  the  hilly  dis- 
tricts of  Kirkcudbrightshire   and   Wigtownshire   were 
largely  interspersed  with  lakes   and  streams,  and  the 
*  <  Caledonia  Romaiia/  p.  179.  t  U>;  P-  178. 


20  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

mountainous  country  towards  the  German  Ocean  was 
thickly  covered  with  forest  and  morass.  The  great 
forest  of  Calydon,  which  gave  the  name  of  Caledonia 
to  the  country  north  of  Antoninus1  Wall,  spread  from 
the  district  of  Athol  in  Perthshire  to  Sutherlandshire, 
descending  on  the  west  to  the  Peninsula  of  Cantire, 
and  thence  running  east  to  the  banks  of  Loch  Lomond. 
'  Impervious  from  the  thick  growth  of  trees  and  under- 
wood, it  was,1  we  are  told,  '  infested  with  wolves,  wild 
cattle,  and  boars,  and,  according  to  some  accounts,  the 
grizzly  bear  has  even  been  known  to  revel  in  its 
dark  recesses.  Black  craggy  mountains  and  dismal 
swamps  of  great  extent  may  have  afforded  some  variety 
to  the  landscape,  although  they  would  add  nothing  to 
its  attractions.1*  It  was  this  great  natural  boundary 
that  seems  to  have  formed  the  real  limit  of  the  Roman 
dominion  in  Scotland. 

As  the  forests  of  Britain  have  played  so  important  a 
part  in  the  national  history,  it  is  interesting  to  notice 
what  variety  of  trees  were  known  in  the  island  at  the 
time  of  the  coming  of  the  Romans.  Oak,  birch,  willow, 
alder,  ash,  mountain-ash,  hornbeam,  Scotch  pine,  maple, 
holly,  and  hawthorn,  are  believed  to  have  been 
indigenous  to  this  country,  and  probably  also  the  beech, 
despite  Caesar's  statement  to  the  contrary,  which  may 
be  intended  to  refer  to  the  sweet  chestnut,  and  the  fact 
that  no  certain  record  exists  of  its  presence  in  England 
prior  to  the  twelfth  century.  So,  too,  were  the 
apple,  hazel,  elder,  sloe,  raspberry,  and  blackberry.  On 
the  other  hand,  iA  is  to  the  Romans  that  we  owe  the 

*  '  Caledonia  Romana/  p.  15,  and  cf.  pp.  11-20. 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  21 

introduction  of  most  of  our  fruit  trees — the  cherry, 
peach,  pear,  mulberry,  fig,  damson,  medlar,  quince, 
walnut  and  vine — and  among  forest  trees  the  sweet  chest- 
nut and  lime,  and  probably  the  plane  and  sycamore. 
The  lime  is  known  from  records  to  have  existed  in  the 
tenth  century.  Other  species  of  trees  now  considered 
quite  common  are  known  to  have  been  of  more  recent 
introduction. 

Examining  these  lists,  it  is  curious  to  see  how  the 
sometime  exotic  trees  have  identified  themselves  with 
the  typical  English  landscape  of  to-day  ;  and  when  we 
hear  a  not  infrequent  protest  raised  against  the  plant- 
ing of  trees  still  unnaturalized  in  our  country  in 
preference  to  those  trees  we  know  and  love,  and  which 
are  so  harmonious  to  our  English  scenery,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  there  must  have  been  a  time  when  many 
of  the  latter  were  themselves  strangers  in  the  land  that 
has  adopted  them,  and  must  have  been  then  regarded  as 
freakish  curiosities. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  comment  at  length 
on  the  fauna  of  Britain  at  this  period,  but  it  may  be  of 
interest  to  note  that  there  were  two  distinct  kinds  of 
cattle,  the  long-horned  white  cattle — the  urus^  which 
roamed  wild  in  the  forests — and  a  short-horned  domesti- 
cated variety  which  was  much  smaller.  The  horses  also 
were  small,  and  little  more  than  ponies.  The  wild  boar 
as  well  as  the  wild  ox  were  objects  of  the  chase  so  late 
as  the  time  of  Henry  II.,  when  the  citizens  of  London 
were  accustomed  to  hunt  them  in  Middlesex,  and  wolves 
did  not  disappear  from  England  till  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. Beavers  existed  at  one  time  in  England,  but  if 
they  were  still  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  period  they 


22  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

must  have  been  rare.*  The  citizens  of  Norwich  are 
supposed  to  have  presented  a  bear  annually  to  Edward 
the  Confessor,  but  this  may  have  been  as  apocryphal  an 
animal  as  the  white  bull  with  red  ears  and  nose  that 
certain  parishes  in  the  Midlands  are  still  supposed  to 
give  under  specified  conditions  to  the  present  Duke  of 
Buccleuch ;  and  though  the  exact  date  is  unknown,  the 
bear  probably  disappeared  from  Britain  about  the  same 
time  as  the  beaver.  Among  the  refuse  of  Roman 
settlements  in  Britain,  as  at  Silchester  for  example, 
large  quantities  of  oyster-shells  are  usually  found ;  but 
there  is  a  more  curious  survival  of  an  imported  Roman 
delicacy  in  the  edible  snail  (whose  ancestors  must  have 
escaped  from  the  '  Cochlearea '  of  a  Roman  epicure), 
which  is  still  found  in  England  in  different  localities, 
but  never  except  in  the  vicinity  of  former  Roman  cities 
or  villas. 

As  regards  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country,  the 
tin-mines  of  Cornwall  had  been  worked  for  a  long 
period  anterior  to  the  Roman  invasion.  The  Romans 
smelted  iron  in  the  forests  of  Dean  and  Anderida,  in 
Shropshire,  at  Alcester  (Alauna)  in  Warwickshire,  and 
in  Northamptonshire.  They  mined  for  copper  at 
Llanymynesh  in  Shropshire,  where  skeletons  of  the 
miners,  their  tools,  and  coins  of  Antoninus  were  found 
in  A.D.  1761.  Lead-mines  also  were  worked  in  Derby- 
shire, the  Mendips,  Shropshire,  and  Wales,  and  probably 
British  lead  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  products  of 
the  country,  and  was  obtainable  in  very  large  quan- 

*  A  charter  of  944  mentions  a  (  Beaver  Island '  in  the  Rennet, 
which  points  to  the  tradition  of  the  former  existence  of  this 
animal  there.  See  Cooper  King's  '  History  of  Berkshire,'  p.  74. 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  23 

titles  at  or  near  the  surface.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing of  our  Roman  remains  are  the  inscribed  pigs  of  lead 
from  these  mines,  of  which  nearly  fifty  have  been  dis- 
covered at  various  times  distributed  through  almost 
every  part  of  Roman  Britain.  The  inscriptions  on  the 
pigs  which  have  been  found  show  that  they  were  made 
at  different  dates  from  the  time  of  Claudius  to  that  of 
Hadrian,  and  indicate  that  the  Romans  began  working 
the  lead-mines  almost  immediately  on  their  occupation 
of  the  island.  This  mineral  was  used  most  freely  in 
Roman  sanitary  work,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  remains 
of  lead  piping  and  lead-lined  baths.  The  great  bath 
at  Bath  (Aquae  Sulis)  was  entirely  lined  with  lead  at 
the  time  of  its  re-discovery,  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  metal  was  sold,  and  only  specimens  of  it  are  still 
preserved.  Coal  was  worked  in  the  Forest  of  Dean  and 
in  the  North  of  England,  and  stores  of  unburnt  coal 
have  been  found  in  stations  on  the  great  Wall  of  Hadrian, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  which  firewood  may  latterly 
have  become  scarce.  Gold  may  have  been  obtained  to 
a  slight  extent,  and  more  probably  silver,  as  the  same 
ore  contained  silver  and  lead.  Traces  of  silver  refineries 
have  been  found  at  Silchester,  though  perhaps  the  silver 
may  have  been  here  extracted  from  coins  or  ores  which 
were  composed  mainly  of  copper  with  a  mixture  of 
silver,  as  well  as  from  lead  ore.  Pearls  also  are  men- 
tioned as  a  product  of  Britain,  but  the  value  of  this 
source  of  revenue  must  be  considered  very  doubtful. 

The  Romans  had  manufactories  in  the  island  of 
pottery,  terra-cotta,  glass,  bronze,  and  jet  ornaments. 
The  pottery  industry  must  have  been  of  some  impor- 
tance, and  dated  from  a  pre-Roman  period.  There  appear 


24  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

to  have  been  two  main  centres  for  this,  at  Upchurch  on 
the  Medway,  where  a  bluish-black  pottery  was  made, 
and  at  Castor  (Durobrivae) — not  to  be  confounded 
with  another  Durobrivae  (Rochester  in  Kent) — where 
the  works  extended  at  intervals  for  twenty  miles  along 
the  Nene,  and  where  2,000  men  are  believed  to  have 
been  employed.  This  latter  pottery  may  be  recognised 
by  the  designs  on  it,  often  pictorial,  which  are  generally 
in  white  relief.  There  also  were  pottery  works  in 
Hampshire,  Shropshire,  and  possibly  in  other  counties. 
The  well-known  *  Samian '  ware,  which  is  of  a  finer 
quality,  was  apparently  imported  from  the  Continent. 

The  trade  in  leather  and  hides  may  have  been  of 
some  importance,  but,  after  all,  the  conclusion  is  un- 
avoidable that  the  chief  return  the  Romans  obtained 
for  their  outlay  in  the  conquest  and  retention  of  Britain 
was  a  fresh  source  from  which  they  could  supply  them- 
selves with  corn  and  men.  It  is  certain  that  the  younger 
male  population  of  the  island  was  continuously  and 
cruelly  drawn  upon  to  recruit  the  Continental  armies, 
and  the  remainder  of  the  able-bodied  population  was 
used  either  (in  conjunction  with  the  legionaries)  in 
labour  on  public  works,  or  in  agriculture  under  Roman 
masters,  or  under  masters  who  had  adopted  Roman 
methods. 

We  know  that  corn  was  largely  exported  from  Roman 
Britain,  and  that  it  was  considered  a  valuable  asset  to  the 
Empire.  It  had  to  be  grown  at  a  profit,  and  it  is 
possible  that,  to  attain  this  end,  the  position  of  the 
unfortunate  native  agriculturist  may  have  been  made 
more  wretched  than  it  has  been  at  any  subsequent  period 
of  our  history,  for  the  Roman  had  the  means  of  insuring 


BRITAIN  BEFORE  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  25 

cheap  labour,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
any  sentiment  stood  in  the  way  of  his  so  doing.  In 
comparing  Roman  with  modern  times,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  differences  that  occurs  to  the  inquirer  is 
the  total  absence  in  the  former  period,  for  all  practical 
purposes  and  in  the  ordinary  uses  of  life,  of  labour- 
saving  machinery — a  difference  which,  more  than  any 
other,  makes  the  resemblance  of  Roman  civilization  to 
our  own  in  great  part  merely  superficial.  It  is  there- 
fore hard  to  resist  the  conviction  that  towards  the  end 
of  the  Roman  occupation  a  numerical  deficiency  of  the 
male  population  throughout  the  cultivated  area  of 
Britain  combined  with  the  heavy  local  taxation  to 
render  the  ownership  of  agricultural  land  even  less  pro- 
fitable than  it  now  is,  and  to  make  the  decay  of  agri- 
culture more  rapid  and  complete  than  it  is  in  our  power 
to  realize.  The  decay  of  the  Roman  system  of  inter- 
communication must  have  commenced  with  the  im- 
poverishment of  the  country,  while  the  withdrawal  of  the 
relics  of  the  Roman  army  deprived  the  central  authority 
of  the  only  instrument  by  which  the  maintenance  of 
the  roads  could  be  enforced.  In  a  later  chapter  some 
account  will  be  given  of  the  gradual  obliteration  of 
these  roads  and  of  the  embodiment  of  such  parts  of 
them  as  survived  in  our  present  highway  system. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS 

The  task  of  the  Roman  road-makers  possihly  assisted  by  British 
tracks  already  in  existence — Divergency  of  opinion  on  this 
matter — Summary  of  our  information  regarding  pre-Roman 
Britain — A  comparative  account  of  the  civilization  attained 
by  different  British  tribes — Their  fortifications — Principal 
settlements — Commerce — Coinage — Religion — Indications  of 
Mediterranean  influences — Commercial  routes  necessitated 
by  the  tin  trade — The  evidence  of  Caesar  regarding  British 
roads — The  opinions  of  modern  investigators  examined — 
Probable  characteristics  of  pre-Roman  roads  in  Britain — 
Traces  of  these  that  still  exist — Hindrances  to  their  con- 
struction on  a  comprehensive  system — British  civilization 
progressive — At  its  highest  level  at  the  time  of  the  Roman 
conquest — How  roads  may  be  obliterated — Localities  where 
pre-Roman  roads  may  most  probably  still  be  found. 

IT  will  be  evident,  from  the  preceding  chapter,  that  the 
Roman  road-makers  had  to  contend  with  physical  diffi- 
culties of  considerable  magnitude  when  they  began  to 
lay  the  foundations  of  their  highway  system,  the  history 
of  which  must  be  considered  to  date  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Roman  conquest  of  Britain  by 
Claudius  in  A.D.  43.  It  is,  however,  not  improbable 
that  their  task  may  have  been  in  some  degree  facilitated, 
at  least  in  the  southern  and  south-eastern  parts  of  the 

[26] 


THE  HIGHAVAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS      27 

island,  by  their  adoption — as  in  Asia  Minor  and  else- 
where in  the  Empire — of  portions  of  roads  which  they 
found  had  been  constructed  prior  to  their  arrival. 
There  has  been  considerable  difference  of  opinion 
amongst  archaeological  authorities  as  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  Romans  were  assisted  by  the  existence  of  such 
roads  in  Britain,  and  it  will  be  well,  therefore,  to  state 
briefly  what  is  known  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the 
island,  and  to  endeavour  to  form  some  estimate  as  to 
the  relative  state  of  civilization  they  had  attained  at 
the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion. 

The  Palaeolithic  race  which  first  peopled  these  islands 
succumbed  to  a  Neolithic  people  of  Iberian  origin, 
probably  a  cognate  race  to  the  Basque  population  of 
the  Pyrenees,  which  in  its  turn  suffered  from  a  successful 
invasion  of  Goidelic  or  Gallic  Celts  ;  while  a  still  later 
wave  of  invaders,  consisting  of  Brythonic  or  British 
Celts,  was  apparently  powerful  enough  to  press  before 
it  into  the  northern  and  western  districts  all  the  previous 
occupants  of  the  country.  At  the  time  of  Caesar's 
invasion  these  Brythonic  Celts  inhabited  the  greater 
part  of  Southern  Britain,  the  earlier  races  remaining  in 
possession  of  the  country  west  of  the  Mendips  and  the 
Stour  River  in  modern  Dorsetshire,  of  South  Wales,  and 
of  the  country  about  the  Solway  Firth  ;  kindred  to 
them  also  were  the  inhabitants  of  Ireland  and  the  Isle 
of  Man. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Brythonic  tribes  were 
more  highly  civilized  than  their  predecessors.  The 
appellation,  '  Brythonic ' — from  which  the  name  of 
Briton  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived — means  a 
people  clad  in  cloth,  as  distinguished  from  one  clothed 


28  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

in  skins,  which  probably  were  the  earliest  form  of  human 
dress,  and  the  Britons  are  known  to  have  been  adepts 
in  the  arts  of  spinning  and  weaving.  They  manu- 
factured and  decorated  pottery,  and  understood  the 
art  of  working  in  metal  sufficiently  to  make  swords, 
spear-heads,  and  daggers,  and  the  formidable  scythes 
that  were  attached  to  their  war  chariots ;  and  they 
have  left  abundant  evidence  of  their  skill  in  carpentry 
in  the  shape  of  well  squared  and  holed  beams,  wheels, 
ladders,  and  buckets,  as  well  as  dishes  and  bowls,  many 
of  the  latter  ornamented  with  incised  patterns,  which 
at  different  times  have  been  disinterred  at  Glastonbury 
and  other  places.  In  addition  to  their  war  chariots, 
the  Britons  were  familiar  with  at  least  three  other 
kinds  of  vehicles,  which  were  also  in  use  among  their 
kinsmen,  the  Gauls,  and  all  of  which,  as  will  be  seen  in 
a  later  chapter,  were  adopted  by  the  Romans  from  the 
latter  nation.  They  were  skilful  hunters,  and  exported 
the  skins  of  the  animals  they  killed,  and  kept  flocks 
and  herds,  horses  and  hounds,  both  of  the  last-named 
animals  being  used  in  warfare  as  well  as  in  the  chase ;  and 
they  also  cultivated  wheat,  cultivation  in  common  prob- 
ably being  the  rule,  though  portions  of  the  tribal  lands 
were  assigned  to  the  kings.  Their  dwellings,  like  those 
of  the  Gauls,  were  thatched  circular  huts  of  wattle  and 
reeds  cemented  with  clay,  and  perhaps,  in  some  cases, 
built  on  stone  foundations.  Traces  of  villages  con- 
structed by  lake-dwellers  have  been  found  in  parts  of 
England,  as  at  Glastonbury ;  but  these  remains  of  an 
earlier  race  than  the  Britons  must  not  be  confused  with 
the  '  oppida '  described  by  Caesar,  which  appear  to  have 
been  palisaded  enclosures  in  dense  forest  country,  and 


THE  HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS      29 

constructed  as  refuges  in  times  of  danger.  To  the 
Britons  also  must  be  attributed  many  of  the  formid- 
able earthworks,  which  in  some  cases  served  as  tribal 
boundaries,  found  in  the  South  of  England — such  as 
the  Wansdyke,  which  runs  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Severn  to  an  unidentified  point  on  the  Thames  near 
Reading — and  the  great  circular  camps  of  concentric 
ramparts  and  ditches,  such  as  those  found  at  Holm- 
wood  in  Kent,  St.  George's  Hill,  near  Weybridge,  and 
St.  Katherine's  Hill  at  Winchester,  and  which  extended 
in  a  chain  along  the  summits  of  the  Southern  hill 
ranges.  The  majority  of  the  permanent  settlements  of 
the  British  tribes  were  either  near  the  sea  or  on  navigable 
rivers,  showing  that  water  carriage  was  a  frequent  mode 
of  transit — as,  for  example,  London  on  the  Thames, 
Colchester  on  the  Stour,  Rochester  on  the  Medway, 
Peterborough  on  the  Nene,  and  other  settlements  on 
the  Ouse,  the  Severn,  and  the  Exe.* 

We  also  know  from  Cassar's  narrative  that  the  Britons 
carried  on  a  considerable  maritime  trade,  exchanging 
live-stock,  hides,  tin,  iron,  and  slaves  for  articles  of 
luxury,  such  as  glass,  earthenware,  articles  of  bronze,  or 
personal  ornaments.  They  used  hides  for  tents  and 
sails,  as  well  as  for  clothing,  and  had  attained  some  skill 
as  shipwrights,  their  vessels  being  described  as  sea- 
worthy, and  also  possessing  certain  characteristics  that 
distinguished  them  from  ships  previously  known  to  the 
Romans,  which  made  them  adaptable  for  deep-sea 
navigation  as  well  as  for  use  in  tidal  waters. 

The  tribes  appear  to  have  been  governed  by  kings  of 

*  See  a  paper  by  Mr.  Alfred  Taylor,  F.G.S.,  Arch&ologia, 
vol.  xviii.,  p.  229. 


30  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

a  similar  type  to  those  who  held  sway  in  Ireland  till  the 
English  conquest,  and  as  their  laws  to  some  extent 
allowed  the  accumulation  of  land  in  private  hands,  a 
territorial  aristocracy  probably  existed  similar  to  that 
found  by  Caesar  in  Gaul.  In  the  southern  and  eastern 
portions  of  the  island  a  coinage  was  in  circulation  which 
included  not  only  coins  of  iron,  copper,  and  silver,  but 
also  of  gold,  on  which  the  effigy  and  name  of  the 
sovereign  was  inscribed.  These  coins  appear  to  have 
been  copied  from  Greek  models,  and  the  art  of  coining, 
like  their  use  of  the  Greek  character,  appears  to  have 
been  derived  from  Mediterranean  tribes  with  whom 
commercial  intercourse  was  held. 

As  regards  the  religion  of  the  British  tribes,  com- 
paratively little  can  be  said  with  certainty.  It  is 
believed  by  some  authorities  to  have  inculcated  the 
cruel  rite  of  human  sacrifices,  but  this  charge  against  it 
has  never  been  fully  substantiated.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  known  to  have  taught  the  doctrines  of  a  future 
state  of  existence,  in  which  rewards  and  punishments 
were  allotted,  and  of  the  transmigration  of  the  soul. 
The  lasting  memorials  of  their  sacred  edifices,  which 
have  been  left  in  the  great  Druidical  circle  of  Stone- 
henge,  in  the  probably  even  earlier  temple  at  Avebury, 
and  elsewhere,  indicate  a  definite  knowledge  of  the 
movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  and  the  report 
recently  made  to  the  Royal  Society  by  Sir  Norman 
Lockyer  and  the  late  Mr.  Penrose  on  the  result  of  their 
investigations  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  by  astro- 
nomical observations  the  date  of  the  construction  of 
Stonehenge,  suggests  that  its  builders  may  have  been 
believers  in  one  of  the  oldest  religions  of  the  world. 


THE  HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS      31 

Sir  Norman  Lockyer  and  Mr.  Penrose  were  of  opinion 
that  Stonehenge  was  a  solar  temple  similar  to  others  of 
the  kind  examined  by  them  in  Egypt  and  in  Greece, 
and  that  it  was  probably  erected  between  the  years 
1680  and  1480  B.C.  ;  and  they  pointed  out  that,  accord- 
ing to  Caesar,  the  subjects  taught  in  the  schools  of  the 
Druids  included  the  movement  of  the  stars,  the  size  of 
the  earth,  and  c  the  nature  of  things "* — studies  demand- 
ing a  long  antecedent  period  of  civilization.  From 
Cassar,  too,  we  learn  that  the  Gauls  were  in  the  habit 
of  visiting  Britain  to  study  civil  and  religious  laws,  and 
that,  though  religious  instruction  was  imparted  orally, 
the  Britons  used  Greek  letters  in  their  public  and 
private  transactions,  a  practice  which,  considered  in 
conjunction  with  what  has  been  above  stated  regarding 
the  British  coinage,  indicates  continued  contact  with 
civilizing  influences  from  the  Mediterranean  seaboard, 
and  the  probable  presence  of  considerable  numbers  of 
immigrants  from  those  shores.* 

Considering  all  these  facts,  there  seems  little  doubt 
that  throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the  island 
British  civilization  must  have  been  sufficiently  advanced, 
even  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion,  to  render  the  con- 
struction of  some  sort  of  highways  an  absolute  necessity. 
The  points  that  really  are  in  doubt  are,  firstly,  the 
extent  of  the  country  intersected  by  tracts  sufficiently 
well  established  to  deserve  the  name  of  roads ;  and, 
secondly,  the  characteristics  of  these  roads.  As  regards 
the  first  question,  Caesar  has  given  us  the  names  of  some 
thirty-five  tribes  (or,  more  probably,  of  tribes  and  tribal 

*  See  a  paper  by  Dr.  Phene  in  the  Journal  of  the  British 
Archaeological  Association,  Juoe,  1897. 


32  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

subdivisions),  the  names  of  some  of  which,  as  the  Cantii 
and  Ratse,  still  survive  in  such  English  names  as  Kent 
and  Rutland. 

These  tribes  had  attained  very  different  stages  of 
civilization,  and  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  more 
backward  of  them,  such  as  the  non-Brythonic  Silures  in 
Wales,  and  possibly  the  Brigantes  in  the  North,  had 
not  progressed  sufficiently  to  undertake  such  work  as 
permanent  road -construction.  The  Damnonii  in  Corn- 
wall and  Devon  may  have  been  equally  unprogressive  in 
some  respects,  but  the  tin  industry,  to  which  further 
reference  will  presently  be  made,  had  necessitated  the 
use  of  regular  trade  routes  throughout  their  territory. 
On  the  whole,  it  would  appear  probable  that  of  the  tribes 
inhabiting  the  country  south  of  the  Tyne  and  Solway, 
only  about  half  could  be  described  as  civilized,  and  in 
their  territory  alone  could  roads  possessing  any  perma- 
nence be  in  existence.  It  remains  to  examine  the  very 
limited  evidence  we  possess  as  to  the  existence  and 
character  of  roads  in  these  more  civilized  parts  of  the 
island  in  pre-Roman  times,  and  to  indicate  the  lines  of 
argument  taken  by  the  antiquarian  experts,  who,  on 
the  one  hand,  claim  to  identify  the  medieval  trade 
routes  with  the  early  British  roads,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  refuse  to  admit  the  existence  of  any  British  roads 
at  all. 

The  earliest  indications  of  the  existence  of  roads  in 
Britain  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  a 
writer  who  was  contemporary  with  Csesar  and  Augustus, 
and  who  embodied  in  his  books  the  works  of  earlier 
geographers  which  in  many  cases  are  no  longer  in 
existence. 


THE  HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS      33 

We  here  find*  '  the  dwellers  at  Belerinum,  a  cape  of 
Britain,1  described  as  being  civilized  in  their  habits 
through  intercourse  with  foreigners,  of  whom  they  are 
especially  fond,  and  transporting  in  waggons  the  tin 
that  they  smelted  to  a  certain  island  near  the  coast  of 
Britain  named  Ictis,  where  it  was  bought  by  merchants, 
who,  travelling  by  land  for  about  thirty  days  through 
Gaul,  brought  the  loads  on  horses  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhone.  And  it  may  be  noted,  as  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  Tyler,  f  who  identifies  Belerinum  with  Cornwall 
and  Ictis  with  the  Isle  of  Wight,  that  this  description 
of  the  land-carriage  as  having  been  by  waggons  in 
Britain  and  by  pack -transport  in  Gaul  seems  to  show 
that  the  roads  in  the  former  must  have  been  superior 
to  those  in  the  latter  country.  In  Caesar's  account 
of  his  campaign  against  Cassivelaunus  we  find  another 
reference  to  British  roads,  for  he  tells  us  that  the 
British  King,  after  the  battle  at  the  ford  on  the 
Thames,  used  to  send  out  his  chariots,  from  the  woods 
into  which  he  had  withdrawn,  by  all  the  well-known  roads 
and  paths  to  attack  the  Romans  who  were  occupied  in 
seizing  the  British  crops  and  cattle,  and  that  conse- 
quently the  Roman  soldiers  were  forbidden  to  stray 
from  the  roads  on  which  they  marched. 

This  statement  is  relied  on  by  Dr.  Phene,  who  has 
discussed  the  question  of  early  British  civilization  in  a 
series  of  interesting  papers  read  before  the  Archaeo- 
logical Society  and  other  kindred  associations,  in  which 
he  claims  to  identify  the  Fosse  Way,  Ermine  Street, 
Icknield  Street,  and  Watling  Street  as  of  pre-Roman 

*  Diodorus  Siculus,  vol.  v.,  22. 

t  Archceologia,  vol.  xlviii.,  pp.  228,  248. 

3 


34  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

origin.  He  further  suggests  *  possible  Greek  deriva- 
tions for  the  tribal  names  Trinobantes  and  Iceni,  which 
indicate  the  occupation  of  these  tribes  as  travellers  by 
roads  and  carriers  of  merchandise,  of  which  hides  and 
salt  were  probably  an  important  part.  Col.  Cooper 
King,  in  the  section  of  'Social  England  "t  dealing 
with  this  subject,  also  claims  a  pre- Roman  origin, 
not  only  for  the  so-called  royal  roads,  the  Fosse  Way, 
the  Ermine,  Watling,  and  Icknield  Streets,  but  also  for 
the  Akeman  and  Ryknield  Streets  and  the  Via  Julia. 
Mr.  Tyler  J  considers  that  these  routes  were  probably 
irregular  and  winding,  unmetalled,  and  frequently  worn 
below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country  by  traffic, 
that  they  ran  from  the  higher  country  to  points  where 
the  rivers  were  fordable,  and  that,  with  some  notable 
exceptions,  they  were  not  durable  roads,  but  rather 
tracks  from  the  high  ground — where  the  Britons  largely 
resided — to  the  shipping  ports,  wattles  being  used  to 
strengthen  the  way  in  the  valleys,  especially  over  clay 
ground.  Traces  of  narrow  causeways  constructed  of 
stone  blocks  irregularly  laid  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  which  have  been  ascribed  to  the  Britons, 
have  been  found  in  Devonshire  and  other  parts  of 
England  ;  while  on  Dartmoor,  where  there  is  a  causeway 
of  this  kind  between  5  and  6  feet  wide,  bridges  said 
to  be  of  British  origin,  built  with  blocks  of  solid 
granite  laid  on  piers  of  the  same  material,  still  form  a 
road  for  horsemen  and  foot  passengers,  and  a  notable 

*  Journal  of  the  British  Archaeological  Association,  June,  1877, 
pp.  99-101. 

t  '  Social  England/  pp.  50,  51. 

\  Archasologia,  vol.  xlviii.,  pp.  229-324. 


THE  HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS      35 

example  is  to  be  seen  at  Postbridge.*  A  road  from 
Earith  in  Huntingdonshire,  across  the  fenland  of 
Cambridgeshire  to  Downham  Market  in  Norfolk,  has 
also  been  discovered,  which  is  believed  to  be  of  British 
origin,  in  which  wattles  or  fascines  have  been  laid 
beneath  the  stones,  and  have  been  accidentally  pre- 
served by  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  iron  in  the 
water. 

Mr.  Wright,  who  represents  another  school  of  archaeo- 
logists, considers,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  fragments 
of  so-called  British  roads  represent  in  reality  Roman 
country  roads  (agrarice)  or  Roman  by-roads  (device). 
He  is  of  opinion  that  there  is  little  probability  that 
the  Britons,  divided  as  they  were  into  separate  and 
hostile  tribes  with  ever-changing  boundaries,  could  have 
been  great  road-makers,t  and  he  points  out  how  greatly 
inter-communication  must  have  been  hindered  by  the 
large  tracts  of  forest  and  fenland.  The  Belgae,  for 
example,  one  of  the  most  civilized  of  the  British  tribes, 
had  a  forest  boundary  on  every  side  of  their  territory 
— Andreads  Weald  on  the  east  and  south-east,  Cran- 
borne  Chase  and  Selwood  Forest  on  the  west,  and 
Speen  Forest  on  the  north — while  some  of  the  smaller 
tribes  must  have  been  almost  completely  isolated,  as, 
for  instance,  the  Regni  in  Sussex,  who  were  shut  in  by 
Andreads  Weald,  and  who  must  have  been  confined  to 

*  ArchtBologia,  vol.  xlviii.,  p.  229.  Cf.,  too,  as  regards  track- 
ways in  Devon  and  Dorset,  Phelp's  '  History  of  Somerset/  p.  84 
et  seq.,  '  Ancient  Dorset/  by  Charles  Warne,  pp.  29,  130,  and 
1  Ancient  Britain  and  the  Britons/  by  S.  W.  Barnes,  p.  42,  and 
in  Berks,  Cooper  King's  '  History  of  Berks/  p.  19  et  seq. 

f  '  The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon/  pp.  222,  223. 

3—2 


36  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

the  coast-line  between  Chichester  and  Brighton  and  to 
the  Valley  of  the  Ouse  about  Lewes. 

It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  the  explora- 
tion of  Central  Africa  has  taught  us  that  savage  tribes 
can  make  paths  for  themselves  through  the  densest 
forests,  and  Mr.  Pearson  points  out  in  his  '  Historical 
Maps '  that  '  thick  as  were  the  woods,  there  were  open- 
ings throughout  the  central  districts  of  England,  like 
Archenfield  to  the  north  of  the  Forest  of  Dean,  and 
the  open  space  between  Arden  and  Wych  Wood,  which 
facilitated  incursions  from  one  district  to  another.' 
Although  the  physical  features  of  the  country  and  the 
want  of  unity  among  the  British  tribes  may  have 
offered  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  any  national  system 
of  British  highways  such  as  that  sketched  out  by 
Col.  Cooper  King,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  a 
process  of  consolidation  of  the  petty  States  had  already 
begun  at  the  time  of  Claudius's  invasion.  The  dis- 
covery of  coins  of  Cunobelinus — the  Cymbeline  of 
Shakespeare  and  the  father  of  Caractacus,  whose  capital 
was  near  Camalodunum,  and  whose  death  immediately 
preceded  Claudius's  invasion — throughout  Herts,  Essex, 
Cambridgeshire,  Hants,  Northants,  Bedfordshire,  Buck- 
inghamshire, Oxfordshire,  Berkshire,  and  Kent,  is  pro- 
bably indicative  of  this  fact ;  and  all  the  information 
we  possess  tends  to  show  that  Celtic  civilization  in 
Britain  was  progressive,  and  had  attained  the  highest 
level  it  was  to  be  permitted  to  reach  at  the  time  when 
it  was  replaced  by  the  civilization  of  Rome. 

Considering  all  the  information  at  our  disposal,  it 
appears,  therefore,  that  there  are  good  grounds  for 
concluding  that  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion 


THE  HIGHWAYS  OF  THE  BRITONS      37 

various  well -defined  trade  routes  were  in  existence  in 
the  southern  and  south-eastern  portions  of  Britain 
which  connected  the  ports  with  the  principal  settle- 
ments in  the  interior,  but  that  their  imperfect  con- 
struction and  frequently  devious  course  led  to  their 
supersession  by  Roman  roads,  which  had  a  more  direct 
alignment  and  were  of  superior  construction.  The 
disappearance  of  the  British  trackways,  or  the  impos- 
sibility of  identifying  them,  is  not  surprising  when  we 
consider  to  what  an  extent  even  the  far  superior  roads 
of  Roman  origin  that  succeeded  them  are  now  lost  to 
us.  When  once  a  road  has  fallen  into  disuse  its 
obliteration  by  agricultural  operations  has  been,  in 
many  periods  of  our  national  history,  almost  a  necessary 
consequence,  and  this  tendency  has  been  most  marked 
at  those  periods  when  the  profits  of  agriculture  have 
been  large  enough  to  induce  the  cultivation  of  all 
available  land,  as,  for  instance,  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Thus  we  frequently  now  find  that  stretches  of  the  most 
important  Roman  roads  have  disappeared  where  they 
have  traversed  good  corn-growing  land,  and  can  only 
be  traced  when  they  traverse  woodland  and  compara- 
tively poor  agricultural  land.  Sometimes  communica- 
tion between  two  centres  once  connected  by  a  direct 
road  has  temporarily  ceased,  and  when  reopened  a 
more  circuitous  route  has  been  followed.  In  such  cases 
we  may  find  the  older  road  still  in  use  for  local  traffic 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  towns,  while  the  interven- 
ing portion  of  it  will  have  practically  disappeared.  Of 
this  the  Roman  road  between  Bath  and  Cirencester 
affords  a  good  example. 

And  if  such  a  fate  has  overtaken  the  deeply-metalled 


38  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Roman  roads,  how  much  more  must  similar  causes  have 
tended  to  the  disappearance  of  the  pre-Roman  tracks. 
Generally  unmetalled,  they  would  naturally  follow  the 
ridge-lines  of  uplands  and  downs  in  order  to  insure  firm 
ground  in  all  seasons ;  and  it  is  in  such  localities  that 
we  niust  look  for  what  are  undoubtedly  the  oldest 
tracks  in  Britain.  Such  a  one  still  exists  in  the 
'  Ridge  Way '  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  Berkshire 
Downs ;  here  the  traveller  may  follow  an  ancient  track, 
little  used  and  running  through  an  almost  deserted 
down  country,  which  is  known  to  the  antiquarian 
as  a  portion  of  the  Icknield  Way.  Towards  the  east 
it  is  obliterated  and  lost  where  it  sinks  into  the 
Valley  of  the  Thames ;  but  on  these  exposed  downs 
and  on  the  enduring  chalk  it  promises  to  remain 
an  almost  everlasting  relic  of  former  ages.  Turning 
westward,  it  unmistakably  guides  the  traveller  to  the 
ancient  temple  at  Avebury,  and  he  may  recall  to  him- 
self that  he  is  probably  following  a  British  prototype 
of  the  pilgrim  ways  that  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  to 
lead  to  such  religious  centres  as  Glastonbury  and 
Canterbury.  Such  trackways  are  sometimes  found 
intersecting  Roman  roads,  and  the  connection  between 
the  two  classes  of  highways  traversing  the  Cotswolds, 
which  has  been  described  in  some  interesting  papers  read 
by  Mr.  Sawyer  before  the  Cotswold  Field  Club*  and 
the  Bristol  and  Gloucestershire  Archaeological  Society,  f 
may  be  seen  from  the  map  which  is,  by  his  kind  per- 
mission, here  reproduced.  May  we  venture  to  hope 
that  other  archaeologists  may  be  found  to  follow  Mr. 
Sawyer's  example  ? 

*  Proceedings,  vol.  xii.,  p.  65  et  seq.  ;  p.  125  et  seq. 
t  Transactions)  vol.  xx.,  pp.  247-254. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN 

Britain  primarily  a  military  dependency  of  Rome — The  Roman 
soldier  the  great  road-maker — Consequent  importance  of 
considering  the  size  and  composition  of  the  Roman  army  in 
Britain — Outline  of  Roman  military  organization — Historical 
summary  of  military  events  in  Roman  Britain — The  progress 
of  the  Roman  arms  accompanied  by  the  extension  of  Roman 
roads — An  attempt  to  date  the  construction  of  some  of  the 
military  roads — Internal  communications  decay  together  with 
the  Roman  power — Collapse  of  the  Roman  power  in  Britain 
— General  remarks  on  Roman  military  policy. 

THE  British  province  was,  as  has  already  been  stated, 
during  the  greater  part  of  its  occupation  chiefly  a 
military  dependency  of  the  Empire — a  Roman  Algiers, 
as  Green  styles  it — and  in  no  respect  was  this  fact  more 
emphasized  than  in  the  history  of  its  road  system,  which 
was  designed  primarily  to  meet  military  requirements. 

The  labour  that  was  required  for  the  construction  of 
the  Roman  roads  was  in  a  great  part  supplied  by  the 
troops  themselves.  The  Romans  were  accustomed  to 
employ  their  legionaries  whenever  circumstances  per- 
mitted, not  only  in  the  making  of  fortifications  and 
entrenchments,  but  in  permanent  works  of  general 
utility,  amongst  which  roadmaking  was  not  the  least 

[40] 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN    41 

important ;  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  a  large  part  of 
the  Roman  road  system  in  Britain,  especially  that  por- 
tion of  it  which  connected  the  military  stations,  was 
constructed  by  the  legionaries.  It  is  impossible  to 
speak  with  accurate  knowledge  of  the  actual  numbers 
of  the  garrison  at  any  particular  date,  for  the  various 
units  must  frequently  have  been  considerably  below 
their  full  strength ;  but  it  is  known,  however,  with 
some  certainty  of  what  units  the  garrison  consisted 
throughout  the  entire  period  of  the  Roman  occupation, 
and,  as  a  general  principle,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
those  units  were  never  above,  and  more  probably 
considerably  below,  their  'paper  strength1 — a  term 
which  may  sound  strange  in  connection  with  Roman 
history,  but  which  is  justified  by  the  fact  that,  as  will 
be  seen  later,  the  Romans  had  an  army  list,  the  '  Notitia 
Imperii,'  which  recorded  the  stations  of  all  their  troops 
throughout  the  Empire.  It  may  be  well,  therefore,  to 
give  a  summary  of  the  Roman  military  organization,  in 
order  to  enable  us  to  estimate  the  establishment  of  the 
various  units. 

The  Roman  military  system  was  based  on  the  division 
of  the  army  into  legions,  and  contained  many  features 
that  find  interesting  parallels  in  modern  armies.  These 
legions  had  distinctive  titles  of  honour  conferred  on 
them  in  addition  to  the  numerals  that  denoted  them, 
the  titles  of  honour  indicating,  perhaps,  a  special  con- 
nection with  some  Emperor,  or  some  particular  action 
in  which  the  legion  had  distinguished  itself;  and  we 
also  find  legions  bearing  distinctive  badges.  For 
instance,  among  the  legions  longest  stationed  in  Britain 
were  the  Hnd  (Augusta)  and  the  XXth  (Valeria 


42  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Victrix),  whose  badges  were  respectively  a  pegasus  and 
Capricorn,  and  a  wild  boar.  Again,  the  Roman  organ- 
ization included  a  staff  of  medical  officers  for  each 
legion  ;  and  cohorts  of  marines,  and  fire  brigades  with 
a  semi-military  organization,  are  examples  of  the 
interesting  parallels  which  might  be  traced  between 
Roman  and  modern  times.  Returning  however  to 
the  legion,  we  find  that  it  was  originally  recruited 
from  Roman  citizens  alone,  and  consisted  of  ten  cohorts ; 
the  first  cohort,  which  comprised  ten  centurice^  was  from 
1,000  to  1,100  strong,  while  the  other  cohorts  had  only 
five  centurwe  each,  and  were  from  500  to  600  strong. 
The  infantry  of  the  legion  would  therefore  amount  to 
about  6,000,  and  at  some  periods  a  body  of  about  400 
legionary  horse  formed  part  of  the  legion.  In  every 
cohort  there  was  a  picked  body  of  men,  probably 
veterans,  known  as  vexillarii^  who  formed  a  tenth  of 
the  entire  strength.  The  term  vexillatio,  frequently 
found  in  inscriptions,  referred  to  the  entire  body  of 
these  men,  who  were  at  times  detached  from  the  legion, 
and  who  then  served  together  in  a  body  that  would  be 
numerically  equivalent  to  a  cohort.  To  every  legion 
was  affiliated  a  force  of  auxiliaries,  not  Roman  citizens, 
which  may  be  computed  as  approximately  consisting  of 
eight  cohorts  of  infantry  and  two  alee  of  cavalry,  the 
ala  being  about  400  strong,  and  being  divided  into 
ten  turmce  or  troops  —  a  total  of  4,800  infantry  and 
800  cavalry.  With  these  particulars  in  mind,  we  may 
proceed  to  examine  the  record  of  the  principal  military 
events  in  Britain  from  the  time  of  Caesars  first  inva- 
sion, 55  B.C.,  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  last  legion  in 
A.D.  406. 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN     43 

Caesar's  first  invasion  appears  to  have  been  little  more 
than  a  reconnaissance  in  force.  Some  100  transports 
were  employed  to  bring  over  the  regulars  of  the  two 
legions,  the  Vllth  and  Xth  (probably  about  12,000  foot 
and  800  horse).  The  whole  force  was  only  some  three 
weeks  in  Britain,  and  no  permanent  result  was  obtained. 
In  the  following  year  a  more  serious  effort  was  made, 
and  the  occupation  lasted  some  four  months,  though  the 
furthest  point  reached  appears  to  have  been  only  a  short 
distance  north  of  the  Thames.  The  Vllth  Legion,  which 
had  been  in  Britain  the  previous  year,  was  again 
included  in  the  army,  and  with  it  were  four  other 
legions  whose  names  are  unrecorded.  About  800  trans- 
ports were  used,  and  the  entire  number  of  troops 
employed  may  have  been  about  30,000,  including  some 
2,000  horse,  a  portion  of  which  is  expressly  mentioned 
as  consisting  of  Gaulish  auxiliaries.  Again  only  tempo- 
rary results  were  obtained,  and  neither  the  Vllth  nor 
Xth  Legions  appear  to  have  served  in  Britain  at  any 
later  date,  unless,  indeed,  a  vexillation  of  the  Vllth 
Legion  was  among  the  troops  which  accompanied  the 
Emperor  Hadrian  to  Britain  in  A.D.  119.  On  these 
occasions  no  permanent  road  construction  can  have  been 
carried  out  by  the  Romans,  but  surveys  were  probably 
made,  and  the  knowledge  acquired  of  the  country  was 
doubtless  recorded  for  later  use.  Nearly  100  years 
later,  however,  in  A.D.  43,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  who 
appointed  Aulus  Plautius  the  General  in  command,  a 
very  different  invasion  was  made.  The  legions  that 
now  landed  in  Britain  were  the  Hnd  (Augusta),  IXth 
(Hispana),  XlVth  (Gemina),  and  XXth  (Valeria 
Victrix),  two  of  which,  at  least,  were  destined  to 


44  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

remain  some  360  years  on  the  island,  and,  allowing  a 
full  proportion  of  auxiliaries,  this  would  make  the 
numbers  of  the  invaders  53,200  infantry  and  4,800 
cavalry,  probably  not  too  large  a  force  under  all  the 
circumstances.  It  is  noticeable  that  during  this  cam- 
paign German  auxiliaries  are  frequently  mentioned  as 
contributing  to  the  Roman  successes  in  Britain  by  their 
skill  in  swimming  and  fording  rivers,  and  we  may 
assume  that  a  large  part  of  the  fighting  fell  to  their 
share. 

It  was  not  till  A.D.  51,  eight  years  from  the  time  of 
the  Roman  landing,  that  Caractacus  was  finally  crushed, 
and  the  intervening  period  was  not  without  what  are 
now  described  as  '  regrettable  incidents,1  as,  for  example, 
when  a  prefect  and  eight  centurions  were  killed  in 
action  with  the  Silures  and  two  auxiliary  cohorts  were 
cut  up  by  the  same  tribe.  Still,  the  Roman  progress 
was  continuous,  if  slow,  and  by  this  time  Roman 
military  centres  were  probably  firmly  established,  the 
Hnd  Legion  being  stationed  at  Glevum  (Gloucester), 
the  XXth  at  Uriconium  (Wroxeter),  and  the  XlVth 
at  Camulodunum  (Colchester),  and  all  these  places  must 
have  been  connected  by  roads  with  the  quarters  of 
the  IXth  Legion,  which  probably  garrisoned  the  south 
and  south-east  of  the  island,  where  serious  resistance 
was  no  longer  possible. 

Ten  years  later,  A.D.  61,  the  conversion  of  Camulodu- 
num into  a  self-supporting  colony,  with  a  garrison  of 
veterans,  had  relieved  the  XlVth  Legion  for  active 
service  in  the  west,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  Hnd 
Legion  had  been  advanced  to  Isca  Silurum  (Caerleon), 
while  Suetonius,  the  then  Roman  commander,  had 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN    45 

crossed  into  Mona  (Anglesey),  the  last  British  strong- 
hold in  the  western  portion  of  the  island.  Taking 
advantage  of  his  absence,  and  maddened  by  local  mis- 
government  and  oppression,  the  Iceni  and  other  tribes 
of  Eastern  Britain  broke  into  a  desperate  revolt  under 
the  celebrated  Boadicea.  Two  at  least  of  the  four 
legions  in  Britain,  the  XlVth  and  XXth,  were  in  the 
far  west  with  Suetonius,  and  the  rising  was  so  far 
successful  that  the  new  colony  of  Camulodunum  and 
other  Roman  cities  in  the  east  were  destroyed,  and  the 
IXth  Legion  itself  was  practically  annihilated  in  the 
heavy  fighting  that  followed.  Suetonius  hurried  east- 
ward with  the  XlVth  and  part  of  the  XXth  Legions, 
but  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  commander  of  the  Ilnd 
Legion  to  obey  the  order  to  join  him,  Suetonius  found 
himself  with  probably  one-third  of  the  Roman  forces  in 
Britain  already  swept  away,  and  with  only  some  10,000 
troops  available  to  meet  the  victorious  Britons,  who 
may  have  numbered  70,000  or  80,000  fighting  men. 
The  battle  that  resulted  was,  however,  decisive,  and 
henceforward  the  Roman  power  was  never  seriously 
challenged  by  the  conquered  population  of  Southern 
Britain. 

It  is  probable  that  from  about  this  time  may  be 
dated  the  construction  of  many  of  the  buildings  and 
walled  cities,  of  which  traces  still  exist,  and  in  confirma- 
tion of  this  opinion  it  may  be  noticed  that  while  records 
of  all  the  legions  and  of  some  sixty  cohorts  and  twenty 
alec  of  auxiliaries  which  were  stationed  at  various 
times  in  the  island  are  found  among  the  Roman 
inscriptions  in  Britain,  the  XlVth  Legion  is  only  re- 
corded in  two  existing  inscriptions,  both  monumental, 


46  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

at  Lincoln  and  Wroxeter ;  and  as,  despite  its  twenty- 
seven  years'  stay  in  Britain,  it  has  left  so  few  memorial 
records,  it  is  probable  that  during  most  of  this  period 
the  country  was  too  unsettled  to  allow  of  the  legion- 
aries being  employed  in  anything  but  military  duties 
and  in  such  work  as  the  construction  of  camps  and 
military  roads.  In  A.D.  68  this  legion  was  recalled  to 
the  Continent  by  the  Emperor  Nero ;  but  Vitellius,  in 
his  struggle  with  Vespasian  in  the  following  year, 
ordered  it  back,  and  the  vexillarii  of  the  legions  in 
Britain  were  apparently  sent  out  of  the  island  in  its 
place.  Vespasian,  who  had  formerly,  under  Aulus 
Plautius,  commanded  the  Ilnd  Legion  in  Britain  with 
distinction,  was  supported  by  this  legion ;  but  the  bulk 
of  the  troops  in  Britain  were  in  favour  of  Vitellius,  and 
considerable  dissension  must  have  existed  between  the 
different  commanders.  On  Vespasian's  final  success  he 
therefore  gave  the  command  of  the  XXth  Legion  to 
Agricola,  a  trusted  adherent  of  his  own,  who  had  pre- 
viously commanded  it  in  Britain  under  Suetonius,  and 
in  A.D.  70  he  finally  withdrew  the  XlVth  Legion  from 
the  island.  This  legion,  which  had  mainly  contributed 
to  Boadicea's  defeat,  was  relieved  at  Lincoln  by  the 
IXth  Legion,  the  depleted  ranks  of  which  had  been 
filled  by  large  drafts  of  Germans  sent  over  in  A.D.  62, 
and  henceforward  it  is  doubtful  if  there  were  ever  more 
than  three  legions  permanently  stationed  in  Britain  at 
one  time. 

The  next  five  years  saw  the  extension  of  the  military 
road  system  from  Deva  (Chester)  and  Lindum  (Lin- 
coln), to  Eboracum  (York),  the  future  capital  of  Roman 
Britain;  and  in  A.D.  78  Agricola,  who  had  received 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN     47 

supreme  command  in  Britain,  began  a  period  of  con- 
tinuous warfare  which  forms  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
episodes  of  the  Roman  occupation.* 

After  four  years  of  continuous  success,  during  which 
Mona  was  for  the  second  time  in  its  history  occupied 
by  the  Romans,  and  the  military  road  system  was 
extended  from  York  to  the  most  northerly  Roman 
outposts,  A.D.  82  found  the  Roman  legions  in  Caledonia, 
where  the  unfortunate  IX th  Legion  was  surprised  and 
its  camp  nearly  taken.  During  this  invasion  of  Scot- 
land a  recently  arrived  German  cohort  murdered  its 
officers,  seized  some  ships,  and  made  sail  for  their 
native  land ;  but  ill  luck  pursued  the  mutineers,  who 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Frisii  and  other  piratical 
tribes,  and  eventually  some  unhappy  survivors  were 
brought  into  a  Roman  port,  and  there  offered  for  sale 
as  slaves.  In  A.D.  83  a  great  battle  took  place  in  the 
Grampians,  where  some  30,000  of  the  natives  were  routed 
by  Agricola,  the  bulk  of  the  fighting  falling  on  the 
8,000  auxiliaries  and  3,000  horse  under  his  command, 
while  his  fleet  reached  the  northern  coast  of  Scotland, 

*  It  may  be  noted  here  that,  according  to  Hiibner,  another 
legion  (II.  Adjutrix  Pia  Fidelis),  quite  distinct  from  the  Ilnd 
Augusta,  replaced  the  XlVth  after  an  interval,  and  remained 
in  the  island  probably  until  A.D.  85.  If  so,  this  legion  must 
have  been  employed  in  garrison  duty  during  the  wars  of 
Agricola,  but  the  question  appears  uncertain.  The  arrival  of  a 
commander  of  the  iirst  rank,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  and  later,  in  that  of  Theodosius,  naturally  coincided 
with  the  arrival  of  large  reinforcements ;  but  in  the  present 
case  it  seems  more  probable  that  Agricola  was  merely  accom- 
panied by  a  personal  escort  than  that  an  entire  legion  was 
transferred  to  Britain. 


48  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

and  it  was  definitely  ascertained  that  Britain  was  an 
island ;  but  in  the  following  year  he  was  recalled  by 
the  Emperor  Domitian,  who  had  succeeded  Vespasian, 
and  who  may  have  considered  him  too  '  expensive '  as 
well  as  too  successful  a  General. 

There  is  now  a  gap  of  some  thirty-five  years  in  the 
history  of  Roman  Britain,  during  which  time  we  may 
assume  that  the  improvement  of  the  Roman  road 
system  went  on  without  interruption.  Hadrian,  who 
had  become  Emperor  in  A.D.  117,  came  to  Britain  two 
years  later,  bringing  with  him  as  a  reinforcement  the 
Vlth  (Victrix)  Legion,*  which  was  quartered  at  Ebora- 
cum  (York),  and  in  which  the  IX th  Legion,  which  had 
suffered  so  severely  in  earlier  periods,  and  which  at  this 
time  was  also  stationed  there,  was  probably  absorbed, 
for  from  this  time  it  entirely  disappears.  The  per- 
manent station  of  the  XXth  Legion  continued  to  be 
Deva  (Chester),  and  that  of  the  Ilnd  Legion  Isca 
Silurum  (Caerleon),  until  shortly  before  the  final  with- 
drawal from  Britain  of  the  Roman  forces  in  A.D.  406, 
when  the  headquarters  of  the  latter  were  at  Rutupiae 
(Richborough).  No  great  scheme  of  conquest  was 
initiated  by  Hadrian,  who  may  have  realized  the 
limitations  of  the  Roman  power  more  correctly  than 
had  been  done  by  Agricola.  His  policy  manifested 
itself  in  the  improvement  of  the  roads  and  the  con- 
struction of  bridges,  and  though  he  probably  remained 
in  Britain  for  only  one  year,  it  was  under  his  instruc- 
tions that  some  part  at  least  of  the  great  work  we 
know  as  Hadrian's  Wall  was  built.  The  Ilnd  and  Vlth 

*  Possibly  it  was  accompanied  by  vexillations  of  the  VII  th, 
VHIth,  and  XXIInd  Legions. 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN    49 

Legions  shared  the  labour  of  its  construction,*  and 
some  twenty  years  later,  about  A.D.  139,  when  Antoninus 
Pius  was  Emperor  and  Lollius  Urbicus  propraetor  in 
Britain,  the  Ilnd  Legion  and  vexillations  of  the  Vlth 
and  XXth  Legions  were  also  employed  in  building  the 
wall  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  designed 
to  protect  the  Roman  settlements  north  of  Hadrian^ 
Wall.  When  Antoninus  Pius  was  succeeded  by  Marcus 
Aurelius  in  A.D.  161  it  was  apparently  already  found 
impossible  to  hold  this  northern  line  of  defence ;  and 
shortly  after  the  accession  of  his  son  Commodus,  in 
A.D.  180,  even  Hadrian's  Wall  was  pierced  by  the  Cale- 
donians, who  overran  a  great  part  of  Britain,  though 
Ulpius  Marcellus,  the  Roman  propraetor  in  Britain, 
succeeded  in  A.D.  184  in  clearing  the  country  of  them, 
and  again  occupied  this  great  defensive  work. 

A.D.  193  witnessed  the  beginning  of  a  contest  between 
three  rival  claimants  for  the  Empire,  resulting  in  the 
triumph  of  Severus,  who,  after  crushing  his  Eastern 
rival,  Pescennius  Niger,  in  Syria,  overwhelmed  Clodius 
Albinus,  the  selected  leader  of  the  legions  in  Gaul  and 
Britain,  near  Lyons,  and  the  losses  to  the  British 
troops  in  this  internecine  warfare  must  have  largely 
contributed  to  weaken  the  Roman  power  in  its  British 
province.  In  recent  years  a  jar  containing  some  250 

*  Its  permanent  garrison,  consisting  of  auxiliaries  drawn  from 
almost  every  nationality  in  the  Roman  Empire,  had  an  estimated 
strength  of  from  10,000  to  15,000  men,  and  behind  it,  at 
Eboracum,  lay  the  Vlth  Legion  (which  in  earlier  days,  at  least, 
was  chiefly  composed  of  Italians),  in  readiness  to  move  up  to  its 
support  when  emergency  arose.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
mention  about  this  time  of  a  marine  cohort  (cohors  alia  classica) 
as  stationed  at  a  Northumbrian  seaport. 

4 


50  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

silver  coins  has  been  disinterred  at  Silchester,  the  dates 
of  which  make  it  probable  that  the  hoard  may  have 
belonged  to  some  unhappy  adherent  of  Albinus,  who 
before  leaving  for  the  Continent  buried  his  surplus 
funds  in  a  crock,  his  equivalent  for  lodging  it  in  a  bank, 
and  was  prevented  by  the  fortune  of  war  from  ever 
returning  to  recover  his  deposit.  The  victorious 
Severus  was  obliged  by  the  unsatisfactory  position  of 
affairs  to  come  to  Britain  in  person  in  A.D.  207,  and, 
after  conducting  a  successful  but  costly  campaign  in 
Caledonia,  died  at  York  in  A.D.  211,  worn  out  by  age 
and  domestic  troubles.  From  the  time  of  his  death 
Roman  Britain  enjoyed  freedom  from  the  incursions 
of  barbarians  for  nearly  150  years,  and  it  was  during 
this  period  that  life  for  the  governing  class  must  have 
been  most  luxurious,  and  progress  must  have  attained, 
superficially,  the  highest  point. 

During  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  in  A.D.  284,  an 
important  episode  demands  notice.-  The  success  of 
Carausius,  the  Roman  Admiral  in  the  Channel,  in  his 
operations  against  the  piratical  tribes  that  infested 
these  seas  aroused  the  suspicion  of  the  Emperor,  and 
being  of  native  extraction,  he  was  welcomed  by  the 
troops  in  Northern  Gaul  and  Britain,  and  made  himself 
independent  of  the  central  power.  This  Roman  ex- 
ponent of  Home  Rule,  who  seems  to  have  been  of 
exceptional  ability,  stopped  the  drain  of  corn  and  men 
from  Britain  to  the  Continent — one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  the  impoverishment  of  the  island — coined  his  own 
money,  and  might  have  consolidated  a  strong  and 
independent  kingdom  had  he  not  been  assassinated  by 
Alectus,  a  trusted  subordinate,  in  A.D.  294.  Three 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN    51 

years  later  a  Roman  force  crossed  over  to  Britain, 
having  evaded  the  British  fleet  under  cover  of  a  fog, 
and  after  a  battle  fought  somewhere  between  London 
and  the  coast  west  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  which 
Alectus  himself  was  killed,  the  island  once  more  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  Rome.  Constantius  Chlorus, 
who  had  directed  these  operations,  received  the  supreme 
command  in  Britain  as  his  immediate  reward,  and, 
returning  as  Emperor  to  the  island  in  A.D.  305,  died  at 
Eboracum  (York)  the  year  following,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Constantine  the  Great,  under  whom 
Roman  Britain  was  reorganized  for  administrative  pur- 
poses and  united  to  Gaul  to  form  one  of  the  provinces 
of  the  Empire. 

Under  successive  Emperors  Britain  still  remained 
comparatively  undisturbed  until  A.D.  360,  when  in- 
vasions by  the  northern  tribes  of  Caledonia  and  by 
sea  rovers  on  the  '  Saxon  shore ' — the  name  given  to 
the  coast  from  the  Wash  to  the  Isle  of  Wight — again 
reduced  the  island  to  extreme  distress. 

In  A.D.  369  Theodosius  the  Elder,  a  Roman  General 
with  a  great  reputation  and  the  father  of  the  later 
Emperor  of  the  same  name,  was  sent  over  with  a  con- 
siderable force  to  restore  order;  but,  though  he  suc- 
ceeded in  clearing  the  country  south  of  Hadrian's  Wall 
of  the  invaders,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  northern  province 
of  Valentia  was  held  permanently  after  this  period. 
Maximus,  who  had  served  in  Britain  under  Theodosius, 
considering  his  merits  insufficiently  rewarded  by  the 
British  command,  proclaimed  himself  Emperor  at  York 
in  A.D.  383,  and,  having  collected  all  the  troops  that 
could  be  spared,  crossed  into  Gaul  and  after  several 


52  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

campaigns  was  in  A.D.  388  finally  overwhelmed  in  Italy 
by  the  army  of  his  rival.  The  headquarters  of  the 
XXth  Legion  may  have  left  the  island  at  this  time,  or 
may  have  perhaps  been  withdrawn  by  order  of  Stilicho, 
the  Minister  and  General  of  the  Emperor  Honorius, 
about  A.D.  402-403 ;  but  it  is  certain  that  only  the 
Hnd  and  Vlth  Legions  were  in  Britain  at  the  time  of 
the  compilation  of  the  'Notitia  Imperil,1  which  is 
believed  to  record  the  stations  of  the  Roman  troops 
at  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,  and  shows  their  forces  in  Britain  as 
mainly  concentrated  on  Hadrian's  Wall  and  on  the 
Saxon  shore. 

The  closing  scene  of  the  Roman  dominion  in  these 
islands  shows  the  local  military  chiefs  contending  for 
the  shadowy  remnants  of  power  associated  with  its 
government.  Britain,  which  had  been  the  training- 
ground  of  future  Emperors — of  Vespasian  and  Titus, 
of  Maximinus  and  Pertinax — and  whose  administration 
had  been  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  the 
presence  of  the  Emperors  Claudius,  Hadrian,  Severus, 
and  his  sons,  Constantius  Chlorus,  Constantine,  and 
Constans,  was  now  administered  by  soldiers  of  unimpor- 
tant rank  and  little  ability.  As  regards  its  internal 
communications,  the  whole  country  must  have  suffered 
severely  between  A.D.  360-368  ;  and  though  Theodosius 
in  A.D.  369  is  said  to  have  begun  rebuilding  the 
destroyed  cities  and  forts,  there  is  no  evidence  to 
indicate  the  repair  of  the  old  roads,  and  it  is  certainly 
unlikely  that  any  new  road  construction  was  under- 
taken. The  last  claimant  for  supreme  authority  in 
Britain  was  an  unimportant  soldier,  bearing  the  great 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN     53 

name  of  Constantine,  who,  following  the  fatal  example 
of  Maximus,  is  believed  to  have  embarked  the  last 
remnants  of  the  Roman  forces  at  Rutupias  about 
A.D.  406,  and  led  them  into  Gaul.  With  him  must 
have  gone  the  headquarters  of  the  Ilnd  and  Vlth 
Legions,  the  last  representatives  of  the  great  army  that 
had  followed  Claudius  into  Britain  when  he  began  his 
career  of  conquest.  A  curious  proof  of  the  comparative 
weakness  of  the  garrison  towards  the  end  of  the  Roman 
occupation  is  found  in  the  fortified  posts  on  the 
northern  wall,  where  at  some  time  posterior  to  their 
construction  gateways  are  found  to  have  been  either 
walled  up  altogether  or  to  have  been  much  reduced  in 
dimensions — an  indication  of  the  reduced  numbers  of 
the  defenders.  Villas  and  buildings  have  also  been 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  island,  which  appear  to 
have  been  partially  burnt  and  then  repaired  previously 
to  their  final  destruction,  the  rebuilding  having  prob- 
ably taken  place  after  one  of  those  periods  of  savage 
incursions  by  the  barbarians  and  of  general  insecurity 
which  occurred  about  A.D.  180-184,  and  again  about 
A.D.  360-368.  After  the  departure  of  the  last  legions 
from  Britain,  Honorius,  the  Roman  Emperor,  unable 
to  protect  the  Roman  cities  in  the  island,  formally 
gave  them  their  freedom  in  A.D.  410,  and  urged  them 
to  defend  themselves.  No  Roman  coins  are  found  in 
Britain  later  in  date  than  those  of  Valentinian  III., 
who  reigned  A.D.  425-455,  and  no  inscriptions  so 
recent  as  this  have  been  discovered.  A  final  and  use- 
less appeal  to  Rome  for  aid  was  made  by  the  abandoned 
cities  of  Britain  in  A.D.  446,  and  from  this  time  we  may 
conclude  that  all  communication  with  Rome  ceased. 


54  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Some  general  observations  on  Roman  military  policy 
are  perhaps  desirable  before  this  chapter  is  concluded. 
The  policy  of  holding  a  conquered  country  with  troops 
drawn  from  other  portions  of  the  Empire,  while  the 
native  fighting  population  was  embodied  in  auxiliary 
cohorts  and  sent  to  serve  at  a  distance,  was  nowhere 
more  fully  carried  out  than  in  the  case  of  Britain.  As 
early  as  A.D.  55  we  find  British  auxiliary  cohorts  men- 
tioned as  serving  on  the  Continent,  and  native  levies 
were  continuously  sent  to  serve  abroad  even  up  to  the 
time  of  the  elder  Theodosius,  when  we  find  the  par- 
tially conquered  tribes  of  Northern  Britain  enrolled  in 
a  wholesale  way  in  the  Roman  army  and  sent  out  of  the 
island ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
find  any  part  of  the  Empire  that  was  not  represented 
among  the  foreign  auxiliaries,  who  at  various  times  were 
included  in  the  Roman  garrison  in  Britain.  The 
stations  of  these  auxiliaries  appear  to  have  been  so 
arranged  that  contiguous  parts  were  always  occupied  by 
troops  of  different  nationalities,  thus  rendering  mutinous 
combinations  more  difficult,  and  this  is  especially  notice- 
able on  Hadrian's  Wall,  where  the  evidence  of  the 
*  Notitia '  is  confirmed  by  local  inscriptions,  and  where, 
if  the  date  usually  attributed  to  the  '  Notitia  '  is  correct, 
the  same  corps  must  in  some  cases  have  done  garrison 
duty  for  over  200  years — a  curious  circumstance  when 
the  constant  fighting  on  the  Wall  and  the  occasional 
successful  irruptions  of  barbarians  is  considered. 

The  legions  themselves  were  considered  too  valuable 
for  such  work,  and  even  in  pitched  battles  were  as  much 
as  possible  held  in  reserve.  Their  long  stay  in  Britain 
must,  however,  have  resulted  in  their  being  recruited  to 


THE  ROMAN  GARRISON  IN  BRITAIN    55 

a  greater  or  less  extent  from  native  sources,  and  inter- 
marriages between  the  legionaries  and  women  of  the 
country  must  have  resulted  in  a  mixed  population  that 
was  doubtless  largely  represented  in  the  legions.  A 
time  came  when  the  withdrawal  of  the  native  fighting 
strength  for  Continental  warfare  was  not  counterbalanced 
by  the  arrival  of  fresh  levies  from  abroad,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  troops  that  finally  abandoned  Britain 
about  A.D.  406  were  as  inferior  in  discipline  and  military 
spirit  as  in  numbers  to  the  veterans  that  first  crushed 
the  British  tribes  and  spread  Roman  laws  and  Roman 
civilization  throughout  the  island. 


BOADICEA,   QUEEN   OF  THE  ICENI,   WHO  DIED   A.D.    61, 

DEFENDING    HER    COUNTRY    AGAINST    THE 

ROMAN   INVADER. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

The  Roman  period  in  British  history — Its  duration — A  universal 
road  system  throughout  the  Roman  Empire — Roman  roads 
originated  (1)  from  military  requirements,  (2)  from  reasons 
of  civil  administration,  and  (3)  from  commercial  necessities — 
Consideration  of  historical  events — The  course  of  road  con- 
struction and  the  extension  of  the  system — Every  Roman 
city  and  colony  a  centre  of  road-making  activity — Trade 
routes  in  use  by  the  Romans  immediately  after  their  conquest 
of  Britain — Rapid  growth  of  towns  in  Roman  Britain — 
Certain  periods  conspicuous  for  road-making  activity  in 
different  parts  of  the  island. 

THE  Roman  occupation  of  Britain  usually  receives  such 
a  cursory  notice  in  general  histories  that  we  are  apt  to 
form  a  very  inadequate  notion  of  its  results.  During 
the  century  that  intervened  between  the  conquests  of 
Caesar  and  Claudius  the  effects  of  the  Roman  influence 
over  Britain  were  indeed  comparatively  slight,  though 
by  no  means  unworthy  of  notice.  If  we  set  this  period 
aside,  however,  we  find  that  the  time  which  elapsed 
between  the  final  reduction  of  Britain  in  A.D.  84  and 
the  departure  of  the  legions  in  A.D.  406  is  more  than 
treble  the  length  of  the  existence  of  the  United  States 
of  America  as  an  independent  nation,  and  almost  treble 
the  length  of  the  existence  of  our  Indian  Empire.  There 

[56] 


EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS  57 

are  certain  facts  and  epochs  in  connection  with  this 
lengthy  period  which  require  to  be  specially  noticed 
with  regard  to  highways.  The  establishment  of  Roman 
sway  over  the  island  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
Roman  civilization,  and  it  follows  from  this  '  Romaniza- 
tion '  of  the  original  inhabitants  that  we  must  expect 
to  find  highways  constructed  on  Roman  principles  and 
maintained  by  Roman  laws,  and  the  same  modes  of 
travelling  prevalent  as  existed  in  the  great  centre  of 
the  Empire  itself.  Mr.  Wright,  commenting  on  Roman 
remains  in  Britain,  remarks  that  '  they  uniformly  give 
evidence  to  the  fact  that  the  civilization  of  Britain 
during  the  whole  of  this  period  was  partly  Roman,  and 
that  whatever  races  settled  here  under  the  banners  of 
Rome  they  accepted  unreservedly  its  dress  and  manners 
as  well  as  its  language  and  laws.'*  So,  too,  Kemble, 
after  discussing  the  rise  and  nature  of  British  cities, 
observes  :  '  Whatever  the  origin  of  these  towns  may  have 
been,  it  is  easy  to  show  that  many  of  them  comprised 
a  Roman  population ;  the  very  walls  by  which  some  of 
them  are  still  surrounded  offer  conclusive  evidence  of 
this,  while  in  the  neighbourhood  of  others  coins  and 
inscriptions,  the  ruins  of  theatres,  villas,  baths,  and 
other  public  or  private  buildings,  attest  either  the  skill 
and  luxury  of  the  conquerors  or  the  aptness  to  imitate 
of  the  conquered.'! 

The  Roman  roads  in  Britain  originated  from  three 
distinct  causes.  The  construction  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  highways,  the  great  military  roads,  was 
directly  due  to  the  campaigns  of  the  Roman  Generals. 

*  '  The  Celt,,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon/  p.  301. 
f  '  The  Saxons  in  England/  vol.  ii.,  p.  270. 


58  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

The  maintenance  of  these  highways  was  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  Roman  authority  over  the  country, 
and  the  towns  on  their  route  in  most  cases  arose  out  of 
military  camps.  '  The  soldiers,'  says  Mr.  Elton,  '  were 
pioneers  and  colonists.  A  Roman  camp  was  a  city  in 
arms,  and  most  of  the  British  towns  arose  out  of  the 
stationary  quarters  of  the  soldiery.  The  ramparts  and 
pathways  developed  into  walls  and  streets,  the  square  of 
the  tribunal  into  the  market-place,  and  every  gateway 
was  the  beginning  of  a  suburb  where  straggling  rows 
of  shops,  temples,  rose-gardens,  and  cemeteries  were 
sheltered  from  all  danger  by  the  presence  of  a  permanent 
garrison.'* 

The  second  cause  of  Roman  road-making  in  Britain 
is  found  in  the  methods  of  Roman  civilization  and  civil 
administration.  The  colonial  cities  (cimtates\  which 
were  centres  from  which  Roman  civilization  was  dis- 
seminated through  the  conquered  country,  and  also  the 
fortresses  (castella\  which  were  erected  to  guard  the 
sea -coasts  and  the  ever  -  advancing  inland  frontiers, 
had  always  assigned  to  them  large  tracts  of  the  adjoin- 
ing country,  with  accompanying  privileges  and  obliga- 
tions. These  lands  were  termed  territoria,  and  were 
intersected  by  systems  of  roads  which  served  the  two- 
fold object  of  establishing  communications  connecting 
the  cities  and  ports  with  all  parts  of  the  territories 
attached  to  them  and  also  with  the  adjacent  military 
roads,  and,  at  the  same  time,  of  furnishing  boundaries 
marking  out  the  individual  estates  (centurice)  assigned 
to  the  settlers  of  the  colonies  and  to  the  military 
tenants  of  the  territoria  of  the  castella,  who  held  by 
*  ( Origins  of  English  History/  p,  322. 


EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS  59 

service  of  watch  and  ward  in  their  towers.  These 
roads,  ways,  and  lanes  were  termed  generally  limit  es, 
and  the  soil  over  which  they  were  laid  was  either 
taken  from  the  land  of  the  adjoining  allotted  estates 
or  from  that  of  the  territory,  without  trenching  on  any 
allotment.  This  point,  and  also  the  width  of  the 
roads,  was  determined  by  the  lex  colonica,  which  as- 
signed to  the  colony  its  territory,  defining  it  en  bloc, 
specifying  its  dimensions  and  confines,  and  providing 
for  all  details,  great  and  small,  respecting  its  organ- 
ization and  government.  It  was  the  fundamental  law 
of  the  settlement  which  furnished  the  instructions  to 
the  commissioners  appointed  to  establish  the  colony, 
and  was  the  chief  authority,  governing  all  questions 
arising  as  to  its  internal  management  after  its  formation. 

Without  such  a  lex  colonica — which  in  the  times 
of  the  Republic  was  passed  by  the  Senate  and  people, 
and  in  later  periods  by  the  Emperor  alone  — no 
colony  could  be  established.  According  to  the  theory 
of  the  Roman  law,  the  land  of  a  conquered  country 
became  the  absolute  property  of  the  Roman  people, 
and  if  not  retained  by  the  Government  as  public 
property,  to  be  used  in  support  and  relief  of  the 
finances,  could  be  granted  by  an  act  of  the  Legislature 
to  private  individuals,  who,  of  course,  were  either  a 
portion  of  that  people  or  their  favoured  allies.  It  was 
said  by  Seneca  that  '  wheresoever  the  Roman  conquers 
he  inhabits1 — a  statement  the  truth  of  which  is 
evidenced  by  the  numerous  colonies  which  were  every- 
where established  in  the  most  fertile  districts  of  the 
Empire,  and  more  especially  in  its  western  portions. 

The    two    causes    of  road- making   which   we   have 


60  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

hitherto  noticed  are  conquests  and  colonization ;  to 
the  first  is  due  the  military  roads,  and  to  the  second 
is  due  the  roads  described  as  limites.  There  remains 
yet  a  third  cause — the  growth  of  commerce. 

Certain  roads  somewhat  less  perfect  in  their  structure 
than  the  vice  militares,  or  limites  maximi,  have  been  dis- 
covered which  appear  to  have  been  made  entirely  for 
commercial  purposes.  As  has  been  mentioned  in  a 
former  chapter,  it  is  maintained  by  some  authorities 
that  these  routes  were  the  trade  routes  of  Britons 
before  the  Roman  Conquest;  but  even  if  this  were 
so,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  as  in  similar  cases  in 
Asia  Minor,  the  Romans  reconstructed  and  improved 
such  of  them  as  they  adopted,  and  made  numerous 
others  of  the  same  class.  A  road  of  this  kind  is  known 
to  have  run  from  Old  Sarum  (Sorbiodunum),  through 
the  mineral  districts  of  the  Mendips,  to  Brean  Down 
in  Somersetshire.  Another,  a  branch  of  which  joined 
the  above  road,  connected  Lepe  on  the  coast  of  Hants, 
opposite  the  Isle  of  Wight,  with  Southampton  and 
Winchester ;  and  similar  roads  ran  from  the  iron-mines 
of  Gloucestershire  and  Northamptonshire  and  from  the 
salt  districts  of  Droitwich  and  Cheshire,  either  to  com- 
mercial centres  or  to  junctions  with  the  main  highways. 
Having  regard  to  the  numerous  products  and  manu- 
factures of  Britain,  we  may  conclude  that  these  com- 
mercial roads  extended  over  a  large  part  of  the  kingdom, 
and  that  they  must  first  have  been  begun  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  the  South  and  West,  which  were  the  earliest 
reduced  under  the  Roman  rule,  and  have  been  gradu- 
ally developed  in  other  localities  as  that  rule  became 
more  widely  diffused. 


EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS  61 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
construction  of  the  Roman  highways  in  Britain,  it 
must  necessarily  have  been  extended  over  a  long  period, 
and,  like  the  introduction  of  Roman  civilization,  can 
only  have  been  gradually  accomplished.  It  would  be 
manifestly  impossible  at  this  remote  period  of  time, 
and  with  the  imperfect  sources  of  information  at  our 
command,  to  attempt  to  trace  in  detail  the  different 
stages  of  road  construction  through  four  centuries.  A 
consideration  of  the  transactions  of  certain  Emperors 
and  their  representatives  may  perhaps,  however,  help 
us  to  gather  some  general  notion  with  regard  to  its 
progress. 

The  reduction  of  Britain  under  the  Roman  dominion 
occupied  forty-one  years — from  the  landing  of  Aulus 
Plautius,  the  General  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  in 
A.D.  43,  to  the  recall  of  Agricola  by  Domitian  in 
A.D.  84.  During  the  first  thirty-five  years  of  this 
period  road-making  must  have  been  confined  chiefly 
to  the  southern,  eastern,  and  midland  portions  of  the 
island.  The  three  roads  running  from  Lympne,  Dover, 
and  Richborough  on  the  Kentish  coast  to  a  junction 
at  Canterbury  appear  to  have  been  undoubtedly  the  first 
constructed  by  the  Romans  in  Britain.  Others  will 
have  followed  when  the  capture  of  Caractacus,  about 
A.D.  50,  opened  out  all  the  south-west  portion  of 
Britain  to  the  Roman  invaders.  With  the  appoint- 
ment of  Agricola,  however,  to  the  chief  command  in 
Britain  by  Vespasian  in  A.D.  78,  road-making  received 
a  new  impetus,  and  the  chain  of  forts  which  he  erected 
between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde  became  the 
terminus  of  Roman  military  ways.  It  is  to  Agricola 


62  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

that  the  commencement  of  most  of  these  roads  in 
Scotland  must  be  attributed ;  and  it  may  be  assumed 
that  the  system  of  military  roads  in  Britain  was  already 
completed  before  he  began  his  Caledonian  campaigns. 
What  stage  of  completion  the  other  two  classes  of 
Roman  roads  in  Britain  had  reached  at  this  time  is 
not  easy  to  ascertain.  Each  of  the  cities  which  at 
various  times  formed  the  headquarters  of  the  different 
legions  must  have  been  a  centre  of  the  first  importance 
and  the  nucleus  of  a  colonial  territory.  Of  these  the 
first  formed  were  probably  Colchester  (Camulodunum) 
and  Gloucester  (Glevum),  which  mark  the  subjugation 
and  settlement  of  the  South  and  West  of  England ; 
and  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  colonies  of  Lincoln 
(Lindum)  and  of  Chester  (Deva),  which  served  in  a 
similar  way  to  secure  the  districts  subdued  by  the 
Romans  in  the  Midlands,  had  also  both  been  estab- 
lished before  the  final  conquest  of  Norman  Britain  by 
Agricola.  It  is  probable  also  that  York,  which  was 
for  so  long  to  be  the  headquarters  of  the  Vlth  Legion 
and  the  Roman  official  capital  of  Britain,  was  already 
the  centre  of  a  colonial  territory,  and  that  munici- 
palities had  been  established  at  Richborough,  London, 
Bath,  Caerleon,  Cambridge,  Silchester,  Lancaster,  and 
elsewhere  in  Herts,  Surrey,  Bedfordshire,  Berkshire, 
and  other  English  counties. 

Possibly  many  of  these  cities,  especially  those  which 
are  not  mentioned  in  the  Itineraries  of  Antoninus,  never 
held  important  Roman  garrisons,  but  were  nevertheless 
centres  of  road-making  activity  in  the  territories  allotted 
to  them.  As  regards  the  numerous  castella  erected  by 
the  Romans  in  Britain,  and  which,  like  the  colonies, 


EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS  63 

contributed  to  the  formation  of  limites,  some  of  those  on 
the  South  Coast  were  probably  the  first  erected  after  the 
invasion  under  Aulus  Plautius  (A.D.  43-50),  and  were 
designed  to  keep  open  communication  with  the  Conti- 
nent. Cirencester  (Corinium),  which  eventually  became 
a  large  city,  of  which  the  walls  were  two  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, appears  originally  to  have  been  one  of  the 
castella  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  and  to  date  from 
this  period.  On  the  other  hand,  the  majority  of  the 
castella  on  the  Saxon  shore  were  erected  to  repel 
piratical  invasion,  and  do  not  seem  to  have  been  built 
till  about  A.D.  289,  or  more  than  two  centuries  later 
•Jian  the  time  of  Agricola.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  the  process  of  founding  colonies  and  building 
castella  and  the  construction  of  the  vice  limites,  for 
which  they  were  responsible,  extended  over  a  wide 
period  of  the  Roman  occupation,  and  that  in  some 
districts  these  territorial  roads  were  constructed  prior 
to,  or  at  the  same  time  as,  the  great  military  roads,  and 
in  other  districts  at  subsequent  dates. 

As  regards  the  commercial  or  trade  routes,  we  know 
that  the  Romans  commenced  to  work  the  mines  and  to 
obtain  all  possible  direct  returns  from  products  of  value 
in  the  island  immediately  on  its  occupation  ;  and  it  is 
therefore  reasonable  to  suppose  that  these  trade  routes 
were  established  by  them  at  the  earliest  practicable  date, 
and  that  they  were  gradually  improved  as  the  traffic 
increased  and  the  necessary  labour  became  available. 
The  condition  of  Roman  Britain  about  the  end  of  the 
first  century  may  therefore  be  summarised  by  saying 
that  a  great  system  of  military  roads  had  been  estab- 
lished, that  numerous  cities  and  towns  had  sprung  up 


64  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

on  their  course,  and  that  Roman  civilization  was  now 
exercising  an  ever-increasing  sway  over  its  inhabitants, 
while  a  stream  of  foreign  population  was  flowing 
steadily  into  the  island.  Ptolemy,  who  lived  during  the 
reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius,  and  apparently 
wrote  about  A.D.  120,  gives  a  list  of  fifty-six  of  the 
most  important  British  cities  in  his  day,  twenty  of 
which  were  in  Scotland,  and  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
these  must  have  been  in  existence  for  some  time  when 
his  work  was  composed.  The  most  northerly  town 
mentioned  is  Burghead  (Ptoroton),  on  the  Moray  Firth, 
and  in  some  degree  the  mention  of  these  towns  serves  to 
show  how  rapidly  the  system  of  roads  begun  by  the 
Roman  legions  in  A.D.  43  must  have  developed  in  the 
ensuing  threescore  years. 

In  the  second  century  a  further  impulse  was  given  to 
the  extension  of  this  system  by  the  construction  within 
about  twenty  years  of  each  other  of  two  great  lines  of 
defence  against  the  incursions  of  tribes  of  the  North, 
the  first  and  southern  Wall  being  constructed  by  order 
of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  the  more  northerly  Wall 
by  Lollius  Urbicus,  the  propraetor  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
who  named  it  after  his  imperial  master,  who,  though  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  visited  Britain  himself,  con- 
ferred an  immense  benefit  upon  the  island  by  extending 
to  it,  as  to  the  rest  of  the  Empire,  the  valuable  right  of 
Roman  citizenship.  It  is  to  this  circumstance  that  the 
existence  of  the  only  three  Municipia  in  Scotland — 
Burghead  (Ptoroton),  Comrie  (Victoria),  and  Dumbarton 
(Theodosia) — has  been  attributed.  These  towns  all  lay 
beyond  the  Wall,  and  probably  had  the  right  of  self- 
government  conferred  on  them  for  the  purpose  of 


EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS  65 

inducing  the  native  inhabitants  to  occupy  the  outlying 
districts  of  the  country  in  which  Lollius  Urbicus  had 
made  good  roads  and  established  military  stations. 

This  propraetor  appears  to  have  been  a  worthy  suc- 
cessor of  Agricola,  and  to  have  erected  many  of  the 
camps  attributed  to  the  latter,  when,  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Wall  of  Antoninus  Pius,  he  advanced 
northward  as  far  as  Burghead  (Ptoroton),  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  Roman  power  attained  its  greatest 
extent  under  his  administration.  The  districts  north 
of  the  Wall,  however,  seem  to  have  enjoyed  this  state 
of  prosperity  for  but  a  brief  space,  since  they  were 
abandoned  by  the  lieutenants  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
about  A.D.  170,  and  were  apparently  never  permanently 
reoccupied.  From  this  date,  therefore,  Roman  Scotland 
must  be  considered  for  all  practical  purposes  to  have 
been  comprised  between  the  Walls  of  Hadrian  and 
Antoninus  Pius,  and  the  term '  Caledonia"*  was  henceforth 
applied  only  to  the  country  lying  beyond  the  barrier  of 
Antoninus,  and  the  name  of  Britons  only  to  the  tribes 
who  inhabited  it. 

To  the  Emperor  Sevcras  has  sometimes  been  ascribed 
the  credit  of  having  been  as  great  a  constructor  of 
Roman  roads  in  Britain  as  Agricola  had  been  in  the 
preceding  century.  It  is  certain  that  this  Emperor,  in 
order  to  repress  a  rising  of  the  Caledonian  tribes,  led  an 
army  into  Scotland  in  A.D.  209,  and  penetrated  to  the 
extreme  northern  coasts  after  suffering  great  hardships. 
During  his  progress  we  learn  that  he  cut  down  forests, 
and  in  some  places  filled  up  marshes,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  his  military  roads,  which,  when  necessary,  were, 
after  the  Roman  manner,  carried  directly  over  moun- 


66  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

tains.  The  records  of  Severus's  proceedings  in  Britain 
seem,  however,  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  he  could 
have  had  but  few  opportunities  for  constructing  perma- 
nent roads  save  in  those  portions  of  Scotland  into  which 
Agricola  and  Lollius  Urbicus  had  not  attempted  to 
penetrate.  He  appears  to  have  died  in  York  in 
A.D.  211,  probably  two  years  after  his  return  from 
Scotland ;  and  though  he  may  have  repaired  the  Wall 
of  Hadrian,  he  can  have  had  little  leisure  for  road- 
making  in  the  southern  half  of  the  island. 

Moreover,  as  has  already  been  said,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  road  system  in  Roman  Britain  must 
have  been  practically  completed  at  a  much  earlier 
period.  Mr.  Wright,  in  'The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and 
the  Saxon,'*  tells  us  that  at  this  time  '  the  Roman 
province  of  Britain  had  been  extremely  populous  and 
rich.  Multitudes  of  auxiliary  troops  had  been  gradu- 
ally transplanted  into  it,  and  had  no  doubt  taken  with 
them  or  been  followed  by  colonies  of  their  countrymen. 
Merchants,  tradesmen,  artisans,  and  probably  even 
artists  and  men  of  letters,  had  sought  their  fortune 
where  the  increase  of  commerce  and  civilization  had 
opened  a  field  for  their  exertions.  The  strength  of  the 
native  Britons  had  been  drawn  off  to  serve  in  foreign 
countries,  and  that  part  of  the  original  population  that 
remained  at  home  had  probably  been  greatly  diminished 
in  numbers  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  serfs.' 
We  may  fairly  assume,  therefore,  that  the  condition  of 
the  country  and  the  short  duration  of  Severus's  stay  in 
Britain  both  render  it  extremely  improbable  that  he  was 

*  P.  129. 


EVOLUTION  OF  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS  67 

as  great  a  maker  of  roads  as  some  authorities  have 
imagined. 

During  the  period  which  intervened  between  the 
death  of  Severus  and  the  grant  of  their  freedom  to 
the  British  cities  by  Honorius  in  A.D.  410,  which  may 
be  considered  the  virtual  termination  of  the  Roman 
dominion  in  Britain  and  the  date  from  which  the  decay 
of  the  great  Roman  road  system  commenced,  only  one 
subject  demands  a  passing  notice  in  the  present  chapter. 
This  is  the  division  of  Britain  in  the  reign  of  Constantine 
into  the  five  provinces  of  Britannia  Prima,  Britannia 
Secunda,  Flavia  Caesariensis,  Maxima  Caesariensis,  and 
Valentia,  and  its  conversion  from  a  province  of  the 
Empire  into  a  portion  of  a  proconsulate  that  extended 
from  Mount  Atlas  to  the  wilds  of  Caledonia  under  the 
government  of  a  prefect  in  Gaul  with  a  vicar  or  deputy 
at  York.  Constantine  appears  to  have  remained  in  the 
island  six  years  after  his  proclamation  as  Emperor  by 
the  army  at  York,  and  may  probably  have  repaired  and 
improved  the  British  road  system,  though  we  have  no 
evidence  on  this  point  beyond  the  discovery  of  four 
militaries  or  milestones,  the  inscriptions  on  which  shows 
them  to  have  been  erected  in  his  reign. 

There  seems  no  doubt  that  a  vast  network  of  roads 
now  traversed  the  island,  passing  through  a  well- 
cultivated  and  fairly  populous  country,  and  connecting 
a  large  number  of  flourishing  cities.  In  a  later  chapter 
it  is  proposed  to  consider  how  these  great  highways 
were  constructed  and  maintained. 


5—2 


CHAPTER  VI 
ROAD  SURVEYING  AND  ROAD  MAINTENANCE 

Classification  of  Roman  roads  into  public  and  private — Colonial 
roads  intersecting  territories  of  colonial  cities  and  of  frontier 
fortresses  not  mentioned  by  legal  writers — The  centuriation 
of  colonial  territories — Centurial  stones  and  landmarks  indi- 
cating boundaries  of  colonies — Examples  of  centurial  stones 
— Colonial  distinguished  from  military  roads  in  writings  of 
Roman  land-surveyors — The  greater  colonial  roads  were 
public  and  the  lesser  private  roads — Public  roads  maintained 
by  the  State — Each  great  road  controlled  by  an  iuspector-in- 
chief — This  office  (curator  viarurri)  often  undertaken  by  the 
Emperors — Private  individuals  frequently  contributed  large 
sums  towards  road  maintenance — Evidences  of  the  national 
character  of  the  work — Excellence  of  construction  and  extent 
of  road  system  due  to  this  fact — Maintenance  of  the  lesser 
country  roads  vested  in  the  rural  authorities. 

IT  was  pointed  out  in  a  previous  chapter  that  the  Roman 
roads  in  Britain  originated  from  three  distinct  causes — 
military  purposes,  the  requirements  of  civil  administra- 
tion, and  the  demands  of  commerce — but  every  road, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  cause  of  its  construction, 
was  placed  under  the  Roman  law  in  one  of  two  main 
divisions. 

The  first  of  these  comprised  all  public  roads  (vice 
publicce),  the  use  of  which  was  free,  and  the  soil  of 
which  was  the  property  of  the  State.  The  other 

[68] 


ROAD  SURVEYING  AND  MAINTENANCE     69 

included  all  private  roads  (vice  privatce) — sometimes 
also  apparently  denominated  vice  agrarice — the  soil  of 
which  was  private  property,  though  the  right  of  passage 
over  them  seems  to  have  been  common  to  all.  These 
two  great  divisions,  again,  comprehended  four  varieties 
of  road.  The  first  were  public  roads,  or  '  King's  high- 
ways,' which  were  known  by  the  terms  militares  (military), 
consulares  (consular),  orprcetorice  (pretorian)  roads,  all  of 
which  were  vice  publics.  The  second  were  cross-roads 
(vice  vicinales),  some  of  which  connected  the  great 
lines  of  military  way,  while  others  led  only  to  un- 
important places,  and  these  were  sometimes  vice  privatce 
and  sometimes  vice  publicce,  according  as  the  ownership 
of  the  soil  was  vested  in  individuals  or  in  the  State. 
The  third  were  vice  agrarice,  which,  broadly  speaking, 
may  be  styled  4  country  roads,'  though  the  term  in  its 
literal  signification  appears  to  mean  a  road  passing 
through  a  field  or  estate,  and  to  have  been  also  used,  as 
has  been  said  above,  as  synonymous  with  vice  privatce. 
The  fourth  were  device  or  by-roads,  which,  like  the 
country  roads  (agrarice\  would  seem,  from  their  nature, 
to  have  been  always  vice  privatce. 

It  will  be  observed  that  no  mention  is  made  in  the 
above  definitions  of  the  limites  or  roads  which  have 
been  described  in  the  last  chapter  as  intersecting  the 
territories  assigned  to  colonial  cities  (civitates)  and  to 
the  fortresses  (castella)  that  guarded  the  frontiers  of 
the  Empire.  These  roads  served  as  boundaries  to 
mark  out  the  different  estates  (centurice)  into  which 
these  territories  were  divided,*  and  were  of  two 
classes,  the  difference  between  which  can  only  be  made 
*  See  ante,  p.  58. 


70  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

clear  to  the  reader  by  a  brief  consideration  of  the  mode 
in  which  the  Roman  land  surveyors  parcelled  out  the 
lands  of  a  newly-created  colony  or  of  a  castettum  into 
centurice — a  process  termed  centuriatlon — the  legal  and 
constitutional  act  which  perfected  the  change  from 
public  land  into  private  property.  In  addition  to  the 
natural  boundaries  of  mountains,  rivers,  and  water- 
courses, a  territory  was  defined  by  the  artificial  land- 
marks of  roads,  stone  altars,  and  termini  of  a  peculiar 
and  more  important  character  than  those  of  the  private 
estates  composing  it,  while  the  villages  or  lesser  divisions 
(pagi)  of  the  territory  were  also  marked  out  by  special 
signs  and  termini. 

When  the  lex  colonwa  for  the  establishment  of  a  colony 
had  been  passed,  the  commissioners  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose proceeded  to  the  territory — the  boundaries  of  which 
had  already  been  defined  by  the  lex  colvnica  itself — 
with  a  staff  consisting  of  a  military  detachment,  augurs, 
architects,  and  land  surveyors.  The  latter,  who  were 
termed  agrimensores,  and  whose  periodical  surveys  kept 
the  Roman  Government  constantly  supplied  with  com- 
plete information  respecting  the  extent  of  its  conquered 
territories,  after  having  effected  the  demarcation  of  the 
territory  in  accordance  with  the  limits  prescribed  by 
the  lex,  then  divided  it  into  centurice  in  the  following 
manner.  First,  a  line  of  road,  which  was  termed  the 
decumomu  maximus,  was  marked  out  across  the  whole 
territory  from  east  to  west,  dividing  it  into  two  parts, 
which  were  called  right  and  left,  the  right  being  to  the 
north  of  the  agrimensor  as  he  looked  west,  and  the  left  to 
the  south.  Then  another  line  of  road,  which  was  termed 
the  cardo  maximus,  dividing  the  territory  into  two  more 


ROAD  SURVEYING  AND  MAINTENANCE    71 

parts,  was  drawn  from  south  to  north,  the  part  on  the 
west  being  described  as  ultra,  and  that  on  the  east 
as  citra.  The  four  lines  of  road  thus  formed  were 
termed  limites  maximi ;  the  point  where  they  met, 
which  was  the  centre  of  the  city  about  to  be  founded, 
was  called  umbllcus ;  and  the  four  divisions  made  by 
their  intersection  were  styled  regiones.  The  decumanus 
maximus  and  the  car  do  maximus,  strictly  speaking,  always 
passed  through  the  four  great  gates  of  the  newly-founded 
city,  in  the  direction  of  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass,  and  continued  with  the  same  bearings  to  the 
verge  of  the  territory,  a  process  which  was  often  practic- 
able in  a  semi- barbarous  country.  When,  however,  the 
territory  granted  to  the  new  colony  was  carved  out  of  an 
old-established  city,  or  when  the  city  was  to  be  placed 
upon  the  seashore,  the  agritne-nsores  were  forced  to  modify 
this  rule  and  make  the  best  approximation  to  it  which 
was  possible  under  the  circumstances.  Having  marked 
out  these  four  lines  of  road  or  limites  maxlml,  the 
agrimensores  proceeded  to  divide  the  four  regiones  into 
square  or  rectangular  centurlce  or  estates  by  drawing 
lesser  limites  or  roads  parallel  to  them,  and  called, 
according  to  their  position,  decumani  and  cardlnes. 

The  limes  immediately  parallel  to  the  decumanus 
maximum  and  that  immediately  parallel  to  the  cardo 
maximus  were  each  termed  primus,  while  the  other 
limites  in  succession  on  either  side  were  similarly  dis- 
tinguished by  their  appropriate  numeration  until  the 
march  of  the  territory,  or  Jinltlma  linea,  was  reached. 
In  the  provinces  these  limites — with  the  exception  of 
every  fifth  recurring  limes,  which  was  called  qulntarius 
or  actuarlus — were  termed  llnearil,  but  in  Italy  subrun- 


72  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

vwi.  The  limit es  linearii  and  actuarii  were  always 
narrower  than  the  limites  maximi,  but  the  breadth  of 
both  classes  of  road  depended  in  each  colony  upon  the 
dimensions  prescribed  by  its  particular  lex  colonica. 
Thus  the  regulations  of  Augustus  and  a  lex  agraria  of 
Claudius  for  Tuscany  both  gave  the  breadth  of  the 
decumanus  maximus  as  40  feet,  that  of  the  cardo 
maximum  as  25  feet,  that  of  the  limites  actuarii,  both 
decumanal  and  cardinal,  as  20  feet,  and  that  of  the 
limites  linearii  as  8  feet ;  while  Siculus  Flaccus  makes 
the  decumanus  maximus  and  cardo  maximus  of  equal 
breadth,  varying  from  30  to  15  or  12  feet,  and  the 
subrunvici  or  linearii  8  feet  broad,  and  says  nothing 
as  to  the  breadth  of  the  quintarii.  The  estates  or 
centuries,  each  of  which  was  isolated  and  self-contained 
by  these  limites,  were,  like  them,  first  set  out  on  both 
sides  of  the  cardo  maximus  and  decumanus  maximus, 
and  then  continued  until  the  inarches  were  reached. 
They  were  usually  each  200  jugera  or  acres  in  extent, 
in  which  case  they  were  generally  square  in  plan ;  but 
it  was  sometimes  directed  by  the  lex  colonica  that  each 
estate  should  consist  of  210  or  of  240  jugera,  in 
both  of  which  cases  the  centuries  took  the  form  of 
oblong  rectangular  parallelograms.  Owing  to  this 
division  of  the  territory  into  square  or  rectangular 
blocks — a  form  which,  it  is  to  be  noted,  must  have  given 
an  aspect  of  stiffness  and  formality  to  the  scenery  on 
the  roads — and  owing  also  to  the  fact  that  the  bound- 
aries of  the  territory  were  chiefly  natural  and  irregular, 
it  followed  that  there  would  almost  always  be  land  left 
over  which  could  not  be  parcelled  out  in  these  strict 
quantities.  When  subject  to  no  division  this  surplus 


ROAD  SURVEYING  AND  MAINTENANCE    73 

land  formed  the  waste  of  the  State,  and  was  called  ager 
extra  clausum  ;  but  it  was  sometimes  assigned  in  grants 
of  100  jugera  or  50  jugera,  called  respectively  pro 
centuries  and  pro  dimidia  centuries,  which  were  the  only 
exceptions  from  the  one  fixed  quantity  which  the  law 
allowed.  As  the  grants  of  land  assigned  to  the  colonists 
consisted  only  of  agger  cultus,  or  land  suitable  for  cul- 
tivation, there  was  also  generally  a  certain  portion  of 
barren  and  worthless  land  which  could  not  be  parcelled 
out  into  centuries,  and  was  therefore  kept  as  waste  to 
be  enjoyed  in  common  by  the  neighbouring  proprietors. 
It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  these  details  of  the 
process  of  centuriation,  because  the  centuries  themselves 
offer  valuable  evidence  for  identifying  the  course  of  the 
roads  which  formed  their  boundaries.  These  estates,  how- 
ever much  they  might  be  ultimately  subdivided  or 
amalgamated  in  the  lapse  of  time,  were  considered  by 
the  Roman  law  as  indivisible^  and  were  the  units  on 
which  the  State  levied  its  taxation  and  imposed  various 
other  political  obligations.  In  order,  therefore,  to  limit 
them  for  ever  within  their  original  and  normal  bounds, 
the  State,  by  means  of  the  lex  colonica,  prescribed  three 
varieties  of  permanent  and  inviolable  signs  which  should 
always  bear  witness  to  their  relative  positions  and  extent. 
The  first  consisted  of  centurial  stones,  some  of  which  were 
inscribed  and  some  uninscribed.  The  stones  which  were 
inscribed  bore  either  the  numbers  of  the  decumanal  and 
cardinal  lines  of  road  bounding  the  centuries  (numerus 
limitum),  together  with  the  name  of  the  owner  (nomen 
possessoris) ,  or  the  name  of  the  owner  and  the  number  of 
feet  of  one  side  of  the  centuries  (numerum  pedaturcc\  or 
else  the  name  of  the  owner  alone.  Secondly,  and  in  lieu 


74  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

of  centurial  stones,  wooden  stakes  (poll  lignei),  heaps  of 
stones  (scorpiones],  stone  walls  (attince),  and  tops  of 
amphorcz  stuck  in  the  ground,  were  used  as  termini. 
Thirdly,  the  agrimensores  made  use  of  a  system  of 
underground  signs,  the  principal  of  which  were  termed 
botontim,  and  consisted  of  walled  structures  supporting 
mounds  of  earth,  under  which  were  placed  charcoal, 
broken  pottery,  gravel,  pebbles  brought  from  a  distance, 
lime,  ashes,  or  pitched  stakes.  Examples  of  all  these 
modes  of  centuriation  have  been  found  in  England  and 
Wales,  and  the  following  copy  of  an  inscription  showing 
the  numerus  limitum  on  a  centurial  stone  found  at 
Manchester*  provides  an  illustration  of  the  mode  in 
which  they  serve  to  identify  the  position  of  the  territorial 
roads  we  are  considering : 


CANDIDI 

XX 
FIDES 

IIII 


In  this  inscription  the  mark  at  the  commencement  is 
the  siglum,  or  abbreviation  for  the  word  centuria ;  the 
XX  expresses  the  decumanal  limes ;  and  the  IIII  is  the 
number  of  the  cardinal  limes  upon  which  the  centuria 
of  Candidus,  the  owner, f  was  situated.  In  addition  to 

*  See  Gough's  '  Camden/  vol.  in.,  375. 

t  Mr.  Coote,  in  '  The  Romans  of  Britain/  p.  121,  points  out 
that  the  names  inscribed  on  these  centurial  stones  are  a  striking 
evidence  of  the  number  of  Italian  families  settled  as  colonists  in 
Britain.  Among  them  may  be  enumerated  the  Valerii,  Julii, 
Claudii,  Rupilii,  Marii,  Cornell!,  Trebonii,  Varii,  Hortilii, 
Galii,  Muatii,  Arrii,  Noconii,  Enii,  Plaucii,  Vecilii,  and  Artii. 


ROAD  SURVEYING  AND  MAINTENANCE     75 

this,  evidence  of  the  c  limitation '  of  colonial  territories 
in  the  form  of  junctions  of  four  limes  of  road  running 
from  the  four  cardinal  points  to  a  common  centre  have 
been  discovered  in  Lancashire,  Surrey,  Hampshire, 
Bedfordshire,  Hertfordshire,  Berkshire,  and  other  Eng- 
lish counties.  There  is,  therefore,  little  doubt  as  to 
the  general  centuriation  of  Roman  Britain,  and  the 
consequent  existence  in  it  of  a  numerous  body  of 
Roman  landowners  to  whom  the  maintenance  of  the 
road  systems  of  their  colonies  must  have  been  of  vital 
importance. 

Such  were  the  limited,  or,  as  we  might  term  them, 
territorial  roads.  It  remains  now  to  examine  how  far 
they  were  included  under  the  classification  of  roads 
referred  to  above.  It  is  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Coote,  in 
the  valuable  paper  on  '  The  Centuriation  of  Roman 
Britain,"  from  which  this  account  of  them  has  been 
largely  drawn,*  that  the  majority  of  antiquarian  writers 
have  apparently  failed  to  see  the  distinction  recognised 
by  the  Romans  between  the  limites  max'imi  and  the  vice 
m  Hit  ares,  probably  because  the  writings  of  the  agrimen- 
sores,  who  mention  both  classes  of  roads,  and  clearly 
distinguish  the  one  from  the  other  when  treating  of 
their  art,  are  less  accessible  and  less  well  known  than 
the  statements  of  the  Roman  lawyers  on  the  subject. 
Ulpian  defines  the  vicinal  ways  (vicincdes\  which  we 
have  styled  cross-roads,  as  '  roads  running  through 

The  Calpurnii  were  also  settled  in  Britain,  and  in  the  fifth 
century  this  gens  was  represented  in  Britain  by  the  great 
St.  Patrick  (Calpurnius  Patricius). 

*  Archaologia,  vol.  xlii.,  pp.  133-136,  138-147,  151-160.  See, 
too,  l  The  Romans  of  Britain,'  by  the  same  author,  pp.  42-121. 


76  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

hamlets,"  or  the  '  quarters  of  a  town,  or  roads  leading 
to  other  roads.1  In  another  passage  he  thus  explains 
the  distinction  between  those  vicinal  ways  which  were 
vice  publicce  and  the  military  roads  :  '  Vicinal  roads 
through  the  properties  of  private  individuals,  which 
were  constructed  in  times  immemorial,  are  public  roads. 
But  there  is  this  distinction  between  these  and  the 
military  ways,  that  the  military  ways  have  their  termina- 
tion either  at  the  sea,  or  in  cities,  or  at  public  rivers,  or 
in  another  military  way,  while  of  the  vicinal  ways  some 
have  these  terminations  but  others  have  not/  It  seems 
clear  from  these  statements  of  Ulpian's  that  the  limites 
maximi,  which  had  their  termini  in  the  colonial  cities, 
and  by  means  of  which  the  colonists  communicated 
with  their  own  territorial  capitals  and  with  the  cities 
of  the  adjacent  territories,  were  vice  publicce,  and  were 
included  by  the  jurists  under  the  general  term  of  vice 
militares,  because,  while  being  less  numerous,  they 
answered  the  same  purpose  as  these,  were  framed  upon 
the  same  plan,  had  the  same  breadth,  and  were  kept 
up  by  the  same  means.  It  is  also  equally  plain  that 
the  lesser  colonial  limites  opening  into  the  limites 
maximi)  which  were  sometimes  highways  between  town- 
ship and  township,  and  therefore  vice  publicce^  and 
sometimes  only  thoroughfares  for  the  use  of  the  house- 
holders and  their  tenants,  and  therefore  private,  were 
in  a  similar  way  comprehended  under  the  term  vice 
vicinales.  '  Why  this  happened,"  says  Mr.  Coote,*  '  is 
obvious.  The  lawyers,  like  the  public,  did  not  affect 
the  pedantic  and  old-fashioned  phraseology  of  the 
agrimensores  when  they  spoke  of  roads  any  more  than 

*  See  Archceologia,  vol.  xlii.,  pp.  136,  137. 


ROAD  SURVEYING  AND  MAINTENANCE  77 

they  did  when  they  spoke  of  estates,  which  latter  they 
never  called  centurice,  but  always  fundi,  a  word  in 
common  daily  use  by  the  public.  .  .  .  This  is  a  suffi- 
ciently probable  explanation  of  a  fact  which  of  itself 
cannot  be  denied/  It  may  be  added  that  when  the 
limites,  as  was  sometimes  prescribed  by  the  lex  colonica, 
were  made  out  of  the  land  of  the  centuries  which  abutted 
upon  them,  they  appear  to  have  always  remained 
private  ways,  however  much  the  public  might  use 
them.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  however,  that  this  rule 
could  never  have  applied  to  the  limites  maximi,  which 
from  their  nature  and  from  their  having  their  termini 
in  colonial  cities,  must  be  assumed  to  have  been  always 
public  roads. 

The  Roman  public  ways  were,  as  has  been  stated,  the 
property  of  the  State,  which  therefore  had  the  entire 
control  of  them,  and  supplied  the  funds  for  their  con- 
struction and  maintenance.  Camden  tells  us  that '  to 
keep  these  roads  in  repair  the  law  (as  appears  from  the 
Theodosian  code)  encouraged  all  persons  to  contribute 
their  endeavours  with  becoming  emulation ' ;  that  the 
Romans  used  to  employ  the  soldiery  and  people  in 
making  them  '  in  order  that  inactivity  might  not  give 
them  an  opportunity  to  raise  disturbances  ';  and  '  that 
criminals  were  frequently  condemned  to  work  on  such 
roads,  as  we  learn  from  Suetonius  in  the  life  of  Caligula.'* 
Each  great  line  of  road  appears  to  have  been  under  the 
control  of  an  inspector-in-chief  called  the  curator 
viarum,  a  dignity  which  was  often  assumed  by  the 
Emperors  themselves.  The  names  of  more  than  twenty 
princes,  from  Augustus  to  Constantine,  are  found  in 
*  See  Gough's  e Camden'  (2nd  ed.),  vol.  L,  p.  xcv. 


78  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

inscriptions  commemorating  their  services  in  making 
and  maintaining  public  ways,  and  there  is  similar 
evidence  to  show  that  Caesar,  Agrippa,  and  other 
individuals  of  less  note  contributed  large  sums  from 
their  private  fortunes  to  the  same  object.  So  much 
was  the  work  considered  a  national  one  that  even  the 
contractors  employed  (mandpes)  were  proud  to  associate 
their  names  with  it,  as  is  shown  by  the  inscription, 
'  Mancipi  Vice  App'm]  placed  by  his  widow  as  a  last 
tribute  to  his  memory  upon  the  tomb  of  a  contractor 
engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  Appian  Way.  A 
further  instance  of  the  importance  attached  by  the 
State  to  the  maintenance  of  the  roads  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  we  find  Corbulo  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  after 
due  representations  to  the  Senate,  prosecuting  several 
persons  on  the  ground  that  the  roads  were  in  a  bad 
condition  owing  to  the  frauds  of  the  contractors  and 
the  negligence  of  the  magistrates,  and  that  subsequently 
the  Emperor  Claudius  returned  to  many  of  the  con- 
tractors the  sums  that  Corbulo  had  unjustly  extracted 
from  them.  Facts  such  as  these  sufficiently  show  the 
high  estimate  formed  by  all  classes  of  the  Roman 
people  of  the  value  of  the  great  national  undertakings, 
which,  by  facilitating  constant  intercommunication, 
served  to  knit  together  in  one  great  State  all  the 
different  nations  of  which  the  Empire  was  composed. 
This  national  character  of  the  Roman  road  system  is  a 
point  which  requires  to  be  especially  remembered  in 
connection  with  the  history  of  British  highways.  In 
the  first  place,  it  was  undoubtedly  the  chief  cause  of  the 
excellent  and  probably  unsurpassed  construction  and 
extent  of  that  system ;  secondly,  though  British  high- 
ways after  the  Roman  era  gradually  ceased  to  be 


ROAD  SURVEYING  AND  MAINTENANCE     79 

regarded  as  national,  and  have  now  rather  grown  to  be 
considered  as  local  works,  yet  the  Roman  system  left 
behind  it  the  foundation— the  nucleus  of  which  consisted 
of  the  so-called  '  four  royal  ways ' — upon  which  our 
present  highway  system  must  be  considered  to  have 
been  built.  Lastly,  with  regard  to  the  subject  we  are 
now  considering,  the  maintenance  of  Roman  highways, 
it  seems  only  reasonable  to  conclude  that  public  high- 
ways must  have  been  held  in  much  the  same  estimation 
by  the  Romanized  inhabitants  of  distant  provinces,  like 
Britain,  as  by  the  Romans  themselves.  The  evidence, 
imperfect  as  it  is,  derived  from  the  milliaries  or  Roman 
milestones  found  in  Britain,  the  characteristics  of  which 
will  be  described  in  a  future  chapter,  is  sufficient  to 
show  how  steadily  the  work  of  making  and  maintaining 
highways  in  this  country  was  carried  on  under  each 
successive  Emperor,  and  that  even  brief  reigns  of 
usurpers  like  Postumus  and  Victorinus  were  com- 
memorated in  its  operations.  The  Roman  Government 
of  the  provinces  was,  as  we  know,  always  conducted  on 
the  same  principles,  broadly  speaking,  as  that  of  Italy 
itself,  and  we  seem  therefore  justified  in  assuming  that 
Roman  Britain  under  the  Empire  had,  like  Rome,  its 
curatores  viarum^  with  a  regular  staff'  of  contractors, 
engineers,  and  workmen. 

The  lesser  cross-roads,  country  roads,  and  presumably 
all  the  vice  privatce,  were  under  the  control  of  the  rural 
authorities  (magistri  pagorum\  and,  like  our  own  parish 
roads,  appear  to  have  been  maintained  by  assessment, 
and  in  some  cases  by  voluntary  contributions,  while  the 
streets  of  cities  were  repaired  by  the  inhabitants,  each 
householder  being  responsible  for  the  portion  opposite 
to  his  house. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS  AND  BRIDGES 

Pioneer  roads — Discoveries  of  portions  of  such  roads  in  the 
peat  mosses  of  Scotland — Directness  of  the  great  military 
roads — Marshes,  rivers,  forests,  and  mountains  no  obstacles — 
Structure  of  the  vice  publicce — Road-making  as  described  by 
Vitruvius — His  description  verified  by  excavations  on  the 
Fosse  Way — General  rules  modified  to  meet  particular  cases 
— Perfection  of  roads  near  Rome — Such  perfection  rarely 
existed  in  remoter  provinces,  but  probably  was  found  in  a 
few  cases  in  Britain — Construction  of  Scottish  roads — Of 
lesser  cross-roads  and  country  roads,  etc.  —  Bridge  con- 
struction. 

WE  are  now  in  a  position  to  consider  the  actual 
methods  adopted  in  the  construction  of  roads,  either 
by  the  Roman  legionaries  themselves  or  by  Britons 
working  under  Roman  supervision. 

It  is  clear  that  the  earlier  or  *  pioneer '  roads  made 
by  armies  on  the  march  through  a  hostile  country 
must  of  necessity  have  been  far  less  elaborate  and 
finished  in  their  structure  than  the  great  military 
ways,  of  which  they  formed,  so  to  say,  the  rude  outline, 
and  excavations  in  the  peat  mosses  of  Scotland  have 
brought  to  light  some  interesting  details  regarding  the 
method  of  their  formation.  Continuous  portions  of 

[80] 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS     81 

roads  constructed  by  laying  logs  of  wood  closely  to- 
gether, sometimes  in  single,  sometimes  in  double  layers, 
have  been  discovered  in  the  Lochar  moss  near  Dumfries, 
in  Flanders  moss  about  eight  miles  west  of  Stirling,  in 
the  mosses  of  Kippen,  and  in  those  of  Kincardine  in 
Menteith.  These  primitive  highways  have  been  found 
at  a  depth  of  5  or  6  feet  below  the  peat,  and  can  be 
ascribed  only  to  the  Roman  legionaries,  since,  as 
pointed  out  by  the  author  of  '  Caledonia  Romana,'  *  it 
is  by  no  means  probable  that  the  native  inhabitants, 
while  perfect  freedom  of  action  remained  to  them, 
would  engage  in  such  labours  as  were  calculated  to 
expose  to  their  enemies  the  hidden  retreats  on  which 
their  safety  must  so  often  have  depended.1  It  may  be 
noted,  in  connection  with  the  presumption  that  these 
roads  must  be  of  Roman  origin,  that  the  Romans, 
although  they  drained  many  of  our  fens,  appear  also 
to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  fresh  morasses  by  the 
process  of  cutting  their  roads  through  the  forests. 

'  The  felled  wood  was  left  to  rot  on  the  surface ;  small 
streams  were  choked  up  in  the  levels  j  pools  formed  in  the 
hollows ;  the  soil  beneath,  shut  out  from  the  light  and  the 
air,  became  unfitted  to  produce  its  former  vegetation.  But 
a  new  order  of  plants,  the  thick  water  mosses,  began  to 
spring  up ;  one  generation  budded  and  decayed  over  the 
ruins  of  another ;  and  what  had  been  an  overturned  forest 
became  in  the  course  of  years  a  deep  morass.'* 

The  very  mode  in  which  these  wooden  roads  were 

made  may  thus  be  said  to  have  prepared  the  way  for 

their  burial  beneath  peat  mosses  in  future  ages.     They 

seem,  as  a  rule,  to  have  presented  the  appearance  of  a 

*  Hugh  Miller's  '  Lectures  on  Geology/  p.  8. 

6 


82  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

rudely-constructed  raft,  the  trees  used  having  been 
squared  by  the  axe  into  logs ;  but  in  one  case  a  way 
discovered  not  far  from  Annan  was  found  to  be  com- 
posed of  oaken  planks,  regularly  shaped,  and  fastened 
down  by  stakes  driven  perpendicularly  through  them — 
a  mode  of  construction  perhaps  resorted  to  because 
larger  timber  was  scarce.  There  seems  good  reason  to 
believe  that  these  '  pioneer '  ways  were  not  confined  to 
Scotland,  but  must  have  been  used  for  temporary 
purposes  in  all  parts  of  Britain  during  the  earlier  cam- 
paigns of  the  Romans.  Mr.  Pearson,  after  referring 
to  the  discoveries  in  the  Scotch  mosses,  observes : 

1 1  suspect  a  reminiscence  of  this  strategy  is  contained  in 
the  audacious  Welsh  legend,  which  tells  us  that  Caradoc, 
son  of  Bran,  destroyed  all  the  forests  between  the  Severn 
and  the  Towy,  because  the  Romans  complained  that  they 
could  not  meet  the  Britons  in  the  open  field. '* 

Rude  highways  of  this  description  must  have  pre- 
sented the  advantages  of  being  both  easily  and 
speedily  constructed,  and  also  sufficiently  strong  and 
durable  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  cavalry  and 
baggage  waggons  of  the  legions ;  and  they  must  have 
been  absolutely  necessary  whenever  an  army  found 
itself  obliged  to  leave  the  open  country  and  to  force 
its  way  through  thick  forests  or  over  marshy  and 
difficult  ground.  Their  rough,  slight,  and  yet  practical 
construction  presents  a  marked  contrast  to  the  solidity 
and  finish  of  the  great  military  roads  now  about  to  be 
noticed,  of  which  they  were  the  forerunners,  and  which, 
to  quote  Gibbon,-f-  '  ran  in  a  direct  line  from  one  city 

*  Pearson's  ( Historical  Maps,'  Essay  I.,  p.  4. 

f  '  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire/  vol.  i.,  p.  61. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS    83 

to  another,  with  very  little  respect  for  the  obstacles 
either  of  Nature  or  private  property.'  To  insure  the 
straight  course  of  the  latter,  huge  marshes,  as  has  been 
said,  were  drained,  rapid  rivers  were  bridged,  and  in 
some  cases  mountains  were  tunnelled  ;  and  in  no  parti- 
cular, judging  by  the  case  of  the  so-called  High  Street 
— a  Roman  road  believed  to  have  run  in  a  direct  line 
from  Lincoln  to  the  Humber-side — did  the  formation 
of  the  two  classes  of  ways  exhibit  greater  differences 
than  when  their  lines  ran  through  forests.  In  those 
portions  of  the  High  Street  which  traverse  the 
woods  of  Lincolnshire,  instead  of  the  timber  ways 
which  we  have  been  noticing  we  find  a  paved  cause- 
way, in  one  instance  7  English  yards  broad,  the  stones 
of  which  are  set  edgewise  and  very  close  to  each  other, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  roots  of  the  trees  cut  down  for 
its  passage  from  springing  up  and  blinding  the  road. 

The  structure  of  the  vice  publica?  was,  as  may  be  sup- 
posed, far  more  elaborate  and  perfect  than  that  of  the 
other  varieties  of  roads,  while  that  of  the  principal 
cross-roads,  again,  was  probably  more  finished  than 
that  of  the  country  roads,  and  that  of  the  country 
roads  than  that  of  the  by-roads.  The  system  followed 
in  making  the  most  important  roads  is  described  by 
Vitruvius,  a  celebrated  architect  of  the  Augustan  age 
(27  B.C.  to  A.D.  14),  and  his  account  is  supplemented  by 
a  poem  on  the  Via  Domitiana — one  of  the  lesser  Italian 
roads — by  Statius,  a  poet  who  wrote  during  the  reign  of 
Domitian,  A.D.  81  to  A.D.  96.* 

*  Vitruvius  (VII.),  Statius  ('  Silv./  vol.  iv.,  p.  3).  See  article 
Vice,  by  Professor  Ramsay  in  Dr.  Smith's  ' Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities/  p.  1191.  The  details  given  by  Vitruvius 

6—2 


84  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

The  first  step  was  to  mark  out  the  breadth  of  the 

road,  which  in  the  greater  Roman  ways  in  Italy  seems 

to  have  varied  from  11  to  15  feet,  and  in  the  inferior 

ones  to  have  been  not  more  than  8  feet.     This  was 

done  by  digging  two  shallow  trenches  (salci)  parallel 

to  each  other,  after  which  the  loose  sand  between  the 

two  was  excavated  until  a  solid  foundation  (gremium) 

was  reached  for  building  the  road  upon.     When  the 

ground  was  swampy,  or  otherwise  unfitted  for  making 

a  firm  basis,  it  was  strengthened  by  driving  piles  into 

it,  so  as  to  form  an  artificial  basis.     Upon  the  gremium 

in  most  cases  four  distinct  strata  were  laid.     The  first 

of  these  was  the  statumen,  which  consisted  of  stones  not 

smaller  than  the  hand  could  grasp.     The  second  was 

the    nidus,    which    consisted    of    what    masons    term 

'  rubble- work,1  a  mass  of  broken  stones  cemented  with 

lime,  rammed  down  hard,  which  was  9  inches  thick. 

The  third  was  the  nucleus,  which  was  6  inches  thick, 

and  was   formed  of  fragments  of  brick   and  pottery, 

smaller  than  the  broken  stones  used  for  the  nidus,  but, 

like  them,  cemented  with  lime.     The  fourth  and  final 

stratum,  called  the  pavimentum,  was  usually  composed 

of   large,   irregularly-shaped  polygonal  blocks    of  the 

hardest  stone  (silex),  so  carefully  fitted  together  as  to 

form   a   perfectly  even   surface   much   resembling   the 

relate,  strictly  speaking,  not  to  roads  but  to  pavements.  The 
remains  of  ancient  pavements  still  existing  and  answering  to  his 
description  correspond,  however,  so  completely  with  the  remains 
of  the  military  roads  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  process 
followed  in  each  case  was  materially  the  same.  The  truth  of  this 
supposition  has  been  fully  verified  by  recent  discoveries.  See 
pout,  p.  85. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS    85 

polygonal  walls  of  the  old  Pelasgian  towns,  but  occa- 
sionally, at  all  events  in  cities,  it  appears  to  have  been 
formed  of  rectangular  slabs  of  stone  (saxwri).  These 
four  strata  were,  as  has  been  said,  always  used  in 
ordinary  cases ;  but  when  the  road  passed  over  a  rocky 
bed,  forming  a  natural  gremium,  both  the  statumen  and 
nidus  were  dispensed  with,  the  nucleus  being  laid  on 
the  surface  of  the  stones,  which  were  smoothed  to  receive 
it.  The  centre  of  the  way  was  always  slightly  raised, 
in  order  to  allow  water  to  run  off*  easily,  a  fact  which 

SECTION    Or  A 

ROMAN  ROAD  AT   RADSTOOs 


.     (Mooci^) 


led  to  its  being  sometimes  termed  summum  dorsum  and 
sometimes  agger  vice,  though  both  these  terms  appear 
to  have  also  applied  to  the  whole  surface  of  the 
pavimentum. 

Some  excavations  on  the  old  Fosse  Way  near  Rad- 
stock,  made  in  1881  by  Mr.  McMurtrie,  an  archaeologist 
whose  professional  experience  as  an  engineer  makes  his 
testimony  especially  valuable,  have  served  to  demon- 
strate the  truth  of  the  above  description  in  a  very 
remarkable  manner.  The  results  of  his  examinations 
are  described  as  follows  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Bath 


86  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Natural    History    and    Antiquarian    Field    Club    for 

1881  :* 

'  The  general  appearance  of  the  Fosse  Road  at  Rad stock 
is  very  striking.  .  .  .  The  land  on  each  side  being 
perfectly  level  for  some  distance,  the  road  rises  boldly  above 
it  in  a  prominent  ridge,  flanked  by  a  deep  ditch  on  either 
side,  the  whole  being  bounded  by  hedgerows  of  by  no 
means  recent  date,  although  modern  probably  compared 
with  the  ancient  structure  which  they  enclose.  .  .  .  The 
most  interesting  feature  presented  is  the  formation  of  the 
road  itself,  as  exposed  in  the  section  excavated  on  the  day 
of  the  Society's  visit,  showing  an  extraordinary  amount  of 
care  and  skill.  ...  I  was  much  gratified  that  this  local 
section  exactly  confirmed  the  description  given  by  Vitru- 
vius,  layer  corresponding  with  layer  throughout  the  entire 
structure.  I  have  had  two  sections  prepared.  Fig.  1 
gives  a  general  view  of  the  road,  and  of  its  elevation  above 
the  adjacent  land,  while  Fig.  2  shows  the  structure  of  the 
road  on  an  enlarged  scale.  It  will  be  observed  from  the 
former  of  these  sections  that  after  cutting  through  the 
Roman  work  the  original  soil  was  met  with  at  a  level 
corresponding  as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  surface  of  the 
adjacent  fields,  the  whole  formation  of  the  road  having 
been  raised  above  that  level.  The  ditches  on  each  side 
are  slightly  below  the  level  of  the  soil;  the  hedgerows 
having  been  thrown  up  also  rise  above  the  adjoining  level. 
Though  shown  in  this  section,  they  are  not  necessary  to 
our  consideration  of  this  beautiful  Roman  work.  No  doubt 
the  road  was  constructed  originally  through  a  country  only 
partially  cleared,  and  many  centuries  may  have  elapsed 
before  the  lands  were  enclosed  and  fences  became  neces- 

*  See  vol.  iv.,  No.  4,  p.  344  et  seq. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS    87 

sary  for  the  purposes  of  cultivation.*  Section  II., f  there- 
fore, in  which  the  hedgerows  have  been  omitted,  may  be 
taken  to  show  the  road  as  it  left  the  hands  of  the  Roman 
engineers.  (Taking  the  sections  in  ascending  order,  I 
would  observe  that  although  we  have  in  the  bed  of  soil 
reached  the  true  representative  of  the  gremium  described 
by  Vitruvius,  there  is  nothing  in  its  appearance  to  indicate 
that  it  was  fine  earth  pounded  and  beaten  in  in  the 
manner  described^  A  layer  of  rubble  stones  appears  on 
the  surface  corresponding  with  the  staiumen  of  Vitruvius, 
and  in  this  instance  no  lime  seems  to  have  been  used.  It 
is  5  inches  thick  in  the  centre,  thins  off'  on  each  side,  and 
each  bed  in  ascending  order  becomes  more  convex  in  form. 
Next  in  order  is  a  bed  of  concrete  of  a  very  distinctive 
character,  1  foot  3  inches  thick,  agreeing  with  the  layer 
which  Vitruvius  terms  nidus,  chiefly  broken  stones  mixed 
with  lime,  the  material  being  of  a  yellow  colour  and 
derived  from  the  lias  or  oolite  formations  of  the  locality. 
A  thin  layer  of  red  marl  and  pebbles  is  found  near  the 
middle  of  the  bed,  quite  different  from  the  other  material 
though  amalgamated  with  it,  derived  probably  from  the 
dolomite  conglomerate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stratton 
on  the  Fosse,  which  it  most  resembles.  Resting  on  the 
bed  I  have  described  is  another  layer  of  finer  material, 
consisting  apparently  of  inferior  oolite  or  lias  pounded  very 
fine,  mixed  with  lime,  and  well  rammed,  which  we  have 
little  difficulty  in  identifying  with  the  nucleus  bed  of 

*  With  regard  to  this  it  must,  however,  be  noted  that,  as  has 
been  already  mentioned,  Chapter  I.,  p.  4,  the  Romans  enclosed 
tlieir  cultivated  lands  with  hedges,  palings,  walls,  and  earth  banks. 

f  See  p.  80. 

I  Cf.  as  to  this  what  was  said  as  to  the  rocky  gremium, 
ante,  p.  85.  The  foundation  would  be,  of  course,  always  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  of  the  soil. 


88 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


Vitruvius,  10|  inches  deep  in  the  centre,  thinner  at  the 
sides,  the  upper  surface  being  rounded  off  very  sym- 
metrically. On  this  was  laid  a  course  of  paving-stones, 
which  evidently  formed  the  ancient  surface  of  the  Roman 
road,  4  to  5  inches  thick,  consisting  of  ihe  thinner  beds  of 
the  lias  common  in  the  neighbourhood.  Vitruvius  says 
this  course,  termed  summum  dorsum,  was  composed  some- 
times of  stones  set  like  the  paving-stones  in  our  streets, 
and  sometimes  of  flag-stones  cut  square ;  but  in  the  Fosse 
Road  at  Radstock  it  consists  of  stones  of  all  sizes  and 
shapes  put  together  as  random  work,  the  lime  having 
probably  been  poured  in  afterwards.  In  this  way  the 
whole  surface  of  the  road  was  so  firmly  cemented  together 
that,  in  removing  it  during  the  recent  excavations,  the 
stones  more  frequently  split  through  the  solid  than 
separated  at  a  joint/ 

Of  the  two  sections  referred  to  in  this  extract,  we 
give  the  second  only,  but  with  an  indication  of  the 
existing  hedgerows. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  account  of  the  construction 
of  the  Fosse  Way  that,  while  the  same  general  rules 
were  followed  in  making  the  greater  military  ways  in 
this  country  as  in  Italy,  the  Romans,  as  might  be 
expected  from  their  practical  character,  adapted  and 
modified  these  rules  according  to  the  peculiarities  of 
the  soil  in  each  particular  case.  Thus  the  great  roads 
near  Rome  are  said  to  have  been  so  smooth  and  level 
that  the  Roman  men  of  fashion  delighted  to  drive  about 
on  them  in  chariots  without  springs.  They  had  raised 
footpaths  (ambones),  sprinkled  with  gravel,  on  each  side, 
the  different  parts  of  which  were  strengthened  and 
bound  together  with  stone  wedges  (gomphi)  ;  and  at 
intervals  along  their  course  were  placed  stone  blocks  in 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS     89 

order  to  enable  travellers  on  horseback  to  mount  easily. 
Though,  however,  the  public  roads  in  some  of  the  most 
prosperous  provinces  of  the  Empire,  among  which 
Britain  must  certainly  be  numbered,  may  have  ex- 
hibited, in  a  few  cases,  the  same  degree  of  finish,  their 
perfection  must  naturally  be  supposed  to  have  dimin- 
ished in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  capital. 
Mr.  Wright,  after  noticing  the  description  of  Vitruvius, 
says  : 

'  The  result  of  the  above  process  would  be  a  Roman  road 
of  the  most  perfect  description  ;  but  we  must  not  suppose 
that  in  any  part  of  the  Empire  these  directions  were 
always  strictly  adhered  to.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  few 
Roman  roads  existing  which  do  not  in  some  way  or  other 
vary  from  them  ;  some  are  entirely  without  the  nucleus, 
in  others  there  is  no  stotumen.  Nevertheless,  there  is 
always  found  a  sufficiently  close  resemblance  between  the 
structure  of  the  old  Roman  roads  as  they  exist  and  the 
directions  above  given.  They  are  often  found  in  our 
island  in  an  extraordinary  degree  of  perfection ;  where 
they  have  been  used  at  the  present  time  as  highways,  they 
are  naturally  worn  down,  and  it  is  only  at  rare  intervals 
that  we  can  find  any  characteristic  to  identify  them  except 
it  be  the  extraordinary  straightness  of  the  course ;  but 
where  the  course  of  the  road  has  been  changed  at  a 
subsequent  period,  and  especially  where  it  runs  along  an 
uncultivated  heath,  the  ancient  Roman  road  often  presents 
itself  to  our  view  in  an  imposing  embankment  of  several 
miles  together.  When  they  came  upon  higher  ground  the 
Romans  were  not  in  the  habit  of  intrenching,  but  they 
often  raised  the  embankment  higher  even  than  in  the 
plain,  probably  as  a  measure  of  precaution.  Thus,  on  the 
summit  of  the  Gogmagog  Hills  near  Cambridge,  the 


90  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

embankment  of  the  Roman  road  is  very  lofty  and  remark- 
ably perfect.'* 

In  Scotland  the  Roman  roads  appear  to  have  been 
from  18  to  24  feet  wide,  with  a  broad  ditch  on  either 
side  for  the  purpose  of  drainage,  and  to  have  been 
composed  of  various  materials,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil  of  the  country  through  which  they  passed. 
Stuart  tells  us  that  where  freestone  could  be  used,  it 
was  shaped  into  square  blocks,  which  gave  the  surface 
of  the  road  on  which  they  were  placed  '  something  of 
the  appearance  of  a  well-built  wall  laid  on  its"  side/f 
Roy  says  : 

'Where  granite  or  dry  stone  of  a  hard  and  durable 
nature  was  found  near  at  hand,  there  they  seem  to  have 
paved  their  roads,  forming  them  into  a  sort  of  rough 
causeway,  not  much  elevated  in  the  middle.  Where  the 
materials  consisted  of  soft  freestone  or  of  coarse  gravel, 
they  appear  to  have  disposed  of  them  stratum  super  stratum, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  modern  turnpike  roads  were 
constructed.  In  other  places,  where  stone  and  gravel  were 
scarce — that  is  to  say,  had  to  be  brought  from  a  distance, 
which  is  but  seldom  the  case  in  North  Britain — the  Romans 
seem  not  only  to  have  made  their  roads  broader,  but  like- 
wise higher,  too,  in  proportion,  from  the  promiscuous 
materials  which  the  side  ditches  afforded,  cementing  them 
with  a  thinner  coat  of  the  hard  stuff  at  top.'J 

The  lesser  cross-roads,  country  roads,  and  by-roads, 
though,  as  might  be  expected,  constructed  with  much 
less  care  than  the  military  ways  which  we  have  been 

*  '  The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon/  p.  221. 

t  '  Caledonia  Romana/  pp.  255,  256. 

J  '  The  Military  Antiquities  of  the  Romans  in  Britain/  p.  108. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS     91 

considering,  were  yet  made  sufficiently  durable  to  have 
left  distinct  traces  down  to  the  present  day.  They 
appear  to  have  been  sometimes  paved  with  flag-stones, 
as  in  the  case  of  a  road  traversing  the  hills  near 
Monmouth,  in  which  the  stones  are  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes,  though  carefully  fitted  together.  One  of  the  best 
specimens  of  a  Roman  by-road  is  the  so-called  '  Fish- 
wife's Causey/  which  runs  from  Edinburgh  to  the  sea- 
side town  of  Portobello.  The  lesser  roads,  which  have 
been  referred  to  as  having  been  made  for  commercial 
purposes,  would  also  seem  to  have  been  constructed 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  lesser  cross-roads. 

The  Roman  military  roads  were  carried  over  the 
rivers  which  crossed  their  route  by  an  extensive  system 
of  bridges.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Caesar  the  Roman 
armies  were  provided  with  bridging  equipment,  consist- 
ing of  platforms  of  timber  supported  by  wickerwork 
vessels,  covered  with  skins  of  animals,  while  bridges  on 
piles  were  constructed  in  the  conquered  provinces  in 
connection  with  the  military  ways,  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  was  that  built  by  Caesar  himself 
across  the  Rhine.*  Vegetius,  who  wrote  in  the  reign  of 
Theodosius  (A.D.  386),  says  that  the  Roman  armies  used 
to  carry  with  them  small  boats  hollowed  out  of  the 
trunks  of  trees,  together  with  planks  and  nails  for 
the  purpose  of  constructing  temporary  bridges,  which 
were  bound  together  with  ropes.  In  the  permanent 
bridges  the  width  of  the  passage  way  was  usually 
narrower  than  that  of  modern  structures  of  the  kind, 
and  corresponded  with  the  road  leading  to  and  from  it. 
It  consisted  of  three  parts — a  central  road  for  horses 
*  '  Military  Bridges/  by  Sir  Howard  Douglas,  p.  88. 


92  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

and  carriages,  which  was  called  agger  or  Her,  and  two 
raised  footpaths  on  each  side  (decursoria),  protected  by 
parapet  walls  or  balustrades.     Mr.  Wright  is  of  opinion 
that  a  large  number  of  the  Roman  bridges  were  still  in 
existence  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  it 
is  certain  that  the  remains  of  many  formed  the  founda- 
tions of  modern  structures.     They  appear  for  the  most 
part  to  have  been  built  of  timber  upon  stone  piers 
without    arches.      There   is,   however,    a    semicircular 
arched  bridge  over  the  river  Cock,  near   its  junction 
with  the  Wharf e,  about  half  a  mile  from  Tadcaster 
(Calcaria)  on  the  Roman  road  leading  southward  from 
the  town,  which  Mr.  Roach  Smith  considers  to  be  of 
Roman  workmanship.     On  some  of  the  stones  of  this 
bridge  the  mason^s  mark,  an  R,  is  still  distinctly  visible. 
London  Bridge,  which,  judging  from  the  coins  found  in 
a  continuous  series  in  the  river,  was  built  early  in  the 
Roman  occupation,  probably  at  first  consisted  of  great 
beams  founded  on  piles.     The  piers  of  the  old  bridge 
over  the  Tyne  at  Newcastle,  which  was  taken  down  in 
1771,  were  of  Roman  masonry,  the  foundations  being 
laid  on  piles  of  fine  black  oak  still  in  a  state  of  perfect 
preservation,  and  decided  evidence  of  the  Roman  origin 
of  the  structure  was  furnished  by  the  discovery  of  coins 
of  Hadrian,  which  must  have  been  buried  for  sixteen 
centuries  since  its  erection  in  A.D.  120,  as  well  as  of 
Trajan,  Antoninus  Pius,  Faustina  the  Elder,  and  other 
succeeding  Emperors,   which  were   probably  deposited 
during  alterations  and  repairs.     Roman  work,  equally 
well  preserved,  was  also  discovered  on  the  destruction,  in 
1815,  of  the  bridge  over  the  Teign  in  Devonshire,  by 
means  of  which  the  Roman  road  to  Totnes  and  Ply- 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HIGHWAYS     93 

mouth  crossed  the  river.  Dr.  Bruoe  says  that  the 
foundations  of  three  Roman  bridges  still  remain  in  the 
district  of  Hadrian's  Wall  —  one  over  the  Tyne  at 
Corbridge  (Corstopitum),  another  over  the  North  Tyne 
at  Walwick  Chesters  (Cilurnum),  and  the  third  over  the 
Rede  Water  at  Risingham  (Habitancum).  None  of 
these  in  his  opinion  had  arches. 

'  The  piers  are  of  size  and  strength  sufficient  to  with- 
stand the  thrust  of  the  waters  without  the  aid  of  an  arch, 
and  in  at  least  one  of  these  casesj.the  requisite  spring  of 
the  arch  would  have  raised  the  road  to  an  inconvenient 
height.  An  experienced  mason,  who  examined  carefully 
the  ruins  of  the  bridge  at  Habitancum,  told  me  that  he 
observed  that  all  the  stones  which  encumbered  the  spot 
were  square,  none  of  them  having  the  shape  of  stones  used 
in  building  arches.'* 

Another  example  of  a  Roman  bridge  of  similar  con- 
struction was  in  existence  little  over  a  hundred  years 
ago,  which  connected  Caerleon  with  a  hamlet,  still 
known  as  Ultra  Pontem,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Usk, 
and  Archdeacon  Coxe,  writing  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  mentions  that  he  nearly  fell  into 
the  river  owing  to  the  looseness  of  the  planks.  It  is 
stated  by  Pliny  in  his  '  Natural  History '  that  it  was  an 
article  of  religious  faith  with  the  Romans  never  to  nail 
down  the  planks  of  a  bridge,  but  the  more  probable 
object  of  this  practice  was  to  facilitate  their  immediate 
removal  on  the  approach  of  an  enemy,  f 

*  <  The  Roman  Wall/  by  the  Rev.  J.  C.  Bruce,  p.  102. 

t  Proceedings  of  the  Cotswold  Field  Club,  vol.  xii.,  pp.  14,  15. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MILESTONES,  POST-STATIONS,  AND  ROADSIDE  INNS 

Road  measurement — Difference  between  Roman  and  English 
miles — Varieties  of  Roman  milestones  (milliaria}  found  in 
Britain — Milliaria  of  twenty-one  Emperors,  from  Hadrian  to 
Constantino  Junior,  discovered  in  various  counties — The 
milliarium  aureum  at  Rome — Provincial  milliaria  aurea — 
Claims  of  '  London  Stone '  to  the  title — Governmental  post- 
stations — Roadside  inns — Posting-stations  and  inns  enumer- 
ated in  some  of  the  Roman  road  books — Defects  of  Itinerary 
of  Antoninus  in  this  respect — Inns  rarely  used  by  wealthy 
travellers — Landowners  sometimes  built  roadside  taverns  for 
the  sale  of  their  wine  and  farm  produce. 

THE  distances  on  the  Roman  roads  were  made  known 
to  the  traveller  by  milestones,  usually  called  milliaria, 
but  sometimes  lapldes.  The  former  term  was  derived 
from  the  length  of  the  Roman  mile,  which  consisted  of 
1,000  paces  (mille  passuum) ;  the  latter  was  used  in  a 
more  familiar  sense,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact 
that  we  find  the  phrase  ad  tertium  laphlem  or  ad 
tertium  used  to  express  the  distance  of  three  miles  from 
Rome,  and  a  station  on  the  coast  road,  between  Bittern 
(Clausentum),  near  Southampton,  and  Richborough 
(Rutupiae),  called  Ad  Decimum,  to  denote  its  being  ten 
miles  from  Chichester  (Regnum). 

The  exact  length  of  the  Roman  mile,  according  to 
[94] 


MILESTONES,  POST-STATIONS,  AND  INNS    95 

English  measurement,  must  be  considered  a  moot  point. 
The  1,000  paces  composing  it  consisted  of  5  Roman 
feet  each,  and  while  one  theory  assumes  this  foot  to  be 
equal  to  11*6496  English  inches,  and  the  Roman  mile 
to  be,  consequently,  1,618  yards,  another  makes  the 
Roman  foot  11  '62  English  inches,  and  the  Roman 
mile  only  1,614  English  yards  in  length.*  The  ques- 
tion has  naturally  forced  itself  on  the  consideration  of 
all  those  archaeologists  who  have  endeavoured  to  deter- 
mine the  distances  from  each  other  of  the  stations  given 
in  the  Itineraries.  In  the  scale  of  the  map  prefixed 
to  Dr.  Gale's  edition  of  Antoninus's  Itinerary,  fifteen 
English  miles  answer  to  twenty  Roman  ones,  and 
Horsley,  commenting  on  this,  remarks  '  that  the  English 
miles  in  that  scale  must  be  common  computed  ones.' 
He  also  says : 

1  It  would,  perhaps,  be  thought  impossible  to  lay  down 
any  proportion  that  statedly  obtains  between  English  com- 
puted miles  and  those  in  the  Itinerary.  And  yet  on  a 
thorough  and  impartial  trial,  I  find  that  through  most 
part  of  England,  wherever  we  are  sure,  the  proportion 
of  miles  in  the  Itinerary  to  English  computed  miles  is 
generally  as  three  to  four,  or  three  computed  miles  make 
four  in  the  Itinerary.' 

On  this  passage  the  late  Mr.  Leman  wrote  the 
following  valuable  manuscript  note  : 

'  Nothing  can  be  clearer  than  that  the  Roman  miles 
were  not  always  of  the  same  length,  but  differed  from 
each  other  like  our  computed  ones,  or  like  the  leagues  in 
France ;  for  on  measuring  a  space  of  ground  where  the 
country  is  perfectly  level,  the  Roman  miles  differ  but  little 

*  '  Britannia  Romana/  book  iii.,  chap,  ii.,  p.  382. 


96  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

from  our  present  measured  ones,  but  are  infinitely  longer 
than  ours  where  the  iter  passes  over  a  mountainous 
country,  for  which  reason  I  cannot  help  thinking  that 
they  calculated  the  distance  between  their  several  stations 
by  "horizontal  miles."  Thus, on  the  road  from  Colchester 
to  London,  or  from  Richborough  to  the  same  place,  where 
the  surface  is  nearly  level,  the  Roman  miles  do  not  differ 
from  our  measured  ones,  while  in  mountainous  countries, 
as  between  Manchester  and  Tadcaster,  between  Ribchester 
and  Ilkley,  between  Corbridge  and  Riechester,  or  between 
Wroxeter  and  Caernarvon,  it  requires  in  some  places  a 
mile  and  a  quarter,  and  in  the  last  instance  even  a  mile 
and  a  half  to  make  our  present  miles  coincide  with  the 
Roman  ones.'* 

Lastly,  Mr.  Wright,  who  also  discusses  this  question, 
concludes  that  it  must  be  left  undecided  owing  to  the 
untrustworthiness  of  the  Itineraries ;  t  arid  it  must  be 
added,  with  respect  to  this  '  untrustworthiness,'  that  it 
has  been  pointed  out  by  Messrs.  Parthey  and  Finder, 
in  the  preface  to  their  edition  of  Antoninus's  Itinerary, J 
that  the  letters  M-PM  or  MP,  signify  'millia  plus 
minus'' — i.e.,  'mileage  approximately,  and  not,  as  was 
assumed  by  earlier  editors,  millia  passuum."1 

The  Roman  milestones  were  stone  pillars,  on  the 
most  perfect  of  which  was  inscribed,  first,  the  distance, 
expressed  by  numbers  either  with  or  without  M-P; 
secondly,  the  places  between  which  the  road  extended  ; 
and  thirdly,  the  name  of  the  constructor  of  the  road 

*  See  the  copy  of  f  Britannia  Romana,'  with  his  own  manu- 
script notes,  presented  by  will  to  the  Bath  Literary  and  Scientific 
Institution  by  the  Rev.  T.  Leman,  p.  382. 

f  <  The  Celt,  the  lloman>  and  the  Saxon,'  p.  225. 

\  Preface,  p.  xi. 


MILESTONES,  POST- STATIONS,  AND  INNS    97 

and  of  the  Emperor  in  whose  reign  the  stone  was 
erected.  In  very  many  cases,  however,  one  or  more 
of  these  details  was  omitted,  and  the  only  two  per- 
fect specimens  found  in  Britain  give  merely  the 
name  and  titles  of  the  reigning  Emperor  and  the 
number  of  miles  which  the  milestone  was  distant 
from  the  next  station  on  the  route.*  There  appears 
to  be  some  grounds  for  believing  that  the  shapes  of 
these  milliaria  differed  in  the  reigns  of  different 
Emperors.  Those  of  Augustus  are  said  to  have  been 
cylindrical,  24  inches  in  diameter,  and  bearing  a  simple 
inscription  engraved  without  any  ornament;  those  of 
Tiberius,  square  pedestals,  slightly  polished  ;  those 
of  Claudius,  cylindrical,  with  a  border  enclosing  the 
inscription ;  as  also  were  those  of  Antoninus,  but  not 
so  high,  and  with  the  portion  in  the  ground  square 
like  a  pedestal  and  much  larger  than  the  body  of  the 
column.  Several  stone  pedestals,  answering  to  the  last 
of  these  four  varieties,  with  an  opening  on  the  top  for 
the  insertion  of  a  circular  column,  were  at  one  time 
still  standing  on  the  Roman  way  from  Redesdale  in 
Northumberland  to  Chew  Green.  Others  similar  to 
these — which  were  locally  known  as  'golden  pots' — 
have  also  been  found  on  Roman  ways  in  other  parts 
of  Britain,  and  both  Roy  and  Stuart  agree  in  consider- 
ing such  pedestals  to  be  the  remains  of  milliaria  erected 
in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,t  an  opinion  containing 
so  many  elements  of  probability  that  we  cannot  help 

*  The  two  milestones  alluded  to  are  one  found  near  Leicester 
in  1771,  on  the  Fosse  Way,  and  one  found  at  Lincoln  in  1879. 

f  See  '  Military  Antiquities  of  the  Romans  in  Britain/ 
pp.  108-111 ;  '  Caledonia  Romana/  pp.  256,  257. 

7 


98 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


regretting  that  no  further  evidence  has  as  yet  been 
forthcoming  to  confirm  it.  The  mittiaria  hitherto 
identified  in  Britain  appear  to  be  usually  cylindrical, 
though  the  last  one  discovered  is  a  square  quadrangular 
block  of  stone.  In  some  parts  of  Scotland  common 
'  moor  stones '  of  granite,  without  any  inscription,  seem 
to  have  been  used  as  milestones.  It  is  evident  that, 
were  they  more  numerous  and  in  a  more  perfect  state, 
the  mittiaria  that  have  been  found  in  these  islands 
would  supply  valuable  evidence  as  to  the  course  of  the 
Roman  ways,  the  date  of  their  construction,  and  the 
identification  of  towns  situated  upon  their  routes.* 
Unfortunately,  however,  they  are,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, both  few  and  in  a  bad  state  of  preservation.  The 
total  number  actually  identified  is  only  fifty-five,  for 
though  two  more  supposed  milestones  have  been  dis- 
covered, they  are  both  somewhat  doubtful.  The 

*  The  majority  (forty)  of  the  Roman  mittiaria  in  Britain  are 
fully  described  in  Professor  Hiibner's  '  Jnscriptiones  Britannia* 
Latins/  under  the  head  'Viae  Publics/  pp.  206-214.  A  very 
interesting  account  is  given  of  these  forty  milestones,  together 
with  recent  discoveries  (Mr.  Watkin  and  others  bringing  the 
total  number  up  to  fifty-four  or  fifty-six,  two  being  doubtful), 
in  a  paper  by  the  Rev.  Prebendary  Scarth  in  the  ArchcKolo- 
yical  Journal,  vol.  xxxiv.,  pp.  395-405.  Another  milestone, 
discovered  at  Lincoln  in  1879,  has  since  been  added  to  the 
collection,  an  interesting  description  of  which  will  be  found  in 
a  paper  by  the  Rev.  Prebendary  Venables  in  the  Arck&ekgical 
Journal,  vol.  xxxvi.,  pp.  281-284.  For  other  details  as  to 
Roman  milliaria,  see  the  Archaeological  Journal,  vol.  xxxi.,  p.  353 
et  seq.,  and  vol.  xxxKi.,  p.  53  et  seq. ;  and  as  to  probable  mile- 
stones on  the  Yorkshire  Wolds  near  the  sea  coast,  see  Archceolvgia, 
vol.  xxvii.,  p.  404.  See  also  Cooper  King's  'History  of  Berk 
shire/  pp.  45,  46,  as  regards  the  Nymph  or  Imp  stone,  a  possible 
milestone  near  Silchester. 


MILESTONES,  POST-STATIONS,  AND  INNS    99 

earliest  belongs  to  the  age  of  Hadrian  (A.D.  120),  and 
the  latest  to  that  of  Constantine  Junior  (A.D.  336), 
and  they  therefore  extend  over  a  period  of  little  more 
than  200  years,  which,  though  in  itself  considerable, 
manifestly  embraces  only  half  of  that  during  which 
Roman  roads  were  made  and  repaired  in  Britain.  In 
addition  to  those  of  the  two  Emperors  above  mentioned, 
they  comprise  mllllaria  of  Caracalla,  Gordian,  the  two 
Philips,  father  and  son,  Decius,  Gallus  and  Volusianus, 
Posthumus,  Victorinus,  Tertius,  Aurelian,  Florianus, 
Numerianus,  Diocletian  and  Maximian,  Maximinus 
Daza,  Constantine  the  Great,  and  Crispus.  The 
scarcity  of  these  milestones  must  undoubtedly  be 
attributed  to  their  usefulness  both  for  building  and 
road-making  purposes,  since  few  in  search  of  materials 
for  either  of  these  objects  could  be  expected  to  spare 
a  promising-looking  block  of  stone  on  account  of  its 
cylindrical  form,  or  of  the  few  scarcely  legible  charac- 
ters upon  it.  It  might,  therefore,  perhaps  be  expected 
that  unfrequented  and  sparsely  populated  districts 
like  parts  of  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Cumberland  and 
Northumberland  would  have  produced  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  mittiaria.  Hitherto,  however,  this  is  by  no  means 
the  case.  Only  one  has  been  found  in  Cornwall,  and 
only  eight  in  Wales  ;  nine  have  been  found  in  Lanca- 
shire and  Cumberland  together,  and  seven  along  the 
line  of  the  Roman  Wall,  traversing  the  latter  county 
and  Northumberland.  Eastern  Britain — as  Mr.  Scarth 
terms  the  united  counties  Hants,  Kent,  Cambridgeshire, 
Northamptonshire,  Huntingdonshire,  and  Worcester- 
shire— has  yielded  thirteen,  and  Midland  Britain — 
Hereford,  Salop,  Derbyshire,  Leicestershire,  and  Lin- 

7—2 


100  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

colnshire — eleven.  On  the  three  earliest  Roman  roads 
in  Britain,  those  running  from  the  Kentish  coast  at 
Lympne,  Dover,  and  Richborough  to  Canterbury  and 
thence  to  London,  only  one  inscribed  milestone  has  been 
found ;  the  Roman  road  from  Chester  through  Lanca- 
shire into  Westmoreland  has  produced  ten ;  and  the 
great  north  road  traversing  Yorkshire  and  Durham 
six.  Lastly,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  only  two 
out  of  these  fifty-five  milestones  are  in  a  perfect  state 
of  preservation.  The  first  of  these  is  the  earliest  yet 
discovered.  It  was  found  on  the  Fosse  Way,  two  miles 
from  Leicester,  in  1771,  was  apparently  erected  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  bears  the  following 
inscription  :* 

IMP.  CAES. 

DIV.    TRAIANI,    PARTH.    F.    DIV.    NER.    NEP. 

TRAIAN.    HADRIAN.    AUG.    P.    P.    TRIB. 

POT.    IV.    COS.    III.    A.    RATIS. 

II. 


The  other,  the  latest  found  of  the  series,  was  dis- 
covered in  1879  in  the  centre  of  the  city  of  Lincoln,  at 
a  point  where  four  Roman  roads  intersect.  It  was 
erected  during  the  brief  reign  of  Marcus  Piavonius 
Victorinus,  one  of  the  so-called  '  thirty  tyrants  '  who 
usurped  the  imperial  power  on  the  accession  of  the 
effeminate  Gallienus. 

*  See  Buhner's  '  Jnscriptiones  Britannia?  Latin*/  p.  211 
(No.  1,169).  The  date  is  fixed  by  the  imperial  title  as  A.D.  120-121. 
See  Archaeological  Journal,  vol.  xxxi.,  p.  353,  and  vol.  xxxiv., 
p.  400.  The  stone  is  preserved  in  the  local  museum  at  Leicester. 


MILESTONES,  POST-STATIONS,  AND  INNS  101 

The  inscription  is  :* 

IMP.  CAES. 

MARCO. 
PIAVONIO. 
VICTOR  I. 

NO.     P.     PEL.     INV. 

AUG.    PONT.    MAX. 

TR.    P.    P.    P. 

A.    L.    S.    M. 

P.    XIIII. 

The  great  roads  diverging  from  the  several  gates  of 
Rome  were  originally  believed  to  have  been  all  measured 
from  a  gilt  marble  pillar  erected  by  Augustus  in  the 
forum,  which  was  called  the  mittiarium  aureivm.\  This 
system  of  measurement  is,  however,  said  to  have  been 
begun  by  Julius  Caesar,  and  as  the  milliarium  aureum 
was  set  up  long  after  the  regular  milestones  were  placed 
on  the  roads,  it  is  probable  that  they  were  measured 

*  See  Archaeological  Journal,  vol.  xxxvi.,  pp.  281-284,  and  cf. 
a  paper  read  by  the  Rev.  Prebendary  Scarth  at  Lincoln,  July  28, 
1880,  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Archaeological  Society,  on 
( The  Roman  Occupation  of  Lincoln  and  the  Eastern  Portion  of 
Britain.'  The  following  reading  of  the  inscription,  which  gives 
the  imperial  titles  and  the  distance  (fourteen  miles)  from  Lincoln 
to  Segelocum  (Littleburgh-on-Trent),  on  the  road  to  Doncaster 
and  York,  was  given  by  Prebendary  Wordsworth  : 

(  IMPERATI  C-iESARI  MARCO  PIAVONIO  VICTORINO  PIO  FELICI  INVICTO 
AUGUSTO  PONTIFICO  MAXIMO  TRIBUNICIA  PUTESTATE  PATRI^l  AB 
SEGELOCO  MILLIA  PASSUUM  XIIII.' 

f  ( Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities/  p.  762.  It 
seems  doubtful,  however,  how  far  this  system  of  measurement 
was  carried  out.  See  Archaeological  Joimtnl,  vol.  xxiv.,  p.  398, 
note  1. 


102 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


from  the  gates  of  the  city.*  Some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  the  vast  tracts  to  which  it  was  applied  in  the  later 
periods  of  the  Empire  by  the  calculation  given  by 
Gibbon-f-  of  the  measured  distance  from  the  Wall  of 
Antoninus  in  Britain  to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Jerusalem, 
or  from  the  north-west  to  the  north-east  point  of  the 
Empire.  The  roads  thus  measured  extended  over  no 
less  than  4,080  Roman  miles,  divided  into  the  following 
itinera : 

(1)  From  the  Wall  of  Antoninus  to  York,  222  miles  ; 
(2)  London,  227  miles  ;  (3)  Rutupiae  (Richborough  or 
Sandwich),  67  miles;  (4)  the  navigation  to  Boulogne, 
45  miles;  (5)  Rheims,  174  miles;  (6)  Lyons,  330  miles; 
(7)  Milan,  324  miles ;  (8)  Rome,  426  miles  ;  (9)  Brun- 
dusium,  360  miles ;  (10)  the  navigation  to  Dyrrachium, 
40  miles;  (11)  Byzantium,  711  miles;  (12)  Ancyra, 
283  miles;  (13)  Tarsus,  301  miles;  (14)  Antioch,  141 
miles;  (15)  Tyre,  252  miles;  and  (16)  Jerusalem,  168 
miles.  Thus  British  roads  may  be  called  extensions  of 
the  great  North  road,  the  Via  Flammia,  which  ran  from 
Rome  through  Umbria,  and  reached  the  coast  at 
Boulogne.  It  appears  probable  that  each  province  of 
the  Empire  had  its  mittiarium  aureum,  and  it  is  supposed 
by  some  that  the  well-known '  London  Stone,1  now  affixed 
to  the  walls  of  St.  Swithin's  Church  in  Cannon  Street,  is 
that  from  which  the  British  roads  were  measured.  The 
only  real  evidence  in  support  of  this  theory  seems  to  be 
that  seven  of  the  fifteen  itinera  of  Antoninus  terminate 
in  London — a  fact  which  of  itself  can  hardly  be  taken 

*  Smith's  '  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities/ 
3rd  ed.,  article  Milliare. 

f  '  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire/  vol.  i.,  p.  61. 


MILESTONES,  POST-STATIONS,  AND  INNS  103 

as  a  sufficient  proof  of  its  truth.  London,  though 
doubtless  an  important  commercial  city  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  seems  never  to  have  been  a  great  military 
station  or  seat  of  government,  and  to  have  had  no  claim 
to  be  considered  the  Roman  capital  of  the  British 
province.  There  seems  no  reason,  therefore,  why  it 
should  have  been  taken  as  a  centre  for  the  measurement 
of  roads,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  it  appears  extremely 
doubtful  whether  the  London  Stone  was  ever  inscribed, 
which  would  certainly,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  have  been 
the  case  had  it  been  a  genuine  milliarium  anreum. 

Throughout  the  course  of  the  great  Roman  roads,  at 
distances  of  a  day's  journey  apart,  were  erected  what 
may  be  termed  governmental  posting-stations,  where 
gigs  (clsia  and  esseda),  post-horses  (agmlnales)^  and 
postillions  (veredarii)  were  kept  for  carrying  the  Govern- 
ment despatches  or  for  the  use  of  travellers.  These 
establishments  were  called  mans'ioms — from  the  Latin 
manere^  to  pass  the  night — and  were  under  the  super- 
intendence of  officers  called  mansionarn  or  mancipes, 
whose  duty  appears  to  have  been,  among  other  things, 
to  stop  travellers  and  examine  their  passports  (diplo- 
rnata).  In  early  times  they  appear  to  have  been  merely 
entrenched  encampments,  and  were  called  castra ;  but 
during  the  period  of  the  Empire  they  included  not  only 
barracks  and  magazines  of  provisions  (horrea)  for  the 
troops,  but  spacious  buildings  for  the  reception  of  all 
classes  of  travellers,  and  even  of  the  Emperor  himself, 
should  he  be  obliged  to  halt  at  them.  Smaller  posting- 
stations,  called  vnutationeS)  where  horses  could  be  changed 
and  refreshment  procured,  were  placed  at  intervals 
between  the  mansiones>  there  being  generally  four  or 


104  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

five  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter.  Mr.  Wright 
says  that  the  keepers  of  these  were  termed  stratores,  a 
term  which  was  also  applied  to  officers  sent  into  the  pro- 
vinces to  select  horses  for  the  imperial  stud  or  for  the 
general  service  of  the  State.*  The  use  of  these  posting- 
stations  was,  according  to  Gibbon,  reserved  for  those 
who  claimed  it  by  an  imperial  mandate;  but  while 
primarily  intended  for  the  public  service,  was  some- 
times permitted  to  private  citizens  in  cases  of  urgent 
necessity.-f- 

In  addition  to  the  mansiones  and  mutationes,  there 
were  also,  however,  roadside  inns  on  the  Roman  ways, 
where  the  traveller  could  procure  food  and  lodging  for 
himself  and  his  horse.  These  were  called  caupona, 
tabernce,  deversoria?,  or  deversvria,  and  their  proprietors 
caupones  or  deversores.  J  One  of  the  Roman  road-books, 
compiled  about  the  time  of  Constantine — the  Itinerarium 
a  Burdigala  Hierusalem  usque — enumerates  in  order  all 
the  mansiones,  mutationes,  and  other  more  considerable 
places — called  either  civitates,  vici,  or  castella — on  the 
road  from  Bordeaux  to  Jerusalem,  giving  the  distances 
between  each.  The  only  contemporary  road-book  of 

*  See  article  mamio,  by  Mr.  James  Yates,  in  Dr.  Smith's 
'  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities/  p.  729  ;  ( The 
Celt;  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon/  p.  223 ;  and  article  Stratores, 
by  Professor  W.  Ramsay,  in  Dr.  Smith's  '  Dictionary  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities/  p.  1074. 

t  '  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire/  vol.  i.,  p.  G2. 
He  cites  the  case  of  Pliny,  who,  though  a  Minister  and  a  favourite, 
apologizes  (Epist.  x.,  pp.  121,  122)  for  granting  post-horses  to 
his  wife  on  the  most  urgent  business. 

J  ' The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon,'  p.  223 ;  'Caledonia 
Romana.' 


MILESTONES,  POST-STATIONS,  AND  INNS  105 

the  Roman  ways  in  Britain — the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus, 
which  will  be  more  fully  described  later  on — is,  how- 
ever, a  mere  list  of  names  set  down  without  any  index 
as  to  the  nature  or  size  of  the  places  they  indicate,  and 
a  difficulty  has  therefore  arisen  in  some  cases  in  deter- 
mining whether  the  stations  given  in  the  Itinera  are 
towns  or  merely  mamiones,  or  even  mutationes.  Mori- 
dunum,  mentioned  in  the  12th  and  15th  Itinera, 
is  an  instance  of  this.  '  The  Ravenna  Geographer ' 
places  it  near  Exeter  (Isca  Dumnoniornm),  and  Horsley 
considers  it  to  be  Eggerton  Hill,  between  Dorchester 
and  Bridport,  while  Leman  and  most  later  authorities 
believe  it  to  be  Seaton  or  else  Hembury,  near  Honiton. 
But,  whatever  its  locality,  it  seems  probable  that  this 
station  was  only  a  mutatio,  or  at  best  a  m-ansio,  the 
traces  of  which  have  been  altogether  lost. 

Miss  Steel,  in  her  work  on  'Travel  in  the  First 
Century  after  Christ,1  says  that  very  rich  people  who 
had  plenty  of  friends  along  the  route,  and  were  also 
able  to  take  tents  and  provisions  for  camping  out,  rarely 
used  inns,  and  that  these  were  mainly  frequented  by  the 
lower  classes. 

'Often  the  building  of  an  inn  was  the  beginning  of  a 
hamlet,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Tres  Tabernae  on  the  Appian 
Way.  Owners  of  estates  found  it  profitable  to  build  a 
tavern  in  the  road  hard  by,  make  a  freed  man  the  host, 
and  sell  off  their  wine  and  farm  produce.  Sometimes  inns 
were  built  by  municipal  authorities.  .  .  .  Sometimes, 
again,  the  cost  of  their  erection  was  borne  by  the  fiscus 
(the  Imperial  Treasury)  in  thinly  populated  or  half 
civilized  districts.'* 

*  P.  67. 


CHAPTER  IX 
ROMAN  VEHICLES  IN  BRITAIN 

Two-wheeled  gigs  kept  at  governmental  posting-stations  for 
use  of  travellers — Drivers  punishable  for  careless  driving — 
Varieties  of  British  vehicles  adopted  by  the  Romans — British 
war-chariots — The  covinus — The  carpentum — The  rheda — The 
petorritum — The  carruca — The  pilentvm — The  currus  or 
chariot  used  in  public  games  and  triumphal  processions — 
The  plaustrum  or  waggon. 

THERE  seems  good  ground  for  supposing  that  at  least 
seven  different  kinds  of  vehicles  must  have  been  in 
common  use  in  Roman  Britain,  two  of  which — the 
cismm  and  the  essedum — have  already  been  referred  to 
as  having  been  kept  at  the  governmental  posting- 
stations  (mansimies  and  mutationes). 

The  cisium  was  a  light,  open,  two- wheeled  carriage 
constructed  to  carry  two  persons,  with  a  box  or  case, 
probably  under  the  seat.  The  essedum  was  also  a 
two-wheeled  car,  made,  like  the  cisium,  for  rapid 
travelling,  and  very  similar  to  it  in  build,  the  chief 
difference  between  the  two  being  that  the  essedum  was 
always  drawn  by  a  pair,  and  the  cisium  by  a  single 
horse  or  mule.  The  drivers  of  these  hired  gigs  were 
liable  at  law  to  penalties  for  careless  or  dangerous 
driving. 

[106] 


ROMAN  VEHICLES  IN  BRITAIN        107 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  Roman  officials  and 
colonists  would  probably  bring  with  them,  or  cause  to 
be  constructed  here,  the  different  kinds  of  vehicles  in 
common  use  in  Italy,  and  that  as  these  became  common 
in  these  islands  they  would,  like  the  dress,  language, 
and  arts  of  the  conquerors,  be  adopted  by  the 
\ 


ESSEDUM.     (Ginzrot.) 

'Romanized'  Britons.  There  were,  however,  as  has 
been  already  mentioned,*  no  less  than  five  varieties  of 
conveyances  in  use  among  the  Britons,  as  also  among 
their  kinsmen  the  Belgae  and  Gauls,  prior  to  the 
Roman  conquests,  and  all  these  the  Romans,  who 
never  neglected  to  turn  to  account  any  useful  system  or 
*  See  ante,  p.  28. 


108  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

contrivance  which  they  met  with,  appear  to  have 
adopted  and  modified  to  suit  their  own  requirements. 
These  vehicles  were  the  essedum  above  mentioned,  the 
covinus,  the  carpentum,  the  rheda,  and  the  petorritum, 
and  we  shall  proceed  to  notice  them  first  before  describ- 
ing such  as  were  more  essentially  Roman. 

The  Roman  essedum  —  a  name  derived  from  the 
Celtic  essa  (carriage) — has  already  been  described  as  a 
posting-carriage.  The  essedum  of  the  Britons — which 
appears  also  to  have  been  in  use  among  the  Belgae,  the 
Gauls,  and  the  Germans — was  a  war  chariot,  which  was 
used  much  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  in  the  heroic  age,  but  which  differed  from  these 
in  being  stronger  and  heavier,  and  in  having  a  pole 
sufficiently  wide  to  enable  the  occupants  to  run  along 
it,  hurl  their  missiles,  and  retreat,  and  even,  if  they 
pleased,  raise  themselves  upon  the  yoke.  They  seem 
also  to  have  been  constructed  with  the  object  of  causing 
the  wheels  to  produce  a  loud  creaking  and  clanging, 
which  was  intended  to  strike  dismay  into  the  enemy. 
The  charioteers,  who  are  said  to  have  driven  them  with 
remarkable  skill  and  speed,  were  called  essedarii,  and 
appear  to  have  ranked  higher  than  their  fighting  com- 
panions, the  exact  reverse  of  the  Greek  usage.  There 
were  4,000  of  these  essedarii,  who  seem  to  have  held  a 
very  high  rank  in  the  British  armies,  in  the  force  of 
Casivelaunus.  Those  who  were  captured  were  some- 
times exhibited  in  the  gladiatorial  shows  at  Rome, 
where  they  appear  to  have  been  great  favourites  among 
the  people. 

The  covinus — which  took  its  name  from  the  Celtic 
kowain — was,  like  the  essedum,  used  as  a  war  chariot  of 


ROMAN  VEHICLES  IN  BRITAIN        109 

the  Britons  and  Belgae.  It  appears  to  have  been 
made  to  carry  only  the  charioteer  who  drove  it,  who 
was  termed  the  covmarius,  and  to  have  been  covered  on 
all  sides  save  the  front  with  a  view  to  protection.  The 
spokes  of  the  wheels  were  armed  with  scythes  intended 
to  cut  a  way  through  the  ranks  of  the  enemy  in  a 
charge.  The  covinarii  seem  to  have  constituted  a 
regular  and  distinct  portion  of  the  British  armies. 
The  covinus  of  the  Romans  was  a  kind  of  travelling 
carriage,  which  seems  to  have  been  similar  in  form  to 
the  British  chariot  without  the  scythes,  being  also 
covered  on  all  sides  save  the  front,  and  constructed  to 
hold  only  the  traveller,  who  drove  himself. 

Carpenta  were  largely  used  by  the  Britons,  as  well  as 
by  the  Gauls,  the  Cimbri,  the  Allobroges,  the  Helvetii, 
and  other  northern  nations,  and,  together  with  baggage- 
waggons  and  other  carts  of  the  more  common  form, 
seem  to  have  been  included  under  the  general  term 
carrum  or  carrus,  a  Celtic  name  with  a  Latin  termina- 
tion signifying  a  four-wheeled  carriage.  The  Gauls 
and  the  Helvetii  always  took  a  great  number  of  them 
on  their  military  expeditions,  and  used  them  to  form 
lines  of  circumvallation  round  their  encampments,  and 
it  seems  probable  that  the  Britons  must  have  used  them 
for  the  same  purpose.  Caesar  is  said  to  have  first  met 
with  them  among  the  Gauls,  from  whom  they  may 
perhaps  therefore  have  been  adopted  by  the  Romans. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  however,  there  seems  no  doubt  that 
the  carpentum  was  one  of  the  earliest  kinds  of  Roman 
carriages  of  which  we  find  any  mention.  In  the  time  of 
the  Republic,  when  the  use  of  carriages  in  the  city  was 
entirely  forbidden,  the  Roman  matrons  were  permitted 


110  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

to  attend  the  public  festal  processions  in  carpenta,  a 
right  sometimes  granted  in  later  periods  as  a  special 
privilege  to  females  of  the  imperial  family.  Under  the 
Empire,  however,  though  still  used  as  a  kind  of  State 
carriage,  on  which  occasions  it  was  richly  ornamented, 
it  seems  also  to  have  been  used  by  private  persons  for 
journeys.  It  contained  seats  for  two,  and  sometimes 
for  three,  persons  besides  the  coachman,  and  was 
generally  drawn  by  a  pair  of  mules,  though  also  occa- 
sionally by  horses  or  oxen,  and  sometimes,  like  a 
quadriga,  by  four  horses.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
Romans  seem,  like  ourselves,  to  have  had  the  custom  of 
sending  carriages  to  attend  funerals,  and  that  carpenta, 
elaborately  adorned,  were  sometimes  used  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  the  games  and  other  solemnities  instituted 
by  Caligula  in  honour  of  his  deceased  mother,  Agrip- 
pina,  her  carpentum  went  in  the  procession — an  event 
commemorated  in  an  alto  -  relievo  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  which  was  taken  from  a  sarcophagus, 
and  represents  a  close  carpentum  with  four  horses,  while 
Mercury,  the  conductor  of  ghosts  to  Hades,  appears  on 
the  front,  and  Castor  and  Pollux  with  their  horses  on 
the  side-panels. 

The  rheda  or  reda  was  a  four-wheeled  carriage  of 
Gallic  origin,  the  name  of  which,  perhaps,  contains  the 
same  root  as  the  German  reiten  and  our  ride ;  and  the 
facts  that  the  Belgse  in  Gaul  and  in  Britain  were  of 
the  same  race,  and  that  the  language,  manners,  build- 
ings, and,  as  the  above  examples  show,  most  of  the 
vehicles  of  the  tribes  on  one  side  of  the  Channel  were, 
in  many  respects,  identical  with  those  on  the  other, 
seem  to  justify  the  presumption  that  it  must  also  have 


ROMAN  VEHICLES  IN  BRITAIN        111 

been  in  use  in  these  islands.  It  was  the  carriage 
usually  used  by  the  Romans  for  travelling  purposes, 
and  was  often  made  sufficiently  large  to  contain  many 
persons  as  well  as  luggage  and  utensils  of  various  kinds. 
The  petorritum — a  name  derived  from  the  Celtic 
petor  (four),  and  rit  (a  wheel) — was,  like  the  rheda,  a 
Gallic,  and  therefore  also,  for  the  reasons  above  men- 
tioned, presumably  a  British  carriage,  which  was  adopted 
by  the  Romans.  It  differed  from  the  carpentum  in 


CARPENTUM.     (Ginzrot.) 

being  always  uncovered,  but,  like  it,  was  probably  drawn 
usually  by  mules. 

In  addition  to  the  varieties  of  vehicles  above  enumer- 
ated, there  are  four  others  which,  having  regard  to  the 
duration  of  the  Roman  occupation,  may  perhaps  be 
assumed  to  have  been  used  in  Britain  by  the  Romans, 
though,  as  they  were  essentially  Roman  in  their  origin, 
it  is  not  possible  to  pronounce  positively  on  this  point 
— the  camuca,  the  pttentum,  the  currus,  and  the 
plaustrum.  It  may  be  conjectured  with  a  fair  amount 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


of  probability  that  the  two  first  kinds  of  carriages  were, 
in  the  first  instance,  brought  over  by  Roman  officials 
and  individuals  of  high  rank,  and  eventually  were 
adopted  to  some  extent  by  the  Britons.  The  discovery 
of  the  remains  of  amphitheatres  near  the  sites  of 
several  of  the  larger  cities  of  Roman  Britain  is  evi- 
dence of  the  fact  that  the  Romans  held  gladiatorial 
shows  and  games  here  as  in  their  native  country,  and 
it  may  reasonably  be  assumed  that  the  third  variety  of 


CARRUCA. 

From  Column  of  Trajan.     (Ginzrot. ) 

Roman  vehicle — the  currus — must  have  been  introduced 
in  connection  with  these.  The  plaustrum,  a  kind  of 
cart  which  is  still  in  use  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  may 
also,  perhaps,  have  been  brought  to  these  islands  by  the 
Romans  as  being  in  common  use  among  them  for  agri- 
cultural purposes. 

The  carruca,  the  name  of  which  occurs  only  under 
the  Emperors,  and  which  appears  to  have  been  a  variety 
of  the  rheda  above  mentioned,  was  a  four-wheeled 


ROMAN  VEHICLES  IN  BRITAIN        113 


carriage  used  in  travelling.  Nero  is  said  to  have  never 
travelled  without  a  thousand  of  these  carrucce,  and 
they  seem  to  have  been  largely  used  by  the  Roman 
nobility.  Those  belonging  to  the  Emperors  and  to 
persons  of  distinction  appear  to  have  been  covered  with 
plates  of  bronze,  silver,  and  even  gold,  which  were 
sometimes  ornamented  with  embossed  work.  Thus  we 
are  told  that  Alexander  Severus  permitted  the  Roman 
senators  to  use  carruccc  and  rhedce  plated  with  silver, 


CARRUCA.     (Ginzrot.) 

and  Martial  speaks  of  a  golden  carnwa  (aurea  carruca) 
which  cost  the  value  of  a  farm.  Sometimes,  however, 
they  seem  to  have  been  actually  made  of  solid  silver, 
while  the  trappings  of  the  mules  or  horses  which  drew 
them  were  embossed  with  gold.  Gibbon  tells  us  that 
these  magnificent  coaches  continued  to  be  in  use  from 
the  time  of  Nero  to  that  of  Honorius,  and  he  quotes 
a  passage  from  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  in  which  the 
historian  describes  the  nobles  of  his  day  as  '  measuring 
their  rank  and  consequence  according  to  the  loftiness  of 

8 


114 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


their  chariots  and  the  weight  and  magnificence  of  their 
dress/  'Followed  by  a  train  of  fifty  servants/  says 
Marcellinus,  '  and  tearing  up  the  pavement,  they  move 
along  the  streets  with  the  same  impetuous  speed  as  if 
they  travelled  with  post-horses,  and  the  example  of  the 
senators  is  boldly  imitated  by  the  matrons  and  ladies, 
whose  covered  carriages  are  continually  driving  round 
the  immense  space  of  the  city  and  suburbs/  The 
Romans  seem,  indeed,  to  have  used  their  carriages  much 
as  we  do  our  own.  We  learn  that  when  St.  Melania 
returned  to  Rome  six  years  before  the  Gothic  siege, 
the  Appian  Way  was  covered  with  the  splendid 
equipages  of  the  nobles  who  came  out  to  meet  her. 
Romans  of  rank  probably  travelled  in  camica?  or 
rhedce  when  they  went  to  visit  their  estates  in  the 
country.  On  these  occasions,  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
tells  us,  they  were  accompanied  by  their  whole  house- 
holds, which,  besides  domestic  officers,  comprised  an 
enormous  number  of  cooks,  attendants,  and  slaves ;  and 
we  learn  from  Seneca  that  they  were  preceded  by  a 
troop  of  Numidian  light  horse,  and  that  their  baggage, 
including  even  precious  vases  and  fragile  vessels  of 
crystal  and  porcelain,  was  transported  by  mules. 
Roman  Britain  appears  to  have  been  plentifully  studded 
with  the  country  seats  (villas  rusticce)  above  mentioned, 
and  we  may  conclude  that  their  wealthy  owners  per- 
formed their  journeys  to  and  from  them  much  in  the 
same  manner  as  they  would  have  done  had  they  been 
situated  in  Italy.  Carrucce  were  also  used  for  carrying 
women,  on  which  occasions  they  seem  to  have  been 
always  drawn  by  mules,  which  are  referred  to  by  Ulpian 
as  mulce  camicarive. 


ROMAN  VEHICLES  IN  BRITAIN        115 

The  pttentum  was  a  richly-ornamented,  four-wheeled 
carriage,  used  for  conveying  the  vestal  virgins  and  the 
Roman  matrons  in  sacred  processions,  and  in  going  to 
the  Circensian  and  other  games — a  distinction  said  to 
have  been  granted  by  the  senate  to  the  latter  on 
account  of  their  generously  giving  their  gold  and 
jewels  on  a  particular  occasion  to  the  service  of  the 
State.  It  was  furnished  with  soft  cushions,  and  was 
probably  very  similar  in  form  to  the  carpentum,  but 
different  from  it  in  being  open  at  the  sides  so  as  to 
allow  its  occupants  both  to  see  and  be  seen. 

The  currus  or  chariot  seems  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Romans  chiefly  in  the  public  games  and  in  the  triumphal 
processions  of  Roman  Emperors  and  Generals.  It  had 
two  wheels,  and  a  single  pole  and  yoke  to  which  a  pair 
of  horses  were  attached  by  their  necks,  and  differed 
from  the  cwum  in  being  closed  in  front,  and  from  the 
carpentum  in  being  open  overhead.  When  drawn  by  a 
pair  it  was  styled  bigce^  but  it  was  often  drawn  by 
three  and  also  by  four  horses,  the  third  and  fourth 
horses  being  attached  to  the  chariot  by  traces,  and  it 
was  then  termed  trigoe,  or  quadrigce,  according  to 
the  number  of  the  horses.  It  was  made  to  hold  only 
the  charioteer  and  one  companion,  both  of  whom  stood. 
The  chariots  in  which  victorious  Generals  made  their 
entry  into  Rome  when  celebrating  their  triumphs  were 
always  quadrigae,  magnificently  decorated.  The  body 
of  the  car  was  curved  in  outline,  and  it  differed  from  the 
ordinary  chariot  in  having  no  poles,  the  horses  being 
led  by  men  on  foot. 

The  plaustrum  was  a  waggon  which,  in  its  commonest 
form,  consisted  of  a  pair  of  wheels  and  an  axle  and  a 

8—2 


116 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


strong  pole  (temo),  on  the  hinder  part  of  which  was 
fastened  a  platform  of  wooden  planks  upon  which  the 
load  to  be  carried  was  placed,  this  being  sometimes  left 
without  any  further  support,  and  sometimes  secured  either 
by  boards  at  the  sides  or  in  a  large  wicker  basket  tied 
upon  the  cart.  Sometimes,  but  more  rarely,  the  plan- 
strum  had  four  wheels,  in  which  case  it  was  termed 
plaustrum  magnui.  In  many  cases,  though  not  always, 
the  wheels  were  rigidly  attached  to  the  axle,  which 


WAR  CHARIOT. 
From  an  ancient  lamp.     (Ginzrot. ) 

revolved,  as  in  our  children's  carts,  within  wooden  rings, 
termed  arbusculce,  fastened  to  the  body,  the  parts  of 
the  axis  which  revolved  within  them  being  some- 
times cased  with  iron.  The  commonest  kind  of  cart- 
wheel, termed  tympanum,  (the  drum),  from  its  re- 
semblance to  that  musical  instrument,  was  nearly  a 
foot  in  thickness,  and  was  made  either  by  sawing  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  across  in  a  horizontal  direction,  or  by 
nailing  together  boards  of  the  necessary  shape  and  size. 
These  wheels  are  said  to  have  served  to  keep  the  roads 


ROMAN  VEHICLES  IN  BRITAIN        117 

in  good  repair,  while  at  the  same  time  they  did  not  cut 
up  the  fields,  but  their  construction  made  it  necessary 
for  the  driver  to  take  a  long  circuit  in  turning.  The 
progress  of  the  plaustrum,  which  appears  to  have  been 
usually  drawn  by  oxen,  was  slow,  and  was  accompanied 
by  a  loud  creaking  noise,  and  they  were  also  liable  to 
be  somewhat  easily  upset,  while  the  waggoner  was 
sometimes  obliged  to  aid  the  team  with  his  shoulder. 
The  Emperor  Hadrian  prohibited  heavily  loaded 
waggons  from  entering  Rome,  but  we  have  no  evidence 
as  to  whether  any  similar  rule  may  have  prevailed  in 
the  chief  cities  of  Roman  Britain. 


PLAUSTRUM. 
From  a  bas-relief  on  a  Roman  tombstone  at  Langres.     (Ginzrot. ) 


CHAPTER  X 

ROMAN  TRAVELLERS 

Facilities  for  travelling  in  Britain  during  the  Roman  occupation 
greater  than  in  the  eighteenth  century — British  highways 
only  formed  a  section  of  the  Roman  highway  system — 
Number  and  variety  of  travellers  on  the  Roman  roads — A 
Roman  army  on  the  march — Some  of  the  Emperors  great 
travellers — The  journey  of  imperial  officials — Passports — 
Transport  of  merchandise — Traffic  in  the  towns — Apparent 
rarity  of  travel  on  horsehack — Litters — Societies  formed  at 
Rome  for  providing  a  service  of  public  litters — Sedan  chairs 
— Journeys  of  private  individuals — Speed  of  travelling — The 
passion  for  travel  originated  with  the  Romans — The  viaticum 
and  the  legativum — Continuous  stream  of  travellers  between 
Britain  and  the  Continent — Dover  and  Boulogne  relatively 
as  important  in  Roman  as  in  British  times — Legend  with 
respect  to  Britain  current  in  Northern  France  in  the  fifth 
century. 

IT  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  chapters  that  the  faci- 
lities for  travelling  in  Britain  must  have  been  far  greater 
during  the  Roman  occupation  than  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  want  of  communica- 
tion between  London  and  the  country  districts  was  so 
great  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital  regarded  those 
of  distant  counties  as  almost  belonging  to  a  different 
species,  and  a  journey  into  the  country  was  considered 
as  scarcely  less  formidable  than  a  voyage  to  the  Indies. 

[118] 


ROMAN  TRAVELLERS  119 

It  was  a  common  incident  of  travel  in  those  days  for 
the  family  coach,  heavily  loaded  with  luggage  and 
provisions,  to  sink  so  deep  in  the  stiff*  clay  of  the  roads 
that  the  combined  efforts  of  all  the  men  and  teams  in  a 
village  were  required  to  extricate  it,*  and  the  driver 
and  men  of  the  party  were  always  provided  with 
arms  to  resist  the  attacks  of  highwaymen,  who  were 
acquiesced  in  as  necessary  evils  until  the  reign  of 
William  III.  Under  the  Roman  Empire  there  appears, 
indeed,  to  have  been  a  good  deal  of  brigandage  on  the 
roads  at  certain  periods ;  but  it  was  always  systematically 
and  sternly  repressed  by  the  imperial  troops,  and  travel 
was  far  more  secure  throughout  its  territories  than  it 
was  in  England  and  in  parts  of  the  Continent  up  to  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  than  it  now  is  in 
Syria,  Palestine,  Turkey,  and  other  old  Roman  pro- 
vinces. Though  the  perils  of  travel  in  this  country 
gradually  disappeared  with  the  improvement  of  the 
roads,  '  even  twentieth  -  century  England '  might,  as 
Miss  Steel  justly  observes,  '  well  imitate  the  foresight 
and  thoroughness  which  were  the  characteristics  of  the 
imperial  system  of  communication."  f 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  Romans  constructed 
their  road  system  in  Britain,  not  only  for  military 
purposes,  but  also  to  facilitate  civil  administration  and 
the  development  of  commerce  in  the  British  province. 
It  must  also  be  remembered,  however,  that,  as  its  con- 
struction was  primarily  governed  by  the  requirements 
of  imperial  policy,  they  themselves  regarded  it  merely 
as  the  most  western  section  of  the  great  network  of 

*  See  the  ' Annual  Register3  for  1761. 

f  '  Travel  in  the  First  Century/  pp.  00,  70. 


120  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

highways  that  extended  1,000  miles  from  the  northern 
frontiers  of  Britain  to  the  borders  of  Ethiopia,  and  to 
an  even  greater  extent  from  east  to  west,  which  served 
both  to  bind  together  the  heterogeneous  mass  of  nations 
composing  the  Empire  and  also  to  connect  them  with 
Rome,  the  centre  of  the  world's  government  and  the 
emporium  of  its  trade.  A  graphic  description  is  given 
by  Miss  Steel  of  the  different  classes  of  travellers  who 
frequented  these  great  highways,*  and  several  of  those 
whom  she  enumerates  must  have  been  often  met  with 
on  our  own  British  roads.  Some  of  the  Emperors — 
such  as  Augustus,  who  is  said  to  have  visited  every 
province  except  Africa  and  Sardinia,  and  Gaius  and 
Domitian,  whose  journeys  were  dreaded  on  account  of 
the  devastation  caused  by  their  extortionate  requisitions 
— were  frequent  travellers  by  them  when  visiting  various 
parts  of  their  dominions.  Throughout  the  Empire 
they  were  constantly  traversed  by  troops  on  the  march, 
Government  officials,  and  merchants ;  by  wealthy  citizens 
journeying  to  and  from  their  country  seats,  or  to 
seaside  resorts,  or  in  search  of  health ;  by  explorers,  like 
Strabo  the  geographer ;  by  students  at  the  great  schools 
of  Rome,  Athens,  Alexandria,  Smyrna,  and  Tarsus  ;t 
by  the  motley  crowd  of  musicians,  jugglers,  pedlars,  and 
athletes  visiting  the  fairs  and  great  festivals,  such  as 

*  ( Travel  in  the  First  Century/  pp.  16-19. 

f  As  already  mentioned  (see  p.  8)  a  Roman-British  university 
appears  to  have  been  founded  at  Llantwit,  on  the  Glamorgan- 
shire coast,  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.,  at  which  the  more 
enlightened  Britons,  including  Gildas,  were  educated.  It 
reached  its  acme  under  the  great  St.  Iltud,  its  Chancellor  before 
the  landing  of  St.  Augustine  in  Kent,  520  A.D.  See  the  Archfeo- 
logicalJournal,  vol.  vi.  (1900). 


ROMAN  TRAVELLERS  121 

the  Nemean  Games  or  Eleusinean  Mysteries ;  by  needy 
adventurers  on  their  way  to  Rome  or  great  provincial 
cities ;  and  by  the  Jews,  '  scattered  abroad,'  who  went 
up  periodically  to  the  feasts  at  Jerusalem.  To  these 
may  be  added  troops  of  slaves  in  charge  of  dealers  con- 
ducting them  to  Rome  and  other  markets  for  their 
trade  ;  and  in  the  provinces,  such  as  Britain,  the  native 
inhabitants,  who  were  probably  regarded  by  the 
Romans  proper  in  much  the  same  light  as  those  of 
India  are  looked  on  by  the  British  traveller. 

Imperial  officials  travelled  by  the  system  of  the  Im- 
perial Post  described  in  a  previous  chapter,  which  was 
strictly  reserved  for  their  use  and  for  those  who  had  re- 
ceived a  special  passport  called  a  diploma,  consisting  of 
two  folding  tablets  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  reign- 
ing Emperor,  that  of  the  person  authorized  to  use  the 
Post,  and  the  period  for  which  the  passport  was  avail- 
able. The  horses  and  mules  mentioned  as  kept  at  the 
various  mutationes  and  mansiones  were  supplied  by  the 
neighbouring  communities  until  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
who  transferred  the  charge  of  providing  them  to  the  Im- 
perial Treasury  in  A.D.  49-50.  The  number  of  muta- 
tiones  where  relays  of  horses  could  be  obtained  between 
each  mansio  was  generally  six.  A  regular  service  of 
4  legionary  centurions '  drawn  from  legions  stationed  in 
the  provinces  was,  according  to  Mommsen,  established 
by  Augustus  to  act  as  commissariat  agents,  couriers,  and 
wardens. 

Merchandise  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  carried  by 
means  of  pack-horses  (cabcdti),  luggage  mules  or  asses, 
and  waggons  (plaustra  or  sarracea\  the  loads  where  pack 
transport  was  used  being  carried  in  a  pair  of  panniers 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

(clitelloe\  though  slaves  may  also  have  been  employed 
for  the  purpose.  In  Britain  it  is  probable  that  the  use 
of  waggons  predominated,  for  even  before  the  Roman 
conquest  of  the  island  it  is  stated  by  Deodorus  Siculus 
(vol.  xxii.)  that  the  land  carriage  of  the  tin  exported 
from  Ictis  (presumably  identical  with  Vectis,  the  Isle  of 
Wight)  in  Britain  to  Gaul  was  performed  by  means  of 
waggons  in  the  former  country  and  by  pack-horses  in 
the  latter — a  fact,  it  may  be  noted,  which  seems  to  imply 
that  the  British  were  superior  to  the  Gaulish  roads. 
Customs  duties  were  strictly  levied  at  the  frontiers  and 
at  various  points  on  the  roads,  all  imported  wares  pay- 
ing duty,  while  the  export  of  others,  especially  iron, 
was  prohibited ;  and  in  Britain,  which  was  one  of  nine 
specially  organized  taxation  provinces,*  the  duty, 
according  to  Miss  Steel,  was  probably  2£  per  cent.t 

Until  the  reign  of  Septimus  Severus,  riding  and 
driving  were  closely  restricted,  both  in  Rome  and  the 
provincial  cities,  and  the  traffic  in  the  ordinary  provin- 
cial towns  seems  to  have  been  conducted  as  in  some 
oriental  cities  of  the  present  day,  where  heavy  burdens 
are  carried  on  the  backs  of  horses,  mules,  or  cattle, 
while  riding  on  horseback  or  in  a  litter  is  exceptional, 
and  driving  unknown.  Even  in  Rome  and  the  Italian 
cities  driving  was  only  permitted  at  night,  and  the  start 
on  a  long  journey  was  usually  from  one  of  the  city  gates, 
where  the  chariot  or  coach  was  waiting  in  readiness. 
On  the  highroads,  on  the  other  hand,  carnage  traffic 

*  The  other  eight  provinces  were  Sicily  ;  Spanish  provinces ; 
Gallia  Narbonensis ;  the  three  Gauls ;  Maesea,  Ripa,  Thracia, 
Pannonia,  Dalmatia,  Norrica ;  Asia  ;  Bithyuia  ;  and  Egypt. 

f  'Travel  in  the  First  Century,'  p.  42. 


ROMAN  TRAVELLERS  123 

seems  to  have  been  so  general  for  persons  of  any  means 
that  very  few  references  occur  to  riding. 

We  learn  from  Lampridius,  who  lived  in  the  fourth 
century,  and  wrote  the  lives  of  Commodus,  Alexander 
Severus,  and  others  of  theEmperors,  the  methodical  way 
in  which  the  march  of  a  Roman  army  to  the  scene  of 
the  campaign  was  conducted.  In  his  life  of  Alexander 
Severus  he  tells  us  that  '  public  notice  was  given  of  his 
daily  marches,  in  so  much  that  an  edict  was  fixed  up 
two  months  before  in  which  it  was  written :  "  such  a  day 
and  at  such  an  hour  I  shall  set  out  from  the  city,  and, 
if  the  Gods  permit,  stop  at  the  first  mansion  ";  and  then 
the  stages  were  mentioned  in  order,  after  that  the 
stated  quarters,  and  where  they  were  to  receive  corn ; 
and  this  was  continued  till  they  came  to  the  borders  of 
the  barbarians,  after  which  all  was  concealed.1 

Ward,  who  quotes  this  passage  in  his  '  Essay  on  the 
Peutingerian  Table  in  Horsley's  "  Britannia  Romana,"  '* 
says  that  this  practice  was  not  peculiar  to  Severus,  but 
was  followed  by  all  Roman  commanders,  and  he  refers 
in  proof  of  this  statement  to  a  passage  in  one  of  the 
sermons  of  St.  Ambrose. 

In  addition  to  the  various  kinds  of  carriages  which 
have  been  described,  the  Romans  made  use  of  two  or 
three  varieties  of  litters  and  also  of  sedan  chairs  for 
travelling  purposes. 

Of  these  the  chief  was  the  lectica,  which  was  originally 
used  in  early  times,  under  the  Republic,  only  for  in- 
valids, but  was  afterwards  generally  adopted  as  a  means 
of  conveyance,  at  first  only  for  journeys  outside  the 
city,  but  eventually  under  the  Empire,  in  Rome  itself. 
*  See  p.  510. 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


It  was  oblong  in  form,  and  consisted  of  a  bed  on  which 
the  person  conveyed  lay,  his  head  being  supported  by  a 
pillow  in  order  that  he  might  read  and  write  with  ease, 
with  a  roof,  formed  of  a  large  piece  of  skin  or  leather, 
stretched  over  it  and  supported  by  four  posts.  The 
sides  were  also  closed  in  earlier  times  with  curtains 
(vela  plagce  or  plagul(E),  but,  under  the  Empire,  with 
windows  made  of  transparent  material  (lapis  specular  is). 
When  standing  it  rested  on  four  feet,  generally  made  of 
wood.  The  lectica  seems  to  have  been  frequently  con- 
structed so  as  to  hold  more  persons  than  one.  It  was 
carried  by  means  of  poles  (asseres),  attached  but  not 
fixed  to  it,  and  easily  removable,  which  rested  on  the 
shoulders  of  slaves,  specially  appointed  for  the  purpose, 
who  were  called  lecticarii.  The  number  of  slaves  em- 
ployed to  carry  a  litter  appears  to  have  been  generally 
two,  but  it  varied,  according  to  the  size  and  the  display 
of  wealth  which  the  owner  wished  to  make,  from  two  to 
eight.  The  lecticarii  were  always  well  dressed,  and  the 
tallest,  strongest,  and  handsomest  men  among  the  slaves 
of  a  household  were  generally  chosen  for  the  duty. 
Another  slave  called  the  anteambulo,*  whose  office  it 
was  to  make  room  for  the  lectica  of  his  master,  usually 
preceded  it.  After  the  reign  of  Claudius  every  wealthy 
Roman  kept  one  or  more  lecticce,  with  a  corresponding 
number  of  lecticarii,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  there  were 
also  companies  to  establish  public  lecticce  (corpus  lecti- 
cariorum),  formed  by  enterprising  freedmen — members  of 
the  Roman  lower  classes — which  had  their  stands  in  the 

*  Probably  the  origin  of  the  modern  footman,  who,  when 
carriages  were  first  introduced  into  this  country,  walked  or  ran 
in  front  of  them  to  clear  the  way,  a  custom  still  remaining  in 
India. 


ROMAN  TRAVELLERS  125 

regio  transtiberina,  and  probably  in  other  parts  of  the 
city,  where  anyone  might  take  a  lectica  on  hire.  It 
may  be  added  that  the  term  lectica  was  also  applied 
to  the  couches  in  which  the  dead  were  carried  to  the 
grave.  These  Ucticce  funebres — representations  of  which 
have  been  found  on  several  sepulchral  monuments — 
apparently  differed  very  little  in  form  from  the  lecticce 
used  for  purposes  of  conveyance,  and  seem  to  have  been 
carried  in  the  same  way  ;  but  the  lecticarii,  instead  of 
being  the  slaves  of  private  owners,  were — at  all  events 
during  the  later  periods  of  the  Empire — public  servants 
appointed  for  the  purpose  of  bearing  the  deceased  to 
the  place  of  burial  without  any  expense  to  the  family  of 
which  he  had  been  a  member.  The  beauty  and  costli- 
ness of  the  ornament  of  the  lectica funebris  were,  of  course, 
dependent  upon  the  rank  and  circumstances  of  the  de- 
ceased— that  of  Augustus,  for  example,  being  made  of 
gold  and  ivory,  and  covered  with  costly  drapery  work 
of  gold  and  purple. 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  a  mode  of  conveyance 
so  popular  among  the  Romans  as  the  lectica  must  also 
have  been  in  common  use  in  Britain.  The  same  may 
also  probably  be  asserted  with  regard  to  the  basterna, 
another  variety  of  litter,  which  appears  to  have  been 
reserved  for  the  use  of  women  only,  and  to  be  peculiar 
to  the  period  of  the  Empire.  It  seems  to  have  very 
closely  resembled  the  lectica,  but  to  have  been  carried 
by  two  mules  instead  of  by  slaves. 

The  arcera,  the  third  of  the  varieties  of  litter  we 
have  mentioned,  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
its  likeness  to  an  area  or  chest.  It  was  covered  and 
spread  with  clothes,  and  appears  to  have  been  used  only 
to  carry  the  aged  and  the  infirm. 


126 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


There  were  two  varieties  of  sedans  in  use  among  the 
Romans  which  are  sometimes  confounded  with  the 
lectica,  though  they  were,  in  fact,  entirely  different  from 
it.  These  were  the  sella  and  the  cathedra,  both  of  which 
were  portable  chairs  in  which  the  person  carried  sat 
upright  instead  of  reclining  as  in  the  lectica.  The  chief 
difference  between  the  two  seems  to  have  been  that  the 
cathedra  had  a  soft  seat,  and  was  used  only  by  women, 
while  the  sella  was  used  by  both  sexes.  The  sella  was 
sometimes  open,  but  more  generally  closed,  and  when 
made  roomy  was  spoken  of  as  laxa,  but  when  small 
was  termed  sellula.  It  was  either  made  of  plain 
leather,  or  ornamented  with  bone,  ivory,  silver  or  gold, 
according  to  the  rank  and  fortune  of  the  proprietor, 
and  was  used  in  the  country  as  well  as  in  the  town.  It 
was  furnished  with  a  cushion  to  support  the  head  and 
neck,  and  the  motion  was  so  easy  that  the  occupant 
might  study  without  inconvenience,  while  it  at  the 
same  time  afforded  healthful  exercise. 

Of  the  accounts  by  Roman  authors  of  the  journeys 
of  private  individuals,  the  best  known  is  probably  the 
description  by  Horace  of  that  made  by  him  in  company 
with  his  friends,  Virgil,  Meccenas,  Plotius,  and  Varius, 
from  Rome  to  Brindisi  (Brundusium).  They  appear  to 
have  occupied  twelve  if  not  fifteen  days  in  traversing 
350  odd  miles — an  average  at  the  best  of  from  25  to 
30  miles  a  day.  As,  however,  they  entertained  each 
other  at  their  respective  villas  on  the  way,  entered  into 
all  the  amusements  they  met  with  on  the  road,  and 
seem,  in  short,  to  have  made  their  State  business  the 
excuse  for  a  pleasure  excursion,  we  must  conclude  that, 
as  the  poet  indeed  admits  with  regard  to  one  portion 


ROMAN  TRAVELLERS  127 

of  the  route,  they  travelled  on  the  principle  of  spending 
two  days  over  what  other  people  accomplished  in  one.* 
Still,  making  due  allowance  for  the  nature  of  the 
journey,  there  seems  little  doubt  that  the  rate  of 
travelling  at  the  time  when  Horace  wrote — the  com- 
mencement of  the  Empire — was  slow;  for  Cicero,  writing 
scarcely  fifty  years  earlier,  tells  us,  as  if  the  fact  were 
remarkable,  that  a  messenger  accomplished  a  drive  of 
fifty-six  miles  in  the  cisia  or  gigs  above  mentioned  in 
ten  hours — a  rate  of  under  six  Roman  miles  an  hour. 
In  the  later  periods  of  the  Empire,  however,  when  the 
Roman  road  system,  the  growth  of  which,  in  Horace's 
time,  Augustus  did  so  much  to  promote,  had  attained 
its  full  perfection,  enormous  distances  were  traversed  in 
an  extraordinarily  short  space  of  time.  The  well-known 
journey  from  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia  to  Boulogne, 
which  enabled  Constantine  the  Great  to  join  his  father, 
Constantius  Chlorus,  on  the  eve  of  his  embarkation  for 
Britain,  and  was  thus  the  main  cause  of  the  former's  elec- 
tion as  Emperor  by  the  army  at  York,  was  accomplished 
by  relays  of  post-horses.  Perhaps  a  still  more  remarkable 
instance  of  the  speed  attained  in  posting  is  the  journey 
of  Ciesarius,  a  magistrate  of  high  rank,  in  the  reign  of 
Theodosius,  who  travelled  by  post  from  Antioch  to 
Constantinople,  a  distance  of  665  English  miles,  in 
less  than  six  days,  and  traversed  165  miles  of  the  route 
— from  Antioch  to  Cappadocia — in  one  day.  The  Dic- 

*  Hor.,  'Sermon/  lib.  i.,  p.  5.  The  portion  of  the  route 
alluded  to  was  a  canal,  nineteen  miles  in  length,  called  De- 
cenovium,  which  ran  parallel  to  the  Appian  Way,  on  which 
it  was  customary  to  embark  at  Berge  Lange  ('  Forum  Appii '). 
See  lines  3-6. 


128 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


tator  Julius,  famed  for  his  rapid  journeys,  travelled  100 
miles  a  day.  The  highest  speed  recorded  is  that  at- 
tained by  Tiberius,  who  covered  the  distance  from 
Ticinum  through  Rhaetia  to  Germany,  which  ordinarily 
occupied  four  days,  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  was  so 
enabled  to  attend  the  death-bed  of  his  brother  Drusus. 
The  Imperial  Post  had  an  average  speed  of  five  miles  an 
hour,  but  that  of  hired  vehicles  was  necessarily  lower. 

The  Romans  may  thus  be  said  to  have  originated  the 
passion  for  travel  which  has  become  one  of  the  most 
marked    characteristics   of  our  own  race,  and  an   in- 
cidental illustration  of  their  predilection  in  this  respect 
is  afforded  by  the  fact  that  they  used  the  single  word 
viaticum  to  express  everything  required  for  a  person 
starting  on  a  journey — money,  provisions,  dress,  vessels, 
etc. — while  similar  necessaries  in  the  case  of  officials, 
magistrates,  pro-consuls,  and  envoys,  which  were  pro- 
vided by  the  State,  were  designated  legativum,  the  sum 
being  fixed  in  proportion  to  the  rank  of  the  officer, 
whose  power  of  demanding  supplies  was  guaranteed  by 
his  insignia,  or  in  the  case  of  an  envoy  by  his  ring.     It 
may  be    questioned    whether    many    of    our    British 
ancestors,  with  the  exception  of  the  auxilliary  troops 
raised  in  the  island  and  the  slaves  transported  to  Rome, 
who  left  their  country  never  to  return,  often  crossed 
the  Channel,  but  it  is  certain  that  there  must  have  been 
a    continuous    stream    of    travellers    passing    between 
Britain  and  the  Continent,  and  that  the  Roman  Ges- 
soriacum,   Dubris,   and  Rutupiae  witnessed   nearly   as 
many  embarkations  and  debarkations  as  the  Boulogne, 
Dover,  and  Folkestone  of  to-day.     Long  after  the  fall 
of  the  Empire  the  traditions  of  this  long  period  of 


ROMAN  TRAVELLERS  129 

uninterrupted  communication  between  the  Roman  pro- 
vince and  the  mainland  may  perhaps  have  originated 
the  quaint  legend  current  with  respect  to  Britain  in 
later  ages — when  its  name  had  temporarily  almost 
disappeared  from  historical  records — which  is  narrated 
by  Procopius  in  explanation  of  the  immunity  from 
tribute  to  the  Frank  Kings  enjoyed  by  the  fishermen 
and  farmers  of  Northern  Gaul  on  account  of  the 
mysterious  nocturnal  services  they  were  called  on  to 
perform.  Each  in  turn,  he  tells  us,  was  roused  from 
sleep  by  an  unseen  visitant,  and,  in  company  with  others 
who  had  received  the  same  supernatural  summons, 
embarked  from  the  beach  in  boats  heavily  laden  with 
invisible  forms  whom  it  was  their  duty  to  row  to 
Britain. 

'  The  voyage  to  Brittia  is  accomplished  in  the  space  of 
an  hour  in  those  ghostly  ships,  though  the  boats  of  mortals 
hardly  reached  it  by  force  of  both  sailing  and  rowing  in  a 
day  and  a  night.  The  unseen  passengers  disembark  in 
Brittia,  and  the  oarsmen  return  in  their  lightened  boats, 
hearing  as  they  depart  a  voice  speaking  to  the  souls/* 

*  '  Travel  in  the  First  Century/  p.  144. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN 

Necessity  for  a  description  of  the  Roman  towns  of  Britain — 
Their  powers  of  self-government — Their  number  and  im- 
portance—Their destruction  extended  over  a  long  period- 
Destructive  agencies — Silchester — Two  classes  of  towns  in 
Roman  Britain— Their  distinctive  features— Their  sites — 
Towns  most  numerous  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  island — 
Road  system  also  more  perfect  there — Dimensions  and  popu- 
lation of  the  towns— London— St.  Albans— Caerleon— Chester 
— York— Gloucester— Lincoln— Colchester— Other  towns — 
Roman  coins  in  Britain — Spurious  coins — The  ground-plan 
of  Roman  towns — Roman  masonry — Sewers — Hypocausts — 
Pavements — Wall  decorations — Building  materials — The  fate 
of  the  towns  of  Roman  Britain. 

To  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  towns  of  Roman 
Britain,  the  majority  of  which  have  already  formed  the 
subjects  of  excellent  and  exhaustive  local  monographs, 
would  be  manifestly  impossible  within  the  limits  of  the 
present  work.  As  the  larger  towns  were  in  all  cases,  how- 
ever, traversed  by  at  least  one  of  the  principal  highways 
and  generally  formed  the  meeting-point  of  several  of 
them,  and  as  even  the  mansiones  or  minor  stations  and 
the  temporary  camps  which  were  occupied  from  time  to 
time  by  troops  on  the  march  were  either  close  to  the 
main  roads  or  connected  with  them  by  side  approaches, 
[130] 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN      131 

it  is  desirable  to  give  some  description  of  these  towns 
and  of  their  chief  characteristics.     To  quote  Kemble  :* 

'As  the  settlement  of  the  natives  and  their  reduction 
under  a  centralizing  system  followed  the  victories  of  the 
legions,  Municipia  and  Colonia  arose  in  every  province, 
the  seats  of  garrisons,  and  the  residences  of  military  and 
civic  governors ;  while  as  civilization  extended,  the  Britons 
themselves,  adopting  the  manners  and  following  the 
customs  of  their  masters,  multiplied  the  numbers  of  the 
towns  upon  all  the  great  lines  of  internal  communication/ 

There  is  little  doubt  that  some  of  the  larger  towns 
possessed  a  considerable  amount  of  the  internal  freedom 
and  powers  of  self-government  under  municipal  bodies 
which  were  enjoyed  by  all  the  more  important  cities 
throughout  the  Roman  Empire,  though  the  only  four 
of  the  British  towns  that  are  certainly  known  to  have 
exercised  from  an  early  period  of  the  Roman  Dominion 
the  full  rights  of  self-governing  colonies  are  Eboracum, 
Lindum,  Camulodunum,  and  Glevum.  Of  some  130 
places  mentioned  in  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  and  the 
'  Notitia,"  no  fewer  than  forty-six  may  have  been  of 
sufficient  importance  to  entitle  them  to  be  described  as 
towns,  and  amongst  them  will  be  found  the  seats  of 
both  our  present  archbishoprics  and  most  of  our 
episcopal  and  old  borough  towns.t  It  is  believed  that 
at  the  time  of  the  Roman  abandonment  of  Britain  at 
least  twenty-eight  of  these  towns  were  of  sufficient 
importance  for  them  to  be  defended  by  masonary  walls. 
Some  of  them,  as,  for  instance,  Bath  and  Buxton,  are 

*  'The  Saxons  in  England,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  269. 
f  See  Appendix  IV. 

9-2 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

known  to  have  been  used  as  sanatoria,  and  others 
contained  arsenals,  but  with  a  few  noteworthy  excep- 
tions their  relative  importance  must  always  remain  a 
subject  for  discussion  and  inquiry. 

We  must  always  regret  how  much  our  knowledge  of 
Roman  life  in  Britain  has  been  limited  by  the  ravages 
of  time  and  of  intervening  generations,  especially  when 
it  is  realized  how  gradual  though  constant  has  been 
the  work  of  destruction.  In  this  country  there  is 
neither  the  heavy  rainfall  nor  the  tropical  vegetation 
which  have  elsewhere  caused  the  disintegration  and 
disappearance  of  far  larger  cities  and  more  ambitious 
works  than  those  left  by  the  Romans  in  Britain,  and  it 
is  probable  that  even  in  the  twelfth  century  many  of 
our  Roman  towns  or  buildings  were  still  standing — 
certainly  in  ruins,  but  in  far  better  preservation  than  we 
can  now  realize.  The  appearance  of  such  names  as '  Cold 
Harbour,'  and  the  termination  of  a  place-name  in 
'  cote,'  is  believed  to  be  a  sure  indication  of  the  use  in 
comparatively  modern  times  of  Roman  buildings  for 
purposes  of  temporary  shelter;  and  the  occasional 
discovery  of  tessellated  pavements,  evidently  injured  by 
fires  lighted  in  the  corners  of  rooms,  suggests  the 
utilization  by  wayfarers  or  peasants  of  Roman  ruins  for 
purposes  of  temporary  shelter  at  periods  far  removed 
from  the  original  abandonment  of  these  dwellings. 

The  great  cause  of  the  destruction  of  Roman  remains 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground  was  the  fatal  attraction 
they  offered  as  quarries  to  the  ecclesiastical  builder  and 
to  the  conquering  Norman,  both  of  whom  fully  realized 
the  value  of  easily  accessible  building  material,  and  the 
work  of  destruction  was  advanced  by  the  omnipresent 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN     133 

treasure-seeker,  to  whom  a  ruin  has  always  been  a  centre 
of  attraction.  In  many  cases  modern  cities  have  come 
into  existence  on  the  sites  once  occupied  by  Roman 
towns,  and  the  natural  accumulation  of  debris,  as  at 
Bath  and  London,  has  buried  the  earlier  remains  per- 
haps 15  or  20  feet  below  the  present  ground-level ;  and 
in  this  connection  it  is  worth  noticing  that  in  as  short 
an  interval  as  300  years  soil  has  accumulated  to  a  depth 
of  3  feet  above  the  floor-level  of  some  of  our  monastic 
buildings.  Elsewhere,  as  at  Box  and  Woodchester, 
parish  churches  now  partially  cover  the  sites  of  mag- 
nificent villas,  and  in  other  places  they  probably  occupy 
the  ground  on  which  once  stood  Roman  temples. 
Antiquarian  research,  not  always  wisely  directed,  has 
itself  sometimes  assisted  the  work  of  destruction,  for 
foundations  and  pavements  have  been  uncovered  and 
left  exposed  to  autumn  rains  and  winter  frosts  which 
have  combined  to  obliterate  the  remains  that  had 
hitherto  endured.  Silchester  affords  one  of  the  few 
instances  of  an  extensive  Roman  site  that  has  not  been 
encumbered  by  buildings  of  a  later  date,  and  where  the 
Roman  remains  are  only  covered  by  a  shallow  layer 
of  surface  soil ;  and  it  is  here  that  systematic  explora- 
tion under  the  supervision  of  specialists  has  been 
made  on  scientific  principles  with  the  best  results,  a 
careful  survey  of  an  excavated  area  being  followed  by 
the  filling  in  of  the  excavations.* 

The  Roman  towns  in  Britain  may  be  divided  into 

*  For  an  account  of  these  investigations,,  see  Archocologia, 
vol.  xl.,  p.  403  ;  vol.  xlvi.,  pp.  329,  344  ;  vol.  1.,  p.  203  ;  vol.  Hi., 
p.  733 ;  vol.  liii.,  pp.  263,  539  ;  vol.  liv.,  pp.  139,  199 ;  vol.  lv., 
pp.  215,  409 ;  vol.  Ivi.,  pp.  103,  129 ;  vol.  Ivii.,  pp.  96,  102, 112. 


134  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

two  classes — those  that  had  their  origin  in  Roman 
military  camps,  though  these  may  have  developed  sub- 
sequently under  the  Romans  into  places  of  commercial 
as  well  as  military  importance ;  and  those  towns  which 
were  occupied  for  other  than  military  reasons,  which 
were  not  in  the  first  instance  and  for  any  length  of  time 
occupied  by  a  permanent  garrison,  and  whose  fortifica- 
tions dated  from  a  comparatively  late  period  of  the 
Roman  dominion.  Instances  of  the  former  class  may 
be  found  in  Chester  and  Caerleon,  and  of  the  latter  in 
Silchester,  Uriconium,  and  London.  Of  these  latter  the 
majority  were  probably  built  on  the  sites  of  earlier 
British  settlements,  and  they  can  be  readily  identified 
by  the  somewhat  irregular  shape  of  their  ground-plan 
and  walls  of  circumvallation.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
towns  of  military  origin  are  in  the  form  of  rectangular 
parallelograms,  and  the  regular  outline  made  by  the 
earthworks  of  the  camp  was  perpetuated  where  walls  of 
masonry  replaced  these  earlier  defences,  and  may  still 
serve  to  indicate  the  origin  of  a  city. 

To  whichever  of  these  classes  the  Roman  town  may 
have  belonged,  it  was  usually  placed  in  accordance 
with  certain  well-known  requirements. 

The  towns  are  generally  placed  at  points  where  at 
least  one  of  the  main  roads  crossed  a  river,  and  fre- 
quently at  the  point  where  the  river  ceased  to  be 
navigable,  and  admitted  of  being  crossed  by  a  bridge  or 
ford.  If  a  tributary  stream  here  joined  the  main  river, 
forming  a  peninsula,  this  was  an  additional  advantage 
to  the  Romans,  as  the  town  was  thus  partially  protected 
on  at  least  two  sides.  Further,  the  larger  towns  were 
almost  invariably  established  in  rich  alluvial  country, 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN      135 

which  was  probably  mainly  given  up  to  corn  growing, 
and  a  southern  aspect  would  be  naturally  desired  by  the 
invaders  from  a  warmer  climate. 

The  situation  of  the  Roman  towns  is  important,  not 
only  as  it  relates  to  the  Roman  road  system,  but  be- 
cause it  shows  in  what  districts  Roman  influence  was 
greatest.  If  we  take  the  following  sixteen  towns  as 
being  the  largest  of  the  Roman  towns  in  Britain — 
Eboracum  (York),  Uriconium  (Wroxeter),  Deva 
(Chester),  Lindum  (Lincoln),  Camulodunum  (Colches- 
ter), Verulamium  (St.  Albans),  Venta  Icenorum  (Nor- 
wich), Calleva  Attrebatum  (Silchester),  Glevum  (Glou- 
cester), Corinium  (Cirencester),  Aquae  Sulis  (Bath), 
Londinium  (London),  Regnum  (Chichester),  Duro- 
vernum  (Canterbury),  Durnovaria  (Dorchester),  and 
Venta  Belgarum  (Winchester) — it  will  be  seen  that, 
roughly  speaking,  three  of  the  towns  are  in  the  north, 
four  in  the  east,  and  the  remaining  nine  in  the  south  of 
the  island  ;  and  the  size  and  richness  of  the  Roman 
remains,  and  the  distribution  of  tessellated  pavements, 
all  indicate  the  fact  that,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
districts — as,  for  instance,  the  line  of  Hadrian's  Wall, 
parts  of  Lancashire,  Cheshire,  and  Yorkshire,  mining 
areas,  and  the  vicinities  of  military  posts — the  Roman 
population  was  mainly  concentrated  in  the  southern 
half  of  Britain.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that 
though  the  military  roads  necessarily  extended  to  the 
furthest  frontiers,  the  commercial  and  minor  road 
systems  must  have  been  far  more  extensive  and  perfect 
within  the  southern  area. 

In  considering  the  dimensions  and  populations  of  the 
Roman  towns,  certain  facts  must  alwavs  be  borne  in 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN      137 

mind.  The  manufactures  of  Roman  Britain  were  com- 
paratively insignificant,  and  practically  limited  to  local 
requirements  ;  hence  almost  the  whole  of  the  industrial 
population  was  employed  in  agriculture,  and  were 
country  and  not  town  dwellers.  The  bulk  of  the 
native  population  was  to  be  found,  not  in  the  towns, 
but  in  small  scattered  communities  and  isolated  families, 
existing  with  scanty  comfort  and  few  requirements,  and 
probably  with  only  the  barest  necessaries  of  life,  while 
the  foreign  population  with  its  immediate  dependents 
occupied  the  towns  with  their  suburbs  and  the  country 
villas.  It  is  interesting  to  see  what  facts  exist  on  which 
an  estimate  of  the  numbers  of  the  town  population  can 
be  based.  The  majority  of  the  Roman  houses  in  Britain 
had  probably  no  upper  story,  and  where  there  was  a 
second  story  the  upper  parts  were  of  slight  construction 
and  of  no  great  accommodation.  The  area  within  the 
town  walls  appears  often  to  have  been  only  partly  built 
over,  though,  on  the  other  hand,  those  parts  of  the  town 
where  no  traces  of  foundation  walls  now  exist  may 
have  been  covered  by  huts  similar  to  those  occupied  by 
the  native  agriculturists,  and  of  which  all  traces  would 
quickly  disappear.  It  is,  of  course,  known  that  the 
Roman  house  was  usually  roofed  with  tiles  or  slates, 
and  the  curious  legend  common  to  towns  so  far  apart 
as  Silchester  and  Wroxeter,  which  attributes  the  final 
destruction  of  these  places  to  the  besiegers  catching 
birds,  attaching  lighted  materials  to  them,  and  so 
igniting  the  roofs  of  buildings  within  the  walls,  may 
possibly  have  historic  value  as  indicating  the  existence 
of  these  poorer  quarters,  and  that  the  town  population 
was  therefore  larger  than  we  should  otherwise  sup- 


138  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

pose.  Further,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  few  main  streets,  the  houses  were  only 
separated  from  each  other  by  narrow  alleys,  and  were 
therefore  more  crowded  than  would  be  the  case  in  an 
English  town  of  to-day,  and  that  in  most  instances 
there  was  almost  certainly  a  considerable  suburban 
population  outside  the  walls.  The  enclosed  areas  of 
the  larger  Roman  towns  in  Britain  vary  from  some 
250  to  50  acres,  and  the  maximum  circumference  of  the 
walls  of  any  city  is  not  much  more  than  three  miles. 
The  local  historian  is,  perhaps  naturally,  inclined  to 
adopt  the  largest  possible  estimate  as  to  the  importance 
of  the  town  with  which  he  is  dealing.  Thus  we  find  that 
the  late  Sir  W.  Besant  in  his  <  London '  gives  35,000 
to  70,000  as  the  possible  estimate  of  the  population  of 
Roman  London,  apparently  mainly  basing  his  calcula- 
tion on  the  length  of  the  walls  and  on  the  number 
of  defenders  that  would  be  required  to  man  them. 
It  may  be  doubted  if  the  higher  number  is  not  in  any 
case  an  excessive  estimate,  since,  though  Roman  London 
was  apparently  mainly  a  commercial  city,  there  is  no 
proof  that  it  was  the  port  through  which  passed 
the  main  part  of  the  Continental  trade.  The  walls 
of  London,  which  had  then  received  the  name  of 
Augusta,  are  believed  to  have  been  built  as  late 
as  A.D.  350-369,  and  the  fact  that  they  included 
sepulchral  monuments,  which  are  almost  invariably 
found  only  without  the  walls  of  a  Roman  town,  is 
an  indication  of  the  gradual  growth  of  London,  and  a 
proof  that  it  reached  its  greatest  importance  in  the 
last  period  of  the  Roman  occupation.  It  never  appears 
to  have  held  a  large  Roman  garrison. 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN      139 

Now  let  us  consider  the  case  of  Verulamium  (St. 
Albans).  The  enclosed  area  of  this  town  is  some  190 
acres,  almost  exactly  half  that  comprised  within  the 
walls  of  Roman  London,  and  its  general  plan  and 
proportions  have  been  compared  with  those  of  Pompeii, 
the  area  of  which  town  was  167  acres.  The  amphi- 
theatres of  these  two  places  are  also  very  similar  in 
dimensions,  and  would  accommodate  approximately  the 
same  numbers.  The  population  of  Pompeii  has  been 
estimated  at  from  20,000  to  30,000,  and  if  we  can  accept 
this  estimate  as  correct,  that  of  Verulamium  may  have 
been  at  least  25,000,  and  that  of  Roman  London  50,000. 

With  respect  to  the  areas  of  other  towns  of  Roman 
Britain,  if  we  consider  first  the  three  towns  that  were 
for  centuries  legionary  headquarters,  we  find  the 
enclosed  areas  of  Isca  Silurum  (Caerleon)  to  have  been 
about  45  acres,  Deva  (Chester)  63  acres,  and  Eboracum 
(York)  74  acres,  though  the  total  area  of  this  last  city, 
which  was  for  so  long  the  Roman  capital,  must  have  at 
least  equalled  that  of  London,  as  it  is  known  to  have 
had  large  and  populous  suburbs,  especially  on  its  north 
and  south  sides.  Other  towns  that  for  a  consider- 
able time  were  legionary  headquarters  are  Glevum 
(Gloucester),  which  had  an  area  of  46  acres ;  Lindum 
(Lincoln),  which  at  first  comprised  41  acres,  but  was  at 
a  later  date  enlarged  to  include  82  acres ;  and  Camulo- 
dunum  (Colchester),  which  finally  included  112  acres, 
though  the  dimensions  of  the  first  colony  at  this  place, 
which  was  destroyed  by  Boadicea,  are  unknown.  Other 
important  towns  are  Corinium  (Cirencester),  with  an 
area  of  240  acres  ;  Uriconium  (Wroxeter),  of  223  acres ; 
and  Calleva  (Silchester)  and  Rata?  (Leicester),  each  of 


140  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

about  100  acres.  If  we  assume  that  there  were  forty- 
six  Roman  towns  varying  in  population  from  50,000 
to  4,000,  and  take  10,000  as  the  mean  popula- 
tion of  these  towns,  we  get  a  total  urban  population 
of  nearly  500,000 ;  but  even  this  may  be  an  excessive 
estimate,  and  its  accuracy  can  neither  be  admitted  nor 
disproved. 

The  very  large  quantities  of  Roman  coins  that  have 
been  and  still  from  time  to  time  are  unearthed 
certainly  seem  to  indicate  the  existence  of  a  larger 
population  than  might  otherwise  be  expected.  While 
in  Rome  itself  the  coinage  was  systematized  by  specially 
appointed  officers,  abroad  the  Roman  Emperors  exer- 
cised the  right  of  issuing  such  coins  as  their  military 
necessities  required,  and  impressed  upon  them  their 
own  representations.  We  know  comparatively  little  as 
to  the  localities  in  Britain  where  these  coins  were  minted, 
but  Londinium,  Ritupiae,  Clausentum,  and  Magna  are 
thought  to  have  been  among  the  places  where  coins 
were  struck.  The  progressive  debasement  of  the 
coinage  is  an  interesting  indication  of  the  ever-growing 
impoverishment  of  the  Imperial  Government.  If  a 
coin  in  the  time  of  Augustus  was  worth  9d.,  a  coin  of 
the  same  face  value  struck  under  Nero  would  only 
contain  8d.  worth  of  valuable  metal  ;  while  if  struck  in 
Hadrian's  reign  its  intrinsic  value  would  have  sunk  to 
6d.,  or  in  that  of  Sever  us  to  4d.  Conclusive  traces  of 
the  manufacture  of  spurious  coins  have  been  discovered 
in  Britain  in  the  form  of  coin  moulds  found  at 
Edington  (Somerset),  Lingwell  Gate  near  Wakefield, 
Caxton  near  Lincoln,  and  Duston  (Northants),  and  lead 
coins  have  been  found  in  Cumberland  ;  while  rouleaux 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN      141 

of  iron  coins  plated  with  silver,  and  apparently  never 
issued,  have  been  discovered  in  London,  which  may 
have  been  intended  for  the  inexpensive  payment  of 
foreign  levies  who  were  not  learned  in  coins. 

As  regards  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  towns 
and  the  methods  of  the  Roman  builders,  we  are  on  less 
speculative  grounds.  In  the  introductory  chapter 
allusion  has  been  made  to  the  outskirts  of  a  Roman 
town  in  Britain,  and  here  also,  in  proximity  to  a  city 
gate,  was  to  be  found  the  amphitheatre,  if  the  town 
were  important  enough  to  justify  its  construction.  The 
amphitheatre  in  Britain  was  probably  in  most  cases  merely 
an  earthwork  enclosure,*  and  there  are  no  existing  traces 
of  the  ambitious  buildings  that  were  used  for  this  purpose 
in  Rome  itself  and  on  the  Continent.  The  town  walls 
were  probably  from  20  to  30  feet  high,  and  from  7  to 
15  feet  thick.  They  were  often  strengthened  at  intervals 
and  at  the  gateways  by  semicircular  towers,  the  lower 
parts  of  which  were  filled  in  with  solid  material,  while 
the  masonry  face-work  consisted  of  cubical  blocks  of 
cut  stone,  tool-dressed,  and  laid  with  open  joints.  The 
masons'  marks  can  still  be  seen  on  the  face  of  some  of 
these  stones.  In  rubble  walls  string  courses  of  tiles 
or  flat  bricks  are  introduced  and  bonded  into  the  wall. 
Herring-bone  work  is  sometimes  made  use  of,  and 
noticeable  above  all  is  the  excellent  quality  of  the 
mortar  used,  which  generally  contained  pounded  brick, 

*  Compare,  however,  'The  Antiquities  of  Richborough, 
Reculver,  and  Lympne  in  Kent,'  by  Charles  Roach  Smith,  pp.  51, 
52,  116  et  seq.f  for  an  account  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre  at 
Richborough,  and  the  statement  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis  regard- 
ing the  existence  in  his  day  of  the  stone  seats  of  the  amphi- 
theatre of  Caerleon. 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

and  which  has  often  proved  more  durable  than  the  stone 
itself.  The  loose  rubble  filling  between  the  face  walls 
seems  generally  to  have  been  '  grouted  in '  with  liquid 
mortar,  and  has  solidified  into  a  mass  of  great  hard- 
ness. The  arches  are  struck  with  full  centres  and  with 
deep  rings,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  well-known  'New- 
port1 of  Lincoln,  which  affords  the  only  existing  example 
in  England  of  a  Roman  city  gateway  that  is  in  use 
at  the  present  day.  Old  Roman  material  may  still 
be  seen  worked  up  in  Norman  buildings,  as  at  Guildford, 
Colchester,  and  elsewhere,  and  in  places  there  even 
seems  to  have  been  an  attempt  made  to  imitate  the 
Roman  herring-bone  work.  There  were  usually  outer 
and  inner  gates  placed  in  the  thickness  of  the  town 
walls  with  guard  chambers  attached,  and  from  the 
ironwork  of  a  gate  that  has  been  found  in  situ  at 
Silchester,  it  would  appear  that  the  gates  themselves 
were  of  massive  oak,  some  4J  inches  thick,  and  banded 
with  iron.  The  principal  streets  were  stone  paved,  and 
elaborate  systems  of  sewers  were  constructed,  which  to 
some  extent  are  still  in  use  at  Bath  and  Lincoln. 
Conduits  from  the  public  baths  led  the  waste  water 
outside  the  city  walls,  and  the  large  exit  that  existed 
for  this  purpose  at  Silchester  has  been  roughly  walled 
up,  evidently  during  some  troublous  times  in  the  later 
existence  of  this  town. 

In  the  centre  of  the  town,  at  the  intersection  of  the 
chief  roads,  were  placed  the  public  buildings,  the 
temples,  and  the  houses  of  the  officials  and  of  the 
principal  citizens.  The  walls  of  the  domestic  edifices 
are  of  about  the  same  thickness  as  would  be  found  in 
modern  houses  of  moderate  elevation ;  and  the  hypo- 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN 

causts,  or  underground  heating  chambers,  which  warmed 
the  floors,  and  from  which  flues  led  up  through  the 
thickness  of  the  walls,  are  a  universal  feature  in  all 
dwellings  of  any  importance.  More  rare,  though  not 
unknown,  were  open  fireplaces. 

The  tessellated  pavements,  which  constitute  one  of  the 
most  interesting  features  of  the  Roman  dwelling,  could 
only  be  adequately  treated  in  a  special  work.  In  some 
cases  the  beauty  of  their  design  and  their  admirable 
construction  is  extraordinary.*  The  artistic  feeling 
shown  in  the  mural  decorations,  in  plaster,  fresco,  or 
in  their  marble  slabs,  must  have  been  equal  in  merit 
to  that  shown  in  the  best  pavements,  though  those 
decorations  now  necessarily  survive  in  only  the  most 
fragmentary  form.  Discoveries  of  broken  glass  show 
that  both  plate,  ground,  and  coloured  glass  were  used, 
probably  sparingly,  in  the  windows.  The  upper  stories 
of  the  houses  were  often  of  timber  work  filled  in  with 
wattle  and  daub.  The  roofs,  if  not  thatched,  were  of 
well-baked  tiles  or  slates,  the  latter  often  being  cut  into 
hexagonal  forms,  and  secured  by  iron  nails  to  the  wood- 
work of  the  roof,  and  there  were  ornamental  affixes  to 
the  ridge  terminals. 

Before  concluding  this  chapter  some  reference  must 
be  made  to  the  fate  which  overtook  these  towns  after 
the  abandonment  of  Britain  by  the  Romans.  A  large 
number  of  them  probably  perished  in  flames  amidst 
wild  scenes  of  slaughter  and  despair.  British  records 
and  modern  excavations  indicate  that  this  fate  overtook 
the  towns  on  the  Welsh  border,  with,  perhaps,  the 

*  Some  beautiful  examples  of  these  pavements  are  given  in 
Ly sons'  '  Reliquiae  Britannise.' 


THE  TOWNS  OF  ROMAN  BRITAIN      145 

solitary  exception  of  Deva ;  and  Aquae  Sulis,  Corinium, 
Glevum,  Mancunium,  Coccium,  and  Anderida  were  only 
a  few  of  the  Roman  settlements  that  were  alike  in  their 
tragic  ending.  Tragedies  can  still  be  guessed  at  from 
heaps  of  ashes  and  from  skeletons  of  men,  women,  and 
children  found,  as  at  Wroxeter,  in  crouching  attitudes 
in  hypocausts  and  other  places  of  concealment;  and 
the  human  bones  frequently  discovered  at  the  bottoms 
of  wells,  as  at  Brading  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  and 
Brislington  in  Somersetshire,  enable  us  to  see  the 
ruthless  savage  removing  the  traces  of  a  murderous  raid. 
Strangely  enough,  it  is  the  towns  and  homes  thus 
destroyed  which  frequently  best  repay  the  modern 
investigator.  Destruction  must  often  have  been  so 
sudden  as  to  prevent  the  gradual  and  systematic 
removal  of  articles  of  value,  and  to  leave  no  one  alive 
who  knew  the  secret  hi  ding -'places  of  the  household 
treasures,  while  fallen  roofs  and  levelled  walls  have 
sometimes  escaped  the  attention  of  the  builder,  who 
has  not  spared  edifices  that  were  more  readily  notice- 
able. The  fate  of  other  towns  is  more  doubtful. 
London,  for  instance,  may  never  have  been  wholly 
abandoned,  and  its  streets  may  still  have  been  fre- 
quented by  a  population  which  after  an  interval  renewed 
its  prosperity ;  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  excava- 
tions at  Silchester  have  given  proof  of  its  being  sacked 
by  invaders  and  its  population  slaughtered.  On  the 
Saxon  shore  of  Roman  Britain  there  was  almost  cer- 
tainly in  the  closing  years  of  the  Roman  dominion  a 
considerable  immigrant  population,  kindred  in  race  to 
the  invaders  of  the  fifth  century,  arid  which  may  well 
have  been  able  to  make  terms  with  the  conquerors 

10 


146  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

and  so  escape  annihilation.  But  of  all  the  Roman 
cities,  one  alone  is  definitely  known  to  have  been 
occupied  by  its  citizens  possibly  from  British  times,  and 
certainly  from  the  commencement  of  the  Roman  period, 
without  any  interruption,  to  our  own  days.  Exeter, 
which  first  meets  us  in  history  as  the  British  Caer-  Wise, 
the  city  on  the  Exe,  and  which  we  find  at  the  most 
westerly  termination  of  a  Roman  Itinerary,  was  un- 
doubtedly a  town  of  considerable  importance,  and  its 
remote  position  spared  it  from  contact  with  the  Saxon 
invaders  until  their  acceptance  of  Christianity  and 
comparative  civilization  had  made  it  possible  for  them 
to  mingle  peacefully  with  its  existing  population. 
Exeter,  consequently,  in  the  early  stages  of  its  existence, 
is  almost  unrecorded  in  history,  and  the  good  fortune 
of  its  inhabitants  may  be  thereby  judged.  Unluckily 
from  the  antiquarian  point  of  view,  its  uninterrupted 
and  peaceful  occupation  has  obliterated  the  traces  of 
the  Roman  town  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  has  been 
the  case  with  many  towns  of  no  greater  importance, 
but  whose  fate  was  more  unhappy. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS 

Roman  defensive  works  include  camps,  temporary  and  per- 
manent, and  the  great  frontier  defences — Distinction  between 
Roman  camps  and  those  of  earlier  date — Camps  of  the 
Neolithic  period — British  camps — Old  Sarum  and  Maiden 
Castle  types  of  the  latter — Roman  camps — Their  location 
and  distinctive  features  have  in  many  cases  been  obliterated 
by  agricultural  operations— Joseph  us  on  Roman  camps — 
Conversion  of  Roman  temporary  camps  into  permanent 
stations  and  fortified  towns — Roman  camps  in  Scotland — 
Internal  arrangements  of  Roman  camps  as  described  by 
Polybius  and  Hyginus — Roman  fortresses — The  fortified 
frontier  line  of  the  Cots  wolds — The  fortresses  of  the  Saxon 
shore — Disappearance  of  all  buildings  except  part  of  the 
outer  walls  of  these  castella  considered — The  frontier  walls — 
The  Wall  of  Antoninus  Pius— The  Wall  of  Hadrian— Un- 
solved problems — General  description — Incidental  remarks. 

HARDLY  less  interesting  than  the  towns  of  the  Roman 
conquerors,  which  have  been  considered  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter,  are  the  remains  of  their  various  defensive 
works.  These  consist  of  camps  temporarily  occupied 
by  the  legions  during  their  military  operations;  of 
camps  which  were  subsequently  converted  into  fortresses 
for  the  defence  of  inland  frontiers,  or,  at  a  later  period, 
for  the  protection  of  the  coast ;  and,  finally,  of  the 
great  Walls  which  are  associated  with  the  names  of 
[  147  ] 


148  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius.  Earthwork  camps  form 
necessarily  the  most  numerous  class,  and  they  are  to  be 
found  throughout  every  part  of  Britain  that  was  at  any 
time  occupied  by  the  Romans.  Traces,  however,  of 
earlier  British  camps,  some  of  which  were  subsequently 
converted  into  Roman  camps,  are  also  very  plentiful, 
and  it  may  therefore  be  advisable  to  notice  their 
distinguishing  characteristics  before  considering  those 
of  the  Romans. 

Pre-Roman  camps  are  of  two  types.  The  first, 
believed  to  have  been  formed  during  the  Neolithic 
period,  are  small  low-walled  and  banked  enclosures  in 
rocky  or  hilly  districts,  where  the  natural  features  of 
the  ground  assisted  the  defence.  Such  are  Wittor  on 
Dartmoor,  1  \  acres  in  extent ;  Carls wark  on  the  Derby- 
shire Moors,  partly  defended  by  precipices  and  partly  by 
an  earthen  rampart  faced  with  a  vertical  dry-built  wall 
of  large  stones,  most  of  which  are  about  3  J,  though  some 
are  as  much  as  6  to  9  feet  in  length,  about  3  feet  (the 
width  of  the  wall)  in  thickness,  and  about  1  foot  in 
depth ;  and  Cissbury  Hill,  near  Worthing.  The  other 
variety,  whose  construction  dates  from  nearer  the 
Roman  period,  consists  of  earthworks,  usually  roughly 
oval  or  elliptical  in  outline,  surrounding  the  summit  of 
a  hill,  the  open  space  in  the  centre  being  enclosed  by 
dykes  and  ramparts,  and  the  approaches  being  by 
tortuous  passages  through  concentric  lines  of  entrench- 
ments. Numerous  examples  of  this  type  are  found 
throughout  the  British  Isles,  and  amongst  those  in 
England  may  be  noted  Pilsdon  Pen  in  Dorset;  Caer 
Badon  on  Hampton  Down,  near  Bath;  Stantonbury 
and  Maesknoll  in  Somerset ;  Mount  Caburn,  near 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS 


149 


Lewes ;  Mam  Tor,  near  Castleton  in  Derbyshire ; 
Burrowhill,  near  Leicester ;  Old  Sarum  in  Wilts ; 
and  Maiden  Castle  in  Dorsetshire.  These  last  two 
entrenchments,  like  other  British  defensive  works, 
were  utilized  by  the  Romans  at  a  subsequent  period. 
Old  Sarum  (Sorbiodunum)  is  an  approximately  circular 
earthwork  some  300  feet  above  the  river  Avon,  which 


-. 


MOUNT  CABURN   IN   SUSSEX. 
A  typical  example  of  a  British  camp. 

flows  directly  below  it,  the  enclosed  area  being  more 
than  27  acres,  and  the  crest  of  the  rampart  100  feet 
above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  of  which  the  extreme 
width  is  150  feet.*  Maiden  Castle  (Mewdun — the 
great  hill)  is  perhaps  the  most  ambitious  pre-Roman 
fortification  that  exists  in  Britain,  and  deserves  a  more 
detailed  examination  than  can  be  here  given  to  it. 
*  See  Archaeological  Journal }  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  291. 


150  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Placed  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  some  two  miles  from 
Dorchester,  it  is  an  irregular  oval  enclosure  extending 
1,000  yards  from  east  to  west,  with  a  width  of  500  yards 
from  north  to  south,  and  occupies  an  area  of  120  acres. 
On  the  north  side,  and  close  to  the  brow  of  the  hill, 
are  three  tiers  of  ramparts  with  their  intervening 
ditches,  the  depth  from  the  crest  of  each  parapet  to  the 
bottom  of  its  ditch  being  not  less  than  60  feet,  while 
on  the  south  side,  where  the  camp  faces  a  slope  that  is 
easier  of  ascent,  there  are  as  many  as  five  concentric 
lines  of  entrenchment.  The  entrances  to  the  camps 
are  at  the  east  and  west  ends  of  the  enclosure,  and  are 
so  protected  by  overlapping  ramparts  and  deep  ditches 
that  the  interior  can  only  be  reached  after  passing 
through  a  labyrinth  of  earthworks.  The  western 
entrance,  where  the  approach  is  almost  level,  has 
evidently  had  the  most  labour  expended  on  its  con- 
struction.* 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  the  camps  of  which 
we  have  hitherto  spoken  have  always  been  placed  on 
high  ground,  and  in  most  cases  their  dimensions  show 
that  they  were  designed  as  strongholds  in  which  the 
whole  population  of  the  locality  with  their  cattle  and 
belongings  might  obtain  a  temporary  refuge  in  times  of 
danger.  Camps  of  purely  Roman  origin,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  frequently  placed  on  low  ground,  and  were 
rectangular  in  outline,  with  the  corners  slightly  rounded 
off,  and  a  good  illustration  of  the  distinctive  features  of 
the  two  classes  of  camps  is  furnished  by  the  comparison 
of  the  Roman  camp  at  Dorchester  on  the  Thames  with 
the  British  entrenchment  of  Sinodun  on  the  opposite 

*  See  <  Ancient  Dorset/  by  Charles  Warne,  F.S.A.,  pp.  73-81. 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS          151 

hill  south  of  the  river.  In  the  warfare  of  a  period 
when  every  action  was  decided  by  hand-to-hand  fighting, 
it  was  comparatively  immaterial  to  the  Romans  whether 
their  camps  were  commanded  by  higher  ground  if 
this  higher  ground  was  out  of  bowshot,  as  accessi- 
bility to  fuel  and  water,  and  clear  ground  immediately 
round  the  entrenchments,  were  more  important  require- 
ments. Owing  to  their  situation  in  flat  and  fertile  land, 
many  of  the  less  important  Roman  camps  have  been 
obliterated  by  agricultural  operations,  and  the  survival 
of  so  many  to  the  present  day  indicates  the  enormous 
number  that  were  constructed  by  the  legionaries  in 
Britain  at  different  times.  Josephus,  in  his  account  of 
the  Jewish  War,  remarks  that  '  the  Romans  when  in- 
vading an  enemy's  country  never  hazard  an  engagement 
until  they  have  fortified  a  camp,  which  in  form  is  a 
square  with  four  gates,  one  on  each  side.'  The  Roman 
armies,  indeed,  never  halted  for  a  single  night  without 
forming  such  a  camp  for  the  protection  of  their  troops, 
their  transport,  and  their  baggage ;  and  even  if  they 
were  attacked  on  the  march  a  detachment  was,  if 
possible,  detailed  to  throw  up  entrenchments  while  the 
main  body  sustained  the  attack.  In  the  preceding 
chapter  the  remarks  made  on  the  origin  of  Roman 
towns  in  Britain  have  shown  how  and  why  camps  in 
certain  situations  gradually  developed  into  permanent 
settlements.  In  such  cases  temporary  camps  became 
standing  camps  (castra  stativa),  which  may  either  have 
been  summer  camps  (castra  cestiva),  or  winter  camps 
(castra  hibema),  and  in  the  latter  case,  huts  of  turf  or 
stone  replaced  the  tents  that  were  in  use  in  the  former. 
In  southern  Britain  all  the  most  important  camps  in 


152  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

course  of  time  grew  into  towns,  and  it  is  in  Scotland, 
and  especially  on  the  verge  of  the  Scottish  Highlands, 
where  Roman  occupation  was  not  permanent  enough  to 
permit  such  a  transition,  that  the  finest  examples  of 
Roman  camps  in  our  country  are  to  be  found.  Of  these 
camps,  all  of  which  were  surveyed  and  reported  on 
by  General  Roy*  in  the  eighteenth  century,  that  at 
Ardoch,  near  the  spot  where  Agricola  is  supposed  to 
have  won  his  last  great  battle,  and  which,  according  to 
Mommsen,  must  have  formed  the  base  for  his  military 
operations  in  the  North  of  Scotland,  is  930  yards  long 
by  650  yards  broad  ;  that  at  Dealgenross  measures  400 
yards  by  316  yards ;  and  that  at  Battledykes,  near  Forfar, 
616  yards  by  350  yards.  Authorities  have  estimated 
that  some  of  these  camps  must  have  held  from  25,000 
to  70,000  men,  though  it  may  be  added  that  Mommsen 
gives  the  more  modest  estimate  of  from  10,000  to 
12,000  men  for  that  at  Ardoch,  which  was  the  largest 
of  them  all.  Whether  temporary  or  permanent,  the 
main  features  and  internal  arrangement  of  the  camp 
were  determined  by  the  same  general  principles. 

We  have  two  descriptions  of  a  Roman  camp,  the  first 
of  which  has  been  left  by  Polybius,-f  who  describes  a 
camp  as  laid  out  in  the  time  of  the  late  republic  and 
earlier  Empire,  and  the  second  by  Hyginus,J  a  surveyor, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  written  in  the  reign  of  Severus, 
when  the  organization  of  the  legion  had  been  materially 

*  Cf.  an  article  by  G.  J.  Clark  in  the  Archceological  Journal, 
vol.  xxxvii.,  p.  378,  and  Mommsen 's  (  Roman  Provinces,'  vol.  i., 
p.  187. 

f  Book  vi. 

j  '  De  Munitionibus  Castrorum/  Sections  4,  14,  17,  21,  37. 


CAM  v,  AS  otsc&\e>to    Vr  POLY&IUS/N  THC  ftfuoo  OF  -rue 


p?k/t' r  o  R 


PRINCIPALS 


INTERVALLUM 


( 
1  \ 

I  OCXTRA 


R.ANOFA  ROMAN  CAMP,  AS  DESCRIBED  BV  HvQiNu5,tN  THE  PEU^OO  OFTHF 


PORTA 


EMPIRE; 


PORTA 

i  PALI5 
OSXTRA 


154  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

modified,  and  the  Roman  army  consisted  to  a  far  greater 
extent  of  auxiliaries  and  irregulars.  Without  giving  a 
comprehensive  account  of  them,  which  would  extend  to 
too  great  length  for  the  present  purpose,  it  will  be  well 
to  mention  their  general  features  as  described  both  by 
Polybius  and  Hyginus,  and  to  indicate  the  principal 
differences  between  the  camps  of  these  respective 
periods.* 

Theoretically  at  both  periods  the  camp  faced  east, 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  usually  faced  the  enemy,  and 
the  ground  was  marked  out  by  officers  termed  metatores, 
with  graduated  rods  (decempedce),  on  principles  ap- 
parently not  unlike  those  already  described  as  governing 
the  demarcation  of  the  territories  of  a  colony.  A  spot 
having  been  selected  towards  the  centre  of  the  camping- 
ground,  it  was  marked  by  a  small  white  flag,  which  in 
the  earlier  camps  indicated  the  prcetorium,  or  quarters 
of  the  praetor  or  commander.  In  later  times  this  spot 
was  termed  the  g*roma,  and  the  prcetormm  was  to  the 
rear  of  it ;  but  in  both  cases  it  was  the  spot  from  which 
all  measurements  were  taken,  and  through  it  were 
drawn  two  straight  lines,  which  here  intersected  at 
right  angles,  and  served  as  the  base  lines  by  which  the 
different  divisions  and  the  boundaries  and  entrances  of 
the  camp  were  determined.  The  four  entrances  were 
the  porta  prcetoria,  in  the  centre  of  the  front,  facing 
the  enemy  ;  the  porta  decumana,  in  the  rear ;  the  porta 
principalis  dextra,  on  the  right ;  and  the  porta  princi- 
palis  sinistra,  on  the  left,  these  last  two  being  connected 
by  the  via  principalis  running  the  whole  width  of  the 

*  See  for  a  full  account  Smith's  '  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities,'  article  Castra. 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS          155 

camp,  while  between  this  road  and  the  rear  of  the  camp, 
and  parallel  to  it,  ran  another  road  known  as  the 
via  qumtana.  These  two  roads  divided  the  camp  into 
three  segments,  which  were  subdivided  by  minor  roads 
intersecting  them  transversely,  and  between  the  encamp- 
ment and  the  rampart  a  clear  space  was  kept.  In 
laying  out  the  camp  the  chief  points  were  marked  by 
white  poles,  some  of  which  bore  flags  of  various  colours, 
in  order  that  the  different  bodies  of  troops,  on  reaching 
the  ground,  could  at  once  discover  their  assigned  posi- 
tions. The  camp  was  protected  by  an  outer  ditch 
(fossa),  usually  single,  the  earth  from  which  formed 
the  rampart  (vallum),  on  which  was  placed  a  palisade 
of  split  timbers.  Fragments  of  such  palisading  have 
been  found  at  Wall  in  Staffordshire  (Etocetum)  and  at 
Carlisle.* 

At  the  time  when  Polybius  wrote  the  camp  was  an 
exact  square,  while  in  that  of  Hyginus  it  had  become 
a  rectangular  oblong,  the  front  being  one  of  the 
narrower  sides  of  the  oblong.  The  width  of  the 
via  principally  at  first  100  feet,  had  been  reduced  to 
60  feet ;  the  via  qumtana  from  50  feet  to  40  feet ;  the 
minor  streets  from  50  feet  to  20  feet;  and  the  inter 
vallum,  or  space  between  the  rampart  and  encampment 
proper,  from  200  feet  to  60  feet.  In  the  later  period 
the  legionaries  were  placed  next  the  inter  vallum,  the 
auxiliaries,  as  less  reliable,  being  towards  the  centre  of 

*  The  palisades  found  at  Wall  (Etocetum)  were  of  oak  12  feet 
in  height,  of  which  one-third  was  intended  to  be  underground, 
and  each  timber  was  notched  3  feet  from  the  top,  so  that 
when  placed  together  a  loophole  was  formed  between  the  timbers 
that  were  thus  notched.  See  Archceologia,  vol.  xxxvii.,  p.  380. 


156  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

the  camp.  The  ditch,  formerly  sometimes  as  much  as 
15  feet  deep,  and  the  vallum  as  much  as  12  feet  high, 
were  replaced  by  a  shallow  ditch  perhaps  only  3  feet 
deep  and  a  vallum  only  6  feet  in  height.  Consequently, 
the  troops  in  the  later  form  of  camp  were  much  more 
crowded  than  in  the  earlier  camps,  and  the  slighter 
profile  and  shortened  perimeter  of  the  earthworks 
suggest  reluctance  or  inability  to  expend  as  much 
labour  on  constructive  work  as  had  formerly  been 
considered  desirable.  Much  information  has  come 
down  to  us  with  respect  to  the  routine  observed  in  such 
matters  as  the  methods  of  transmitting  orders  and  pass- 
words, striking  tents,  etc.,  and  the  entire  literature  of 
this  subject  is  of  great  interest  as  suggesting  the  origin 
of  modern  military  routine  and  custom.* 

The  next  subject  of  this  chapter,  the  Roman  fortress, 
very  frequently  merged  into  a  town  on  the  advance  of 
the  Roman  frontier  and  the  removal  of  its  garrison. 
A  chain  of  forts,t  which  has  been  attributed  to  Ostorius 
Scapula,  the  successor  of  Aulus  Plautius,  deserves  a 
special  mention.  These  forts,  erected  or  adapted  by 
the  Romans,  extended  along  the  hills  facing  the  Severn 

*  For  a  list  of  the  principal  camps,  see  Appendix  V. 

f  These  forts  were  situated  at  (1)  Clifton  Down ;  (2)  King's 
Weston  Hill ;  (3)  Blaize  Castle  ;  (4)  Knole  Park  ;  (5)  Olveston  ; 
(6)  Oldbury  ;  (7)  The  Abbey  ;  (8)  Bloody  Acre  ;  (9)  Bury  Hill ; 
(10)  Dyrham;  (11)  Old  Sodbury ;  (12)  Horton;  (13)  West- 
ridge;  (14)  Stinchcombe ;  (15)  Uley  Bury;  (16)  Standish  Beacon; 
(17)  Painswick;  (18)  Church  Down;  (19)  High  Brotheridge ; 
(20)  Whitcombe  (doubtful);  (21)  Cuckly  Hill;  (22)  Leck- 
hampton  ;  (23)  Cleeve  Hill ;  (24)  Nottingham  Hill ;  (25)  Bredon 
Hill.  See  article  by  Mr.  L.  Baker,  Archceologia,  vol.  xix._,  p.  161, 
and  also  'Illustrations  of  Roman  Art  in  Cirencester/  by  Pro- 
fessor J.  Buckman  arid  C.  H.  Newmarsh. 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS          157 

from  Clifton  Down  to  Bredon  Hill,  and  were  designed 
for  defence  against  the  Silures  of  South  Wales,  while 
they  would  also  protect  the  Roman  road  connecting 
Bath  and  Cirencester.  The  largest  of  them  is  Uley 
Bury,  which  has  an  enclosed  area  of  32  acres,  and  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Roman 
castramentation  in  England.  The  subjugation  of  the 
Silures,  and  the  occupation  by  the  Ilnd  Legion  of  Isca 
Silurum  (Caerleon),  deprived  them  of  their  military 
value;  and  as  the  positions  of  Aquae  Sulis  (Bath), 
Glevum  (Gloucester),  and  Corinium  (Cirencester)  were 
more  attractive  for  civil  settlements,  it  is  probable  that 
these  forts  on  the  Cots  wolds  were  abandoned  at  a  com- 
paratively early  period  in  the  Roman  occupation.* 

Other  fortresses  were  the  castella  of  the  Saxon 
Shore.  Of  these  Rutupiae  (Richborough),  Dubris 
(Dover),  and  Regulbium  (Reculver)  were  permanently 
fortified  at  an  early  period  in  order  to  secure  communi- 
cation with  the  Continent;  and  two  centuries  later 
they  are  mentioned,  together  with  six  other  fortresses 
erected  about  this  period,  in  the  '  Notitia  Imperii '  as 
forming  the  defences  of  the  Saxon  Shore.  These  addi- 
tional fortresses,  which  were  necessitated  by  the  attacks 

*  A  similar  chain  of  forts,  the  construction  of  which  has  been 
ascribed  to  Agricola,  exists  along  the  valley  of  the  Usk.  Their 
positions  have  been  identified  as  extending  from  Caerleon  through 
Usk,  Abergavenny,  Gaer  in  Cwm-dii,  Gaer  camp  near  Brecon, 
Llywel,  Bulch  and  Llandovery,  to  Ogofan,  where  gold  was 
extensively  worked  in  Roman  times.  The  facings  of  the  walls  of 
the  Gaer  camp  near  Brecon,  were  used  for  the  building  of  the 
Norman  castle  at  the  latter  place,  but  some  portions  remain 
practically  uninjured,  and  the  whole  outline  of  the  works  is 
clearly  traceable.  See  Poole's  ( History  of  Brecon/  pp.  122-124. 


158  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

of  sea-rovers,  were  Branodunum  (Brancaster),  Gario- 
nonum  (Burgh  Castle),  Othona  (St.  Peter's  Head  in 
Essex),  Anderida  (Pevensey),  Portus  Lemanis  (Lympne), 
and  Portus  Adurni  (Bramber  Castle).  The  construction 
of  some  of  these  castella  has  been  attributed  to 
Carausius,  the  successful  Admiral  and  first  independent 
ruler  of  a  united  Britain,*  while  others  may  have  been 
erected  in  the  reign  of  Valentinian,  A.D.  368,  at  which 
time  the  office  of '  Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore '  is  first 
mentioned. 

As  stated  in  a  former  chapter,  the  castella,  like  the 
colonies  (civitates),  had  lands  allotted  to  them,  which 
are  shown  by  the  Theodosian  and  other  Roman  codes 
to  have  been  exclusively  reserved  for  military  tenants, 
who  held  them  by  service  of  watch  and  ward.  The 
order  in  which  they  are  enumerated  in  the  '  Notitia ' 
may  indicate  their  relative  importance,  as  they  are  not 
named  according  to  their  geographical  position.  In 
some  cases  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain  their 
dimensions,  but  the  enclosed  area  of  most  of  them  was 
from  6  to  8  acres.  They  were,  as  a  rule,  of  the  usual 
quadrilateral  form,  with  walls,  semicircular  towers,  and 
gateways  of  the  type  described  in  the  chapter  on 
Roman  Towns ;  and  local  variations,  such  as  the  occa- 
sional absence  of  towers  and  the  omission  of  binding 
courses  or  other  differences  in  the  class  of  building  work, 
show  that  the  engineer  in  charge  was  allowed  a  certain 
latitude,  and  that  the  materials  used  were  those  which 
happened  to  be  most  accessible.  Thus,  at  Rutupiae 
(Richborough)  the  facing  of  the  walls  is  sometimes  of 

*  See  an  article  by  Mr.  T.  Lewin  on  the  fCastra  of  the 
Littus  Saxonicum'  in  AvchcBologia,  vol.  xli.,  p.  422, 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS          159 

local  stone  and  sometimes  of  large  flints.  In  every 
case,  however,  the  core  of  the  walls  is  formed  by  a 
solid  mass  of  concrete,  filled  in  from  time  to  time  in 
a  liquid  state  while  the  facing  walls  were  in  process  of 
building,  and  it  is  the  difficulty  of  removing  masonry 
thus  constructed,  and  its  comparative  inadaptability 
for  other  building  work,  that  has  secured  the  partial 
survival  of  these  Roman  fortresses  in  Britain  up  to  the 
present  day.  Temples,  official  buildings,  and  private 
dwellings  in  and  around  the  castella  have  all  long  since 
disappeared,  for  their  construction  offered  no  such 
obstacles  to  the  spoiler,  and  it  is  now  impossible  to 
estimate  the  size  of  the  towns  that  must  have  grown  up 
around  them  in  the  same  manner  that  the  medieval 
town  arose  near,  and  under  the  protection  of,  the 
baron's  castle.  Rutupiae  (Richborough),  for  example, 
at  one  time  the  headquarters  of  a  legion,  and  a  place 
of  the  greatest  official  importance,  through  which  for  a 
long  time  passed  the  chief  Continental  traffic,  and  whose 
oyster  fisheries  were  famous  throughout  the  Roman 
Empire,  must  have  been  far  larger  than  is  indicated  by 
the  size  of  its  castellum.  Anyone  who  has  been  present 
at  the  accidental  destruction  by  fire  of  a  poor  quarter 
in  an  Oriental  town  can  easily  realize  how  speedily  all 
vestiges  of  a  city  may  disappear,  and  can  thus  under- 
stand to  what  an  extent,  under  some  circumstances,  fire 
will  obliterate  traces  of  human  habitation.  One  of  the 
authors  once  witnessed  such  a  spectacle  when  an  area 
many  acres  in  extent,  covered  mainly  with  mud  and 
wattle  houses  with  tiled  and  thatched  roofs,  was  so 
cleared  by  the  fire  that  the  former  inhabitants  in  many 
cases  could  not  discover  the  positions  of  their  vanished 


160  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

dwellings,  while  a  strong  wind  that  was  blowing  at  the 
time  scattered  the  ashes  far  and  wide.  Left  to  itself  for 
a  few  years,  the  site  would  have  been  indistinguishable 
from  the  surrounding  country.  It  was  curious  to  notice 
how  many  coins  were  mixed  in  the  debris,  for  in  almost 
every  house  there  seemed  to  have  been  a  little  store  of 
money,  perhaps  placed  in  a  recess  in  the  walls  or  in 
some  similar  place  of  safety.  The  walls  had  fallen,  and 
the  coins  were  scattered  in  every  direction,  and  nothing 
less  than  a  sifting  of  the  entire  surface  soil  would  have 
insured  their  complete  recovery.  May  we  not  here 
have  an  explanation  of  the  extraordinary  frequency 
with  which  scattered  coins  are  still  found  on  Roman 
sites,  and  the  presence  of  so  many  other  small  metal 
articles,  once  of  great  value  to  their  owners  ? 

We  must  now  consider  the  two  great  frontier  Walls, 
which,  apart  from  their  roads,  are  the  most  enduring 
monuments  that  the  Romans  have  left  in  these  islands. 

The  northern  wall,  known  to  us  as  that  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  was  constructed  about  A.D.  139,  and  has  already 
been  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  the  Roman  garrisons 
in  Britain.  It  extended  from  the  Firth  of  Forth  to 
the  Firth  of  Clyde,  and  the  two  chief  towns  of  modern 
Scotland  have  arisen  near  its  terminations.  The  work 
consisted  of  an  immense  fosse  or  ditch  40  feet  wide  and 
20  feet  deep,  behind  which,  a  few  feet  from  its  southern 
edge,  was  raised  a  rampart  of  sods,  earth,  and  stones 
24  feet  high  and  24  feet  in  thickness  at  its  base. 
A  parapet  was  erected  on  the  northern  face  of  the 
rampart,  and  in  rear  of  the  rampart  ran  a  causeway 
20  feet  wide,  which  connected  the  military  stations 
that  were  placed  at  intervals  along  the  wall.  There 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS          161 

appear  to  have  been  nineteen  of  these  stations,  probably 
situated  rather  more  than  two  miles  apart,  and  some  of 
them  may  have  been  important  enough  to  have  been 
considered  as  small  garrison  towns.  In  the  intervals 
between  the  stations  were  smaller  castella,  or  watch- 
towers,  of  which,  in  1755,  two  or  three  were  still  stand- 
ing. The  walls  of  many  of  the  stations  appear  either 
to  have  been  built  with  stones,  or  with  stone  revetments, 
and  in  some  places  the  vallum  itself  had  a  stone 
foundation,  probably  to  allow  the  percolation  of  water 
and  to  prevent  its  accumulation  on  the  interior  side, 
where  the  fall  of  the  ground  might  cause  this  to  occur. 
The  actual  length  of  the  vallum  cannot  be  accurately 
determined,  owing  to  its  present  obliteration  towards 
the  extremities.  Large,  well-executed  inscriptions  on 
stones  still  exist,  showing  which  legions  were  employed 
in  its  formation  and  the  length  constructed  by  each 
detachment ;  and  this  work  as  a  whole  presents  fewer 
puzzles  to  the  antiquary  than  does  the  more  southerly 
line  of  defence  which  we  know  as  Hadrian's  Wall. 
This  is  probably  owing  to  the  northern  wall  having 
been  held  by  the  Romans  for  a  much  shorter  period, 
and  to  its  having  escaped  the  additions,  partial  demoli- 
tions, and  reconstructions  which  for  nearly  300  years 
the  southern  wall  must  have  undergone.* 

Before  discussing  these  different  points,  it  will  be 
more  convenient  to  give  a  general  account  of  the  some- 
what complicated  structure  on  the  more  southerly 
frontier  line.  From  the  existing  remains  and  from  the 
earlier  descriptions  it  appears  that  when  complete  the 

*  Cf.  as  to  the  northern  wall,  Skene's f  Celtic  Scotland/  vol.  i., 
pp.  76-79,  89. 

11 


162 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


work  consisted,  firstly,  of  a  stone  wall  from  18  to  19  feet 
high  and  from  6  to  9J  feet  thick,  the  average  thickness 
being  8  feet,  which  extended  from  Tunnocleum  (Bowness) 
on  the  Solway  Firth  to  Segedunum  (Wallsend)  on  the 
Tyne.  Its  length  exceeded  seventy-three  miles,  passing 
over  a  wild  and  desolate  tract  for  a  great  part  of  its 
course,  and  reaching  in  places  a  height  of  more  than 
1,200  feet  above  sea-level.* 

The  facing  stones,  whose  usual  size  is  15  to  20  inches 
in  length  by  10  to  11  inches  wide  and  8  to  9  inches 


SECTION   OF  THE  WORKS   NEAR  THE   EIGHTEENTH 
MILESTONE   WEST   OF   NEWCASTLE. 


SECTION  OF  THE  WORKS  HALF  A  MILE  WEST  OF  CARRAW. 

The  vallum  or  earth  wall  is  uniformly  to  the  south  of  the  stone  wall. 
It  consists  of  three  ramparts  and  a  fosse.  One  of  these  ramparts  is 
placed  close  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  ditch  ;  the  two  others,  of 
larger  dimensions,  stand  one  to  the  north  and  the  other  to  the  south 
of  it,  at  the  distance  of  about  24  feet.  The  stone  wall,  though 
represented,  is  unhappily  removed. 

thick,  were  of  good  quality,  and  were  occasionally 
quarried  as  much  as  seven  or  eight  miles  from  the  place 
where  they  were  used.  A  shallow  trench,  15  to  18 
inches  deep,  was  sometimes  dug  to  receive  the  founda- 
tion, and  on  marshy  soil  a  timber  substructure  was 
laid.  Otherwise  a  foundation  was  absent,  and  the  two 
lower  courses  of  the  wall  slightly  project,  forming  a 
sort  of  plinth.  The  interior  of  the  wall  was  of  the 
*  See  illustration,  p.  168. 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS          163 

usual  rubble  and  concrete  formation  that  has  already 
been  described.  Inscribed  stones  built  into  the  face  of 
the  wall  still  show  how  the  work  of  construction  was 
divided  between  the  legionary  detachments,  and  varia- 
tions in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  indicate  where  their 
work  was  connected,  the  break  in  the  alignment  being 
on  the  southern  face.  Supporting  the  wall  were  eighteen 
fortified  stations  of  the  usual  quadrilateral  form,  the 
masonry  of  which  resembles  that  of  the  wall  itself. 
Their  enclosed  areas  vary  from  3  to  6  acres,  and  they 
were  crowded  with  official  buildings,  store-rooms,  and 
barracks.  In  some  stations  that  have  been  carefully 
explored  the  main  streets  are  found  to  have  been  from 
10  to  14  feet  wide,  and  the  minor  streets  or  lanes  only 
about  3  feet  wide.  Many  of  the  stations  had  suburbs, 
villas,  and  other  buildings  outside  their  own  walls  and 
south  of  the  great  main  wall.  Between  the  stations, 
and  at  intervals  of  approximately  a  Roman  mile  (about 
seven  furlongs)  were  castella  or  mile-castles,  eighty- 
one  in  number,  which  were  about  60  feet  square  in 
places,  and  had  gateways,  originally  10  feet  wide,  on 
their  north  and  south  faces.  No  important  remains 
of  buildings  have  been  found  inside  them,  and  they 
possibly  only  held  guard  -  rooms  to  give  temporary 
shelter  to  their  garrisons.  The  position  of  the  castella 
depended  to  some  extent  on  the  natural  features  of  the 
ground,  a  gorge  or  river-bed  being  always  protected 
by  one  of  these  fortified  posts.  Between  every  two 
castella  were  placed  at  regular  intervals  four  turrets, 
some  12  feet  square  in  plan,  which  assisted  in  estab- 
lishing a  complete  system  of  sentries  along  the  course 
of  the  wall.  In  many  places,  especially  in  the  more 

11— 2 


164 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


populous  districts,  the  masonry  of  the  wall  and  fortresses 
has  now  been  almost  entirely  removed  for  building 
material,  and  elsewhere  it  has  been  used  for  road- 
making.  General  Wade  in  particular  in  some  places 
nearly  obliterated  the  wall  to  make  his  great  military 
road  from  Newcastle  to  Carlisle  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

In  front  of  the  wall,  and  on  the  north  side,  ran 
a  ditch,  36  feet  wide  and  15  feet  deep,  which  has  been 
cut  through  earth,  sandstone,  or  basalt,  and  has  only 


A  TURRET  OF  THE  ROMAN  WALL  AT  THE  NINE  NICKS   OF 
THIRLWALL. 

been  omitted  when  the  natural  defence  of  a  cliff  or  river- 
bed made  this  additional  protection  unnecessary.  On 
the  south  side  of  the  wall,  at  a  varying  distance  from  it, 
ran  the  military  road,  some  18  feet  wide,  which  con- 
nected the  stations  on  the  wall,  and  intersected  the  great 
highways  which  led  to  and  through  it  from  Southern 
Britain.  It  can  still  be  clearly  traced  in  many  places, 
and  till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  in 
occasional  use  for  pack  transport. 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS          165 

The  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  gives  evidence  of  the 
importance  of  the  stations  on  the  wall  and  of  the 
military  road  that  united  them;  but  the  most  difficult 
problems  in  connection  with  the  subject  arise  from  a 
vallum  which  at  some  time  was  constructed  on  the 
south  side  of  the  murus  or  wall  at  a  distance  varying 
from  only  a  few  yards  to  half  a  mile,  and  consisting  of 
another  fosse  and  three  parallel  earth  and  stone  mounds 
or  aggers,  which  are  still  in  places  7  or  8  feet  in 
height.  In  section  the  fosse  is  not  unlike  that  on  the 
north  side  of  the  wall,  but  is  considerably  smaller,  being 
about  7  feet  deep  and  17  feet  wide,  and  the  '  spoil ' 
from  it  has  been  formed  into  the  three  banks  or  aggers, 
one  of  which  is  about  24  feet  to  the  north  of  this 
southern  fosse,  another  on  the  southern  edge  of  the 
fosse,  and  the  third  about  24  feet  still  further  south. 

This  fosse  with  its  triple  row  of  banks  generally 
approaches  the  wall  near  the  fortified  stations,  and  while 
the  wall  proper  as  far  as  possible  follows  the  ridge  line 
of  the  hills,  the  vallum  is  usually  on  the  reverse  slope 
towards  the  south.  It  appears  certain  that  a  chain  of 
forts  was  constructed  across  this  district  by  Agricola 
prior  to  his  campaigns  in  Scotland,  and  they  probably 
occupied  the  sites  of  some  of  the  later  walled  stations. 
Some  authorities  have  seen  in  the  mysterious  vallum  an 
earth-wall  defensive  line  of  Hadrian"^,  and  attribute  the 
stone  wall  to  Severus.  The  position  of  the  vallum,  how- 
ever, is  better  adapted  for  defence  against  the  South 
than  against  the  North,  and  this  theory  has  few  advo- 
cates. Another  school  claims  that  the  wall  and  vallum 
are  contemporaneous,  and  attribute  them  to  Hadrian. 
The  object  of  the  vallum  would  be  the  protection  of 
the  wall  and  its  garrisons  against  raids  from  partially 


CAMPS  AND  FORTIFICATIONS         167 

subdued  tribes  to  the  south  of  it,  and  it  would  also 
secure  the  military  way  and  a  certain  amount  of  grazing 
ground.  There  are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this  expla- 
nation— the  position  of  the  banks,  for  instance — but  it 
certainly  has  more  to  recommend  it  than  the  final 
suggestion  that  the  vallum  was  a  purely  civil  boundary, 
and  only  denoted  the  limit  of  a  province. 

We  know  with  certainty,  however,  that  the  wall  and 
the  fortresses  were  repeatedly  altered  and  repaired.  If 
it  dated  from  Hadrian,  A.D.  119,  it  was  broken  through 
from  the  north  about  A.D.  180-184,  and  repaired  in 
the  latter  year.  It  was  strengthened  by  Severus  about 
A.D.  207.  Again  broken  through  in  A.D.  363-364,  it 
was  repaired,  probably  for  the  last  time,  in  A.D.  369,  by 
Theodosius.  Two  at  least  of  the  stations  were  at  some 
time  enlarged,  their  ground-plan  being  altered  from 
square  to  oblong,  and  the  extensions  being  made  to 
project  beyond  the  northern  face  of  the  wall.  The  use 
of  Roman  tombstones  for  repairs  and  other  discoveries 
made  in  the  process  of  excavation  make  it  certain  that 
repair  or  reconstruction  at  one  period  at  least  was  done 
in  a  hurried  manner. 

Many  problems  thus  await  a  solution  which  may 
never  be  attained,  but  it  is  worth  recording  that, 
according  to  one  computation,  the  labour  of  10,000  men 
for  at  least  two  years  would  be  required  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  entire  work  in  the  present  day,  and  that 
its  cost  would  exceed  =£1,000,000  of  our  money;  and  to 
quote  Mr.  Bruce,  the  historian  of  the  wall,  '  as  this 
work  in  grandeur  and  conception  is  worthy  of  the 
mistress  of  the  nations,  so  in  durability  of  structure 
is  it  the  becoming  offspring  of  the  «  Eternal  City."'* 
*  '  The  Roman  Wall/  p.  1. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  OBLITERATION  OF  THE  ROMAN  HIGHWAY 
SYSTEM,  AND  THE  SUBSEQUENT  HISTORY  OF 
MODERN  ROADS. 

Existing  Roman  remains  survivals  of  fifteen  centuries  of 
obliteration — Objects  of  the  Roman  highway  system  ceased 
to  exist  on  withdrawal  of  the  legions — Unfavourable  condi- 
tions to  road-making  during  the  two  succeeding  centuries — 
Portions  of  Roman  highways  became  basis  of  a  new  national 
system — Nomenclature  of  the  new  system — The  four  great 
roads — Are  mentioned  both  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman 
laws—  The  most  prominent  feature  in  the  mediaeval  road 
system — Impetus  to  road-making  after  the  Norman  Conquest 
— Erection  of  castles,  monasteries,  and  fortified  towns — 
Large  amount  of  travelling  during  Middle  Ages — Royal 
Itineraries — Hospitality  to  travellers  at  monasteries  and 
castles — Fairs  and  markets — Growth  of  foreign  trade— Road 
maintenance  under  the  common  law  and  the  feudal  system — 
Aid  to  travellers  a  '  pious  work ' — Guilds  for  making  roads 
and  bridges — Grant  of  indulgences  for  performance  of  such 
works — Chapels  on  bridges — Inadequacy  of  legal  provisions 
necessitated  constant  applications  to  Parliament — Theore- 
tical provisions  for  safety  of  travellers  equally  ineffective — 
Mediaeval  carriages — Coaches  not  generally  used  till  the 
seventeenth  century — Travelling  on  horseback  almost  uni- 
versal— Mediaeval  system  sufficient  for  requirements  of  the 
period — Injurious  eifects  of  the  '  Black  Death,'  of  destruction 
of  feudal  system,  and  of  dissolution  of  the  monasteries — No 
new  roads  constructed  between  1503  and  1702 — Inadequacy  of 
[  169  ] 


170  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

the  parochial  system  and  the  earlier  highway  Acts — The 
introduction  of  the  turnpike  system — Its  merits — Deplorable 
condition  of  roads  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies— Growth  of  the  turnpike  system  in  spite  of  strong 
opposition — Mileage  and  cost  of  turnpike  roads— Blind  Jack 
of  Knaresborough — Roman  standard  of  excellence  not  re- 
gained till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century — Telford 
— Mileage  of  roads  constructed  by  him  in  Scotland — The 
Holyhead  road — Introduction  in  England  by  Macadam  of 
a  system  similar,  but  inferior,  to  that  of  Telford — Superiority 
of  Irish  roads  due  to  the  grand  juries — Financial  difficulties 
of  turnpike  trustees — Introduction  of  the  railway  system 
and  the  abolition  of  forced  labour  on  roads — Condemnation 
of  the  turnpike  system  in  1871 — Expenses  of  highway  main- 
tenance thrown  on  ratepayers  after  its  discontinuance — 
Existing  highway  authorities — Comparison  between  the 
Roman  and  the  existing  highway  systems. 

THE  various  monuments  of  the  Roman  occupation 
described  in  the  three  previous  chapters  are  the 
survivals  of  what  may  be  termed  a  process  of  oblitera- 
tion, which  began  with  the  departure  of  the  legions 
and  has  extended  over  nearly  fifteen  centuries,  and 
comprises  two  distinct  phases — first,  that  of  neglect 
and  disuse,  during  which  comparatively  few  new  roads 
were  made ;  and,  secondly,  that  of  the  actual  destruc- 
tion of  the  old  roads  by  the  creation  of  the  modern 
highway  system,  in  connection  with  which  it  must  be 
remembered  that  after  the  old  Roman  roads  were  broken 
up  their  materials  were  frequently  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  roads  of  more  recent  origin.  The  history 
of  British  highways  during  this  period  thus  not  only 
forms  the  closing  chapter  of  that  of  the  Roman  high- 
way system,  but  also  constitutes  a  valuable  basis  for 
comparing  the  civilization  of  the  old  Roman  province 
with  that  of  Britain  during  its  development  as  an  in- 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM       171 

dependent  State ;  and  though  it  would  be  obviously 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  review  that  history  in 
detail,  we  propose  to  consider  some  of  its  more  impor- 
tant features. 

1.  The  first  of  the  two  phases  of  obliteration  above 
mentioned  may  be  said  to  have  been  in  operation  from 
the  abandonment  of  Britain  by  the  Empire  in  A.D.  406 
to  the  passing  of  the  first  Turnpike  Act  in  1663,  or 
during  a  period  of  nearly  four  times  the  length  of  that 
of  the  Roman  occupation.  In  Britain,  as  throughout 
the  Western  Empire,  the  Roman  highway  system,  which 
long  continued  to  be  maintained  in  Asia  Minor  and 
elsewhere  where  the  Imperial  tradition  was  preserved  by 
the  new  Empire  which  arose  in  the  East,  necessarily 
began  to  fall  into  decay  on  the  downfall  of  the  mother- 
city  which  had  been  its  centre.  The  weak  point  in  that 
system  was,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  the  author  of 
'  Travel  in  the  First  Century,'*  that  '  all  roads  led  to 
Rome,"*  and  but  few  from  province  to  province ;  and  on 
the  collapse  of  the  central  power  the  want  of  cohesion 
between  the  various  provinces  of  the  Empire  resulting 
from  this  defect  rendered  them  an  easy  prey  to  their 
barbarian  invaders,  who  had  neither  the  will  nor  the 
capacity  to  utilize  the  results  of  Roman  civilization. 
Though  more  fortunate  than  other  provinces  in  its 
insular  position,  Britain  was  equally  powerless  to  stem 
the  great  wave  of  barbarism  which  engulfed  the  Roman 
world.  The  objects  of  both  the  military  and  the 
colonial  roads  ceased  to  exist  on  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Roman  garrison  from  Britain.  The  commercial  roads 
similarly  lost  their  importance  through  the  destruction 

*  P.  143. 


172  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

of  commercial  enterprise  throughout  Europe,  and  the 
grant  of  their  freedom  to  the  British  cities  by  Honorius 
converted  them  into  so  many  separate  communities 
under  provincial  governors,  the  mutual  jealousies  of 
which  effectually  prevented  the  maintenance  of  any 
national  system  of  highways.  When  not  engaged  in 
internal  conflicts,  these  cities  were  fully  occupied  in 
repelling  the  invasions  of  the  Picts  and  the  Saxons,  and 
the  close  of  the  stormy  independence  maintained  by 
them  for  barely  fifty  years  was  followed  by  the  scarcely 
less  disturbed  period  which  witnessed  the  gradual 
formation  of  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  the  last  kingdom 
of  which,  Mercia,  was  founded  more  than  a  century 
after  Kent,  the  first,  and  was  not  included  in  a  United 
England  until  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century. 

Unfavourable,  however,  as  were  the  conditions  for 
their  maintenance  during  at  least  the  first  200  years  of 
the  period  under  consideration,  the  old  Roman  roads, 
though  diverted  from  their  original  objects,  were  never- 
theless partially  preserved,  on  the  one  hand  by  the 
permanence  of  their  structure,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
fact  that  they  still  supplied  the  only  means  of  com- 
munication between  different  parts  of  the  kingdom — 
from  the  coast  to  London,  from  London  to  the  North, 
from  the  East  to  the  extreme  West,  and  between  those 
towns  which,  as  already  noticed,*  preserved  their  exist- 
ence by  compounding  with  the  Saxons.  Mr.  Pearson, 
who  believes  Saxon  England  to  have  been  studded  over 
with  townships,  owing  their  existence  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  port  or  a  market,  an  abbey  or  diocesan 
palace,  etc.,  and  with  populations  varying  from  200  to 

*  Pp.  145,  146. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM      173 

10,000,  gives  the  Saxon  names  of  fifty  of  such  towns 
exhibiting  the  connection  between  Roman  and  Saxon 
times.  This  number  was  gradually  increased  by  the 
creation  of  towns  of  purely  Saxon  origin,  till  at  the 
time  of  the  compilation  of  Doomsday  Book  the  total 
number  recorded  is  107,  and  the  existence  of  these  towns 
implies  the  maintenance  of  roads  of  some  description.* 
Though  during  the  earlier  period  of  Saxon  rule  many 
towns  were  built  largely  of  wood,  and  in  one  year  alone 
(A.D.  764)  no  less  than  six  cities — London,  Winchester, 
York,  Doncaster,  Dunwich,  and  Stretbury — were  burned 
down  through  fires,  apparently  caused  by  lightning,  and 
though  the  Danes  destroyed  many  others  in  the  North, 
it  may  fairly  be  assumed  that  during  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries,  when  Saxon  England  enjoyed  a  settled  govern- 
ment and  had  become  wealthy  and  prosperous,  a  new 
national  system  of  highways  had  come  into  existence. 

While  Ammianus  Marcel linus,  who  wrote  during  the 
reign  of  Valens  (A.D.  364-373),  calls  the  Roman  roads 
'public  travelling  banks,'  and  Sidonius  Apollinaris, 
writing  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  still 
describes  them  as  '  banks '  and  '  earthworks  piled  up ' — 
evidently  an  allusion  to  what  was  so  marked  a  feature  in 
Roman  road  construction,  Bede,  whose  works  were  com- 
posed at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century,  and  other  later 
Saxon  writers  term  them  streets.  It  was  probably,  there- 
fore, at  some  period  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  cen- 
tury that  the  four  great  national  roads— Watling  Street, 
Fosse  Way,  Ermine  Street,  Ikenild  Street,  and  also  the 
Akeman  Street,  the  Ryknield  Way,  and  other  lesser  roads, 

*  Pearson's  f  Historical  Maps/  pp,  26,   27  ;  and  cf.  Sir  H. 
Ellis's  '  Introduction  to  Doomsday  Book/  and  also  see  Appendix  V. 


174  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

the  disputed  origin  of  which  has  already  been  discussed 
in  a  former  chapter* — first  acquired  their  present  names. 
To  the  theories  with  respect  to  this  nomenclature  there 
mentioned  may  be  added  that  suggested  by  Dyer  in  his 
'Vulgar  Errors,'!  which  derives  these  names  from  Gaelic 
roots,  as,  for  example,  Akeman  Street  from  Acha,  a  bank 
or  ridge,  and  moun,  land  ;  and  in  particular  districts, 
such  as  Cornwall  and  Wales,  where  the  Celtic  element 
predominated  among  the  population,  both  this  and  the 
Greek  theory  of  Dr.  Phene  may  in  some  cases  be 
accepted  as  probable.  Having  regard,  however,  to  the 
notable  increase  in  the  number  of  settlers  of  Teutonic 
extraction  during  the  Roman  occupation,!  we  must 
conclude  with  Mr.  Elton,  as  respects  the  most  important 
of  these  roads,  that  'there  is  little  doubt  that  these 
names  were  connected  with  the  Teutonic  mythology, 
though  the  glory  of  the  hero  '  Irmin '  and  the  craft  of 

*  Pp.  33-36. 

t  Pp.  16-18.  He  similarly  derives  Watling  Street  from  wat, 
a  ridge,  and  ling,  a  line ;  Portway  from  port,  a  bank,  and  the 
Maiden  Way  from  aid,  a  hill  or  ridge,  and  en,  land.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  pass  crossing  the  Fells  from  Kirkby  Thore  to 
Carvoran,  called  the  Maiden  Way,  is  derived  by  a  writer  in 
Archceologia  (vol.  xxxi.,  p.  280)  from  madan,  the  vernacular  for 
fair ;  and  Portway  is  said  to  be  applied  to  roads  leading  to 
Roman  towns  or  camps  (Archceologia,  vol.  x.,  p.  171 ;  vol.  xvi., 
p.  184;  and  vol.  xxii.,  p.  80).  As  regards  the  term  Forty  footway , 
Mr.  Coote  in  the  article  already  quoted  with  respect  to  the 
colonial  roads  (limites),  Archceologia,  vol.  xlii.,  points  out  that 
this  is  the  ordinary  breadth  of  the  decumanus  maximus  of  these 
roads.  Roads  bearing  this  name  exist  at  Walcote,  and  also  at 
Caistor  in  Northants. 

J  'The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon/  p.  451  ;  and  cf. 
Coote's  '  The  Romans  of  Britain/  p.  121  et  seq.  and  passim. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM       175 

the   Watlings   is   forgotten ';   and   that   '  each  of  the 
streets    represented   a   combination  of  those   portions 
of  the  Roman  roads  which  the  English  adopted    and 
kept  in  repair  as  communications  between  their  principal 
cities.'*     Watling  Street  was  a  zigzag  route  from  Kent 
to  Chester  and  York,  and  thence  northwards  in  two 
branches  to  Carlisle  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Newcastle. 
It  formed  the  line  of  division  in  Alfred's  treaty  with 
Guthrum,  and  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  Roman  roads 
still  very  frequently  form  parish  and  county  boundaries, 
and   thus  sometimes  assist  us  to  trace  the  course  of 
otherwise  obliterated  roads.    The  Fosse  Way,  which  met 
Watling  Street  at  High  Cross    in   Leicestershire,  can 
be  traced  from  Stretton  in  the  Fosse,  near  Bath,  to  Ciren- 
cester,  and  through  Stratton  in  the  Vorse,  near  Leaming- 
ton, and  Stretton  super  Fosse  in  Warwickshire  to  Lincoln ; 
while  Ermin  Street  led  direct  from  London  to  Lincoln? 
with  a  branch  to  York  and  Doncaster,  and  the  Ikenild 
Street  from  Norwich  to  Dunstable,  whence  it  eventually 
ran  to  the  coast  at  Southampton.f     These  four  great 
roads  thus  constitute  a  noteworthy  link  between  the 
Roman  highway  systems.     They  are  specially  mentioned 
in  the  chapter  on  the  Pax  Regis  in  the  laws  of  Edward 
the   Confessor,   which  were   renewed   by   William   the 
Conqueror,  and  with  the  charter  of  Henry  I.  formed  the 
basis  of  Magna  Charta,  the  *  Peace '  on  them  and  on 
navigable   rivers  being  protected  by  special  fines,  dis- 
tinguishing it  both  from  the '  Common  law  peace,1  which 
is  also  the  King's  peace,  and  that  on  other  roads  and 
rivers,  which  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local 

*  '  Origins  of  English  History/  p.  338  et  seq. 
f  Ibid.,  pp.  325,  326. 


176  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

shire  and  sheriff  courts.*  In  the  Norman  laws  they  are 
known  as  the  Quatuor  Chemini,  and  they  long  remained 
the  most  important  feature  of  the  mediaeval  road  system, 
which,  though  imperfect  in  construction  and  badly  main- 
tained, continued  gradually  to  increase  in  extent  till 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

After  the  Conquest  an  impetus  was  given  to  road- 
making  by  the  erection  of  the  great  baronial  castles 
— ninety -eight  are  known  to  have  been  in  existence, 
south  of  and  upon  the  Thames  and  the  Bristol  Avon 
alone,  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century! — of  new 
fortified  towns,  and  of  monasteries  ;J  and  throughout 
the  duration  of  the  feudal  system  the  existence  of 
passable  roads  was  necessary  to  all  classes.  '  The 
King  himself  with  all  his  Court,1  says  M.  Jusserand  in 
his  '  Wayfaring  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages/§  '  as  well  as 
the  lords,  ceaselessly  went  from  one  country-house  to 
another  by  choice  and  still  more  by  necessity.  ...  In 
the  same  way  the  monks,  those  great  cultivators,  were 
interested  in  the  good  maintenance  of  the  roads.1  As  is 
shown  by  the  Royal  Itineraries,  King  John  rarely  passed 
a  month  in  the  same  place,  and  Edward  I.  in  1299 
changed  his  abode  seventy-five  times,  or  on  an  average 
three  times  in  a  fortnight.  The  Courts  of  Justice  were 
as  peripatetic  as  the  Sovereign,  and  while  the  Justices 
in  Eyre,  in  accordance  with  Magna  Charta,  went  on 
circuit  four  times  in  the  year,  the  sheriffs  and  bailiffs 

*  Stubbs'  ( Constitutional  History/  vol.  i.,  p.  210. 

f  '  Historic  Highways  and  Byways  of  England,'  p.  54. 

J  Many  roads  in  Scotland  were  due  directly  or  indirectly  to 
the  existence  of  monasteries  (Cunningham's  e  Growth  of  English 
Industry  and  Commerce,'  p.  67). 

§  Pp.  82-84. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM       177 

had  to  visit  the  boroughs  within  their  counties.  The 
clergy — from  the  bishops  and  abbots,  who  were  attended 
by  a  great  retinue,  to  the  wandering  friars,  who  lived 
on  charity — were  as  great  travellers  as  the  laity,  who 
made  constant  pilgrimages,  such  as  that  described  by 
Chaucer,  to  holy  shrines.  Hospitality  to  travellers  was 
a  religious  duty  with  the  monks,  who,  besides  entertain- 
ing those  of  rank  in  the  monastery  itself,  hadji  guest- 
house for  pilgrims  and  travellers  of  low  degree  ;  and  it 
was  also  exercised  towards  their  equals,  both  as  an  act 
of  courtesy  and  for  pleasure,  by  the  great  barons  in 
their  castles.  The  commerce  of  the  country  was  largely 
carried  on  at  markets  and  at  the  great  annual  fairs,  such 
as  that  at  Stourbridge,  which  was  attended  by  foreign 
merchants  from  all  parts  of  the  Continent ;  and  for 
middle-class  travellers,  such  as  small  landowners, 
merchants,  and  packmen,  etc.,  there  were  inns  of  every 
degree,  from  the  Tabard  at  South wark,  which  Chaucer 
describes  as  accommodating  some  thirty  travellers  and 
their  horses,  down  to  the  common  ale-houses.*  And, 
lastly,  owing  to  the  growth  under  the  Plantagenets  of 
foreign  trade,  first  initiated  by  the  Danes,  the  seaport 
towns  began  to  increase  in  importance,  and  in  the 
seventh  year  of  the  reign  of  King  John,  as  many  as 
nineteen  between  Newcastle  and  the  Land's  End — of 
which  London,  Boston,  and  Southampton  were  the  most 
notable — are  recorded  as  having  contributed  to  the 
fifteenth  levied  by  him.t 

Except  as  regards  the  provision  with  respect  to  the 

*  Cf.  ( Wayfaring  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages/  p.  95  et  seq. 
•\  Pearson's  '  Historical  Maps,'  p.  41. 


178  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

6  King's  Peace '  on  the  four  great  highways  already 
mentioned,  the  maintenance  of  public  roads  by  the 
State  ceased  on  the  close  of  the  Roman  occupation. 
The  principle  of  the  Roman  law  under  which  the  lesser 
cross  roads  and  country  roads  were  placed  under  the 
care  of  the  rural  authorities  may,  however,  still  be 
traced  in  the  English  common  law  under  which  the  duty 
of  keeping  highways  in  repair  was  vested  in  the  parishes 
— unless  by  prescription  this  duty  attached  to  townships 
or  districts,  or  owners  of  estates  ratione  tenurce* — and 
also  in  the  jurisdiction  granted  to  Courts  Leet,  between 
1066  and  1272,  of  dealing  with  nuisances  arising  from 
the  blocking  of  highways,  the  stopping  of  watercourses, 
and  the  destruction  of  bridges.f  Under  the  feudal 
system,  moreover,  the  repair  of  roads  and  of  bridges 
formed  part  of  the  threefold  obligations  imposed  by  the 
trviwda  necessitous,  landed  proprietors — including  the 
religious  houses,  which,  as  holding  their  land  by  tenure 
of  frankalmoign,  had  a  dispensation  from  every  other 
form  of  service — being  theoretically  obliged  to  watch 
over  the  good  condition  of  the  highways,  while  their 
tenants  had  to  execute  the  repairs  on  them.  This  duty 
was  regarded  also  as  a  pious  and  meritorious  work 
before  God,  analogous  to  visiting  the  sick  or  caring  for 
the  poor ;  for  travellers  were  regared  as  unfortunates 
deserving  of  pity,  and  their  assistance  a  true  charity, 
and  it  was  common  for  people  to  leave  bequests  in  their 
wills  for  this  purpose.  Though  there  is  no  evidence  in 
England  of  the  existence  of  any  religious  Order  resem- 

*  Clifford's  '  History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation/  vol.  ii.,  p.  2. 
t  Cunningham's  c  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce/ 
p.  214. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM      179 

bling  that  of  the  Pontife  Brothers,  or  bridge-builders,* 
founded  in  the  twelfth  century,  which  had  establishments 
in  several  Continental  countries,  there  were  guilds  or 
lay  brotherhoods  originating  in  the  same  religious 
motives — such  as  that  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Birmingham, 
founded  under  Richard  II.,  which,  according  to  a  return 
by  commissioners  of  Edward  II.,  maintained  and  kept 
in  good  repair  '  two  greate  stone  bridges  and  divers 
foule  and  dangerous  highways,1  of  which  the  town  itself 
was  subsequently  unable  to  undertake  the  care.  The 
encouragement  given  by  the  Church  to  work  of  this 
description  is  also  shown  by  the  record  of  indulgences 
granted  for  its  performance,  as,  for  example,  forty  days' 
indulgence  granted  by  the  Bishop  of  Durham  in  1311- 
1316  for  help  towards  the  bridge  and  highroad  between 
Billingham  and  Nottingham,  and  a  similar  period  to 
'  the  faithful  .  .  .  who  shall  help  by  their  charitable 
gifts  or  by  their  bodily  labour  in  the  building  or  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  causeway  between  Brotherton  and 
Ferrybridge,  where  a  great  many  people  pass  by.'  The 
construction  of  the  two  bridges  at  Stratteford  atte  Bow 
by  Queen  Matilda  was  a  '  meritorious  work '  of  this 
description ;  and  the  pious  character  of  bridges  is  also 
evidenced  by  the  chapels  that  were  erected  upon  them, 
such  as  those  of  St.  Catherine  on  Bow  Bridge,  St.  Thomas 
on  London  Bridge,  and  others  at  York,  Bradford-on- 
Avon,  St.  Ives,  and  at  Wakefield,  where  both  the  chapel 
and  bridge — the  finest  existing  examples  of  the  kind — 
date  from  the  thirteenth  century.f 

*  'The  celebrated  bridge  over  the  Rhone  at  Avignon,  four 
of  the  original  arches  of  which  still  remain,  was  built  by  this 
Order/— Jusserand.  f  Cf.  Jusserand,  pp.  37-45,  48,  73. 


180  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Despite  these  theoretical  safeguards,  however,  the 
maintenance  of  roads  and  bridges  was  practically 
dependent  upon  chance  or  necessity  and  the  goodwill 
or  devotion  of  adjoining  landowners,  and  from  the 
earliest  times  the  aid  of  the  Legislature  was  invoked  in 
order  to  make  new  or  repair  old  highways.  One  of  the 
first  entries  on  the  Rolls  of  Parliament  in  1278  allows 
the  Abbot  and  men  of  Chester  to  cut  and  sell  wood  and 
make  clearings  between  Hawarden  and  Montalt  on 
condition  of  their  making  a  road  a  league  in  length. 
In  1290  Walter  Godluke,  of  Wallingford,  asks  for  a 
license  to  take  toll  on  carts  conveying  merchandise 
upon  the  road  between  Jo  wer marsh  and  Newenham  for 
the  repair  of  this  road ;  and  in  1304  a  road  leading  to 
Salisbury  was  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Bishop 
with  a  view  to  its  more  effectual  repair.*  We  find 
Edward  III.  in  1353  issuing  a  patent  ordering  the 
repair  of  the  highway  (alia  via)  between  Temple  Bar, 
the  western  limit  of  London  at  that  time,  and  West- 
minster. Beyond  the  towns  the  roads  were  devious, 
scattered  with  holes,  and  interrupted  by  brooks  in 
winter,  and  their  condition  at  their  worst  cannot  be 
better  illustrated  than  by  an  entry  in  the  records  of 
this  King's  second  Parliament  in  1359,  stating  that 
it  was  necessary  to  declare  to  the  few  representatives 
of  the  Lords  and  Commons  who  had  been  able  to 
reach  Westminster  that  '  because  the  prelates,  earls, 
barons,  and  other  lords  and  knights  of  the  shire, 
citizens  and  burgesses  of  cities  and  boroughs,  were  so 
troubled  by  the  bad  weather  that  they  could  not 

*  Clifford's  <  History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation/  vol.  ii., 
pp.  3,  4. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM       181 

arrive   that   day,  it   would   be   proper  to  await  their 
coming.1* 

Theoretically,  too,  there  was  ample  provision  for  the 
safety  of  wayfarers,  one  of  the  first  Acts  relating  to  which 
is  the  Statute  of  Winchester  13  Ed.  I.  (1385),  which, 
with  a  view  to  diminishing  the  number  of  robberies  and 
murders  perpetrated  on  travellers,  provided  that  '  high- 
ways leading  from  one  market  town  to  another  should 
be  enlarged  wherever  bushes,  woods,  and  dykes  be,  so 
that  there  be  neither  dyke,  tree,  nor  bush  whereby  a 
man  may  lurk  to  do  hurt  within  200  feet  on  either  side 
of  the  way.'t  Under  the  old  system  of  *  hue  and  cry,1 
which  though  obsolete  in  practice  has  never  been  actually 
abolished,  the  Sheriff  and  his  officers  had  very  wide  powers 
of  arrest,  in  the  zealous  exercise  of  which  they  not  un- 
frequently  arrested  some  honest  traveller  who  had  lost 
his  way.  As  in  the  case  of  road  maintenance,  however, 
in  spite  of  all  legal  provisions  the  highways  were  so 
infested  with  robbers  that  travelling  alone  was  very 
hazardous,  and  merchants,  who  on  this  account  generally 
journeyed  in  caravans  well  armed,  were  sometimes  also 
attacked  by  armed  knights  and  their  retainers,  who  did 
not  scruple  to  resist  the  Sheriff  and  his  men  if  they 
attempted  a  rescue.  The  Sovereign  and  a  few  of  the 
nobles  possessed  carriages,  extremely  clumsy  and  heavy 
in  construction,  but  much  ornamented  in  detail,  and 
having  the  interior  hung  with  tapestries  and  the  seats 
furnished  with  cushions  on  which  ladies  might  recline. 
These  were,  however,  rarely  used,  except  in  state  cere- 
monials, and  were  regarded  as  princely  luxuries  which  were 
often  bequeathed  by  will  and  cost  enormous  sums  for 

*  Jusserand,  p.  86.  t  Clifford,  vol.  i.,  p.  6. 


182  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

that  period,  ^400  being  paid  for  one  destined  for  Queen 
Isabella  by  Roger  Rouland  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II., 
and  ^1,000  —  the  value  in  those  days  of  a  herd  of 
1,600  oxen — by  John  le  Charer  in  Edward  III.'s  reign 
for  the  carriage  of  that  King's  sister,  the  Lady  Eleanor.* 
It  was  not  till  1580  that  the  first  coach,  properly  so 
called,  known  in  England  was  brought  from  Germany 
by  Fitzallan,  Earl  of  Arundel,  and  coaches  did  not 
come  into  common  use  till  about  1605.  t  Horse  litters 
were  also  not  unknown  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  but  all 
people  of  any  social  standing  travelled  almost  univer- 
sally on  horseback,  ladies,  who  were  as  skilful  riders  as 
the  men,  always  riding  astride.  The  number  of  carts — 
which  were  simply  massive  boxes  on  two  wheels — used 
for  agricultural  purposes  and  the  carriage  of  produce 
was  very  large  ;  and  they  were  also  employed  to  carry 
luggage,  large  numbers  being  always  requisitioned  by 
the  official  purveyors  during  the  King's  journeys.  So 
long  as  their  baggage  waggons  could  progress  without 
being  too  frequently  upset,  and  their  horses  did  not 
stumble  excessively,  travellers  were  content  with  the 
state  of  the  roads,  while  the  large  number  of  those  who 
were  obliged  to  travel  on  foot  were  too  used  to  all  kinds 
of  misery  to  complain  of  it.  I 

Indifferent  as  was  its  condition  when  compared  with 
that  of  Roman  Britain,  the  mediaeval  system  of  high- 
ways, largely  composed  as  it  was  of  portions  of  the 
practically  indestructible  Roman  roads,  sufficed  for  the 
national  requirements  of  the  period.  Its  efficacy,  how- 

*  Jusserandj  p.  95  et  s?q. 

t  Beckmann's  '  History  of  Inventions/  p.  96. 

J  Jusserand,  pp.  82-84,  90,  91. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM      183 

ever,  began  to  be  impaired  by  the  large  conversion  of 
arable  land  into  pasture,  resulting  partly  from  the 
growth  of  the  wool  trade,  and  partly  from  the  scarcity 
of  agricultural  labour  arising  from  the  terrible  visita- 
tion of  the  Black  Death  in  1345-49,  which  destroyed 
from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  population,  and  caused 
a  rise  in  wages  of  from  40  to  70  per  cent.,  lasting  from 
that  date  until  1500.*  It  also  suffered  still  more  from 
the  break  up  of  the  old  manorial  system  and  the 
destruction  of  the  feudal  obligations  which  followed 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  the  decay  of  fairs  at  this 
period  is  believed  to  be  due  to  the  bad  state  of  the 
roads,  f  Lastly,  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  still 
further  injured  by  the  decline  and  ultimate  dissolution 
of  the  monasteries,  which,  as  has  been  said,  were  much 
interested  in  the  formation  and  maintenance  of  roads ; 
and  the  late  Professor  Thorold  Rogers  has  recorded  the 
opinion  that  between  1583  and  1702,  the  middle  of 
Elizabeth's  reign  and  the  commencement  of  Anne's, 
'  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that,  except  near  London, 
any  attempt  was  made  to  construct  new  roads/  and 
that  '  those  in  use  had  been  probably  traversed  from 
very  remote  times.1  j  The  inadequacy  of  the  system 
of  making  parishes  solely  responsible  for  the  main- 
tenance of  highways  led  to  the  passing  in  1555  of  the 
first  Highway  Act  (2  and  3  P.  and  M.,  c.  8),  which 

*  The  value  of  artisan  labour  also  rose  from  50  to  90  per  cent., 
and  the  wages  of  women  were  doubled. 

f  Cunningham's  '  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce/ 
pp.  450,  451. 

%  '  History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices  in  England/  vol.  v., 
p.  756. 


184  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

provided  for  the  employment  of  forced  labour  with 
respect  to  parish  highways  leading  to  any  market  town, 
and  which  in  1662  (2  Car.,  c.  6)  was  made  of  general 
application.  Both  this  and  a  mixed  system  of  forced 
labour  and  assessment,  which  was  subsequently  adopted, 
failed  to  remedy  the  evils  they  were  designed  to  meet, 
and,  despite  the  increase  of  national  trade  and  wealth, 
the  roads  continued  to  deteriorate  until  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  '  turnpike '  system,  which  constitutes  the 
principal  feature  of  the  second  or  destructive  phase  of 
the  obliteration  of  Roman  highways.* 

2.  Though  the  first  Turnpike  Act  (15  Car.  II.,  c.  L.) 
was  passed  in  1663,  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  roads  by  boards  of  trustees  authorized  to  take  tolls 
for  the  purpose  did  not  begin  to  be  generally  adopted 
till  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  and  though  it 
was  fiercely  opposed,f  and,  when  it  had  served  its  pur- 
pose, was  denounced  as  extravagant,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that,  as  stated  by  Sir  Henry  Parnell  in  his 
'  Treatise  on  Roads,' '  it  is  to  the  turnpike  system  that 
England  is  indebted  for  her  superiority  over  other 
countries  with  respect  to  roads.' J  The  principle  of 
making  those  who  use  the  roads  pay  for  their  repair 
was,  as  he  points  out,  a  perfectly  just  one ;  and  had 
rates  for  the  purpose  been  imposed  on  land,  landowners 
would  undoubtedly  have  preferred  bad  roads  to  high 
rates,  while  the  Government,  had  roads  been  vested  in 
the  State,  would  then  equally  surely  have  been  unable 

*  Clifford's  'History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation,5  vol.  i.,  p.  4 ; 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  8-12. 

t  See  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  May,  1794. 
%  Second  edition  (1838),  p.  264. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM       185 

to  obtain  a  vote  of  upwards  of  a  million  and  a  half  per 
annum  for  road  maintenance.* 

The  turnpike  system  therefore  provided  the  most 
efficacious  if  not  the  only  mode  of  dealing  with  a  great 
national  evil.  '  In  the  seventeenth  century/  says 
Macaulay,  '  the  inhabitants  of  London  were,  for  almost 
every  practical  purpose,  farther  from  Reading  than 
they  now  are  from  Edinburgh,  and  farther  from  Edin- 
burgh than  they  now  are  from  Vienna. 'f  On  the  best 
roads  the  ruts  were  deep  and  the  descents  precipitous. 
It  was  only  in  fine  weather  that  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  road  was  available,  and  coaches  daily  stuck  fast  in 
the  mud  until  a  team  of  cattle  from  some  neighbouring 
farm  could  be  procured  to  drag  them  out.  Owing  to 
the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  the  road  from  the  open 
heath  and  fen  on  either  side  at  night,  travellers  fre- 
quently lost  their  way  —  as,  for  example,  Ralph 
Thoresby,  the  antiquary,  on  the  Great  North  Road 
between  Doncaster  and  York  in  October,  1620,  and 
Pepys  and  his  wife,  between  Newbury  and  Reading,  in 
the  summer  of  1 668.  In  bad  weather  they  were  liable, 
as  in  the  case  of  Thoresby  on  a  journey  from  Leeds  to 
London,  1705,  to  be  detained  three  or  four  days  by  the 
state  of  the  roads,  or,  if  the  floods  were  out,  might  even 
have  to  swim  for  their  lives.  On  the  roads  of  Derby- 
shire travellers  were  in  constant  fear  of  their  necks ; 
while  in  winter  those  in  some  parts  of  Kent  and  Sussex 
could  only  be  traversed  with  the  aid  of  the  strongest 
horses,  and  markets  were  often  inaccessible  during 
several  months.  On  the  great  route  through  Wales  to 

*  '  Treatise  on  Roads/  pp.  263,  264. 
t  '  History/  vol.  i.,  p.  373. 


186  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Holyhead  carriages  were  generally  taken  to  pieces  at 
Conway  and  carried  by  the  Welsh  peasantry  to  Holy- 
head,  and  in  1685  a  viceroy  en  route  for  Ireland  spent 
five  hours  in  travelling  fourteen  miles.*  In  1703  we 
find  Prince  George  of  Denmark  spending  six  hours  in 
going  nine  miles  when  visiting  the  great  mansion 
of  Petworth  ;t  and  Defoe,  in  his  '  Tour  through  Great 
Britain,'  written  in  1724,  states  that  in  a  village  near 
Lewes  he  saw  a  lady  of  good  quality  drawn  to  church 
in  her  coach  by  six  oxen,  '  the  way  being  so  stiff  that 
no  horses  could  go  in  it.'J  And  these  contemporary 
records  of  the  state  of  the  roads  are  rendered  more 
striking  by  the  great  increase  which  had  taken  place  in 
vehicular  traffic  since  the  Restoration.  Those  who 
enjoyed  health  and  vigour  and  had  not  much  luggage 
still  performed  their  journeys  on  horseback,  but  the 
rich  generally  travelled  in  their  own  carriages  drawn 
by  four  horses,  and  at  the  close  of  Charles  II.'s  reign 
6  flying  coaches ' — the  first  of  which,  between  the  two 
Universities  and  London,  were  started  in  1699 — ran 
thrice  a  week  from  London  to  all  the  chief  towns. 
The  crowd  of  passengers  who  were  unable  to  afford 
these  modes  of  travelling  had  to  be  content  with  a 
place  in  the  stage  waggons,  in  which  all  heavy  articles 
were  conveyed  on  the  best  highways  at  about  Is.  3d.  a 
ton  per  mile,  or  one-third  more  than  was  afterwards 
charged  on  turnpike  roads,  and  fifteen  times  in  excess  of 
railway  rates.  No  stage  coach  or  even  stage  waggon, 
however,  appears  to  have  ever  gone  further  north  than 

*  Macaulay's  '  History/  vol.  i.,  pp.  374-376. 
f  Ibid. 
%  '  History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation/  vol.  i.,  p.  243. 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM      187 

York  or  further  west  than  Exeter;  and  throughout 
the  country  beyond  these  limits  and  on  all  by-roads 
goods  were  carried  by  teams  of  pack-horses  of  a 
breed  now  extinct,  which  travelled  at  a  foot's  pace, 
and  between  the  packs  of  which  travellers  of  humble 
condition  often  found  it  convenient  to  perform  a 
journey.* 

Under  these  conditions  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
that,  though  the  unpopularity  of  turnpike  roads — 
which  led  to  the  well-known  'Rebecca  riots' — was  so 
great  that  a  general  Act  for  their  protection  had  to  be 
passed  in  1728,-J-  the  number  of  Acts  for  their  estab- 
lishment continued  to  increase  during  the  reigns 
of  Anne  and  the  first  two  Georges.  Between  1706 
and  1744,  452  Acts  were  passed ;  643  between  1785 
and  1800  ;  and  419  between  1800  and  1809 ;  and  when 
the  system  was  finally  discontinued  in  1835  the  number 
amounted  to  3,800,  authorizing  the  construction  of 
22,000  miles  of  road,  the  annual  repair  of  which  cost 
«£!,  122,000.  Owing,  however,  to  their  defective  con- 
struction even  some  of  the  earlier  turnpike  roads 
earned  maledictions  from  travellers  like  Arthur  Young, 
who,  in  his  'Six  Months1  Tour,'  published  in  1770, 
cautions  all  travellers  to  avoid  a  certain  Wigan  turn- 
pike 'as  they  would  the  devil.' I  When  the  system  was 
first  inaugurated  eminent  engineers  considered  road- 
making  as  beneath  their  consideration,  and  it  was 
thought  singular  that  one  so  distinguished  as  Smeaton 
should  have  condescended  to  make  the  road  across  the 

*  Macaulay,  pp.  377-380. 

f  1  Geo.  II.,  St.  12,  c.  19. 

J  ' History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation/  vol.  ii.,  pp.  16,  17. 


188  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Valley  of  the  Trent  between  Markham  and  Newark. 
The  making  of  new  roads  was  thus  left  to  any  who 
chose  to  take  up  a  trade  in  which  special  experience  was 
considered  unnecessary,  and  the  first  great  English  road- 
maker  was  a  blind  man — John  Metcalf,  popularly  known 
as  Blind  Jack  of  Knaresborough,  who,  though  possess- 
ing no  experience  of  surveying  or  bridge-building, 
nevertheless  constructed  nearly  200  miles  of  excellent 
roads,  the  first  of  which  was  made  between  Harro- 
gate  and  Boroughbridge  in  1765.*  English  road- 
making  did  not  approach  the  Roman  standard  of 
excellence  till  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, when  Telford,  the  great  bridge-builder,  began  to 
devote  his  attention  to  it.  One  of  his  earliest  under- 
takings in  this  respect  was  the  construction  of  875 
miles  of  road  and  1,117  bridges  in  Scotland  under  a 
Parliamentary  Commission  of  1803.  But  perhaps  his 
best-known  work  was  the  reconstruction,  under  a 
similar  Commission  of  1815,  of  which  Sir  Henry 
Parnell  was  the  leading  spirit,  of  the  Holyhead  road  to 
Ireland  which  a  House  of  Commons  Committee  of  1830 
described  as  '  affording  an  example  of  road-making  on 
perfect  principles  and  with  complete  success. 'f  A  system 
similar  to  that  of  Telford,  though  less  thorough,  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Macadam,  the  surveyor- 
general  of  the  British  roads,  about  the  same  time,  and 

*  Smiles'  '  Lives  of  the  Engineers/  vol.  i.,  p.  207.  An 
interesting  account  of  Metcalf  s  remarkable  career  is  given  in 
cap.  v.,  p.  208. 

f  '  History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation/  vol.  ii.,  p.  17.  For 
an  account  of  Telford's  system  of  road-making,  which  it  is 
interesting  to  compare  with  that  of  Vitruvius,  see  '  Lives  of  the 
Engineers/  vol.  ii.,  pp.  429,  430. 


| 


OBLITERATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM      189 

successfully  adopted  on  all  the  principal  roads  of  the 
kingdom,*  though  Sir  Henry  Parnell  in  the  first  edition 
of  his  treatise,  published  in  1833,  still  laments  the 
defects  of  some  of  them  as  compared  with  those  in 
Ireland,  which,  thanks  to  the  control  of  the  grand 
juries,  were  everywhere  in  good  condition.-)-  As  long  as 
mail  and  stage  coaches,  post-chaises  and  private  car- 
riages, remained  the  only  means  of  inland  transit,  the 
tolls,  allowed  under  local  Acts  provided  ample  security 
for  the  turnpike  loans  raised  by  mortgage  upon  them  ; 
but  after  the  introduction  of  the  railway  system  had 
begun  to  diminish  traffic  on  the  roads,  continued  legisla- 
tion became  necessary  to  supply  deficits,  and  the  diffi- 
culties of  turnpike  trustees  formed  the  subject  for 
consideration  of  a  series  of  Parliamentary  Committees 
between  1821  and  1853,  and  of  a  Royal  Commission 
appointed  in  1840.  In  addition  to  this,  the  abolition 
of  forced  labour  on  roads  by  the  Highway  Act  of  1855, 
consolidating  the  law  on  the  subject,  deprived  turnpike 
trustees  of  a  source  of  revenue  estimated  by  Sir  James 
Macadam  at  ^200,000  a  year  ;  and  in  1 871  the  system 
was  condemned  as  wasteful  and  impolitic,  and  provision 
was  made  for  their  gradual  abolition.  On  their  discon- 
tinuance the  whole  expense  of  maintaining  our  highway 
system  was  transferred  to  the  ratepayers,  and  their 
control  is  now  vested  by  the  Local  Government  Acts 
of  1888  and  1894  in  the  County  and  Rural  District 

*  Macadam  spent  several  thousand  pounds  out  of  his  own 
pocket  on  road-making,  which  were  eventually  repaid  to  him  by 
Parliament,  together  with  an  honorarium  of  £2,000  ('Lives  of 
the  Engineers/  vol.  ii.,  p.  43). 

f  ( History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation/  vol.  ii.,  p.  17. 


190  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

Councils,  and,  where  they  elect  to  retain  their  jurisdic- 
tion over  them,  in  urban  authorities.* 

It  will  be  evident  from  this  necessarily  imperfect 
survey  that  the  Roman  highway  system  survived  the 
neglect  and  mismanagement  of  over  1,000  years,  and 
was  only  finally  destroyed  by  the  establishment  of 
a  new  one  adapted  to  modern  requirements.  That  it 
was  at  least  fully  equal  to  that  which  has  superseded  it 
as  regards  material  construction  is  evident  from  excava- 
tions such  as  those  of  Mr.  McMurtrie  on  the  Fosse  Way, 
described  in  an  earlier  chapter  ;f  and  it  appears  open  to 
question  whether  the  present  system  of  delegating  the 
management  of  highways  to  a  number  of  local  authori- 
ties is  calculated  to  insure  a  higher  standard  of  efficiency 
than  was  obtained  under  the  Roman  system  of  State 
control.^:  The  fact  that  it  has  taken  Britain,  as  an 
independent  nation,  1,500  years  to  achieve  the  results 
produced  by  four  centuries  of  Roman  administration 
therefore  seems  to  justify  the  conclusion  that,  had  its 
authors  possessed  the  advantages  which  we  now  enjoy 
from  the  discoveries  of  modern  science,  the  civilization 
of  Roman  Britain — at  all  events  as  regards  its  material 
aspect — would  have  been  fully  equal  to  our  own. 

*  '  History  of  Private  Bill  Legislation/  vol.  ii.,  pp.  20,  23. 
Cf.  Glen's  '  Law  relating  to  Highways,'  p.  249  et  seq. 

f  See  cap.  vii.,  p.  94  ante. 

%  A  comparison  of  the  roads  of  India  and  the  Crown  colonies, 
which  are  administered  on  the  Roman  system,  with  those  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  would  show  the  superiority  of  the  former  in 
every  respect.  Cf.,  too,  p.  x  of  the  Report  of  the  Departmental 
Committee  of  the  Local  Government  Board  on  Highways,  referred 
to  in  Preface. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN  ROADS 

Sources  of  information  available  for  identification  of  Roman 
roads — Structures  and  characteristics — Milestones — Evi- 
dences of  centuriation — Coins,  funeral  monuments,  and 
altars,  etc. — Proximity  to  camps  and  stations — Evidences  as 
to  the  existence  of  camps — The  Fosse  Way,  Watling  Street, 
etc.  — Contemporary  authorities — The  Geography  of  Ptolemy 
— Richard  of  Cirencester's  Itinerary — The  Itinerary  of 
Antoninus — The  '  Notitia  Imperil ' — The  Peutingerian  Table 
— The  Ravenna  Chorography. 

WE  have  now  completed  our  survey  of  the  origin, 
history,  and  leading  features  of  the  Roman  highway 
system  in  Britain ;  but  before  finally  taking  leave  of 
the  subject,  it  may  be  useful  if  we  briefly  enumerate, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  reader  who  may  be  desirous  of 
investigating  it  further,  some  of  the  principal  sources 
of  information  which,  in  addition  to  the  list  of  authori- 
ties appended  to  this  work,  are  available  for  the  identifi- 
cation of  a  Roman  road. 

Of  these,  the  first  twhich  naturally  suggests  itself  is 
the  structure  of  the  roads  themselves. 

Where  excavations  can  be  made,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Fosse  Way,  near  Radstock,  mentioned  in  a  previous 


192  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

chapter,*  the  series  of  strata  of  which  it  is  composed 
furnish  at  once  an  infallible  test  for  the  identification  of 
a  Roman  highway.  In  addition  to  this,  we  have  the 
straightness  of  the  road,  the  prevalence  of  parallels  and 
perpendiculars  in  its  course,  and  its  directness  between 
the  starting-point  and  terminus. t  Roman  milestones 
found  on  or  near  the  road  supply  another  form  of 
evidence,]:  while  centurial  stones,  stone  altars,  and 
botontini  furnish  indications  of  the  existence  of  limites 
or  colonial  roads,  which  can  be  still  more  fully  identi- 
fied by  the  discovery  of  a  junction  of  four  roads  running 
towards  the  four  cardinal  points.  §  Attention  has  also 
already  been  drawn  to  the  frequent  use  of  a  Roman  high- 
way as  a  parish  or  county  boundary,  and  to  the  assistance 
that  those  boundaries  may  give  towards  tracing  a  now 
wholly  or  partially  obliterated  road.||  To  these  aids 
towards  the  identification  of  Roman  roads  must  be 
added  two  more  mentioned  by  Horsley.  The  first  of 
these  is  the  finding  of  coins  and  funeral  monuments 
near  the  course  of  a  road — a  fact  accounted  for  by  the 
Roman  custom  of  burying  the  dead  near  highways, 
which  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the  works  of  Latin 
authors,  and  is  further  evidenced  by  the  formal  inscrip- 
tions on  tombs  addressed  to  travellers,  such  as  '  Abi 
viator,"  '  Sta  viator,1  etc.^I  The  other  is  the  existence 

*  See  ante,  p.  85  et  seq. 

f  Of.  'Britannia  Romana/  pp.  390,  391. 

|  See  ante,  cap.  viii. 

§  See  ante,  p.  73  et  seq. 

||  See  p.  375,  and  cf.  Codrington's  '  Roman  Roads  in  Britain/ 
pp.  37,  38. 

IF  Virg.,  'Eel./  ix.  60;  Juv.,  'Sat./  1;  Propert.,  book  ii., 
c.  in.,  p.  287.  See  Gough's  'Camden/  2nd  ed.,  vol.  i.,  p.  xcv ; 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN  ROADS     193 

in  the  vicinity  of  a  road  of  Roman  camps  and  stations, 
which  can  be  identified,  first,  by  their  names  (the  words 
'Burgh/  'Chester,'  'Street,'  'Cold  Harbour,1  and 
'  Stratton 1  being  among  the  most  common  evidences  of 
this  kind) ;  secondly,  by  the  discovery  of  Roman  monu- 
ments and  the  ruins  of  buildings ;  and  thirdly,  by  their 
situation,  both  a  commanding  position  on  some  emi- 
nence and  also  the  neighbourhood  of  a  river — and 
especially  the  lingula,  or  tongue  of  land  made  by  the 
junction  of  a  river  with  its  tributary — being  favourite 
sites  with  the  Romans.* 

Again,  we  have  the  important  fact  that  archaeologists 
have  with  more  or  less  success  traced  the  course  of  a 
number  of  roads,  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  previous 
chapters,  which  are  still  commonly  termed  old  Roman 
highways,  such  as  the  four  great  ways  of  the  Fosse, 
Ermin  Street,  Watling  Street,  and  Ikenild  Street ;  the 
Akeman  Street,  the  Ryknield  Street,  Stone  Street, 
High  Street,  the  Via  Julia,  the  Portway,  and  the 
Maiden  Way,  etc.  Though,  however,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  sections  of  these  road  swere  originally  the 
work  of  the  Romans,  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind 
that,  as  already  shown,f  they  were  not  designated  by 
their  present  names  till  long  after  the  Roman  occupa- 
tion, and  that  they  therefore  cannot  be  regarded 

and  'Britannia  Romana/  p.  391.  It  is  to  be  noted  as  to  this, 
however,  that,  as  pointed  out  by  Stuart  (( Caledonia  Romana,' 
p.  268),  this  custom  was  not  confined  to  the  Romans,  but  was 
also  practised  by  the  Greeks,  and  introduced  through  them  into 
Gaul  and  Britain. 

*  ( Britannia  Romana/  p.  393. 

f  See  ante,  pp.  33,  34 ;  and  p.  173  et  seq. 

13 


194  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

throughout  their  whole  course  as  Roman  roads.  The 
actual  line  they  traversed  can  only  be  determined  by 
reference  to  the  Itineraries,  coupled  with  conclusive 
evidence  of  the  kind  already  mentioned. 

The  third  source  of  information  to  which  we  have 
referred  is  to  be  found  in  the  comparison  of  the 
writings  of  the  following  contemporary  authorities, 
most  of  which  have  been  referred  to  in  the  preceding 
chapters — the  Geography  of  Ptolemy,  the  Itinerary  of 
Richard  of  Cirencester,  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus, 
the  '  Notitia  Imperil,'  the  Peutingerian  Table,  and  the 
Ravennas  Chorography. 

The  Geography  of  Ptolemy,  who  lived  during  the 
reigns  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius,  and  apparently 
wrote  about  the  year  A.D.  120,  gives  a  list  of  fifty-six  of 
the  most  important  cities  in  his  day,  twenty  of  which 
were  in  Scotland,  and  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  most  of 
them  must  have  been  in  existence  for  some  time  when 
his  work  was  composed.  The  most  northerly  town 
mentioned  in  this  list  is  Burghead  (Ptoroton),  on  the 
Moray  Firth ;  and  it  also  includes  old  Aberdeen 
(Devana)  and  Bertha  (Orrhea),  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tay  on  the  east  ;  Ardoch  (Lindum),  Dealgenross 
(Victoria),  and  Keirfield  (Alauna)  in  the  centre ;  and 
Paisley  (Vanduara),  Carstairs  (Colania),  and  Stranraer 
(Retigonium)  in  the  West  of  Scotland. 

The  Itinerary  of  Richard  of  Cirencester  purports  to 
have  been  composed  from  a  map  or  itinerary  of  about 
A.D.  150,  as  the  descriptions  it  contains  appear  to  refer 
at  the  latest  to  the  age  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (A.D.  160- 
180).*  It  comprises  full  accounts  of  the  geography, 

*  See  '  Caledonia  Romana/  p.  177. 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN  ROADS     195 

products,  climate,  and  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles, 
together  with  a  summary  of  the  chief  transactions  of 
the  Roman  occupation,  and  was  alleged  by  Professor 
Bertrand,  of  Copenhagen,  who  first  published  a  Latin 
edition  of  the  MS.  in  1767,  to  have  been  written  in  the 
fourteenth  century  by  a  Benedictine  monk  of  West- 
minster, named  from  his  birthplace  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester.*  The  seventh  chapter  gives  the  names  of  the 
thirty  most  notable  Roman  cities,  followed  by  eighteen 
itinera,  or  journeys,  in  all  directions  across  the  island  ; 
and  if  we  could  assume  it  to  be  genuine,  it  would 
therefore  be  the  oldest  contemporary  record  of  Roman 
roads  in  existence.  Unfortunately,  however,  though  it 
was  accepted  as  such  by  Dr.  Stukeley — who  first  made  it 
known  in  Britain — and  by  Gibbon,  Pinkerton,  Chal- 
mers, General  Roy,  and  all  the  leading  archaeologists  of 
the  day,  later  authorities  appear  to  have  united  in 
throwing  doubts  on  its  authenticity.  The  Historical 
Society  has  decided  against  it ;  Professor  Hiibner  has 
condemned  it ;  Mr.  Elton  and  Mr.  Burton  both  style  it 
a  '  forgery ';  and  Mr.  Wright  also  concludes  it  to  be  a 

*  For  a  full  account  of  the  work,  see  Roy's  '  Military  Anti- 
quities of  the  Romans  in  Britain,'  pp.  95-102.  The  Latin  text 
of  the  work,  together  with  a  comparison  of  the  Itineraries  of 
Richard  and  Antoninus,  will  be  found  in  Dyer's  ( Vulgar  Errors 
Ancient  and  Modern,'  pp.  34,  230.  Cf.  Burton's  f  History  of 
Scotland/  vol.  i.,  p.  13  notes,  pp.  61-63;  Wright's  'The  Celt, 
the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon/  p.  145  note,  and  Appendix,  pp.  533-536 ; 
and  Elton,  p.  336  note.  See  also  Bertram's  fTres  Scriptores/ 
Stukeley's  '  Memoir/  and  Reynolds'  'Antonine';  a  notice  pre- 
fixed by  the  Historical  Society  to  their  edition  of  '  Richard 
of  Devizes';  and,  lastly,  Professor  Hiibner's  ( Inscriptions 
Britanniifi  Latinse/  p.  206. 


196  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

'mere  fabrication.'  Mr.  Burton,  however,  admits  that 
what  the  Itinerary  professes  to  lay  down  on  authority 
'  were  the  guesses  and  theories  of  a  learned  and  acute 
man,'  while  Mr.  Wright  allows  that,  though  the 
Itineraries  of  Richard  and  Antoninus  differ  a  little 
from  each  other,  it  is  certain  that  nearly  all  the  roads 
given  by  the  former  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the 
latter  have  been  ascertained  to  exist.  The  author  of 
6  Caledonia  Romana  '  also  frequently  refers  to  Richard's 
Itinerary,  and  as  it  is  the  only  guide  of  the  kind  avail- 
able for  Roman  roads  in  Scotland,  it  cannot  be  dis- 
carded in  tracing  their  course ;  while  the  comparison  be- 
tween it  and  that  of  Antoninus  by  Dyer  in  his  '  Vulgar 
Errors,'  given  in  the  Appendix,  will  also  be  found 
useful  with  respect  to  roads  south  of  Hadrian's  Wall. 

The  Itinerary  of  Antoninus,  the  most  authentic  of 
the  records  of  our  knowledge  with  respect  to  Roman 
roads,  is  believed  to  have  been  compiled  in  the  reign  of 
Constantine  the  Great,  though  there  are  great  doubts 
as  to  its  exact  date.  The  name  of  Antoninus  has  been 
by  some  supposed  to  imply  that  it  was  the  work  of 
Antoninus  Pius  and  by  others  of  Caracalla,  and  of 
these  two  the  latter  seems  to  have  by  far  the  more 
probable  claims  to  the  honour,  since  not  one  of  the 
stations  in  the  Wall  of  Antoninus  Pius — who,  moreover, 
never  appears  to  have  visited  Britain — are  named  in  the 
list  of  places  it  contains,  which  would  certainly  have 
been  the  case  had  the  Itinerary  been  composed  by  him. 
The  fact,  however,  pointed  out  by  Horsley,  that  Con- 
stantinople and  other  places  not  founded  till  long  after 
the  time  of  both  these  Emperors  are  mentioned  in  the 
work,  seems  to  dispose  at  once  of  the  idea  that  it  was 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN  ROADS     197 

written  by  either  of  them.  It  appears,  therefore,  far 
more  probable  that,  as  both  Horsley  and  Gale  seem 
disposed  to  believe,  it  was  not  all  composed  at  any  one 
time  or  by  one  hand,  but  was  begun  in  one  age  and 
finished  in  another,  and  there  seems  little  reason  to 
doubt  that  it  assumed  the  form  in  which  it  has  reached 
us  about  the  year  A.D.  320.*  The  Roman  Itineraries 
appear  to  have  been  military  road-books,  giving  the 
names  of  the  stations  and  halting-posts  on  the  principal 
military  ways,  with  the  distances  in  Roman  miles 
between  each,  and  to  have  been  designed  chiefly  for 
the  use  of  officers  during  a  campaign.  The  portion 
of  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  which  relates  to  Britain 
gives  fifteen  different  marching  routes  through  the 
island,  extending  from  Middleby  (Blatum  Bulgium),  in 
Dumfriesshire,  in  the  North,  to  Chichester  (Regnum), 
on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  in  the  South,  and  from  Caistor, 
near  Norwich  (Venta  Icenorum),  on  the  East,  to  Exeter 
(Isca  Dumnoniorum)  on  the  West,  with  the  names 
and  relative  distances  from  each  other  of  106  military 
or  posting  stations.  It  is  thus  manifestly  incomplete 
in  its  scope  as  a  guide  to  the  road  system  of  the 
whole  of  Britain  ;  and  in  addition  to  this,  some  of  the 

*  ( Some  have  thrown  out  a  conjecture  that  this  work  was 
originally  of  so  early  a  date  as  Julius  Caesar,  and  that  it  was 
altered  to  our  time  with  the  enlargement  of  the  Empire5 
(Burton's  '  History  of  Scotland/  vol.  i.,  p.  60,  note  1).  The 
great  Itineraries  of  the  Roman  Empire  were  published  in  1735  by 
Wesseling  with  annotations,  '  Itineraria  Veterum  Romanorum/ 
and  later  have  been  edited  by  Parthey  et  Finder,  Berlin,  1848. 
Those  relating  to  Britain  have  been  annotated  by  Burton, 
Gale,  Stukeley,  and  Dr.  Talbot  in  Leland's  Itinerary,  and  by 
Reynolds  ;  those  for  Gaul  and  Italy  by  M.  D'Anville. 


198  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

routes  traverse  portions  of  the  same  ground,  sometimes 
the  name  of  a  route  given  in  the  heading  does  not  agree 
with  the  items  of  the  mileage,  and  in  other  parts  the 
miles  appear  to  vary  in  length.  In  spite  of  its  defects, 
however,  it  can  never  fail  to  be  of  immense  assistance  to 
all  who  desire  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  geography 
of  Roman  Britain,  since,  to  quote  Horsley,  '  we  owe  to 
it  more  discoveries  of  the  names  of  Roman  places  in 
Britain  than  to  all  others  put  together.'* 

The  same  uncertainty  prevails  to  an  even  greater 
extent  with  respect  to  the  date  of  the  fourth  of  the  con- 
temporary authorities  we  are  considering — the  '  Notitia 
Imperil,'  which  is  the  latest  record  of  the  military 
stations  in  Britain.  Horsley,  relying  on  the  authority 
of  the  historian  Pancirollus,  who  states  that  it  must  have 
been  written  between  the  years  425  and  453,  fixes  it  at 
A.D.  445,  and  the  following  year  as  that  of  the  final  de- 
parture of  the  Roman  legions.t  Kemblet  considers  that 
the  theory  of  Pancirollus  is  successfully  refuted  by 
Gibbon,  §  who  places  it  between  A.D.  394  and  407 ;  and 
he  adds  that  '  the  actual  document  we  possess  may  pro- 
bably date  from  A.D.  390  or  400,  but  that  it  refers  to  the 
arrangements  of  an  earlier  time,  and  to  an  organization 
of  Roman  power  in  more  palmy  days  of  their  dominion. 
Elton  ||  speaks  of  it  as  composed  about  the  end  of  the 
fourth  and  WrightH  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 

*  'Britannia  Romana/  book  in.,  chap,  iii.,  pp.  472-489. 
f  Ibid. 

%  '  The  Anglo-Saxons  in  England/  p.  13,  note  2. 
§  '  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire/  2nd  ed.,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  45-48. 

||  'Origins  of  English  History/  p.  311,  note. 

If  f  The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon/  pp.  416,  418. 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN  ROADS     199 

century.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  majority  of 
authorities  are  opposed  to  the  late  date  fixed  by 
Horsley,  though  they  are  not  agreed  as  to  any  precise 
one.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  we  seem  justified  in 
assuming  that  the  'Notitia'  was  written  either  just 
before  or  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Theo- 
dosius  II.  It  may  be  described  as  an  official  calendar, 
or  perhaps  return,  of  the  civil  and  military  establish- 
ment of  the  Empire,  and  gives  the  staff  employed  in 
the  government  of  the  provinces  and  the  disposition  of 
the  troops  stationed  in  them.  The  portion  relating  to 
Britain  apparently  recognises  its  division  into  the  five 
provinces  which  have  been  noticed  as  established  by 
Constantine.  Of  these,  however,  only  two — Britannia 
Prima  and  Valentia — appear  to  have  been  largely 
garrisoned  by  troops,*  and  all  the  forty-six  stations 
enumerated  are  either  on  the  East  Coast — the  Saxon 
shore — or  at  Hadrian's  Wall  and  the  districts  near  it.t 
Its  chief  use,  therefore,  in  connection  with  highways  is 
that  it  helps  us  to  identify  most  of  the  stations  along 
the  line  of  Hadrian's  barrier,  together  with  a  few  in 
Yorkshire  and  on  the  East  and  South  Coasts,  though  it 
defines  the  latter  places  very  vaguely.  J 

The   so-called   Peutingerian   Table,   which   may   be 
termed  the  oldest  road-map  of  Britain,  and  of  which 


*  f  Britannia  Romana,'  p.  480. 

f  Ibid.,  p.  475  ;  cf.  the  ( Notitia  Imperil/  caps.  iii.  and  Ixiii. 
'The  military  force  in  Britain  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  has  been  estimated  from  information  contained  in  the 
"Notitia"  at  14,200  infantry  and  1,700  cavalry'  (' The  Celt,  the 
Roman,  and  the  Saxon,'  p.  418). 

J  Pearson's  '  Historical  Maps,'  p.  7. 


200 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


we  give  an  illustration  below,*  differs  in  some  notable 
respects  from  an  ordinary  map.     The  Romans,  accord- 


BRITAIN  AS   REPRESENTED   IN  THE  PEUTINGERIAN  TABLE. 

*  See  e  Britannia  Romana/  book  iii.,  chap,  v.^  pp.  505-520: 
'  An  Essay  011  Peutinger's  Table  so  far  as  it  Relates  to  Britain/ 
by  Mr.  Ward,,  where  an  excellent  illustration  will  be  found  of 
the  whole  table,,  of  which  the  British  portion  only  is  given  in  our 
text.  A  very  clear  description  is  also  given  in  Elton's  ( Origins 
of  English  History/  pp.  345,  346. 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN  ROADS  201 

ing  to  Vegetius — who  wrote  a  treatise,  de  Re  Military 
about  A.D.  386 — had,  in  addition  to  Itineraries  like  that 
of  Antoninus  (Itinerariaadnotata),  post-maps  (Itineraria 
picta)  representing  the  countries  adjacent  to  each  other 
in  the  order  in  which  they  were  traversed  by  the  main 
military  ways  and  by-roads,  without  reference  to  their 
form  or  latitude  or  longitude,  and  the  chief  object  of 
which  seems  to  have  been  to  give  a  general  panoramic 
view  of  the  highways  for  military  purposes.  It  is 
suggested  by  Mr.  Ward*  that  the  Itineraria  adnotata 
were  not  improbably  made  afterwards  from  the  Itine- 
raria picta,  and  that  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  was 
perhaps  made  from  a  post- map  of  this  kind,  which 
therefore  might  possibly  be  the  one  of  which  a  copy  has 
been  given  above.  The  Peutingerian  Tables  derive 
their  name  from  the  fact  that  they  were  found  in  the 
library  of  Conrad  Peutinger,  of  Augsburg,  at  his  death 
in  1547,  and  appear  to  have  consisted  of  twelve  folio 
sheets  of  parchment,  originally  forming  one  long  strip 
22  feet  in  length  and  1  foot  in  breath,  so  as  to  admit 
of  its  being  rolled  on  a  stick.  It  is  believed  to  have 
been  copied  in  the  thirteenth  century  from  a  draw- 
ing originally  made  either  in  the  third  century, 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus  or,  according  to 
others,  a  century  later  in  the  age  of  Theodosius  the 
Great,  and  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  from 
a  monastery  in  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  A 
portion  of  the  first  segment,  which  gives  the  diagram 
of  Britain,  has  been  destroyed,  owing  probably  to  its 
having  formed  the  outside  sheet  of  the  roll,  and  that 
which  remains  consists,  as  will  be  seen,  only  of  the 
*  l  Britannia  Romana/  p.  507. 


202  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

principal  part  of  the  district  known  as  the  Saxon  shore. 
This  fragment,  however,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
map  was  made  entirely  for  military  purposes,  and  was 
constructed  so  as  to  give  prominence  to  the  roads  and 
principal  stations. 

The  last  work  on  our  list,  which  is  generally  known 
as  the  '  Chorography  of  the  Anonymous  Ravennas,'* 
though  of  little  value  for  our  purpose,  demands  a  pass- 
ing notice.  Salmon  ascribed  the  authorship  to  Gallio 
of  Ravenna,  the  last  Roman  who  had  a  command  in 
Britain,  and  Dr.  Stukeley  to  a  writer  who  took  the  name 
from  Ravenna  on  account  of  his  being  born  in  the 
town.  Neither  of  these  theories,  however,  has  found 
any  large  acceptance,  and  the  author  is  now,  therefore, 
generally  styled  '  anonymous,'  while  the  date  of  his 
treatise,  which  seems  also  to  be  a  matter  of  some 
uncertainty,  appears  to  be  probably  the  seventh 
century.  Mr.  Pearsont  considers  that  'he  must  have 
commanded  special  information  from  Celtic  sources, 
and  most  likely  from  the  Gaelic  or  Irish  missionaries,'' 
and  Mr.  Wright  'that  he  had  evidently  before  him 
large  maps,  from  which  he  derived  his  lists  of  towns  and 
rivers.1 1  Though,  however,  his  work  gives  full  records 
as  to  the  towns  and  geographical  features  of  which  he 
treats,  they  appear  to  be  stated  without  method  ;  and  as 

*  See  e  Britannia  Romana,'  book  iii.,  chap,  iv.,  pp.  489-505: 
( An  Essay  on  the  Chorography  of  Britain,  the  Anonymous 
Geographer  of  Ravenna. '  See,  too,  '  The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and 
the  Saxon,5  p.  145  note  ;  Appendix,  pp.  536,  537-540 ;  and 
Pearson's  '  Historical  Maps/  Essay  I.,  p.  7. 

t  '  Historical  Maps,'  Essay  I.,  p.  7. 

I  '  The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon,'  p.  536. 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  ROMAN  ROADS    203 

he  pays  no  regard  to  the  Itineraries,  and  as  his  names 
are  written  so  corruptly  and  so  mingled  with  Gallic 
roots  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  identify  them  satisfac- 
torily, he  can  prove  of  but  little  assistance  as  respects 
Roman  highways. 

The  text  of  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus,  so  far  as 
it  relates  to  Britain,  extracted  from  the  edition  by 
Parthey  and  Finder,  is  given  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 
It  is  the  oldest  known  road-book  of  these  islands,  and 
thus  furnishes  the  most  appropriate  conclusion  of  the 
history  of  the  system  to  which  it  relates. 

The  text  of  the  other  authorities  above  men- 
tioned, with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  Ravenna 
Chorography,  will  be  found  in  the  Appendices  to 
this  work,  together  with  a  list  of  the  Roman  towns 
and  the  principal  camps  in  various  counties  of  the 
United  Kingdom  ;  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  informa- 
tion they  contain  will  prove  serviceable  to  travellers 
on  our  highways  as  well  as  to  those  who  may  be  dis- 
posed to  undertake  the  verification  of  the  sites  of 
some  of  the  numerous  stations  and  portions  of  road 
which  are  still  uncertain  or  in  some  cases  altogether 
unknown.  No  branch  of  archaeology  owes  more  to  the 
labours  of  independent  investigators  co-operating  for  a 
common  object  than  that  relating  to  the  Roman 
occupation,  and  if  the  perusal  of  the  foregoing  pages 
should  have  the  effect  of  in  any  way  increasing  the 
number  of  those  taking  an  active  interest  in  such 
investigations,  one  of  the  main  purposes  of  their 
publication  will  have  been  achieved. 


THE  ITINERARY  OF  ANTONINUS  SO  FAR  AS  IT 
RELATES  TO  BRITAIN.* 

LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS.          ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 

ANTONINE'S  ITINERARY 
OF  BRITAIN. 

From  Boulogne  in   France  to 
Richborough  in  England. 

First  Journey. 

From  the  Wall  (Hadrian's 
Wall)  to  Flamborough  Head. 

From  Roecliester  to  Corbridgef 
(Northumberland) 

Ebchester  (Northumberland 
border) 

Binchester,  near  Bishop  Auck- 
land (Durham) 


ANTONINI 
ITER  BRITANNIARUM. 

A  Gessoriaco  de  Galliis  Ritupis 
in  Portu  Britanniarum,  Stad. 
numero  ccccl. 


A  limite,  i.e.,  a  vallo  Prsetorio 

usque,  m.  pm.  clvi. 
A  Bramenio  Corstopitum,  in. 

pm.  xx. 
Vindomora,  m.  pm.  ix. 

Vinovia,  m.  pm.  xix. 


*  From  the  edition  by  Parthey  and  Pinder  (1848).  Of.  Dr.  Gale's 
edition  of  c  Antonine's  Itinerary,'  with  Horsley's  Essay  on  it  and 
Leman's  MS.  notes,  in  the  edition  of  'Britannia  Romana'  in 
the  Bath  Literary  and  Scientific  Institution  (see  pp.  378-472). 
C/1,  too,  the  edition  in  vol.  iii.  of  Hearne's  '  Leland's  Itinerary' 
(second  edition),  with  Dr.  Robert  Talbot's  Annotations  (see  p.  127 
et  seq).  On  account  of  the  differences  of  opinion,  still  not  satis- 
factorily settled,  regarding  the  relative  distances  of  the  English 
and  Roman  miles,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  the  equivalents 
for  the  Roman  figures  indicative  of  the  distance  between  station  and 
station  in  the  text. 

t  It  will  be  seen  from  the  map  that  Roechester  (Bremmenium)  is 
beyond  the  Wall,  and  this,  combined  with  the  expression  a  Zimite, 
seems  to  show  that  the  composer  of  the  Itinerary  regarded  the 
barrier  of  Hadrian  as  the  northern  boundary  of  the  road  system  he  is 
describing.  Corbridge  (Corstopitum)  again  is  beyond  it,  so  that  the 
title  •  from  the  Wall '  evidently  means  the  district  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Wall. 

[204  ] 


THE  ITINERARY  OF  ANTONINUS      205 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 
Cataractoni,  m.  pm.  xxii. 

Isurium,  m.  pm.  xxiv. 

Eburacum,  Leg.   VI.,  Victrix, 

m.  pm.  xvii. 
Derventione,  m.  pm.  vii. 

Delgovicia,  m.  pm.  xiii. 
Praetor io,  m.  pm.  xxv. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Cattarick  on  the  Swale  (York- 
shire) 

Aldborough  (Yorkshire,  East 
Riding) 

York  (Headquarters  of  the 
Vlth  Legion) 

Station  on  the  Derwent  (per- 
haps Old  Malton,  Yorkshire) 

Station  near  Millington  (York- 
shire) 

Flarnborough  Head  (Yorkshire, 
East  Riding) 

Second  Journey. 

From  the  Wall  to  Richborough 
in  Kent. 

From  Middleby  (Dumfriesshire) 
to  Netherby  (Cumberland) 

Carlisle* 

Probably  Old  Penrith  (Cum- 
berland) 

Kirkby  Thore  (Westmoreland) 

Brough  (Westmoreland) 

Bowes  (Yorkshire,  North 
Riding) 

Cattarick  on  the  Swale  (York- 
shire, North  Riding) 

Aldborough  (Yorkshire,  East 
Riding) 

York 

Tadcaster  (Yorkshire) 

Slack  (Yorkshire) 

Manchester 

Kinderton  (Cheshire)  or,  per- 
haps, near  Northwich 

Chester  (headquarters  of  the 
XXth  Legion) 

Bangor  (Flintshire)  or  near 
Stretton 

Station  on  the  Tanad  (perhaps 
Meivod  Montgomeryshire) 

*  In  this  Iter  again  neither  Middleby  nor  Netherby  are  on  the  wall 
though  Carlisle  is. 

t  Horsley  places  Mediolanum  at  Drayton  in  Shropshire  (see  pp.  417, 
418  of  '  Britannia  Romana'). 


Item :  A  vallo  ad  Portum 
Ritupis,  m.  pm.  cccclxxxi., 
sic. 

A  Blato  Bulgio  Castra  Explora- 
torum,  m.  pm.  xii. 

Luguvallo,  m.  pm.  xii. 

Voreda,  m.  pm.  xiv. 

Brovanacis,  m.  pm.  xiii. 
Verteris,  m.  pm.  xiii. 
Lavatris,  m.  pm.  xiv. 

Cataractone,  m.  pm.  xvi. 
Isurium,  m.  pm.  xxiv. 

Eburacum,  m.  pm.  xvii. 
Calcaria,  m.  pm.  ix. 
Camboduno,  m.  pm.  xx. 
Mamucio,  m.  pm.  xviii. 
Condate,  m.  pm.  xviii. 

Deva,  Leg.  XX.,   Victrix,  m. 

pm.  xx. 
Bovio,  m.  pm.  x. 

Mediolano,f  m.  pm.  xx. 


206 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 

Rutunio,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Uriconio,  m.  pm.  xi. 
Uxacono,  m.  pm.  xi 


Pennacrucio,  m.  pm.  xii. 

Etoceto,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Manduessedo,  m.  pm.  xvi. 
Venonis,  m.  pm.  xii. 

Bannaventa,  m.  pm.  xvii. 

Lactodoro,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Magiovinto,  m.  pm.  xvii. 
Durocobrivis,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Verolamio,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Sulloniacis,  m.  pm.  ix. 

Londinio,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Noviomago,  m.  pm.  x. 


Vagniacis,  m.  pm.  xviii. 

Durobrivis,  m.  pm.  ix. 
Durolevo,  m.  pm.  xiii. 
Duroverno,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Ad  Portum  Ritupis,  m.  pm.  xii. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 

Rowton  (Shropshire) 
Wroxeter 

Red  Hill,  near  Shifnal  (Salop), 
or  Oakengate,  near  Wem- 
bridge,  Salop 

Station  near  the  river  Pente, 
perhaps  Stretton  (Stafford- 
shire) 

Wall  (Staffordshire) 
Manceter  (Warwickshire) 
Probably  High  Cross  (Leices- 
tershire) 

Near  Daventry  (perhaps  Bur- 
row Hill  Northants*) 
Towcester  (Northamptonshire) 
Near  Fenny  Stratford  (Bucks) 
Dunstable  (Bedfordshire) 
St.  Albans  (Hertfordshire) 
Brockley    Hill,    near    Elstree 
(Herts) 


London 
Holmwood 

(Kent), 


Hill,      Bromley 
or    near    Croydon 
(Surrey) 
Perhaps  South  Fleet  or  North 

Fleet  (Kent) 
Rochester 

Davington  or  Milton  (Kent) 
Canterbury 
Richborough  (Kent) 


Item :  A  Londinio  ad  Portum 

Dubris,  m.  pm.  Ixvi.,  sic 
Durobivis,  m.  pm.  xxvii. 
Duroverno,  m.  pm.  xxv. 
Ad  Portum  Dubris,  m.  pm.  xiv. 


Third  Journey. 
From  London  to  Dover. 

Rochester   \ 
Canterbury  [  Kent 
Dover 


*  The  Isannavaria  (see  Iter  6)  or  Isannavatia  and  the  Bennavenna 
or  Bannaventa  in  this  Iter  (Iter  2)  would  seem  to  have  been  two 
different  names  for  the  same  town,  the  site  of  which  must  have  been 
at  or  near  Daventry.  Some  authorities,  however,  consider  them  to  be 
two  distinct  places,  and  find  the  site  of  the  first  at  Burnt  Walls,  and 
the  second  at  Burrow  Hill,  both  near  Daventry. 


THE  ITINERARY  OF  ANTONINUS      207 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


Item  :  A  Londinio  ad  Portum 
Lemanis,  m.  pm.  Ixviii.,  sic. 

Durobivis,  m.  pm.  xxvii. 

Duroverno,  m.  pm.  xxv. 

Ad  Portum  Lemanis,  m.  pm. 
xvi. 

Item  :  A  Londinio  Luguvalio 
ad  Vallum,  m.  pm.  ccccxliii., 
sic. 

Caesaromago,  m.  pm.  xxviii. 

Colonia,  m.  pm.  xxiv. 

Villa  Faustina,  m.  pm.  xxxv. 

Icinos,  m.  pm.  xviii. 


Camborico,  m.  pm.  xxxv. 
Duroliponto,  m.  pm.  xxv. 
Durobrivas,  m.  pm.  xxxv. 

Causennis,  m.  pm.  xxx. 
Lindo,  m.  pm.  xxvi. 
Segeloci,  in.  pm.  xiv. 

Dano,  m.  pm.  xxi. 
Legiolio,  m.  pm.  xvi. 

Eburaco,  m.  pm.  xxi. 
Isubrigantum,  m.  pm.  xvii. 

Cataractone,  m.  pm.  xxiv. 

Levatris,  m.  pm.  xviii. 
Verteris,  m.  pm.  xiiii. 
Brocavo,  m.  pm.  xx. 
Luguvallio,  m.  pm.  xxii. 


Item:  A  Londinio  Lindo,  m. 

pm.  clvi.,  sic. 
Verolamio,  m.  pm.  xxi. 
Durocobrivis,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Magiovinio,  m.  pm.  xii. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Fourth  Journey. 
From  London  to  Lympne. 

Rochester   \ 
Canterbury  I  Kent 
Lympne      j 

Fifth  Journey. 

From  London  to  Carlisle  and 
the  Wall. 

Chelmsford  (Essex) 

Colchester 

Perhaps  Dunmow  (Essex) 

Perhaps  Icklingham  (Suffolk), 
but  more  probably  Chester- 
ford  (Essex) 

Cambridge 

Godmancheter  (Huntingdon) 

Castor  on  the  Nen  (Northamp- 
ton) 

Ancaster  (Lincolnshire) 

Lincoln 

Littleborough  (Nottingham  - 
shire) 

Doncaster  (Yorkshire) 

Castleford  (Yorkshire,  West 
Riding) 

York 

(Isurium)  Aldborough  (York- 
shire, West  Riding) 

Cattarick  on  the  Swale  (York- 
shire, North  Riding) 

Bowes  (Yorkshire) 

Brough  (Westmoreland) 

Kirkby  Thore  (Westmoreland) 

Carlisle  (Cumberland) 

Sixth  Journey. 
From  London  to  Lincoln. 

St.  Albans  (Hertfordshire) 
Dunstable  (Bedfordshire) 
Near   Fenny  Stratford  (Buck- 
inghamshire) 


208 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 

Lactorodo,  m.  pm.  xvi. 
Isanavantia,  m.  pm.  xii. 


Tripontio,  m.  pm.  xii. 

Venonis,  m.  pm.  viii. 
Ratis,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Verometo,  m.  pm.  xiii. 
Margiduno,  m.  pm.  xii. 

Ad  Pontem,  m.  pm.  vii. 

Crocolana,  m.  pm.  vii. 
Lindo,  m.  pm.  xii. 


Item :  A  Regno  Londinio,  m. 

pm.  xcvi.,  sic. 
Clausentum,  m.  pm.  xx. 

Venta  Belgarum,  m.  pm.  x. 
Calleva  Attrebatum,   m.    pm. 

xxii. 

Pontibus,  m.  pm.  xxii. 
LondiniOj  m.  pm.  xxii. 


Item :  Ab  Eburaco,  Londinio, 

m.  pm.  ccxxvii.,  sic. 
Lagecio,  m.  pm.  xxi. 

Dano,  m.  pm.  xvi. 
-5£geloco,  m.  pm.  xxi. 

Lindo,  m.  pm.  xiv. 
Crocolana,  in.  pm.  xiv. 
Margiduno,  m.  pm.  xiv. 

Vernemeto,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Ratis,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Venoms,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Bannavento,  m.  pm.  xviii. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Towcester  (Northamptonshire) 

(Apparently  another  name  for 
Bennavena  in  Iter  2).  Near 
Daventry  (Northampton- 
shire) 

Lilbourne,  near  Rugby  (North- 
amptonshire) 

High  Cross  (Leicester) 

Leicester 

Willoughby  (Nottinghamshire) 

Near  Bridgeford  -  on  -  Trent 
(Nottinghamshire) 

Near  Farndon,  Newark  (Not- 
tinghamshire) 

Brough  (Lincolnshire) 

Lincoln 

Seventh  Journey. 
From  Chichester  to  London. 

Bittern,     near     Southampton 

(Hants) 

Winchester  (Hants) 
Silchester  (Hants  or   borders 

of  Berks) 

Staines  (Middlesex) 
London 

Eighth  Journey. 
From  York  to  London. 

Castleford  (Yorkshire,  West 
Riding) 

Doncaster 

Littleborough  (Nottingham- 
shire) 

Lincoln 

Brough  (Lincolnshire) 

Near  Bridgeford  -  on  -  Trent 
(Notts) 

Willoughby  (Notts) 

Leicester 

High  Cross  (Leicestershire) 

Near  Daventry  (Northampton- 
shire) 


THE  ITINERARY  OF  ANTONINUS      209 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Magiovinio,  m.  pm.  xxviii. 
Durocobrivis.  m.  pm.  xii. 
VerolamiOj  m.  pm.  xii. 
Londinio,  m.  pm.  xxi. 

Item  :  A  Venta  Icenorum  Lon- 

dinio,  m.  pm.  cxxviii.,  sic. 
Sitomago,  m.  pm.  xxxii. 

Combretonio,  m.  pm.  xxii. 


Ad  Ansam,  m.  pm.  xv. 

Camoloduno,  m.  pm.  vi. 
Canonio,  m.  pm.  ix. 

Caesaromago,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Durolito,  m.  pm.  xvi. 

Londinio,  m.  pm.  xv. 

Item :    A   Clanoveuta   Medio- 
lano,  m.  pm.  cl.,  sic. 


Galava,  m.  pm.  xviii. 
Alone,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Calacum,  m.  pm.  xix. 
Bremetonaci,  m.  pm.  xxvii. 
Coccio,  m.  pm.  xx. 

Mancunio,  m.  pm.  xvii. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Near  Fenny  Stratford  (Bucks) 
Dunstable  (Bedfordshire) 
St.  Albans  (Hertfordshire) 
London 

Ninth  Journey. 

From  Caistor,  in  Norfolk,  to 
London.* 

Dunwich  (in  Suffolk),  or  Wool- 
pit,  near  Stowmarket  (Suffolk 

Burgh,  near  Woodbridge 
(Suffolk),  or  Stretford,  near 
Saxmundham  (Suffolk) 

Stratford,  near  Ipswich  (Suf- 
folk), or  a  station  on  the 
Stour  on  the  Essex  border 

Colchester  (Essex) 

Near  Kelvedon,  on  the  Pant 
(Essex) 

Chelmsford  (Essex) 

Near  Romford  (Essex)  or  Ley- 
ton  (Essex) 

London 

Tenth  Journey. 

From  (probably)  Ellenborough 
(Cumberland)  or  (perhaps) 
Lanchester  (Durham)  to  a 
station  on  the  Tanad  River, 
or  (perhaps)  Meivod  in 
Montgomeryshire,  f 

Keswick  (Cumberland^ 

Ambleside  (Westmoreland)§ 

Probably  Keudal|| 

Overborough  (Lancashire) 

Ribchester  or  Wigan  (Lanca- 
shire) 

Manchester 


*  Wright  says  :  '  The  course  of  this  road  is,  however,  at  present 
very  uncertain,  and  we  only  know  that  it  ended  at  the  Eastern  Venta, 
or  Venta  of  the  Iceni,  which,  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt,  stood  at 
Caistor,  near  Norwich '  ('The  Celt,  the  Roman,  and  the  Saxon,'  p.  160). 

t  Horsley  places  Mediolanum  at Dray  ton  in  Shropshire.    Cf.  Iter  II. 

t  Placed  by  Horsley  at  Old  Town. 

§  Placed  by  some  at  Whitley  Castle. 

||  Placed  by  some  at  Appleby. 

14 


210 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 
Condate,  m.  pm.  xviii 

Mediolano,  m.  pm.  xix. 


Item  :  A  Segontio  Devam, 

m.  pm.  Ixxiiii.,  sic. 
Conovio,  m.  pm.  xxiv. 

Varis,  m.  pm.  xviii. 
Deva,  m.  pm.  xxxii. 

Item :     A    Muriduno    Viroco- 

nium,  m.  pm.  clxxxvi.,  sic. 
Leucaro,  m.  pm.  xv. 
Nido,  m.  pm.  xv. 

Bomio,  m.  pm.  xv. 

Iscaleg,   ii.    Augusti,   m.    pin. 

xxvii. 

Burrio,  m.  pm.  ix. 
Gobannio,  m.  pm.  xii. 
Magnis,  m.  pm.  xxii. 
Bravonio,  m.  pm.  xxiv. 

Viroconio,  m.  pm.  xxvii. 


Item  :  Ab  Isca  Callevam, 

m.  pm.  cix.,  sic. 
Barrio,  m.  pm.  ix. 
Blestio,  m.  pm.  xi. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Kinderton  (Cheshire),  or, 
perhaps,,  near  Northwich, 
Cheshire 

Station  on  the  Tanad  (Mont- 
gomeryshire) 

Eleventh  Journey. 

From  Caernarvon  (North 

Wales)  to  Chester. 
Caer-Hun  in  the  Vale  of  the 

Conway  (Caernarvonshire) 
Bodfari,  near  Denbigh  (Flint 

and  Denbigh) 
Chester 

Twelfth  Journey* 

From  Caermarthen  to  Wroxe- 

ter  (Shropshire). 
Exeter 

Lloughor  or  Llygor  (Glamor- 
ganshire) 

Neath  (Glamorganshire) 
Ewenny  (Glamorganshire) 

Usk  (Monmouthshire) 
Abergavenny  (Monmouthshire) 
Kenchester  (Herefordshire) 
Near  Leintwardine,  near  Lud- 

low  (Herefordshire) 
Wroxeter  (Shropshire) 

Thirteenth  Journey. 

From    Caerleon    (Monmouth- 
shire) to  Silchester  (Hants). 
Usk  (Monmouthshire) 
Monmouth 


*  In  Dr.  Gale's  edition  (reproduced  in  Horsley's  '  Britannia  Romana,' 
p.  380  et  seq. )  the  following  six  stations  are  given  as  preceding  Muri- 
dunum :  Vindomi,  m.  pm.  xv.  ;  Venta  Belgarum,  in.  pm.  xxi.  ;  Brige, 
m.  pm.  xi.  ;  Sorviodimi,  m.  pm.  viii.  ;  Vindogladia,  m.  pm.  xii.  ;  Dur- 
novaria,  m.  pm.  viii.  Messrs.  Parthey  and  Finder,  however,  insert 
all  these  stations  in  brackets,  as  being  evidently  a  misplaced  entry 
repeating  Iter  XV.  See  as  to  this  Leman's  MS.  notes  on  the  edition  of 
'  Britannia  Romana '  in  the  Library  of  the  Bath  Literary  and  Scientific 
Institution,  pp.  381  and  457. 


THE  ITINERARY  OF  ANTONINUS      211 


LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 

AriconiO;  m,  pm.  xi. 
Glevo,  m.  pm.  xv. 
Durocornovio,  m.  pm.  xiv. 
Spinis,  m.  pm.  xv. 

Calleva,  m.  pm.  xv. 


Item :    Alio  Itinere    ab    Isca 

Calleva,  m.  pm.  ciii.,  sic. 
Venta  Silurum^  m.  pm.  ix. 
Abone,  m.  pm.  xiv. 


Trajectus,  m.  pm.  ix.* 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Near  Ross  (Herefordshire) 

Gloucester 

Cirencester  (Gloucestershire) 

Speeii;  or  Spene,   near  New- 

bury  (Berks) 
Silchester  (Hampshire) 

Fourteenth  Journey. 

From  Caerleon  to  Silchester 
by  another  route. 

Caerwent  (Monmouthshire) 

Aust,  near  Thornbury  (Glou- 
cestershire), where  there  was 
a  passage  over  the  Severn 

Bitton  (Gloucestershire) 


*  Leman  suggests  (p.  382)  that  Abone  and  Trajectus  should  be 
transposed,  and  makes  Abone  Bitton,  and  Trajectus  Sea  Mills.  He 
also  seems  to  incline  to  the  idea  that  a  station  called  Ad  Sabrinam, 
which,  as  will  be  seen,  is  given  by  Richard  in  his  corresponding  iter  of 
this  portion  of  the  country,  has  been  omitted  from  the  Itinerary  of 
Antoninus.  He  thus  makes  the  road  run  from  Caerwent  to  Caldecot 
Pill,  and  there  cross  the  Severn  to  Madam  Farm  (Ad  Sabrinam),  three 
miles  from  Sea  Mills  (Trajectus),  and  then  on  to  Bitton  (Abone),  and 
thence  to  Bath  (see  'Britannia  Bomana,'  p.  469).  If  he  is  correct  it 
would  seem  that  Sea  Mills  must  have  been  the  port  of  crossing 
(Trajectus),  not  the  Severn,  but  the  Avon,  and  thus  formed  the  com- 
munication with  Roman  stations  on  the  south  side  of  that  river, 
extending  through  Somerset  on  into  Devon.  In  the  text  it  will  be 
seen  that  we  have  not  adopted  Leman's  theory  as  to  the  transposition 
of  Abone  and  Trajectus,  and  have  differed  from  him  in  placing  Trajectus 
at  Bitton.  See  an  article  in  vol.  xxix.  of  Archceologia  (pp.  5-31)  by 
Mr.  Ormerod,  D.C.L.,  on 'Some  Ancient  Remains  existing  in  the 
District  adjacent  to  the  confluence  of  the  Wye  and  the  Severn  in  the 
Counties  of  Gloucester  and  Monmouth,  etc.,'  and  also  a  subsequent 
paper  on  '  British  and  Roman  Remains  illustrating  the  Communica- 
tions with  Venta  Silurum  and  the  Passages  of  the  Bristol  Channel  and 
Antoninus's  Itinerary,'  which  was  read  before  the  Archaeological  Insti- 
tute at  the  Bristol  meeting  in  1851.  The  reader  will  find  all  the 
various  opinions  on  this  much-disputed  point  of  the  crossing  of  the 
Severn  fully  discussed  in  these  able  papers.  Mr.  Ormerod  points  out 
that  there  are  no  less  than  twenty  different  theories  broached  by  anti- 
quarians on  the  subject,  Camden,  Gale,  and  others  making  the  cross- 
ing of  the  river  take  place  from  a  point  above  Aust,  Horsley  and  others 
from  Aust  itself,  and  Coxe  and  others  from  Madam's  Pill  on  the  Severn, 
north-west  of  King's  Weston  ;  while  Burritt,  thejiistorian  of  Bristol, 
doubts  between  Sea  Mills  and  Portishaad,  at  the  "mouth  of  the  Avon, 
in  his  identification  of  the  Abone  of  Antoninus.  It  may  be  added 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Aquas  Solis,  m.  pm.  vi. 
Verlucione,  m.  pm.  xv. 

Cunetione,  m.  pm.  xx. 
Spinis,  m.  pm.  xv. 
Calleva,  m.  pm.  xv. 


Item :  A  Calleva  IscaDumnum- 

orum,  m.  pm.  cxxxvi.,  sic. 
Vindomi,  m.  pm.  xv. 


Venta  Belgarum,  m.  pm.  xxi. 
Brige,  m.  pm.  xi. 
Sorbiodoni,  m.  pm.  viii. 
Vindogladia,  m.  pm.  xii. 

Durnonovaria,  m.  pm.  viii. 
Muriduno,  m.  pm.  xxxvi. 

Isca  Dumnuniorum,  m.  pm.  xv. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Bath 

Highfield  in  Sandy  Lane,  near 
Heddington  (Wilts) 

Folly  Farm,  near  Marlborough 
(Wilts) 

Speen,  near  Newbury  (Berk- 
shire) 

Silchester  (Hants) 

Fifteenth  Journey.* 
From  Silchester  to  Exeter. 

Near  Finkley,   between  And- 

over  and  St.  Mary  Bourne 

(Hampshire) 
Winchester  (Hants) 
Broughton  (Hants) 
Salisbury  (Old  Sarum,  Wilts) 
Blandford     (Dorsetshire)     or 

Cranbourne  (Dorsetshire) 
Dorchester  (Dorset) 
Honiton   (Devon)    or    Seaton 

(Devon) 
Exeter 


that  he  states  that  numerous  pilots  whom  he  consulted  expressed  the 
opinion  'that  a  passage  from  Madam's  Pill  to  Caldecot  could  only 
take  place  once  in  each  tide,  and  that  from  its  exposure  stormy 
weather  would  render  it  impracticable,  and  that  a  passage  from  Sea 
Mills  by  the  Avon  would  have  great  additional  difficulties  from  meet- 
ing another  tide.'  Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  subject  is  further 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  the  continuation  of  the  line  of  this  iter 
from  beyond  Bitton  and  St.  George's  to  Durdham  Down  west  of  Bristol 
is  still  only  conjectural. 

*  Gf.  note  on  Iter  XII.,  p.  210. 


APPENDIX  1 


PTOLEMY'S  GEOGRAPHY,*  BK.  II.,  CH.  III., 
TABLE  III. 


LATIN  NAMES. 


ENGLISH  NAMES. 


TRIBAL 
DISTRICTS. 

TOWNS. 

DISTRICTS. 

TOWNS. 

Novantse 

Lucopibia 
Retigonium 

Wigtonshire 
and  Ayrshire 

Withern 
Stranraer 

Selgovse 

Carbantorigum 
Uxelum 

Dumfries      and 
Kirkcud  - 

Kircudbright 
Raeburnfoot 

Corda 

bright 

Cumnock  in  Esk- 

dale 

Trimontium 

Eildon 

Damnii 

Colania 

Renfrew,     Lan- 

(Probably) Lanark 

Yanduara 

ark,  and  Lin- 

Paisley 

Coria 

lithgow 

Crawford  or  Car- 

stairs 

Alauna 

Keir  field 

Lindum 

Ardoch 

Victoria 

Dealgenross 

Otadeni 

Curia 

Selkirk,      Rox- 

Currie   on      Gore 

burgh,      and 

Water 

Bremenium 

Northumber- 

Roechester 

land 

Vacomagi 

Banatia 

Inverness, 

Bona,  near  Inver- 

Nairn,    Ross, 

ness 

Tamea 

and  (probably) 

(Probably)  on  Loch 

part  of  Perth- 

Tay 

Alata  Castra 

shire 

Tain,  Nr.  Gordon 

Castle 

Tuesis 

Nr.  Fochabers 

Venicontes 

Orrea 

Districts  beyond 
the  Tay 

Bertha,   near   the 
Almond 

*  For  the  Greek  Text  of  this  portion  of  Ptolemy's  Geography,  see 
'  Britannia  Eomana,'  pp.  357-360. 

[213] 


214 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES. 


ENGLISH  NAMES. 


TRIBAL 

DISTRICTS. 

TOWNS. 

DISTRICTS. 

TOWNS. 

Texali 

Devana 

Beyond      the 

Old  Aberdeen 

Venicontes  on 

the  coast 

Brigantes 

Epiacum 

York,  Durham, 

Near  Lanchester 

Vinnovium 

Lancaster, 

Binchester,     near 

Caturractonium 

Westmore- 

Bishop Auckland 

Calatum   (prob- 

land,       and 

Cattarick 

ably  Galacum) 

Cumberland 

(Probably)  Kendal 

Isurium 

Aldborough 

Rigodunum 

(Probably)     War- 

rington 

Olicana 

Ilkley      on      the 

Wharfe 

Eboracum  :  Legio 

York 

Sexta  Victrix 

Camunlodunum 

Slack 

Paris! 

Petuaria 

A  tribe  to  the 

Brough     on     the 

south   of  the 

Humber 

Brigantes 

Ordovices 

Mediolanium 

North  Wales 

(Probably)  Meivod 

in  Montgomery 

or  a  station  on 

the  Tanad  River 

Brannogenium 

(Probably)  Ludlow 
or  Worcester 

Cornabii 

Deuna       (prob- 

Warwick, Wor- 

Chester 

ably  Deva) 

cester,      part 

Legio  Vicessima 
Victrix 

of     Stafford, 
Shropshire, 

Viroconium 

and  Cheshire 

Wroxeter 

(Uriconium) 

Coritani 

Lindum 

Leicester,    Rut- 

Lincoln 

Rhage 

land,  Lincoln, 

Leicester 

Notts,  Derby, 

and  Stafford- 

shire 

Catyeuchlani 

Salense 

Herts,        Beds, 
Northants, 

(Probably)Sandye, 
near  Potton,  in 

and  Bucking- 

Beds 

Urolanium 

hamshire 

St.  Albans 

(Verulam) 

Simeni    (or 

Venta 

Norfolk,      Suf- 

Caistor,  near 

Iceni) 

folk,       Cam- 

Norwich 

bridge,      and 

Huntingdon 

Trinoantes 

Camudolanum 

Essex  and 

Colchester 

Middlesex 

APPENDIX  I 


215 


LATIN 

NAME?. 

ENGLISH 

NAMES. 

TRIBAL 

DISTRICTS. 

TOWNS. 

DISTEICTS. 

TOWNS. 

Demetse 

Luentinum 

Cardigan,  Pem- 

Llanio   in    Cardi- 

broke,    Caer- 

ganshire 

Maridunum 

marthenshire 

Caermarthen 

Silyres 

Bullseum  (prob- 

South Wales 

(Probably)  Usk 

ably  Burrium) 

Dobuni 

Corinium 

Oxfordshire  and 

Cirencester 

Gloucester- 

shire 

Atrebatii 

Nalcua  or  Cal- 
cua  (probably 

Berks,  and  part 
of  Oxford 

(Probably)  Silches- 
ter 

Caleva) 

Cantii 

Londinium 

Kent 

London 

Darvenum 

(Probably)  Canter- 

(probably 
Darovenum) 

bury 

Rutupise 

Richborough 

Regni 

Neomagus 
(probably 

Surrey,   Sussex, 
and    part    of 

(Probably)  Holm- 
wood  Hill,  near 

Belgse 

Noviomagus) 
Ischalis 

Hants 
Wilts,     Somer- 

Bromley, Kent 
Ilchester 

Aquse.  Calidse 

set,  and  part 

Bath 

Yenta      (Venta 

of  Hants 

Winchester 

Belgarum) 

Durotriges 

Dtmimn    (prob- 

Dorsetshire 

(Probably)    Honi- 

ably  Muridu- 

ton*   or  Seaton 

num) 

in  Devon 

Dumnonii 

Voliba* 

Devon  and 

(Perhaps)         Fal- 

Cornwall 

mouth 

Uxela 

(Probably)     Lost- 

withiel 

Tamare 

(Perhaps)   Tamer- 

ton    near    Ply- 

mouth 

Isca  :  Legio  Se- 

Exeter 

cimda  Augusta 

#  The  stations  of  Voliba,  Uxela,  and  Tamare  are  very  uncertain. 


APPENDIX  II. 


THE  DIAPHRAGMATA  OF  RICHARD  OF  CIREN- 
CESTER  COMPARED  WITH  THE  ITINERARY 
OF  ANTONINUS.* 


LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 


Her  I. 

A  Rhutupi  Ducta  est  via  Guethelinga  dicta 
usque  in  Segontium  per  m.p.  324,  plus 
minus,  sic. 


RICHARD. 


ANTONINUS. 

(Iter  2,  inverted) 
Duroveno,  12 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 

First  Journey,  f 

From  Richborough 
to  Caer  Seyont 
by  the  Watling 
Street 


Canterbury 


Cantiopoli  quas  et 
Duroverno,  m.p. 
10 

*  Dyer  gives  the  whole  Latin  text  of  Richard's  Chorography  in  his 
work  (see  p.  184  et  seq.).  The  Diaphragmata  will  be  found  at  pp.  211- 
214,  at  the  end  of  Cap.  VII.  of  Dyer's  '  Vulgar  Errors,  Ancient  and 
Modern.'  See,  too,  pp.  34-178.  'Diaphragmata'  is  the  plural  of 
diaphragma,  which  literally  means  the  diaphragm,  or  midriff,  of  the 
body,  to  which  Richard  apparently  compares  the  roads  he  describes. 
Both  this  term  and  also  the  reference  to  the  Watling  Street— a 
medifeval  term — must,  if  we  assume  the  work  to  be  genuine,  be 
presumably  considered  as  additions  of  the  Benedictine  monk  of  the 
fourteenth  century  to  the  old  manuscript  of  the  age  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
which  he  is  supposed  to  have  edited.  Otherwise,  they  would  seem  to 
be  evidence  pointing  to  its  forgery.  The  edition  of  Antoninus's 
Itinerary  used  by  Dyer  is  that  of  T.  Reynolds,  published  at  Cam- 
bridge, 1799. 

t  Caer  Seyont  or  Seiont  (Segontium)  is  said  by  Wright  to  have  been 

one  of  the  most  important  Roman  towns  in  Wales  ( '  The  Celt,  the 

Roman,  and  the  Saxon,'  p.  150),  and  must  evidently  have  been  one 

of  the  ports  of  embarkation  for  Ireland.     This  first  iter  of  Richard's, 

[216] 


APPENDIX  II 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 
Durosevo,  12 

Duroprovis,  25 
Deinde,  m.p.,  27 
Transis  Thames  in 
intrasque        pro- 
vinciam    Flaviam 
et  civitatem  Lon- 
dinium       Augus- 
tam.   .  .   . 

Sulo  Mago,  m.p.  9 

Verulamio  Muni- 

cipio,  12 
Foro  Diana?,  12 

Magio  Vinio,  12 
Lactodoro,  12 
Isanta  Varia,  12 

Tripontio,  12 


ANTONINUS. 

Durolevo,  12 
Durobrovis,  16 

Iter  3  inverted  from 
Durobrivis  to 
Londinium,  27 


(Iter  2,  inverted) 
Sulloniacis,  12 
Verolamio,  9 
Durocobrivis,  12 
Magio  vinto,  12 
LactodorOj  17 

Beunaveniia     (Iter 
6),  Isanavatia,  12 

Tripontio,  12 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Davington  or  Mil- 
ton 
Rochester 

Here  the  route 
crosses  the 
Thames  into  the 
Province  of  Flavia 
Caesarienses  and 
proceeds  to  Lon- 
don. 

Brockley  Hills,  near 
Elstree  (Herts) 

St.  Albans  (Hert- 
fordshire) 

Dunstable  (Bedford- 
shire) 

Near  Fenny  Strat- 
ford (Bucks) 

Towcester  (North- 
amptonshire) 

Near  Daventry 
(Northampton- 
shire) 

Lilbourne,  near 
Rugby  (North- 
amptonshire) 


therefore,  begins  at  Richborough,  the  port  at  which  the  Romans  usually 
landed  in  Britain  from  the  Continent,  and  traverses  the  island  from 
the  south-eastern  extremity  to  the  north-western  corner  of  Wales, 
where  it  ends  in  another  important  port,  while  it  passes  through  the 
important  towns  of  Canterbury  and  Rochester,  the  commercial  city  of 
London,  the  municipal  city  of  St.  Albans,  the  colony  of  Chester,  and 
the  important  town  of  Wroxeter.  It  must  be  added  that  Richard,  like 
Antoninus,  prefaces  his  first  Itinerary  by  giving  the  distance  between 
Richborough  and  Boulogne,  which  he  states  to  be  ccccl.  stadia,  the 
number  given  by  Antoninus  (see  first  iter,  ante,  p.  204),  or,  '  as  some 
have  it,  46,000  passua.'  The  passage  which  is  the  opening  sentence  of 
the  Diaphragmata  is  as  follows  :  '  Rhutupis  prima  in  Brittania  insula 
civitas  versus  Galliam  apud  Cantios  sita  a  Gessoriago  Bounonise  portu, 
unde  commodissimus  in  supradictam  insulam  transitus  obtingit,  ccccl. 
stadia,  vel  aut  alii  volunt  xlvi.  mille  passum  remota  ;  ab  eadem  civitate 
ducta  est  via  Guetbelinga  dicta,  usque  in  Segontium  perm, p.  cccxxiiii., 
plus  minus,  sic :  Cantiopolis,  etc. 


218 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 

Benonis,  9 

Hie  bisecatur  via 
Alter  -  utrumque 
ejus  Brachium 
Lindum,  usque 
alterum  versus 
Viricorium  pro- 
dentitur  sic 

Manduessedo,  12 

Etoceto,  13 
Pennacrucio,  12 


Uxaconia,  12 

Viriconio,  11 
Banchorio,  26 

Deva  Colonia,  10 
Varis,  30 

Conovio,  20 
Segontio,  24 


ANTONINUS. 

Venonis,  12 


(Iter  2,  inverted) 
Manduessedo,  12 

Etoceto,     16 
Pennacrucio,  12 


Uxacona,  12 

Uriconio,  11 
(Iter  11) 


Dev.  Leg.  20  Viet., 

10 
Varis,  32 


Conovio,  19 


Segontio,  24 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 

High  Cross  (Leices- 
tershire) 

Here  the  road 
divides  into  two 
branches,  one  of 
which  runs 
towards  Lincoln, 
and  the  other  to 
Wroxeter. 

Manceter  (War- 
wickshire) 

Wall  (Staffordshire) 

Station  near  the 
river  Penk,  per- 
haps Stretton 
(Staffordshire) 

Redhill,  near  Shiff- 
nal,  or  Oaken- 
gate,  near  Wem- 
bridge  (Shrop- 
shire) 

Wroxeter  (Shrop- 
shire) 

Bangor  (Bovium  in 
Antoninus'  second 
iter)  in  Flintshire 

Chester. 

Bodfari,  near  Den- 
bigh (Counties  of 
Flint  and  Den- 
bigh) 

Caer  Hun  in  the 
Vale  of  the  Con- 
way  (Caermar- 
thenshire) 

Caer  Seiont,  near 
Caernarvon,  on 
the  coast  of  the 
Irish  Sea  (Caer- 
narvonshire) 


APPENDIX  II 


219 


LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 


Her  II. 

A  Segontio  Viriconium  usque, 
m.p.  73,  sic. 


RICHARD. 

Heriri  Monte,  25 


ANTONINUS. 

No  corresponding 
Iter 


Mediolano,  25 

Rotunio,  12 
Viriconio,  11 

Iter  HI. 
A  Londinio  Lindum  coloniam  usque, 


Durosito,  12 

Caesaro  Mago,  16 
Canonio,  15 
Camaloduno 


(Iter  9) 
Durolitum,  15,  6 


Csesaromagum,  16, 

26 
Canonium,  12 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Second  Journey. 

From  Caer  Seiont 
to  Wroxeter. 

Tommen-y-mur,  in 
the     Valley      of 
Maentrwg* 
(Merionethshire) 

A  station  on  the 
Tanad,  perhaps 
Meivod  (Mont- 
gomeryshire) 

Rowton  (Shrop- 
shire) 

Wroxeter    (Shrop 
shire) 

Third  Journey. 

From    London    to 
Lincoln. 

Near  Romford  (Es- 
sex) or  Leyton 
(Essex) 

Chelmsford  (Essex) 


Near  Kelvedon  on 
the  Pant  (Essex) 
Camalodunum,  9,  8      Colchester  (Essex) 


*  Snowdon  was  also  named  Heriri  Mons,  a  name,  according  to 
Dr.  Stukeley,  due  to  the  eagles  inhabiting  the  place,  but,  according 
to  Dyer,  derived  from  ein,  snow,  and  ire,  land  ('Vulgar  Errors, 
Ancient  and  Modern,'  p.  57). 

f  Richard  gives  no  total  of  mileage  for  this  Iter,  with  regard  to 
which  Dyer  says  '  there  are  so  many  uncertain  stations  that  we  cannot 
trace  the  roads  '  ('  Vulgar  Errors,  Ancient  and  Modern,'  p.  58).  Nor 
does  he  do  so  for  any  of  the  subsequent  ones,  the  first  and  second 
being  the  only  Itinera  in  which  the  entire  distance  of  the  route  is 
stated  at  the  beginning,  as,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  always  the  case 
in  the  Itinera  of  Antoninus. 


220 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 

Colonia,  9 

Jbi  erat  Templum 
Claudii,  Arx  Tri- 
umphalis,  et 
Imago  Victorise 


ANTONINUS. 


Ad    Sturium    Am-      Ad  Ansam,  6 

nem,  6 
Et    finibus    Trino- 

bantum      Ceni- 

manos  advenis 


Cambretonio,  15  Cambretonium,  15 


Sito  Mago,  22 


Sitomagum,  22 


Venta  Cenom,  23         Venta      Icenorum, 
31,32 

(Iter  5) 
Icianos,  31 


Camborico  Colonia       Camboricum,  35 
Duroliponte,  20  Durolipontem,    35, 

18 

Durno  Mago,  20  Durobrivas,  35 


Isinis,  20 
Lindo,  18,  20 


Causennim,  30 
Lindum,  26,  36,  30 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Here  were  a  temple 
of  Claudius,  a 
triumphal  arch, 
and  an  image  of 
the  Goddess  of 
Victory 

Stratford,  near  Ips- 
wich (Suffolk),  or 
a  station  on  the 
Stour,  on  the 
border  of  Essex. 
This  was  limit  of 
the  territory  of 
the  Trinobantes 

Burgh,  near  Wood- 
bridge  (Suffolk), 
or  Stretford,  near 
Saxmundham 
(Suffolk) 

Dunwich  (Suffolk), 
or  Woolpit,  near 
Stowmarket  (Suf- 
folk) 

Caistor,  near  Nor- 
wich (Norfolk) 

Chelmsford  (Essex) 
probably,  but  per- 
haps Icklingham 
(Suffolk) 

Cambridge 

Godmanchester 
(Huntingdon- 
shire) 

Castor  on  the  Nen 
(Northampton- 
shire) 

Ancaster  (Lincoln- 
shire) 

Lincoln 


APPENDIX  II 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Iter  IV. 
A  Lindo  ad  Vallum  usque,  sic. 


RICHARD. 


Argolico,  14 


Dano,  20 

Ibi  intras  Maximam 
Caesariensum 


Legotio 


ANTONINUS. 

(Iter  5) 
Segelocum,  or  Agel- 

ocum  in  Iter  8, 

24,  14, 
Danum,  21 


Legolium 


Eburaco    Municip.      Eburacum,  21 
olim     Colonia 
Sexta,  21 


Isurio,  16  Isurium,  16,  17 

Catteractoni,  24 


Ad  Tisam,  10 

Vinovio,  12 

Epiaco,  18 
Ad  Murum 


(Iter  1,  inverted) 


Vinovium,  22 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 

STATIONS. 
Fourth  Journey. 

From    Lincoln  to 
the  Wall. 


Littleborough  (Not- 
tinghamshire) 

Doncaster  (York- 
shire) 

Here  the  road 
enters  the  pro- 
vince of  Maxima 
Caesariensis 

Castleford  (York- 
shire, West  Ri- 
ding) 

York,  a  munici- 
pium,  formerly 
Colonia  Sexta 
headquarters  of 
the  Vlth  and 
IXth  Legions 

Aldborough  (York- 
shire, West  Ri- 
ding) 

Cattarick  on  the 
Swale  (York- 
shire, North  Ri- 
ding) 

Piercebridge  on  the 
Tees 

Near  Darlington 
(Durham) 

Binchester,  near 
Bishop  Auckland 
(Durham) 

Near  Lanchester 
(Durham) 

(To  the  Wall  of 
Hadrian).  Prob- 
ably the  station  of 
Hunnum,  Hal  ton 
Chester  (North- 
umberland) 


222 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 
Trans  Murum  intras 

Valentiam 
Alauna  Amne,  25 


Tueda  Flumine,  30 
Ad  Vallum 


ANTONINUS. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 


Across  the  Wall 
into  Valentia 

Brinkburn  on  the 
Coquet,  in  parish 
of  Long  Fram- 
liugham  (North- 
umberland) 

A  station  on  the 
Tweed,  probably 
at  West  Ford, 
near  Berwick 

Probably  Camelon, 
near  Falkirk 
(co.  Stirling) 


Iter  V. 
A  limite  Prseturiam  usque,  sic. 


Curia,  29 


Ad  Fines,*  22 


(Iter  1) 


Bremenio,  30  Bremenium 


Fifth  Journey. 

From  the  Wall  to 
Flamborough 
Head. 

Currie,  near  Edin- 
burgh, or  Borth- 
wick  Castle 
(Edinburgh) 

Chew  Green,  at  the 
head  of  the  Co- 
quet River,  on  the 
Northumberland 
border 

Roechester  (North- 
umberland) 


*  Ad  Fines.  This  name  occurs  also  for  totally  different  places  in 
Iter  XVII.  and  XVIII.  D'Anville  observes  (notice,  etc.,  Ad  Fines) 
that  there  would  be  an  infinite  number  of  places  with  this  name  if,  in 
addition  to  those  which  appear  in  the  records  of  the  Roman  period,  we 
were  to  enumerate  all  the  instances  in  which  this  name  occurs,  and 
which  the  Roman  records  do  not  mention.  It  is  in  the  old  roads 
between  the  towns  that  tnilliaria  mark  the  '  places  called  Fines  '  (see 
Art. '  Amerly  G.  Longell  Arc, '  in  Dr.  Smith's  '  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Geography,'  p.  900).  It  seems  possible  that  the  term  may  have 
had  some  connection  with  the  boundaiies  of  territories,  and  perhaps 
been  a  popular  rendering  of  limites,  the  limits  of  a  colonial  territory. 


APPENDIX  II 

LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 

Corstopolio,  20 
Vindomora,  9 

Vindovio,  19 
Cateractoni,  22 

Eburaco,  40 
Derventione,  7 

Delgovicia,  13 
Prreturio,  25 


ANTONINUS. 
Corstopitum,  20 

Vindomoram,  9 
Vinoviam,  19 

Catteractonem,  22 
Isurium,  24 

Eburacum,  13.,  18, 

14 
Derventionem,  7 

Delgovitiam,  13 
Prajtoriunij  25 


Iter  VI. 
Ab  Eboraces  Devam  usque,  tsic. 


Calcaria,  9 
C'aiiibodtino,  22 

MancuniOj,  18 
Finibus  Maximse  et 
Flavian,  5 


(Iter  2) 
Calcarim,  9 

Camboduimm,    80, 

20 
Mamucium,  23,  18 


223 

ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Corbridge  (North- 
umberland) 

Ebchester  (North- 
umberland bor- 
der) 

Binchester,  near 
Bishop  Auckland 
(Durham) 

Cattarick  on  the 
Swale 

Aldborough  (York- 
shire) 

York 

Station  on  the  Der- 
went.  Perhaps 
Old  Mai  ton 
(Yorkshire) 

Station  near  Mil- 
lington  (York- 
shire) 

Flamborough  Head 
(Yorkshire,  East 
Riding) 

Sixth  Journey. 

From  York  to 
Chester. 

Tadcaster      (York- 
shire) 
Slack  (Yorkshire) 

Manchester 

On  the  confines  or 
Maxima  Caesar- 
iensis  and  Flavia 
Caesariensis 
(Stretford  on 
the  Mersey,  Lan- 
cashire, accord- 
ing to  Dyer) 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 
Condate,  18 

Deva,  18 


ANTONINUS. 

Condate,  18 


Devam    Leg.    XX. 
Viet.,  20 


Iter  VII. 

A  Portu  Sistumtiorum  Eboracum 
usque,  sic. 

Rerigonio,  23 


Ad  Alpes  Peninos,  8 


Alicana,  10 

Isurio,  18 
Eboraco,  16 


(Iter  2) 

Isurium 
Eboracum,  18,  17 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 


Kinderton  (or  per- 
haps North  wich), 
in  Cheshire 

Chester 


Seventh  Journey. 

From  Freckleton, 
on  the  mouth  of 
the  Kibble  (Lan- 
cashire), to  York. 

Ribchester  (Lanca- 
shire), according 
to  Dyer,  but  un- 
certain* 

A  ridge  of  hills  on 
the  Yorkshire 
border.  Dyer 
makes  the  sta- 
tion at  Burrens, 
in  Broughton 
(Yorkshire) 

Ilkley  on  the 
Wharfe  (York- 
shire, West  Ri- 
ding) 

Aldborough  (York- 
shire, East  Ri- 
ding) 

York 


*  Other  authorities  have  placed  Coccium  at  Ribchester.  The 
Revigonium  or  Rhetigonium  of  Ptolemy  appears  to  have  been  in 
Galloway,  and  was  probably  Stranraer  in  Wigtonshire.  Revigonio 
would  seem,  therefore,  to  be  meant  for  Rhigoduno,  the  Rhigodunum 
of  Ptolemy  being  believed  by  Camden  to  be  Ribchester,  though  by 
Horsley  and  others  to  be  Warrington  in  Lancashire,  and  by  others, 
again,  'to  be  Richmond  in  Yorkshire.  Ribchester  certainly  answers 
best  to  the  route  of  the  Iter,  which  appears  to  run  pretty  wrell  in  a 
straight  line  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ribble  to  York,  but  does  not 
correspond  to  the  distance  given  by  Richard,  being  thirteen  instead  of 
twenty-three  miles  from  Freckleton.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to 
decide  definitely  as  to  the  site  of  the  station. 


APPENDIX  II 


225 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Her  VIII. 
Ab  Eburaco  Luguvallium  usque,  sic. 


RICHARD.  ANTONINUS. 

(Iter  2) 

Cataractoni,  40  Cataractonem,    41, 

42 


Lataris,  10 

Vataris,  16 
Brocavonacis,  18 
Voreda,  18 

Lugubalia,  18 


Lavatrim,    16,    17, 
12,  21  (Her  o, 18) 

Verterim,14(Iter5, 

13) 
Brovonacim,  13,  20 

Voredam,  13 
Luguvallum,  14 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 

Eighth  Journey. 

From  York  to 
Carlisle. 


Cattarick  on  the 
Swale  (York- 
shire, North  Ri- 
ding) 

Bowes  (Yorkshire, 
North  Riding) 

Brought  (Westmore- 
land) 

Kirkby,  Thore 
(  W  estm  or  eland) 

Probably  old  Pen- 
rith  (Cumber- 
land) 

Carlisle 


Iter  IX* 
A  Luguballio  Ptorotoiiium  usque,  tsic. 


Trimontio 


Gadanica 
Corio 


No     corresponding 
Iter 


Ninth  Journey. 

From     Carlisle    to 
Burghead. 

Eildon  Hills  (parish 
of  Montrose  in 
Roxburghshire) 

Uncertain. 

Probably  Curia  of 
the  fifth  Iter— 
viz.,  Currie,  near 
Edinburgh,  or 
Borthwick  Castle 
(Edinburgh- 
shire) 


*  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  no  less  than  six  of  the  stations  the 
distances  are  omitted. 

15 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 
ANTONIUS. 


RICHARD 

Ad  Vallum 


Incipit  V 
Alauna,  12 
Lindo,  9 
Victoria,  9 


Ad  Hiernam,  9 

Orrea,  14 
Ad  Tavum,  19 

Ad  .ZEsicam,  23 
Ad  Tinam,  8 

Devana,  23 
Ad  Itunam,  24 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Probably  Camelon, 
near      Falkirk 
(co.  Stirling) 
The  commencement 
of  Vespasiana 

Probably  Keirfield 
(D  umf r  iesshire) 

Probably  Ardoch 
(Perthshire) 

Probably  Dealgin- 
ross  Farm,  at  the 
confluences  of  the 
rivers  Earn  and 
Ruchill  in  Strath- 
earn  (Perthshire) 

Probably  Strag 
eath,  eight  miles 
from  Dealginross, 
on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Earn 
(Perthshire) 

Probably  Bertha, 
near  the  mouth 
of  the  Almond 
River  (Perthshire) 

Probably  I  n  v  e  r  - 
gowrie,  near 
estuary  of  the 
Tay  at  Dundee 
(Forfarshire) 

Probably  on  the 
South  Esk  at 
Brechin  (Forfar- 
shire) 

Probably  at  North 
Esk,  in  Logic 
parish  (Forfar- 
shire) 

Old  Aberdeen,  or 
Norman  Dykes 
(Aberdeenshire). 

On  the  Ythan  River, 
probably  at  Glen- 
mailen  (Aber- 
deenshire) 


APPENDIX  II 


227 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

ANTONINUS. 


RICHARD. 

Ad  Montem  Gram- 
plum 


Ad  Selinam 
Tuessis,  11) 

Ptorotone 

Iter  X. 

Ab  ultima  Ptorotone  per  Mediam  Insulas 
Isca  Damnonorum  usque,  aic. 

Varis,  m.p.,  8 
Ad  Tuessim,  11) 

Tamea,  29 

21 

In  Medio,  0 

Orrea,  9 
Victoria^  18 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 

Mormond  Hill, 
near  Striclieii 
(Aberdeenshire), 
or  near  Knock 
Hill,  in  parish  of 
Grange  (Banff- 
shire) 

Near  Deskford  on 
the  Cullen  (Banff- 
shire),  or  at  Banff 

Probably  Gordon 
Castle,  near 

Fochabers  (Mo- 
rayshire) 

Burghead  (Moray, 
or  Elginshire) 

Tenth  Journey. 

From  Burghead 
through  the 

centre  of  the 
island  to  Exeter. 

Forres  (Moray- 
shire) 

Cromdale  on  the 
Spey  (Inverness- 
shire) 

Braemar  Castle 
(Aberdeenshire) 

Perhaps  Barra 
Castle  on  the  Isla 

Probably  Inchtut- 
hill  on  the  Tay 
(Perthshire) 

Probably  Bertha,  at 
the  mouth  of  the 
Almond  River 
(Perthshire) 

Probably  Dealgin- 
ross,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the 
rivers  Earn  and 
Ruchillin  Strath- 
earn  (Perthshire) 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 
Ad  Vallum,  32 


Lugubalia,  80 
Brocavonacis,  22 

Ad  Alaunum 
Coccio 

Mancunio,  18 
Condate,  23 

Mediolano,  18 


Etoceto 
Salinis,  m.p. 

Glebon  Colon,  m.p. 
Corino,  14 

Aqua  Solis,  m.p. 

Ad  Aquas,  18 

Ad    Uxellam    Am- 

nem,  m.p. 
Isca,  m.p. 


ANTONINUS. 


Brocavum 

Of.  Iter  10 
Cocci  um,  20 

Mancunium,  18 
Condate,  18 

Mediolanum,  18 


Cf.  Iter  13 

Glevum 
Durocornovium,  14 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 


Probably  Camelon, 
near  Falkirk 
(Stirlingshire) 

Carlisle 

Brougham  (West- 
moreland) 

Lancaster 

Ribchester  (Lan- 
cashire) 

Manchester 

Kinder  ton  in  Che- 
shire 

Station  on  the 
Tanad  (Mont- 
gomeryshire) 

Wall  (Staffordshire) 

Probably  Droitwich 
(Worcestershire) 

Gloucester 

Cirencester  (Glou- 
cestershire) 

Bath  (Somerset) 

Wells  (Somerset) 

Bridgewater  (Som- 
erset) 

Exeter 


Iter  XL 

Ab  Aquis,  per  Viam  Juliam  Menapiam 
usque,  sic. 


Ad  Abonam,  6 
Ad  Sabrinam,  6 


(Iter  14,  inverted)* 
Trajectum,  6 


Abonam,  9 


Eleventh  Journey. 

From  Bath  by  the 
Via  Julia  to  St. 
David's. 


Bitton  on  the  Avon 
(G  loucest  e  r- 
shire) 

Sea  Mills,  near  the 
Avon  mouth 
(Gloucestershire) 


*  See  a-tite,  notes  on  Iter  XIV.  of  Antoninus,  p.  211. 


APPENDIX  II 


229 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD.  ANTONINUS. 

Unde  Trajectu  in- 
tras  in  Britan- 
niam  Secundam 
et  stationem  Tra- 
jectum,,  3 

Venta  Silurum,  8          Ventam  Silurum,  9 

Isca  Colonia,  umle      I  scam,  9 
fuit  Aaron  Mar- 
tyr,  9 


Tibra  Amne,  8 
Bovio,  20 
Nido,  15 
Leucaro,  15 

(Muridunum   omit- 
ted, 20) 
Ad  Vigessimum,  20 


Ad  Menapiam,  18 
Ab    hac    Urbe  per 
m.p.30.    Navigas 
in  Hyberniam 


(Iter  12,  inverted) 

Bomium,    27,     18, 

28,  15 
Nidum,  15 

Leucarum,  15 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

A ust,  near  Thorn- 
bury,  where  there 
was  a  passage 
over  the  Severn 
into  Britannia 
Secunda 

Caerwent  (Mon- 
mouthsbire) 

Caerleon  (Mon- 
moutbshire),  the 
birthplace  of 
Aaron  the  Mar- 
tyr 

A  station  on  the 
river  Taaf 

Ewenny  (Glamor- 
ganshire) 

Neath  (Glamorgan- 
shire) 

Lloughor  (Glamor- 
ganshire) 

Caermarthen  (Caer- 
marthenshire)* 

(The  twentieth 
milestone. )  Castell 
Fleming  (Cardi- 
ganshire) 

St.  David's  (Pem- 
brokeshire), 
whence  there  was 
a  sea  passage  to 


Iter  XIL 
Ab  Aquis  Londinium  usque,  sic. 


Verlucione,  15 


(Iter  14) 
Verlucionem,  15 


Twelfth  Journey. 

From  Bath  to 

London. 


Highfield  in  Sandy 
Lane,  near  Hed- 
dington  (Wilts) 

See  notes  on  Iter  12,  ante,  p.  210. 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 
Cunetione,  20 

Spinio,  15 

Caleba  Atrebatum, 

15 
Bibracte,  20 


Londinio,  20 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 


ANTONINUS. 

Cunetionem,  20 


Folly  Farm,  near 
Mar  Iborougli 
(Wilts) 

Spinas,  15  Speen,  near  New- 

berry,,  Berkshire 

Calevam,  15  Silch  ester  (Hamp- 

shire) 

Pontes  (Iter  7),  22  Perhaps  Windsor 
according  to 
Richard,  Staines 
(Middlesex)  ac- 
cording to  An- 
tonine* 

Londinium,  22  London 


Iter  XIII. 
Ab  Isca  Uriconium  usque,  sic. 


Bultro,  m.p.,  8 
Gobannio,  12 
Magna,  23 
Branogenio,  23 

Uriconio,  27 


(Iter  12) 
Burrium,  9 

Gobannium,  12 
Magnam,  22 
Bravonium,  22,  24 

Viriconium,  27 


Thirteenth  Journey. 

From  Caerleon   to 
Wroxeter. 


Usk  (Monmouth- 
shire) 

Abergavenny  (Mon- 
mouthshire) 

Kenchester  (Here- 
fordshire) 

Near  Leintwardine, 
near  Ludlow 
(Herefordshire) 

Wroxeter  (Shrop- 
shire) 


Iter  XIV. 
Ab  Isca  per  Glebon,  Lindum  usque,  sic. 


Bullio  or  Bultro,  8 


Fourteenth  Journey. 

From  Caerleon 
through  Glouces- 
ter to  Lincoln. 


Usk      (Monmouth- 
shire) 


Burrium    or     Bul- 
lium,  8 

*  The  site  of  Bibracte  is  extremely  uncertain,  but  Dyer  places  it  at 
Windsor.  See  his  argument  in  '  Vulgar  Errors,  Ancient  and  Modern,' 
pp.  112-118. 


APPENDIX  II 

LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 

Blestio,  12 
Sariconio,  11 


ANTONINUS. 

Blestium,  11 
Ariconium,  11 


Glebon  Colonia,  15      Glevum,  15 
Ad  Antonam,  15 


Alauna,  15 

Venonis,  12 

Ratis  Corion,  12 
Venromento,  12 

Margiduno,  12 
Ad  Pontem,  12 

Crococolana 
Lindum,  12 


(Iter  6) 
Vennonim 

Rates,  12 
Verometum,  12,  13 

Margidunum,     14, 
13,  12 

Ad  Pontem,  7 


Crococolanum,  7 
Lindum,  14,  12 


Iter  XV. 
A  Londinio  per  Clausentum  in  Londinium 

usque,  sic. 


Caleba,  m.p.  44 
Vindomi,  15 


(Iter  7) 
Callevam,  44 

(Iter  12  and  15.) 
Vindomim,  15 


Venta  Belgarum,  21       Venta  Belgarum,  21 

(Iter  7,  inverted) 
Ad  Lapidem,  (5 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Monmouth 

Near  Ross  (Here- 
fordshire) 

Gloucester 

Station  on  the  War- 
wickshire Avon 

Alcester  on  the 
Alne  (Warwick- 
shire) 

High  Cross  (Leices- 
tershire) 

Leicester 

Willoughby  (Not- 
tinghamshire) 

Near  Bridgeford  on 
the  Trent  (Not- 
tinghamshire) 

Near  Far n don,  near 
Newbury  (Not- 
tinghamshire) 

Brough  (Lincoln- 
shire) 

Lincoln 

Fifteenth  Journey. 
From  London 
through  Bitterne, 
on  Southampton 
Water,  and  back 
again  to  London. 

Silchester 

Near  Finchley,  be- 
tween Andover 
and  St.  Mary 
Bourne  (Hants) 

Winchester  (Hants) 

Uncertain,  but  per- 
haps Stoneham, 
near  Southamp- 
ton (Hants) 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


ANTONINUS. 
Clausentum,  10 


RICHARD. 

Clausento,  4 
Portu  Magno,  10 


Regno,  10  Regnum,  20 

Ad  Decimum,  10 


Anderida  Portu 
Ad  Lemanum,  25 

Lemaniaiio    Portu, 

10 

Dubris,  10 
Rhutupis  Col.,  10          (Iter  2,  inverted) 

Regulbio,  10 
Cantiopoli,  10 
Durolevo,  18 


Durovernum 
Durolevum,  21 


Mado,  12 


Vagnaca,  18  Vagniacim,  22 

Noviomago,  18  Noviomagum,  6, 18 


Londinio,  15 


Londinium,  12,  10 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 


Bitterne,  on  South- 
ampton Water 
(Hants) 

Porchester,  near 
Portsmouth 
(Hants) 

Chichester  (Sussex) 

(The  tenth  mile- 
stone.) Uncer- 
tain, hut  perhaps 
a  station  on  the 
Avon 

Pevensey  (Sussex) 

A  station  on  the 
Lyme  River 

Lympne  (Kent) 

Dover  (Kent) 

Richborough 
(Kent) 

Reculver  (Kent) 

Canterbury 

Davington  or  Mil- 
ton (Kent) 

Perhaps  (Durobri- 
vis),  Rochester, 
according  to 
Dyer,  or  perhaps 
a  station  on  the 
Medway 

Perhaps  South  Fleet 
or  North  Fleet 
(Kent) 

Holmwood  Hill,  in 
Bromley  (Kent), 
or  near  Croydon 
(Surrey) 

London 


APPENDIX  II 


233 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Her  XVI. 
A  Londinio  Ceniam  usque,  sic. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 

Sixteenth  Journey. 
From  London  to  a 
station     on     the 
Fal,    in    Corn- 
wall.* 


RICHARD. 

ANTONINUS. 

(Iter  7) 

Venta      Belgarum, 

Venta      Belgarum, 

Winchester  (Hamp- 

90 

76 

shire) 

(Iter  12  and  15) 

Brige,  11 

Brige,  8,  11 

Broughton  (Hamp- 

shire) 

Sorbioduno,  8 

Sorbiodunum,     11, 

Old   Sarum    (Salis- 

8,9 

bury,  Wilts) 

Ventageladia,  12 

Vindogladium,    12, 

Blandford  (Dorset- 

15, 13 

shire)    or    Cran- 

bourne    (Dorset- 

shire) 

Durnovaria,  9 

Durnovarium.  9, 

Dorchester  (Dorset- 

16, 36,  8 

shire) 

Moriduno,  33 

Moridunum,  16,  36 

Honiton  or  Seaton 

(Devonshire) 

Isca  Dimm,  15. 

IscaDumnoiiiorum, 

Exeter 

15 

Durio  Am  ne 

A    station   on    the 

Dart  (Devon) 

Tamara 

A   station    on    the 

Tamar ;  supposed 
by  some  to  be 
Tamerton,  near 
Plymouth  (Corn- 
wall) 

Voluba  A  station  on  the 

Fowey  or  perhaps 
on  the  Faf  (Corn- 
wall)t 

Cenia  A  station  on  the 

Fal  (Cornwall) 

*  Dyer  places  this  station  '  on  the  lake  between  Truro  and  Pen- 
dennis,  or  at  one  of  these  places.'  Wright,  however,  places  it  on  the 
river  Fal.  All  these  latter  stations  of  this  Iter,  however,  appear  to 
be  conjectural  only. 

f  If  we  assume  Voluba  to  be  on  the  Fowey,  Lostwithiel  would 
seem  to  answer  the  purposes  of  this  Iter,  but  Camden  and  others  have 
placed  it  at  Falmouth  and  Uxela  at  Lostwithiel. 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 

Iter  XVII. 
Ab  Anderida  Eboracum  usque,  sic. 


RICHARD. 

(Sylva)  Anderida 

Noviomago 

Londinio,  15 
Ad  Fines 


Durolisponte 
Durnomago,  30 
Corisennis,  30 

Lindo,  30 
In  Medio,  15 
Ad  Abum,  15 
Unde     transis      in 
Maximam 

Ad  Petuariam,  6 

Deinde  Eburaco  ut 
supra,  46 


ANTONINUS. 

(Iter  5) 


Duralipontem 
Durobrivas,  35 
Causennim,  20,  30 
Lindum,  36,  26 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Seventeenth  Journey. 

From  an  unknown 
station  in  the 
Sylva  Anderida 
to  York. 


A  station  in  the 
midst  of  the 
Forest  of  Ande- 
rida (probably 
Pevensey) 

Holmwood  Hill,  in 
Bromley  (Kent) 

London 

Broughing  or  Brau- 
g  h  i  n ,  near 
Ware,  at  the 
confluence  of  the 
rivers  Rib  and 
Quin  (Herts) 

Godmanchester 
(Huntingdon) 

Castor  on  the  Nen 
(Northants) 

Ancaster  (Lincoln- 
shire) 

Lincoln 

Uncertain 

A  station  on  the 
Humber,  perhaps 
Winterton  (Lin- 
colnshire) 

Probably  Borough 
on  the  Humber 
(Yorkshire) 

To  York 


APPENDIX  II 


235 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


Iter  XVin. 

Ab  Eburaco  per  Medium  Insulae  Clausen- 
turn  usque,  sic. 


RICHARD. 

Legolio,  m.p.,  21 

Ad  Fines,  18 

-   16 

16 

Derventione,  16 
Ad  Trivonam,  12 


ANTONINUS. 

(Iter  2) 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 
STATIONS. 

Eighteenth  Journey. 

From  York 
through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  island 
to  Bitterne,  on 
Southampton 
Water. 


Castleford,  at  the 
confluence  of  the 
Aire  and  Calder 
Rivers  (York- 
shire, West  Ri- 
ding) 

Said  to  be  Temple- 
borough  on  the 
Don  (Yorkshire)* 

Perhaps  near  Ches- 
terfield (Derby - 
shire)f 

Perhaps  near  Penk- 
ridge,  on  the 
Penk  River  (Staf- 
fordshire)! 

Little  Chester,  on 
the  Derwent 

Bury,  in  Branston 
(Staffordshire) 


*  Templeborough  is  also  identified  with  Morbium  by  some  authorities, 
but  the  weight  of  authority  seems  in  favour  of  placing  Morbium  at 
Moresby,  near  Whitehaven  (Cumberland),  on  the  western  coast.  It 
was  a  Notitia  station,  where  some  of  the  CataphracteridLe  (Roman 
auxiliary  horse)  were  quartered,  and  an  inscription  recording  these 
troops  has  been  found  at  Moresby,  thus  affording  with  the  name  satis- 
factory evidence  of  the  identity  of  the  two  places.  See  '  The  Celt,  the 
Roman,  and  the  Saxon,'  p.  166,  and  'Ad  Morbum,'  by  Mr.  C.  Roach 
Smith,  in  Dr.  Smith's  '  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography,' 
p.  370. 

f  The  Latin  name  of  Chesterfield  was  Lutudarum.  Here  the  metals 
from  the  mining  districts  of  the  Peak  were  brought  for  transportation 
to  the  south  or  north  of  the  island. 

J  The  Latin  name  of  this  station  would  seem  to  have  been 
Pennocrucium. 


236  OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 

LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


RICHARD. 

Etoceto,  12 
Manduessedo,  16 

Bennonis,  12 
Tripontio,  11 

Isannavaria,  12 
Brinavis,  12 
JElia  Castra,  16 

Doracina,  15 
Tamesi,  6 

Vindoml,  15 
Clausento,  46 


ANTONINUS. 

Etocetum 
Manduessedum.    6, 

16 
Venonim,  12 

(Iter  6,  inverted) 
Tripontium,  9 


Isannavatia,  12 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 

Wall  (Staffordshire) 
Manchester     War- 
wickshire 

Holy  Cross  (Leices- 
tershire) 

Dovehrook,  near 
Lilbourne,  near 
Rugby  (North- 
amptonshire) 

Near  Daventry 
(Northampton- 
shire) 

Black  Ground,  near 
Chipping  Norton 
(Oxfordshire) 

Alcester  (Oxford- 
shire), near  Bi- 
cester 

Dorchester  (Ox- 
fordshire) 

A  station  on  the 
Thames.  Per- 
haps Sinoduii 
Hill  (Berks)  or 
Wallingford 
(Berks) 

Near  Finkley,  be- 
tween Andover 
and  St.  Mary 
Bourne  (Hants) 

Bitterne,  on  South- 
ampton Water 
(Hants) 


APPENDIX  III 

THE  NOTITIA  IMPERII,  SO  FAR  AS  IT  RELATES 
TO  THE  MILITARY  STATIONS  ON  THE  SAXON 
SHORE  AND  ALONG  THE  ROMAN  WALL.* 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

Sectio  LII. 

Sub  dispositione  viri  spectabilis 
Comitis   Littoris   Saxonici 
per  Britanniam  : 
Praepositus  immeri  Fortensium 
Othonaa 

Prsepositus  uumerum  Tuiigri- 
canorum  Dubris 

Prapositus  numeri  Turnacen- 
sium  Lemanis 

Pnepositus  equituni  Dalma- 
tar  um  Branod  uuensis.,  Brano- 
duno 

PnBpositus  equituni  Stablesian. 
Gariaiinonerisis  Gar iani  tono 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

Chapter  LII.  (part  of}. 

Under  the  Government  of  the 
honourable  the  Count  of  the 
Saxon  Shore  in  Britain  : 

The  Commander  of  a  detach- 
ment of  Fortenses  at  Othona 
(Essex) 

The  Commander  of  the  Tuii- 
grian  soldiers  at  Dover 
(Kent) 

The  Commander  of  a  detach- 
ment of  soldiers  of  Tournay 
at  Lympne  (Kent) 

The  Commander  of  the  Dalma- 
tian Horse  styled  Branod  u- 
nensis  at  Brancaster  (Nor- 
folk) 

The  Commander  of  the  Stab- 
lesian Horse  styled  Gariau- 
nonensis  at  Burgh  Castle 
(near  Yarmouth,  Norfolk) 

The  tribune  of  the  first  cohort 
of  Vetasians  (or  Betasians) 
at  Reculver  (Kent) 

*  For  the  text  of  the  Notitia,  see  'Britannia  Romana,'  pp.  475-479  ; 
and  for  Horsley's  essay  on  it,  see  -ibid.,  pp.  472-489. 

1*37  J 


Tribunus  cohortis  primse  Veta- 
siorum  Regulbio 


238 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

Praepositus    legionis     secundse 
August*  Rutupis 

Praepositus  numeri  Abulcorum 
Auderidae 

Praepositus     numeri     explora- 
torum  portu  Adurni 


Sectio  LX1IL 

Sub  dispositione  viri  spectabilis 
Ducis  Britanniarum  : 

Prasfectus  legionis  Sextae 

Praefectus  equitumDalmatarum 
Praesidio 

Praefectus    equitum    Crispian- 
orum  Dano 

Prrefectus  equitum  cataphrac- 
tariorum  Morbio 

Praefectus  numeri  Barcariorum 
Tigrisiensium  Arbeia 

Praefectus   numeri  Nerviorum 
Dicteusium  Dicti 


Praefectus  numeri  vigilum  Con- 
cangio 


Praefectus  numeri  exploraturum 

Lavatris 
Praefectus   numeri  directorum 

Verteris 

Praefectus  numeri  defensorum 
Braboniaco 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

The  Commander  of  the  second 
legion  called  Augusta  at 
Richborough  (Kent) 

The  commander  of  a  detach- 
ment of  the  Abulci  at 
Pevensey  (Sussex) 

The  Commander  of  a  detach- 
ment of  scouts  at  Bramber 
Castle  (Sussex) 

Chapter  LXIIL  (part  of}. 

Under  the  Government  of  the 
honourable  the  Duke  ot 
Britain  : 

The  Prefect  of  the  sixth  legion 
(at  York) 

The  Prefect  of  the  Dalmatian 
Horse  at  Broughton  (Lincoln- 
shire) 

The  Prefect  of  the  Crispian 
Horse  at  Doncaster  (York- 
shire) 

The  Prefect  of  a  body  of 
cuirassiers  at  Templeborough 
(Yorkshire) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment  of 
the  Barcarii  Tigrisienses  at 
Moresby  (Cumberland) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment  of 
the  Nervii  called  Dictenses 
at  Ambleside  (Westmore- 
land) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment  of 
soldiers  employed  on  the 
Watch  at  Kendal  (Westmore- 
land) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment  of 
scouts  at  Bowes  (Yorkshire) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment 
styled  directores  at  Brough 
(Westmoreland) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment 
called  defeusores  at  Over- 
borough 


APPENDIX  III 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

Prsefectus    uumeri    Solensium 
Maglove 

Prwfectus    uumeri   Pacensium 
Magis 

Prwfeetus  numeri  Longovicari- 
orum  Longovico 

Prwfectus   numeri    Derventio- 
nensis  Derventione 


Item  per  liiieam  valli. 

Tribunus  cohortis  quarto  Ler- 
gorum  Segeduno 

Tribunus  cohortis  Cornoviorum 
Ponte  Mlii 

Prsefectus  alas  prima»  Astorum 
Conderco 

Tribunus  cobortis  prima;  Frixa- 
gorum  Vindobala 

Prsefectus       ala?        Savinianaj 
Hunno 

Prwfectus  ala3  secundae  Astorum 
Cilurno 

Tribunus  cobortis  primse  Bata- 
vorum  Procolitia 

Tribunus  cohortis  prima?  Tun- 
grorum  Borcovico 

Tribunus  cohortis  quart*  Gallo- 
rum  Vindolana. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment  of 
Solenses  at  Greta  Bridge 
(Yorks) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment  of 
Pacenses  at  Piercebridge 
(near  Darlington.,  Durham) 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment 
of  the  Longovicarii  at  Lan- 
caster 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment 
styled  Derventionensis  at 
Little  Chester  on  the  Der- 
went 

Also  along  the  line  of  wall. 

The  tribune  of  the  fourth  co- 
hort of  the  Lergi  at  Walls- 
end  (near  Newcastle,  North- 
umberland) 

The  tribune  of  the  cohort  or 
Cornovii  at  Newcastle 
(Northumberland) 

The  Prefect  of  the  first  wing 
of  the  Asti  at  Benwell 
(Northumberland) 

The  tribune  of  the  first  co- 
hort of  the  Frixagi  at  Rut- 
chester  (Northumberland) 

The  Prefect  of  the  wing  styled 
Saviniana  at  Halton  Ches- 
ters 

The  Prefect  of  the  second  wing 
of  the  Asti  at  Walwick 
Ch  esters 

The  tribune  of  the  first  cohort 
of  the  Batavi  at  Carraw- 
burgh 

The  tribune  of  the  first  cohort 
of  the  Tungri  at  House- 
steads 

The  tribune  of  the  fourth  co- 
hort of  the  Gauls  at  Little 
Chester  or  Chesterholm 


240 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OP  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

Tribuuus  cohortis  prim*  Asto- 
rum 


Tribunus     cohortis      secundse 
Dalmatarum  Magnis 

Tribunus  cohortis  primse  .ZEliaj 
Dacorum  Amboglana 

Prsefectus  alse  Petriana?  Petri- 

anis 
Prsefectus  numeri,  Maurorum 

Aurelianorum  Aballaba 

Tribunus  cohortis  secuudae  Ler- 
gorum  Congavata 


Tribunus  cohortis  primae  His- 
panorum  Axeloduno 

Tribunus     cohortis     secundse 
Tliracum  Gabrosenti 


Tribunus  cohortis  primae 
classic*  Tunnocleo 


Tribunus  cohortis  primaj  Mori- 
norum  Glannibanta 


Tribunus  cohortis  terti*  Nervi- 
orum  Alione 

Cuneus  Armaturarum  Brema- 

tenraco 
Prafectus  alee  primae  Herculean 

Olenaco 

Tribunus  cohortis  sextse  Nervi- 
orum  Virosido 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF  STATIONS 
AND  TROOPS. 

The  tribune  of  the  first  cohort 
of  the  Asti  at  Great  Chesters 

The  tribune  of  the  second  co- 
hort of  the  Dalmatians  at 
Carvoran 

The  tribune  of  the  first  cohort 
of  the  Dacians  called  JElm 
at  Burdoswald 

The  Prefect  of  the  wing  called 
Petriana  at  Cambeck  fort 

The  Prefect  of  a  detachment  of 
the  Moors  styled  Aureliani 
at  Watchcross 

The  tribune  of  the  second  co- 
hort of  the  Lergi  at  a  place 
uncertain,  but  perhaps  Stan- 
wicks. 

The  tribune  of  the  first  cohort 
of  Spaniards  at  Bowness 
(perhaps) 

The  tribune  of  the  second  co- 
hort of  the  Thraciaris  at 
Burgh-in-Sands  (perhaps) 

The  tribune  of  the  first  marine 
cohort  called  ^Elia  at  Bam- 
burgh 

The  tribune  of  the  first  cohort 
of  the  Morini  at,  perhaps, 
Lanchester,  but  extremely 
uncertain 

The  tribune  of  the  third  co- 
hort of  the  Nervii  at  Whitley 
Castle 

A  body  of  men  in  armour  at 
Brampton 

The  Prefect  of  the  first  wing 
called  Herculea  at  Old  Car- 
lisle 

The  tribune  of  the  sixth  cohort 
of  the  Nervii  at  Maryport 
Ellenburgh  (Cumberland) 


APPENDIX  IV7 

THE  STATIONS  MARKED  IN  THE  PEUTINGERIAN 
TABLE  (SO  FAR  AS  IT  RELATES  TO  BRITAIN) 
COMPARED  WITH  CORRESPONDING  POR- 
TIONS OF  ANTONINE'S  ITINERARY.* 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


Sets  of  names  on 
roads  marked  in 
the  Peutingerian 
Table. 


Corresponding  sets 
of  names  in  the 
Itineraries  of  An- 
toninus. 


ENGLISH   NAMES  OP 
STATIONS. 


.      First  Set. 

Ad  Tavm,  xxii. 
Sinomagij  xv. 


Convetoni,  xv. 


Ad  Ansam 


Ninth  Iter. 

Venta  Icenorum 
Sitomago,  m.p.  xxi. 


Caistor  (Norfolk) 

Dunvvich  (Suffolk) 
or  Woolpit,  near 
Stowmarket  (Suf- 
folk) 

Burgh,  near  Wood- 
bridge  (Suffolk), 
or  Stretford,  near 
Saxm  u  n  dham 
(Suffolk) 

Stretford,  near  Ips- 
wich (Suffolk),  or 
a  station  on  the 
Stour  on  the 
Essex  border 

*  Extracted   from   Ward's  'Essay  on  the  Peutingerian  Table'   in 
Horsley's  'Britannia  Romana,'  pp.  505-520. 

[  241  ]  16 


Combertonio,   m.p. 

xxii. 


Ad  Ansam ^  m.p.  xv. 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


LATIN  NAMES  OF  STATIONS. 


Second  Set. 
Baromaci,  xii. 

CavnoniO;  viii. 
Camvlodvno,  v. 
Ad  Ansam 


Third  Set. 
Madvs,  xvii. 


Raribis,  vii. 
Borolevo,  vii. 

Dvroavervs 


Fourth  Set. 


ENGLISH  NAMES  OF 

STATIONS. 
Ninth  Iter. 

Cajsaromago,    m.p.       Chelmsford  (Essex) 
xii. 

Canonio,  m.p.  ix.          Near  Kelvedon  on 
the  Pant  (Essex) 

Camoloduuo,    m.p.       Colchester  (Essex) 
vi. 

Ad  Ansam  Stretford,  near  Ips- 

wich (Suffolk),  or 
a  station  011  the 
Stour  on  the 
Essex  border 


Second  Iter. 
Vagniacis 


(Perhaps)  South 
Fleet  or  North 
Fleet  (Kent) 

Durobrivis,  m.p.  ix.       Rochester  (Kent) 
Durolevo,  m.p.  xvi.       Davington  or  Mil- 
ton (Kent) 
Duroverno,  m.  p.  xii.      Canterbury  (Kent) 

No  corresponding 
Iter. 


Ratvpis  "|  No  num-      Evidently  Rutupis,      Richborough"j 


Dvbris     !  her       of 

|  miles 
LemavioJ  given 


Dubris,    Lemanis      Dover 
(Cf.  Iters  3  and  4)      Lympne 

Twelfth  and  Thir- 
Fifth  Set.  teenth  Iters. 

Isca  Dvmriomorvm,      Isca  Dumnoniorum,       Exeter 

xv. 
Ridvmo 


[Kent 


xv. 
Moriduno 


Honiton  (Devon)  or 
Seaton  (Devon) 


REMARKS  FROM  WARD'S  'ESSAY  ON  THE  PEUTIN- 
GERIAN  TABLE.' 

First  &et  of  Names.  — The  discrepancies  in  numbers  are  explained  by 
the  fact  that  as  in  the  course  of  a  day's  march  by  the  Table  there 
should  be,  and  usually  is,  no  number  put  after  the  names  of  the  last 
station,  so  in  reducing  the  several  stages  of  such  a  march  to  the  form 
of  an  iter  in  Antonine  the  place  from  which  it  begins  can  have  none 
upon  the  same  line  with  it,  unless  the  name  be  again  repeated  and  the 
last  place  left  without  one,  '  which,  I  presume,  was  not  thought  so 


APPENDIX  IV  243 

commodious,  and  therefore  the  distance  between  the  two  first  sections 
is  always  placed  after  the  second  name.  Indeed,  the  limits  of  the 
Itinera  in  Antonine  are  arbitrary,  and  fixed  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
author,  whereas  in  the  Table  there  seem  to  be  no  other  boundaries 
designed  to  the  ways  than  those  of  Nature  ;  but  this  makes  no  differ- 
ence with  respect  to  the  situation  of  the  numbers  which  give  the  dis- 
tance between  station  and  station'  (p.  515).  Ad  Tavm,  according  to 
Gale,  was  perhaps  at  Tasburgh  on  the  river  Wentfar  in  Norfolk  ; 
hence  it  was  not  far  from  Caistor,  the  supposed  Venta  Icenorum. 

Second  Set  of  Names.  —  Ward  thinks  '  Baromaci '  is  a  corruption  of 
'  Csesaromago.' 

Third  Set  of  Names.—  The  whole  of  this  set  lies  in  Kent.  'The 
affinity  of  the  three  last  names  in  the  two  columns  and  the  order  of 
them  makes  it  very  probable  that  the  same  places  are  intended  in  both 
Itineraries,  though  two  of  them  are  very  wrongly  spelt  in  the  Table, 
and  the  distances  are  all  wide  of  the  truth  '  (p.  517). 

Fourth  Set  of  Names. — None  of  the  Itineraries  of  Antonine  lead 
either  from  Rutupis  to  Dubrse,  or  from  Dubree  to  Lemanae.  The  last 
stage  of  his  third  Iter  goes  from  Durovernum  to  Dubrte  (Dover),  and 
that  of  his  fourth  Iter  from  Durovernum  to  Lemanse  (Lyrnpne) ;  but 
there  is  no  direct  way  in  the  Table  for  either  of  these  stages.  The 
number  of  miles  is  not  fixed  to  any  of  these  in  the  Table  (p.  518). 

Fifth  Set  of  Names. — Ward  remarks  that  the  two  stations  seem  to 
have  changed  their  places.  They  are  found  both  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  Iters  of  Antonine,  '  but  the  former  name  is  very  much  dis- 
guised in  most  copies,  which  may  receive  light  from  the  Table  that 
comes  so  near  the  truth,  though  in  the  latter  Iter,  indeed,  Dr.  Gale 
has  published  both  names  as  they  ought  to  be  read'  (ante  It.,  p.  viii, 
p.  519). 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  spelling  of  some  of  the  names  as  given  by 
Ward  differs  slightly  from  that  in  the  copy  of  the  Table  in  the  texts, 
in  which  the  spelling  adopted  by  Elton  in  his  '  Origins  of  English 
History'  has  been  followed  (see  pp.  332,  333,  and  Table  VII.).  Thus 
Conwetvi  becomes  Conretoni,  Cavnomo  becomes  Cavno?z?'o,  Rotrtws. 
becomes  Rarilns,  and  ^uroauenis  becomes  Dvroavervs. 


16— 


APPENDIX   V 


LIST  OF  ROMAN  TOWNS  AND  OF  SOME  OF  THE 
ROMAN  CAMPS  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTIES  IN 
ENGLAND  AND  WALES  AND  SCOTLAND. 

NOTE. — The  Latin  names  of  the  towns  marked  thus  *  are  unknown, 
and  those  appended  in  brackets  are  those  given  to  them  by  the  Saxons 
after  their  capture  from  the  Britons.  Of.  Pearson's  '  Historical  Maps, ' 
p.  25,  and  Elton's  '  Origins  of  English  History,'  p.  374,  note  3. 

The  list  of  camps  includes  some  originally  constructed  by  the 
Britons  and  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Romans,  as  well  as  those  of 
purely  Roman  origin.  Towns  or  camps  marked  thus  f  were  forts  on 
the  'Saxon  Shore.' 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 

BEDFORDSHIRE. 
Towns. 

Dunstable  [Forum  Dianae] 
Leighton     Buzzard*     [Lyden- 
byrig] 

BERKSHIRE. 
Towns. 

Abingdon*  [Seovechesham] 
Bensington*  [BenesingtunJ 
Speen  [SpinseJ 

Camps. 

Blewberton,  near  Aston 
East  Hampstead 
Egham  Wick 
Goring 
Wallingford 


BRECKNOCKSHIRE. 

Camps. 

Cwm,  near  Llaudridod 
The  Gaer,  near  Brecon 
The  Crug,  near  Brecon 
Langeuny^  near  Brecon 

BUCKINGHAMSHIRE. 
Towns. 

Aylesbury*  [^Eglesbyrig] 
Fenny     Stratford     [Magiovin- 
tum] 

CARDIGANSHIRE. 

Towns. 
Llanio  [Luentinum] 


[244  ] 


APPENDIX  V 


245 


CARNARVONSHIRE. 
Town** 

Caer  Segont  [Segontium] 
Caer  Hun  [Conovium] 
Llycliwr  [Leucarum] 

CAMBRIDGESHIRE. 

Town. 
Cambridge  [Camboricum] 

Camp. 

Cliesterford      on      Gogmagog 
Hills 

CHESHIRE. 
Towns. 

Chester  [Deva] 
Nantwicli  [Salinse] 

Camp. 

Buckton  Castle,  near  Kinder- 
ton 

CORNWALL. 

Camps. 

Bosense,  near  Helston 
Castle  Chun,  near  Morvali 
Trelowarren 

CUMBERLAND. 

Towns. 

Carlisle  [Luguvalluin] 
Netherby     [Castra      Explora- 

torum] 

Old  Carlisle  [OlenacumJ 
Moresby  [Morbium] 

Camps. 

Alston,  near  Hall  Hill 
Bueth  Castle,  near  Bewcastle 
Castle  Steads,  near  Old  Peu- 

rith 

Ellenborougli 
Englewood  Forest 


Ireby 

Lanercost 

Muncaster,  near  Carlisle 

Orthwaite  Hall 

Plumbland,  near  Ward  Hill 

Redstone,  near  Graystock 

Sothernby  Castle.  Sowerby 

Walls  Castle 

Raven  glass 

Whitbarrow 

Willowford,  near  Gilsland 

DERBYSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Chesterfield  [Lutudarum] 
Buxton 

Camps. 

Castle  Dykes,  near  Buxton 
Coombe  Moss,  near  Buxton 
Mam  Tor,  near  Castleton 
Melandin  Castle,  near  Wooley 

Bridge 

Lombards  Green,  near  Broad- 
burn 

Parwich,  near  Broadburn 
Pentrich 

DEVONSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Exeter  [Isca  Damnoniorum] 
Honiton  [Muridunum] 

Camp. 
Dembury  Down 

DORSETSHIRE. 

Town. 
Dorchester  [Durnovaria] 

Oamp*. 

Chilcombe 

Hod  Hill,  near  Blandford 
Lambert's  Castle,   near    Brid- 
port 


246 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


DURHAM. 
Towns. 

Binchester  [Vinovium] 
Ebchester  [Vindomorra] 

Camps. 

Blackwell,  near  Piercebridge 

Cockfield 

Maiden  Castle,  near  Durham 

South  Shields 

ESSEX. 
Towns. 

Caistor  [Venta  Icenorum] 
Chelmsford  [Caesaromagum] 
Colchester  [Camolodunum] 
Leyton,  near  Romford   [Duro- 

litum] 
Kelvedon  [Conovium] 

Camps. 
Ashdon 

Bishop's  Stortford 
Hollirighury 
Harlow 

Hayes  Green,,  near  Messing 
Lexdon,  near  Colchester 
Pitchbury  Wood,  near  Sprott's 

Marsh 

St.  Peter's  Headf  [Othoua] 
Stansted  Mount   Fitchet 

FLINTSHIRE. 

Town. 
Bodfari  [Varae] 

GLAMORGANSHIRE. 

Town. 
Neath  [Nidum] 

Camps. 
Boverton 

Cairau,  near  Cardiff 
Cowhridge 
Ewenny 
St.  Nicholas,  near  Llantwit 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Cirencester  [Corinium] 
Gloucester  [Glevum] 

Camps. 

Abbey,  near  Alveston 

Bitton 

Blaize  Castle,  near  King's 
Weston 

Broadridge  Green,  near  Hare- 
field 

High  Brotheridge  (in  the  Cots- 
wolds) 

Bury  Hill,  near  Winterbourne 

Churchdown 

Cleeve  Hill,  near  Cheltenham 

Clifton,  near  Bristol 

Crickley  Hill,  near  Whitcomb 

Drakestone,  near  Stinchcombe 

Dyrham 

Elberton,  near  Almondsbury 

Hornton,  near  Old  Sodbury 

Kingsweston 

Knole,  near  Aldmondsbury 

Leckhampton 

Lydney 

Nottingham  H  ill,  near  Southam 

Oldbury 

Painswick  Beacon 

Stroat,  near  Tiddenham 

Tortworth 

Uley  Bury 

Westridge 

HAMPSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Bitterne  [Clausentum] 
Porchester  [Portus  Magnus] 
Silchester  [Calleva] 
Winchester  [Venta  Belgarum] 

Camps. 

Hengistbury  Head,  near  Christ- 
church 
Kingscleer 


APPENDIX  V 


247 


Quarley  Hill,  near  Grateley 
St.      Katherine's     Hill,     near 
Christchurch. 

HEREFORDSHIRE. 

Town*. 

Kenchester  [Magna] 
Ross  [Ariconium] 


Backbury 

Caplar  Hill 

Credenliill 

Dinedor 

Weston,  near  Ross 

HERTFORDSHIRE. 

Town. 
St.  Albans  [Verulamium] 

HUNTINGDONSHIRE. 

Town. 
Godmancb  ester  [Durolipons] 

KENT. 

Town*. 

Canterbury  [Durovernum] 
Dover  [Dubrisjt 
Lympne  [Portus  Lemanisjf 
Reculver  [Regulbiumjt 
Richborougb  [Rutupiaejf 
Rochester  [Durobrivae] 
Southneet,      near     Gravesend 
Vagniacse] 

Ca  nips. 

Old  Borough  Hill,  near  Ightam 
Keston.,  near  Hayes 

LANCASHIRE. 

Town*. 

Lancaster  [Longovieus] 
Manchester  [Mancunium] 
Overborough  [Bremetonaccis] 
Ribchester  [Coccium] 


Campg. 

C'astlefield,  near  Manchester 
Mellor,  near  Blackburn 

LEICESTERSHIRE. 

Towns. 

High  Cross,  near  Lutterworth 
rVenonse] 

Leicester  [Rate] 

LINCOLNSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Ancaster  [Causennae] 
Lincoln  [Lindum] 

Camp. 
Yarborough 

MERIONETHSHIRE. 
Camp. 

Tommen-y-mur,     near    Traw- 
fynnyd 

MIDDLESEX. 
Towns. 

London     [Londiiiium    or   Au- 
gusta] 
Staines  [Pontes] 

Camp. 
The  Brill,  near  Somers  Town 

MONMOUTHSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Abergavenny  [Gobanniuin] 
C'aerwent  [V?enta  Silurum] 
Caerleon  [Isca  Silurum] 
Monmouth  [Blestium] 
Usk  [Burrium] 

Camps. 

Campston  Hill 
Craig-y-Gaekkig,  near  Usk 
Hardwick,  near  Chepstow 
Laternan  Park,  near  Caerleon 


248 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


Madgetts,  near  Tintern 

Newport 

Sudbrook,  near  New  Passage 

NORFOLK. 

Town. 
Norwich  [Venta  Icenorum] 

Camps. 
Brancaster,     near     Burnham 

[Brauodunumjt 
Burrow    Dykes,    near    South 

Creake 
Caistorf 
Castleacre 
Castle  Rising 
Holkham 
Horning 
North  Elmham 
Ovington 
Tasburgh 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Burnt  Walls  [Isannavana] 
Caistor  on  theNen  [Durobrivae] 
Daventry  [Bennaventa] 
Towcester  [Lactodorum] 

Camps, 
Alderton 
Arbury 

Castle  Dykes,  near  Weedon 
Coggenhoe 

Cotton,  near  Ringstead 
Guilsborough 
Irchester 

Lilborne  on  the  Avon 
Thrapstone 

NORTHUMBERLAND. 

Towns. 

Benwell  [Coridercum] 
Carrawburgh  [Procolitia] 
Chesters,  near  Hexham  [Cilur- 

num] 
Corchester  [CorstopitumJ 


Halton  Chesters  [Hunnum] 
High  Rochester  [Bremmeriium] 
Newcastle  [Pons  ^Elia] 
Wallsend  [Segedunum] 

NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. 

Town. 

Littleborough  on  Trent  [Agelo- 
cum,  or  Segelocum] 

Camps. 

Arnold,  Sherwood  Forest 
Bury  Hill,  near  Mansfield 
Hexgrave  Park,  near  Kirkliug- 

ton 

Mansfield  Woodhouse 
Oldox,  near  Oxton 

OXFORDSHIRE. 

Town. 
Dorchester  [Dorocina] 

Camp. 
Bury  Hill,  near  Bicester 

PEMBROKESHIRE. 

Town. 
St.  David's  [Menapia] 

RADNORSHIRE. 

Camp. 
Llandrindod 

SHROPSHIRE. 
Towns. 

Wroxeter  [Uriconium] 
Rowton  [Rutunium] 

Camps. 

Burywalls,  Hawkestone     near 

Wem 

Caynham,  near  Ludlow 
Nordy  Bank,  Ludlow 
The  Walls,  near  Bridgenorth 


APPENDIX  V 


SOMERSETSHIRE. 
Towns. 

Bath  [Aquae  Solis] 
Bridgewater  [Uxela] 
Ilchester  [Ischalis] 

Camps. 

Bower  Walls,  near  Clifton 
Hamden     Hill,    near     Stoke- 

under-Hamden 
Worleberry,     near     Weston- 

super-Mare 

STAFFORDSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Chesterton  [Mediolanum] 
Wall  near  Litchfield    [Etoce- 

tum] 
Little  Chesters  [Derventio] 

Camps. 
Beaudesert 
Whitmore 

SUFFOLK. 
Towns. 

Dunwich  [Sitomagus] 
Icklington  [Iciani] 

Camps. 

Bungay  Common,  near  Dun- 
wich 
Burgh  Castle,  t  near  Yarmouth. 

SURREY. 
Camps. 

Anstie,  near  Ockley 
Holmesdale,  near  Bletchingley 
Homebury,  near  Dorking 
Tuxbury  Hill,  near  Farnham 
Wimbledon 

SUSSEX. 

Towns. 
Bramber        Castle        [  Portus 

Adurnijt 

Chichester  [Regnum] 
Peveusey  [Auderidajt 


Camps. 

Cissbury,  near  Findon 
Hollingbury       Castle,       near 

Brighton 

Farriscombe,  near  Lewes 
Seaford 

WARWICKSHIRE. 
Town. 

Manceter  [Manduessedum] 
Camps. 

Brinklow,  near  Honey  Hill 
Wappenbury 

WESTMORELAND. 
Towns. 

Ambleside  [Alionae] 
Brough  [Verterae] 

Camps. 

Ardoch,  near  Greenloaning 
Burrow's    Hill,    near    Kirkby 

Tliore 

Crackenthorpe  Common 
Daltoii 

WILTSHIRE. 
Towns. 

Old  Sarum  [Sorbiodunum] 
Highfield,    near     Heddington 

[Verlucio] 
Marlborough  [Cunetio] 

Camps. 

Badbury,  near  Wansborough 
Beirsbury,     near    Hampshire- 
gate 

Inglebourne,  near  Malmesbury 
Yanesbury 

WORCESTERSHIRP] 

Town. 

Droitwich  [Salinse] 

Camp 
Bredon  Hill 


250 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


YORKSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Bowes  [Lavatrse] 
Castleford  [Legiolium] 
Cattarick  [Cattaractonum] 
Doncaster  [Danum] 
Ilkley  [Olicana] 
Old  Malton  [Derventio] 
Slack  [Cambodunum] 
Tadcaster  [Calcaria] 
York  [Eboracum] 

Camps. 

Barford,  near  Aldborougli 
Castleshaw,  near  Saddlewortli 
Jack  Dykes,  near  Stanwick 
Kirklees 


SCOTLAND. 

ABERDEENSHIRE. 

Town. 

Old  Aberdeen  [Devana] 
Camps. 

Normandykes,  near  Peterculter 
Rae  Dykes  on  the  Ythan 

AYRSHIRE. 

Camp. 
Loudon  Hill  on  the  Irvine 

BERWICKSHIRE. 

Camp. 
Channel  Kirk,  Lauderdale 

DUMBARTONSHIRE. 

Town. 
Dumbarton  [Theodosia] 

DUMFRIESSHIRE. 

Towns. 
Birenswark,     near    Middlebie 

[Cord  a] 
Keirfield  [Alauna] 


Camps. 

Lockerby,  Annandale 
Tassieholm,  Annandale 

ELGINSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Burghead  [Ptoroton] 
Cromdale  [Tuesis] 

FORFARSHIRE. 

Camps. 

Battledykes,  near  Brechin 
Campmuir,  near  Kettins 
Harefield,  near  Kirkbuddo 
Kiethock,  near  Fettercairn 

KlNCARDINESHIRE. 

Camp. 
Raedykes,  near  Stonehaven 

KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE. 

Town. 

Kirkcudbright      [Carbantori- 
gum] 

LANARKSHIRE. 

Town. 

Carstairs  [Colania] 
Camps. 
Bodsbury   Hill,   near  Clydes- 

burn 
Cleghorn,  Clydesdale 

PERTHSHIRE. 

Towns. 

Ardoch,  near  Crief  [Lindum] 
Bertha  on  the  Almond,  near 

Perth  [Orrea] 

Dealgiuross,  near  Comrie  [Vic- 
toria] 

Camps. 

Ardargie,  near  Forteviot,  Perth 
Ardoch  [three  camps] 
Bochastle,  near  Callander 
Buchanty  on  the  Almond,  near 
Dunmore  Hill 


APPENDIX  V 


251 


Cupar  Angus,  Strathearne 
Fendockj  near  Monzie 
Grassy  Walls,  near  Perth 
Inchstuthill,  near  Caputh 

RENFREWSHIRE. 

Town. 
Paisley  [Vanduara] 


ROXBURGHSHIRE. 
Camp. 

C'arby    Hill,    near    Castleton, 
Liddesdale. 

WlGTONSHIRE. 

Town. 
Stranraer  [Retigonium] 


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Celtic  Scotland.  .  .  .    Second  Edition,  1886. 
S3HTH,  CHARLES  ROACH  :    The  Antiquities  of  Richborough,  Re- 
culver,  and  Lympne  in  Kent.     1850. 

SMITH,  W.,  LL.D.  :  A  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Anti- 
quities.    Third  Edition,  1890. 
„  „  A     Dictionary     of    Greek     and     Roman 

Geography.     1878. 

STUART,  ROBERT  :  Caledonia  Romana.  .   .  .    1845. 
TRAIL,  H.,  D.C.L. :  Social  England.     Second  Edition,  1894. 
WARNE,  CHARLES  :  Ancient  Dorset.     1872. 
WATKIN,  W.  THOMPSON  :  Roman  Cheshire.     1886. 

„  „  Roman  Lancashire.     1883. 

WINDLE,  BERTRAM  C.  ALLEN  :  Life  in  Early  Britain.  1897. 
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INDEX 


ABERDEEN,  OLD  (Devana),  194,  214,  226, 

250 

Agricola,  46-48,  61-63 
Agriculture,    how    affected    by    Roman 

civilization,    10,    25  ;    obliteration    of 

roads  and  camps  by  operations  of,  37, 

151 

Agrimensores  (land-surveyors),  70 
Akeman  Street,  34,  174,  175,  193 
Alcester  (Alauna),  22,  231,  236 
Alectus,  50,  51 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  173 
Amphitheatres,  141 
Anderida,  Forest  of,  17,  22,  35,  234 
Anglesea  (Monst),  16,  44 
Antoninus  Pius,  49,  160,  194,  196 

Itinerary  of,  17,  95, 105, 131,  196,  203- 

212 

Wall  of,  19,  49,  65,  102,  160-167 
Arcera,  125 

Arden,  Forest  of,  18,  36 
Astronomy  studied  by  Britons,  31 
Aulus  Plautius,  43,  61,  63,   156 
Aurelian,  99 
Avebury,  30,  38 
Axholme,  Isle  of,  17 

Basterna,  125 

Bath  (Aquse  Sulis),  23,  62,  131,  135,  145, 

157,  175,  215,  228,  248 
Battledykes,  152,  250 
Bearrac  Wood,  18 
Bede,  173 

Belgse,  the,  17,  35,  215 
Bertha  (Orrea),  194,  213,  226,  250 
Bitterne  (Clausentum),  140,  208,  231,  232, 

246 

Bow  Bridge,  179 
Bowness  (Tunnocleum),  162,  240 
Bradford-on-Avon,  179 
Brading,  145 
Bramber  Castle  (Portus  Adurni)  158,  238, 

249 
Brancaster  (Branodunum),  158,  237,  247 


Bridport,  105 

Bridges,  British,  34  ;  Roman,  91-93  ; 
mediaeval,  178,  179  ;  guilds  for  con- 
structing, 178  ;  chapels  on,  179 

Brigautes,  the,  32 

Britain,  physical  features  of,  13-20  ; 
fauna,  20,  21 ;  forests,  20,  21,  35,  36  : 
mineral  resources,  22,  23  ;  manufac- 
tures, 23,  24  ;  conquest  of,  6,  7,  40-55  ; 
'  Romanization '  of,  7,  40,  54,  57,  61-67, 
171  ;  legend  with  respect  to,  128,  129 

Britons,  the  civilization  of,  7,  8,  27,  31, 
32  ;  dwellings,  28  ;  fortifications,  29  ; 
trade,  29  ;  tribal  organization,  29,  30  ; 
principal  trihes,  17,  31,  32,  213-215  ; 
religion,  30,  31 ;  auxiliary  cohorts  of, 
in  Roman  legions,  9,  10,  54  ;  how  af- 
fected by  Roman  civilization,  7-10 
66,  131 

'  Brythonic,'  meaning  of  term,  27 

Building,  Roman  methods  of,  4,  134,  137, 
141,  142,  158,  159,  161-163 

Burgh  Castlo  (Garianonum),  158,  237, 
249 

Buxton,  131 

CAERLEON  (Isca  Silurum),  44, 62,  134, 139, 

211,  229,  230,  247 

Caerwent  (Venta  Silurum),  18,  211,  246 
Csesar,  31,  33,  42,  43,  197  note 
Caledonia,  19,  20,  47,  50,  6.) 
Calydon,  Forest  of,  20 
Cambridge  (Camboricum),  62,  207,  220- 

245 
Camps,  Neolithic,  148  ;  British,  29,  14S- 

150 ;  Roman,  150-156  ;  obliteration  of, 

151,  152 
Canterbury  (Durovernum),  61,  135,  206, 

207,  215,  216,  232,  242,  247 
Cantii,  the,  17,  215 
Caracalla,  99,  196 
Caractacus,  36,  44,  61 
Carausius,  50,  51,  158 
Cai'do  muximus,  71 


[  25.5  ] 


256 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


Carlisle  (Luguvallum),  64,  205,  207,  225, 
228,  245 

Carlswark,  148 

Carpentum,  108-110 

t'arruca,  112-114 

Carriages,  mediaeval,  181 

Carstairs  (Colania),  194,  213,  250 

Cassivelaunus,  33 

Castdla  (forts),  58,  69,  156-159,  163 
lands  attached  to,  58,  158 

Cathedra,  126 

Celts,  8,  27,  174 

Centuries  (colonial  estates),  demarcation 
of,  58,  69-75  ;  signs  denning,  73-75 

Centurial  stones,  73-75 

Centuriation  of  Britain,  58,  69-75  ;  con- 
nection of,  with  colonial  roads,  7.5 

Chaucer,  177 

Chapels  on  bridges,  179 

Chester  (Deva),  46,  62,  134,  135,  139,  145, 
205,  214,  218,  224,  245 

Chichester  (Regnum),  36,  135,  197-208, 
232,  249 

Cirencester  (Corinium),  63,  135,  139, 157, 
175,  211,  215,  228,  246 

Cisium  (gig),  103,  106 

Civilization,  facilities  for  transport  es- 
sential to,  2 ;  British,  27-31  ;  Roman, 
9-11,  57 

Civitates  (colonial  cities),  58,  62,  69,  131 

Claudius,  23,  26,  36,  43,  52,  61,  97 

Clodius  Albinus,  49 

Cloth  made  by  Britons,  27,  28 

CocMearea,  22 

Cohort,  auxiliary,  42,  54 
marine,  42,  49  note 

Coins,  British,  30 ;  Roman,  49,  53,  140, 
160, 192  ;  mints  for  issuing,  140 ;  spuri- 
ous, manufacture  of,  140 

Colchester  (Camalodunum),  36,  44, 45,  62, 
131,  135,  139,  207,  209,  214,  219,  242,  240 

Cold  Harbour,  132,  193 

Colonization  Roman  in  Britain,  58,  62, 
69-75,  131 

Commerce,  British,  29 ;  Roman,  60,  63, 
171 ;  English  in  Middle  Ages,  177 

Commodus,  49 

Constans,  52 

Constantino  the  Great,  51,  52,  67,  99 
(Usurper),  53 

Constantius  Chlorus,  51,  52 

Copper,  22 

Corn,  24 

Cots-wolds,  British  roads  on,  38  ;  chain  of 
forts  on,  156 

Covinus,  108,  109 


Cranborne  Chase,  35 
Crispus,  99 

Cunobelinus  (Cymbeline),  36 
Currus,  111,  115 

DAMNONII,  the,  32,  215 

Dealgenross  (Victoria),  152,  194,  227,  250 

Dean,  Forest  of,  22,  36 

Decius,  99 

Decumanus  maximus,  71 

Diocletian,  99 

Diodorus  Siculus,  32,  33 

Domitian,  48,  61 

Doncaster  (Danum),  173,  175,  208,  221 

238,  249 
Dorchester  (Durnovaria),  105,   135,   212, 

233,  245 

Dover  (Dubris),  157,  206,  232, 237, 242,  247 
Driving  prohibited  in  Roman  cities,  122 
Druids,  30,  31 
Dunstable  (Magiovintum),  175,  207,  209, 

217,  244 

Dunwich  (Sitomagum),  173,  209,  220 
Durotrigse,  the,  17 
Dwellings,  Roman,  4,  5,  137,  143 

EDWARD  I.,  journeys  of,  176 
Edward  the  Confessor,  laws  of,  175 
Elmet  forest,  17 
Ermine  Street,  33,  173,  175,  193 
Essedum,  103,  106,  108 
Exeter  (Isca  Damuoniorum),   105,   146, 
212,  215,  235,  242,  245 

FENS  of  pre-Roman  Britain,  14, 17, 19,  20, 

81 

Flavia  Caesariensis,  67 
Florianus,  99 

Footmen,  origin  of,  124  note 
Forests  of  pre-Roman  Britain,  14,  17,  20, 

22  ;  formed  tribal  boundaries,   17,  18, 

35,  36  ;  submarine,  16 
Forts,  Roman,  chain  of,  on  the  Cotswolds, 

156  ;  in  Wales,  157  note 
Fosse  Way,  34,  85,  173,  175,  191,  193 
Frankalmoign,  tenure  by,  no  exemption 

from  repairing  roads,  178 
Frisii,  the,  47 
Funeral  processions,  Roman,  125 

GAELIC  roots  of  road  names,  174 
Gallus,  99 

Gauls,  the,  6, 27,  28,  31,  107-111 
Glass,  23,  29,  143 

Gloucester  (Glevum)  44,  62,  131,  135   139, 
211,  228,  231,  246 


INDEX 


257 


Gold,  23, 157  note 

'  Golden  pots,'  97 

Gordian,  99 

Grampians,  Battle  of,  47 

Greek  ,^  civilization,    influence    of,    in 

Britain,  31 
Gremium,  84,  85,  87 
Guilds  for  repair  of  bridges,  178,  179 
'Gwout,1  meaning  of  term,  18 

HADRIAN,  23,  43,  47  note,  48,  52,  99,  100 

Wall  of,  18,  48,  49,  51,  54,  161-107 
Happisburgh,  16 
Henry  I.,  Charter  of,  175 
Hides,  British  trade  in,  24,  29 
Holbeach,  16 
Honovius,  52,  67 
Httbner,  47  note,  98  note,  195 
Hyginus,  152-156 

ICENI,  the,  17,  45,  214 
Icknield  Street,  34,  173,  175,  193 
Indulgences    for    repairing    roads    and 

bridges,  179 

Inns,  Roman,  3,  104,  105  ;  mediaeval,  177 
Inscriptions,  mural,  45,  53,  54;  on  cen- 

turial  stones,  74 ;  on  milestones,  96, 97, 

98  note,  100,  101 ;  on  tombs,  192 
Iron,  22,  29,  60 
Isle  of  Thanet,  15 
Isle  of  Wight  (Tctis),  33,  51,  60 
Itineraries,  Eoman,  17,  95,  104,  105,  131, 

194-198,  200-202,  204-236  ;  Royal,  176 
Italian  colonists  in  Britain,  8,  74  note 

JET,  23 
Josephus,  151 

KEIKFIELD  (Alauna),  194,  226,  250 

LEAD,  mines,  22  ;  pigs  of,  22,  23 

Leamington,  175 

Lectica  (litter),  123-125  ;  funelris,  125 

Lecticarii,  124 

Legativum,  128 

Legions,  Roman,  employed  in  road- 
making,  40, 77  ;  and  in  building  Roman 
walls,  48,  49,  161  ;  military  operations 
of,  40-55  ;  titles  of  honour  and  badges, 
41,  42  ;  organization,  42 ;  stations  of, 
41,  44,  45,  48,  49  note,  52,  139,  205,  218, 
221,  237-240 

Legion,  the  Ilnd,  41,  43,  44,  46,  48,  49, 

52,  53,  157,  238  ;  the  Vlth,  48,   49,  52, 

53,  205,  221,  238 ;  the  YHth,  43 ;  the 


IXth,  43,  47,  48,  221  ;  the  Xth,  43 ;  the 

XTVth,  43,  46,  47  note  ;  the  XXth,  41, 

43-46,  48,  49,  52 
Leicester  (Ratre),  97  note,  100,  139,  214, 

231,  247 

Lewin,  T.,  158  note 
Lex  colonica,  59,  70,  72,  73 
Limites,  59,  70-77 
Lincoln  (Lindum),  15,  46,  62,  97  note, 

100,  135,  136,  139,  175,  207,  208,  214,  220, 

221,  231,  234,  246 
Llantwit,  8,  120  note 
Lockyer,  Sir  Norman,  30,  31 
Lollius  Urbicus,  49,  65 
London  (Londinium),   14,  62,   134,   135, 

138,  140,  141,  145,  172,  173,  206-209,  215, 

217,  219,  229,  230,  232,  234,  247 
London  Bridge,  14,  179 

Stone,  102 
Lym  River,  15 
Lympne  (Portus  Lemanis),  15,  61,  158, 

207,  232,  237,  242,  247 

MACADAM,  188 

McMurtrie,  85  88 

Maiden  Castle,  149 

Maiden  Way,  174  note,  193 

Magna  Charta,  175,  176 

Manchester  (Mancunium),  145,  209,  223, 

247 

Mancipea  (road  contractors),  78 
Mansiones,  103-105,  121 
Manufactures,  British,  23,  24 
Marcus  Aurelitis,  49,  65,  194 
Maxima  Cajsariensis,  67 
Maximiau,  99 
Maximus,  51,  52 
Maximinus  Daza,  99 
Merchandise,  carriage  of,  121,  122  ;  dutie* 

on  imported,  122 

Middleby  (Blatum  Bulgium),  197,  205 
Miles,   difference  between  Roman    and 

English,  94-96 
Milestones,  Roman  (milliaria),  varieties 

of,  94-98  ;    number  and  distribution, 

98-102 

Milliarium  aureum,  102,  103 
Minerals  of  Britain,  22,  23,  60,  157  note 
Monasteries,  maintenance  of  roads  by, 

176,  178,  183 
Mutationes,  103-105,  121 

NERO,  46 

Newcastle  (Pons  JEU&),  164,  239 
Norwich  (Venta  Icenorum),  18,  135,  175, 
197,  214,  220,  241,  247 

IT 


258 


OUR  ROMAN  HIGHWAYS 


« Notitia  Imperil,'  the,  41,  52,  54,  131, 157, 

198,  199,  237-240 
Numerianus,  99 

OBLITERATION  of  Roman  Roads,  37, 151, 

170-190 

Ogofan,  gold-mines  at,  157  note 
Old  Sarum  (Sorbiodunum),  CO,  149,  233, 

249 

Ostorius  Scapula,  156 
Othona,  15,  158,  237 
Oyster  fisheries,  159  ;  shells,  22 

PACKHOR3ES,  121,  177,  187 

Pagi,  70 

Paisley  (Vanduara),  194,  213,  251 

Passports,  103,  121 

Pavements,  Roman,  148 

Pavimentiim,  84 

Pax  Regis,  175,  176 

Peak  Forest,  17 

Pearls,  23 

Penrose,  30 

Pertinax,52 

Pescennius  Niger,  49 

Petorritum,  111 

Peutingerian  Table,  the,  199-202,  241-243 

Pevensey  (Anderida),  15,  145,  158,  238, 

249 

Phene,  Dr.,  33,  174 
Philip,  99 
Physical  features  of  Britain,  changes  in, 

13-25 

Pilentum,  111,  115 
Plaustrum,  111,  115-117, 121 
Polybius,  152-156 
Pompeii,  139 

Porchester  (Portus  Magnus),  16,  232 
Portland,  Isle  of,  16 
Ports,  Roman,  15,  61, 128, 159  ;  mediaeval, 

177 
Post-stations,  Roman  governmental,  3, 

103,  104,  121 
Posthumus,  99 

Pottery,  British,  23,  28  ;  Roman,  23 
Ptolemy,  64,  194,  213-215 

Quatuor  Clwmini,  the,  176 

Ratione  tenurce,  repair  of  roads  by,  178 
Ravenna  Chorography,  202,  203 
Reculver  (Regulbium),  15,  157,  232,  237, 

24T 

Regni,  the,  17,  35    . 
Rheda,  108,  110 


Ribchester  (Coccium),  145,  209,  247 
Richard  of  Cirencester,  Itinerary  of,  194- 

196,  216-236 
Richborough  (Rutupise),   15,  53,  61,  62, 

140,  141   note,  157,  159,  205,  206,  215, 

216,  232,  238,  247 
Riding  restricted  in  Roman  cities,  122  ; 

universal  in  Middle  Ages,  182 ;  journeys 

by,  in  eighteenth  century,  186 


British,  evidence  as  to,  31-35;  con- 
flicting theories  respecting,  33-86; 
were  utilized  by  Romans,  26,  27,  86, 
37;  characteristics  of,  34,  35,  38 

Mediaeval,  combinations  of  sections 
of  Roman,  173-176;  the  four  'royal 
roads,1  34,  173;  other  roads,  34,  174, 
195  ;  maintenance  of,  180, 181, 185, 186  ; 
repair  of,  a  pious  -work,  178  ;  safety  of 
travel  on,  175,  181 ;  condition  of,  180 

Roman,  most  permanent  memorials 
of  Roman  occupation,  5  ;  foundation 
of  existing  highway  system,  11 ;  causes 
originating, 57-59 ;  'public '  or '  private,' 
68,  69,  77, 78  ;  military,  40,  69  ;  colonial 
(limites),  58,  59,  69-77  ;  commercial,  60, 
91 ;  country  and  by-roads,  35,  69,  90, 
91 ;  construction  of,  80-91 ;  national 
character  of  system,  78 ;  in  Britain 
only  a  portion  of  Roman  system,  119, 
120 ;  obliteration  of,  37,  151,  169-190 ; 
identification  of,  191-203 

Turnpike,  Roman  roads  largely  ob- 
literated by,  170,  184;  materials  of 
Roman  roads  used  in  construction  of, 
170 ;  introduction  of  system  of,  187, 
188  ;  merits  of,  184  ;  mileage  and  cost 
of,  187  ;  chief  constructors  of,  188,  190  ; 
abandonment  of.  189 ;  principle  of 
maintenance  of  existing,  189;  com- 
parative superiority  of  Roman  over 
existing  system,  ii,  190 
Rother,  river,  15 
Rudus,  84 

Rural  District  Councils,  189 
Ryknield  Street,  34, 173, 193 

ST.  ALBANS  (Verulamium),  135,  139,  206, 

207,  209,  214,  217,  247 
St.  Ives,  179 
St.  Michael's  Mount,  16 
St.  Patrick,  8,  74  note 
Said,  84 

Samian  ware,  24 
Savernake  Forest,  18 
Sawyer,  38 


INDEX 


259 


Saxon  Shore,  forts  on  the,  15,  51,  145, 

237,  238 
Scotland,  physical  features  of,  19,  20  ; 

roads,  90,  188  ;  camps,  152,  250,  251 
Sea,  encroachments  and  recessions  of  the, 

13,  15,  16,  19 
Beaton  (Devon),  105 
Seaton  (Durham),  16 
Sedans,  Roman,  126 
Sella,  126 

Selwood  Forest,  17,  35 
Sevorus,  49,  50,  52,  65 
Sewers,  Roman,  23,  142 
Sherwood  Forest,  17 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  173 
Silchester  (Calleva),  22,  62,  133,  134,  135, 

137,  139,  145,  208,  211,  212,  215,  230,  231, 

246 

Silver,  23 
Snails,  edible,  22 
Southampton,  175 
South  Shields,  16 

Stage  coaches  and  waggons,  186,  187 
Statumen,  84 
Stonehenge,  31 
Stourbridge  Fair,  177 
Stretbury,  173 
Suetonius,  45,  46 
Sylva  Alauna  (New  Forest),  17 
Sylva  Anderida,  17,  35,  234 

TERMINUS,  altar  of  the  god,  19 

Terracotta,  23 

Territoria  (colonial  lands),  58 

Tertius,  99 

Towns,  Roman,  sites  of,  frequently  occu- 
pied by  borough  towns,  11,  131  ; 
centres  of  road-making  activity,  62, 
130,  131 ;  growth  of,  63,  64 ;  more 
numerous  in  south  of  Britain,  135 ; 
powers  of  self-government  of,  131  ; 
classes  of,  57, 131,  134  ;  sixteen  princi- 
pal, 135  ;  dimensions  and  populations 
of,  135-140;  ground  plan  of,  142; 
masonry  and  decorations  of,  142,  143 ; 
ultimate  fate  of,  143-145 ;  Saxon, 
number  and  population  of,  173 

Theodosius,  47  note,  51,  52,  54 ;  code  of, 
77 

Tiberius,  97 

Tin,  22,  33 

Titus,  52 


Travellers,  Roman,  facilities  enjoyed  by, 
118,  119 ;  number  and  variety  of,  120, 
121 ;  modes  of  travel  of,  121-126;  jour- 
neys of,  126-12^ ;  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
hospitality  to  77 ;  journeys  of,  176, 181, 
182 ;  journeys  of,  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  118,  119,  1  :.>197 

Trees  indigenous  to  Britain,  20,  21 

Trinodas  necessitas,  repair  of  roads  part 
of,  178 

Tyler,  33 

QLEY  BURY  camp,  157 
Ulpius  Marcellus,  !.i 
University,  a  Britisu,  8,  120  note 

VALENTIA,  67 

Valentinian,  53 

Vehicles,  British,  28, 33, 107,  111 ;  Roman, 

106-117,  123-125  ;  medieval,  182 
Verlucio,  17,  212,  229 
Vespasian,  46,  61 
Vcxillatio,  42,  43,  46,  48  note 
Vice,  35,  69,  98  note 
Viaticum,  128 
Victorinus,  99 
Vitellius,  46 

Vitruvius,  83,  84,  89,  188  note 
Volusianus,  99 

WAKEFIELD,  179 

Wall(Btocetum),  155,  206,  218,  235 
Walls,  the  Roman,  18,  19,  48,  49,  51,  54, 

65,  102,  160-167,  221 
Wallsend  CSegedunum),  162,  239,  248 
War  chariots,  British,  28 
Watling  Street,  34,  173,  174  note,  175, 

193 

Wells,  discovery  of  human  bones  in,  145, 
Weyborne,  16 
Winchelsea,  15 
Winchester  (Venta  Bclgarum),  18,  135, 

173,  208,  215,  231,  233,  246 
Wirewood,  the,  17 
Wisbeach,  16 
Witham  River,  15 
Wood  Chester,  133 
Wroxeter  (Uriconium),  44,  45,  185,  137, 

139,  206,  218,  230,  248 

YORK  (Eboracum),  46,  47,  49  note,  50,  62, 
67,  131,  135,  139,  173,  179,  205,  207,  208 
214,  221,  223-225,  234,  238,  24'J 


BILLING   AND  SONS,  LTD.,  PRINTERS,  GUILDFORD 


AT  ALL  LIBRARIES  AND  BOOKSELLERS*. 


^Universities  of 

an6  Gambribcje, 


TWO  SERIES  OF  POPULAR  HISTORIES  OF 
THE  COLLEGES. 

To  be  completed  in  Twenty  and  Eighteen  Volumes  respectively. 


CACH  volume  is  written  by  some  one  officially  connected  with  the  College 
•^  of  which  it  treats,  or  at  least  by  some  member  of  that  College  who 
is  specially  qualified  for  the  task.  It  contains:  (1)  A  History  of  the  College 
from  its  Foundation  ;  (2)  An  Account  and  History  of  its  Buildings  ;  (3)  Notices 
of  the  Connection  of  the  College  with  any  Important  Social  or  Religious  Events  ; 
(4)  A  List  of  the  Chief  Benefactions  made  to  the  College  ;  (5)  Some  Particulars 
of  the  Contents  of  the  College  Library  ;  (6)  An  Account  of  the  College  Plate, 
Windows,  and  other  Accessories  ;  (7)  A  Chapter  upon  the  best  known,  and  other 
notable  but  less  well-known  Members  of  the  College. 

Each  volume  is  produced  in  crown  octavo,  in  a  good  clear  type,  and  contains 
about  250  pages  (except  two  or  three  volumes,  which  are  thicker).  The  illustra- 
tions consist  of  full-page  plates,  containing  reproductions  of  old  views  of  the 
Colleges  and  modern  views  of  the  buildings,  grounds,  etc. 

The  two  Series  are  Bearing  completion.  The  writers'  names  are  given 
opposite. 


Price   5s.  net  per  Volume. 

CATALOGUE  WITH    PRESS   NOTICES  ON  APPLICATION. 

These  volumes  can  be  ordered  through  any  bookseller,  or  they  will  be 
sent  by  the  Publishers  on  receipt  of  the  published  price  and  postage. 


F.  E.  KOBINSON  AND  CO., 
20,  GREAT  RUSSELL  STREET,  BLOOMSBURY,  LONDON,  W.C. 


OXFORD  SERIES. 

COLLEGES. 

University W.  CARR,  M.A. 

Balliol        .  .  .  .  .  H.  W.  CARLESS  DAVIS,  M.A. 

Merton       .  .  .  .  .  B.  W.  HENDERSON,  M.A. 

Exeter        .....  REV.  W.  K.  STRIDE,  M.A. 

Oriel  .  .  .  .  .  D.  W.  RANNIE,  M.A. 

Queen's      .....  REV.  J.  R.  MAGRATH,  D.D. 

New  .....  REV.  HASTINGS  RASHDALL,  Litt.D., 

and  R.  S.  RAIT,  M.A. 

Lincoln       .....  REV.  ANDREW  CLARK,  M.A. 

All  Souls    .  .  .  .  .  C.  GRANT  ROBERTSON,  M.A. 

Magdalen REV.  H.  A.  WILSON,  M.A. 

Brasenose  .  .  .  .  .  J.  BDCHAN,  M.A. 

Corpus  Christi      ....  REV.  T.  FOWLER,  D.D. 

Christ  Church       ....  REV.  H.  L.  THOMPSON,  M.A. 

Trinity        .....  REV.  H.  E.  D.  BLAKISTON,  M.A. 

St.  John's REV.  W.  H.  HUTTON,  B.D. 

Jesus          .  .  .  .  .  E.  G.  HARDY,  M.A. 

Wadham J.  WELLS,  M.A. 

Pembroke  .....  REV.  DOUGLAS  MAOLEANE,  M.A. 

Worcester .....  REV.    C.    H.    O.    DANIEL,  M.A., 

and  W.  R.  BARKER,  M.A. 

Hertford     .  .  .  .  .  S.  G.  HAMILTON,  M.A. 

CAMBRIDGE  SERIES. 

Peterhouse  ....  REV.  T.  A.  WALKER,  LL.D. 

Clare          .  .  .  .  .  J.  R.  WARDALE,  M.A. 

Pembroke  .  .  .  .  .  W.  S.  HADLEY,  M.A. 

Caius          .  .  .  .  .  J.  VENN,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S. 

Trinity  Hall          .  .  .  .  H.  E.  MALDEN,  M.A. 

Corpus  Christi      ....  REV.  H.  P.  STOKES,  LL.D. 

King's        .....  REV.  A.  AUSTEN  LEIGH,  M.A. 

Queens'       .....  REV.  J.  H.  GRAY,  M.A. 

St.  Catharine's      ....  THE  LORD  BISHOP  OF  BRISTOL. 

Jesus  .  .  .  .  .A.  GRAY,  M.A. 

Christ's       .  .  .  .  .  J.  PEILE,  Litt.D. 

St.  John's  .  .  .  .  •  J-  BASS  MULLINGER,  M.A. 

Magdalene  .  .  .  .  E.  K.  PURNELL,  M.A. 

Trinity       .....  REV.  A.  H.  F.  BOUGHEY,   M.A., 

and  J.  WILLIS  CLARK,  M.A. 

Emmanuel.  .  .  .  .  E.  S.  SHUCKBURGH,  M.A. 

Sidney        .  .  .  •  .  G.  M.  EDWARDS,  M.A. 

Downing    .....  REV.  H.  W.  PETTIT  STEVENS,  LL.D. 

Selwyn       .....  REV.  A.  L.  BROWN,  M.A. 


anb  College  Ibfstorfes, 


TRINITY  COLLEGE,  DUBLIN, 


BY 

W.   MACNEILE    DIXON, 

PEOFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  BIRMINGHAM. 

AUTHOR  OF  '  IN  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  LETTERS,'  ETC. 


Crown  8vo,  cloth  gilt,  gilt  tops,  5s.  net. 


Birmingham  Gazette.  —  c  He  has  brought  to  his  subject  an 
abundance  of  knowledge  arranged  in  excellent  form,  and 
that  loving  enthusiasm  which  only  a  'Varsity  man  can  feel 
for  his  Alma  Mater.  ...  An  entrancing  book.' 


F.   E.  ROBINSON   AND   CO., 

20,  GREAT  RUSSELL  STREET,  BLOOMSBURY,  LONDON,  W.C. 


DA 

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