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HARVARD  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 


GEi 


irlPTON 


3  2044  097  030  407 


V 


TPOHOSBMD  BT  T^JBOS  Om  fmXVKH,  IXZW  TOBX. 


WILLSON'S  HISTORICAL  SERIES. 


ntAJnOiIK,  TIB  FBIMTBIt*!  BOT. 

No.  l:— WILLSON'S     JUVENILE    AMERICAN 

History.  For  Prinuury  Schook ;  on  the  same  eeneral  plan  as 
the  History  of  the  United  StateiL  Embracing  the  most  interest- 
i|ig  and  morally  instraetiTe  incidents  and  events  in  American 
History,  commencing  iHth  the  Life  of  ColmnboSb  HandsomiAy 
iUnstrated.    160  pagea.    81  cents. 


ThU  wortc  It  detlgiied  fbr  younger 
In  Sehoola.  Many  of  the  leeMmt 
lie  MoomiMmled  by  Judleions  pietorlal 
ninstialknit ;  alluston  is  eonttantly  made 
to  the  geogropby  of  the  parU  described, 
and  namerooB  niapB  aasodate  pictorial 
erenU  with  their  locaUtlM. 


**•  Mr.  Wiibon.  to  BTotd  tbo  ermn  of 
hit  pradecettort,  htt  Imrettf gtted  clotely, 
has  MlhMly  eoltated  sod  rerifled  hit 
Austt  tad  dalot,  Bad,  Bt  a  aatBnU  ooiite> 
qeanoe,  hat  prodooed  •  amC  atemrMU 
««rifc.  The  narratlTe  It  glren  in  a  dear, 
timple  ttyle,  and  the  biographical  sketchet 
i^^^^  ar»  forcibly  and  Tiridly  detoriptlTe.*' 

raAKKLIX,  TBB  PBILOtOPBBB. 


•— t 


PUBLISH^)  BY  IVI90K  AND  PHmNST,  NSW  TOBX. 

WILLSOK'S  HISTORICAL  SERIES- 


No.  2.— WILLSON'S  HISTORT  OF  THE  UNITED 

States.    76  centa^ 


Plan  iff  tJit  Siffire  of  Qwhff^ 


YiciNmrof  avEW. 


GoiBiiMDdBg  With  the  dlsooTery  of 
America,  and  brought  down  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  Nioeteeath  oeotiUT.  The 
work  preienU  the  foltowlng  clalme  to 

Eublle  faTor:— Iflt,  superior  aoearaey; 
1,  chronological  arrangement  of  datei, 
wholly  In  new  ityle;  3d,  illostratlre 
majpa  and  charts,  and  copious  Geograph- 
ical Notes,  exhibiting  to  the  eye,  and 
deacribing  all  important  localities  referred 
to  t  Hh.  oonrenient  Marginal  Arrange* 
ment  or  tho  Queatlona.  An  Appendix 
contains  the  OonsUtution  of  the  United 
Statoa.  with  ISxptaoatory  Notes,  abrids- 
ed  nnom  the  author's  work  on  ^ClrU 
Polity,**  or  Ooostltuiional  Law. 

WUlaon*8  History  of  the  United 
States  has  been  introduced  Into  the 
Public  Schools  of  New  York  City,  the 
Normal  School  in  Albany,  the  Public 


Schools  in  New^k,  Broiiklyn.  Rochi 
Bufhlo,  Cincinnati  and  SL  Louis,  ate, 
as  well  as  In  great  numbers  of  Male 
and  Female  Academiea  and  Seminaries 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  During  the 
first  year  of  Its  publication, /aartMis 
tknuamd  copies  were  sold. 


From  the  numerous  recommendaUons  and  notioea  of  the  woifc,  the  PubUahert 
select  the  followiDg:— 


^SV"^-*' 


H0TICB8. 

*"  Boston,  Dec  eUHl84&. 
**l  eonalder  it  the  best,  and  In  raality  the  only 
School  Histonr  I  hare  erer  seen,  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  our  Common  Schools. 

"JOSHUA  BATES, 
**  Principal  of  Brimmer  Grammar  SchooL" 


*«Bnritngton,  N.  J^  11th  mo.  6th,  1845. 
"  Wi1l8on*s  ristory  of  the  United  States  for  the 
use  of  School^  I  have  read  through  with  peculiar 
satialhcUon.  If  any  other  book,  oompUed  for  the 
_  same  purpose,  equals  it  In  combining  orevity  with 
clearness  of  detail,  impartiality  with  a  manly  regard 
for  national  interests,  elevation  of  style  with  the  simplicity  due  to  jouih,  end  especially 
geogntphy  with  history,  I  am  not  acquainted  with  it 

''the  wriier  seems  to  be  imbued  with  a  Just  peroepU'O  of  the  wants  of  theschclar 
and  the  facililies  due  tn  the  teacher. 

«JNO.  GRUOOIL* 


OUTLINES  OF  HISTORY; 

XlLUBraATXD  BT  VCMZBOXTB 

GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  HISTOSICAL  NOTES  AND  HAPS : 

EMBBACnrO 

PAET  I.   AHCIEST  HISTORY. 
PART  n.   MODEBH  HISTOST. 


BT  MAECIUS  WILLSON, 

AvraoK  •r  ^AMSBioAir  MiaroRT,"  **auTOftT  or  tbb  vmtbb  lYArBf,*  nVi 


0tl)O0l   (fbition. 


NEW  YORK: 
IVISON  &  PHINNEY,  178  FULTON  STREET ; 

(■occassoAt  or  iibwman  *  intoii,  and  makk  b.  mcwmam  *  co.) 
'^  OmOAOO :  S.  0.  GRIGGS  A  00.,  Ill  LAKE  STREET. 
aubobh:  •btmour  *  co.    »«t«oit:  a.  mVabbbk. 
cmcimiATi :  moorb,  wxlitaoh  %  MTi. 

1855. 


4«.*,«r^,  %'irs~ 


BuTSKKD,  MOOfdliig  to  Aet  of  OongrMt,  ia  the  ywor  iSA,  bf 

MARGIU8    WILL80N, 

b  Ibe  Ctek'k  Offlee  of  the  DiBtrict  Oourt  Ibr  tti«  Bontheni  DUtriet  of  N«w  Torib, 


■TBBXOTTPBD    BT  PBI37TBD   BY 

THOMAS  B.    SMITH,  J.  D.  TORRET, 

SMWUUMoStrMWN.T.  18  8|»niM  SireH. 


PKEFACE-TO  THE  UNIVEESITY  EDIIION.* 

Thb  Mithor  of  the  foUowing  woric  sabmitB  it  to  the  Pnbtio  with  a  few 
remaitB  ezplanatoiy  of  its  Plan,  and  of  the  endeayoTB  of  the  writer  ti» 
prepare  a  useftil  and  intereetiiig  text^book  on  the  aabjeot  of  General 
Hifltory. 

in  tiie  important  departments  of  Greoian  and  Boman  ffistory  he  haa 
aimed  to  embody  the  reenlts  of  the  inyestigations  of  the  beet  modem 
writers,  especially  Thirlwall  and  Qrote  in  Grecian,  and  Niebnhr  and 
Arnold  m  Boman  HistMy ;  and  in  both  Ancient  and  Modem  History  he 
has  eareftOly  examined  disputed  poiats  of  mterest,  with  the  hope  .of 
avoiding  all  important  antiqnated  errors. 

By  endeavoriDg  to  keep  the  attention  of  the  student  fixed  on  tha 
IdsCory  of  the  most  hnportant  nations— grouping  around  them^  and  treal>- 
iDg  as  of  secondary  importance,  the  history  of  otibers,— -and  by  bringing 
o«t  in  bold^  relief  the  main  Bulfjecti  of  history,  to^lie  exclusion  of  com* 
paratiTely  unimportant  collateral  details,  he  has  given  greater  fUness 
than  would  otherwise  be  possible  to  Grecian,  Boman,  German,  iVench,  spmI 
Eogliih  history,  and  preserved  a  oonBiderable  degree  of  uaitgr  in  the  nar^ 
latire ;  while  the  importance  of  r^dering  the  whole  as  interesting  to  the 
stndent  as  possible,  has  been  kept  constantly  in  view. 

The  numerous  Notes  throughout  the  work  were  not  only  thgughA 
neoesssry  to  the  geogn^hical  elucidation  of  the  narrative,  by  giving  to 
events  a  distmot  ^  local  habitation,"  but  they  also  supply  much  psefol  «Bh 
planafcory  historical  informadon,  not  easily  attainable  by  the  student,  and 
which  could  not  be  introduced  into  the  text  without  fireqaent  digressioDS 
that  would  impair  the  unity  of  the  snl^ect. 

In  addition  to  the  Table  of  Oonteots,  which  contains  a  general  analyaia 
of  the  whole  work,  a  somewhat  minnte  analysis  oi  each  Chapter  or  Se04 
tion,  given  at  the  beginning  of  each,  is  deBignad  for  tha  use  of  tcaahaii 
and  pupils,  in  place  of  questions. 
•  In  tb»  <*  ackoQl  Edition,"  itet  nL,  eaotdniog  "^  OBtil^ 


It  PBSFACOL 

Tli6  Mthor  has  derotod  leeB  space  to  the  ICstory  of  the  TJoited  Stfttee 
of  America  than  is  found  in  most  dmilar  works,  for  the  reasoi;^  that  be 
has  ahready  published  for  the  use  of  schools,  a  ^*  History  of  the  United 
States,"  and  also  a  larger  *^  American  History  ;*'  and,  furthermore,  that 
as  the  present  work  is  designed  as  a  text-book  for  American  stpdeutSi 
who  have,  or  who  should  hare  previonslj  studied  the  separate  history  of 
their  own  country,  it  is  unnecessary,  and,  indeed,  impossible,  to  repeat  the 
aame  matter  here  in  detail;  and  something  more  than  so  meagre  an 
abridgment  of  our  country's  annals  as  a  General  History  must  neo- 
enaiily  be  confined  to,  is  universally  demanded. 

The  author  is  not  ignorant  that  he  will  very  probably  be  charged  with 
presumption  hi  heading  Fart  III.  of  the  present  work  with  the  am- 
bitions title  of  *^  PhiloB<^hy  of  History,**  although  he  profosses  to  give 
only  its  *^  Outlines  ;**  nor  is  he  ignorant  that  a  great  critic  has  expressed 
the  sentiment^  that  as  the  vast  Ohaos  of  Being  is  un&thomable  by  Human 
Experience,  so  the  Philosophy  of  all  Histoiy,  could  it  be  written,  would 
require  Infinite  wisdom  to  understand  it.  But.  although  the  whole  mean- 
ing of  what  has  been  recorded  lies  far  beyond  us,  the  £act  should  not 
deter  us  from  a  plausible  explanation  of  what  ie  known,  ii^  haply,  we  may 
thereby  lead  others  to  a  more  just  appreciation  of  the  true  spirit — ^the 
Oemue  of  Hiatoiy  ^»d  the  great  lessons,  social,  moral,  and  poUtical, 
which  it  teaches.  With  the  explanatoij  remark  that  our  brief  and  rery 
imperfect  sketches  of  the  Philosophy  of  History  were  not  designed  to  en- 
lighten the  advanced  historical  scholar,  but  to  lead  the  ttuderU  beyond 
the  narrow  cirde  of  facts,  back  to  t^^  causes,  and  onward  to  some  of 
the  important  deductions  which  the  greatest  historians  have  drawn  from 
them,  we  present  these  closing  chapters  as  a  brief  oompend  oi  the  history 
of  Civilization,  in  which  we  have  aimed  to  do  justice  to  the  cause  of  Be* 
ligion,  Infelligenoe,  and  Virtue,'  and  the  cause  of  Democracy,-*the  greai 
agents  of  regeneration  and  Human  Progress ;— and  we  commend  this 
portion  of  our  work  to  the  candor  of  those  who  have  the  charity  to  ap- 
predate  our  object,  and  the  liberality  to  c<Hmeot  with  it  our  disclaimer 
ef  any  other  merit  than  that  of  having  laboriously  gathered  and  analyzed 
the  reBDUs  of  the  researches  of  othern,  and  reconstructed  them  with  some 
iegree  of  udI^  of  plan,  and  for  a  good  purpose,  into  these  forms  of  («r 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAET    I. 

ANCIENT     HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

«m  XABX.T  AUKS  OF  THK  WORLD  PUOK  TO  THB  OOMMKMCnaNT  OF  OElOIAir  HISTO&T 

L  Tte  OMttoo— AntedttorUmHlatoiy.— a.  E^pUao  Hfatoiy.— lU  AabiUc  Hblory.  Page  11-90 

CHAPTER  II. 

WA^OhOOB  AHD  UEOXNPABT  PKRIOD  OF  G&VCIAN   BlffTOBT ;  KNDING   WTHt  TBS 
CLOSE   OF  THB  TROJAN  WAB, — 1183  B.  0. 

I.  Geography  of  Greeoe.~IT.  Grecfan  Mythology.— HI.  Earliest  inbabltanta  of  Greece.— IT. 
PMgnMttlen  In  Greece.— V.  The  Hellenee.— VL  The  Heroic  Age Page  20—43. 

CHAPTER  III. 

«■■  miOBBTAlAN  FBRIOO  OF  OBBCIAX  HISTOBT  .   FROM  THB  CLOSE    OF  THE  TROJAN 
WAR  TO  TBB  FIBBT  WAR   WITH   PBR8IA  !     1183   TO  490   B.    O. — 698    YEARS. 

I,  Tlienaliaii  eonqoeat— If.  BcBotlan  cooqaesL— Id.  JRoWan  migration.— IV.  Retam  of  the 
HeradWSie.- V.  Ipstltmiona  of  Lycurgns.— VI.  First  Measenian  War.— VH.  iJecond  MeMo> 
ntan  War.— VIII:  Draco.— IX.  Lexl>lation  of  Solon.— X.  Expulsion  of  tlie  Pisislratids.— 
XL  lottk}  ReTolt Page  43-58. 

OoTBJffORART  HuTOBT.  L  PboBDfolan  History.- II.  Jewish  History.— III.  Roman  History.— 
IV.  Peniu  History Page  56-73, 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  AUTBElblO  PERIOD  OF  GRBdAN    BISTORT. 
BscTioE  L— From  tbc  BKOiHHiNa  or  thb  First  War  with  Pkrsia;  to  thb  Establxs** 

MBJrr  or  Pbilip  on  tkb  Thronb  or  Macbdon  :  490  to  360  a.  c— 130  ykars. 
I.  Fir*  Persian  War.— n.  Second  Persian  War.— III.  Third  Mosaenian  War.— IV.  First  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War.— V.  The  Sicilian  Expedition.— VI.  Second  Peloponneelan  War.— Vll.  Third 

PelopooiMsian  War.— VIII.  Second  Sacred  War Pago  73— Wl 

Sacnoii  II.— From  tbr  EsTASLisiiMRfA  or  Philip  oh  thk  Throhr  op  Mackdon,  to  thb 

BSDDcnoN  or  Grbbcb  to  a  Rohak  Provinck  :  38)  to  146  B.  C— 314  ykars. 

L  PklHp  of  Maoedon.— ri.  Alexander  the'  Great— his  contiuests,  and  death.— III.  Achosan 

League,  and  conquest  of  Greece  by  the  Romans Page  02-111. 

CoTBXroBABT  HuTORT.r— L  Hlstory  of  the  Jews.— II.  Grecian  Oolonles.— III.  Magna  Orsecla. 
— nr.  CjnmiRlca. Page  111— 133. 

CHAPTER   V. 

WCaU*  HBfOBT,  VBOM  THB  FOUNDIlfG  OF  BOMB,    763   B.  a,  TO  THE  OOMQCntSIB 
or  «IUBBCE  AN1>   CARTBAOB,    146   B.    a — 607    TEAB8. 

Bbctioii  I.    Early  Italy  :  Romb  uiii>br  thb  Kiros  :  bndiro  510  B.  C— S43  ybars. 
L  Itolyw--IL  IboBdlBg  of  Rome.- III.  War  with  the  Sabinea.— IV.  Numa.-~V.  Tullns  Hoe- 
tttioa.— VI.  Aacas  liartiua.— VIL  Tarqain  the  Elder.— Vill.  Serviua  TuUioa.— IX.  Tarquin 

ftePrCNML Page  123— 134 

toenov  II.— Tbb  Roman  Rbpitblic  rsoM  thb  Abolitior  or  royalty,  510  B.  C,  to  tbr 

BKOiHKixa  or  thb  Wars  witb  Cabthaob,  983  B.  C— 847  ybars. 

L  OcnaBla.— U.  Btruscan  War.— III.  Oflce  of  Dictalor.-IV.  Plebeian  Insurreetion.— V.  Tri- 

bmm  of  the  Peopkv-^VL  VotedaD  sod  iBqaian  wars.— VII.  The  DeoemTirs.- VIII.  Ortlce 

orOenaovh-UL  War  wHh  Veii.'-X.  Oanio  lDvaaion.-XI.  Plebeian  and  Patrician  con- 

'--I.— Xa  OOceof  Pnator.— XUI.  First  flamnlte  War.— XIV.  Second  aamiilie  War— XV. 

'  ^  >  War.-XVL  War  with  the  Xaranttnea  and  Flynliaa. JagR  1S4-1«C 


6  OOKTENTS. 

BscnoM  in.-<-THs  RoMAir  RsrimtiCi  rmox  thb  Bsennmis  or  mv  Ca^kthammuh  WaeIi 

963  B.  a,  TO  TBB  RB9VCTI01I  or  GbKBC*  Aia>  G^RTHAOK,  IM  B.  C.-*]  I7  TSARS. 

r.  Ourthaee.— U.  Flrat  Pvnto  W«r.--in.  niyrteD  War.— IV.  War  with  tbe«Mls.~V.  Seoonl 
PunlcWar.— VI.  Grecian  War.— VIL  Syrian  War.— VUI.  Third  Paoio  War.  Pago  UO— 16S. 

CHAPTER   VI. 

BOMAM  HZSTO&T,  FBOX  THK  OONQUKBIfl  QT  ORBKOK  AND  CARTHAGK,  146  B.  O, 
TO  THK   COXXKNCEXKirr    OP  THE   0HEI8TIAK   ERA. 

I.  Spain  after  the  faU  of  Cartbage.-^II.  Berrlle  war  In  ffieUy.^III.  DiaaeoBloDs  of  the  GfMcfaL 
— rv.  Jugurthine  War.— V.  Germanic  Inyaslon.— VI.  lie  Social  War.— VU.  first  M iUk- 
ridatic  War.- V1IL  Ciril  wars  between  Marliis  and  Sylla.— IX.  Servile  war  in  ItsAy.— X. 
Second  and  Third  Mllhridatic  wark— XI.  CtoospinM^  of  Gktiline.— XII.  The  First  TriumTl- 
▼frate.— XIII.  Civil  war  between  Otesar  and  Poropey.— XIV.  The  Second  Triumvirate.— 
XV.  OctaviaaAugwIiiBioleiiioaarchoriheKoniaBworid, BaffelM^MIi 

PART    II. 
MODERN   HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  L 

EOMAN   mSTOBT   OONTIMUKD,    raOM  THE  OOMMBNOBMENT  OP  THE  OHBBTfAir  BEA, 
TO  THE   OTE&THILOW   OF   THE   WESTERN   EMPIRE   OP  THE  ROMANB.' 
A.   a    1    TO   A.   D.   476. 

BsonoK  L— Roman  History  prok  thb  oommbncbmbiit  or  tbb  OfenusTtAii  bra  f  tbb 

DBATH  or  DORITIAH,  THB  LAST  OF  THB  TWBLVB  CSCSARB  :  A.  D.  W. 

t  Earlier  and  later  history  of  the  Empire  eompared.— IL  Julius  Csesar.— III.  Aiuroitus.— IT* 
Tiberius— V.  Caligula— VI.  Claudrua—Vll.  Nero.— VIU.  Galba.-IX.  Olho.— X.  ViteUioa. 
—XI.  Vespaai«n.-XII.  Jewish  war.-XUI.  Titus.— XIV.  Domiaaa....1...  Page  188—303. 

Bbctiom  IL— Roman  History  from  thb  dbatm  op  DovniAN  A.  D.  96^  to  thb  bstabubh- 

MKNT  OP  MILrTART  DB8POTUM,  APTBR  THB  MCaPBB  OP  AUCXANMR  ScvB'RDS. 

A.D.335:— J39TBARS. 
L  Nerva.- IL  Trajan.— III.  Adrian.— IV.  Titus  Antoninus.— V.  Marcus  Anr611us  Antoninoa. 
VI.  Com' modus.- VU.  Per' tinax.— VIII.  Dfdios  Jullaaus— IX.  Septim'lus  Severua.— X. 
Caracalla.— XI.  Macrlnus.— XII.  ElagabUua.— XUI.  Alexander  Severaa... .  Page  20»— SIl. 

Bbction  IIL— Roman  History,  prom  tub  bstabubrmbnt  op  military  dbspotism  aptbr 

THB  rbion  op  Albzandbr  Sbvb'rus,  A.  D.  S3S,  to  tab  avBVBRsiON  or  THE 

Wbstbrn  Empirb  op  thb  Romans,  A.  D.  476:— 341  tbars. 

I.  Maxlmln.— II.  Gordian.— III.  Puplenosand  Balbinus.— IV.  Seoond  Gordian.— V.  Fbllip  th« 
Arabian.-VI.  Mclus.— VII.  GaUus.-VllI.  iEmm4nus.-IX.  Valerian.— X.  G«llieQUs.~XI.  M. 
Aurelios  CUudius  — XII.  QuintiliuB.- XIU.  Aur^Iian.— XIV.  Tacitus.— XV.  Plonan.— XVI. 
Probu8.-XVlI.  CArus.— XVIII.  Num^rianandCafioua.— XIX.  Diocletian.— XX. Maxlmln 
—XXL  Galdrlus  and  Constan' Uus.— XXII.  Oon'atantine.- XXIIL  Consfantius  IL— XXIV. 
Julian  the  Apostate.— XXV.  Jovian.— XXVI.  Valeniin'ian  and  Valeoa.— XXVH.  Barbariaa 
inroads.— XX VI II.  GraUan  and  TheodMus.— XXIX.  Valentlnian  IL— XXX.  HontelHsand 
ArcAdlus.— XXXL  Alaric  the  Goth.- XXXII  ValentUi'  Ian  III— XXXIII.  Oonqneato  of 
Attlla.— XXXIV.  The  Vaadaia.— XXXV.  AV  itus-Mstiortan.— XXXVL  BeT^me— XXXVU 
Bub  version  of  the  Western  Empire Page  SI  Ir-SaS. 

CHAPTER   II. 

BBODRT  or  THB  MIDDLE  A0E8  :  KXTENDINO   PROM  TBB  OTBRTVBOW  OP  TU 

WESTERN   BMPIRB  OP  THE   ROMANS,   A.   D.   476,   TO  THB  IHaOOYXRT   OP 

AMERICA,  A.    D.    1492  : 1016   TBARS. 

Bbctiob  Iw— Obnbral  History,  prom  tmb  ovbrtmrow  op  thb  Wmstbrm  Ehpirb  op  thb  • 

Romans  to  thb  bboinnino  op  thb  tbnth  cbmturt  :— 494  years. 
I.  Introductory.— II.  The  monarchy  of  the  Henill.— HI.  Monarchy  of  the  Ostrogottia.— IV.  Tb« 
eraof  Justinian— V.  The  Lombard  monarchy.— VL  The  Baraoen  empire.— VII.  Mooarahy 

oftheFranka^Via  Bogllsh  History Page  SS— 964. 

Bbotiob  IL— Gbnbral  History  dhriko  thb  tbrth,  blbtbmth,  twblpvh,  ah» 
thirtbbnth  ohrtvribs  :  a.  D.  900  to  1300  »— 400  ybarb. 
L  CampltU  DuidMtian  of  Ms  Bonds  9f  ffMisCf .— L  Obnflullon  of  Blslorie  ms(arlals.--IL  Ths 
Saraoeo  world.— UL  The  BysanUne  empire.— IV.  CoodttlOB  oT  Itily.— T.  OondMon  dfOer- 
iB«qr.-VI- Condition  of  ninee ■. * t...  ffiisiOl   B?3L 


OOKTSNTa  *! 

4  Tk9  HtHMl  BfsUm,  Okivtirf^and  the  OrM»adw.^L  The  Feudal  «7sleni.~IL  ChIr»lnr.-« 
ni.  Ortelii  of  tlM  OraHdKM.- IV.  The  Flwt  Crasade.— V.  The  Second  Crasade.— VI.  Tbit 
ndtd  Ommde.—VU.  The  Powth  Cn]flMle.>-VUI.  The  Fifth  Cnuade.— IZ.  Tartar  con 
tnaalii    X.  The abrth CrMadft. » PageS73— 888. 

H  English  HUt&rf^-^h  England  alter  the  death  of  Alfied.—II.  Nonnan  conquesL— IIT.  Re- 
ducUflB  or  Irdaad^IV.  8ul]!}agaUon  of  Wales^V.  Scouioh  ware. Face  S88— 297. 

Bm&wMm  UL— GsasKAa  HutoA  acruMe  tu  rovKTasirlv  jofs  nmBHTV  cBHTinuBa. 
t.  £kif***'  ""^  A«««« 4«rriur<A« .nmrtcmtJI  aiui  Fifteenth  eaUMries.—L  French  and  English 

wafB,   laas  to  14S3.— II.  Wan  of  the  <wo  R<nee.—Ill.  Reign  of  Henrr  Vfl.  of  &ig- 

hwl Page297-^Si 

t.  Other  JiiU»»n9  at  the  ctoeeefthe  Fifteenth  century,— L  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.— II. 

The  Rnttlah  empire.— HI.  The  Ottoman  empire.— IV.  Tartar  empire  of  Tamerlane.— V. 

Poland.— VI.  The  German  empire.  — VII.   Switxerland.— VUl.   Italian   History.  — IX. 

8p«h» -^ PBgeS08-3ia. 

%  2>tfc*e«rieff.—NaTigalion.r— Magnetic  Needle.— Art  of  Printing.— The  Canaries.— Cape  de 

Verdnd  Aiore  lalanda.— The  pDrtugnese.— Christopher  Oolumbos.— Vasco  de  Gama 

Page318-39S, 

CHAPTER  III. 

GKITERAL  BIBTOAY  DUAINO  THE  8IZTSXNTH   OkNTDBT. 

1.  AfreAieCafy.'-UBl^  of  Ancient  Hlalory.— The  Middle  Ages.- Modern  History.— Plan  of  the 
■nhaequent  perl  of  the  work.— Europe,  Asia,  Egypt,  The  New  World,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  eentory Page  3:»-325. 

%.  The  Jige  efHemrf  VIIL  and  Charles  K.— I.  The  States-system  of  Europe.— 11.  The  rivalry 
between  Francto  1.  and  Charles  V.— Id.  Heniy  VIII.  of  England.— IV.  The  Reformation.— 
V.  Abdication  and  reUrement  of  Charles  V Pago335— 339 

a.  ThsJtge  if  JEUaaheth^h  Mavy  of  Scotland- IL  avll  and  religious  war  in  France.- III. 
Msirro  of  St.  Bartholomew.— IV.  The  Netherlands.— V.  The  Spanish  Armada.— VI. 
Bdiet  of  Nantes^— VU.  Character  of  Elizabeth. Page  339—348. 

€,  Cetew^taewf  Hist»rf,—L  The  Portngaese  Colonial  Empire.— II.  Spanish  Colonial  Empire, 
— m.  The  Mogol  Empire  in  India.— iV.  The  Peralan  Emphre. Page  348— 39& 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  BBVBMTBKNTB   OEMTUBT. 

1.  Tte  mrtf  Ftarf*  Ffbrv-I.  The  PaUtttne  period  of  the  war.— II.  Danish  period  of  the 
war^ni.  SwediA  period  of  the  war.— IV.  French  period  of  the  war Page  353—361. 

t,  English  Bistsrv  :  TTks  English  Revolntlen.—J.  Union  of  England  and  Scotland.— II.  Jamea 
L-^ULChariesL-IV.  Scotch  RebelMon.-V.  The  Long  Pariiamenu-VI.  CItU  war.- VII.  The 
Bootdk  Lsague.— VIIL  Oliver  Cromwell.— IX.  Trial  and  execuUon  of  Charles  I.— X.  Aboll^  . 
flon  of  noDarehy.— XL  War  with  Holland.— XII.  The  Protectorate.— XIII.  Restoration  of 
mooarehy.— XIV.  James  IL— X V.  Revolution  of  1086 Page  301—377. 

t,  French  History :  Wars  of  J.o%is  XJK-^l.  AdministraUon  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.— II. 
Maxarln's  administration.— in.  Louis  XIV.  Bis  war  with  Spain.— With  the  Allied  Powera- 
Engiand,  Spain,  Holland,  and  Sweden.— internal  aflhirs  of  France.— General  war  againal 
Lonis    FrencB  at  the  end  of  the  century Page  377—385. 

^  rwiyiiiif  Bist0r9^-L  Dennarfc,  Sweden,  and  Norway.— IL  Poland.— lit.  Ruasla.— IV. 
Turkey.— V.  Italy.- VL  The  Spanish  Peninsuhu— VIL  AslaUc  Nation8.-rVIIL  Colonial 
linahllshmenla  -Amarlcan  History Page  38S-.396. 

CHAPTER   V. 

THX  JUOBTSSNTH   CBMrORT.  *  . 
L  W^  efthe  Spanish  smeeessiany  and  elo'e  of  the  reign  of  Ixmis  XIF.^L  England,  Germany,  and 

HoUand  dechM  war  agaiaM  Fnmoe,  170-^.— II.  Oimpaign  of  1702.— lU.  Events  of  1703.— IV. 

events  of  1701— V.  Events  of  1705-4J.— VL  Campaign  of  1707.— VII.  Events  of  1708.- VIII. 

mn.— IX.  'nvaty  or  Utrecht,  1713.— X.  Character  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV . ..  Page  396-407. 
&  Petsrthe  Great  of  Russia^  and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.— h  The  north  and  east  of  Europe.— 

n.  Beginning  of  hostilities  sgalnst  Sweden.— III.  I>efeat  of  the  Russians  at  Narva.— IV. 

Vidortea  of  Charlea  in  the  year  iTDi.— V.  March  of  Charies  into  Russia.— VL  Battle  of 

Pnltowa.— VIL  The  Turks.— Vl(L  Return  of  Charies.— IX.  Events  of  1715.— X.  Death  of 

Ghariea.— XL  His  charaeter.— Xlt.  Death  and  eharacter  of  Peter  the  Great..  Page  407—418. 
1  Spanish   Wars  and  War  of  the  AustHan  Snceession,—!,  European  AUlanceu— 11.  War 

»Mweett  iBglaiiid  aad  Spabi.— HI.  Ctoiaei  of  the  war  of  the  AoMitan  fneeaaaloBu-lV. 


8 


ooNTEirrs. 


OoiaiUoa  sgatnst  Austria.- V.  Efwitt  of  17«-3.— VL  KvautaoT  1744r-VlL  ZwmM  of  tf4l 

— VllJ.  iuvasion  ofEitgland  \ff  the  Young  Pretender.— IX.  Events  In  Anerica.— X.  I14lh7. 
—XI.  Treaty  of  Alx-la-ChapeUe,  1748 Page  4i8--493. 

«.  IVi^-  Seven  Years^  War :  175<>— 1763.— I.  Eiffbt  yean  of  peace.*-Ii.  Oawes  of  anotker  war. 
—III.  KeKiuuiiiff  uf  hoslililie»  in  America.— lY.  European  ADiaoceB.- V.  Ftnt  Gampaign 
of  t>©derick,  1756,— VI.  1737.-VIL  175.S.-V11I.  HiW.-IX.  17«0.-X.  ITOI.-XL  Peace 
of  17«3.-»Xll.  Al  lliUir>'  characler  of  Frederick Page  43^—433. 

5k  StaU  ttf  Kurvpe,  The  jfawrtcaa  AeeoJutiM.— I.  GeaerS  peace  Id  Europe.— IT.  Fraofe.— 
111.  KuMm.—lV.  DiMnembermmitofPulatid.— V.  SbOeof  parties  in  £oglaiii.—VI.  Americaa 
Tuxa.ion.— VII.  Opening  oi  the  wnr  with  the  Coloaice.— VIII.  European  relations  with 
Eugiaud.- IX.  Alliance  Ixstween  France  and  the  American  States.— X.  Wsr  between  France 
and  Kni(luii(i.— XI.  Wur  belweca  Spain  and  England.- XII.  Armed  Neutmlity  against  Ens* 
land.— X 111.  Rupture  between  Eugloud  and  HolUuid.— XLV.  War  in  the  East  Indies.— XV. 
Trtaty  of  17*«i.— X  VI.  General  Treaty  of  I7«3 ftiye  433-449. 

ft.  The  FVencA  Rrcoiution  :  17rD— 1600.— I.  Demooratio  spirit.— II.  Louis  XVI.— HI.  Flnaaaial 
difficuilies.— IV.  Tlie  Siate»-Gen«nil.'V.  Revolutionary  state  of  Paris.— VI.  Great  political 
changes.— Vli.  Famine  and  mobs.— Vlf  I.  Nuw  ConsUiutlon.— IX.  Manhalllns  of  parties.— 
X.  Tne  Emigrant  Nobility.— XI.  Attempted  escape  of  the  Royal  Family.— XII.  War  d^ 
elitred  against  Austria.— XIII.  Masaaoe  of  the  10th  of  August.— XIV.  Masaaere  of  Sep- 
tember.— XV.  Trial  and  execution  of  Louis  XVL— XVL  Fall  of  the  Girondists— XV If. 
The  Ueigti  of  Terror.— XVIII  Triumph  of  Infidelity.— XIX.  Fall  of  the  Dantonlsts— XX. 
Wur  against  Europe.- XXi.  insurrection  of  La  Vendee.— XXIL  Insurrection  in  tb€  south 
of  France.— XX ill.  Fail  of  Robespierre,  and  end  of  the  reign  of  Terror.— XXIV.  The  Engi- 
lish  vicioriouii  at  iViX,  and  the  French  on  land.— XXV.  Second  partition  of  Poland.— XXVL 
Third  partition  of  Poland- i<96.  XX VU.  UissoluUon  of  the  coalition  against  Franca.-* 
XXVlll.  New  Consiitutum.— XXIX.  L.surrecUon  in  Paris.— 1796.  XXX.  Invasion  of  G*^r- 
many. -XXXI.  The  Ar:ny  of  Italy.— XXX II.  Disturbances  in  England.- 1797!  XXXIII. 
Napoleon'ri  Ausiriaii  Campaign.— XXXiV.  Treaty  of  Campo  Formlo.— XXXV.  EsiabUsh- 
meni  of  Ai Hilary  Deapoiism  in  France —1798.  XXX VL  Preparations  for  the  inTaslon  of 
England.— XXX  Vll.  Expedition  to  Egypt.-XXXVIU.  Battle  of  the  Pyramids.-XXXfX. 
Battle  of  (he  Nile.— 17^M).  XL.  Syrian  Expedition.— XLL  Siege  of  Acre.— XLII.  Battle  of 
Mount  I^bor.—XLIU.  Battle  of  Aboukir.—XLIV.  Overthrow  of  the  Dlrectonr.—XLV.  Nft* 
poleon  FU^  Consul Pagf  44S— 479. 


.     CHAPTEK   VI. 

THE   NINETEENTH   OENTUET. 

Section  L— Th«  W^ahs  or  Namlkom  :  1800—1815. 
1.  EvenUoftheyearl80a  Warwith  Austria.— II.  Events  of  1801.— IIL  Events  of  lf«3LttM7ear 
of  peace.— IV.  Ri'newai  of  the  war,  1803.— V.  Events  of  1804.  Napoleon  Emperor.— VI.  1805, 
Coali  Uon  against  France.  Battle  of  A  usterlits.- V II.  1806,  Louis  Napoleon  king  of  Holland. 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  BatUee  of  Jena  and  AueratadU— VIIL  1807,  Treaty  of  TUsiU— 
IX.  It^  Events  in  ^pain.  Beginuing  of  the  Peninsular  War.— X.  I8U0,  War  with  Austria. 
BatUe  oi  Wagram.  Nupoleon^s  divorce  from  Josephine.— XI.  J810,  Busaco  and  Torres 
Vedms.— XII.  IHII,  Badajoz  and  Albnera.-Xlll.  im2,  Russian  Campaign.  Smolensko— 
Borodino —Moscow.  American  War.— XIV.  1813,  General  coalition  agvdnst  Napoleon. 
Lutzoii— Bautzen— I^eipsic— XV.  1814,  Capitulation  of  Paris.  Abdication  of  Napoleon.— 
XVI.  1815,  Napoleon's  return  fl-om  Elba.    Battlcof  Waterloo Page  475—503. 

SccTioN  11.— From  the  Faul  or  Napoleoh  to  the  pkbsbmt  time. 

1.  nu  Period  of  Peace :  1815— 1820.— I.  Treaties  of  1815.-11.  England.— IIL  France 

Page  50«-n5ii. 

8.  Revolutiong  tn   Spain,  PertugoL  JVbpfes,  Pi*dm»nL,  Grwes,  Franca,  Balgimn^  a$td  Po> 

Und:   ltiSO-1831 .?.T7 Page 5lt-SS0. 

S.  Enflish  ReformM.  French  Revolution  of  1848.  Revolution  m  tka  Oerman  SXatot,  Prwtna, 
and  Jiustria,  Revolution  in  Italy.  Hungarian  IVar»  Ueurvatiau  of  Louis  M'apolo^n : 
1831—185'.' Page  550-509. 

GENERAL  GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  HISTORICAL  VIEWS,  ILLUSTRATED 
BY  THE  FOLLOWING  MAPS. 


1.  Ancient  Greece 5S4 

Sl  At.iens  anil  its  Harbors 506 

3.  Islands  of  the  iEgean  Sea 568 

4.  Asia  Minor 570 

5.  Persian  Empire ."i?? 

0.  Palestine 574 

7.  Turkey  in  Europe 576 

a  Ancient  Italy 578 

9.  Romah  Empire 580 


10.  Ancient  Rome 589 

U.  Chart  of  the  World 584 

13.  BatUe  Grounds  of  Napoleon,  Ace 560 

13.  FranocT  Spain,  and  Portugal 568 

14.  Swirzeriaiid,  DeiiroRrtc,  &c 500 

1.5.  NctherlandH,  (Holland  and  Belgium)..  SH 

16.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 504 

17.  Central  Europe 59*i 

18.  United  SUtes  of  America. S98 


HOTS.    For  the  ^  indaK  to  tha  Geographical  and  Historical  Notas*'  •••  «id  of  tU  toIuum^ 


PART   I. 
ANCIENT    HISTOBT. 


CHAPTEB   I. 


THE  EARLY  AQES  OF  THE  WORLD,  PRIOR  TO  THE  COMMENCE- 
KENT  OP  GRECIAN  HISTORY. 


AH ALYBI&  1.  Tn  Crbatiov.  Tbe  eartli  a  ohaolle  man.  Oraatloii  of  Ught 
of  land  and  water.— 2.  Vegetable  life.  The  heavenly  bodies.  Animal  life.--^  God's  Ueaiiv 
en  faia  wofka.  Olvatloa  of  man.  Dominion  given  to  Um.  Inititution  of  tbe  sabbath.— 4.  Ay- 
TBavLUTiAN  HuTORT.  The  ■at^Jeets  treated  oL-^  The  earth  tmmedialely  after  the  deliigia. 
The  btheritanee  given  to  Noah  and  Us  eliildrear>4k  The  building  of  Babel.  [Eaphratee.  Geo- 
ffapfalGal  and  Uslorieal  t4»onnt  of  the  surromiding  eoontiy.]  ConAiaion  of  tonguea,  and  dis- 
yenkm  cf  tbe  hvnan  ftarilj.— 7.  ftqipoaed  directions  taken  by  Noah  and  his  soim.~8.  Eenv- 
uji  HiaToav.  His'raim,  the  fbonder  of  the  Egyptian  nation.  [Eigypt*]  The  floveramanft 
ealabiiahed  by  hhn.  Sabverted  by  M^nes,  9M0  B.  C—9,  Aceoonts  given  by  Herod'  otaa,  Jos6- 
jjibam,  and  others.  [Memphis  and  Thebes.  DesoHptlon  of.]  Thditlons  reflating  to  M«nea. 
HIa  great  eelebitty.  [The  NUe.]— 10.  Egyptian  history  from  M^nes  to  Abiahans,  Tbe  erectkm 
of  tlw  Egyptian  pyramids.  [Description  of  them.]  Bvidenoee  of  Egyptian  cIviUzatioa  durlag 
Ihetlmeor  Abraham^-11.  The  Shepherd  Kings  in  Lower  Egypt.  Their  final  expulsion,  1900 
B.  a  Joseph,  governor  of  Egypt  [Goehen.]  CDmmeneement  of  Grecian  histoiy.-*lSL  Acu«* 
TIC  HuTORT.  [Assyria.  Nineveh.]  Ashor  and  Nimrod.  [Babylon.]  Ihe  worship  of  Nim* 
nd^iai  Conflietfaig  aeoomts  of  Ninas.  Assyria  and  Babylon  daring  his  reign,  and  that  of  hia 
■■cesasoi^R  Aoooont  of  SemiramlB.  Her  coaqwesti^  kc  pndna  B.]  Tbe  hiatoiy  of  Aaqp- 
Ha  snbaeqaeDt  to  the  reign  of  Sendr'amis. 

1.  The  luAtoTj  of  the  world  which  we  inhabit  oommenoes  with 
tibe  first  act  of  creation,  when,  in  the  language  of  Moses, 

the  earliest  sacred  historian,  "  God  created  the  heavens  ^  ^i'**^* 
and  tbe  earth."  We  are  told  that  the  earth  was  ''  with- 
out form,  and  vold'^ — a  shapeless,  chaotic^  mass,  shrouded  in  a  man- 
tle of  darkness.  But  ^  Ood  said,  let  there  be  light;  and  there  was 
B^t"  At  the  command  of  the  same  infinite  power  the  waters  rolled 
together  into  their  appointed  places,  forming  seas  and  oceans ;  and 
the  dry  land  appeared. 

2.  Then  the  mysteries  of  vegetable  life  began  to  start  into  being  f 
beantffol  shrabs  and  flowers  adorned  the  fields,  lofty  trees  waved  in 
the  forests,  and  herbs  and  grasses  covered  thip  grotfnd  with  verdure. 


12  AKCIBBT  HIBTX>BT.  [PisrL 

The  stars,  those  gems  of  erening,  shone  forth  in  tiie  sky ;  and  two 
greater  li^ts  were  set  in  the  firmament|  to  diyide  the  day  from  the 
ni^^t,  and  to  be  "  fmr  signs,  and  for  seasons,  and  for  days  and  for 
.years."  Then  the  finny  tribes  sported  in  "  the  waters  of  the  seas," 
the  birds  of  heavoi  filled  tke  air  with  Iheir  melody,  and  the  earth 
brought  forth  abundantly  ''  oattle  and  creeping  things,"  and  ''  erery 
living  erealnre  after  its  kind." 

3.  And  when  the  Almighty  architect  looked  upon  the  objects  of 
oreation,  he  saw  that  <<  all  were  good,"  and  he  blessed  the  works  of 
his  hands.  Then  he  "  created  man*  in  his  own  image ;"  in.,  the  like- 
ness of  Qod,  "male  and  fomale  created  he  them;"  and  he  gave 
them  "  domini<m  over  the  fl&  of  the  sea,  and  over  the  fowl  of  the 
air,  and  over  eyery  living  thing  that  moveth  upon  the  earth."  This 
was  the  last  great  act  of  creation,  and  thvs  God  ended  the  work 
which  he  had  made ;  and  having  rested  from  his  labors,  he  sanctified 
a  sabbath  or  day  oi  rest,  ever  to  be  kept  holy,  in  gratefiil  remem- 
brance of  Him  who  made  all  things,  and  who  bestows  upon  man  ail 
the  blessings  whic^  he  enjoys. 

4.  The  only  history  of  the  human  feunily  from  the  creati(»i  of 
n.  AzncDi-  Adam  to  the  time  of  the  deluge,^  a  period  of  more  than 
tVTiAwms-    two  tiloosand  years,  is  contained  in  the  first  six  ohap- 

^^^'  ters  of  the  book  of  Genesis,  supposed  to  have  been  iprritten 
by  Moses  more  than  fourteen  hundred  years  after  the  flood.  The 
fi^l  of  our  first  parents  from  a  state  of  innocence  and  purity,  the 
transgression  of  Gain  and  the  death  of  Abel,  together  with  a  gen- 
ealogy  of  the  patriarchs,  and  an  account  of  the  exceeding  wicked- 
ness of  mankind,  are  the  principal  subjects  treated  of  in  the  brief 
history  of  the  antediluvian  world. 

5.  When  Noah  and  his  family  came  forth  from  the  ark,  after  the 
deluge  had  subsided,  the  earth  was  again  a  barren  waste ;  for  the 
waters  had  prevailed  exceedingly,  so  that  the  hill-tops  and  the  moun- 
tains were  covered ;  and  every  fowl,  and  beast,  and  creeping  thing 
and  every  man  that  had  been  left  exposed  to  the  raging  flood,  had 
been  destroyed  from  the  earth.  Noah  only  remained  alivte,  and 
they  that  had  been  saved  with  him  in  the  ark ;  and  to  him,  and  his 
three  sons,  whose  names  were  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japheth,  tlie  whole 
earth  was  now  given  for  an  inheritance. 

6.  About  two  hundred  years  after  the  flood,  we  find  the  sens  of 
Noah  and  their  descendants,  or  many  of  them,  assembled  on  the 


ObmrL]  SASLYAGB9.  18* 

iMika  of  ike  Bnphnttes,'  in  a  region  fsaHed  tke  *«Ii«id  <^  8lmMr/* 
aiid  there  beginning  to  boild  a  dty, — ^together  with  a  tower,  whoae 
iopy  ta^  boasted,  dioold  reach  unto  heaven.  But  the  Lord  oune 
down  to  see  the  dtj  and  the  tower  whidi  the  ohildren  of  mea  in 
itmr  pride  and  impiety  were  boilding ;  and  he  there  confotmded  the 
language  of  the  woricmen,  that  th^  might  not  vnderstand  one  an- 
other ;  and  ihoB  the  bnildhig  of  the  tower,  winch  waa  called  Babel, 
was  abandoned,  and  the  people  were  soattored  abroad  over  the  whole 
earth. 

7.  It  b  generally  supposed  that  Noah  himself,  after  this  event, 
joomeyed  eastward,  and  fbtmded  the  empire  of  Ohina;  that  Shem 
was  the  fitiher  of  the  nations  of  &)nthem  Asia;  that  Httn  peopled 
Bgypt;  and  ihat  the  desoendants  of  Japheth  moated  westward 
and  settled  m  the  countries  of  Enri^e,  or,  as  they  ara  called  m 
Scriptore,  the  *'  Isles  of  the  Gentiles." 

8.  Soon  after  the  dispersion  of  mankind  from  Babel,  it  is  supposed 
that  Mifl'raim,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ham,  journeyed  into 

Egypt,"  where  he  became  the  founder  of  the  most  ancient  "^J^^^^ 
and  renowned  naticm  of  antiquity.     The  govemmeot  es- 
tablished by  him  is  believed  to  have  been  that  of  an  aristocratic 

L  Tlie  EMfkratm,  jhe  act  oowidwable  riry  of  W«tem  Aria,  hM  its  MvroM  liitU»talftl» 
lands  of  Anneoia,  about  nlneigr  mUea  fkom  Ibe  lomh-aaatcm  boidara  of  tte  Btoek  Sea.  like 
aooitea  of  tlie  TXrru  vt  ia  (b«  Mone  ragioiH  Imt  flurtber  aotttlL  Iha^anMaldlreettoikof  both 
iiPBwtoaoiitbaaiir»tolhair<ti»noeiatoUiaheaAof  tboPwriaaOalt  (Sm  .W<v,  p.  >&.)  8o 
lata  aa  Mia  age  of  Ahgandar  ttia  Cwa^  each  of  Ihaae  Htow  pwaerrad  a  lapaiatB  ocmwe  to  tba 
lea,  bat  not  long  aaertbay  baeaoie  vnttad  aboat  eighty  mllea  ftom  ikelr  monta,  ttorn  whkdt 
poiatllwybaiTeeverriiiaaooiitiBiiadtoflowiB  a  riagleatNam.  Both  liven  are  nafigable  a 
oenridflrtbla  ilriannT,— fririh  have  tbefar  ragolar  taiundationa;  rfring  tvtoa  a  fear-AM  ta  Be* 
OBoibai;  to  eoaaeqaenea  of  the  anttimnal  laiitt;  and  next  ilroin  Marah  titt  June,  owfog  lo  the 
iMltfawaftliemiMinlalnanowB.  The  Seriptarea  pline  the  Qtfdea  of  £deb  on  the  bank*  of  tae 
n^liiatui,  birt  the  exnet  rite  to  tmlaown. 

We  lean  ttetaooB  after  the  dehiBe,  the  ooontry  in  the  Ttclnitgr  of  the  tiro  rirtn  Ttgria  and 
Eophxatai,  where  stood  the  tower  of  Babal«  was  knoWn  as  the  Ltuui  of  Skiiur:  aaerwanis  the 
enpire  of  AM^riaor  Babjkm  Aoartahed  hete;  and  still  later,  the  toixntrjr  between  the  two 
tfreis  was  esUed  by  the  andent  GreekSi  Mmtp^Umia,-^  oompoand  of  two  Greek  words, 
(aweceand  fwloaHWi)  rig^Qrins  ^between  the  riTen."  In  andent  timea  the  banks  of  both 
rtreiB  wars  studded  with  dties  of  the  trst  rank.  On  the  eastern  beidc  of  the  TIgrti  Stood 
Nineveh;  and  oo  both  rides  of  the  Buphralea  stood  the  mighty  Babylon,  *^tbe  glory  of  Unr 
doBH,"  and  <*lhe  beanly  of  the  GhaUee>s  eBBeeaeBey."  Lower  Mesopotamhs  both  above  and 
below  Babykmy  was  anaienOyhiterseetad  by  QanatoUererydheQllon,  many  of  which  sen  sttU 
be  tiaead;  «id  some  of  theoi  eould  eerily  be  restored  to  their  original  eonditlon.    (Sm 

8.  Aaelsnt  BevpT,  aalled  by  the  Hsbrewa  JMu'reAa,  M7  be  divfaied  tato  two  principal  per* 
tions;  Upper  or  Sooikhemegypt,  of  Which  Thebes  waatbe  capital,  and  Lower  i^gypt,  whoaa 
capital  WM  Memphis.  That  portion  of  Lower  Egypt  embrsced  wttbtai  the  months  or  oodets  of 
the  MUs^  the  Oieeks  allarwards  esBsd  the  Dtlu,  from  its  resemblanoe  to  the  Ibim  of  the 
Omsk  letter  of  that  namew<A)  Aaalapt  ggypt  prebably  embraced  aB  of  the  present  »nWa» 
aadpsrhapsapwittfAbarsriBiib  Modsn  JlQVl  to  kssadad  ^  tha  aorih  brU 


•  u  AKciKirr  HisToar. 

primihood,  whoie  moaben  w«retlie  pn^nma  of  tli«  arts  and  &«««»««», 
Mid  it  18  supposed  that  tibe  nation  was  divided  into  three  distinoi 
olaasesy— the  priests,  the  military,  and  the  people ;— the  two  farmer 
holding  the  latter  and  most  nnmerons  body  in  sabjection.  After 
this  goremment  had  existed  nearly  two  oentnries,  mder  mlers  yHumm 
names  haye  perished,  M^es,  a  military  diieftain,  is  sapposed  to 
have  sabverted  the  anoient  sacerdotal  de^otism,  and  to  have  estab- 
lished the  first  civil  monarchy,  about  2400  years  before  the  Ohristian 
era.  M6nes  was  the  first  Fharaohj  a  name  common  to  all  the  kin^ 
of  Egypt 

9.  Upon  the  authority  of  Herod'  otos^  and  Jos^phus,*  to  the  first 
king,  M6ne6,  is  attributed  the  founding  of  Memphis,*  probably  the 
most  anoient  city  in  Egypt  Other  writers  ascribe  to  him  the  build- 
ing of  Thebes*  aJso ;  but  some  suppose  that  Thebes  was  built  many 

mail,  oa  the  east  by  the  lathmoB  of  San  and  the  Bed  Sea,  on  the  sooth  by  Nubia,  and  on  t]|e 
weat  by  the  Great  Desert  and  the  province  of  Barca. 

The  eolUTated  portion  of  Egypt,  embraced  mosUy  within  a  nairoir  valley  of  flom  Sto  to 
twenty  miles  in  width,  ia  indebted  wholly  to  the  annual  inundationa  of  the  Nile  for  iU  IbrtiUty ; 
and  without  them,  would  soon  become  a  bairen  waste.  T1m»  river  begins  to  swell,  In  its  higlier 
parta,  in  April ;  but  at  the  Delta  no  increase  ooema  unUl  the  beginning  of  Jane.  Ita  greatest 
height  there  ia  in  September,  when  the  Delta  la  atanost  entirely  under  water.  By  the  end  of 
November  the  waters  leave  the  land  altogether,  having  deposited  a  rich  aUuviuni.  Then  the 
ESgyptian  spring  commeneea,  at  a  season  corresponding  to  our  winter,  whan  the  whole  eounliy, 
oovered  with  a  vivid  green,  bears  the  aspect  of  a  frnitAd  garden.   (JHBf,f.l5.) 

1.  Herpd' •<«»— the  earlieat  of  the  Greek  hlatorians:  bom  484  B.  G. 

&  JiM^AiM— a  cetobrated  Jewish  historian:  bom  at  Jemaalem,  A.  D.  37. 

3.  MemfhiB,  a  fiunous  city  of  Egypt,  whose  origin  dates  beyond  the  period  of  anOentte  huh 
tory,  is  sapposed  to  have  stood  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  flfleen  miles  sooth  fhHn 
the  apex  of  the  Deltar-the  point  whence  the  waters  of  the  river  diverge  to  eater  the  sea  by 
dlifereni  ohannwin.  But  fbw  reUca  of  Ita  magnifloimce  now  ooenpy  the  ground  where  the  eUf 
once  stood,  the  materials  having  been  mostly  removed  fbr  the  building  of  modem  ediflces.  At 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  Memphis  vraa  the  seoon^  eKy  In  Qgypt,  and  next  in  importoilBce  to 
Aleaandria,  the  capital;  but  ita  detay  had  already  begun.  Even  In  the  twelfth  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  after  the  lapse  of  four  thousand  years  fkom  ita  origin,  It  Is  described  by  an  Orli^ 
tal  writer  as  oontainlng  ^  works  so  ironderAiI  that  they  cenfonnd  even  a  reOecthig  mind,  and 
aaeh  aa  the  moat  eloquent  would  not  be  able  to  deacribe."   (M^  p,  IS.) 

4.  The  ruimrof  7%*be»,  *^thb  capital  of  a  by-gone  world,**  are  sttnatod  in  (he  narrow  valley 
of  the  Nile,  In  Upper  Egypt,  extending  about  seven  mUes  along  both  banks  of  the  river.  Here 
•re  stin  to  be  aeen  magnlfloent  rains  of  temples,  palaoea,  ookjasal  statues,  obettsks,  and  lomba, 
which  atteat  the  esBoeeding  wealth  and  power  of  the  eariy  ESgyptiana.  Hie  ^ty  is  supposed  to 
have  attained  ita  greatest  splendor  about  flfteen  hundred  years  before  the  Ghiistlan  era.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  river  the  principal  ndna  are  thoee  of  Osraae  and  Loxor,  about  a  mile  and  a 
htif  apaii.  Among  the  former  are  the  remaina  of  a  temple  dedicated  to  Ammon,  the  Jupiter 
of  the  ESgyptiaoa,  covering  more  than  nine  aerea  of  ground.  A  laige  portion  of  this  stopendoua 
structure  is  still  standing.  The  principal  ftont  to  (his  building  Is  368  feet  in  length,  and  148  foot 
in  height,  with  a  door-way  in  the  mkldle  64  foet  high.  One  of  the  halla  in  this  vast  building 
ooven  an  area  of  more  than  an  acre  and  a  quarter;  and  ita  rooi;  eonalsttng  of  enormons  slabs 
of  stone,  has  been  supported  by  134  huge  columns.  Hie  roof  of  what  is  supposed  to  have  been 
tM  sanctnary,  or  pboe  flrom  which  the  orades  wera  delivered,  is  composed  of  three  blocks  of 
gnaits^  pahited  with  doalera  of  gltt  stars  en  a  blve  groond.   The  eotiaaoe  to  this  room  wae 

llVfewaoMe<dMttakB,«MhieftetUglV<hrar«rwhtahaMMfW8itfidl^  MUtwor 


CittP.L] 


SABLT  AGKBL 


15 


oentanes  later.  M^nes  appears  to  have  been  oooopied,  dturing  mosl 
of  his  reign,  in  wars  with  foreign  naticms  to  us  unknown.  Aooordlif 
to  namerons  traditions,  reeorded  in  later  ages,  he  also  coltiyated  the 
arts  of  peace ;  he  protected  religion  and  the  priesthood,  and  erected 
temples ;  he  built  walls  of  defence  on  the  frontier  oi  his  kingdom— 
and  he  dog  numerous  canals,  and  oonstructed  dikes,  both  to  draw  off 


tfstote 

On«ndlif 


xir  iLLimsATrTs  or  iarlt  hbtoat. 

ft  mngnltlrwit  palace,  sboot  800  teet  In  lenglli  bySOOhiwiddk 
of  fli6doonriyta»Mlo«ilflaine,iiiMsarttiff44fe0tfhMiitlMgrMiiMl.   FNmlinf 
irav  two  oMllik%  eMh  IbiiMd  or  a  lin^  bloek  of  fed  grudte,  flO  fe«t  In  be^ 
soDtptnrad.   A  fe«r  jmn  a«D  cm  of  Uiase  obelMa  wu  taken  down,  and  ettn* 
eocpenM^  to  the  city  of  Paria,  wlwre  H  liaa*l>eeB  ereeted  In  (he  Place  de  ki  Ooiv 
the  ndm  on  the  wett  tide  of  the  itrer,  at'Medtaet  Aboo,  are  two  Mtdnir  cokMad 
each  alMraiW  feet  tn  height,  aaiHwrtedhjpedettelB  of  cerraapondtegdInieDitoiift    On 
•  tfdeoTthe  river.  In  Ae  moantalihiwige  thirt  Mai*  ttacTalley,  aad  weatwmd  eflM 
le  the  Amow  aataaoiiAa^  or  hwtelflnoea  or  a»  aaele 
ioilAioek.    iJUf,p,i$^ 


veyed,  et  great 


16  '  ANOXEBIT  Bm(»tT.  (Piltt  L 

the  waters  of  the  Nile'  for  eBriokag  the  odtiTated  Isncbs  and  to 
frovont  inmidfttioD&  His  name  is  oomnum  in  anoient  rooords,  whflo 
many  subsequent  montfcfas  of  Egypt  h«re  been  forgotten.  Monn- 
ments  still  exist  wlii)oli  attest  the  veneration  in  iriiich  he  was  hdid 
by  his  posterity. 

10.  From  the  time  of  Mtees  nniiil  about  the  2lBt  eentory  beftM 
Christ,  the  period  when  Abnduun  is  snpposed  to  hate  risited  Egypt,* 
little  is  known  of  Egyptian  history.  It  appears,  however,  from 
hieroglyphic  iosoriptions,  first  interpreted  in  the  preset  oentnry,  and 
oorroborated  by  traditions  and  some  vagne  historic  records,  that  the 
greatest  Egyptian  pyramids*  were  erected  three  or  fonr  hundred 
years  before  the  time  of  Abraham,  and  eight  or  nine  hundred  years 
before  the  era  of  Moses, — showing  a  truly  astonishing  degree  of 
power  and  grandeur  attained  by  the  Egyptian  monarchy  more  than 
four  thousand  years  ago.     When  Abraham  visited  Egypt  he  was  re- 

1.  Tlie  MU9^  a  kxge  rirer  ofeuteni  AfHca,  Is  formed  by  Uie  Jnnctfon  of  the  Wfalte  Rhrer  aad 
the  Blue  Rirer  In  tlM  ooviUy  of  Suuuar,  whence  tbe  nrited  streun  Sows  northwird,  In  a  yery 
winding  ooorae,  through  Nubia  and  E^ypt,  and  enters  the  Meditttnaeeii  throuSh  two  aioattiti 
those  of  Eosetta  and  DamleUa,  the  former  or  most  westerly  of  whldi  Ins  a  width  of  about  1800 
ftet;  aad  the  tauter  of  about  900.  The  Boeetta  ch^nnd  has  a  depth  of  abMt  Are  feet  In  the  dty 
season,  and  the  Damletta  channel  of  set«n  or  eight  feet  when  tbe  river  la  lowest.  Formeriythe 
Nile  entered  the  sea  by  Wfren  diflbrsnt  channels,  several  of  which  still  ocoasionally  serve  f» 
canals,  and  purposes  of  irrigation.  During  tbe  last  thirteen  hundred  miles  of  Its  coone,  the 
NUe  leceives  no  tribatafy  on  either  side.  The  Wkiu  river,  generally  regarded  as  the  true  Nile, 
aboot  whoee  source  no  satisflietoiy  iowwledge  has  yet  been  obttfned.  Is  supposed  to  hare  Us 
rise  in  the  bighlaMa  of  Oentxal  Africa,  north  of  the  Equator.    ( JMap,  p.  15.) 

S.  Thepyroau^  of  Egypt  are  rest  artificial  straetures,  moA  of  them  of  stone,  aeatlered  at 
irregular  inlervals  along  the  western  valley  of  the  Nile  from  Heroe,  (Ifer-o^e)  to  modem 
Nubia,  to  the  stte  of  andeotHeB^is  near  Oaiio.<iU-ro.)  The  laiysl,  best  known,  and  mort 
celebrated,  are  the  three  pyrunids  of  Ghizeh,  situated  on  «  platform  of  rock  about  150  fbet 
above  the  lerel  of  the  sunooDding  desert,  near  the  ruins  of  Memphis,  seven  or  eight  miles 
south-west  frwm  Cairo.  The  laigest  of  these,  the  flimOuspyMinid  of  Cheops,  Is  a  gigantic  strao- 
tne,  the  base  of  which  covers  a  suilhce  of  about  eleven  acres.  The  sides  of  the  base  oorre- 
spond  in  direction  with  tbe  four  cardinal  poinia,  and  each  measures,  ai  the  foundation,  746  feet. 
The  perpendicular  height  is  about  480  foet,  whkh  ls43  foet  0  Inches  higher  than  St.  Peters  at 
Rome,  the  lofUesfc  edifloe  of  modem  times.  This  hitge  Ihbrlc  oonslsts  of  two  hundred  and  rix 
layers  of  vast  blocks  of  stone,  rising  above  each  other  in  -the  form  of  steps,  the  thickness  of 
which  diminishes  aa  the  height  of  the  pyramid  increases,  the  lower  layers  being  neariy  five  Mt 
In  thldOMsa,  and  the  1^H;Mr  ones  aboui  eighteen  teebes.  The  aiwialt  of  the  pyraasld  nppsaiu 
to  haTO  been,  originally,  a  IctoI  platform,  sixteen  or  eighteen  foet  square.  JfVlthin  this  pyramid 
several  chambers  baTe  been  dlscoyered,  lined  with  Immense  slabs  of  granite,  which  must  haye 
bean  eoov^yed  thhber  from  a  great  distanee  op  Um  Hllei  Tbe  seoond  pynald  at  GMaA  is 
eoaledorer  with  poUahed  stone  140  foet  downwards  from  tbe  auamrit,  theniby  lettovtag  tha 
faMquaUtieeoceaBloned  by  the  steps,  and  rsBdering  the  SBxfooesueoft  aad  UBlfo^  Herod'e» 
tas  states,  from  infoimatlon  derived  from  (he  Egyptian  pricals,  that  one  hmidnd  thoiaand  man 
were  employed  twelify  yean  in  coifctmclir^  tbe  graact  pyramid  of  Ohteh,  aad  that  tan  yean 
had  been  apent,  previoi^,  in  qoairying  thesioaes  and  oonwying  them  to  ttteplaea.  The  re* 
maintaig  pyramUs  of  Egypt  eorNSpcadv  in  their  general  ehameter,  with  the  one  deaorfbod,  wtth 
jhoaaoepUontlmt several  of  them  am  uasiiliiiulBil  of  aaa^wnit  brtefc.  Nor 
mm  «xlBlt that tba pyamhia  w«e  daatpwa  aatha bartalt>hnoa a.  «■«». 

a.  son  B.  G. 


Our.1]  £ARIiTA0E8.  IT 

Mved  mA  the  lidflpiidity  And  lcbdn«08  beoeming  a  d^iliied  Aiitiaft ; 
flod  irhen  he  left  Egypt,  to  return  to  his  own  country,  the  ruiinf 
monarch  dismuaed  him  and  all  hia  people,  "  rich  in  oattlci  in  silver, 
and  in  gold." 

1 1.  Nearly  a  hundred  years  before  the  time  of  Abraham's  yisit  to 
Egypt,  Lower  Egypt  had  been  invaded  and  subdued*  by  the  Hyo'  sofl^ 
or  Shepherd  Kings,  a  roving  people  from  the  eastern  shores  of  the. 
Mediterranean, — ^probably  the  same  that  were  known,  i^t  a  later 
period,  in  sacred  history,  as  the  Philistines,  and  still  later  as  the 
Phconicians.  Kings  of  this  race  continued  to  rule  over  Lower  Egypt 
goring  a  period  of  260  years,  but  they  were  jSnally  expelled,'*  and 
driven  back  to  their  original  seats  in  Asia.  During  their  dominion, 
Upper  Egypt,  with  Thebes  its  capital,  appears  to  have  remamed 
under  the  government  of  the  native  Egyptians.  A  few  years  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Shepherd  Kings,  Joseph  was  appointed''  governor 
or  regent  of  Egypt,  under  one  of  the  Pharaohs ;  and  the  femily  of 
Jacob  was  settled*^  in  the  land  of  Ooshen.^  K  was  during  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  that  we  date  the  commencement  of 
Grecian  history,  with  the  supposed  founding  of  Argos  by  In'  achus^ 
1856  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

12.  During  the  early  period  of  Egyptian  histqry  which  we  have 
described,  kingdoms  arose  and  mighty  cities  were  found- 
ed in  those  regions  of  Asia  first  peopled  by  the  iteme-   ^  *"*•"" 
diate  descendants  of  Noah.      After  the  dispersion  of 
mankind  from  Babel,  Ashur,  one  of  the  sons  of  Shem,  remained  in 
the  vicinity  of  that  place;   and  by  many  he  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  die  Assyrian  empire,'  and  the  builder  of  Nineveh.'    But 

L  "Ibe  land  or  (?0«JUbi  lay  along  the  mort  Msterly  branch  of  the  NQc^  and  on  the  eaatiidt 
or  U ;  for  it  Is  oTident  that  at  the  time  of  the  £xode  the  laraelitea  did  not  ctms  the  Nile.  (Hale^a 
Analjriia of  Cabionologyy  i.  374.)  ^''Die  *land  of  Geaben*  vaa  between  Efffpi  and  Ganaan^aoi 
ftr  from  ttMlsttunna  of  Sttex»  on  the  eastern  tide  of  the  Nile."  {S«eJliap,p.li^  {Coekajfas^s 
HisL  •/  tk0  J«w«,  ^  7.) 

8l  The  eaiiy  ptOTinoe  or  kingdom  of  Assyilu  is  uaoally  considered  as  having  been  on  the 
eaaten  bank  of  the  rirer  Tlgri^  having  mnereh  for  its  capital.  But  It  is  probable  that  both 
HhiPTdi  and  Babylon  beloi^Bd  to  the  early  As^an  empire^  and  that  these  two  dtlea  were  at 
Hmea  the  upltals  of  separate  monarchies,  and  at  Umae  onited  under  one  government,  whoso 
tenitoiles  were  ever  «^'*""c*»*g  by  conquest,  and  by  slUancee  with  sarTounding  tribes  or  nations. 

ai  The  dty  otjfimevek  is  sappoeed  to  have  stood  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  the 
nodem  dty  of  MosoL  («««  Map,  p,  15.)  Ito  site  was  protobly  idenUcal  with  that  of  the  pro- 
aent  smafl  village  ofNania,  and  what  is  called  the  ^tomb  of  Jonah ;"  which  areaunroonded  by 
vast  heape  of  minsy  and  vestiges  of  monnds,  flt>m  which  bricks  and  pieces  of  gypanm  are  dog 
Oiit»  wtth  Inscriptions  ctoady  rewenshMiig  those  AhuvI  among  the  rulna  of  Babylon. 

or  the  eariy  history  of  Nineveh  tttUe  is  known.  Some  eariy  writ^  describe  It  aa  largw  thfli 
Bahyloo;  butUtUe  dupMeooowin  be  placed  on  their  staHmeata    tt  la  bettered, hodrasn^ 

•.8inB.c.  b.  itMBa       •^    •.  nflanQ.  d.'iMiaa 

2 


18  AKdESrr  HIBTO&T.  [Put  I 

others'  ascribe  this  honor  to  Nimrod,  a  grandson  of  Ham,  who,  as  thejr 
suppose,  haring  obtained  possession  of  the  provinces  of  Ashvr,  baih 
N  ineveh,  and  encompassing  Babel  with  walls,  8«d  rebuilding  the  desert- 
ed city,  made  it  the  capital  of  his  empire,  under  the  name  of  Babylon,' 

Out  the  walls  fndoded,  besides  the  bondings  of  the  dty,  a  large  extent  ofirdl-calUTaled  ga^ 
dens  and  pasture  grooads.  In  the  ninth  century  berofdGbrlal,tt  was  deseiibed  by  the  propbet 
Jonah  as  **an  exceeding  great  city  of  three  d«ys*  Jouraey,"  and  as  containing  **Riore  than  sbc 
•core  thonaand  persons  that  ooald  not  distinguish  between  their  right  hand  and  their  left."  II 
Is  generally  belieTed  that  the  expression  here  need  denoted  tkOirm^  aod  that  the  entire  pop«- 
lotion  of  the  city  numlienxi  seven  or  eight  hundred  thousand  souls. 

mneveh  was  a  city  ot  great  commercial  importance.  The  prophet  Naham  thus  addresaaa 
her :  "Thou  hast  multiplied  thy  merchants  above  the  atari  of  heaTen."  (lli.  l<k)  Nineveh  wap 
besieged  and  taken  by  Aibaces  the  Mede,  in  the  eighth  oentuiy  befi>re  Christ;  and  In  the  year 
613  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ahasuerus,  or  Cyaxares,  king  of  Media,  who  took  great  *<  spoil  of 
itflTer  and  gold,  and  none  end  of  the  store  and  glory,  out  of  all  her  pleasant  (hmlture,**  making 
her  « empty,  and  void,  and  waste.**    (Map,  p.  15.) 

1.  According  to  our  English  Bible  (Genesia,  x.  11),  **  ^tkur  went  forth  out  of  the  land  of  Shi- 
nar  (Babylon)  and  builded  NineTdL,**  But  by  many  this  reading  is  supposed  to  be  a  wrong 
translation,  and  that  the  passage  should  read,  '^From  that  land  he  (Nlmrod)  went  forth  Into 
Ashur,  (the  name  of  a  provinc^)  and  built  Nineveh.**  (''Do  terra  ilia  egressus  est  Assur  et 
edlflcavit  Nineveh.**  (See  Anthonys  aasslcal  Olctlonaiy,  article  Assyria.  See,  also,  (he  subject 
examined  in  Helens  Analj-sls  of  Chronology,  i.  450-1.) 

S.  Ancient  Babylon,  once  the  greatest,  most  magniacent,  and  most  powerftil  city  of  the  wortd, 
•tood  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Euphrates,  about  350  miles  ftom  ttie  entrance  of  that  stream 
Into  the  Persian  Gulf.  Tlie  building  of  Babel  was  probably  the  commencement  of  the  city,  but 
It  is  supposed  to  have  attained  lU  greatest  glory  during  the  reign  of  the  Assyrian  queen,  Semir"- 
amis.  Diflbrent  writers  giro  diflerent  acooounts  of  the  extent  of  this  city.  The  Greek  hisUMian 
Herod'  otus,  who  visited  it  in  the  fourtl^entnry  before  Christ,  while  its  walls  wero  stUl  standlflg 
and  much  of  its  early  lAigniflcenoe  remaining,  described  it  as  a  perfect  square,  the  walls  oC 
each  side  being  ISO  fUriongs,  or  fUloen  miles  in  length.  According  to  this  computation  the  city 
embraced  an  area  of  9St5  square  miles.  But  DIodAnis  reduces  the  supposed  area  to  72  square 
miles ;— equal,  however,  to  three  and  a  half  limes  the  area  of  London,  with  all  its  suburbSL 
Some  writers  have  supposed  that  the  city  contained  a  population  of  at  least  Ave  millions  of 
people.  Others  have  reduced  this  estimate  to  one  million.  It  is  highly  improbable  that  the 
whole  of  the  immense  area  hidoeed  by  the  walls  was  fllled  with  the  buildings  of  a  oompaet 
dty. 

The  wans  of  Babylon,  which  were  built  of  large  bricks  cemented  with  bitumen,  are  said  to 
have  been  350  feet  high,  and  87  feet  in  thickness,  flanked  with  lofty  towers,  and  pierced  by  100 
gates  of  brass.  The  two  portions  of  the  city,  on  each  side  of  the  Euphrates,  were  connected  by 
a  bridge  of  stone,  which  rested  on  arches  of  the  same  material.  The  temple  of  Jupiter  Beloi^ 
fupposed  to  have  been  the  tower  of  Babel,  Is  described  by  Herod'  otos  as  an  immense  stractnre, 
square  at  the  base,  and  rising,  in  eight  distinct  storiee,  to  the  height  of  nearly  000  foot.  Herod  « 
otus  says  that  when  he  visited  Babylon  the  brazen  gates  of  this  temple  were  still  to  be  seen, 
and  that  In  the  upper  story  there  was  a  couch  magnlfleently  adorned,  and  near  it  a  table  of  solid 
gold.  Herod'  otus  also  mentions  a  statue  of  gold  tweire  cubits  high,— supposed  to  have  been 
ttie  "golden  image**  set  up  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  site  of  this  tempio  has  been  Identified  as 
that  of  the  ruins  now  called  by  Uie  Arabs  the  **BirB  Nimroud,**  or  nmer  of  J^imrad. 

Later  writers  than  Herod'  otus  speak  of  a  tunnel  under  the  Enphratee^^ubterranean  banquet* 
Ing  rooms  of  brass— and  hanging  gardens  elevated  three  hundred  feet  above  the  dty;  but  as 
Herod' otus  Is  silent  on  these  points,  serious  doubts  have  been  entertained  of  the  exlstenoe  of 


Nothhig  BOW  ramidns  of  the  bulkHngs  of  andnt  Babylon  but  Immense  and  shapeless  maaiet 
«rnilns;  theh*  dtes  being  partly  ooeopled  by  the  modora  and  meanly  buitt  town  of  Hlllah,  on 
Iheweilarahniftwf  (be  Bophntea.  TUt  town»  •urreunled  bX  mait  wtila,  oontalos  a  nilxid 
AiiMMMdJtorlApopiihUlM«r4s«rim«ChoiM&daoala   (Jtfiy,fi.lA) 


ObakX]  early  ages.  19 

about  600  years  after  the  deluge,  and  2555  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  After  his  deaths  Nimrod  wag  deified  for  his  great  aetions, 
and  called  Belus :  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  tower  of  Babel,  rising 
high  above  the  walls  of  Babylon,  but  still  in  an  unfinished  state,  was 
consecrated  to  his  worship. 

13.  While  some  belieye  that  the  monarch  Ninus  was  the  son  of 
Nimrod,  and  that  Assyria  and  Babylon  formed  one  united  empire 
under  the  immediate  successors  of  the  first  founder ;  others  regard 
Ninus  as  an  Assyrian  prince,  who,  by  conquering  Babylon,  united 
the  hitherto  separate  empires,  more  than  four  hundred  years  after 
the  reign  of  Nimrod;  while  others  still  regard  Ninus  as  onljra  per- 
sonification of  Nineveh-*  J)uring  the  reign  of  Ninus,  and  also 
daring  that  of  his  supposed  queen  and  successor,  Semir'  amis,  the 
boundaries  of  the  united  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  empires  are  said 
to  have  been  greatly  enlarged  by  conquest ;  but  the  accounts  that 
are  given  of  these  events  are  evidently  so  exaggerated,  that  little  re- 
liance can  be  placed  upon  them. 

14.  Semir'amis,  who  was  raised  from  an  humble  station  to  be- 
come the  queen  of  Ninus,  is  described  as  a  woman  of  uncommcm 
courage  and  masculine  character,  the  main  object  of  whose  ambition 
was  to  immortalize  her  name  by  the  greatness  of  her  exploits.  Her 
conquests  are  said  to  have  embraced  nearly  all  the  then  known  world, 
extending  as  fur  as  Central  A&ica  on  the  one  hand,  and  as  far  as 
the  Indus,^  in  Asia,  on  the  other.  She  is  said  to  have  raised,  at  one 
time,  an  army  of  more  than  three  millions  of  men,  and  to  have  em- 
ployed two  millions  of  workmen  in  adorning  Babylon — statements 
wholly  mconsistent  with  the  current  opinion  of  the  sparse  population 
of  the  world  at  this  early  period.  After  the  reign  of  Semir'amis, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  during  the  time  of  the  sojourn  of 
the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  little  is  known  of  the  history  of  Assyria  for 
more  than  thirty  generations. 

L  The  rlfvr  Hdmsj  or  Sbidei  ilaeB  tn  tti«  Rlmmaleh  monntaiiM,  and  ruanlng  In  a  MHOihmA 
mUf  (flimllnii  «nt«n  the  Ambian  Sea  near  the  weetem  extremity  of  Hinikwtan. 
a.  Mlebuhx^  Ancient  Hlet.  L  5S. 


80  Aircanr  mpio&T.  Pi^i 


CHAPTER   II. 

THB  FABXTLOUS  AND   LEGSNDART  PSBIOD  OF  GBEOIAN 
HISTOET: 

» 
sirmffo  wttB  THs  oixmoe  or  tbk  tkojan  wae,  1188  b  a 

ANAJLYSia  1.  BitMitof  AaeienlGreeoa.  Of  Uodom  Greaoe.  Xto  moek  iBctelnaiM  4( 
tho  coimtry.— a.  Tbe  two  general  diyisions  of  Modem  Greece.  Extent  of  NortlierD  Gneoie. 
Of  the  Mor6a.  Whole  area  of  the  country  ao  lenowned  in  hiatory.— a.  Tbe  gtneral  Burihce  of 
Itie ooontfy.  ItiflDrtUity.--l.  MouHainaofGraaoe.  Riven.  CUiBate.  IhevaMiM.  Sonocf. 
Oaaslcal  aaaodaiions. 

5.  OaaciAif  Mttboloot,  the  proper  Introduction  to  Grecian  hlatoryw--6w  C3iaos.  Earth,  and 
Heaven.  Tbe  oiftpring  of  Earth  and  U'  ranna.  [U'  renna ;  tbe  Tltnna :  tbe  QyGl«pea.>-7. 17'  ranna 
Is  dethroned,  and  is  aueceeded  by  aat'nm.  (The  Furies:  tbe  Giants:  and  the  Helian  Nympha. 
Yentii.  Saturn.  Jbpiter.  Nep'tune.  Plalo.]-^  War  of  thti  Titana  againat  Saf  nm.  War 
of  the  Giants  with  Jupiter.  The  result.  New  dynaaty  of  tbe  8oda.~4.  Tbe  wivaa  of  Mpltcr. 
[Juno.]  His  oApring.  [Mefcuiy.  Mara.  Apol'lo.  Vul'can.  Ditoa.  Minei^vB.]  Other 
celestial  divinities.  [Gires.  Ves'ta.]— 10.  Other  deities  not  included  among  the  celestiala. 
[Boe'chua.  Ma.  Hebe.  Tbe  Muses,  l^e  Fatea.  TbeGnees.]  Monsten.  [Harpiea.  Gor*- 
gons.]  Rebellions  against  Jupiter.  [Olym'pas.]— U.  Nunben^  and  chamoler,  of  tbe  legeoda 
of  the  gods.    Vulgar  belief,  and  philosophical  eKplamttioDs  of  them. 

IS.  Eakuvst  ImuarrARTs  or  GKcnos.  The  Pelas'  ginna.  Tribes  inoliMted  uxler  fliia 
mwd.— 13.  caiaracter  and  dTlUntton  of  fbe  Bales' giaaa.  [0!reI6pean  alncturea.  Asia 
Minor.>-14.  FoRBieif  Sbttlkrs  iM  GmcK.  Reputed  founding  of  Ar'goa.  [Argoa.  Ar'- 
fl:olis.  Oo^anus.  In'achua.]  The  accounts  of  the  eariy  Gredan  settlements  not  reDabIe.~15. 
Hie  foondlog  of  Athena.  [At'tfca.  Ogy'gea.]  The  elements  of  Gredan  dvlUaation  attrlbobad 
to  06cropa.  The  story  of  O^erops  doubtless  fkbulous.— 10.  Legend  of  the  contest  between  Mln» 
er'va  and  Nop' tune.— 17.  Crsn'aus  and  Amphic'tyon.  Dan' ana  and  Oad'mus.  [BoeOtla. 
Thebea.]— U.  General  character  of  tbe  aooounta  of  foreign  seCtlera  in  Greece.  Value  of  these  tra- 
ditions. The  probable  truth  in  relation  to  them,  which  aoooonts  for  the  Intennlxtnre  of  Ibreipi 
with  Grecian  mythology.    [iEgean  Sea.] 

19.  Tbe  HsLLBNBs  appear  in  Thessaly,  about  1384  B.  G^  and  beeome  the  ruling  daas  among 
the  Gredans^SO.  HeOen  the  son  of  DeucAlion.  The  seforal  Grecian  tiibea.  The  ASoUan  trite. 
—21.  Tbe  Hkeoxc  Aqb.  Our  knowledge  of  Grecian  history  during  this  period.  6haraeter  and 
valne  of  the  Heroic  legends.  The  most  important  of  them.  [Ist.  H6renles.  ad.  Thdseos.  3d. 
Argonatitlc  expedition.  4th.  Theban'and  Ar'golic  w«r.]'-4B.  Tbe  Aigonautie  expadltloa 
thought  the  most  important  Probably  a  poetic  fiction.  [Semothrtee.  Euxfne  Sea.]  Proba- 
bility of  naval  expediUonB  at  this  early  period,  and  thdr  results.  [Minos.  Crete]— 23.  Open* 
ing  of  the  Ttojon  war.  [is  alleged  causes.  [Troy.  Lacedc'  mon.]— 24.  Paris,— th^ight  of 
Helen,— the  war  which  followed.— 25.  Remarks  on  the  supposed  reality  of  the  war.  [flie  fkble 
of  Helen.]— 26.  What  kind  ^  truth  is  to  be  extracted  from  Homer*s  account. 

CoTncpoRART  HisTOET.- 1.  OuT  limited  knowledge  of  ootemporaiy  history  during  tbia 
period.  Rome.  Europe.  Oentral  Western  Asia.  Egyptian  History.— 2.  llie  conqueats  of 
fiesos'  tris.  [Libya.  Ethi6pia.  Tbe  Ganges.  Thradons  and  Scythians.]  The  columns  erect- 
ed by  Sesos' tris.— 3.  Statues  of  Seaostris  at  Ipeam'bouL  Historical  aculptnres.'4  Remarics 
on  tbe  evidences  of  the  existence  of  this  conqueror.  Hie  dose  of  his  rdgn.  Subsequent 
Egyptian  history.— «.  The  Israelites  at  the  period  of  the  oommeDcemeot  of  Gredan  blstoty. 
Tbdr  situation  aAer  the  death  of  Jaeeph.  Thdr  esodua  from  Qgypt,  1646  B.  C.-6i  Wande^ 
lags  in  the  wildenieaa    Passage  of  tha  Jogdan.    [Aiabta.   Jonten.    Paleetins.]    Death  at 


CbmU]  GBBOUH  KmCXBT.  91 


bnMldiiitaBatllBMaf  AMhidiaMl  11m  flU«»^7.  &md  rtalad  ttSr  JodgH  tinffl  th* 
lime  of  BuL  Hm  IvMlltM  frequently  apoetatiie  to  idolatry.  [Htebites.  G*naaiiltee.>~8. 
ThOt  dellTenaiee  Itom  the  Mid'  Umltes  and  Am'  aleidtes.  [Loealitlfla  of  thoe  tilbee.}-^.  De> 
~  [Locamioe  of  thMd  tribes.] 

I  Uog  orer  bnel,  1110  B.  C^IO.  doOng  t 


t.  Gk£ece,  wMch  is  the  Roman  name  of  the  country  whose  his- 
1.  ooomAPHi-  *^  ^®  ^^*  proceed  to  narrate,  but  whi^h  was  called 
OAL  DBGup-  by  the  natives  JSel'  las,  denoting  the  country  of  the. 
"**•  Hellenes,  comprised,  in  its^most  flourishing  period, 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  great  eastern  peninsula  of  southern  Europe 
—extending  north  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  waters  of  the 
Grecian  Archipelago.  Modem  Greece,  however,  has  a  less  extent 
on  the  north,  as  Thes'  saly,  Epfrus,  and  Maced6nia  hare  been  taken 
£rom  it,  and  annexed  to  the  Turkish  empire.  The  area  of  Modem 
Greece  is  less  than  that  of  Portugal ;  but  owing  to  the  irr^ularities 
of  its  shores,  its  range  of  seacoast  is  greater  than  that  of  the  whole 
of  Spain.  The  most  ancient  name  by  which  Greece  was  known  to 
other  nations  was  I6ma, — a  term  which  Josephus  derives  from  Ja- 
van,  the  son  of  Japhet,  and  grandson  of  Noah :  although  the  Greeks 
themselves  applied  the  term  I6nes  only  to  the  descendants  of  the 
&bulous  I'on,  son  of  Xtithus. 

2.  Modem  Greece  is  divided  into  two  principal  portions : — North- 
cm  Greece  or  Hel'  las,  and  Southem  Greece,  or  Mor6a — anciently 
ealled  Peloponn6sus.  The  former  includes  the  country  of  the  an- 
cient Grecian  States,  Acaradnia,  JBt61ia,  L6cris,  Ph6cis,  D6ris, 
Boe6tia,  Eubce'  a,  and  At'  tica ;  and  the  latter,  the  Peloponnesian 
States  of  E'  lis,  Achdia,  Cor'  inth,  Ar'  golis,  Lac6nia,  and  Mess6nia; 
whose  localities  may  be  learned  from  the  accompanying  map.  The 
greatest  length  of  the  northem  portion,  which  is  from  north-west  to 
sooth-east,  is  about  two  hundred  miles,  with  an  average  width  of 
fifty  miles.  The  greatest  length  of  the  Mor6a,  which  is  from  north 
to  south,  is  about  one  huivdred  and  forty  miles.  The  whole  area  of 
the  country  so  renowned  in  history  under  the  name  of  Greece  or 
Hel'las,  is  <mly  about  twenty  thousand  square  miles,  which  is  less 
than  half  the  areH  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 

3.  The  general  surface  of  Greece  is  mountainous ;  and  almost  the 
only  fertile  spots  are  the  numerous  and  usually  narrow  plains  along 
the  sea-shore  and  the  banks  of  rivers,  or,  as  in  several  places,  large 
bsshis,  which  apparently  once  fomed  the  beds  of  mountam  lakea 
The  largest  tracts  of  level  country  are  in  western  Hel'  las,  and  along 
the  northern  and  north-western  shores  of  the  Mor^a. 


SS  AKOIBNT  HIBTORT.  [PiwI 

4.  The  mountains  of  Greece  are  of  the  Alpine  oharaeter,  and  are 
remarkable  for  their  nomeronfi  grottos  aod  oaverns.  Their  abrupt 
Bammits  never  rise  to  the  regions  of  perpetual  snoif .  There  are  no 
navigable  rivers  in  Greece,  but  this  want  is  obviated  by  the  numerous 
gulfs  and  inlets  of  the  sea,  which  indent  the  coast  on  every  side,  and 
thus  furnish  unusual  facilities'  to  commerce,  while  they  add  to  the 
variety  and  beauty  of  the  scenery.  The  climate  of  Greece  is  for  the 
most  part  healthy,  except  in  the  low  and  marshy  tracts  around  the 
shores  and  lakes.  The  winters  are  short  Spring  and  autumn  are 
rainy  seasons,  when  many  parts  of  the  country  are  inundated ;  but 
during  the  whole  summer,  which  comprises  half  the  year,  a  cloud  in 
the  sky  is  rare  in  several  parts  of  the  country.  Grecian  scenery  is 
unsurpassed  in  romantic  wildness  and  beauty ;  but  our  deepest  inter- 
est in  the  country  arises  from  its  classical  associations,  and  the  ruins 
of  ancient  art  and  splendor  scattered  over  it. 

5.  As  the  Greeks,  in  common  with  the  Egyptians  and  other  Bast- 
em  nations,  placed  the  reign  of  the  gods  anterior  to  the 

race  of  mortals,  there^Tore  Grecian  mythology*  forms  the    ^^^^^ 
most  appropriate  introduction  to  Grecian  history. 

6.  According  to  Grecian  philosophy,  first  in  the  order  of  time 
came  Chdos,  a  heterogeneous  mass  containing  aJl  the  seeds  of  nature ; 
then  "  broad-breasted  Earth,"  the  mother  of  the  gods,  who  produced 
U'  ranus,  or  Heaven,  the  mountains,  and  the  barren  and  billowy  sea. 
Then  Earth  married  U'  ranus^  or  Heaven,  and  from  this  union  came 
a  numerous  and  powerful  brood,  the  Titans*  and  the  CychSpes,*  and 
the  gods  of  the  wintry  season, — Kot'tos,  Briireus,  and  Gy'ges,  who 
had  each  a  hundred  hands, — supposed  to  be  personifications  of  the 
hail,  the  rain,  and  the  snow. 

1.  Httholooy,  fifx>m  two  Greek  words  signUytng  a  V*^*"  <uid  a  *^  dite^mrse,^  Is  »  syalflni 
of  myths,  or  fiibulous  opinions  and  doclrinas  respecUng  tbe  deities  wbloh  heathen  nations 
have  supposed  to  preside  over  the  world,  or  to  Influenoe  its  aiBdrs. 

Sl  VrMUM,  flrom  a  Greek  word  signUying  ^'heaTen,'*  or  j^sky,''  was  Che  most  anolaDt  of  all 
tbe  gods. 

3.  Tbe  Tiuuu  were  six  males— Ooeanus,  Ooioe,  Crlos,  Hyperion,  Japetnsi  and  Kronos,  or 
Bat' urn,  and  six  females,— Th«la,  Rhia,  TMmis,  Mnemos'  yne,  Fhoa'  be^  and  T6thys.  OeiaatM, 
or  tbe  Ocean,  espooaed  his  risterT^tbys,  and  their  children  were  the  rivers  of  the  esrth,  and  the 
three  thousand  Oceanldes  or  Ocean-nymphs.  Hyp^ri^n  married  his  sister  Th^ia,  by  whom  he 
had  Aur&rs,  or  tbe  morning,  end  also  the  sun  and  mooau 

4.  Tbe  Oifci6f9M  were  a  race  of  gigantic  size,  having  but  one  eyei,  and  that  placed  in  the  oentn 
of  tbe  forehead.  According  to  some  accounts  there  were  many  of  this  race,  but  according  to 
tbe  poet  Besiod,  the  princlpsl  authority  In  Grecian  mythology,  they  were  only  three  in  num- 
ber, Bro%'  u»,  SUr'  opes^  and  JSr'gtt^  words  which  signify  in  the  Greek,  Thunder,  Ligbtftlng^ 
and  !be  rapid  Flame.  The  poets  converted  tbem  Into  smiths— the  assistants  of  the  flrenod 
Vuleaa.   The  Qrddpes  were  probably  persooMoatlou  of  tte  energisa  of  tiid  **p<»w«n  of  ite 


HKATHKir  jmehies. 


24  MSCWSrt  HKOORT.  [PauL 

7.  The  Titans  made  war  upon  their  father,  who  was  wounded  hy 
Sat'  urn,^  the  youngest  and  bravest  of  his  sons.  From  the  drops  of 
blood  which  flowed  from  the  Wound  and  fell  upon  the  earth,  sprung 
the  Furies,'  the  Giants,'  and  the  Melian  nymphs  '*  and  from  those 
which  fell  into  the  sea,  sprung  Venus,*  the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty. 
XJ'ranus  or  Heaven  being  dethroned,  Sat' urn,  by  the  consent  of  his 
bt^thren,  was  permitted  to  reign  in  his  stead,  on  condition  that  he 
woi^d  destroy  all  his  male  children :  but  Rh6a  his  wife  concealed 
from  him  the  birth  of  Ji\piter,'  Nep'  tune,^  and  Pluta* 


1.  Sat'  ttm,  the  youngest  but  moat  powerfU  of  the  Tltane,  called  by  the  Greeki,  Kr6iMM,  • 
word  riRnMying  ^^Time,"  is  generaUy  represented  as  an  old  man,  bent  by  age  and  Inflnnlty, 
holding  a  scythe  in  bis  right  hand,  together  with  a  serpent  that  bites  Its  own  tail,  which  is  an 
eni>lem  of  time,  and  of  the  revolution  of  the  year.  In  his  left  hand  he  has  a  ohild  which  he 
raises  up  as  If  to  deroor  It— as  time  deyours  aU  thlogs.  ' 

When  Sat'  urn  was  banished  by  his  son  JCipiier,  he  Is  said  to  have  iled  to  Italy,  where  be 
employed  himself  in  civilizing  the  barbarooa  manners  of  the  people.  His  reign  there  was  so 
beneficent  and  virtuous  that  mankind  have  caUed  it  the  golden  agt,  AcoordUng  to  Heslod, 
Bat' uni  ruled  over  the  Isles  of  the  Blessed,  at  the  end  of  the  earth,  by 'the  *«deep  eddying 
ocean.*' 

2.  11m  Furies  were  three  goddesses,  whose  names  signified  the  <*  Unceasing,"  the  <*EnTler,'' 
and  the  ^  Blood-avenger.**  They  are  usualy  n^resented  with  looks  foil  of  terror,  each  brand- 
iahbig  a  torch  in  one  hand  and  a  scourge  of  snakes  In  the  other.  Ibey  torment  guilty  eon- 
scienoM,  and  punish  Uie  crimes  of  bad  men. 

3b  The  Oianu  are  lepreeeoted  as  of  uncommon  stature,  with  strengUi  proportioned  to  their 
gigantic  size.  The  war  of  the  Titans  against  Sat'  urn,  and  that  of  the  Giants  against  Jtipiter,  pre 
very  celebrated  in  mythology.  It  is  believed  that  the  Giants  were  nothing  more  than  the  ener- 
gies of  natare  personified,  and  that  the  war  with  Jupiter  la  an  aUesorical  rapresenlatioa  of  some 
tremendous  convulston  of  nature  in  early  times. 

4.  In  Grecian  mythology,  all  the  regions  of  earth  and  water  were  peopled  with  beautiflil  lb- 
male  forms  called  nymphs,  divided  into  various  orders  according  to  the  pttce  of  their  abode. 
The  Melian  nymphs  were  those  which  watched  over  gardens  and  flocks. 

5w  Finns,  the  most  beautiftil  of  all  the  goddeeses,  is  sometimes  represented  as  rising  out  of 
the  sea,  and  wringing  her  locka,— sometimes  drawn  in  a  sea-shell  by  Tritons— sea-deities  that 
were  half  fish  and  half  human— and  sometimes  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  swans.  Swans,  doves, 
and  sparrows,  were  sacred  to  her.    Her  fkvorite  plants  were  the  rose  and  the  myrtle. 

6.  Jiipiter,  called  the  "  (hther  of  men  and  gods,"  is  pbwed  at  the  head  of  the  entire  system  of 
the  universe.  He  Is  supreme  over  all :  earthly  mooarohs  derive  their  authority  from  him,  and 
bis  will  is  fate.  He  is  generally  represented  as  mi^estio  in  appearance,  seated  on  a  throne,  with 
a  sceptre  in  one  hand,  and  thunderbolts  in  the  other.  The  eagle,  which  Is  sacred  to  him,  Is 
irtanrting  by  his  side.  Regarding  J<ipiter  as  the  surrounding  ether,  or  atmo4>here,  the  numer* 
ous  fiU>les  of  thia  monarch  of  the  gods  may  be  considered  allegories  which  typify  the  great  geO' 
eratlve  power  of  the  universe^  diq>laying  itself  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  under  the  greatest 
diversity  of  forms. 

7.  J\r^'  tmne,  the  **  Earth-shaker,**  and  ruler  of  the  sea,  la  second  only  to  JUpiter  in  power. 
He  is  represented,  like  JUpiter,  of  a  serene  and  mi^eetic  aspect,  seated  in  a  chariot  made  of  a 
shell,  bearing  a  trident  in  his  right  hand,  and  drawn  by  dolj^iins  and  sea-horses;  while  the 
tritons,  nymphs,  and  other  8e»-monsters,  gambol  around  him. 

&  P/*(«,  called  also  HAdea  and  Or'  cus,  the  god  of  the  lower  worid,  is  represented  as  a  man 
of  a  stem  aspect,  seated  on  a  throne  of  sulphur,  from  beneath  which  flow  the  riven  Lethe  or 
Oblivion,  Phleg*  ethon,  Ck>cy'  tus,  and  Aoh'  eron.  In  one  hand  he  holds  a  bldent,  or  sceptre 
with  two  forks,  and  In  the  other  the  keys  of  heU.  His  queen,  Proa'erpine,  is  sometimes  seated 
byhim.   HelsdeaerlbedbythepoelaaaabeingiaeaEonbieatti  deaf  losoppUoBlioi^aiida 


Gbip.  XL]  O&BOIAN  HISTORY*  %5 

8.  The  Titand)  informed  ^t  Sat' urn  liad  saved  his  children, 
made  war  upon  him  and  dethroned  him ;  hut  he  was  restored  hj  his 
son  Ji^piter.  Yet  the  hitter  afterwards  conspired  against  his  father, 
and  after  a  long  war  with  him  and  his  giant  progeny,  which  lasted 
ten  fall  years,  and  in  which  a^  the  gods  took  part,  he  drove  Sat'  urn 
from  the  kingdom,  andT^then  divided,  between  himself  and  his 
brothers  Nep'tune  and  Pliito,  the  dominion  of  the  universe,  taking 
heaven  as  his  own  portion,  and  assigning  the  sea  to  Nep'  tune,  and 
to  Pl^to  Ihe  lower  regions,  the  abodes  of  the  dead.  With  Ji\piter 
and  his  brethren  begins  a  new  dynasty  of  the  gods,  being  those,  for 
the  most  part,  whom  the  Greeks  recognised  and  worshipped. 

9.  Jupiter  had  several  wives,  both  goddesses  and  mortals,  but 
last  of  all  he  married  his  sister  Juno,'  who  maintained,  permanently, 
ihe  dignity  of  queen  of  the  gods.  The  offsprmg  of  Jupiter  were 
numerous,  comprising  both  celestial  and  terrestrial  divinities.  The 
most  noted  of  the  former  were  Mer'cury,*  Mars,'  Apol'  lo,*  Vul'  can,* 

objeetofaTersionMid  haired  to  both  gods  and  men.  Faom  his  realms  ttiere  is  no  return,  and 
aU  mankind,  sooner  or  later,  are  sore  to  be  gathered  Into  his  kingdom. 

As  none  of  the  goddeasee  would  many  the  stem  and  gloomy  god,  he  seized  Pros' erptaie,  the 
daughter  of  Girea,  while  she  was  gathering  flowers,  and  opening  a  passage  through  the  earth, 
carried  her  to  his  abode,  and  made  her  queen  of  his  dominions. 

1.  Jitma^  a  goddess  of  a  dignified  and  matronly  air,  but  haughty,  Jealous,  and  Inexorable,  ii 
reppBBcnted  sometimes  as  seated  on  a  tlurone,  holding  in  one  hand  a  pomegranate,  and  in  th« 
other  a  golden  sceptre,  with  a  cuckoo  on  its  top ;  and  at  others,  as  drawn  in  a  chariot  by  pea* 
cocks,  and  attended  by  I'  rls,  the  goddess  of  the  rainbow. 

The  maoy  quarrels' athributed  to  Jupiter  and  Jiino,  are  supposed  to  be  physical  allegorieft— 
Jftpiter  representing  the  ether,  or  upper  r^ons  of  tlie  air,  and  Jiino  the  lower  strata-^henoe 
their  quarrels  are  th«  storms  that  pass  over  the  earth :  and  the  capricious  and  quick-ebanghig 
tamper  of  the  spouse  of  Jove,  Is  typical  of  the  ever-yarying  changes  that  diatuH)  our  atmo» 


2.  Jter*  cufj,  the  confident,  messenger,  interpreter,  and  ambassador  of  the  gods,  was  himself 
the  god  of  eloquence,  and  the  patron  of  orators,  merchants,  thieves  and  robbera,  travellers  and 
diepherda.  Be  ia  said  to  have  invented  the  lyre,  letters,  commerce,  and  gymnastic  exercises. 
Bis  thieving  exptotts  are  celebrated.  He  is  usually  represented  with  a  cloak  neatly  arranged 
OD  his  peracKi,  having  a  winged  cap  <m  his  bead,  and  winged  sandals  on  his  f0&  In  hia%aad 
be  bean  his  wand  or  stall;  with  wings  at  its  extremity,  and  two  serpents  twined  about  it. 

3.  Mart,  the  god  of  war,  was  of  huge  size  and  prodlglovs  strength,  and  bis  voice  was  louder 
than  that  often  thousand  mortals.  He  is  represented  as  a  warrior  of  a  severe  and  menacing 
air,  dressed  in  the  style  of  the  Heroic  Age,  with  a  cuirass  on,  and  a  round  Gredan  shield  on  hia 
ann.  He  la  aomeUmes  seen  standing  in  a  chariot,  with  Bellona  his  sister  for  a  charioteer. 
Terror  and  Fear  accompany  him;  Discord,  in  tattered  garments,  goes  before  him,  and  Anger 
■ad  Oarnor  follow. 

4.  jfpgl'  /o,  the  god  of  archery,  prophecy,  and  music,  la  represented  in  the  perfection  of  manty 
itoength  and  beaaty,  with  hair  long  and  curling,  and  bound  behind  his  head ;  his  brows  are 
wreathed  with  bay:  eometlmes  he  bean  a  lyre  hi  hta  hand,  aad  sometimes  a  bow,  with  a  goU- 
«  quiver  of  arrows  at  hia  baek. 

5.  rui'  emn  was  the  fir»god  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  artificer  of  heaven.  He  was  bom  lame, 
iod  bis  mother  Jiino  was  so  shocked  at  the  sight  that  she  flung  him  from  Olympus.  H« 
fiMged  the  thuxkderbolta  of  J  tapiser,  also  the  arms  of  gods  and  demi-gods.    He  is  usually  lepre- 

I  aa  of  rfpe  age,  with  a  serious  counteoanoe  and  musfiolar  tmb    Bla  hair  tav^  hi  ouria 


10  ANOHaiT  HISTOBT.  [PisrT. 

Di^a,'  and  Mmer'va."  There  were  two  other  celestial  diTinitieSy 
Cores'  and  Ves'  ta,*  making,  with  Ji^o,  Nep' tone,  and  PlAto,  twelve 
in  all. 

10.  The  number  of  other  deities,  not  included  amiong  the  celestials^ 
was  indefinite,  the  most  noted  of  whom  were  Bac'chus,*  I'ris,'  Hebe,' 
the  Muses,*  the  Fates,*  and  the  Graces  ;*"'  also  Sleep,  Drepas^  and 
Death.  There  were  also  monsters,  the  offspring  of  the  gods,  pos- 
sessed of  free  will  and  intelligence,  and  having  the  mixed  forms  of 

on  his  ahooMen.  He  generally  appeaira  at  hia  anTH,  in  a  diort  tonic,  with  hie  ric^  arm  bare» 
and  MmcUmes  with  a  pointed  cap  on  his  bead. 

1.  DiAna,  the  exact  couaterpait  of  her  Imxtber  Apol'lOi,  was  queen  of  ttie  woodSi  cad  the 
goddew  of  hunting.  She  deroted  herself  to  perpetnal  celibacy,  and  her  chief  joy  was  to  speed 
like  a  D6rian  maid  over  the  hills,  followed  by  a  train  of  nymphs,  in  pursidt  of  the  flyiiur  game. 
She  is  represented  as  a  strong^  active  maiden,  tigfaUy  dad,  wHh  a  bow  or  hmtting  spear  in  her 
hand,  a  quiver  of  arrows  on  bpt  ahoulden^  wearing  the  CMtan  huating^oes,  and  attended  by 
abound. 

S.  Miner^  oo,  the  goddess  of  wisdom  and  ddll,  and,  as  opposed  t^  Mara,  the  patroness  and 
teacher  of  just  and  scientlAc  warikre^  la  said  to  have  sprung,  fUU  armed,  ttom  the  bntiu  of  Hk^ 
piter.  She  is  represented  with  a  serious  and  thoughtful  countenance ;  li^r  hair  hangs  in  riAg> 
lets  over  her  shoulders,  and  a  helmet  covers  her  head:  she  wears  a  long  ttmic  or  m<uj::23^  and 
.bears  a  spear  In  one  hand,  and  an  ngis  or  shidd,  on  which  is  a  figure  of  the  Gorgon^s  head,  in 
the  other. 

3.  dret  was  the  goddess  of  grain  and  harvests.  The  most  celebrated  event  fn  her  history  is 
the  carrying  off  of  her  daughtn*  Pros'  erpine  by  Fliito,  and  the  search  of  the  goddess  after  her 
throughout  the  whole  world.  The  form  of  Geres  is  like  that  of  Juno.  She  Is  represented  beai*- 
Ing  poppies  and  ears  of  com  in  one  hand,  a  lighted  torch  iu  the  other,  and  wearing  on  her  head 
a  garland  of  poppies.  She  is  also  repreeenled  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  dragons,  aod  dis- 
tributing com  to  the  diflbrent  regions  of  the  earth. 

4.  Fet'  ta,  the  virgin  goddess  who  prodded  over  the  domestic  hearth,  Is  represented  *r  a  long 
flowing  robe,  with  a  veil  on  her  head,  <a  lamp  in  one  hand,  and  a  spear  or  Javelin  In  the  other. 
Li  every  Grecian  city  an  altar  was  dedicated  to  her,  on  which  a  sacred  flre  was  kept  constantly 
burning.  In  her  temple  at  Bome  the  sacred  flre  was  guarded  by  six  iMesteeses,  called  the 
Vestal  Virgins. 

5.  Bae:  eAic«,  the  god  of  wine,  and  the  patron  of  drunkenness  and  debauchery,  is  represented 
as  an  eflbminate  young  man,  with  long  flowing  hair,  crowned  with  a  garland  of  vine  leavei^ 
and  generally  covered  with  a  doak  thrown  loosely  over  his  shoulders.  In  one  hand  tz  holds  a 
goblet,  and  in  the  othear  clusters  of  grapes  and  a  short  dagger. 

6.  /  ri«,  the  *^  golden  winged,"  was  the  goddess  of  the  rainbow,  and  spedal  messenger  ot<b» 
king  and  queen  of  Olympus. 

7.  The  blooming  Hebe,  the  godden  of  Tonth,  was  a  kind  of  mald-eervant  who  handed  around 
flie  nectar  at  the  banquets  of  the  goas. 

S.  The  Muses,  nine  in  number,  were  goddessea  who  presided  over  poetry,  music,  and  all  fh^ 
liberal  arts  and  sciences.  They  are  thought  to  be  personifications  of  the  inventive  pcwers  of 
the  mind,  as  dlq)layed  in  the  several  arts.  ' 

9.  The  Fates  were  three  goddesses  who  presided  over  the  destinies  of  mortals :— lit  ClAthO| 
who  held  the  distaff;  9d,  Lach'  osis,  who  spun  each  one>  portion  of  the  ttaoa^l  of  life ;  and  3d^ 
At'  ropos,  who  cut  off  the  thread  with  her  scissors. 

<*CI6tho  and  Ladi'  esia,  whose  boundless  sway,' 
With  At'  ropos,  both  men  and  gods  obey  T— HasioDb 

10.  The  Oraees  wore  three  young  and  beautiful  sistera,  wlioie  names  signified,  respectively. 
Splendor,  Joy,  and  Pleasure.  Th^  are  supposed' to  have  been  a  symbolical  representation  of 
aU  that  Is  beaut  Ifbl  and  attraettveb  They  are  rspnesented  as  dancing  together,  or  standing  wltb 
ttltff  irini  entvlned. 


Chap.  IT]  GHECIAISr  HKTOET. .  27 

ammalfl  and  men.  Such  were  the  Har'pies;'  the'Gorgons;'  the 
winged  ]iorsc  Peg'asus ;  the  fifty,  or,  as  some  say,  the  hundred  head- 
ed dog  Cer'bQros;  the  Cen'taurs,  half  men  and  half  horses;  the 
Ler^nean  Hy'dra,  a  famous  water  serpent ;  and  Scyl'la  and  Charyb'- 
disj^'fearful  sea  monsters,  the  one  changed  into  a  rock,  and  the  other 
into  a  whirlpool  on  the  coast  of  Sicily, — ^the  dread  of  mariners. 
Many  rebellious  attempts  were  made  by  the  gods  and  demigods  to 
dethrone  JApiter ;  but  by  his  unparalleled  strength  he  overcame  all 
his  enemies,  and  holding  his  court  on  mo'unt  Olym'pus,'  reigned  su- 
preme god  over  heaven  and  earth. 

11.  Such  is  the  brief  outline  of  Grecian  mythology.     The  legends 
-  of  the  gods  and  goddesses  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  of 

exceeding  interest  and  beauty,  while  others  shock  and  disgust  us  by 
the  gross  impossibilities  and  hideous  deformities  which  they  reveal. 
The  great  mass  of  the  Grecian  people  appear  to  have  believed  that 
their  divinities  were  real  persons ;  but  their  philosophers  explained 
the  legends  concerning  them  as  allegorical  representations  of  general 
physical  and  moral  truths.  The  Greek,  therefore,  instead  of  wor- 
flfaipping  nature,  worshipped  the  powers  of  nature  personified.  * 

12.  The  earliest  reliable  information  that  we  possess  of  the  country 
denominated  Greece,  represents  it  in  the  possession  of  ^^^  iarliest 
»  number  of  rude  tribes,  of  which  the  Pelas'gians  were  inhabitants 
the  most  numerous  and  powerful,  and  probably  the  most  ^'  grkkce. 
ancient.  The  name  Pelas'gians  was  also  a  general  one,  under 
whieh  were  included  many  kindred  tribes,  such  as  the  Dol'opes,  Chi- 
oneSy  and  Grse'ci;  but  still  the  origin  and  extent  of  the  race  are  in- 

^reived  in  much  obscurity. 

13.  Of  the  early  character  of  the  Pelas'gians,  and  of  the  degree 
of  civilization  to  which  thoy  had  attained  before  the  reputed  found- 
ing of  Ar'gos,  we  have  unsatisfactory  and  conflicting  accounts.  On 
the  one  hand  they  sure  represented  as  no  better  than  the  rudest  bar- 
barians, dwelling  in  caves,  subsisting  on  reptiles,  herbs,  and  wild 
firuits,  and  strangers  to  the  simplest  arts^of  civilized  life.  Other  and 
mate  reliable  traditions,  however,  attribute  to  them  a  knowledge  of 

I.  The  Hdr'piM  were  three-winged  monatera  who  hsd  female  ftces,  and  the  bodies,  wlngi, 
■Ml  d*wa  of  birds.  They  are  Mippoaed  to  be  personiflcationa  of  the  terrors  of  the  Btonn--de- 
■MMB  riding  upon  the  wind,  and  directing  ita  blaats. 

S.  Ihe  Oifr'gvma  were  three  hideous  female  forms,  who  turned  to  stone  all  whom  th«7  fixed 
teftr  eyes  apan.    They  are  supposed  to  he  peraoniacations  of  the  terrors  of  the  sea. 

a.  Olfmytu  ia  a  celebrated  mountain  of  Greece,  near  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Tliessaly.  To 
the  highest  nmmlt  in  the  range  the  name  Olympua  was  specially  applied  by  the  poets.  It  was 
QMikbledraBldflDOBorttiegodi;  and  hence  the  name  *01ym'pus»  was  ftequently  used  for 


28  .   ASCIERT  EWroaT.  IPawL 

agrioQltare,  and  some  little  aoqaaintailoe  with  naTigation;  wUli 
there  is  a  strong  prohability  that  ^ey  were  the  authored  of  those  hxsg^ 
structores  commonly  oalled  CyohSpean/  remains  of  which  are  still 
visible  in  many  parts  of  Greece  and  Italy,  and  on  the  western  eoasi 
of  Asia  Minor."  • 

14.  Ar'gos,'  the  eapital  of  Ar'golis,^  is  generally  considered  the 
IT.  roRKioif  ^^^^  ancient  city  of  Greece ;  and  its  reputed  foonding 
sETTLKu  nr  by  In'achns,  a  son  of  the  god  Oc^anns/  1856  years  be- 

oRKBCfl.  £qp^  ^q  Oliristian  era,  is  usually  assigned  as  the  period 
,  of  the  commencement  of  Grecian  history.  But  the  massive  Gycl6- 
pean  walls  of  Ar'  gos  evidently  show  the  Pelas'  gio  origin  of  the  place, 
in  opposition  to  the  traditionary  Phoenician  origin  of  In'adiua, 
whose  very  existence  is  quite  problematical.  And  indeed  the  ac- 
counts usuaUy  given  of  early  foreign  settlers  in  Greece,  who  planted 
colonies  there,  founded  dynasties,  built  cities,  and  introduced  a 

l.'^Tbe  C7d6peui  strooUirM  were  worki  of  extnordlnary  magnftode,  oonaiaClQS  of  walU  Wi4 
drcular  botldinga,  oonitnicted  of  Unmanae  blocks  of  itooe  placed  vipoa  eseh  other  wllhoot 
cemeiit,  bat  so  nloely  fitted  a^  to  Ibrm  the  moet  solid  inaMiiry.  The  moat  remarkable  are  cer- 
tain valla  at  Tir"  yna,  or  Tlryn'  thasi  aad  the  otronlar  tower  of  At'  reos  at  Hyo^na,  botti  dtfea 
of  Ar'  gOlls  In  Greeee.  The-stmcture  at  MyoAiia  Isa  hollow  cone  fifty  feet  In  diameter,  and  as 
many  in  height,  formerly  terminating  In  a  point ;  but  the  central  stone  and  a  few  othef%  have 
been  removed.  The  Greek  poets  ascribed  these  stmctnres  to  ttie  tfiree  Gycl6pes  BrSmtMy  Sitr'' 
epes^  and  Jlr' g—^  febaloua  on»«yed  giants,  whose  employment  was  to  Ihbfteale  the  thsadfl^ 
bolts  of  Jupiter.    (5m  Oye/^^M,  p.  82.) 

S.  Jitia  Mtnor,  (or  Lesser  Asia,)  now  embraced  mosUy  in  the  Asiatic  porMon  of  Toikey, 
comprised  that  western  peninsnU  of  Asia  which  Ues  between  the  walen  of  the  MedttsRanaMi 
and  the  Black  Sea.    (S«e  .Wop*  No.  IV.) 

3.  JSr'g9»y  a  city  of  southern  Greece,  and  anciently  the  capital  ofthe'kbigdom  of  Ar'goHs,  li 
altoated  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river  In'achns,  two  miles  ftom  the  bottom  of  the  Gnlf  ct 
Ar'gos,  and  on  the  western  side  of  a  plain  ten  or  twelve  miles  In  leaglh,  and  feur  or  five  In 
width.  The  eastern  side  of  the  plain  is  dry  and  barren,  and  here  were  altoated  Tlr*  yns,  from 
which  Her'  cules  departed  at  the  commencement  of  his  ^  labors^**  and  BfyoAna,  the  roynl  flt^ 
ofAgamem'aon.  The  immediate  vicinity  of  Ar*  gos  wasjqtured  by  exoass  of  moistqre.  Bei«» 
near  the  GuU;  was  the  marsh  of  JL$r'  as,  celebrated  Ibr  the  Ler*  nean  Hy'  dra,  which  Her'colot 
slew. 

Bntfewvesttgesoftheandenfcoltyof  Ar'gne  are  w>w  to  he  seen.  The  elevated  rock  on 
which  stood  the  ancient  dtadel,  Is  now  sarmonnted  by  a  modem  castle.  The  town  suflbrsd 
much  during  the  revolutionary  struggle  between  th^  Greeks  and  Turks.  The  presenl  popnhk 
tton  is  aboat  3^000.    (Sm  .Map,  No.  L) 

4.  Jlr'ftlis,  a  country  of  Southern  Greece,  is  property  a  neck  of  land,  deriving  Its  name  fh>m 
Its  capital  dty,  Ar"  gns,  and  extending  in  a  soitth^eaaterly  direction  from  Arc4dla  fifty-four  miles 
faktothe  sea,  where  it  teimlnales  in  the  promontorr  of  Sdl'  lasnaa.  Among  the  noted  plaOM  tai 
Ar'  golb  have  been  mentioned  Ar'  gos,  Myc^nas,  TIr'  yna,  and  the  tier'  nean  marsh.  Jfinu*, 
In  the  north  of  Ar  golls,  was  celebrated  for  the  ^rimmn  Mm,  and  for  the  games  Inslltuled  there 
in  honor  of  Nep'  tune.  JfiaMpiU,  or  Ntpoll  dl  Bomanl,  whitih  was  the  poet  sod  arsenal  ct 
ancient  Ar  gos  during  the  best  period  of  Oredan  history.  Is  now  a  flonriaUng^  enterpridaf, 
and  beautlfrd  town  of  about  lfi,000  inhabitants.    (8m  ATsp,  No.  I.) 

5.  Ociantu,  (See  *The7Vt«ffs,**p.S9)  /m' seftM  w»  probably  only  a  river,  personiaed  Into 
the  founder  of  a  Grecla:i  state. 

a.  ThlrwaU*s  Greece  Cp.^;  Anthon^i  Oaailcal  Dlot.,  articles  PtUsfi  and  Ar'g—;  9im 
BMran>B  Manual  of  Andent  Hlstoiy,  p.  lift. 


H]    ,  GBSQIAH  HBTDBY.  39 

knowledge  ef  tlie  srie  hxlIcbowii  to  tiie  roder  natrrei,  must  be  taken 
villi  %  greai  degree  of  abatement 

15.  Oecnqpe,  an  Egyptian,  ia  said  to  hare  led  a  oolony  from 
the  Delta  io  Oreeee  about  l^e  year  1556  B.  0.  Two  years  later, 
proceeding  to  AtHica,'  which  had  been  desolated  by  a  deluge  a  oen- 
toiy  before,  daring  ih»  reign  of  Og'  yges,'  he  is  said  to  hare  founded, 
on  the  Oeordpian  rock,  a  new  city,  whiefi  he  ofdled  Athens,*  in  honor 
of  the  Grecian  goddess  Athe'  na,  whom  the  Eomans  called  Miner'  ya.  > 
To  Cecrops  has  been  ascribed  the  institution  of  marriage,  and  the 
introduetion  of  the  first  elemepnts  of  Grecian  civilisation ;  yet,  not 
Mily  has  the  I^yptian  <nrigin  of  C6crops  been  doubted,  but  his  very 
existeaee  has  been  denied,^  and  the  whdie  story  of  his  Egyptian  col- 
ony, and  of  the  arts  which  he  is  said  to  have  established,  has  been 
ftttrilmted,  with  much  show  of  reason,  to  a  homesprung  Attic  fable. 

16.  As  a  part  of  the  history  of  Oecrops,  it  is  represented  that  in 
kk  days  the  gods  began  to  choose  fayorite  qK>ts  among  the  dwellings 
of  men  for  their  residences;  or,  in  other  words,  tiiat  particular 
deities  began  to  be  worshipped  with  especial  homage  in  particular 
ettaes;  andiihaltwiien  Miner' ya  and  Nep' tune  claimed  the  homage 
of  At'  tica,  C^ops  was  chosen  umpire  of  the  dilute.  Nep'  tune 
asserted  that  he  had  appropriated  the  country  to  himself  before  it 
had  been  oUimed  by  Miner'  va,  by  planting  his  trident  on  the  rock 
dTthe  Acrop'  die  of  Athens ;  and,  as  proof  of  his  claim,  he  pointed 

L  ^r  ttMjttMinortodebntted  of  UieOracUui  states,  and  Che  least  proportioned,  In  extent, 
of  nqr  OD  the  ftce  of  the  earth,  to  its  fame  apd  importance,  in  the  history  of  mankind,  is  sitn- 
aled  at  the  sotith-eaatem  extremity  of  Northern  Greece^  liaving  an  extent  of  about  forty-flve 
n»ii«a  from  «st  to  weat,  and  an  ayerage  breadth  of  about  thirty-flre.  As  the  soil  of  At'  tica  waa 
a  mosC^jr  rugged,  and  the  surfiwe  consisted  of  barren  hilis^  or  plains  of  little  extent,  its  produce 
vaa  nerer  soffldent  to  supp^  Uie  wants  of  its  inliabitants,  who  were  therefore  compelled  to 
look  abroad  for  subalstence.  Thus  the  barrenness  of  the  Attic  soil  rendered  the  people  indus- 
WoQi^  and  ilDed  them  with  that  spirit  of  enterprise  and  actiVity  fbr  which  they  were  so  diSF 
tti^iiished.  Secure  in  her  sterility,  the  soil  of  At'  tica  never  tempted  the  cupidity  of  her  neigh- 
bors, and  she  boasted  that  the  race  of  her  inhabitants  had  ever  been  the  same.  Among  the 
•dvantagee  of  At' tica  may  be  reckoned  the  purity  of  its  air,  the  fragrance  of  iU  shrubs,  and 
the  «r^fMmi>A  of  its  frttlts,  together  with  Ita  form  and  position,  which  marked  it  out,  in  an  emi- 
nent degree,  for  commercial  pursuits.  Its  moat  remarkable  plains  are  those  of  Athens  and 
Mar'  athoo,  and  its  principal  rivers  ttie  Oephia'  aos  and  Dys'  sns.  ,  (5m  Map^  No.  I.) 

^  G^«rsf  la  Ikblad  to  have  been  the  flnt  king  of  Athens  and  of  niebes  also.  It  is  also  said 
fliat  in  the  time  of  Og'yges  happened  adehige,  whichi>ieoeded  that  of  DeucAUon ;  and  Og'yges 
Iseaklto  have  been  the  only  penon  saved  when  Greece  waa  ooTered  with  water. 

31  jSUimu.    {Sm  Map  No.  IL  and  daacription,) 

a.  <>NoiwlUialaadlng  the  confldence  with  wUch  this  story  (that  of  CMeropa)  has  been  repeated 
la  modem  tlmos,  the  ^syp^ian  origin  of  Cterops  is  extremely  doobtftiL"— 7%trwa// 1.  p,  53. 
*Tba  story  of  his  tending  a  colony  from  Egypt  to  Athens  U  entlUed  to  no  credit.**—*^  The  whole 
HrfM  cTAtiie  Ub«i  who  an  add  to  hav»preeed«l'a«8eaB,  Including  pcrhapi  ThAaeoa  himself 
«i  fcobably  mere  flottons.^'-wf sa#n'«  Oat.  DUt^  artiel*  ••  Ctcrapa,^ 


30  ANCnSNT  mSTORT.  [Pah  L 

to  the  trident  standing  there  erect,  and  to  the  salt  spring  wUoh  had 
issued  from  the  fissure  in  the  cliff,  and  which  still  continued  jto 
flow.  On  the  other  hand,  Miner'  ya  pointed  to  the  olive  which  she 
had  planted  long  ago,  and  which  still  grew  in  native  luxuriance  bj 
the  side  of  the  fountain  which,  she  asserted,  had  been  produced  at  a 
later  period  by  the  hand  of  Nep'  tune.  Cecrops  himself  attested  the 
truth  of  her  assertion,  when  the  gods,  according  to  one  account,  but, 
according  to  another,  Cecrops  himself,  decided  in  &yor  of  Miner'  va, 
who  then  became  the  tutelary  deity  of  Athens. 

17.  Cran'  aus,  the  successor  of  Cecrops  on  the  list  of  Attic  kings, 
was  probably  a  no  l^ss  fabulous  personage  than  his  prideoessor ;  and 
of  Amphic'  tyon,  the  third  on  the  list,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  t^e  celebrated  Amphictyonic  council,  our  knowledge  is  aa 
limited  and  as  doubtful  as  of  the  former  two.^  About  half  a  century, 
after  the  time  of  Cecrops,  another  Egyptian,  by  name  Dan'  aus,  is 
said  to  have  fled  to  Greece  with  a  family  of  fifty  daughters,  and  to 
have  established  a  second  Eg3rptian  colony  in  the  vicinity  of  Ar'gos; 
and  about  the  same  time,  Cad'  mus,'  a  Phomician,  is  reported  to  have 
led  a  colony  into  Bad6ti&*  bringing  with  him  the  Phoenician  alphabet, 
the  basis  of  the  Grecian,  and  to  have  founded  Cad'  mea,  which  after- 
wards became  the  citadel  of  Thebes.' 

1.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  belleylng  that  Cad'  mw  was  the  founder  of  Thebes,  as  his  his- 
tory is  evidently  fobuloos,  although  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  alphabet  attributed'  la 
him  was  originally  brought  trom  Phoenicia.  (See  Thirwall,!.  p.  107.)  We  may  therefore  yeu- 
ture  to  dismiss  the  early  theory  of  Cad'  mus,  and  seek  a  Grecian  origin  for  the  name  of  the  sup- 
posed founder  of  Thebes. 

2.  Biadtia,  lying  north-west  of  At'tica,  is  a  high  and  well-watered  region,  mostly  suironnded 
by  mountain  ranges,  of  which  the  most  noted  summits  are  those  of  Hel'  loon  and  Cithas'  ron 
in  the  south-west.  Bae6tia  is  divided  into  two  principal  basins  or  plains,  that  of  Cephis'sus  In 
the  north-west,  watered  by  the  river  of  the  same  name,  and  containing  the  lake  of  Copais;  and 
that  of  Thebes  in  the  south-east,  watered  by  the  river  AsOpus.  As  many  of  the  streams  and 
lakes  of  Boeutia  find  their  outlet  to  the  sea  by  subterranean  channels,  marshes  aboimd,  and  the 
atmosphere  is  damp,  foggy,  oppressive,  and  in  many  places  unhealthy.  The  fertility  of  BoeOtla, 
however,  Is  such,  that  it  has  always  an  abundant  crop,  though  eliewhere  famine  should  pr^ 
yail.  Bce6tia  was  the  most  populous  of  all  the  Grecian  states ;  but  the  very  productiveness  of 
the  country  seems  to  have  depressed  the  intellectual  and  moral  character  of  the  B(»6Uans,  and 
to  have  Justified  the  ridicule  which  their  more  enterprising  neighbors  of  barren  At'tica  heaped 
upon  them.    (See  Map,  No.  I.) 

3.  Thebes,  the  ancient  capital  of  BoB6Ua,  was  situated  near  the  nnall  river  (or  brook)  Ib» 
m^nus,  about  five  miles  south  of  the  lake  Hyl'  ica.  The  city  was  surrounded  by  high  walla, 
which  had  seven  gates,  and  it  contained  many  magnificent  temples,  theatres,  gymnasiums,  and 
othfer  public  edifices,  adorned  with  statues,  paintings,  and  other  works  of  art.  In  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  its  history,  the  population  of  the  city  amounted  to  pertiaps  50,000.  The 
modem  town  of  l*heboe,  (called  Th'iva,)  contains  a  population  of  about  5,000  souls,  and  is  confined 
mostly  to  the  eminence  occupied  by  the  Acropolis,  or  citadel,  of  the  ancient  city.  Prodigious 
ramparts  and  artificial  mounds  appear  outside  of  the  town:  it  is  surrounded  by  a  deep  fosse; 

a.  **  There  can  be  icaroely  any  reasonable  doubt  thai  this  Amphic'  tyon  ia  a  meraly  flcUliow 
per80n.'*~7'Ainoa//,  i.  p,  149. 


€^Ar.IL]  «BEOIAK  EOSTOBT.  S} 

1&  These  and  many  other  aooonnts  of  foreign  settlers  in  Oreeee ' 
4nrii:g  this  early  period  of  Grecian  history,  are  so  interwoven  with 
the  absordest  fables,  or,  rather,  deduced  from  them,  that  no  reliance 
ean  be  placed  open  their  anth^iticity.  Still,  these  traditions  are 
not  withoat  their  value,  for  although  the  particular  -persons  men* 
iioned  may  ^ave  had  no  existence  yet  the  events  related  can  hardly 
have  been  without  some  historical  foundation.  It  is  probable  that 
.  after  the  general  diffusion  of  the  Pelas'  gio  tribes  over  Greece,  and 
while  the  western  regions  of  Asia  and  northern  Africa  were  in  an 
unsettled  state,  Tarious  bands  of  flying  or  conquering  tribes  found 
tiieir  way  to  the  more  peaceful  shores  of  Greece  through  the  islands 
of  the  Mk'  gean,^  bringing  with  them  the  arts  and  knowledge  of  the 
oountrias  which  they  had  abandoned.  It  is  thus  that  we  can  satis^ 
fiictorily  account  for  that  portion  of  Grecian  mythology  which  bears 
evident  marks  of  Phcenician  orjgin,  and  for  that  still  greater  por- 
tion cf  the  religious  notions  and  practices,  objects  and  forms  of  Gre- 
cian worshi]^,  which,  according  to  Herod'  otus,  were  derived  from  the 
Egyptians.  *  , 

19.  At  the  time  that  colonies  from  the  East  are  supposed  to 
have  been  settling  in  Greece,  a  people  called  the  Hel-       y.  rax 
lines,  liut  whether  a  Pelas'  gio  tribe  or  otherwise  is  un-    hxlleneb. 
certain^  first  appeared  in  the  south  of  Thes'  saly,'  about  1 384  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  according  to  the  received  chronology,  and 

and  remfiintf  of  the  old  vaUs  are  stlU  to  be  seen ;  but  the  sacred  and  pubUc  edifices  of  the  an- 
cient city  faETe  wboHy  disappeared.  Previous  to  the  Iste  Greek  Revolution  the  city  had  some 
kaadsom  moaqoea,  a  bazadr  ahaded  by  gigantie  palna-trpea,  and  extensive  gaxdena,  but  these 
vere  almost  wboUy  destroyed  by  the  casoaUties  of  wior.    {See  Map^t  ^o.  I.) 

1.  The  JETgean  Sea  is  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  lying  between  Greece  and  Asia  Mlnof, 
nsv  called  the  GneclaB  Axehlpeiago.    (Ste  Mapy  No.  III.) 

S.  TkeM'salfh  now  included  in  Turkey  in  Bnrope,  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Oambn- 
niaa  moantalso,  terminating,  on  the  east,  in  the  loftier  heights  of  Olympus,  and  separating 
Thes'aaa/  fhna  Macedonia;  en  the  east  by  the  iE'gean  Sea,  which  Is  skirted  by  ranges  of  Ossa 
and  Pelion;  on  the  south  by  the  Malian  gulf  and  the  mountain  ohain  of  CEta;  bdA  on  the 
west  tj  *be  chain  of  Pindus,  which  separated  it  th>m  Eplrus.  In  the  southern  part  of  this  ter- 
ritory, between  the  mountain  chains  of  OSta  and  Othrys,  is  the  long  and  narrow  valley  of  the 
fiver  fbvwchlui,  which,  thoqgh  considered  as  a  pert  of  Thes'saly,  forms  a  aeparate  region, 
widdy  distingalahed  from  the  rest  by  its  physical  featnres.  Between  the  Othiys  and  the  Camp 
bonian  moimtains  lies  the  great  basin  of  Thes'  saly,  the  largest  and  richest  plain  In  Gr^ce,  on- 
eoropasaed  on  all  sides  by  a  mountain  barrier,  broken  only  at  the  north-east  comer  by  a  deep 
and  narrow  def^  which  parts  Oaea  from  Olympus— the  defile  so  renowned  in  history  as  the 
pass,  ana  in  poetry  as  the  yaie  of  Tem'pe,  Through  this  narrow  glen,  of  about  five  miles  In 
length,  the  Peneua,  the  principal  river  (^  Thes' saly,  finds  its  way  to  the  sea;  and  an  ancient 
legenu  asserts  that  the  waters  of  the  I^neus  and  its  tributaries  covered  the  whole  basin  of 
Thea'  saly,  unti^the  arm  of  Her'  cules,  or,  as  some  assert,  the  trident  of  Nep'  tune,  rent  asunder 
the  goige  of  Tem'pe,  and  thus  afforded  a  passage  to  the  pent-up  streams.  Herod*  otus  says,  . 
■^  To  me  the  separatum  of  these  moontalna  appear  t»  have  been  the  ellbct  of  an  earthquake.** 


S52  ANCIENT  EHBTORY.  [PamtL 

gradually  difFdmng  ihefmselyes  over  the  whole  eoontry,  became,  by 
their  martial  spirit^  and  active,  enterprising  genius,  the  nxling  class, 
and  impressed  new  features  upon  the  Orecian  character.  The  Hel 
16nes  gave  their  name  to  the  population  of  the  whole  peninsula,  al* 
though  the  term  Grecians  was  the  name  applied  to  them  by  th» 
Romans.  « 

20.  In  accordance  with  flie  Ghreek  custom  of  attributing  the  origir 
of  their  tribes  or  nations  to  some  remote  mythical  ancestor,  Hel'len* 
a  son  of  the  fabulous  Deuc&lion,  is  represented  as  Ihe  &ther  of  the 
Hel'  lenic  nation.  His  three  sons  were  M'  olus,  D6rus,  and  XiHhus, 
from  the  two  former  of  whom  are  represented  to  have  descended  the 
JEolians  and  D&rians  ;  and  from  Ach»'us  and  I'on,lM>nB  of  XiV 
thus,  the  Acha^  arts  and  I6mans^ — the  four  tribes  into  which  t|i^ 
Hel' lenic  or  Orecian  nation  was  for  many  centuries  divided,  and 
which  were  distinguished  from  eaok  other  by  many  peculiarities  of 
language  and  institutions.^  Hel'  len  is  said  to  have  left  his  kingdom 
to  M'  olus,  his  eldest  son ;  and  the  ^6iian  tribe  was  the  one  that 
spread  the  most  widely,  and  that  long  exertea  the  greatest  influence 

,  in  the  affairs  of  the  nation,  although  at  a  later  period  it  was  surpassed 
by  the  fame  and  power  of  the  D6rians  and  I6niana 

21.  The  period  from  the  time  &[  the  first  appearance  of  the  Hel* 
▼I.  THK      16nes  in  Thes'  saly,  to  the  return  of  the  Greeks  from  the 

HBRoxo  AGS.  ezpc^ition  against'  Troy,  is  usually  called  the  Heroic 
Age.  Our  only  knowledge  of  Orecian  history  during  this  j>eriod  iw 
derired  from  numerous  maryellous  legends  of  wars,  expeditions,  and 
heroic  achievements,  which  possess  scarcely  the  slightest  evidence  of 
historical  authenticity ;  and  which,  even  if  they  can  be  supposed  to 
rest  on  a  basis  of  fact,  would  be  scarcely  deserving  of  notice,  as  being 
unattended  wiih  any  important  or  lasting  consequences,  were  it  not 
for  the  light  which  they  throw  upon  the  subject  of  .Grecian  mythol- 
ogy, and  the  gradual  fading  away,  which  they  exhibit,  of  fiction,  in 
the  dawn  of  historic  truth.  The  most  important  of  these  legends  are 
those  which  recount  the  Labors  of  Her'  cules^  and  the  exploits  of  the 

1.  Ber^evleay  •  celebrated  hero,  is  reported  to  hare  been  a  son  of  Ibe  god  Jupiter  and  Alo- 
meiia.  While  yet  an  infkiit,  Jdno,  moTod  bj  Jealousy,  sent  two  serpents  to  devour  him;  but 
ttie  child  boldly  seized  thorn  in  both  his  hands,  and  squeezed  them  to  death.  By  an  oath  of 
JQplter,  imposed  upon  him  by  the  artifice  of  Jdno,  Ho"  cules  was  made  subsorvient,  for  twelve 
jfers,  to  the  will  of  Eurys' theus,  his  enemy,  and  btXind  to  obey  all  his  commands.  Eary8'< 
fheos  commanded  him  to  achieve  a  number  of  enterpri^  the  mott  difHcult  and  aidaous  ever 
known,  generally  caUed  the  **  twelve  labors  of  Hor'oules.*'    But  the  fbvor  of  the  gods  had  com- 

a.  <*We  bellere  Hel'ieo,  M  otoa,  D6i1li,  Ae&as'Qa,aiMl  roii,to  be  merely  fiettttoos  pflneiii» 
iipi'MCutatlvea  of  the  zaoes  which  bwe  tluir  namea.**— 7krnMi2/,l.  p.  66. 


CsAF.  n.]  QBSGIAir  BISTORT.  &3 

Athenian  Th^sens  ;^  tlie  erenia  of  the  Argonautio  expedition ;'  of 
the  Th^ban  and  Ar'  golic  war  of  the  Seven  Captains ;'  and  of  the 
saeoeeding  war  of  the  Epig'  onoi,  or  descendants  of  the  sorvivorS)  in 

pleMy  armed  him  for  the  undertaking.  Be  bad  received  a  sword  from  Her'curjr^  a  bow 
from  Apor  lo^  a  golden  bieaatplate  from  Vul'  ean,  horaes  from  Nep'  tone,  a  robe  from  Mioer- ra ; 
awl  be  hImMlf  eat  bis  elnb  from  the  Nteoeaa  wood.  We  bave  merely  room  to  enomerate  bis 
twelve  labors,  wlibout  describ'iqg  them. 

IsL  He  jitraogled  the  N^mean  lion,  which  ravaged  (he  oomitry  near  Myednae,  and  ever  ailer 
doihed  btmadf  with  its  skin.  9d.  He  destroyed  the  Lemean  hydra,  a  watei  eorpent,  which 
had  nine  heads,  eight  of  them  mortal,  and  one  immortaL  3d.  He  brought  into  the  presence  of 
Borya'  theus  a  stag,  fiunous  Ibr  its  incredible  swUtness  and  golden  horns.  4th.  He  brought  to 
Mye^Bss  the  wild  boar  of  EiymaA'thna,  and  daring  this  expedttton  slew  two  of  the  Oentaors, 
imiMiifai  s  who  were  half  men  and  half  horses.  5th.  He  cleansed  the  Angean  stables  in  one 
day,  by  changhig  the  courses  of  the  rivers  Al'  phens  and  P^oeus.  C^To  cleanse  the  Augean 
stables?*  has  become  a  oommon  proverb,  end  is  applied  to  any  undertaking  where  the  obiJect 
la  to  reoBove  a  mass  of  moral  eorrapUon,  the  aooumuhuion  of  which  renders  the  task  almost 
Impossible.")  6lh.  He  destroyed  the  carnivorous  birds  which  ravaged  the  country  near  the 
L^be  Btymph&lus  Id  ArcAdia.  7.  He  brought  alive  into  I^loponndsus  a  prodigious  wild  bull 
wMeh  ravaged  the  isUhd  of  Crete.  8tb.  He  brought  from  llir^  the  mares  of  Diom^de,  which 
fad  oo  human  flesh.  Olh.  He  obtained  the  fiunous  girdle  of  Hlppol'  yta,  queen  of  the  Amazons. 
leUi.  Be  killed,  in  an  island  of  the  Atlantic,  the  monster  G^ryon,  who  bad  the  bodies  of  three 
mm  OBHed,  and  bronglit  away  Iris  purple  oxen.'  llth.  He  obtained  from  the  garden  of  the 
Heaper'  ides  the  golden  apples,  and  slew  the  dragon  which  guarded  them.  l^h.  He  went 
down  to  the  lower  refl^ons,  and  brought  upon  earth  the  three-headed  dog  Cer*  berus. 

1.  To  T^eus,  who  Is  stated  to  have  become  king  of  Athens,  are  at^buted  many  exploits 
'       r  to  those  peift^rmed  by  Her'ouleB,  and  he  evsa  shared  in  some  of  the  eeterprtses  of  the 
By  his  wise  laws  Theseus  is  said  to  have  laid  the  principal  foundation  of  Athenian 
;  but  his  name,  which  signifles  the  Orderer,  or  R^iUat4irj  seems  to  indicate  a  period 
hi  Greehm  history,  rather  than  an  individual. 

%  The  Xrgonautic  Expedition  Is  said,  in  the  popular  legend,  to  have  been  undertaken  by 
lason  and  flfly-four  of  the  most  renowned  heroes  of  Greece,  among  whom  were  Thiseus  and 
Ber' coles,  for  the  recovery  ^a  9.  golden  fieeeo  which  had  been  deposited  In  the  capital  of  Gol'- 
dria,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  bordering  on  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Euxine.  The  advea- 
toren  sailed  from  lot'  cos  in  the  ship  Ar*  go,  and  during  the  voyage  met  with  many  advenluresb 
Having  arrived  at  CJbl'  chls,  they  would  have  been  unsuccessful  i|^  the  object  of  their  expedl* 
doB^ad  not  the  king's  daughter,  Medea,  who  was  an  enchantress,  fltllen  in  love  with  Jason, 
and  defoated  the  plans  of  her  flitber  for  his  destruction.  After  a  long  return  voyage,  filled  with 
marvelioas  adventures,  most  of  the  Argonauts  reached  Greece  in  safety,  where  Her'cules,  is 
honor  of  the  expedition,  institnted  the  Olym'  pic  games. 

Some  have  supposed  this  to  have  been  a  piratical  expedition ;  others,  that  It  was  undertaken 
Ibr  the  purpose  of  discovery,  or  to  secure  some  commercisl  establishment  on  the  shores  of  the 
Buxhie,  wldle  othen  have  regarded  the  legend  as  wholly  fhbulous.  Says  Grote,  **  I  repeat  the 
epinleo  long  sgo  expressed,  that  the  process  of  dissecting  the  story,  in  search  of  a  basis  of  foct, 
Is  one  altogether  fruitless.''— Or»(«'«  HUL  of  Oreeee,  i.  343. 

3l  The  following  are  said  to  have  been  the  circumstances  of  the  TkSban  mnd  Jlr'golie  war. 
After  the  death  of  CE'  dlpus,  king  of  Thebes,  It  was  agreed  between  his  two  sons,  EtAoclee  and 
Polyniees,  that  they  should  reign  alternately,  each  a  year.  Et6ocles,  however,  the  elder, 
after  his  flrrt  year  had  expired,  refused  to  give  up  the  crown  to  his  brother,  when  the  latter, 
■eeiii«  to  Ar'gofl,  Induced  Adras'tns,  king  of  that  place,  to  espouse  his  cause.  Adras'  tua 
marehed  tn  army  against  Thebes,  led  by  himself  and  seven  captains ;  but  all  the  leaden  were 
•  siafai  before  the  dty,  and  the  war  ended  by  a  single  combat  between  Et^ocles  and  Polyniees, 
In  which  both  brothen  felL  This  Is  said  to  have  happened  twentT^seven  yean  before  the 
tn^  war.  Ten  yean  later  the  war  was  renewed  by  the  Epig'onoit  descendanta  of  those  who 
wave  klUed  In  the  first  Thdban  war.  Some  of  the  Grecian  slates  espoused  the  eaoM  of  the 
Al' given,  and  ethers  f  kled  tbs  Tb^bani ;  but  In  the  end  Thebes  was  abandoned  by  Its  faihahit-  * 
•Bis,  and  ptonderad  by  the  <Vr' gives. 

8 


S4  ANGOSNT  HT8TOKT.  [PiixL 

which  Thebes  ia  said  to  have  been  plundered  by  the  oon&derata 
Greeks. 

22.  Of  these  events,  the  Argonautic  expedition  has  usually  been 
thought  of  more  importance  than  the  rest,  as  having  been  conducted 
against  a  distant  country,  and  as  prescntiog  some  valid  claims  to 
our  belief  in  its  historical  reality.  But  we  incline  to  the  opinion, 
that  both  the  hero  and  the  heroine  o{[  the  legend  are  purely  ideal 
personages  connected  with  Grecian  mythology, — that  Jason  was  per- 
haps no  other  than  the  Samothrdcian*  god  or  hero  Jision,"'  the  pro- 
tector of  mariners,  and  that  the  fable  of  the  expedition  itself  is  a 
poetic  fiction  which  represented  the  commercial  and  piratical  voy- 
ages that  began  to  be  made,  about  this  period,  to  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  Euxine.'  It  is  not  improbable  that  voyages  similar  to  that  rep- 
resented to  have  been  made  by  the  Argonauts,  or,  perhaps,  naval 
expeditions  like  those  attributed  to  Minos,*  the*  Cretan*  prince 
and  lawgiver,  may  first  have  led  to  hostile  rivalries  between  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Asiatic  and  Grecian  coasts,  and  thus  have  been 
the  occasion  of  the  first  conflict  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Tro- 
jans>  .  1 

23.  The  Trojan  war,  rendered  so  celebrated  in  early  jQ-recian  his- 

1.  Samotkr&ce  (the  Thredan  S&mos,  now  Samothraki,)  is  an  Island  in  Uie  nortbem  part  of 
the  JE'  gcaD  Sea,  about  thirty  miles  south  of  theThracian  coast.  U  was  celebrated  f<^  the  mj^ 
teries  of  the  goddess  Cyb'  ele,  whose  priests  ran  aboat  with  dreadAil  cries  and  Jiowlings,  b««U 
ing  on  timbrels,  clashing  cymbals,  and  cutting  their  flesh  with  knives.    (5m  M^  No.  IU.) 

Z  The  Euzine  (^oW  tus  Euxinus)  is  now  caUed  the  Black  Sea.  It  lies  "between  the  soath- 
wcstem  provinces  of  Russia  In  Europe,  and  Asia  Minor.  Its  greatest  length,  ftom  east  to  west, 
Is  upwards  of  700  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  400  milea.  Its  waters  are  only  about 
one-sevenih  part  less  salt  than  the  Atlaniic— a  fact  attributable  to  the  saline  nature  of  the^boftr 
torn,  and  of  the  northern  coast.  The  Euxine  is  deep,  and  singularly  tne  from  rocks  and  shoeli. 
{See  Map  No.  V.) 

3.  Minoa  is  said,  in  the  Grecian  legends,  to  hare  been  a  son  of  JCipiter,  fh>m  whom  hA 
learned  those  laws  which  he  delivered  unto  men.  It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first  among  the 
Greeks  who  possessed  a  navy,  and  that  he  cohquered  and  colonized  several  islands,  and  finally 
perished  in  an  expedition  against  Sicily.  Some  regard  Minos  simply  as  the  con^niration  of 
that  spirit  of  order,  which,  about  his  time,  b^ran  to  exhibit,  in  the  island  of  Cr^te,  a  regular 
B}-stem  of  laws  and  government.  He  seems  to  be  intermediate  between  the  periods  of  mythol 
ogy  and  history,  combining,  in  his  person,  the  characteristics  of  both. 

4.  Crite  (now  called  Candia)  is  a  largo  mountainous  Island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  80  miles 
Boutli^ast  IVoni  Cape  Matapan  in  Greece— 100  miles  In  lengtli  fh)m  east  to  west,  with  a  breadth 
averaging  about  20  miles.  Cr6te  was  the  reputed  birth-place  of  Jupiter,  **  king  of  gods  and 
men.**  The  laws  of  Minos  are  said  to  h^ve  served  as  a  model  for  those  of  Lycur'gus;  and  th« 
wealth,  ntmiber,  and  flourishing  copdition  of  the  Cretan  cities,  are  repeatedly  reCerred  (o  by 
Homer.    (See  Map  No.  III.) 

a.  ThirwalTs  Greece,  i.  77-79. 

b.  Recording  u>  Herod'  otiw,  i.  8;  3,  the  abduction  of  H6V  en,  the  came  of  the  Ttojan  war,  wu 
in  retaliation  oC^the  abduction  of  Medea  by  Jason  in  the  Argonautic  expedition.    But  Herod'- 

'  civM  goes  llanher  back,  and  attributes  to  the  Phcenksiana  the  flrrt  eaose  of  eontentloii  betwMB 
the  AsiaUcs  and  the  Grecians,  in  carrjlng  away  from  Ar'  gbs,  lo^  a  prieolees  of  Jano. 


b&AF.  U]  GBBOIAN  HIBTORT.  » 

tory  Y>j  the  poems  of  Homer,^  is  represented  to  have  been  under- 
taken about  the  year  1173  before  the  Christian  era,  by  the  oonfed 
erate  princes  of  Greece,  against  the  otty  and  kingdom  of  Troy,* 
utnated  on  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  The  alleged  causes 
of  this  war,  according  to  the  Grecian  legend,  were  the  following : 
Hel'  en,  the  most  beaatiful  woman  of  Ker  age,  and  daughter  of  Tyn'- 
daruS)  king  of  Lacedse'mo]^  was  sought  in  marriage  by  all  the 
princes  of  Greece ;  when  Tyn'  dams,  perplexed  with  the  difficulty  of 
choosing  one  without  displeasing  all  the  rest,  being  advised  by  the 
fiage  Ulys'  ses,  bound  the  suitors  by  an  oath  that  they  woxild  approve 
of  the  uninfluenced  choice  of  Hel'  en,  and  would  unite  together  to 
defend  her  person  and  charatter,  if  ever  any  attempts  were  made  to 
carry  her  off  from  her  husband.  Menelius  beciCme  the  choice  of 
Her  en,  and  soon  after,  on  the  death  of  Tyn'  dams,  succeeded  to  the 
vacant  throne  of  Laceds^'  mon.* 

24.  After  three  years,  Paris,  son  of  Priam  kmg  of  Troy,  visited 
the  court  of  Menelaus,  and  taking  advantage  of  the  temporary  ab- 
sence of  the  latter,  he  corrupted  the  fidelity  of  Hel'  en,  whom  he 
induced  to  flee  with  him  to  Troy.  Men^lius,  returning,  prepared  to 
avenge  the.  outrage.  He  assembled  the  princes  of  Greece,  who, 
combining  their  forces  under  the  command  of  Agamem'  non,  brother 
of  Menelaus,  sailed  with  a  great  armament  to  Troy,  and  after  a  siege 
of  ten  years  finally  took  the  city  by  stratagem,  and  razed  it  to  the 
ground.  (1183  B.  C.)  Most  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain  or  taken 
prisoners,  and  the^  rest  were  forced  to  become  exiles  in  distant 
lands. 


L  Slnii§r^  the  greatest  and  earliest  of  tlie  poeti)  often  styled  fbefatk9r  of  poetry,  was  prob- 
aU|  an  AalaUe  Greek,  aUboagh  seven  Grecian  dties  oontendcd  for  the  honor  of  his  birth.  No 
dreomstaooes  of  his  life  are  known  with  any  certainty,  except  that  he  was  a  %oanderin/f  poet, 
and  UimtL  Tho  principal  works  of  Homer  are  the  Jlisd  and  the  Od'  y«98y,^the  former  of 
whi<Ui  relatas  the  drcumstaaoes  of  the  Th>Jan  war ;  and  the  latter,  the  history  and  wanderings 
or  U1}V  ses  aAer  Ihe  lUl  of  Troy. 

SL.  Tr«|r,  the  scene  of  the  battles  described  in  the  Blad,  ^ tood  on  a  rising  gronnd  betweeb  XtM 
small  rirer  Simois  (new  the  Dumbrek)  and  the  Seaman'  der,  (now  the  Hendere,)  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  near  the  entrsnoe  to  the  Hel'  le^ont.  New  ilinm  was  afterwards  buHt  on  the 
q»ot  now  beliered  to  be  the  site  of  Che  anoieni  city,  abontthrto  miles  fh>m  the  sea.  (Se«  Map 
No.  UL  and  No.  IV.) 

3.  lMMdm:muny  or  Spar' to,  the  ancient  capital  of  Lac6nia,  was  sltnated  in  a  plain  of  con- 
siderable extent,  embmeing  the  greater  part  of  Lao6nia,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  mountain 
chain  of  Ts^getus,  and  on  the  east  by  tbe  less  elevated  ridge  of  monnt  Tbomax,  betweep  whlclt 
Sows  :he  £ar6tas,  on  tbe  east  side  of  the  town.  In  early  times  Spar*  ta  was  wiUioat  walls,  Ly- 
eoOsns  having  inspired  his  ca«mtrymen  with  the  idea,  that  the  i^  defence  of  a  town  oonsiated 
solely  in  the  valor  of  its  citizens ;  but  foHlflcatlons  were  erected  after  Sparta  became  su^itjeet 
to  despotiG  mien.   The  remahis  oi  Spar'  ta  are  abont  two  miles  nor  lb-east  of  tbe  modem  town 


M  AlfOlKNT  BTSTORT.  [KuetI 

25.  Sudi  is,  in  brief)  the  oommonlj-received  ftooonnt  of  the  Tro- 
jan war,  stripped  of  the  incredible  but  gktwing  fictions  with  which 
the  poetio  genius  of  Homer  has  adorned  it.  Bat  although  the 
reality  of  some  such  war  as  this  can  hardly  be  questioned,  jet  the 
causes  which  led  to  it,  l^e  manner  in  which  it  was  conducted,  and  its 
issue;  being  gathered,  eren  by  Homer  himself,  only  from  traditional 
legends,  which  served  as  the  basis  o^  other  comg^tions  besides 
the  Iliad,  are  inyolyed  in  an  obscurity  which  we  cannot  hope  to 
penetrate.  The  accounts  of  Hel'  en  are  yarious  and  contradictory, 
and  so  connected  wil^  &bulou8  beings — with  gods  and  goddesses — ^as 
dearly  to  assign  her  to  the  department  of  mythology ;  while  the 

-  real  erents  of  the  war,  if  such  erer  oocAred,  can  hardly  be  separated 
from  the  fictions  with  whidi  they  are  interwoven.* 

26.  But  although  little  confidence  can  be  placed  in  the  reality  of 
the  persons  and  events  mentioned  in  Homer's  poetic  account  of  the 
siege  of  Troy,  yet  there  is  one  kind  of  truth  from  which  the  poet 
ean  hardly  have  deviated,  or  his  writmgs  would  not  have  been  so  ae- 
oeptable  as  they  appear  to  have  been  to  his  cotemporaries ; — and 
that  is,  a  faithful  portraiture  <^  the  government,  usages,  religious  no- 
tions, institutions,  manners,  and  ^eral  condition  of  Grecian  society, 
during  the  heroic  age.* 

1.  llius  the  most  ancient  account  of  Hel'en  la,  that  die  was  a  daoghter  of  the  god  Jih 
filter,  bateh^  from  tbo  egg  of  a  swan ;  and  Homer  speakft  of  her  In  the  Uiad  a«  **  begotten 
of  JApIter."  When  iMily  seven  years  of  age,  sn^  were  her  personal  attncUona,  that  Th^sens, 
king  of  Athens,  having  become  enamored  of  her,  carried  her  off  trom  a  festival  at  whldi  be 
asw  her  danefaig ;  but  her  brothers  recovered  her  by  force  of  anna,  and  restored  her  to  her 
flkmlly.  After  her  marriage  with  Menel&as,  ft  Is  said  that  Jbplter,  plotting  a  war  for  the  por- 
poae  of  ridding  the  earth  of  a  portion  of  its  overstocked  inhabitants,  contrived  that  the  beauty 
of  Her  en  should  Involve  the  Greeks  and  Trojans  in  hostilitleB.  At  a  banquet  of  the  gods,  Dis- 
cord, by  the  direction  of  Jdpiter,  threw  into  the  assembly  a  golden  apple,  on  which  was  f  n- 
•Cribed,  '^The  i^Pple  for  the  Rilr  one,"  (T9  koX^  rd  fiqXor,)  or,  as  in  ViTgil,  P^lekerrima  nu 
kaheiOf  "Let  the  mool  beautiftd  hare  me.**  The  goddesses  Jiino,  Miner*  va,  and  Venus,-  claim- 
ing it,  Paris,  the  son  of  Priam,  king  <tf  Troy,  was  made  the  arbiler.  He  awarded  ^he  prize  to 
Venus,  who  had  ]»omised  him  the  beautlfU  Hel'  en  in  marriage,  if  he  would  deeido  in  her 
tevor.  Venus  (the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty)  caused  Paris  and  Hel'  en  to  become  mutually 
«namored,  and  afterwards  aided  the  TVoJans  in  the  war  that  followed.  Homer  represents  th£ 
heroes  as  performing  prodigies  of  valor,  shielded  and  aided  by  the  gods ;  and  the  gods  them 
ielvee  as  mingling  in  the  strife,  and  taking  part  with  the  combatants.  The  goddess  Miner"  va 
an  unsuccessfla  competitor  for  the  prixe  which  Paris  awarded  to  her  rival  Venus,  planned  tfat 
stratagem  of  the  wooden  horae,  which  concealed  within  its  side  a  band  of  Greeks,  who,  borne 
with  it  into  the  dty,  were  thus  enabled  to  open  the  gates  to  Uietr  oonfoderstes  without 

a.  **  Homer  was  regarded  even  by  the  ancients  as  of  historical  authority."— "Truth  was  his 
eliject  in  his  accounts  and  descriptions,  as  fkr  as  it  can  be  the  object  of  a  poet,  and  e^en  in  a 
greater  degree  than  was  necessary,  when  he  distinguishes  the  earlier  and  later  times  or  ages.  He 
la  th«  best  aooroe  of  Information  respecthig  the  heroic  MgbJ*—Hegren*t  Politic*  ^  Orteet^p.  91^ 


Ctetf.  n,]  BaTPTIAK  HISTORY.  8f 


COTEMPOKARY  HISTORY. 

1.  Daring  tlie  period  of  early  Grecian  history  which  we  have 
passed  over  in  the  present  chapter,  oui^  knowledge  of  the  coterapo- 
rary  history  of  other  nations  is  exceedingly  limited.  Rome  had  not 
yet  a  be^ning  :^— all  Europe,  except  the  little  (Grecian  peninsula, 
was  in  the  darkness  of  barbarism  :  in  Central  Western  Asia  we  in- 
deed suppose  there  existed,  at  this  time,  large  cities,  and  the  flour- 
ishing empires  of  Assyria  and  Babylon;'  but  from  them  we  can 
gather  no  reliable  historic  annals.  In  north-eastern  Africa,  indeedf 
the  Egyptian  empire  had  already  attained  the  meridian  of  its  glory ; 
but  of  the  chronological  detail  of  Egyptian  history  during  this  pe- 
riod we  know  comparatively  nothing.  What  is  known  relates  prin- 
eipally  to  the  conquests  of  the  renowned  S^sos'  tris,  an  Egyptian 
monarch,  who,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  was  cotemporary 
with  0th'  niel,  the  first  judge  of  Israel,  and  with  C6crops,  the  sup- 
posed founder  of  Athens,  although  some  modem  authors  place  his 
reign  a  hundred  years  later.*  ^This  monarch  is  said  to  haye  achieved 
many  brilliant  conquests  as  the  lieutenant  of  his  father.  After  he 
came  to  the  throne  he  made  vBst  preparations  for  the  conquest  of  the 
world,  and  raised  an  army  which  is  said  to  have  numbered  six  hun 
dred  thousand  foot  and  twenty-four  thousand  horse,  besides  twenty- 
seven  thousand  armed  chariots.  He  conquered  Lib'  ya*  and  Ethi6pia,' 
after  which,  entering  Asia,  he  overran  Arabia,  subdued  the  Assyrians 
and  Modes,  and  even  led  his  victorious  hosts  beyond  the  Ganges  :* 

1.  lAk'ya  is  the  name  which  the  Greek  wad  Ronum  poets  gave  to  AfHcit  In  a  more  re- 
tffteled  seoae,  however,  the  name  was  applied  to  that  part  of  Alrlca,  bordering  on  the  Mediter* 
maeao,  which  lies  beiwecn  ^gypt  on  the  east  and  THpoll  on  the  west^—the  moat  important 
part  of  which  territory  is  embraced  in  the  present  Barca. 

S.  Ancient  EthUpU  comprised,  principally,  the  present  ooontriee  of  Nabia  and  Abyssinia, 
aoMhoTEgypt  ' 

X  The  6«vM,  fke  sacred  river  of  the  Hindoos,  flowing  sooth-east  throogh  the  north- 

a.Tbeeraoffbeacoe8slonof  Sesoa'tris^maybeplaeedat  IMS  B.a;  that  of  Oth'iUel  al 
15M;  and  the  supposed  Ibonding  of  Athens  at  1558,— the  laUer  two  in  aooordanoe  with  Dr. 
Bales.  In  SoUIb  the  dale  for  Sesoa'  trie  Is  1491 ;  Hereen  *»■  about  1500^ ;  Rosseirs  Egypt,  1308 ; 
Man,  ^'belweeo  1400  awl  1410*';  6Uddon*8  Egypt,  1565;  and  ChampoUoo  Figeac  (making 
Seaoe'  tris  the  same  as  Bamsea  IV.,  at  the  head  of  the  19th  dynasty),  1473.  Eosebiua,  followed 
by  Usher  and  PlayfUr,  supposes  that  Bosos'  tris  was  the  immediate  successor  of  the  Pharaoh  whe 
wm  downed  tn  the  Red  Sea;  while  Marsham,  foDowed  by  Newton,  attempts  to  identify  him 
with  the  Shishak  of  Scriptore  who  Invaded  Jodea— a  dUforenoe,  according  to  various  systems 
efchwinology,of  ftwaaOS  te  800  years.    Mr.  Biyant  endeavors  to  prove  that  no  such  person 


» tka  hit erprelatlOD  of  the  Ueroglyiyhlea,  however,  the  principal  ground  of  dispute  on  this 
suliject  among  the  learned,  appean  to  be,  whether  the  Seeos'  tris  so  renowned  in  history  was 
fhe  flwae  as  Baases  III.,  the  fourteenth  king  of  the  18th  dynasty,  or  the  same  as  RamsM  IV,  the 
flrst  k1i«  o(  the  lOlh  dynasty,  there  Wt]«  a  diftrsnoe  beiwewi  the  two  of  about  *  buddred  years. 


dS  AKGIEErr  mffTGBY.  fPAnl 

he  Ib  also  said  to  have  passed  oyer  into  Europe,  and  to  have  ravaged 
the  territories  of  the  Thracians  and  the  Scythians,^  when  scarcity  of 
provisions  stopped  the  progress  of  his  conquests.  That  the  fame  of 
hia^ deeds  might  long  survive  him,  he  erected  columns  in  the  countries 
through  which  he  passed,  on  which  was  inscribed,  ^^  Sesos'  tris,  king 
of  kings,  and  lord  of  lords,  subdued  this  country  by  the  power  of  his 
arms."  Some  of  these  columns  were  still  to  be  seen  in  Asia  Minor 
in  the  days  of  Herod'  otus. 

3.  The  deeds  and  triumjphs  of  Sesos'tris  are  also  wrought,  in 
sculpture  and  in  painting,  in  numerous  temples,  and  on  the  most 
celebrated  obelisks,  from  Ethiopia  to  Lower  Egypt  At'lpsamboul,' 
in  Nubia,  is  a  temple  "put  out  of  the  solid  rock,  whose  front  or  fa- 
cade is  supported  by  four  colossal  figures  of  exquisite  workmanship, 
each  sixty  feet  high,  all  statues  of  Sesos'  tris,  t^e  faCfees  of  which  bear 
a  perfect  resemblance  to  the  figures  of  the  same  king  at  Mem'  phis. 
The  walls  of  the  temple  are  covered  with  numerous  sculptures  on  his- 
torical subjects,  representing  the  ponquests  of  this  prince  in  Africa. 
Among  them  are  processions  of  the  conquered  nations,  carrying  the 
riches  of  their  country  and  laying  theTn  at  the  feet  of  the  conqueror ; 
and  even  the  wild  animals  of  the  desert — antelopes,  apes,  giraffes, 
and  ostriches — ^are  led  in  the  triumphs  of  the  Egyptians. 

4.  Were  it  not  for  the  many  similar  monumental  evidences  of  the 
reign  of  this  monarch,  which  have  been  recently  discovered,  corrobo- 
rative of  the  deeds  which  profane  authors  attribute  to  him,  we  might 
be  disposed  to  regard  Sesos'  tris  as  others  have  done,  as  no  more  than 
a  mythological  personification  of  the  Sun,  the  god  of  day,  "  the 
giant  that  rejoiceth  to  run  his  course  from  one  end  of  heaven  to  the 
other."  But  with  such  an  amount  of  testimony  bearing  on  the  sub- 
ject, w;e  cannot  doubt  the  existence  of  this  mighty  conqueror,  al- 
though probably  his  exploits  have  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  the 
vamty  of  his  chroniclers ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  liiat  the  deeds 
of  several  monarohs  have  been  attributed  to  one.  After  the  return 
of  Sesos'  tris  from  his  conquests,  he  is  said  to  have  employed  his 
time  to  the  dose  of  his  reign,  in  encouraging  the  arts,  erecting  tern- 

eastern  part  of  Hindoatan,  entera  Uie  Bay  of  B«iigaV  tbroofl^  a  great  numbflr  of  inoatli(i»  aaar 
Oalcutta. 

1.  TAraee^  a  large  tract  of  country  now  embraced  tn  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  bordering  on  the 
nx>pont1a,  or  sea  of  Marmora,  extended  from  Macedonia  and  the  JE'  gean  Sea  on  the  aootb-weeti 
to  the  Euxlne  on  the  north-east.  North  of  the  Thradana,  extending  along  the  JSoxine  to  the 
river  Danube,  was  the  comitry  of  the  Seytkiana, 

S.  fpaambinU,  so  celebrated  for  its  weU-known  excavated  temple^  la  In  the  Borthen  pait  of 
Vabla,  9n  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile. 


.  / 


I 


Obat.  n.]  IHE  ISRAELITKa  v  W 

ples^to  the  gods,  and  improving  the  reyennes  cf  his  kingdom.  After 
his  time  we  know  little  of  the  history  of  Egypt  until  the  reign  of 
Pharaoh-Necho,  in  the^beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  who  is  re- 
markable for  his  successes  against  Jerusalem. 

5.  At  the  period  which  we  have  assigned,  somewhat  arhiti^arily, 
for  the  commencement  of  Grecian  history,  1856  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  Joseph,  the  son  of  the  patriai;ch  Jacob,  was  governor 
over  Egypt ;  and  his  father's  family,  by  invitation  of  Pharaoh,  had 
settled  in  Goshen,  on  the  eastern  borders  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 
This  is  supposed  to  have  been  about  three  centuries  before  the  time 
of  Sesos'  tris.  On  the  death  of  Joseph,  the  circumstances  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Jacob,  who  were  now  called  Israelftes,  were  greatly 
changed,  i^  A  king  arose  who  knew  not  Joseph  ;''&  and  the  children 
of  Israel  became  servants  and  bondi^men  in  the  land  of  Egypt.  Two 
hmidred  years  they  were  held  in .  bondage,  when  the  Lord,  by  his 
servant  Moses,  brought^  them  forth  out  of  Egypt  with  a  mighty  hand 
and  an  outstretched  arm,  after  inflicting  the  most  grievous  plagues 
upon  their  oppressors,  and  destroying  the  pursuing  hosts  of  Pharaoh 
m  th^  Red  Sea.     (1648  B.  0.) 

6.  Forty  years  the  Israelites,  numbering  probably  two  millions 
of  souls,^  wandered  in  the  wildemcis  on  the  north-western  confines 
of  Arabia,'  supported  by  miraculous  interposition ;  for  the  country 
was  then,  as  now,  "  a  land  of  deserts  and  of  pits,  a  land  of  drouth 
and  of  the  shadow  of  death,  a  land  that  no  man  passed  through,  and 
where  no  man  dwelt  ;^'d  and  after  they  had  completed  their  wander- 
ings, and  another  generation  had  grown  up  since  they  had  left  Egypt, 
they  came  to  the  river  Jordan,'  and  passing  through  the  bed  of  the 

1.  jfroKa  is  an  extenslTe  peninsula  at  the  south-western  extremitr  of  Asia,  lying  imroodiatel/ 
Mtt  of  the  Bed  Sea.  It  is  mostly  a  roclcy  and  desert  country,  Inhabited  by  wandering  tribes 
of  Arabs,  the  descendants  of  Ishmael.  They  stili  retain  the  character  given  to  their  ancestor. 
The  desert  has  continued  to  be  the  home  of  the  Arab ;  he  has  been  a  man  of  war  ttom  bis 
joaih ;  **his  lumd  against  erery  man,  and  ereiy  nuui*8  hand  against  him.**    (Gen.  xvL.  13.) 

S.  The  river  Jordan  (See  Map,  No.  VI.)  rises  towards  the  northern  part  of  Palestine,  on  the 
western  slope  of  Mount  Hfrmon,  and  afler  a  south  course  of  about  forty  miles,  opens  Into  the 
tea  of  GalHee  near  the  ancient  town  of  Bethsaida.  After  passing  through  this  lake  or  sea, 
which  Is  about  lUteen  miles  long  and  seven  broad,  and  on  and  near  which  occurred  so  many 
striking  seenes  in  the  history  of  Christ,  it  pursues  a  winding  southerly  course  of  about  ninety 
miles  through  a  narrow  valley,  and  then  empties  its  waters  Into  the  Dead  Sea.  In  this  river* 
valley  was  the  dwelling  of  Lot,  "who  pitched  his  tents  toward  Sodom**  (Gen.  xlll.  11, 13) ;  and 
« in  the  vale  of  SIddim,  which  Is  the  salt  sea,**  occurred  the  batUe  of  the  "  four  kings  with  five.** 
(Geo.  zv.)    The  Israelites  passed  the  Jordan  near  Jericho  (Josh.  111.  14-17) ;  the  prophets  Eiy«h 

a.  Paraphrased  by  Josepbns  aa  meaning  that  the  kingdom  had  passed  to  another  dyiuttty. 

b.  1648^  B.C. 

c  They  had  608,550  men,  above  SO  yean  of  age,  not  reckoning  Levites.  E!K^4ltts,  xnTiU.  SOL 
d.  Jeremiah,  11.  G. 


40  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  [Pabt  L 

Stream,  which  rolled  back  its  iraters  on  their  approach)  entered  the 
promised  land  of  Palestine/  The  death  of  Moses  had  left  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  hands  of  Joshua.  And  "  Israel  served  the  Lord  all 
the  days  of  Joshua,  and  all  the  days  of  the  elders  that  outlived 
Joshua,  and  which  had  known  all  the  works  of  the  Lord  that  he  had 
done  for  his  chosen  people."^ 

7.  From  the  time  of  the  death  of  Joi^ua  to  the  election  of  Saul 
as  first  king  of  Israel,  whioh  latter  event  occurred  about  seventy 
years  after  the  supposed  siege  of  Troy,  Israel  was  ruled  by  judges, 
who  were  appointed  through  the  agency  of  the  priests  and  of  the 
divine  oracle,  m  accordance  with  the  theocratic  form  of  government 
established  by  Moses.  After  the  death  of  Joshua,  however,  the  Is- 
raelites often  apostatised  to  idolatry,  for  which  they  wece  punished 
by  being  successively  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  surrounding  na- 
tions. First  they  were  subdued  by  the  king  of  Mesopotamia,^  aftet 
which  the  Lord  raised  up  Oth'^niel  to  be  their  deliverer  (1564  B.  C.) . 
a  second  defection  was  punished  by  eighteen  years  of  servitude  to  the 
king  of  the  M6abite8,'  from  whom  they  were  delivered  by  the  enter- 

and  SaUba  aftorwardB  dlyidad  the  waters  to  4[>rove  their  divine  mifliion  0t  KlngB,  xl.  8) ;  tbe 
leper  Naaman  was  eommanded  to  wash  in  Jordan  and  be  clean  (S  Kiqga,  iv.  10) ;  and  it  is  thla 
stream  in  wUcb  Jeans  was  baptized  beAne  hft  eoteted  on  Us  divine  mission.  (Matt.  lU.  1G>  fro.) 
The  Dead  Sea,  into  which  the  Jordan  empties,  is  so  called  from  the  heaviness  and  consequent 
stillness  «f  its  waters,  which  contain  one-fourth  part  of  their  weight  of  salts.  The  country 
around  this  lake  is  exceedingly  dreary,  and  the  soil  is  destitute  of  vegetation.  Sodom  and  Go* 
moirah  are  supposed  to  have  stood  in  the  plain  now  oociq»ied  by  the  lake,  and  ruins  of  tha 
overthrown  dties  are  said  to  have  been  seen  on  its  western  borders.    (Map  No.  VL) 

1.  Palestiiuj  a  part  of  modern  Syria,  now  embraced  in  Turkey  in  Asia,  lies  at  the  eastern 
estremily  of  the  Mediterranean  8^ ;  extending  north  and  south  akmg  the  coast  about  906 
mass,  and  having  an  exTFeme  breadth  of  about  80  miles.  Though  in  antiquity  the  northern 
part  of  Palestine  was  the  seat  of  the  Phoenicians,  a  great  commercial  people,  yet  there  are 
DOW  few  good  bartKMm  on  the  coast,  those  of  Tyre 'and  Sidon,  once  ao  famous,  being  now  for 
the  most  part  blocked  up  with  sand.  The  country  of  Palestine  consists  principally  of  rugged 
hills  and  narrow  valleys,  although  it  has  a  fbw  plains  of  considerable  extent.  There  are  many 
streams  Hailing  into  the  Mediterranean,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  Orontes,  at  the  north,  but 
none  of  them  are  navigable.  The  river  Jordan,  on  the  east,  empties  its  waters  into  the  As* 
phaltic  Lake,  or  Dead  Sea,  which  latter,  about  55  miles  in  length,  and  90  in  extreme  width, 
now  flIlB  the  plain  where  once  stood  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  North  of  the  Dead 
Sea  is  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth,  or  Sea  of  Galilee,  the  theatre  of  sdhie  most  remarkable  mii^ 
acles.  (Matthew  vill. ;  Luke  viil. ;  and  Matthew  xix.  25.)  The  principal  mountains  of  Pale» 
tine  are  those  of  Lebanon,  running  in  ranges  nearly  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  Anally 
connecting  with  mounts  Horeb  and  Sinai,  near  the  Gulf  of  Sues.  Jxrubalkm,  the  capital 
city  of  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land,  will  be  described  in  a  subsequent  article.  (Step,  164,  JUeCuh 
lock;  articles  Syria,  Said,  or  Sldon,  Dead  Sea,  Lebanon,  fcc.)    (Map  No.  VL) 

S.  Tlie  Moabitu,  so  called  flrom  Moab,  the  son  of  Lot  (Gen.  xix.  ?7),  dwelt  bi  the  countiy  oa 
fhe  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.    (MaplHo,Vl,) 

a.  Joshua,  xxiv.  31. 

b.  Numbers,  ill.  H.  Some  think  that  the  country  here  retared  to  was  In  the  vldnlty  of 
Damaacna,  and  not  *<  beyond  tbe  Euphrates,**  as  Mesopot4mla  would  imply.    (Set  Ctck^fiu^t 

^avU  Hi9U  0f  UU  Jewy  80-43.) 


Csjff  n.]  THS  ISRAELITES.  41 

prinng  Talor  of  Ehud.*  After  his  death  the  Israelitea  again  did  evil 
in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  "  the  Lord  sold  fbem  into  ^e  hand*  of 
Jabin  king  of  Canaan,'"  nnder  whose  cruel  joke  they  groaned  twenty 
years,  when  the  prophetess  Deborah,  and  Bavak  her  general,  were 
made  the  instruments  of  their  liberation.  The  Canaanites  were 
routed  with  great  slaughter,  and  their  leader  Sisera  slain  by  Jael,  in 
whose  tent  he  had  80ug;ht  refuge> 

8.  Afterwards,  the  children  of  Israel  were  delivered  over  a  prey 
to  the  Midianites  and  Amalekites,*  wild  tribes  of  the  desert,  who 
^  came  up  with  their  cattle  and  their  tents,  as  grasshoppers  for  mul- 
titude." But  the  prophet  Qideon,  chosen  by  the -Lord  to  be  the 
liberator  of  his  people,  taking  with  him  only  three  hundred  men, 
made  a  night  attack  on  the  camp  of  the  enemy,  upon  whom  such  fear 
feU  that  they  slew  each  oth^r ;  so  that  a  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand men  were  left  dead  on  the  field,  and  only  fifteen  thousand  es- 

*  caped  by  flight.  In  the  height  of  their  joy  and  gratitude,  the  peo- 
ple would  have  made  Gideon  king,  but  he  said  to  them,  ^^  Not  I,  nor 
my  son,  but  Jehovah  shall  reign  over  you."« 

9.  Again  the  idolatry  of  the  Israelites  became  so  gross,  that  the  Lord 
delivered  them  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines'  and  the  Ammonites,* 
from  whom  they  were  finally  delivered  by  the  valor  of  Jephthah.<* 
At  a  later  period  the  Philistines  oppressed  Israel  forty  years,  bat  the 
people  found  an  avenger « in  the  prowess  of  Samson.®  After  the 
death  of  Samson  the  aged  Eli  judged  Israel,  but  the  crimes  of  his 
sons,  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  whom  he  had  chosen  to  aid  him  in  the 
government,  brought  down  the  vengeance  of  the  Lord,  and  thirty 
thousand  of  the  warriors  of  Xsrael  were  slain  in  battle  by  the  Philis- 

1.  The  CoMMtnius,  to  called  from  Oanaan,  one  of  the  sons  of  Ham  (Gen.  x.  6-19),  then  dwelt 
In  the  lowIandB  of  the  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,  between  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Mediterranean. 
Bank,  descending  flpom  Mount  Tabor  (see  Map),  attacked  Sisera  on  the  banks  of  the  rirer 
Kiahon.  (Jir«i»No.VL) 
I  2.  The  Jtidimiits*,  so  called  ftom  one  of  the  sons  of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  dwelt  in  western  ' 
Arabia,  near  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  AmalMiea  dwelt  in  the  wilderness  between  the 
Dewt  Sea  and  the  Rod  Sea.    (AfopNo.VI.) 

31  The  PkUUiinea  (see  Map)  dwelt  on  the  south-western  borders  of  Palestine,  along  the  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  as  far  north  as  Mount  Carmel,  the  commencement  of  the  Phoenician 
tmitoriea.  Their  principal  towns  were  Gaza,  Gath,  Ascalon,  and  Meglddo,  for  which  see  Map. 
The  Israelite  tribes  of  Simeon,  Ban,  Ephraim,  and  Manasaeh,  bordered  on  their  territories. 
''The  whole  of  the  towns  of  the  coast  conUnu^  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines  and  Phoenicians, 
and  nerer  permanently  felt  under  the  dominion  of  Israel.**— Ci»eAayii«*«  Hi»u  of  the  Jetos,  p.  44. 

4.  The  JtmntbnittM  (see  Map)  dwelt  on  the  borders  of  the  desert  eastward  of  the  IsneUt« 
tribes  that  aettted  east  of  the  Jordan. 

».  Judges,  III.  15-30.  b.  Judges,  !▼.  e.  Judges,  tI.;  Tf..;  TiH. 

d.  Jadgea,z.7;xi.33.  «.  Judges,  xiii.  1 ;  zIt.  ;  zr. ;  xvL 


4S  AiroiEirr  bistort  [p^*^ 

tines.*  The  prophet  Samuel  was  divinely  chQsen  as  the  sucoessor  of 
Eli.  (1152  B.  C.)  flis  administration  Was  wise  and  prudent,  but 
in  his  old  age  the  tyranny  of  his  sons,  whom  he  was  obliged  to  em- 
ploy as  hb  deputies^  induced  the  })eople  to  demand  a  king  who 
should  rule  over  them  like  the  kings  of  other  nations.  With  reluct^ 
ance  Samuel  yielded  to  the  popular*  request,  and  by  divine  guidance, 
anointed  SaUl,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  king  over  Israel.^  (1110 
B.C.) 

10.  We  have  thus  briefly  traced  the  civil  history  of  the  Israelites 
down  to  the  period  of  the  establishment  of  a  monarchy  over  them, 
in  the  person  o^  ^aul,  at  a  date,  according  to  the  chronology  which 
we  have  adopted,  seventy-three  years  later  than  the  supposed  destruc- 
tion of  Troy.  It  is,  however,  the  religious  history,  rather  than  the 
civil  annals,  of  the  children  of  Abraham,  that  possesses  the  greatest 
value  and  the  deepest  interest  •  but  as  our  limits  forbid  our  enter- 
ing upon  a  subject  so  comprehensive  as  the  former,  and  the  one  can- ' 
not  be  wholly  separated  from  the  other  without  the  greatest  violence^ 
we  refer  the  reader  to  the  Bible  for  fall  and  satisfactory  details  of 
the  civil  and  religious  polity  of  the  Jews,  contenting  ourselves  with 
having  given  merely  such  a  skeleton  of  Jewish  annals,  in  connection 
with  profane  history,  as  may  serve  to  render  the  comparative  chro- 
nology of  the  whole  easy  of  comprehension. 

a.  1  aaxn.  ir.  la  *  .        K  z,  L 


Our.  HL]  OKBOIAN  EISTOBT 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE  UNCERTAIN  PERIOD  OF  GRECIAN  HISTORT: 

nXKHDIKO  ntOV  THE  OLOSB  OF  THE  TEOJAN  WAK  TO  THK  FIB8T  WAB  WITH  PSEgZA  : 

1183  TO  490  B.  a  =  698  years. 

.ANALYSIS.  1.  fntrodnctory.— 3.  Gonseqnences  of  the  Trojan  war.— 3.  Thessa'lian  coi^ 
QVBBT.— [Epi^us.  Pln'dus.  Fendus.}— 4.B<zo'tianconqukst.— iEo'LiAWMiGHATioN.  [Les'- 
tMM.  5  Duris.]  Rktvrm,  or  the  Ukracu'  d«.— 6.  Numbers  and  military  chancter  of  the 
INiriana,->PU8age  of  Uie  Corinthian  Gulf.— [€k)rinthiun  Isthmua.— Corinthian  GuIC—Naupac* 
toa.}— 7.  I>6rlan  conquest  of  the  Peloponndsus.  [  Arc&dia.  Acbftia.]  I6aian  and  D6rian  ml 
graltoBS.— 8.  Darian  inTaaion  of  At' tica.—C Athens.  Delphos.]  S^lf-sacriflce  of  Cddroa. 
Govamment  of  At' tiau— 9.  [Lticonia.]  Its  government.  Lycur'gus.— 10.  Travels  of  Lycur* 
/  goa.  [The  Brahmins.]  Ii«8txtutiom8  or  LTcua'ans.— 11.  Plutarch's  account— senate- 
MBemblle»— division  of  lands.— 13.  Movable  property.  The  currency.— 13.  Public  tables. 
ObjficA  of  Spartan  education,  and  aim  of  Lycur'^us*— 14.  Disputes  about  Lycur'gua.  His 
supposed  late,  [Delphos,  Cr6te.  and  E'lis.]— 15.  The  three  classes  of  the  Ionian  population. 
Tkeataent  of  the  Helots.— 16.  The  provincials.  Their  coodttion.- 17.  [Mess^nia.  Ithdme.] 
First  Mssse'  viak  war.  Results  of  the  war  to  the  Messenians.- 18.  Its  influence  on  the 
Spanana.  SacoiTD  MsssB' KiAN  WAR.  Aristom'enes.- 19.  The  PoetTyrtie'us.  [Corfnth.  Sic- 
yon.]  Battle  of  the  Pamisus.  The  ArcAdians.  30.  Results  of  tlje  war.— 31.  Government  of 
Alheoa.  Dra' co.— 33.  Severity  of  his  laws.— 33.  Anarchy.  Legislation  or  Solom.  Solon's 
tnlegrity.— 94.  Distresses  of  the  people  The  needy  and  the  rich  —35.  The  policy  of  Solon. 
Debtor»— lands  of  the  poor— Imprisonment.  Classification  of  the  citizens.- 26.  Disabilities 
and  privil^es  of  the  fourth  class.  General  policy  of  Solon^s  system.- 37.  The  nine  arclvp&s. 
The  Senate  of  Four  Hundred.— 28.  Court  of  the  Areop'  agus.  Its  powers.  Institutions  of 
Solon  compared  with  the  Spartan  code.— 39.  Party  feuds.  Plsts'  tratus.- 30.  His  usurpation 
c#  power.  Opposition  to,  koA  character  of,  his  government— 31.  The  sons  of  Pisis'  tratus. 
Coospfracy  of  Harm6dlus  and  Aristogiton.— 33.  Expulsion  or  the  Pibistratids.  Intrigues 
of  Hip'  pias.  [Lyd'  la.  Per'  sia.]— 33.  The  Grecian  ooloniea  conquered  by  Croe'  sub— by  the 
Persians.  Application  (br  aid.— 34.  Ion'  ic  Revolt.  Athens  and  Euboe'  a  aid  the  I6nians. 
[EuboB'a.   Sardis.    Eph'esos.]    Result  of  the  lOnJan  war.    [Miletus.]    Designs  of  Uarius. 

CoTsitroRART  History. — I.  Phqbni  cian  History.  1.  Geography  of  PhoBnicla.— 3.  Early  hia- 
lory  of  Phisnicia.  Political  condition.  Colonies.— 3.  Supposed  circumnavigation  of  Africa.— 
4,  Commercial  relations,  fl.  Jewish  History — continuation  of.— 0.  Accesrion  of  Saul  to  the 
throne.  Slaughter  of  theAm'  monites.  [J&besl^  Gil'  ead.  Gil'  gal.]  War  with  the  Philistines.— 7. 
Wars  with  the  surrounding  nations.  SauPs  disobedience.— 8.  David— his  prowess.  [Gath.] 
Sanl^'sjealousy  of  David.  David's  fntegrity.— 9.  Death  of  Saul.  [Mount  Gil' boa.]  Division  of  the 
kingdom  between  David  and  Ish'  bosheth.  [Hebron.]  Union  of  the  tribes.- 10.  Limited  possess- 
ions of  the  fsraelltes.  [Tjrre.  Sidon.  Joppa.  Jerusalem.]  David  takes  Jerusalem  .—11.  His  other 
eonqnesla.  [Syria.  Damascus.  Rabbah.]  Siege  of  Rabbah.  Close  of  David's  reign.— 13. 
Solomon.  His  wisdom— fame— commercial  relations.- 13.  His  impiety.  Close  of  his  reign. — 
14.  Revolt  of  the  ten  tribes.  Their  subsequent  history.- 15.  Rehoboam's  reign  over  Judah. 
Reign  of  Aha2.  Hezekiah.  Signal  overthrow  of  the  Assyrians.— 17.  Corroborated  by  pro- 
fiuie  history.— 13.  Account  given  by  Herod' Otus.— 19.  Reigns  of  Manas' seh,  A' mon,  Josiah, 
and  Jeboahaz.— 30.  Reign  of  Jehoiakim— of  Jeclfoniah.— 21.  ReSgn  of  Hezekiah.  Destruo- 
tion  of  Jeniaalem.— 33.  OapUvIiy  of  the  Jews.— 33.  Rebuilding  of  Jerusalem.  III.  Ro- 
■AJi  History.— 34.  Foundinis  of  Rome.— IV.  Persian  History.- 85.  Dissolution  of  the  A»- 
qfrian  emplre^~96.  Establlahment  of  the  empire  of  the  Medes  and  Babyloniana.    First  and 


44  "  AtfOXBar  HISTOAT.  [PatI 

'  Meond  eapttvltr  of  the  Jews.— S7^  Other  eonquMti  of  NebvcbadMB'  car.  HIa  wv  idlli  Am 
PhGBmlcluu.— S8.  With  the  Egyptians.  Fulfilment  of  Ez^kiel's  prophecy.— 39.  Impiety  and 
pride  of  Nebachadnez'zar.'*  Mis  punishment.— 30.  Belshaz' car's  reign.  Rise  of  the  separate 
kingdom  of  Media.  Founding  of  the  Persian  empire.— 31.  Cyrus  defeats  Cros'  ras— subjogatea 
the  Grecian  colonies— conquers  Babylon.  Prophecies  relathig  to  Babylon.— 32.  Bemainderof 
the  reign  of  Cyrus.— 33.  Reign  of  Camby'  ses.  [Jupiter  Am'  mon.] — 34.  Accession  of  Darius 
Bystas'pea.  Revolt  and  deatmcUon  of  Babylon^-3Sw  Expedition  against  th^  fioythlana. 
[Scythla.  RiTor  Don.  lliraoe.]— 30.  Other  evenis  in  the  history  of  Darius.  His  alms,  policy, 
and  goTemment.— 37.  Extent  of  the  PersSjn  csuplre. 

1.  Passing  from  the  fabulcos  era  of  Greoian  history)  we  enter 
npon  a  period  when  thetsrude  fictions  of  more  than  mortal  heroes, 
and  demi-goda,  begin  to  give  place  to  the  realities  of  human  exist- 
ence ;  but  still  the  vague,  disputed,  and  often,  contradictory  annals 
on  whi<^  we  are  obliged  to  rely,  shed  only  an  uncertain  light  around 
us ;  and  even  what  we  have  gathered  as  the  most  reliable,  in  the 
present  chapter,  perhaps  cannot  wholly  be  taken  «&  imdoubted  his- 
toric truth,  especially  in  chronological  details. 

2.  The  immediate  consequenoes  of  the  Trojan  war,  as  represented 
by  Greek  historians,  were  scarcely  less  disastrous  to  the  victors  than 
to  the  vanquished.  The  return  of  the  Grecian  heroes  to  their  coun* 
try  is  represented  by  Homer  and  other  early  writers  to  have  been 

.  full  of  tragical  adventures,  while  their  long  absence  had  encouraged 
usurpers  to  seize  many  of  their  thrones ;  and  hence  arose  fierce  wars 
and  intestine  commotions,  which  greatly  retarded  the  progress  of 
Greoian  civilization. 

3.  Among  these  petty  revolutions,  however,  no  events  of  general 
L  thxsba'  liam  interest  occurred  until  about  sixty  years  after  the  fidl  of 

ooNQOEST.     Troy,  when  a  people  from  Eplrus,*  passing  over  the , 
mountain  chain  of  Pm'  dus,'  descended  into  the  rich  plains  which  lie 
along  the  banks  of  the  Pen^us,*  and  finally  conquered*  the  country,  to 

1.  The  country  of  Epinii,  comprised  la  the  present  Turkish  proTince  of  Alb'&ina,  was  at 
the  north-western  extremity^of  Greecej  lying  along  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of 
Venice,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  Maceduniat  and  on  the  east  by  Macedonia  and  Tbes'- 
saly.  The  inhabitants  in  early  times  were  proba^bly  Pelas'  gio^  but  they  %an  hardly  be  consid- 
ered ever  to  hare  belonged  to  the  Hellenic  race,  or  Grecians  proper.  Epirus  is  principaU/ 
distinguished  in  Roman  history  as  the  ooontiy  of  the  celebrated  Pyr'  rhus  (see  p.  149.)  The 
earliest  oracle  of  Greece  was  that  of  Dod6na  in  Epirus,  but  its  exact  locality  is  unknown. 
There  was  another  oracle  of  the  Mime  name  in  Thes'  saly.    {J\ia;p  No.  I.) 

2.  Pin'dus  is  the  name  of  the  mountain  chain  which  separated  Thes' saly  from  Epirus. 
(Map  No.  L) 

3.  PeniuSf  the  principal  river  of  Thes'  saly,  rises  in  the  Pin'  dus  mountains,  and  flowing  In  a 
oouno  generally  east,  passes  through  the  raU  of  Tom'  pe,  and  empties  its  waters  Into  the  Thor- 
maio  Gulf;  now  the  gulf  of  Salonica,  a  branch  of  the  JS'  gean  Sea,  or  Archipelago.  (JIfcji 
NO.L) 

».  AboallS94B.a 


(bur.  IH.]  aKEOIAV  HISTORY.  U 

wbich  ihi^  gave  ike  name  of  Thes'saly ;  drivu^  awaj  most  of  th« 
mhabitaato,  and  reducing  those  who  remained  to  the  condition  of 
serfiB,  or  agricoltoral  slaves. 

4.  The  fugitives  from  Thes' sal jy  driven' from  their  own  oonntr7, 
passed  over  into  B<B6tia,  which  they  subdued  after  a  long  n.  boo'  tiajt 
etriiggle,  imitating  their  own  conquerors  in  the  disposal    ooftquisv. 
<yf  the  inhabitants.     The  unsettled  state  of  society  occasioned  by  the 
Thessilian  and  BoB6tian  conquests  was  the  cause  of  collecting  to- 
gether various  bands  of  fugitives,  who,  being  joined  by  adventurers 
from  Peloponnesus,  passed  over  into  Asia,^  constituting  the  JEoLian 
mdffrcaum,  so  called  from  the  race  which  took  tho  prin-  ni.  iSo'Luir 
eipal  share  in  it     They  established  their  settlements  in   xiorahoi^ 
the  vicinity  of  the  ruins  of  Troy,  and  on  the  opposite  island  of  Les'- 
bofl,^  while  on  the  main  land  they  built  many  cities,  which  were  com- 
prised in  twelve  States,  the  whole  of  which  formed  the  JS61ian  Con- 
federacy. 

5.  About  twenty  years  aftei:  the  Thessdlian  conquest,  the  Ddriaas, 
a^eU6nic  tribe,  whose  country,  D6ris,'  a  mountainous  region,  was 
on  the  south  of  Thes'  saly,  being  probably  harassed  by  their  northern 
neighbors,  and  desirous  of  a  settlement  in  a  more  fertile  territory, 
commenced  a  migration  to  the  Peloponn6sus,  accompanied  by  por- 
tions of  other  tribes,  and  led,  as  was  asserted,  by  descendants  of 
Her'  cules,  who  had  formerly  been  driven  into  exile  from  tha  latter 
ooontry.  This  important  event  in  Grecian  history  is  ^^  KrnjRv 
etJ^ed  the  Return  (f  the  Hisracltd€R,  The  migration  of  the  of  the 
D6rian8  was  similar  in  its  character  to  the  return  of  the  h**^^'"'  ^-^ 
Israelites  to  Palestine,  as  they  took  with  them  their  wives  and  chil- 

.  dren,  prepared  for  whatever  fortune  should  award  them. 

6.  The  D6rians  could  muster  about  twenty  thousand  fitting  men, 
and  although  they  were  greatly  inferior  in  numbers  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  die  countries  which  they  conquered,  their  superior  military 
tactics  appear  generally  to  have  insured  them  an  easy  victory  in  the 


1.  Les'hfti  one  of  the  moat  celebnited  of  the  Grodan  Uanda,  now  called  Mytil^ne,  from  its 
priocipel  cUj,  lies  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  north  of  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Bmyma. 
AneieoUj,  Lea'  bos  contained  nine  flourishing  dttes,  founded  mostly  py  the  ^61ians.  The 
Lea'tofaat  were  notorious  for  their  dissolute  manners,  while  at  the  same  time  they  were 
dMIagnfslied  for  intellectnal  cultivation,  and  especially  for  poetry  and  music    (Map  Mo.  UL) 

2.  MMsj  a  small  mountainous  country,  extending  only  about  forty  miles  in  length,  was 
filiated  oB  the  south  of  Thes'  saly,  fh>m  which  it  was  separated  by  the  range  of  nount  (£'  ta. 
n*  D6r1«M  were  the  most  powernal  of  the  HeUAolc  tribes    (.Affl^'No.  I.) 

II.  About  1040  B.C. 


46  ANCIENT  HISTORT.  [Pisr  1 

open  field.  Twice,  however,  they  were  repelled  in  tbeir  attempts  to 
break  through  the  Corinthian  isthmus,'  the  key  to  Southern  Greeoe, 
when,  warned  by  these  misfortunes,  they  abandoned  the  guarded 
isthmus,  and  crossing  the  Corinthian  Guir  from  Naupac'  tus,'  landed 
safely  on  the  horth-western  coast  of  the  peninsula.     (B.  C.  11 04). 

7.  The  whole  of  Peloponn6sus,  except  the  central  and  mountainous 
district  of  Arcddia^  and  the  coast  proyince  of  Achdia,*  was  eventually 
subdued,  and  apportioned  among  the  conquerors, — ^all  the  old  inhab- 
itants who  remained  in  the  country  being  reduced  to  an  Inferior  con- 
dition, like  that  of  the  Saxon'  serfs  of  England,  at  the  time  of  the 
Norman  conquest.  Some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula,  however,  uniting  under  valiant  leadersj' conquered 
the  province  of  Achdia,  and  expelled  its  I6nian  inhabitants,  many 
of  whom,  joined  by  various  bands  of  fugitives,  sought  a  retreat  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  south  of  the  •^61ian  cities,  where,  in 

'  1.  The  Corinthian  IsthmuBy  betweeo  the  Corinthian  Gulf  (now  Gulf  of  Lepan'  to)  on  the 
DOitb-WMt,  and  tbe  Saron'  fc  Gulf  (now  Gnlf  of  Athena,  or  JEgintL)  on  ttie  foath^east,  nnites  the 
Peloponn^aaa  to  tbe  northern  paru  of  Greece,  or  Greece  Proper.  The  narroweet  part  of  thia 
oelebnited  Isthmxia  i»  about  six  miles  east  from  Corlntli,  where  the  distance  across  is  aboirt 
flre  miles.  The  Isthmas  is  high  and  rocky,  and  many  ansucoesBfiil  attempts  hare  been  made 
•  to  unite  tbe  waters  on  each  elde  by  a  canal.  T^e  Isthmus  derived  much  of  ita  early  celebrity 
from  the  Isthmian  games  celebrated  there  In  honor  of  Pals'mon  nod  Nep'  tune.  Ruins  of 
tbe  temple  of  Nep'  tune  have  been  discovered  at  the  port  of  Schaa'  nus,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
lathmua.    (Map  Vo,L) 

S.  The  Corinthian  Oulf  (now  caUed  the  Gulf  of  Lepan'  to)  is  an  eastern  arm  of  the  Adriatle^ 
or  Gidf  of  Venice,  and  lies  principally  between  the  coast  of  ancient  Ph6cis  on  the  north,  and 
of  Ach&ia  on  the  south.  The  entrance  to  the  gnli;  between  two  ruined  castles,  the  Boum^Ha 
on  the  north,  and  the  Mor6a  on  the  south,  is  only  about  one  mile  across.  .  Within,  the  wateffi 
expand  into  a  deep  magnificent  basin,  stretching  about  seventy^eight  miles  to  the  south-east, 
and  being,  where  widest,  about  twenty  miles  across.  Near  the  mouth  of  this  gulf  was  fought, 
In  the  year  157Q,  one  of  the  greatest  naval  battles  of  modern  times.    (Map  No.  I.) 

3.  Jfaupae'  tua  (now  called  Lepan'  to)  stands  on  a  hill  on  the  coast  of  I.6cris,  about  three  and 
a  half  miles  from  the  ruined  cast!-;  of  Room^lia.  It  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  Trom  the 
cfroamstanoe  of  the  Heraelidn  haring  there  eonstructed  the  fleet  In  which  they  crossed  over 
to  the  Peloponnesus.  (AVitw,  a  ship,  and  Pegoy  or  Pifnumi,  to  construct)  It  was  onoe  a  place 
of  considerable  importance,  but  is  now  a  ruinous  town.    (Map  No.  I.) 

4.  Aretydioy  the  central  country  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and,  next  to  Lao6tt)a,  the  largest  of  tti 
■be  provinces,  Is  a  mountainous  region,  somewhat  similar  to  Switzerland,  having  a  length  and 
breadth  of  about  forty  miles  each.  The  most  fertile  part  of  the  country  was  towards  the  south, 
where  were  sevecal  delightfVil  plains,  and  numerous  vineyards.  The  Alpheus  Is  the  principal 
river  of  Arcidia.  T^gea  and  Manttn^a  were  its  principal  cities.  Its  lakes  ay 'small,  but 
among  them  is  the  Stymph&lus,  of  classic  fame.  Tbe  Arc4dians,  scarcely  a  genuine  Greek 
race,  were  a  rude  and  pastoral  people,  deeply  attached  to  music,  and  possesrix^  a  strong  love 
of  freedom.    (Map  No.  I.) 

5.  Achtioy  the  most  northern  country  of  the  PeIoponn6su8,  extended  along  the  Corinthian 
Gult;  north  of  £'  lis  and  Arc&dia.  It  was  a  country  of  moderate  fertility ;  its  coast  waiyitr  the 
most  part  level,  containing  no  good  harbors,  and  exposed  to  Inundations ;  and  its  snreanu 
wore  of  small  size,  many  oC  them  mere  winter  torrents,  descending  from  the  ridges  of  ArcAdia. 
Originally  Ach&ia  embraced  the  territory  of  Sic'  yon,  on. the  east,  but  the  latter  was  finally 
wrested  from  It  by  tbe  DOrlana.  The  Aoh»'  ana  are  principally  celebrated  Ibr  being  the  oric 
tDatonorUMeritfbiMed  AobflBanlMgiie.    (Soa  p.l07.)   (JIfiyNo.  I.) 


Chap.  IH]  ORECIAIT  HISTORY  ir 

prooesfl  of  time,  twelve  I6nian  cities  were  built,  the  whole  of  which 
were  united  in  the  I6nian  Confederacy,  while  their  new  country  re- 
ceived the  name  of  I6nia.  At  a  later  period,  bands  of  the  D6rians 
themselves,  not  content  with  their  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
l^onged  to  Asia  Minor,  where  they  peopled  several  cities  on  the 
coast  of  Cdria,  south  of  I6nia ;  so  that  the  M'  gean  Sea  was  finally 
circled  by  Grecian  settlements,  and  its  islands  covered  by  them. 

8.  About  the  year  1068,  the  D6rians,  impelled,  as  some  assert,  by 
a  general  scarcity,  the  natural  effect  of  long-protracted  wars,  invaded 
At'  tica,  and  encamped  before  the  walls  of  Athens.*  The  chief  of 
the'D6rian  expedition,  having  consulted  the  oracle  of  DeFphos,*  was 
told  that  the  D6rians  would  be  successful  so  long  as  C6drus,  the 
Athenian  king,  was  uninjured.  The  latter,  being  informed  of  the 
answer  of  the  oracle,  resolved  to  sacrifice  himself  for  the  good  of 
his  country;  and  going  out  of  the  gate,  disguised  in  the  garb  of  a 
peasant,  he  provoked  a  quarrel  with  a  D6rian  i^oldier,  and  suffered 
himself  t^  be  slain.  On  recognizing  the  body,  the  superstitious  D6- 
nans,  deeming  the  war  hopeless,  withdrew  from  At'  tica ;  and  the 
Athenians,  out  of  respect  for  the  memory  of  C6drus,  declared  that 
no  one  was  worthy  to  succeefd  him,  and  abolished  the  form  of  roy- 
alty  altogether.^  Magistrates  called  archons,  however,  differmg  little 
from  kings,  were  now  appointed  from  the  family  of  Codrus  for  life ; 
after  a  long  period  these  were  exchanged^  for  arthons  appointed  for 
ten  years,  until,  lastly,®  the  yearly  election  of  a  senate  of  Archons 
gave  the  filial  blow  to  royalty  in  Athens,  and  established  an  aristo- 
cratical  government  of  the  nobility.     These  successive  encroachments 

1.  Jttkemt^  one  of  the  moot  fSunons  cities  of  antiquity,  If  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the 
At'  tie  peoinenla,  about  Ave  miles  from  the  Baron'  ic  Gul^  now  the  Gulf  of  iEgina.  Moet  of 
the  aneient  city  stood  on  the  west  side  of  a  rocky  eminence  called  the  Acrop'  oils,  surrounded 
l)y  an  extensire  plain,  and,  at  the  tAie  when  1'^  had  attained  its  greatest  mai^tude,  was  twenty 
niies  in  circumference,  and  encompassed  by  a  wall  surmounted,  at  intervals,  by  strongly-for* 
tUod  towers.  The  small  river  Cephis'  sus,  flowing  south,  on  the  west  side  of  the  city,  and  the 
rtver  Ills'  sus,  on  the  east,  flowing  south-west,  inclosed  it  in  a  sort  of  peninsula ;  but  botli 
ttwnms  lost  themselves  In  the  marshes  soulh-west  of  the  city;  The  waters  of  the  His'  sus  were 
Bostly  drawn  off  to  irrigate  the  neighboring  gardens,  or  to  supply  the  artiflciai  fountains  of 
Alheoa.    (Af^No.I.    See  fkrther  description,  p.  5(14.) 

S.  Del'pkotj  or  Del' phi,  a  small  city  ofPhocis,  situated  on  the  southern  declivity  of  Mount 
famas'  sua,  forty-flre  mllea  north-west  from  Ck>r'  inth,  and  eight  and  a  half  miles  from  tlio  nearest 
point  of  the  Corinthian  GuU;  was  the  seat  of  the  most  remarkable  oracle  of  the  ancient  world. 
Above  Del'  phi  arose  the  two  towering  cliffs  of  Paruas'  bus,  while  from  the  chasm  between 
ttiem  florwed  the  waters  of  the  CastAlian  spring,  the  source  of  poetical  inspiration.  Below  lay 
a  rugged  mountain,  past  which  flowed  the  rapid  stream  Pits'  tus ;  while  on  both  sldtra  of  the 
plain,  where  stood  the  Ultle  city,  arose  sitep  and  ahnost  iaacoeislble  predpiooa.    (.tt^  No.  L> 

a.UMB..a  b.7SBB.a  e»flBiB.a 


48  AI3CIENT  HI3T0BT.  [PaitI 

on  the  royal  prerogatives  are  almost  the  onlj  events  that  fill  the 
meagre  annals  of  Athens  for  several  centuries.^ 

9.  While  these  changes  were  occurring  at  Athens,  Lac6nia,'  whose 
capital  was  Sparta,  although  often  engaged  in  tedious  wars  with  the 
Ar'  gives,"  was  gradually  acquiring  an  ascendancy  over  the  D6rian 
states  of  the  Peloponn6sus.  After  the  Heraclidse  had  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  sovereignty,  two  descendants  of  that  family  reigned 
jointly  at  Lacedaa'  mon,  but  this  divided  rule  served  only  to  increase 
the  public  confusion.  Things  remained,  however,  in  this  situation 
until  some  time  in  the  ninth  century  B.  C,  when  Polydec'' tes,  one 
of  the  kings,  died  without  children.  The  reins  of  government  then 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  brother  Lycur'  gus,  but  the  latter  soon  re- 
signed" the  crown  to  the  posthumous  son  of  Polydec'tes,  and,  to 
avoid  the  imputation  of  ambitious  designs,  went  into  voluntary  exile, 
although  against  the  wishes  of  the  best  of  his  countrymen. 

10.  He  is  said  to  have  visited  many  foreign  lands,  observmg  their 
institutions  and  manners,  and  conversing  with  their  sages — ^to  have 
studied  the  Cretan  laws  of  Minos — to  have  been  a  disciple  of  the 

"  Egyptian  priests — and  even  to  have  gathered  wisdom  from  the  Brah- 
mins* of  India,  employing  his  time  in  maturing  a  plan  for  remedying 
the  evils  which  afflicted  his  native  country.  On  his  return  he  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  business  of  framing  a  new  constitution  for  Sparta, 
after  consulting  the  Delphic  oracle,  which  assured  him  that "  the 
constitution  he  should  establish  would  be  the  most  excellent  in  the 
world. ^'     Having  enlisted  the  aid  of  the  most  illustrious  citizens, 

v.  DiOTTrt;-  ^^  ^^^  ^P  ^™^  ^  support  him,  he  procured  the 
T10N8  OF     enactment  of  a  code  of  laws,  by  which  the  form  of 

LTouR  OU8.  government,  the  military  discipline  of  the  people,  the 
distribution  of  property,  the  education  of  the  citizens,  and  the  rules 

1.  ItteSnia^  ritnaW  at  the  aoutheni  extremity  of  Greece,  had  Af  golls  uA  ArcMla  on  the 
north,  Meas^nia  on  the  west,  and  the  sea  on  the  sonth  and  east.  Its  extent  wss  about  flAy 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  fh>m  twenty  to  thirty  fPom  east  to  west  Its  principal  river  was 
the  EurOtaa,  on  the  western  bank  of  which  was  Sparta,  the  capital ;  and  its  mountains  were 
the  ranges  of  Par'  non  on  the  north  and  east,  and  of  Tayg'etus  on  the  west,  which  rendered 
the  fertile  vall^'  of  the  Eur6tas,  comprising  the  principal  part  of  L8c6nla,  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult of  access.  Tlie  two  southern  promontories  of  Lac6nia  were  Hal^a  and  Taaniurlum,  now 
callod  St.  Angelo  and  SAtapan.    (Map  No.  I.) 

2.  The  Ar"  gives  proper  were  inhabitants  of  the  state  and  cfly  of  Ar'gos ;  but  the  word  It 
often  applied  by  the  poets  to  oil  tlie  inhabitants  of  Greece.    (Map  No.  L)  ^ 

3.  The  Brahmins  were  a  ctaus  of  Hindoo  priests  and  philosophers,  worshippers  of  the  Indian 
god  Brama,  the  supposed  creator  of  the  world.  They  were  the  only  persons  who  understood 
the  Sanscrit,  the  ancient  language  of  Hlndoostan,  in  which  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindooi 
were  wrlttim. 

B.-Tlilrwa]],Lp.l75. 


Chap.  IEL]  GRECIAN  HISTORY  49 

of  domestic  life,  were  to  be  established  on  a  new  and  immutable 
basis. 

11.  The  account  which  Plutarch  gives  of  these  regulations  asserts 
that  Lvcur'  gus  first  established  a  senate  of  thirty  members,  chosen 
for  life,  the  two  kings  being  of  the  number,  and  that  the  former 
shared  the  power  of  the  latter.  There  were  also  to  be  assemblies  of 
the  people,  who  were  to  have  no  right  to  propose  any  subject  of  de- 
bate, but  were  only  authorized  to  ratify  or  reject  what  might  be 
proposed  to  them  by  the  senate  and  the  kings.  Lycur'gus  next 
made  a  new  division  of  the  lands,  for  here  he  found  great  inequality 
existing,  as  there  were  many  indigent  persons  who  had  no  lands,  and 
the  wealth  was  centred  in  the  hands  of  a  few. 

12.  In  order  farther  to  remove  inequalities  among  the  citizens, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  place  all  on  the  same  level,  he  next  at- 
tempted to  divide  the  movable  property ;  but  as  this  measure  met 
with  great  opposition,  he  had  recourse  to  another  method  for  accom- 
plishing the  same  object.  He  stopped  the  currency  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver coin,  and  permitted  iron  money  only  to  be  used ;  and,  to  a  great 
quantity  and  weight  of  this  he  assigned  but  a  small  value,  so  that, 
to  remove  one  or  two  hundred  dollars  of  this  money  would  require 
a  yoke  of  oxen.  This  regulation  put  an  end  to  many  kinds  of  in- 
justice, for  "  Who,"  says  Plutarch,  "  would  sfeal  or  take  a  bribe ; 
who  would  defraud  or  rob,  when  he  could  not  conceal  the  booty, — 
when  he  could  neither  be  dignified  by  the  possession  of  it,  nor  be 
served  by  its  use  ?"  Unprofitable  and  superfluous  arts  were  excluded, 
trade  with  foreign  States  was  abandoned;  and  luxury,  losing  its 
sources  of  support,  died  away  of  itself 

13.  To  promote  sobriety,  all  the  citizens,  and  even  the  kings,  ate 
at  public  tables,  and  of  the  plainest  fare ;  each  individual  being  ob- 
liged to  bring  in,  monthly,  certain  provisions  for  the  common  use. 
This  regulation  was  designed,  moreover,  to  furnish  a  kind  of  school, 
where  the  young  might  be  instructed  by  the  conversation  of  their 
elders.  From  his  birth,  every  Spartan  belonged  to  the  State; 
sickly  and  deformed  infants  were  destroyed,  those  only  being  thought 
worthy  to  live  who  promised  to  become  useful  members  of  the  com- 
munity. The  object  of  Spartan  education  was  to  render  children 
expert  in  manly  exercises,  hardy,  and  courageous ;  and  the  principal 
aim  of  Lycur'  gus  appears  to  have  been  to  render  the'  Spartans  a  na- 
tion of  warriors,  although  not  of  conquerors,  for  he  dreaded  the  ef- 
feotfl  of  an  extension  of  territory  boyond  the  boundaries  of  Lac6nia. 

o 


60  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  [Pa»i  I. 

14.  Lycur' gufl  left  none  of  his  laws  in  writing;  and  some  of  the 
regulations  attributed  to  him  were  probably  the  results  of  subsequent 
legislation.  It  is  even  a  disputed  point  in  what  age  Lycur'gus 
lived,  some  making  him  cotempdtary  with  the  Heraclidao,  and  others 
dating  his  era  four  hundred  years  later,  after  the  close  of  the  Messe- 
nian  wars ;  but  the  great  mass  of  evidence  fixes  his  legislation  in 
the  nmth  century  before  the  Christian  era.  It  is  said  that  after  he 
had  completed  his  work,  he  set  out  on  a  journey,  having  previously 
bound  the  Spartans  by  an  oath  to  make  no  change  in  his  laws  untD 
his  return,  and,  that  they  might  never  be  released  from  the  obliga- 
tion, he  voluntarily  banished  himself  forever  from  his  country, 
and  died  in  a  foreign  land.  The  place  and  manner  of  his  death 
are  unknown,  but  Derphos,  Crete,  and  E'lis,*  all  claimed  his 
tomb. 

15.  There  were  three  classes  among  the  population  of  Lac6nia : — 
the  Dorians  of  Sparta ;  their  serfs,  the  Helots ;  and  the  people  of 
the  provincial  districts.*  The  former,  properly  called  Spartans, 
were  the  ruling  caste,  who  neither  employed  themselves  in  agricul- 
ture nor  commerce,  nor  practiced  any  mechanical  art.^  The  Helots 
were  slaves,  who,  as  is  generally  believed,  on  account  of  their  obsti- 
nate resistance  in  some  ^arly  wars,  and  subsequent  conquest,  had  been 
reduced  to  the  most  degrading  servitude.  They  were  always  "viewed 
with  suspicion  by  their  masters,  and  although  some  were  occasionally 
emancipated,  yet  measures  of  the  most  atrocious  violence  were  often 
adopted  to  reduce  the  strength  and  break  the  spirits  of  the  bravest 
and  most  aspiring,  who  might  threaten  an  insurrection. 

16.  The  people  of  the  provincial  districts  were  a  mixed  race,  com- 
posed partly  of  strangers  who  had  accompanied  the  D6rians,  and 
aided  them  in  their  conquest,  and  partly  of  the  old  inhabitants  of 
the  country  who  had  submitted  to  the  conquerors.  The  provincials 
were  under  the  control  of  the  Spartan  government,  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  which  they  had  no  share,  and  the  lands  which  they  held 
were  tributary  to  the  State ;  they  formed  an  important  part  of  the 

1.  Del'pbos  and  Cr6te  bave  been  described.  The  Buramlt  of  Mount  T  da,  in  CMte,  was 
ncred  to  J<ip1ter.  Here  also  Gyb'  ele,  tbe  **  mother  of  the  ffodt,**  was  worshf  ppod.  (The 
Moxuit  I'  da  mentioned  by  tbe  poets  was  in  tbe  Yicinity  of  ancient  Troy.)  E'  lis  was  a  district 
of  tbe  Peloponnesus,  lying  west  of  Arc4dla.  At  Olym'  pia,  situated  on  tbe  rirer  Alph^ua,  ta 
tbts  district,  tbe  celebratM  Olympic  games  were  celebrated  in  bonor  of  Jupiter.  £'  lUj  the 
eapital  of  tbe  districti  was  situated  on  tbe  river  Pen^us,  thirty  miles  north-west  (torn  Olym  pia, 

a.  Tblrwall,  i.  1£8.  b.  HiU^s  Instilutlons  of  Ancient  Greaee,  p.  lA 


€haf.  m]  GREOIAN  HISTORY.  61 

militarj  force  of  the  country,  and,  on  the  whole,  had  little  to  com- 
plain of  but  the  want  of  political  independence. 

17.  During  a  century  or  more  after  the  time  of  Lycur'gus.  the 
Spartans  remained  at  peace  with  tlfeir  neighbors,  except  a  few  petty 
contests  on  the  side  of  Arcd.dia  and  Ar'  gos.  Jealousies,  however, 
arose  between  the  Spartans  and  their  brethren  of  Messenia,'  which, 
stimulated  by  insults  and  injuries  on  both  sides,  gave  rise  to  l!he  first 
Messenian  war,  743  years  before  the  Christian  era.  vi.  firot  mes- 
Afler  a  conflict  of  twenty  years,  the  Messenians  were  sen i an  wae. 
obliged  to  abandon  theur  principal  fortress  of  Ith6me,'  and  to  leave 
their  rich  fields  in  the  possession  of  the  conquerors.  A  few  of  the 
inhabitants  withdrew  into  foreign  lands,  but  the  principal  citizens 
took  refuge  in  Ar'  gos  and  Arcadia ;  while  those  who  remained  were 
reduced  to  a  condition  little  better  than  that  of  the  Laconian  He- 
lota,  being  obliged  to  pay  to  their  masters  one-half  of  the  fruits  of 
the  land  which  they  were  allowed  to  till.  • 

18.  The  Messenian  war  exerted  a  great  influence  on  the  character 
and  subsequent  history  of  the  Spartans,  as  it  gave  a  full  development 
to  the.  warlike  spirit  which  the  institutions  of  Lycur'  gus  were  so 
well  calculated  to  encourage.     The  Spartans,  stern  and  unyielding 
in  their  exactions  from  the  conquered,  again  drove  the  Messenians 
to  revolt  (685  B.  C),  thirty-nine  years  after  the  termi-  ^jj  second 
nation  of  the  former  war.     The  latter  found  a  worthy    messenian 
leader  in  Aristom'  enes,  whose  valor  in  the  first  battle       ^^*" 
struck  fear  into  his  enemies,  and  inspired  his  countrymen  with  con- 
fidence.    The  Spartans,  sending  to  the  Delphic  oracle  for  advice, 
lyoeived  the  mortifying  response,  that  they  must  seek  a  leader  from 
the  Athenians,  between  whose  country  and  Lac6nia  there  had  been 
no  intercourse  for  several  centuries. 

19.  The  Athenians,  fearing  to  disobey  the  oracle,  and  reluctant 
to  farther  the  cause  of  the  Spartans,  sent  to  the  latter  the  poet  Tyr- 
tas'  us,  who  had  never  been  distinguished  as  a  warrior.  His  patriotic 
odes,  however,  roused  the  spirit  of  the  Spartans,  who,  obtaining  Do- 
rian auxiliaries  from  Corinth,"  commenced  the  war  anew.     The 

].  Mi$$sinU  WM  a  ooiintry  west  of  Lac6nia,  and  at  the  aonth-westem  extremity  of  the 
Feloponn^soa.  It  was  separated  from  £'  Us  oo  the  north  by  the  river  Nddo,  and  from  Arc&dia 
tnd  Lacunia  by  mountain  ranges.  The  Pamisus  was  Us  principal  river.  On  the  western  coast 
was  tlie  deep  bay  of  Py'Ins,  which  has  become  celebrated  in  modem  history  under  the  name 
of  A*a««r>ao  (see  pJlT)— the  only  perfect  harbor  of  Southern  Greece.    (Map  No.  I,) 

SL  Jtkdme  waa  tn  Ceniral  Uesa^nla,  on  a  high  bill  on  the  western  side  of  the  vale  of  the 
Panlsns.    (JM^NcL) 

H  GkiKliii*  waa  ritaat«l  near  tte  Isthmus  of  the  same  name,  belweeo  the  Gulf  of  Lepaa'  to 


62  ANCIENT  HTSTORT.  [PamI 

Mo8S(*niana,  on  tho  other  hand,  were  aided  by  forces  from  Sic' yen* 
and  Ar'  jj^oh,  Arcadia  and  K'  lis,  and,  in  a  great  battle  near  the  mouth 
of  tho  Paniisus,'  in  Messonia,  they  completely  routed  their  enemies. 
In  tlio  third  year  of  the  war  thcw Arcadian  auxiliaries  of  the  Mesae- 
niaus,  Reduced  by  bribes,  deserted  them  in  the  heat  of  battle,  and 
gave  tho  victory  to  the  Spartans. 

20. -The  war  continued,  with  Various  success,  seventeen  years, 
throughout  the  whole  of  which  period  Aristom^enes  distinguished 
himself  by  many  noble  exploits;  but  all  his  efforts  to  save  his 
eountry  wore  ineffectual.  A  second  time  Sparta  conquered  (668), 
and  tlio  yoke  appeared  to  be  fixed  on  Meas^nia  forever.  Thence- 
forward tho  gn)wing  power  and  reputation  of  Sparta  seemed  des- 
tined to  undisputed  preeminence,  not  only  in  the  Peloponnesus,  but 
throughout  all  Greece. 

21,  At  tho  period  of  the  close  of  the  second  Messenian  war, 
Athens,  as  previously  stated,  was  under  the  aris{ocratical  govem- 
mont  of  a  senate  of  archous-magistrates  chosen  by  the  nobility  from 
thoir  own  order,  who  possessed  all  authority,  religious,  civil,  and 
military.  Tho  Athenian  populace  not  only  enjoyed  no  political 
rights,  but  was  reduced  to  a  condition  but  little  above  servitude ; 
and  it  appears  to  have  bi^en  owing  to  the  anarchy  that  arose  from 
ruinous  extortions  of  the  nobles  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  resistance 
,  of  the  people  on  the  other,  that  Dr4co,  the  most  eminent 
*  of  the  nobility,  was  chosen  to  prepare  the  first  written 
code  of  laws  for  the  government  of  the  State.     (622  B.  C) 


on  the  north-WMt,  nad  of  jR((lna  on  the  aoath-Mat,  two  mDw  fh>in  ibe  neamst  point  of  ffte 
former,  and  vevoti  fhim  the  Inllor.  Tho  site  of  the  town  was  at  the  north  foot  of  a  ateep  rock 
called  the  Acrop'  oils  of  Cor'  inth,  1,336  feet  in  height,  the  summit  of  which  1b  now,  as  In  an- 
tiquity, occupliHl  as  a  fbrtreas.  This  eminence  may  be  distinctly  seen  trom  Athena,  fh>m  which 
It  is  distant  no  loss  than  forty-four  miles  in  a  direct  line.  Cor'  inth  was  a  large  and  popalona 
city  when  St.  Paul  preached  the  Gospel  there  for  a  year  and  six  months.  (Acta,  xTilt.  11.) 
The  present  town,  though  of  considerable  extent,  la  thinly  peopled.  The  only  Gneian  nlii 
now  to  be  seen  there  is  a  dilapidated  Doric  temple.  (Map  No.  I,) 

**  Where  is  thy  grandeur  Corinth  ?    Shrunk  fh>m  8ifl(bt, 
*  Thy  ancient  troasnre^  and  thy  rampart's  height, 

Thy  god-like  fanes  and  palaces !    Oh,  where 
Thy  mighty  myriads  and  miotic  fair ! 
ReientloM  war  has  poured  around  thy  wall, 
And  hardly  spared  the  traces  of  thy  fall  P 

I.  Sie'  yon,  once  a  great  and  flourishing  city,  was  situated  near  the  Gulf  of  I^pan'  to,  about 
ten  miles  north-west  flx)m  Cor'  inth.  It  boasted  a  high  antiquity,  and  by  some  was  considered 
older  than  Ar'gos.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  town  are  aUU  lo  be  aoen  near  the  small  modern 
Tillage  of  Baallioo.    {Map  No.  I.) 

9,  Tlie  P*mU%t  (now  called  th«  FisMtM)  was  tlie  principal  rlw  of.Mafi^nMt     iMof  Ho  L) 


CfaAP.  In.]  GRE0IA1{  H/STORY.  63 

22.  The  severity  of  his  laws  has  made  his  name  proverbial.  Their 
diaracter  was  thought  to  he  happily  expressed,  when  one  said  of  them 
&at  they  were  written,  not  in  ink,  bat  in  blood.  He  attached  the 
game  penalty  to  petty  thefts  as  to  sacrilege  and  murder,  saying  that 
the  former  offences  deserved  ddath,  and  he  had  no  greater  punishment 
for  the  latter.  It  is  thought  that  the  nobles  suggested  the  severity 
of  the  laws  of  Drdco,  thinking  they  would  be  a  convenient  instru- 
ment of  oppression  in  their  hands ;  but  human  nature  revolted  . 
against  such  legalized  butchery,  and  the  system  of  Draco  soon  fell 
into  disuse. 

23.  The  commonwealth  was  finally  reduced  to  complete  anarchy, 
without  law,  or  order,  or  system  in  the  administration  of  justice, 
when  Solon,  who  was  descended  from  the  line  of  Codrus,  was  raised 
to  the  office  of  first  magistrate  (594  B.  0.),  and,  by  the  consent  of  all 
parties,  was  chosen  as  a  general  arbiter  of  their  differ-  ^^  legisla- 
ences,  and  inve^d  with  full  authority  to  frame  a  new  tion  of 
constitution  and  a  new  code  of  laws.  The  almost  unlim-  *<^lo^- 
ited  power  conferred  upon  Solon  might  easily  have  been  perverted 
to  dangerous  purposes,  and  many  advised  him  to  make  himself  ab- 
solute njaster  of  the  State,  and  at  once  quell  the  numerous  factions 
by  the  exercise  of  royal  authority.  And,  indeed,  such  a  usurpation 
would  probably  have  been  acquiesced  in  with  but  little  opposition, 
as  offering,  for  a  time  at  least,  a  refuge  from  evils  that  had  already 
become  too  intolerable  to  be  borne.  But  the  stern  integrity  of  Solon 
was  proof  against  all  temptations  to  swerve  from  the  path  of  honor, 
and  betray  the  sacred  trust  reposed  in  him. 

24.  The  grievous  exactions  of  the  ruling  orders  had  abeady  re- 
duced the  laboring  classes,  generallyj  to  poverty  and  abject  depend- 
ence :  all  whom  bad  times  or  casual  disasters  had  compelled  to  bor- 
row, had  been  impoverished  by  the  high  rates  of  interest;  and 
thousands  of  insolvent  debtors  had  been  sold  into  slavery,  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  relentless  creditors.  In  this  situation  of  affairs  the  most 
violent  or  needy  demanded  a  new  distribution  of  property,  as  had  been 
done  in  Sparta ;  while  the  rich  would  have  held  on  to  all  the  fruits 
of  their  extortion  and  tyranny. 

25.  But  Solon,  pursuing  a  middle  coarse  between  these  extremes, 
relieved  the  debtor  by  reducing  the  rate  of  interest,  and  enhancing 
the  value  of  the  currency,  so  that  three  silver  minae  paid  an  indebt- 
edness of  four :  he  also  relieved  the  lands  of  the  poor  from  all  in- 
oombrances  \  he  abolished  imprisonment  for  debt  \  he  restored  to 


54  AHCIENT  HISTORY.  [PabtL 

liberty  those  whom  poverty  had  placed  in  bondage ;  and  he  repealed 
all  the  laws  of  Draco,  except  those  against  murder.  He  next  ar- 
ranged all  the  citizens  in  four  classes,  according  to  their  landed 
property;  the  first  class  alone  being  eligible  to  the  highest  civil 
offices  and  the  highest  commands  in  the  army,  while  only  a  few  of 
the  lower  offices  were  open  to  the  second  and  third  classes.  The 
latter  classes,  however,  were  partially  relieved  from  taxation ;  bat  in 
war  they  were  required  to  equip  themselves  for  military  service,  the 
one  as  cavalry,  and  the  other  as  heavy  armed  infantry. 

26.  Individuals  of  the  fourth  class  were  excluded  from  all  offices, 
but  in  return  they  were  wholly  exempt  from  taxation ;  and  yet  they 
had  a  share  in  the  government,  for  they  were  permitted  to  take  part 
in  the  popular  assemblies,  which  had  the  right  of  confirming  or  reject- 
ing new  laws,  and  of  electing  the  magistrates ;  and  here  their  votes 
counted  the  same  as  those  of  the  wealthiest  of  the  nobles.  In  war 
they  served  only  as  light  troops,  or  manned  the  i^ets.  Thus  the 
system  of  Solon,  being  based  primarily  on  property  qualifications, 
provided  for  all  the  freemen ;  and  its  aim  was  to  bestow  upon  the 
commonalty  such  a  share  in  the  government  as  would  enable  it  to 
protect  itself,  and  to  give  to  the  wealthy  what  was  necessary  for  re- 
taining their  dignity ; — throwing  the  burdens  of  government  on  the 
latter,  and  not  excluding  the  former  from  its  benefits. 

27.  Solon  retained  the  magistracy  of  the  nine  archons,  but  with 
abridged  powers ;  and,  as  a  guard  against  democratical  extravagance 
on  the  one  hand,  and  a  check  to  undue  assumptions  of  power  on 
the  other,  he  instituted  a  Senate  of  Four  Hundred,  and  foimded  or 
remodelled  the  court  of  the  Areop'  agus.  The  Senate  consisted  of 
members  selected  by  lot  from  the  first  three  classes ;  but  none  could 
be  appointed  to  this  honor  until  they  had  undergone  a  strict  ex- 
amination into  their  past  lives,  characters,  and  qualifications.  The 
Senate  was  to  be  consulted  by  the  archons  in  all  important  mat- 
ters, and  was  to  prepare  all  new  laws  and  regulations,  ^hich  were 
to  be  submitted  to  the  votes  of  the  assembly  of  the  people. 

28.  The  court  of  the  Areop'  agus,  which  held  its  sittings  on  an 
eminence  on  the  western  side  of  the  Athenian  Acrop'  olis,  was  com- 
posed of  persons  who  had  hold  the  office  of  archon,  and  was  the 
supreme  tribunal  in  all  capital  cases.  It  exercised,  also,  a  general 
Bupcrintendenoe  over  education,  morals,  and  religion ;  and  it  could 
suspend  a  resolution  of  the  public  assembly  which  it  deemed  fraught 
with  folly  or  injustice,  until  it  had  undergone  a  reconsideration. 


Chaf.  HI]  GRECIAN  HISTORY.  55 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  institutions  of  Solon,  which  exhibit  a 
mingling  of  aristocracy  and  democracy,  well  adapted  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  age,*  and  the  circumstances  of  the  people.  They  exhibit 
less  control  over  the  pursuits  and  domestic  habits  of  individuals  than 
the  Spartan  code,  but  at  the  same  time  they  show  a  far  greater  re 
gard  for  the  public  morals. 

29.  The  legislation  of  Solon  was  not  followed  by  the  total  extinc- 
tion of  party  spirit,  and  ere  long  the  three  prominent  factions  in  the 
State  renewed  their  ancient  feuds.  Pisis'  tratus,  a  wealthy  kinsman 
of  Solon,  who  had  supported  the  measures  of  the  latter  by  his  elo- 
quence and  military  talents,  had  the  art  to  gain  the  favor  of  the 
populace,  and  constitute  himself  their  leader.  When  his  schemes 
were  ripe  for  execution,  he  one  day  drove  into  the  public  square, 
his  mules  and  himself  disfigured  with  recent  wounds  inflicted  by  his 
own  hands,  but  which  he  induced  the  multitude  to  believe  had  been 
received  from  a  band  of  isussassins,  whom  his  enemies,  the  nobility, 
had  hired  to  murder  the  friend  of  the  people.  An  assembly  was 
immediately  convoked  by  his  partizans,  and  the  indignant  crowd 
voted  him  a  guard  of  fifty  citizens  to  protect  his  person,  although 
warned  by  Solon  of  the  pernicious  consequences  of  such  a  measure. 

30.  Pisis'  tratus  took  advantage  of  the  popular  favor  which  he  had 
gained,  and,  arming  a  larger  body,  seized  the  Acrop'  olis,  and  made 
himself  master  of  Athens.  But  the  usurper,  satisfied  with  the  power 
of  quietly  directing  the  administration  of  government,  made  no 
changes  in  the  constitution,  and  suffered  the  laws  to  take  their  or- 
dinary course.  The  government  of  Pisis'  tratus  was  probably  a  less 
evil  than  would  have  resulted  from  the  success  of  either  of  the  other 
factions ;  and  in  this  light  Solon  appears  to  have  viewed  it,  although 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  denounce  the  usurpation;  and,  rejecting  the 
usurper's  offers  of  favor,  it  is  said  that  he  went  into  voluntary  exile, 
and  died  at  Sal'  amis.*  (559  B.  C.)  Twice  was  Pisis'  tratus  driven 
from  Athens  by  a  coalition  of  the  opposing  factions ;  but  as  the  latter 
were  almost  constantly  at  variance  with  each  other,  he  finally  returned 
at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  regained  the  sovereignty,  which  he  held 
until  his  death.  Although  he  tightened  the  reins  of  government,  yet 
he  ruled  with  equity  and  mildness,  courting  popularity  by  a  generous 
treatment  of  the  poorer  citizens,  and  gratifying  the  national  pride 
by  adorning  Athens  with  many  useful  and  magnificent  works, 

1.  Sal'  amis  ia  an  ialaod  in  the  Gulf  of  ^gina,  near  tho  coast  of  At'  tica,  and  twelTO  or  fUlaeB 
ml'ca  floutli-WMt  from  Athena.    (5m  Map  No.  I.) 


55  AirCEENT  HISTORY.  [PaetL 

31.  On  the  death  of  Pisis  tratus  (528  B.  C),  his  bodb  Hip'piaa, 
Hippar'  chuB,  and  Thes'  salus  succeeded  to  his  power,  and  for  some 
years  trod  in  his  steps  and  prosecuted  his  plans,  only  taking  care  to 
fill  the  most  important  offices  with  their  friends,  and  keeping  a  stand- 
ing force  of  foreign  mercenaries  to  secure  theuiselves  from  hostile 
factions  and  popular  outbreaks.  After  a  joint  reign  of  fourteen 
years  a  conspiracy  was  planned  to  free  At'  tica^from  their  rule,  at 
the  head  of  which  were  two  young  Athenians,  Harmodius  and  Aris- 
togeiton,  whose  personal  resentment  had  been  provoked  by  an  atro- 
cious insult  to  the  family  of  the  former.  Hippar'  chus  was  killed, 
but  the  two  young  Athenians  also  lost  their  lives  in  the  struggle. 

32.  Hip'pias,  the  elder  of  the  ruling  brothers,  now  that  he  had 
injuries  to  avenge,  became  a  cruel  tyrant,  and  thus  alienated  the  af- 
fections of  the  people.  The  latter  finally  obtained  aid  from  the 
7L  EXPULSION  ^partaus,  and  the  family  of  the  Pisistratids  was  driven 

OF  THE  from  Athens,  never  to  regain  its  former* ascendency ;  al- 
pisisTRATiDs.  though  but  a  few  years  after  its  expulsion,  Sparta,  re- 
penting the  course  she  had  taken,  made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  restore 
Hip'  pias  to  the  throne  of  which  she  had  aided  in  depriving  him. 
Hip'  pias  then  fled  to  the  court  of  Artapanes,  governor  of  Lyd'  ia,^ 
tlicn  a  part  of  the  Persian  dominions  of  Darius,  where  his  intrigues 
f^reatly  contributed  to  the  opening  of  a  war  between  Greece  and 
Persia.' 

33.  Nearly  half  a  century  before  this  time,  Croe'sus,*  king  of 
Lyd'  ia,  had  conquered  the  Grecian  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor ;  but  he  ruled  them  with  great  mildness,  leaving  them  their 
political  institutions  undisturbed,  and  requiring  of  them  little  more 
than  the  payment  of  a  moderate  tribute.  A  few  years  later  they 
experienced  a  change  of  masters,  and,  together  with  Lyd'  ia,  fell,  by 
conquest,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Persians.  But  they  were  still 
allowed  to  retain  their  own  form  of  government  by  paying  tribute  to 
their  conquerors ;  yet  they  seized  every  opportunity  to  deliver  them- 

1.  Lyd'  ia  was  a  country  on  Uie  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  baring*  M>'b' la  on  the  north,  Phryg'ia 
on  the  east,  and  Oftria  on  the  south.  The  Grecian  colony  or  Ionia  was  embraced  within  Lyd'  ia 
and  the  northern  part  ofC^riaf  extending  along  the  coast.    (Map  No.  IV.) 

2.  Modem  Persia,  a  large  country  of  Central  Asia,  extends  from  the  Caspian  Sea  on  th0 
north,  to  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south,  having  Asiatic  Turlioy  on  tho  west,  and  the  provinces 
of  Affghanistan  and  Beloochistan  on  the  east.  For  the  greatest  extent  of  the  Persian  empire, 
which  was  during  tbe  reign  of  Darius  Uystas'  pes,  see  the  Jittp  No.  V. 

3.  Cret'  «Krf,  the  last  liing  of  Lyd'  ia,  was  famed  for  his  riches  and  munificence.  Herod'  otu* 
(1.  30-33,  and  36,  &c.)  and  Plutarch  (life  of  Solon)  give  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  visit 
of  the  Athenian  Solon  to  the  court  of  that  prince,  who  greatly  prided  himself  on  hit  richea^ 
•Dd  vainly  thought  himself  the  happiest  of  mankind. 


Chaf.  HL]  GRECIAN  HISTORY.  67 

selves  from  this  species  of  tliraldom,  and  finally  the  I^nians  sought 
the  aid  of  their  Grecian  countrymen,  making  application,  first  to 
Sparta,  hut  in  vain,  and  next  (B.  C.  500)  to  Athens,  and  the  Grecian 
islands  of  the  J&'  gean  Sea. 

34.  The  Athenians,  irritated  at  this  time  hy  a  haughty  demand 
of  the  Persian  monarch,  that  they  should  restore  Hip'  pias  to  the 
throne,  and  regarding  Darius  as  an  avowed  enemy,  gladly  took  part 
with  the  I6nian8,  and,  in  connection  with  Euhoe'  a,*  fur-  xi.  ionio 
nished  their  Asiatic  countrymen  with  a  fleet  of  twenty-  revolt.  , 
five  sail.  The  allied  Grecians  were  at  first  successfol,  ravaging 
Lyd'  ia,  and  burning  Sar'  dis,'  its  capital ;  but  in  the  end  they  were 
defeated  near  Bph'  esus;*  the  commanders  quarrelled  with  each  other ; 
and  the  Athenians  sailed  home,  leaving  the  Asiatic  Greeks  divided 
among  themselves,  to  contend  alone  against  the  whole  power  of  Per- 
sia. Still  the  I6nian  war  was  protracted  six  years,  when  it  was  ter- 
Bunated  by  the  storming  of  Miletus,*  (B.  C.  494,)  the  capital  of  the 
I6oiaa  confederacy.      The  surviving  inhabitants  of  this  beautiful 

i.  Eubm'  0,  (sow  called  Nog*  nipont',)  a  long,  narrow,  and  trregnlar  Island  of  the  M'  geon 
Sea,  (now  Grecian  Archlpel'  ago,)  extended  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  along  the  eastern  coaat 
ofBceAtta  and  AV  Uca,  flrom  which  It  was  separated  by  the  channel  of  Eurlpus,  which,  at  one 
place,  was  only  forty  yards  acroaa.  The  chief  town  of  the  island  waa  Chal'  els,  (now  Neg'  ro- 
poni',)  on  the  western  coast.    (Map  No.  I.) 

tL  8ar^  dU,  the  ancient  capital  of  Lyd'  ia,  was  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Pactolus,  a 
tOQfheni  branch  of  the  Her'mua,  seventy  miles  east  from  Smyr'  na.  In  the  annals  of  Cliris- 
tianity,  Sar*  dla  is  distinguished  as  having  been  one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia.  A  mis- 
erable village,  called  Sart,  is  now  found  on  the  site  of  this  ancient  city.    (Map  No.  IV.) 

3L  £pk'*»u»,  one  of  the  I6nlan  cities,  was  situated  on  the  south  side,  and  near  the  mouth 
of  the  small  river  Gays' ter,  on  the  coast  of  Lyd'  ia,  thirty-eight  miles  south  from  Smyr'na. 
Here  stood  a  noble  temple,  erected  in  honor  of  the  goddess  Diana ;  but  an  obscure  individ- 
oal,  of  the  name  of  Reros*iratna,  burned  it,  in  order  to  perpetuate  his  memory  by  the  infamoua 
BoCmlelj  which  such  an  act  would  give  him  I  The  grand  council  of  I6nia  endeavored  to  dis- 
appoint the  incendiary  by  passing  a  decree  that  his  name  should  not  be  mentioned,  but  it  was 
dSruIged  by  the  historian  Theopom'  pus,  A  new  temple  was  subsequently  built,  far  surpassing 
the  flnt,  and  ranked  among  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  When  St.  Paul  visited  Eph'  esus, 
•tUl  the  cry  was,  **  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephisians"  (Acts,  xix.  28,  34) ;  but  the  worship  of  tho 
goddess  was  doomed  speedily  to  decline,  and  here  St.  Paul  founded  the  principal  of  the  Asiatio 
ohorebes.  Bat  war,  the  ravages  of  earthquakes,  and  the  desolating  hand  of  time,  have  com- 
pleted the  ruin  of  this  once  &mous  city.  "  The  glorious  pomp  of  its  heathen  worship  is  no 
longer  remembered ;  and  Christianity,  which  was  there  nursed  by  apostles,  and  fostered  by 
general  eounclta,  until  it  increased  to  Ailness  of  stature,  barely  lingers  on  in  an  existence 
hardly  visible."    (Mapfio.IY.) 

4.  MilitMMf  the  most  dlaUnguished  of  the  Ionian  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  and  once  greatly  cele- 
brated for  its  population,  wealth,  commerce,  and  civilization,  was  situated  in  the  province  of 
Ctfia,  on  the  soofthem  shore  of  the  bay  into  which  the  small  river  Lat'  mus  emptied,  and  about 
tUrty-flve  mlloa  south  from  Eph'  eaus.  SU  Paul  appears  to  have  sojourned  here  a  few  da}*8 ; 
woA  here  he  assembled  the  elders  of  the  Epb<^slnn  church,  and  delivered  unto  them  an  affec- 
tfonate  llvewell  address.  (Acta,  xx.  15,  38.)  MlK^tus  is  now  a  deserted  place,  but  contains  the 
rulm  of  a  few  once  magnlflcent  structures,  and  itiU  )eani  the  name  of  Palat^  or  the  Palace»» 
iMof.  Ifo.  IV.) 

0* 


58  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  fP^il 

and  opulent  city  were  carried  away  by  order  of  Darfas,  and  settled 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Tigris.  Darius  next  turned  his  resentment 
against  the  Athenians  and  Eubod'ans,  who  had  aided  the  Ionian 
revolt, — meditating,  however,  nothing  less  than  the  conquest  of  all 
Greece  (B.  C.  490).  The  events  of  the  "  Persian  War"  which  fol- 
lowed, will  next  be  narrated,  after  we  shall  have  given  some  general 
views  of  cotemporary  history,  during  the  period  which  we  haye  passed 
over  in  the  preceding  part  of  the  present  chapter. 

COTEMPORARY  HISTORY  :  1184  to  490  B.  C. 

[I.  Phcenician  History.] — 1.  The  name  Phoenicia  was  applied  to 
the  north-western  part  of  Palestine  and  part  of  the  coast  of  Syria, 
embracing  the  country  from  Mount  Carmel,  north,  along  the  coast, 
to  the  city  and  island  Aradus, — an  extent  of  about  a  hundred  and 
fifty  miles.  The  mountain  ranges  of  Lib'  anus  and  Anti-Lib'  anuB 
formed  the  utmoSt  extent  of  the  Phoenician  territory  on  the  east 
The  surface  of  the  country  was  in  general  sandy  and  hilly,  and  poorly 
adapted  to  agriculture ;  but  the  coast  abounded  in  good  harbors, 
and  the  fisheries  were  excellent,  while  the  mountain  ranges  in  the 
interior  afforded,  in  their  cedar  forests,  a  rich  supply  of  timber  for 
naval  and  other  purposes. 

2.  At  a  remote  period  the  Phoenicians,  who  are  supposed  to  have 
been  of  the  race  of  the  Canaanites,*^  were  a  commercial  people,  but 
the  loss  of  the  Phoenician  annals  renders  it  difficult  to  investigate 
their  early  history.  Their  principal  towns  were  probably  indepen- 
dent States,  with  small  adjacent  territories,  like  the  little  Grecian 
republics;  and  no  political  union  appears  to  have  existed  among 
them,  except  that  arising  from  a  common  religious  worship,  until 
the  time  of  the  Persians.  The  Phoenicians  occupied  Sicily  before 
the  Greeks ;  they  made  themselves  masters  of  Cy'  prus,  and  they 
formed  settlements  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa ;  but  the  chief 
seat  of  their  early  colonial  establishments  was  the  southern-part  of 
Spain,  whence  they  are  said  to  have  extended  their  voyages  to  Brit- 
ain, and  even  to  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic. 

3.  It  is  also  related  by  Herod'  otus,  (B.  IV.  42,)  that  at  an  epoch 
which  is  believed  to  correspond  to  the  year  604  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  a  fleet  fitted  out  by  Pharaoh  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  but 
manned  and  commanded  by  Phoenicians,  departed  from  a  port  oa 

a.  N]ebubr*»  L«ct.  on  Ancient  lUti.  1. 113. 


Chap.  IIL]  JEWISH  HISTORY.  69 

the  Red  Sea,  and  sailing  south,  and  keeping  always  to  the  right, 
doubled  the  southern  promontory  of  Africa,  and>  after  a  voyage  of 
three  years  returned  to  Egypt  by  the  way  of  the  straits  of  Gibral- 
tar and  the  Mediterranean. ,  Herod'  otus  farther,  mentioncr  that  the 
navigators  asserted  that,  in  sailing  round  Africa,  they  had  the  sun 
on  their  right  hand,  or  to  the  north,  a  circumstance  which,  Herod'- 
otus  says,  to  him  seemed  incredible,  but  which  we  know  must  have 
been  the  case  if  the  voyage  was  actually  performed,  because  southern 
Africa  lies  south  of  the  ^uatorial  region.  Thus  was  Africa  prob- 
ably circumnavigated  by  the  Phoenicians,  more  than  two  thousand 
years  before  the  Portuguese  voyage  of  De  Gama. 

4.  The  Phoenicians  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  had  friendly  connections 
with  the  Hebrews ;  and  through  the  Red  Sea,  and  by  the  way  of 
the  Arabian  desert,  and  across  the  wilderness  of  Syria,  they  for  a 
long  time  carried  on  the  commercial  exchanges  between  Europe 
and  Asia.  From  the  time  of  the  great  commotions  in  Western 
Asia,  which  caused  the  downfall  of  so  many  independent  States,  and 
their  subjection  to  the  monarchs  of  Babylon  and  Persia,  the  com- 
mercial prosperity  of  the  Phoenicians  began  to  decline;  but  it  was 
the  founding  of  Alexandria  by  the  Macedonian  conqueror,  which 
proved  the  final  ruin  of  the  Phoenician  cities. 

[II.  Jewish  History.] — 5.  The  history  of  the  Jews,  which  has 
been  brought  down  to  the  accession  of  Saul  as  king  of  Israel,  pre- 
sents to  the  historian  a  fairer  field  than  that  of  the  Phoenicians, 
and  is  now  to  be  continued  down  to  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
their  Babylonian  captivity,  and  the  completion  of  ihe  rebuilding  of 
the  second  temple  of  Jerusalem. 

6.  Saul,  soon  after  his  accession  to  the  throne,  (B.  C.  1110,) 
which  was  about  the  tin^e  of  the  D6rian  emigration,  or  the  "  Return 
of  the  Heraclidae"  to  the  Peloponnesus,  gave  proof  of  his  military 
qualifications  by  a  signal  slaughter  of  the  Ammonites,  who  had  laid 
siege  to  Jdbesh-Gil'ead.'  In  a  solemn  assembly  of  the  tribes  at 
Gil'  gal,*  the  people  renewed  their  allegiance  to  their  new  sovereign, 
and  there  Samuel  resigned  his  office.  During  a  war  with  the  Phil- 
istines soon  after,  Saul  ventured  to  ask  counsel  of  the  Lord,  and 
assuming  the  sacerdotal  functions,  he  offered  the  solemn  sacrifice, 

1.  JUtah-OiV  ead  was  a  town  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan,  in  GiV  ead.    (Map  No.  Vl.) 
%  The  OU'giJ  boTB  mentioned  appean  to  have  been  a  ahoit  distance  west  or  n^-th-weat 
of  Sbechem,  near  the  country  of  the  Philistines.    (Jlfiqi  No.  VI.) 


to  ANCIKTr  fflSTORT.  [Pabt  I. 

A  dot  J  which  the  sacred  law  assigned  to  the  high-priest  alone  For 
this  violation  of  the  law  the  divine  displeasure  was  denounced  agabst 
him  hy  the  prophet  Samuel,  who  declared  to  him  that  his  kingdom 
should- not  continue ;  and  so  disheartened  were  the  people,  that  the 
army  of  Saul  soon  dwindled  away  to  six  hundred  men  ;  hut  by  the 
daring  valor  of  Jonathan,  his  son,  a  panic  was  spread  among  the 
Philistines,  and  their  whole  army  was  easily  overthrown. 

7.  During  several  years  after  this  victory,  Saul  carried  on  a  suo- 
CCiwful  warfare  against  the  different  nations  that  harassed  the  fron- 
tiers of  his  kingdom;  but  when  Agag,  the  king  of  the  Amalekites, 
had  fallen  into  his  hands,  in  violation  'of  the  divine  command  he 
spared  his  life,  and  brought  away  from  the  vanquished  enemy  a 
vast  booty  of  cattle.  For  not  fulfilling  his  commission  from  the 
Lord,  he  was  declared  unfit  to  be  the  founder  of  a  race  of  kings,  and 
was  told  that  the  sovereign  power  should  be  transferred  to  another 
family. 

8.  David,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  then  a  mere  youth,  was  di- 
vinely chosen  for  the  succession,  being  secretly  anointed  for  that 
purpose  by  Samuel.  In  the  next  war  with  the  Philistines  he  dis- 
tinguihhcd  himself  by  slaying  their  champion,  the  gigantic  Goliath 
of  Gath.*  Saul,  however,  looked  upon  David  with  a  jealousy  bor- 
dering on  madness,  and  made  frequent  attempts  to  take  his  life ; 
but  the  latter  sought  safety  in  exile,  and  for  a  while  took  up  his 
residence  in  a  Philistine  city.  Returning  to  Palestine,  he  sought 
refuge  from  the  anger  of  Saul  in  the  dens  and  caves  of  the  moun- 
tains ;  and  twice,  while  Saul  was  pursuing  him,  had  it  in  his  power 
to  destroy  his  persecutor,  but  he  would  not  "  lift  his  hand  agamst 
the  Lord's  anointed." 

9.  After  the  death  of  Samuel,  the  favor  of  the  Lord  was  wholly 
withdrawn  from  Saul ;  and  when  the  Philistines  invaded  the  country 
with  a  numerous  army,  several  of  the  sons  of  Saul  were  slain  in 
battle  on  3Iount  Gil'  boa,*  and  Saul  himself,  to  avoid  falling  alive 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  fell  upon  his  own  sword.  On  the 
death  of  Saul,  David  repaired  to  Hebron,*  and,  with  the  support  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  asserted  his  title  to  the  throne  ;  but  the  north- 
em  tribes  attached  themselves  to  Ishbosheth^  a  son  of  Saul ; — "  and 

1.  OatJk,  a  town  of  Uie  PhlllAUnes,  was  about  twenty-Ore  miles  weft  fh>m  Jerusalem.  (Map 
5o.  vr.) 

9.  Mount  aw  boa  Is  in  the  southern  part  of  Galilee,  a  short  distance  west  of  the  Joidaii 
{Xap  No.  VI.) 

3.  Miknn^  a  town  of  Judah,  was  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Jerusalem.    (.Map  No.  Vt) 


Coat  HI.]  JEWISH  HISTORY.  61 

tliere  was  long  war  between  the  house  of  Saul  and  the  house  of 
David ;  but  David  waxed  stronger  and  stronger,  and  the  house  of 
Saul  waxed  weaker  and  weaker."  The  death  of  Ishbosheth,  who 
fell  by  the  hands  of  two  of  his  own  guards,  removed  the  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  a  unigti  of  the  tribes,  and  at  Hebron  David  was  pub- 
licly recognized  king  of  all  Israel. 

10.  After  all  the  conquests  which  the  Israelites  had  made  in  the 
land  of  promise,  there  still  remained  large  portions  of  Palestine  of 
which  they  had  not  yet  gained  possession.  On  the  south-west  were 
the  strongholds  and  cities  of  the  Philistines ;  and  bordering  on  the 
north-western  coast  was  the  country  of  the  Phoenicians,  whose  two 
chief  cities  were  Tyre* 'and  Sidon."  Joppa*  was  the  only  Mediter« 
ranean  port  open  to  the  Israelites.  Even  in  the  very  heart  of  Pal- 
estine, the  Jeb'usit^s,  supposed  to  have  been  a  tribe  of  the  wan 
dering  Hyk'  sos,  possessed  the  stronghold  of  Jebus,  or  Jerusalem,* 
on  Mount  Zion,  after  David  had  become  king  of  "  all  Israel,"    But 

1.  7>re,  long  the  principal  city  of  Phoenicia,  anU  the  commercial  emporium  of  tho  ancient 
irorid,  stood  on  a  small  island  on  the  south-eastern  or  Palestine  coast  of  tho  Mediterranean, 
aJboat  forty  miles  north-east  from  Mount  Carrael.  Tho  modern  town  of  Sur,  (Soor,)  with  flftoen 
hnixlred  Inhabitants,  oocnpies  a  tite  opposite  the  ancient  city.  The  prophets  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
snd  Ezekiel,  represent  Tyre  as  a  city  of  unrivalled  wealth,  "  a  mart  of  nations,*^  whose  "  mer- 
chants were  princes,  and  her  trafflcl^ers  the  honorable  of  tho  earth.*'  (Isaiah,  xxiii.  3,  8.) 
Alter  the  destruction  of  the  old  city  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  New  Tyre  enjoyed  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  celebrity  and  commercial  prosperity ;  but  the  founding  of  Alexandria,  by  diverting  the 
commerce  that  had  formerly  centred  at  Tyre  into  a  new  chaimol,  gave  her  an  irreparable  blow, 
and  she  gradually  declined,  till,  in  the  language  of  prophecy,  her  palaces  have  been  levelled 
with  the  dnat,  and  ahe  has  become  *^  a  place  for  th^  spreading  of  nets  in  the  midst  of  tho  sea.^ 
<Ecek.  xxri.  5.)  The  prophet  Ezckiel  has  described,  In  magnificent  terms,  the  glory  and  the 
riches  of  ly re.    (See  Ezek.  xxvii.)    (Map^o.M.) 

^  2.  Sideny  (now  called  Said,)  was  situated  near  the  sea,  twenty-two  miles  north  of  Tyre,  of 
which  it  was  the  parent  city,  and  by  which  it  was  early  eclipsed  in  commercial  importance. 
The  modem  town  contains  four  or  five  thousand  Inhabitants.  The  site  of  the  ancient  city  is 
■nppoeed  to  have  been  about  two  miles  farther  inland.  Sidon  is  twice  spoken  of  In  JoshUA 
ae  the  ^  great  Sidon"  (Josh.  xl.  8,  and  xU.  28) ;  and  in  the  time  of  Homer  there  were  ^  skillful 
SIdoDian  artists"  (Cowper»s  0.  kxiii.  891).  In  tho  division  of  Palestine,  Sidon  fell  to  the  Ipt  of 
Aflher ;  but  we  leam  (h>m  Judges,  (i.  31,)  corroborated  also  by  profane  history,  that  it  never 
eatmeinto  the  actual  possession  of  that  tribe.  In  the  time  of  Solomon  there  were  none  among 
the  Jews  who  had  **  skill  to  hew  timber  like  unto  the  Sidonlans."  (1  Kings,  v.  6.)  The  mod- 
em town  of  Saidf  the  representative  of  the  ancient  city,  is  on  the  north  side  of  a  cape  extending 
teto  the  Mediterranean.    (Jlfa;r  No.  VI.) 

3.  Jop'pa^  (now  called  Jaflk,  a  town  of  aboTit  (bur  thousand  inhabitants,)  stands  on  a  tongue 
of  land  prorjecting  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  rising  from  the  shore  In  the  form  of  an  am- 
phitheatre, thirty-two  miles  north-west  from  Jerusalem.    The  **  border  before  Joppa"  was  In- 

■  eluded  In  the  possessions  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  xlx.  46).  In  the  time  of  Solomon  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  port  of  some  consequence.  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  writing  to  Solomon, 
nya,  **  We  will  cut  wood  out  of  Lebanon  as  much  as  thou  shalt  need ;  and  we  will  bring  It 
thee  In  floats  by  sea  to  Jop'  pa,  and  thou  shalt  carry  it  up  to  Jeni8:ilem."    {Map  No.  VT.) 

4.  Jerusalem^  first  known  as  the  city  of  the  Job'  usites,  is  in  the  southern  part  of  Paieitine, 
nearly  Intermediate  between  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  Uie  Mediterraneaai 
ttd  ihlrty-two  miles  east  fh>m  Jaf  fii.    (See  Ihrther  description  p.  1040 


02  ANCIENT  fflSTORY.  [Paet  L 

Dayidf  biviag  resolved  upon  the  conqaest  of  this  important  city, 
which  its  iDhabitants  deemed  impregnable,  sent  Joab,  his  general, 
against  it,  with  a  mighty  army ;  "  and  David  took  ihe  stronghold  of 
Zion ;"  and  so  pleased  was  he  with  its  situation,  that  he  made  U  the 
capital  of  his  dominions. 

1 1.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Jeb'  nsites,  David  was  involved  in  war 
with  many  of  the  sarreonding  nations,  whom  he  compelled  to  be- 
come tributary  to  him,  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Euphrites. 
Among  these  were  most  of  the  JStates  of  Syr'  ia,'  on  the  north-east, 
with  Damas'  cus,"  their  capital,  and  also  the  £'  domites,  on  the  south- 
eastern borders  of  Palestine.  It  was  in  the  last  of  these  wars,  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Bab'  bah,*  the  Ammonite  capital,  that  David  pro- 
voked the  anger  of  the  Lord  by  taking  Bath'  sheba,  the  wife  of 
Uriahj  to  himself,  and  exposbig  her  husband  to  death.  The  re- 
mainder of  David's  life  was  full  of  trouble  from  his  children,  three 
of  whom,  Amnon,  Absalom,  and  Adonijah,  died  violent  deaths — the 
latter  two  after  they  had  successircly  rebelled  against  their  &ther. 
David  died  after  a  troubled  but  gi.irious  reign  of  forty  years,  after 
having  given  orders  that  his  son  Solomon  should  succeed  him. 

12.  By  the  conquests  of  David  the  fame  of  the  Israelites  had 
spread  into  distant  lands,  and  Solomon  obtained  in  marriage  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Egypt  So  celebrated  was  the  wisdom  of 
Solomon,  that  the  queen  of  Sheba "-  came  to  visit  him  from  a  dis- 

1.  Ancient  Sfr'  ia  embraced  the  whole  of  PtieBtinu  and  Phoenicia,  and  waa  boonded  on  the 
east  by  the  Enphr&tes  and  the  Arabian  desert.  Syi*'  ia  la  called  in  Seripture  ^ram,  and  the 
inliabitants  Aranueana.  The  term  Syr'  la  ia  a  oorraption  or  abridgment  of  Assyria.  ( Jfi^ 
No*.  V.) 

S.  Damas'  cim,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Syr'  ia,  existed  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  (See  Gen.  xiv.  15.)  It  was  conquered  by  David, 
but  fipeed  itself  fh>m  the  Jewish  yoke  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  when,  beoominq  the  seat  of  a 
new  principality,  it  often  faiarassed  the  kingdoms  both  of  Judah  and  laraeL  At  lat«r  periods 
It  fell  successively  under  the  poww  of  the  Persians,  Greeks,  ai/d  Romans.  As  a  Roman  city  it 
attained  great  eminence,  and  it  appears  conspicuously  in  the  histoxy  of  the  Apostle  Paul.  (Acts, 
Ix.)  It  is  now  a  large  and  Important  commercial  Mohammedan  city,  containing  a  population 
of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  The  city  is  situated  in  a  pleasant  plain,  watered 
by  a  river,  the  Syriac  name  of  which  waa  PAarpAar,  on  the  eastern  aide  of  the  Antl-Lib'  anua 
mountains,  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north-east  (h>m  Jerusalem.    {Map  No.  VI.) 

3.  Rabbak^  (afterwards  called  Philadelphia  by  the  Greelcs,  when  it  was  rebuilt  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphua,)  was  about  thirty  miles  north-east  i>om  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
at  the  source  of  the  brook  Jabbok.  Extensive  ruins,  at  a  place  now  called  Ammmt^  consisting 
of  the  remains  of  theatres,  temples,  and  colonnades  of  Grecian  construction,  mark  the  site  of 
the  Ammonite  capital.  The  ancient  city  is  now  without  an  inhabitant,  but  the  excellent  water 
found  there  renders  the  spot  a  desirable  halting^place  for  caravan^  the  drivers  of  which  use 
the  ancient  temples  and  buildings  oSwSheUer  for  their  beasts,  literally  AilOlling  the  denunciation 

a.  The  queen  of  Sheba  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  come  fh>m  Southern  Arabia,  but  is  mort 
generally  thought  to  have  been  the  queen  of  A>  yasinia,  which  la  the  firm  belief  of  the  Abya* 
•InlaDS  to  this  daj.-^KituI'*  Palestine 


Oup.  m]  JEWISH  HISTORY.  63 

taut  country,  and  the  most  powerful  princes  of  the  surroandmg  na- 
tions courted  his  alliance.  With  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  the  chief 
city  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  emporium  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Eastern  world,  he  was  united  by  the  strictest  bonds  of  friendship. 
Seven  years  and  a  half  was  he  occupied  in  building,  at  Jerusalem,  a 
magnificent  temple  to  the  Lord.  He  also  erected  for  himself  a  pal- 
ace of  imrivalled  splendor.  A  great  portion  of  his  immense  wealth 
was  derived  from  commerce,  of  which  he  was  a  distinguished  patron. 
From  ports  on  the  Bed  Sea,  in  his  possession,  his  vessels  sailed  to 
Ophir,  some  rich  country  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  By 
the  aid  of  PhoBuician  navigators  he  also  opened  a  communication 
with  Tar'  shish,  in  western  Europe,  while  the  commerce  between 
Central  Asia  and  Palestine  was  carried  on  by  caravans  across  the 
desert 

13.  But  even  Solomon,  notwithstanding  all  his  learning  and  wis- 
dom, was  corrupted  by  prosperity,  and  in  his  old  age  was  seduced 
by  his  numerous  "  strange  wives"  to  forsake  the  God  of  his  fathers. 

'  He  became  an  idolater  :  and  then  enemies  began  to  arise  up  against 
him  on  every  side.  A  revolt  was  organized  in  E'dom:*  an  inde- 
pendent adventurer  seized  Damascus,  and  formed  a  new  Syrian  king- 
dom there ;  and  the  prophet  Ahijah  foretold  to  Solomon  that  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  should  be  rent,  and  that  the  dominion  of  ten  of 
the  twelve  tribes  should  be  given  to  Jerob6am,  of  the  tribe  of  .Eph- 
raim,  although  not  till  after  the  deatli  of  Solomon. 

14.  Accordingly,  on  the  death  of  Solomon,  when  Behob6am  his 
son  came  to  the  throne,  the  ten  northern  tribes  chose  Jeroboam  for 
their  king ;  and  Israel  and  Judah,  with  which  latter  was  united  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  became  separate  kingdoms.  The  separation  thus 
effected  is  called  "  The  Eevolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes."  (990  B.  C.) 
The  subsequent  princes  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  as  the  Ten  Tribes 
were  called,  were  all  idolaters  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  although 
from  time  to  time  they  were  warned  of  the  consequences  of  their 
idolatry  by  the  prophets  Elijah,  Elisha,  Hosea,  Amos,  Jonah,  and 
others.  The  history  of  these  ten  tribes  is  but  a  repetition  of 
calamities  and  revolutions.     Their  seventeen  kings,  excluding  two 

of  EukM :  <*  I  will  make  RaMxih  of  tho  Ammonites  a  stable  for  camels,  and  a  couching  place 
for  flocks."  (Ezekiol,  xxv.  5.)    {Map  No.  VI.) 

1.  The  E'  domites,  inhabitants  of  Idum6a,  or  E'  donL,  dwelt,  at  this  time,  in  the  country  south 
'and  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  During  the  Babylonian  captivity  the  E'  domites  took  po«ies- 
rion  of  the  aoathem  portion  of  Judea,  and  made  Hebron  their  capital.  They  afterwaitls  tm* 
hraeed  Judaism,  and  their  territory  became  incorporated  with  Jndea  although  in  the  tloM  of 
•V  Saviour  it  still  retaloiHl  the  name  of  Idum6a.    {Mnp  Xo.  VL) 


64  ANCIENT  HISTORT.  [PaotI 

pretenders,  belonged  to  seven  different  families,  and  were  placed  on 
the  throne  by  seven  sanguinary  conspiracies.  At  length  Shalman^zer, 
king  of  Assyria,  invaded  the  country;  and  Samdria,*  its  capital,  after 
a  brave  resistance  of  tliree  years,  was  taken  by  storm.  The  ten 
tribes  were  then  driven  out  of  Palestine,  and  carried  away  captive 
into  a  distant  region  beyond  the  Euphrates,  719  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  With  their  captivity  the  history  of  the  ten  tribes  ends. 
Their  Tate  is  still  unknown  to  this  day,  and  their  history  remains  un- 
written. 

15.  After  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  Rehob6am  reigned  seven- 
teen years  at  Jerusalem,  over  Judah  and  Benjamin,  comprising  what 
was  called  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  During  his  reign  he  and  his 
subjects  fell  into  idolatry,  for  which  they  were  punished  by  an  in- 
vasion by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  who  entered  Jerusalem  and  car- 
ried off  the  treasures  of  the  temple  and  the  palace.  We  find  some 
of  the  subsequent,  kings  of  Judah  practising  idolatry,  and  suffering 
the  severest  punishments  for  their  sins  :  others  restored  the  worship 
of  the  true  God ;  and  of  them  it  is  recorded  that  "  God  prospered* 
their  undertakings." 

16.  At  the  time  when  Shalmanezer,  the  Assyrian,  carried  Israel 
away  captive,  the  wicked  Ahaz  was  king  over  Judah.  He  brought 
the  country  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  but  its  fall  was  arrested  by  the 
death  of  the  impious  monarch.  '  The  good  Hezekiah  succeeded  him, 
and,  aided  by  the  advice  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  commenced  his  reign 
with  a  thorough  reformation  of  abuses.  He  shook  off  the  Assyrian 
yoke,  to  which  his  father  Ahaz  had  submitted  by  paying  tribute. 
Sennacherib,  the  son  and  successor  of  Shalmanezer,  determining  to 
be  revenged  upon  Judah,  sent  a  large  army  against  Jerusalem  (711 
B.  C.) ;  but  "  the  angel  of  the  Lord  went  forth,  and  smote,  in  the 
camp  of  the  Assyrians,  a  hundred  and  fourscore  and  five  thousand 
men."  The  instrument  by  which  the  Lord  executed  vengeance  upon 
the  Assyrians,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  pestilential 
simoom  of  the  desert ;  for  Isaiah  had  prophesied  of  the  king  of  As- 
syria :  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord ;  behold,  t  will  send  a  blast  upon 
him."* 

17.  It  is  interesting  to  find  an  account  of  the  miraculous  destruc- 
tion of  the  Assyrian  army  in  the  pages  of  profane  history.     Senna- 

1.  Sav^rU,  (ii6w  called  Sebasiieh,)  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  brael,  stood  on  Moimt 
flaoMroDy  about  forty  mllea  north  from  Jemaalem.    {Map  No.  VI.) 

a.  laalah,  xzztiL  6,  7. 


Cbaf.  HL]  JEW/SH  history.  65 

eh^rib  was  at  this  time  marcbiDg  against  Egypt,  whose  alliance  had 
been  sought  by  Hezekiah,  when,  unwilling  to  leave  the  hostile  power 
of  Judah  in  his  rear,  he  turned  against  Jerusalem.  It  was  natural, 
therefore,  that  the  discomfiture  which  removed  the  fears  of  the  Egypt- 
ians, should  have  a  place  in  their  annals.  Accordingly,  Herod'  otus 
gives  an  account  of  it,  which  he  had  learned  from  the  Egyptians 
themselves ;  but  in  the  place  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  it  is  an  Egj-ptian 
priest  who  invokes  the  aid  of  his  god  against  the  enemy,  and  pre- 
dicts the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  host. 

18.  Herod' otus  relates  that  the  Egyptian  king,  directed  by  the 
priest,  marched  against  Sennacherib  with  a  company  composed  only 
of  tradesmen  and  artizans,  and  that  '^  so  immense  a  number  of  mice 
infested  by  night  the  enemy's  camp,  that  their  quivers  and  bows, 
together  with  what  secured  their  shields  to  their  arms,  were  gnawed 
in  pieces ;"  and  that,  "  in  the  morning  the  enemy,  finding  themselves 
without  arms,  fled  in  confusion,  and  lost  great  numbers  of  theiy  men." 
Herod'  otus  also  relates  that,  in  his  time,  there  was  still  standing  in 
the  Egyptian  temple  of  Vulcan  a  marble  statue  of  this  Eg}'ptian 
king,  having  a  mouse  in  his  hand,  and  with  the  inscription  :  "  Learn 
from  my  fortune  to  reverence  the  gods."* 

19.  Hezekiah  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Judah  by  his  son 
Manas'  seh,  who,  in  the  early  part"  of  his  reign,  revelled  in  the  gross- 
est abominations  of  Eastern  idolatry.  Being  carried  away  captive  to 
Babylon  by  SaVdanapdlus,  the  Assyrian  king,  he  repented  of  his  sins, 
and  was  restored  to  his  kingdom.  The  brief  reign  of  his  son  A'  mon 
was  corrupt  and  idolatrous.  The  good  Josf  ah  then  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  His  reign  was  an  era  in  the  religious  government  of  the 
nation ;  but  during  an  invasion  of  the  country  by  Pharaoh  Necho, 
king  of  Egypt,  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  battle.  Jerusalem  was 
soon  after  taken,  and  Jeh6ahaz,  who  had  been  elected  to  the  throne 
by  the  people,  was  deposed,  and  carried  captive  to  Egypt,  where  he 
died. 

20.  Not  long  after  this,  during  the  reign  of  Jehof akim,  the  Egypt- 
ian monarch,  pursuing  his  conquests  eastward  against  the  Babylo- 
nians, was  utterly  defeated  by  Nebuchadnez'  zar  near  the  Euphrdtes, 
— ^an  event  which  prepared  the  way  for  the  Babylonian  dominion 
over  Jttdea  and  the  west  of  Asia.  Pursuing  his  success  westward, 
I^buchadnez' zar  came  to  Jerusalem,  when  the  Jting,  Jeholakim, 
submitted;  and  agreed  to  pay  tribute  for  Judah ;  but  as  he  rebelled 

au  Herod'  otna,  Book  IL  p.  141. 

4 


M  ANCIENT  mSTOBY.  [PamL 

after  three  years^  Nebucbadnez' zar  retaraed,  pillaged  Jerusalem, 
and  carried  away  certain  of  the  royal  family  and  of  the  nobles  as 
hostages  for  the  fidelity  of  the  king  and  people.  (B.  C.  *605.) 
Among  these  were  the  prophet  Daniel  and  his  companions.  Jo- 
choniah)  tbe  next  king  of  Judah^  was  carried  away  to  Babylon,  with 
a  multitude  of  other  captiycs,  so  that  '^  none  remained  saye  the 
poorest  people  of  the  land." 

21.  The  throne  in  Jerusalem  was  next  filled  by  Zedekiah,  who 
joined  some  of  the  surrounding  nations  in  a  rebellion  agabst  Ncbu- 
chadnez'  zar ;  but  Jerusalem,  after  an  eighteen  months^  siege,  whose 
miseries  were  heightened  by  the  horrors  of  famine,  was  taken  by 
storm  at  midnight  Dreadful  was  the  carnage  which  ensued.  Zede* 
kiah,  attempting  to  escape,  was  made  prisoner ;  and  the  king  of 
Babylon  slew  the  sons  of  Zedekiah  before  his  eyes,  and  put  out  the 
eyes  of  Zedekiah,  and  bound  him  with  fetters  of  brass,  and  carried 
him  to  Babylon.  Nearly  all  the  wretched  inhabitants  were  made 
companions  of  his  exile.  Jerusalem  was  burned,  the  temple  levelled 
with  the  ground,  and  the  very  walls  destroyed.     (586  B.  C.) 

22.  Thus  ended  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  the  reign  of  the  house 
of  David.  Seventy  years  were  the  children  of  Israel  detained  in 
captivity  in  Babylon,  reckoning  from  the  time  of  the  first  pillag- 
ing of  Jerusalem  by  Ncbuchadnez'  zar,  a  period  that  had  been  de- 
clared  in  prophecy  by  Jeremiah,  and  which  was  distinguished  by  the 
visions  of  Nebuchadnes'  zar,  the  prophetic  declarations  of  Daniel, 
Belshazzar's  feast,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  Babylon  by 
the  Medes  and  Persians.  The  termination  of  the  Captivity,  as  had 
been  foretold  by  the  prophets,  was  the  act  of  Cyrus,  the  Persian, 
immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Babylon.     (536  B.  C.) 

23.  The  edict  of  Cyrus  permitted  all  Jews  in  his  dominions  to 
return  to  Palestine,  and  to  rebuild  thq  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem. 
Only  a  zealous  minority,  however,  returned,  and  but  little  progress 
had  been  made  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  when  the  work  was 
altogether  stopped  by  an  order  of  the  next  sovereign ;  but  during 
the  reign  of  Darius  Hystas'  pes,  Zerub'  babel,  urged  by  the  prophets 
Hag'  gai  and  Zechariah,  obtained  a  new  edict  for  the  restoration  of 
the  temple,  and  after  four  years  the  work  was  completed,  516  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  temple  was  now  dedicated  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  the  ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  law  w^o 
restored,  and  never  again  did  the  Jews,  as  a  people,  relapse  into 
idolatry. 


CaiF.  m.]  PERSIAN  HISTORY.  67 

[111.  Roman  History.] — 24.  Having  thus  bronght  the  events  of 
Jewish  history  down  to  the  time  of  the  commencement  of  the  wars 
between  Greece  and  Persia,  we  again  'turn  back  to  take  a  view  of  the 
ootemporar J  history  of  such  other  nations  as  had  begun  to  acquire 
historical  importance  during  the  same  period.  Our  attention  is'&rst 
directed  to  Home — to  the  rise  of  that  power  which  was  destined  event- 
uallj  to  overshadow  the  world  Home  is  supposed  to  have  been  found; 
ed  753  years  before  the  Christian  era,  about  the  time  of  the  abolition 
of  the'  hereditary  archonship  in  Athens — twenty  years  before  the 
oommencement  of  the  first  war  between  Sparta  and  Messenia,  and 
about  thirty  years  before  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah. 
But  the  importance  of  Eoman  history  demands  a  connected  account, 
which  can  better  be  given  after  Rome  has  broken  in  upon  the  line 
of  history  we  are  pursuing,  by  the  reduction  of  Greece  to  a  Roman 
province ;  and  as  we  have  already  arrived  at  a  period  of  correspond- 
ing importance  in  Persian  affairs,  we '  shall  next  briefly  trace  the 
events  of  Persian  history  down  to  the  time  when  they  became  min- 
gled with  the  history  of  the  Grecians.  ^ 

[IV.  Persian  History.] — 25.  In  the  course  of  the  preceding 
history  of  the  Jews  we  have  had  occasion  to  mention  the  names  of 
Shalmenesar,  Sennacherib,  and  Sardanapdlus,  who  were  the  last ' 
three  kings  of  the  united  empire  of  Assyria,  whose  capital  was  Nine- 
veh. Not  long  after  Sardanapdlus^had  attacked  Judah,  and  carried 
away  its  king  Manas'  seh  into  captivity,  the  governors  of  several  of 
the  Assyrian  provinces  revolted  against  him,  and  besieged  him  in  his 
capital,  when,  finding  himself  deserted  by  his  subjects,  he  destroyed 
his  own  life.  (671  B.  C.)  The  empire,  which,  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  reign  of  Sardanapdlus,  had  embraced  Media,  Persia,  Babyl6- 
nia,  and  Assyria,  was  then  divided  among  the  conspirators. 

26.  Sixty-five  years  later,  the  Medes  and  Babylonians,  with  joint 
forces,  destroyed  Nineveh  (B.  C.  606), »  and  Babylon  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  reunited  empire.  The  year  after  the  destruction  of  Nine- 
vehy  Nebuchadnez'  zar,  a  name  common  to  the  kings  of  Babylon,  as 
was  Pharaoh  to  those  of  Egypt,  made  his  first  attack  upon  Jerusa- 
lem (B.  C.  605),  rendering  the  Jews  tributary  to  him,  and  carrying 
away  numbers  of  them  into  captivity,  and  among  them  the  prophet 
Daaiiel  and  his  companions.     Nineteen  years  later  (B.  C.  586),  he 

au  aintoD,  I  369.    Groto,  ili.  255,  Note,  says,  **  During  the  last  ten  yean  of  the  velgn  of  Cyax- 
L  Qraacarea,  tbe  Mede,  reigned  lh>m  636  to  595. 


68  ANCIENT  HISTORY  [Part! 

destroyed  the  very  walls  of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple  itself,  and 
carried  away  the  remnant  of  the  Jews  captive  tc  Babylon. 

27.  Soon  after  the  conquest  of  Judca,  Nebuchadnez'  zar  resolved 
to  take  vengeance  on  the  surrounding  nations,  some  of  whom  had 
solicited  the  Jews  to  unite  in  a  confederacy  against  him,  but  had  af- 
terwards rejoiced  at  their  destruction.  These  were  the  Am'  monites, 
M6abites,  E'domites,  Arabians,  Sid6nians,  Tyr'ians,  Philistines, 
Egyptians,  and  Abyssin' ians.  The  subjugation  of  each  was  par- 
ticularly foretold  by  the  prophets,  and  has  been  related  both  by 
sacred  and  profane  writers.  In  the  war  against  the  Phoenicians, 
after  a  long  siege  of  thirteen  years  he  made  himself  master  of  insular 
Tyre,  the  Phoenician  capital  (B.  C.  571),  and  the  Tyr'ians  became 
subject  to  him  and  his  successors  until  the  destruction  of  the  Chal- 
dean monarchy  by  Cyrus."- 

28.  In  the  war  against  Egypt  (B.  C.  570),  Nebuchadnez'  zar  laid 
the  whole  country  i^aste,  in  accordance  with  previous  predictions  of 
the  prophets  Ezckiel  and  Jeremiah.  The  prophecy  of  Ezekiel,  that, 
after  the  desolations  foretold,  "  there  shall  no  more  be  a  prince  of 
the  land  of  Egypt,"  has  been  verified  in  a  remarkable  manner ;  for 
the  kings  of  Egypt  were  made  tributary,  and  grievously  oppressed, 
first  by  the  Babylonians,  and  next  by  the  Persians ;  and  since  the 
rule  of  the  latter,  Egypt  has  successively  been  governed  by  foreigners 
— by  the  MacedonJans,  the  Eomans,  the  Mamelukes,  and  lastly,  by 
the  Turks,  who  possess  the  land  ©f  the  Pharaohs  to  this  day. 

29.  It  was  immediately  after  his  return  from  Egypt  that  Nebu- 
chadnez'  zar,  flushed  with  the  brilliancy  of  his  conquests,  sot  up  a 
golden  image,  and  commanded  all  the  people  to  fall  down  and  wor- 
ship it.  (B.  C.  569.)  Notwithstanding  the  rebuke  which  his  impiety 
received  on  this  occasion,  after  he  had  adorned  Babylon  with  mag- 
nificent works,  again  the  pride  of  his  heart  was  exhibited,  for  as  he 
walked  in  his  palace  he  said,  in  exultation,  "  Is  not  this  great  Baby- 
lon that  I  have  built  for  the  head  of  the  kingdom,  by  the  might  of 
my  power,  and  for  the  honor  of  my  majesty  ?"  But  in  the  same 
hour  that  he  had  spoken  he  was  struck  with  lunacy,  and  all  his  glory 
departed  from  him.  Of  his  dreams,  and  their  prophetic  interpreta- 
tion by  Daniel,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak,  as  the  predictions  are 
successively  verified  in  the  progress  of  history. 

a.  The  common  statement  that  it  was  the  Inland  town  that  was  reduced  by  Nebuchadnex'- 
nr,  and  that  most  of  the  inhabitants  had  previously  withdrawn  to  an  island,  where  thoy  boUfi 
<*  Mew  Tjrre,*'  seems  to  be  erroneous.   See  Grote's  Greece,  ill.  866-7. 


CkAF.ra.]  PIJRSUK  HISTOEr.  69 

30.  Not  long  after  the  reign  of  Nebucbadnea'  zar,  we  find  Bel- 
shajt'  sar,  probably  a  grandson  of  the  former,  on  the  throne  of  Baby- 
lon. Nothing  is  recorded  of  him  but  the  circumstances  of  his 
death,  which  are  related  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Daniel.  He  was 
probably  slain  in  a  conspiracy  of  his  nobles.  (B.  C.  553.)  In  the 
meantime,  the  kingdom  of  Media*  Had  risen  to  eminence  under  the 
gaccessive  reigns  of  Phraor'  tes,  Cyax'  ares,  and  Asty'  ages,"  the  for- 
mer of  whom  is  supposed  to  be  the  Ahasu6rus  mentioned  in  the  book 
of  Daniel.^  While  some  writers  mention  a  successor  of  Asty'  ages, 
Cjaz'  ares  II.,  who  has  been  thought  to  be  the  same  as  the  Darius 
of  Scripture,  others  assert  that  Asty'  ages  was  the  last  of  the  Me- 
dian kings.  In  aocordanoe  with  the  latter  and  now  generally-received 
account)  Cyrus,  a  grandson  of  Asty'  ages,  but  whose  father  was  a 
Persian,  roused  the  Persian  tribes  against  the  ruling  Medes,  defeated 
Astj'  ages,  and  transferred  the  supreme  power  to  the  Persians. 
(558  B.  C.)l>  ^ 

31.  Cyrus  the  Oreat^^^  as  he  is  often  called,  is  generally  considered 
the  founder  of  the  Persian  empire.  Soon  after  his  accession  to 
the  throne  his  dominions  were  invaded  by  Croe'  bus,  king  of  Lydia ; 
but  Cyrus  defeated  him  in  the  great  battle  of  Thymbria,  and  after- 
wards, besieging  him  in  his  own  capital  of  Sardis,  took  him  prisoner, 
and  obtained  possession  of  all  his  treasures.  (B.  C.  546.)  The  sub- 
jugation of  the  Grecian  cities  of  Asia  Minor  by  the  Persians  soon 
followed.  Cyrus  next  laid  siege  Ur  Babylon,  which  still  remained  an 
independent  city  in  the  heart  of  his  empire.  Babylon  soon  fell  be- 
neath his  power,  and  it  has  been  generally  asserted  that  he  efiiected 
the  conquest  by  turning  the  waters  of  the  Euphrdtes  from  their  chan- 
Bel,  and  marching  his  troops  into  the  city  through  the  dry  bed  of,  the 
stream ;  but  this  account  has  been  doubted,  while  it  has  been  thought 
quite  as  probable  that  he  owed  his  success  to  some  internal  revolu- 
^on,  which  put  an  end  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Babylonian  kings. 
(B.  C.  536.)     The  prophetic  declarations  of  the  final  and  utter  de- ' 

1.  MedU,  the  botmdarles  of  which  raried  greatly  at  different  times,  embraced  the  oountfy 
immediately  south  and  soath-west  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  north  of  the  early  Persia.  {Map 
Ho.  V.) 

2.  These  kings  were  probably  In  a  measure  subordinate  to  the  mllng  king  at  Babylon. 

a.  Daniel,  ix.  1.    Hale's  Analysis,  I  v.  81. 

b.  Kiebtthr's  I^cL  on  Anctent  Hist.  1. 135.    Grote's  Greece,  iv.  183. 

e,  Tbe  aoGOunta  of  the  early  history  of  Cy  rus,  as  derived  from  Xon'  ophony  Herod'  otus,  Ct^aiai, 
ac^  are  very  contradictory.  Tbe  account  of  Herod'  otus  Is  now  generally  preferred,  as  con- 
taining «  greeUr  yraportion.  of  historical  truth  than  tbe  others.  Grole  calls  the  Cy ropoe'  dia  of 
2en'  ophon  a  ** philosophical  noTel.**  Niebohr  sajs,  **No  raticmal  man,  in  our  dayS|  can  look 
■pon  X«n'  ophon's  history  of  Gyrus  in  any  >tber  light  than  that  of  a  romaooe.** 


70  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  pAwL 

stniction  of  Babylon,  which  was  eyentoally  to  be  made  a  desolate 
waste — a  possession  for  the  bittern — ^a  retreat  for  the  wild  beasts  of 
the  desert  and  of  the  islands — to  be  filled  with  pools  of  water — and 
to  be  inhabited  no  more  from  generation  to  generation,  have  been  fully 
verified. 

32.  In  the  year  that  Babylon  was  taken,  Oyrns  issued  the  famous 
decree  which  permitted  the  Jews  to  return  to  their  own  land,  and 
to  rebuild  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem — eyents  which  had  been 
foretold  by  the  prophet  Isaiah  more  than  a  century  before  Cyrus 
was  bom.  Cyrus  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  seven  years  after 
the  taking  of  Babylon — directing  his  chief  attention  to  the  means 
of  increasing  the  prosperity  of  his  kingdom.  The  manner  of  his 
death  is  a  disputed  point  in  history,  but  in  the  age  of  Strabo  his 
tomb  bore  the  inscription :  "  O  man,  I  am  Cyrus,  who  founded  the 
Persian  empire :  envy  me  not  then  the  little  earth  which  covers  mj 
remains."  ^ 

33.  Camby'ses  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  of  Persia. 
(530  B.  C.)  Intent  on  carrying  but  the  ambitious  designs  qf  Cyrus, 
he  invaded  and  conquered  Egypt,  although  the  Egyptian  king  was 
aided  by  a  force  of  Grecian  auxiliaries.  The  power  of  the  Persians 
was  also  extended  over  several  African  tribes :  even  the  Greek  col- 
ony of  CjrrenAica*  was  forced  to  pay  tribute  to  Camby'  ses,  and  the 
Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  remained  quiet  under  Persian  governors ; 
but  an  army  which  Camby'  ses  sent  over  the  Libyan  desert  to  sub- 
due the  little  oasis  where  the  temple  of  Ji^piter  Am'  mon*  was  the 
centre  of  an  independent  community,  was  buried  in  the  sands; 
and  another  army  which  the  king  himself  led  up  the  Nile  against 
Ethiopia,  came  near  perishing  firom  hunger.  The  Persian  king 
would  have  attempted  the  conquest  of  the  rising  kingdom  of  Car- 
thage, but  his  Phoenician  allies  or  subjects,  who  constituted  iia  naval 
power,  were  unwilling  to  lend  their  aid  in  destroying  the  indepen- 
dence of  their  own  colony,  and  Camby'  ses  was  forced  to  abandon  the 
project. 

34.  On  the  death  of  Camly'ses  (B.  C.  521),  one  Smer^  dis,  an 

1.  Cffren&iea,  a  coantry  on  the  Afiican  roast  of  tbe  Mediterranean,  corresponded  with  the 
westeni  portion  of  the  modem  Barca.  It  ^as  Bomellmes  called  Pentap'  olis,  from  its  hariag 
five  Grecian  cities  of  note  in  it,  of  which  Cyr^ne  was  the  capital.    (See  p.  95,  also  Map  No.  V.) 

2.  The  Temple  ofJkpUer  ^m'mon  was  situated  in  what  is  now  called  the  Oasis  of  Siwah,  a 
fertile  spot  in  the  desert,  three  hundred  miles  south-west  flnom  Cairo.  The  time  and  the  cir- 
camstances  of  the  existence  of  this  temple  are  unknown,  bat,  like  that  of  Delphi,  it  was  fiuned 
Ibr  its  treasures.  A  well  sixty  teet  deep,  which  has  been  dlsooverad  In  Uxe  oasiii  Is  supposed 
lo  mark  the  site  of  the  temple. 


Ob4p.  hl]  Persian  history.  71 

impostor,  a  pretended  son  of  Cyrus,  seized  the  throne ;  but  the  Per- 
man  nobles  soon  formed  a  conspiracy  against  him,  killed  him  in  his 
palace,  and  chose  one  of  their  own  number  to  reign  in  his  stead. 
The  new  monarch  assumed  the  old  Median  title  of  royalty,  and  is 
known  in  history  as  Darius,  or  Darius  Hystas'  pes.  Babylon  having 
revolted,  he  was  engaged  twenty  months  in  the  siege  of  the  city 
which  was  finally  taken  by  the  artifice  of  a  Persian  nobleman,  who 
pretending  to  desert  to  the  enemy,  gained  their  confidence,  and 
having  obtained  the  command  of  an  important  post  in  the  city, 
opened  the  gates  to  the  Persians  :  Darius  put  to  death  three  thou- 
sand of  the  citizens,  and  ordered  the  one  hundred  gates  to  be  pulled 
down,  and  the  walls  of  the  proud  city  to  be  demolished,  that  it  might 
never  after  be  in  a  condition  to  rebel  against  him.  The  favor  which 
this  monarch  showed  the  Jews,  in  permitting  them  to  rebuild  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem,  has  already  b^en  mentioned. 

35.  The  attention  of  Darius  was  next  turned  towards  the  Scyth- 
ians,^ then  a  European  nation,  who  inhabited  the  country  along  the 
western  borders  of  the  Euxine,  from  the  Tan'  ais  or  Don'  to  the  north- 
em  ^Krandaries  of  Thrace.'  Darius  indeed  overran  their  country, 
but  without  finding  an  enemy  who  would  meet  him  in  battle ;  for  the 
Scythians  were  wise  enough  to  retreat  before  the  invader,  and  deso- 
late the  country  through  which  he  directed  his  course.  When  the 
supplies  of  the  Persians  had  been  cut  off  on  every  side,  and  their 
strength  wasted  in  useless  pursuit,  they  were  glad  to  seek  safety  by 
a  hasty  retreat. 

36.  The  next  important  events  in  the  history  of  Darius  we  find 
connected  with  the  revolt,  and  final  subjugation,  of  the  Greek  colonies 
of  Asia  Minor,  an  account*  of  which  has  already  been  given.  Still 
Darius  was  not  a  conqueror  like  Cyrus  or  Camby'ses,  but  seems 
to  have  aimed  rather  at  consolidating  and  securing  his  empire,  than 

1.  SeftkU  to  a  Dam«  giren  by  the  eariy  Greeks  to  the  country  on  the  northern  and  weat«m 
borden  of  the  Eoxine.  In  the  time  of  the  flnt  Piolemy,  however,  the  early  Scythia,  together 
vllh  the  whole  region  ftom  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  had  changed  its  name  to  Sarmatioj 
white  the  entire  north  of  Asia  beyond  the  Himalaya  mountains  was  denominated  Scythia. 
(Map  Nofl.  V.  and  iX.)  . 

8.  The  Dim  (andenUy  Tan' ais),  rising  In  Central  Russia,  flows  south-^ast  until  It  approaches 
within  about  thirty-six  miles  of  the  Volga,  when  it  turns  to  the  south-west,  and  enters  the 
nonb-eastem  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Azof  (anciently  Polus  Mosotis).    (Map  No.  IX.) 

3.  TTkraee^  embracing  nearly  the  same  as  the  modem  Turkish  province  of  Rnmllia,  wat 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Hfemus  mountains,  on  the  east  by  the  Euxine,  on  the  south  by 
tiw  Propon'  tia  and  the  iE'  gean  Sea,  and  on  the  west  by  Macedonia.  Its  principal  river  wak 
Am  P6braa  (now  Marttia),  and  its  laigaat  towns,  excepting  those  in  the  Thraciaik  Gherso^^as 
(He  p.  9B.)  w«TO  HadrlanopoUs  and  DyxaBtiom.    (Mtp  No.  m.  and  IX.) 


7*2  ANCIEirr  HISTOBY.  [PaetI 

at  enlargmg  it  The  dominions  bequeathed  him  by  his  predcoessors 
comprised  manj  countries,  united  under  one  government  only  by 
their  subjection  to  the  will  and  the  arbitrary  exactions  of  a  common 
ruler  ;  but  Darius  first  organized  them  into  one  empire,  by  dividing 
the  whole  into  twenty  satrapies  or  provinces,  and  assigning  to  each 
its  proper  share  in  the  burdens  of  government. 

37.  Under  Darius  the  Persian  empire  had  now  attained  its  great- 
est extent,  embracing,  in  Asia,  all  that,  at  a  later  period,  was  con- 
tained in  Persia  proper  and  Turkey ;  in  Africa,  taking  in  Egypt  as 
far  as  Nubia,  and  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  as  far  as  Barca ; 
and  in  Europe,  part  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia — ^thus  stretching  from 
the  jSj'  gean  Sea  to  the  Indus,  and  from  the  plains  of  Tartary*  to 
the  cataracts  of  the  Nile.  Such  was  the  empire  against  whose  united 
power  a  few  Grecian  communities  were  to  contend  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  their  very  name  and  existence.  The  results  of  the  contest 
may  be  learned  from  the  following  chapter.     (See  Map  No.  VII.) 

1.  Tarurg  Is  a  name  of  modem  origin,  applied  to  that  eztaoslTe  portion  af  Ceatnd  Aiin 
wUob  extendi  eastward  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


Obaf.  IV.]  OEEOIAN  HISTORY.  78 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  AUTHENTIC  PERIOD  OF  GRECIAN  HISTORY. 
SECTION  I. 

OtjMAkN  HISrOaT  FEOM  THB  BEGINNING  OW  THE  riSST  WAR  -WITH  FEE^IA  TO  THE  n 
TABUSHMXMT  OP  PHILIP  ON  THE  THRONE  OF   MACEDON : 

490  TO  860  B.  a  =  150  tkabs. 

ilNAl4Ynii  FiRiT  Pkr8ia,n  War.  1.  Preparations  of  Darius  for  the  conquest  of  Greece. 
ilanl6niTia.  betKniction  of  the  Persian  fleet.  [Mount  A'  thos.]  Return  of  Mard6nias.— 3.  Re< 
Mewed  i»«pk;  r a;ions  of  Darius.  Heralds  sent  to  Greece.  Their  treatment  by  the  Athenians  and 
Spartans.  Yh.9  .Cgio^tans.  [iVgina.]— ^  Persian  fleet  sails  for  Greece.  Islands  submit. 
EabcB'a.  Pe.*vi.xns  at  Mar'athon.  The  Platse'ans  aid  the  Athenians.  Spartans  absent. 
[Mar*  aihoit.  Piste'  a.]— 4.  The  Athenian  army.  How  commanded.— 5.  BatUe  of  Mar'  athon. 
— 4L  Remarks  on  the  battle.  Legends  of  the  battle.— 7.  The  war  terminated.  Subeequen 
history  of  Mlltiadea.  [Paros.]  Themis' toeles  and  Aris^fdes.  Their  characters.  Banish- 
ment of  the  latter.  [Ostracism.]— 9.  Death  of  Darius.  Sbcohd  Persian  War.  Xerxes  ii^ 
▼ades  Greece.  Opposed  by  Leon' Idm.  {Thermop' ylie.]  Anecdote  ofDien'eces.~10.  Treachery. 
Leon'  idea  dinniSBes  his  allies.  Self-devotion  of  the  Greeks.— 11.  Eurytus  and  Aristod^mus. 
—1%.  The  AtheQtans  desert  Athens,  which  is  burned  by  the  enemy.  [Trez^ne.]  The  Greeks 
fiMtiiy  ihe  CorintMan  Isthmus.— 13.  The  Persian  fleet  at  Sal'  amis.  Euryb  lades,  Themis'  toeles, 
and  Aristides.— 14.  Battle  of  Sal' amis.  Flight  of  Xerxes.  [Hel'lesponL]  Battle  of  Plata' a 
—of  Hyc'ale.  [Myc'ale.]  Death  of  Xerxes.- 15.  Athens  rebuilt.  Banishment  of  Themis'- 
toelea.  Cimon  and  Paus&idas.  The  Persian  dependenctee.  Ionian  revolt.  [Cy'prus.  By- 
xan'  ttom.}— 16.  Final  peaee  with  Persia.— 17.  Diasenslons  among  the  Grecian  Statea.  Per* 
Sdes.  Jealousy  of  Sparta,  and  growing  power  of  Athens.— 18.  Power  and  character  of  Sputa. 
fiBrthquako  at  Sparta.  BeTolt  of  the  Helots.  Third  Mkssb'  niah  War.  Migration  of  the 
Ifess^Bians.— 19.  Athenians  defeated  at  Tan^agra.  [Tan'  agra.]  Subsequent  victoiy  gained  bj 
the  AtlieiiiaBs. 

90.  Oauses  which  opened  the  First  PcLoroRNR' siah  War.  [Corey*  ra.  PotldflB' a.]— 91. 
The  Spartan  aimy  ravages  At'  Uca.  The  Athenian  navy  desolates  the  const  of  the  Peloponn6- 
fiOB.  [Heg'ara.]— 99.  Second  invasion  of  At'tica.  The  plague  at  Athens,  and  death  of  Per*- 
Idea.  Pottdai'  a  surrenders  to  Athens,  and  Platss'  a  to  Sparta.— iO.  The  peace  of  Nicias.  Pre- 
texts for  renewing  the  straggle.— 34.  Character  of  Aldblades.  His  artifices.  Reduction  of 
lf«loa.  [M^los.]— 25.  Tax  Siciliah  Expedition.  Its  object.  [Sicily.  Syracuse.]  Revolt 
and  flight  of  Aleibiades.— 96.  Operations  of  Nicias,  and  dissstrons  result  of  the  expedition. 

97.  Sbcohd  Pblopourb'  biam  War.  Revolt  of  the  Athenian  allies.  Intrigues  of  Aleibiades. 
Bevolotion  at  Athens^  [ErAtrla  Gys'  iens.]  Return  of  Aleibiades.— S28.  He  is  again  banished. 
Tlie  alBUrQ  of  Sparta  are  retrieved  by  Lysan'  der.  Cyrus  the  Persian.-^99.  The  Athenians  an 
defeated  at  M'  goa^Pot'  amos.  Treatment  oj  the  prisoners.— 30.  Disastrous  state  of  Athenian 
■flUia.  Submission  of  Athens,  and  .dose  of  the  war.— 31.  Change  of  government  at  Athens. 
The  Thirty  Tyrants  overthrown.  The  rule  of  the  democracy  restored.— 32.  Character,  accusa- 
fioD,  and  death  of  Soc'  rates.— 33.  The  dedgns  of  Cyrus  the  Persian.  He  is  aided  by  the  Greeks. 
—34.  Result  of  his  expedition.— 35.  Famous  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand.— 36.  The  Creek  dtlea 
of  Asia  are  involved  in  a  war  with  Persia.  The  Third  Pbi.otohice'  siaw  War.  [Coroo^a.] 
Tbe  peaee  of  Antal'  cidss.  [Im'  brus,  Lem'  nos,  and  Scf  rus.]— 37.  The  designs  of  the  Persian 
king  promoted  by  the  Jealousy  of  the  Greeks.  Athens  and  Sparta— bow  alTeoted  by  the  peace, 
—as.  Sparta  is  taivolvtsd  in  new  wan.    War  with  Manttn^a.    With  OlyB'ttniB. 

D 


74  All ODSHT  HIBTOSY.  [Past  L 

Olyii'  thiM.]  Selxura  of  Um  Ttebui  citadel.— 30.  Tbe  political  monlUjr  of  the  Spaftam.— 40. 
The  Theban  citadel  recoTered.  Pelop'  Idaa  and  Epaminon'  daa.  Erenta  of  the  Theban  war. 
{Jtg'jnu  Leuc' tra.}— 41.  The  Skcohd  Bacrsp  IVak.  [Flnt  Sacred  War.]  Gromb  of  the 
Seoood  Sacred  War.  [Ph6da.}— 43.  The  partiea  U>  the  war.  [LOcriaiu.]  Cmeltiea  praeUacd. 
PhUlporMaoedon. 

1.  After  the  subjugation  of  the  Ionian  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  Darius 
made  active  preparations  for  the  conquest  of  all  Greece.     A  mighty 

L  riBffT  PBR-  annament  was  fitted  out  and  intrusted  to  the  command 
BiAN  VAK.  oT  his  son-in  Jaw  Mard^nius,  who,  leading  the  land  force  in 
p^w)n  through  Thraoe  and  Macedonia,  succeeded,  after  being  once  routed 
by  a  night  attack,*  in  subduing  those  coimtries ;  but  the  Persian  fleet, 
which  was  designed  to  sweep  the  isknds  of  the  M'  gean,  was  checked 
in  its  progress  by  a  violent  storm  which  it  encountered  off  Mount 
A'  thos*,  and  which  was  thought  to  have  destroyed  tibree  hundred  ves- 
sels and  twenty  thousand  lives.  Weakened  by  these  disasters,  Mar- 
d6nius  abruptly  terminated  the  campaign  and  returned  to  Asia. 

2.  Darius  soon  renewed  his  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Greece, 
and,  while  his  forces  were  assembling,  sent  heralds  through  the 
Grecian  cities,  demanding  earth  and  water,  as  tokens  of  submission. 
The  smaller  States,  intimidated  by  his  power,  submitted  -fi  but  Athens 
and  Sparta  haughtily  rejected  the  demands  of  the  eastern  monarch, 
and  put  his  heralds  to  death  with  cruel  mockery,  throwing  one  into  a 
pit  and  another  into  a  well,  and  bidding  them  take  thenoe  their  earth 
and  water.  The  Spartans  threatened  to  make  war  upon  the  iEgine- 
tans'  for  having  basely  submitted  to  the  power  of  Persia,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  send  hostages  to  Athens.<^ 

1.  Mount  A'  thos  is  a  lofty  tuminlt,  more  than  sl^Nhousand  feet  high,  on  the  most  eaatera  of 
three  narrow  penlnsnlaa  which  extend  iVom  llaoedonia  into  the  Ji'  goan  aea.  Tbe  penlnaala 
which  is  about  twenty-flre  miles  in  kmgth  by  aboat  four  in  breadth,  has  long  been  occupied 
in  modem  times  by  a  number  of  monks  of  tbe  Greek  CSiarch,  who  lire  in  a  kind  of  fortiilod 
monasteries,  about  twenty  in  number.  No  females  are  admitted  within  this  peninsnla»  whose 
modem  name,  deriTed  flrom  its  sappoeed  sanoUty,  Is  Monu  StuUOy  **  sacred  mountain.** 
(,Mtgf  No.  I.) 

2.  JSginOf  (now  Egina  or  £v*S)  ^'"^  <^  island  containing  about  fUtj  square  miles,  In  tbe 
centre  of  the  Saron'  ic  GaU;  (now  Gulf  of  Athens,)  between  Attica  and  Ar'goUs,  and  sixteen 
miles  south-west  from  Athens.  The  remains  of  a  temple  of  Jupiter  In  the  northern  part  of 
tbe  island  are  among  the  most  Interesting  of  the  Grecian  ruins.  Of  its  thirty-six  columns 
twenty-flve  weie  reoently  standing.   {Map  No.  I.) 

a.  By  the  Brygl,  a  Thradaxi  tiibe.    Mard6nius  wounded 

b.  Among  them,  probably,  the  Tliebans  and  Thessalians ;  also  most  of  tbe  islands,  but  nu 
£aboB'  a  and  Nsx'  oe.    The  Persians  desolated  Nax'  os  on  their  way  across  the  £'  gean. 

c.  At  this  time  Thebes  and  ^gioa  had  been  at  war  with  Athens  fourteen  years.  Ar*  gos, 
which  had  contested  with  Sparta  the  supremacy  of  Greece,  had  recently  been  subdued ;  and 
Sparta  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  head  of  the  political  union  of  Greece  against  the  Per- 
•laM.   Gfote's  Ofeee^  iv.  3U-3S8. 


Cna  lY.]  OBEOIAN  BISTORT.  75 

3.  In  the  third  year  after  the  first  disastrous  campaign,  a  Persian 
fleet  of  six  hundred  ships,  conyeying  an  army  of  a  hmidr^  and  twenty 
tiiioiMMid  men,  oommanded  by  the  generals  DAtis  and  Artapher'  nes, 
md  guided  by  the  exiled  tyrant  and-  traitor  Hip'  pias,  directed  its 
oourse  towards  the  Grecian  shores.  (B.  0.  490.)  Several  islands  of 
the  Mf  gean  submitted  wxthoat  a  straggle ;  Eubod'  a  was  punished  for 
the  aid  it  had  giyen  the  I6nians  in  their  rebellion ;  and  without  farther 
opposition  the  Persian  host  advanced  to  the  plains  of  Mar'  athon,' 
within  twenty  miles  of  Athens.  The  Athenians  probably  called  on 
the  Platoe'  aas^  as  well  as  the  Spartans  for  aid  \^ — the  former  sent 
iiieir  entire  feroe  of  a  thousand  men ;  but  the  latter,  influenced  by 
jealousy  or  superstition,  refused  to  send  tiieir  proffered  aid  before  the 
foil  of  the  moon. 

4.  In  this  extremity  the  Athenian  army,  numbering  only  ten  thou- 
aand  men,  and  oommanded  by  ten  generals,  marched  against  the  enemy. 
Vive  of  the  ten  generals  had  been  afraid  to  hazard  a  battle,  but  the 
■rgumentsb  of  MBtiades,  one  of  their  number,  jSnally  prevailed  upon 
tiie  polemaroh  Callim'  achus  to  give  his  casting  vote  in  favor  of  fight- 
ing. The  ten  generals  were  to  command  the  whole  army  successively, 
eaeh  for  a  day.  Those  who  had  seconded  the  advice  of  Miltiades 
were  willing  to  resign  their  turns  to  him,  but  he  waited  till  his  own 
day  arrived,  when  he  drew  up  the  little  army  in  order  of  battle. 

1.  JlfiM^«a#ii»  wkMh  iffil  ntalnA  ttt  anelent  name,  is*  smaU  (owb  of  Attloa,  twenty  m\\m 
notfbent  ftom  Athena,  and  about  three  miles  from  the  tea-coast,  or  Bay  of  Mar'  athon.  'The 
plain  in  which  the  battle  was  fought  is  aboat  flre  miles  In  length  and  two  in  breadth,  inclosed 
wm  the  land  side  by  sleep  slopes  desoending  (h>m  the  higher  ridges  of  Pentet'  icus  and  Paros, 
aad  diTided  Into  two  nneqnal  parts  by  a  small  stream  which  fails  Into  the  Bay.  Towards  the 
middle  of  the  plain  may  still  be  seen  a  monnd  of  earth,  twenty-five  foot  in  height,  which  was 
rslaed  orer  the  bodies  of  tl\e  Athenians  who  fell  in  the  battle.  In  the  marsh  near  the  sea. 
•om,  also,  the  nnatns  of  trophies  and  marble  monuments  are  still  visible.  Hie  names  of 
ttie  one  hnndred  and  ninety-two  Athenians  who  were  slain  were  Inscribed  on  ten  pillars 
erected  on  the  batUe-field.    {Map  "^o.l.) 

%  Plmtm'  a,  a  dty  of  Bfli6tta,  now  wholly  In  ralaa,  wu  situated  on  the  nerthera  side  of  the 
Ctthfls'  ron  mountains,  seren  miles  south  trom  l^ebes.  This  city  has  acquired  an  immortality 
of  renown  from  its  baring  given  its  name  to  the  great  battle  fought  in  its  vicinity  in  the  year 
419  B.  G.  between  the  Persians  under  Mard6nius,  and  the  Grseks  imder  PansAuias  the  Spar- 
tea.  (See  p.  80.)  Ftcm  the  tenth  of  the  spoils  taken  from  the  Persians  on  that  occasion,  and 
presented  to  the  sbrine  of  Delphi,  a  golden  tripod  was  made,  supported  by  a  braxen  pillar 
WiiiabBng  three  ssrpents  twined  together.  This  identical  brazen  pillarmay  still  be  seen  in 
the  Hippodrome  of  Constantinople.    {Map  No.  I.) 

•.  IhlrwBll  says :  **  Itjs  probable  that  they  snmmoned  the  Platss'  ans.'*  Orote  says :  **  We 
■re  not  UM  that  they  had  been  hivlted.'* 

b.  Herod'  otas  describes  thts.debale  as  having  occurred  at  Mar*  athon,  after  the  Greeks  had 
taken  posi  In  sight  of  the  Pendaaa ;  while  OoneUus  Nepos  says  it  occurred  before  the  army 
lift  AthSBS.    ThirwaU  appean  to  ftrilow  the  ibmer:  Groie  declarsa  his  preference  for  the 


76  A!Br0IENT  HISTORT.  [PakI 

^5.  The  Persians  were  extended  m  a  line  across  ilie  middle  of  the 
plain,  having  their  best  troops  in  the  centre.  The  Athenians  were 
drawn  up  in  a  line  opposite,  but  having  their  main  strength  in  the 
extreme  wings  of  their  army.  The  Greeks  made  the  attack,  and,  as 
had  been  foreseen  by  Miltfades,  their  centre  was  soon  broken,  while 
the  extremities  of  the  enemy's  line,  made  up  of  motley  and  undisci- 
plined bands  of  all  nations,  were  routed,  and  driven  towards  the  shore, 
and  into  the  adjoining  morasses.  Hastily  concentrating  his  two 
wings,  Miltiades  next  directed  ihek  united  force  against  the  flanks  of 
the  Persian  centre,  which,  deeming  itself  victorious,  was  taken  com- 
pletely by  surprise.  In  a  few  minutes  victory  decided  in  &vor  of  the 
Greeks.  The  Persians  fled  in  disorder  to  their  ships;  but  many 
perished  in  the  marshes ;  the  shore  was  strewn  with  their  dead, — and 
seven  of  their  ships  were  destroyed.  The  loss  of  the  Persians  was 
6,400 :  that  of  the  Athenians,  not  including  the  Platae'  ans,  only  192. 

6.  Such  was  the  fiunous  battle  of  Mar'  athon ;  but  the  glory  of 
the  victory  is  not  to'  be  measured  wholly  by  the  disparity  of  the 
numbers  engaged,  when  compared  with  the  result.  The  Persians 
were  strong  in  the  terror  of  their  name,  and  in  the  renown  of  their 
conquests ;  and  it  required  a  most  heroic  resolution  in  the  Athenians 
to  face  a  danger  which  they  had  not  yet  learned  to  despise.  The 
victory  was  viewed  by  the  people  as  a  deliverance  vouchsafed  to  the 
Grecians  by  the  gods  themselves :  the  marvellous  legends  of  the  battle 
attributed  to  the  heroes  prodigies  of  valor ;  and  represented  Th^us 
and  Her'  cules  as  sharing  in  the  fight,  and  dealing  death  to  the  flying 
barbarians ;  while  to  this  day  the  peasant  believes  the  field  of  Mar'  &- 
thon  to  be  haunted  with  spectral  warriors,  whose  shouts  ore  heard  at 
midnight,  borne  on  the  wind,  and  rising  above  the  din  of  battle. 

7.  The  victory  obtained  by  the  Greeks  at  Mar'  athon  terminated 
the  first  war  with  Persia.  Soon  after  the  Persian  defeat,  Miltiades, 
who  at  first  received  all  the  honors  which  a  grateful  people  could  be- 
stow, experienced  a  fate  which  casts  a  melancholy  gloom  over  hia 
history.  Being  unfortunate  in  an  expedition  which  he  led  agamst  P&- 
ros,'  and  which  he  induced  the  Athenians  to-  intrust  to  him,  without 
informing  them  of  its  destination,  he  was  accused  of  having  deoeived 

1.  PAnt  1b  an  Uland  of  the  M'  gean  bm,  of  the  gronp  of  Um  0jo']^«8,  abovt  wer^tltf-ttn 
nllaa  aoutb-east  from  Attioa.  It  is  about  twelTO  mllea  In  length't>y  elgbt  In  breadth,  ragged 
and  uneVen,  bat  generally  very  fertile.  P&roe  was  ftnooa  in  antf qnlty  for  Ha  maible,  although 
that  obtained  from  Mount  Pentel'  icua  In  AtUoa  was  of  the  pureat  white.  In  modem  timea 
Piros  has  become  distingaWied  for  ihe  diaooteiy  there  of  the  oelebrated  **  Parian  or  Aninde- 
flan  Chronicle,"  ont  in  a  marble  dab,  and  purporting  to  be  a  chronolegloal  aeeount  ofOnolaA 


Ostf .  rr.]  GREOIAN  BISTORT.  77 

tin  people,  or,  as  8ome  say,  of  haying  received  a  bribe.  Unable  to 
defend  bis  cause  before  tbe  people  on  account  of  an  injury  which  he 
had  received  at  Pdros,  he  was  impeached  before  the  popular  judica- 
ture as  worthy  of  death;  and  although  ihe  proposition  of  his  accusers 
was  rejected,  he  was  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of  fifty  talents.  A  few 
days  later  Miltiades  died  of  his  wound,  and  the  fine  was  paid  by  his 
son  Oimon. 

8.  After  the  death  of  Miltiades,  Themis' tocles  and  Aristides  be- 
come, for  a  time,  the  most  prominent  men  among  the  Athenians.  The 
former,  a  most  able  statesoian,  being  influenced  by  ambitious  motives, 
aimed  to  make  Atiiens  great  and  powqrful,  that  he  himself  might  rise 
to  greater  eminence  with  the  growing  fortunes  of  the  state ; — ^the  latter, 
a  pure  patriot,  had,  like  Themis'  todes,  the  good  of  Athens  at  heart, 
but,  unlike  his  rival,  he  was  whoUy  destitute  of  selfish  ambition,  and 
knew  no  cause  but  that  of  justice  and  the  public  welfare.  His  known 
IHTobity  acquired  for  him  Ihe  appellation  of  The  Just ;  but  his  very 
int^ity  made  for  him  secret  enemies,  who,  although  they  charged  him 
with  no  crimes,  were  yet  able  to  procure  from  the  people  the  penalty  of 
banishment  against  him  by  ostracism.*  His  removal  left  Themis'  tocles 
in  possession  of  almost  undivided  power  at  Athens,  and  threw  upon 
him  chiefly  the  responsibility  of  the  measure  for  resisting  another 
Persian  invasion,  with  which  the  Greeks  were  now  threatened. 

9.  Darius  made  great  preparations  for  invading  Greece  in  person, 
when  death  put  an  end  to  his  ambitious  projects.  Ten  years  after. 
tiie  battle  d  Mar'athon,  Xerxes,  the  son  and  successor  j^,  second 
of  Darius,  being  determined  to  execute  the  plans  of  his  fersun  war. 
father,  entered  Greece  at  the  head  of  an  army  the  greatest  the  world  . 
has  ever  seen,  and  whose  numberi^have  been  estimated  at  more  than 
two  millions  of  fighting  men.  This  immense  force,  passing  through 
Thes^  S9ly,  had  arrived,  without  opposition,  at  the  strait  of  Thermop'- 
jhdj*  where  Xerxes  found  a  body  of  eight  th6usand  men,  command- 

hWoi7ih»nUietlinaof06croiMtotb6  7«ar96tB.a  Tbe  preteoM  of  MQtbdes  in  ftttecMog 
P4ro8  was  that  the  inbabitaots  had  aided  the  Persiaiu ;  but  Herod'  otua  aasures  us  that  bli 
teal  motive  was  a  private  grudge  againit  a  P4rian  citlzao.  The  injury  of  wblob  he  died  waa 
cauaed  by  a  fUi  that  he  reoeired  while  attemptliig  to  visit  by  night,  a  Parian  priesteaa  of  Ceres* 
who  had  promiied  to  reveal  to  him  a  secret  that  would  place  P4roB  in  hia  power.     {Map  No.  IIL) 

1.  Tbe  mode  of  0»tracism  waa  as  foUowa:  Hie  jyople  having  aasembled,  each  man  took  a 
Adl  (MtralMny  and  wrote  on  it  the  name  of  the  person  whom  be  wished  to  have  baniahed. 
If  the  number  of  votes  thus  given  was  leas  than  six  thousand,  the  ostraeiam  waa  void ;  but  If 
man,  then  the  penon  whose  name  waa  on  the  greaiaat  number  of  ahella  waa  sent  into  banish 
nent  for  ten  years. 

SL  Tktrmtp'ylm  is  a  nairow  defile  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Gulf  which  lies  between 
Snbce'a  and  Thessaly,  add  is  almost  tbe  only  road  by  which  Greece  can  be  entered  on  tb« 


78  AVOIEIfT  MUTMT. 

ed  by  tbe  Spaitaa  king  Leon'  idas,  prepared  to  diflfmte  the  ] 
Xerxes  sent  a  herald  to  the  Greeks,  oommanding  them  to  lay  down 
their  arms;  hut  Leon'  idas  replied  with  true  Spartan  brevity,  *^ ooma 
and  take  them."  When  one  said  that  the  Persians  were  00  nomeroos 
that  their  very  darts  would  darken  the  son,  "  Then,"  replied  Dieni^oes, 
a  Spartan,  "  we  shall  fight  in  the  shade." 

1 0.  After  repeated  and  unavailing  efforts,  daring  two  days,  to  break 
the  Grecian  lines,  the  confidence  of  Xerxes  had  diaaged  into  de- 
q)ondenoe  and  perplexity,  when  a  deserter  revealed  to  him,  for  a  large 
reward,  a  secret  path  oyer  the  mountains,  by  whidi  he  was  enabied 
to  throw  a  force  of  twenty  thousand  men  into  the  rear  of  the  Gre- 
cians. Leon' idas,  seeing  that  his  post  was  no  longer  tenable,  dis- 
missed all  his  allies  who  were  willing  to  retire,  retaining  with  him 
only  three  hundred  fellow  Spartans,  with  some  Thes'  pians  and  Th^- 
bans,  in  all  abo^t  a  thousand  men.  The  Spartans  were  forbidden  hy 
their  laws  oyer  to  flee  from  an  enemy ;  and  Leon'  idas  and  his  oouii* 
trymen,  and  their  Thes'  pian  allies,*  prepared  to  sell  their  lives  as 
dearly  as  possible.  Falling  suddenly  upon  the  enemy,  th^  pene- 
trated to  the  very  centre  of  the  Persian  host,  slaying  two  brothiers  of 
Xerxes,  and  fighting  with  the  valor  of  desperation,  until  every 
<me  of  their  number  had  fallen.  A  monument  was  afterwards 
erected  on  the  spot,  bearing  the  following  inscription :  *^  Go  stnmger, 
and  tell  at  Laeedssmcm  Uiat  we  died  here  in  obedienoe  to  her 
laws." 

1 1.  Previous  to  the  last  attadc  of  the  Spartaara,  two  of  their  num- 
ber, Etirytus  and  Aristod^mus,  were  absent  on  leave,  suffering  from 
a  severe  complaint  of  the  eyes.  Biibrytus,  being  informed  that  the 
hour  for  the  detachment  was  come,  called  for  his  armor,  and  direet- 
ing  his  servant  to  lead  him  to  his  place  in  the  ranks,  fell  foremost  in 
the  fight  Aristod^mus,  overpowered  with  pbysicai  suffering,  was 
carried  to  Sparta ;  but  he  was  denounced  as  a  coward  for  not  imi* 

aorllMart,  b^  way  of  Tb/taulj.  Thfa  tkmmu  pftst,  wbich  to  ahiit  In  betwMn  tteep  praeV 
ptoes  and  the  eea,  at  the  eastern  extremtty  of  Mount  QES'  ta,  Is  about  flye  mllee  in  le^igth,  and, 
where  narrowest,  was  not  aocieDtfy,  according  to  Herod'  olns,  more  than  half  a  pfethron,  or 
Sfty  (tot  across,  although  Ury  says  sixty  paces.  The  pas  has  long  been  grsdnally  widening^ 
however,  by  the  deposits  of  soil  brought  down  by  the  mountain  streams.  In  the  naitoweet 
part  of  the  pass  were  hot  springs,  from  whkA  the  defile  derives  its  name.  (Tkenuty  ^  hot,** 
andjni/«,a«gat^or«*paas.»0    (Jlf«pNo.I.) 

a.  The  Tbebans  took  part  in  the  beginning  of  Uie  flght,  to  save  I4»peanneea|  bat  SnaUy  soi^ 
rendered  to  the  Persians,  loudly  proclaiming  that  they  liad  come  to  Thermop'ylm  agalnat  their 
OQDsent  The  atoiy  that  Leon'  idas  made  a  night  attack,  and  penetrated  Marly  to  tbe  royal 
lent,  is  a  mere  fiction.   (Bee  OroCi^  t  08.  |To(e.)  -» 


Qup.  IV.]  0RECIAK  HISTORY.  79 

titmg  ids  eomrftde — no  one  would  speak  or  oommimioate  with  him, 
ix  even  grant  him  a  light  for  his  fire.  After  a  year  of  bitter  die- 
graee,  he  was  at  length  enabled  to  retrieve  his  honor  at  the  battle 
of  Plat»'  a,  where  he  wta  slain,  after  snrpassmg  all  his  oomrades  in 
heroic  and  even  reckless  valor.^ 

12.  After  the  Ml  of  Leon'  idas,  the  Persians  ravaged  At'  tioa,  and 
soon  appeared  before  Athens,  which  they  burned  to  the  ground,  bnt 
which  had  previonaly  been  deserted  of  its  inhabitants, — ^those  able  to 
bear  arms  having  retired  to  the  island  of  Sal'  amis,  while  the  old  and 
infirm,  the  women  and  children,  had  fonnd  shelter  in  Trez^ne,^  a 
city  of  Ar'  golis.  The  allied  Qrecians  took  possession  of  the  Corin- 
thian Isihmns,  which  they  fortified  by  a  wall,  and  committed  to  the 
deftnee  of  Gleom'  brotas,  a  brother  of  Leon'  idas. 

13.  Xerxes  next  made  preparations  to  annihilate  the  power  of  the 
Oreciaas  in  a  naval  engagement,  and.  sent  his  whole  fleet  to  block  up 
that  of  the  Greeks  in  -the  narrow  strait  of  Sal'  amis.  Eory blades, 
the  Spartan,  who  commanded  the  Orecian  fleet,  was  in  favor  of  sail- 
ing to  the  isthmos,  that  the  naval  and  land  forces  might  act  in  con- 
jnnction,  but  Themis'  tocles  finally  prevailed  npon  him  to  hazard  an 
engagement,  and  his  counsels  were  enforced  by  Aristides,  now  in  the 
third  year  of  his  exile,  who  crossed  over  in  a  small  boat  f^om  JEglna 
with  intelligence  of  the  exact  poeition  of  the  Persian  flee); ; — a  cir- 
comstanoe  that  at  once  put  an  end  to  the  rivalry  between  the  two 
Athenians,  and  led  to  the  restoration  of  Aristides. 

14.  Xerxes  had  caused  a  royal  throne  to  be  erected  on  one  of  the 
neighbormg  heights,  where,  surrounded  by  his  army,  he  might  wit- 
ness the  battle  of  Sal'  amis,  in  which  he  was  confident  of  victory ;  but 
be  had  the  misfortune  to  see  his  magnificent  navy  almost  utterly  an- 
nihilated. Terrified  at  the  result,  he  hastily  fled  across  the  Hel'  les- 
pont,*  and  retired  into  his  own  dominions,  leaving  M(U'd6nius,^t  the 
head  of  three  hundred  thousand  men,  to  oomplete,  if  possible,  the 
conquest  of  Greece.  Marddnius  passed  the  winter  in  Thes'saly, 
but  in  the  following  summer  his  army  was  totally  defeated  and  him- 

L  TVex^MwasMartbeaonth-eMtdmecKlremltyof  Ar'goIiB.  Its  nUm  may  be  seen  near  the 
■nan  modem  Tillage  of  Damala. 

%  Hie  jBW'  Uapont  (now  caUed  DariAnMt»\  Is  the  nanrow  atrait  which  connecU  the  sea  of 
Marmora  with  the  iE'gean.  tt'ta  aboat  forty  mUea  in  length,  and  rartos  in  breadth  firom  three 
qoarten  of  a  mile  to  ten  miles.  Ihe  DardmuUesy  from  which  the  modem  name  of  the  stnit 
le  derited,  ut  eoMtles,  or  forta,  buUi  on  its  banks.  The  strait,  being  ttie  key  to  GonstanUnople 
and  the  Black  Sea,  has  been  rery  strongly  fortlfled  on  both  sides  by  ttieTuriDk    (Jifop  No.  IV.) 

a.  Grote^  r.  96. 


I 
80  ANCIENT  BISTORT.         .  [PabvL 

self  slain  in  the  battle  of  Plat»' a.  (B.  G.  479.)  Two  hundred  thon- 
sand  Persians  fell  in  battle,  and  only  a  small  remnant  e8Ci4[>ed  across 
the  Her  lespont — the  last  Persian  army  that  gained  a  footing  on  the 
Grecian  territory.  On  the  very  day  of  the  battle  of  Platsd'  a,  the  re- 
mains of  the  Persian  fleet  which  had  escaped  at  Sal'  amis,  and  whidi 
had  been  drawn  up  on  shore  at  Myc'  ale,*  on  the  coast  of  I^nia,  were 
bnmed  by  the  Grecians,  and  Tigrdnes,  the  Persian  commands,  and 
forty  thousand  of  his  men,  slain.  Six  years  later  the  career  of  Xerxes 
was  terminated  by  assassination,  when  he  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  by  his  son,  Artazerx'  es  Longim'  anus. . 

15.  In  the  meantime,  Athens  had  been  rebuilt  by  the  vigor  and 
energy  of  Themis'  tocles,  uid  the  Piraa'  us  fortifled,  and  connected, 
by  long  walls,  with  the  town,  while  Sparta  looked  with  ill-disgdsed 
jealousy  upon  the  growing  power  of  a  rival  city.  But  the  eminence 
which  Themis'  tocles  had  attained  provoked  the  envy  of  some  of  his 
countrymen,  and  he  was  condemned  to  exile  by  the  same  process  of 
ostracism  which  he  himself  had  before  directed  against  Aristide& 
Being  afterwards  charged  with  conspiring  against  the  liberties  of 
Greece,  he  sought  refuge  in  Persia,  where  he  is  said  to  have  ended 
his  life  by  poison.  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades,  succeeded  Themis'- 
tocles  in  the  chief  direction  of  Athenian  a&irs,  while  Pausiniaa,  the 
hero  of  Plate'  a;  was  at  the  head  of  the  Spartans.  Under  these 
leaders  the  confederate  Greeks  waged  successful  war  upon  the  de- 
pendencies of  Persia  in  the  islands  of  the  M'  gean,  and  on  the  coasts 
of  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor.  The  I6nian  cities  were  aided  in  a  suc- 
cessful revolt ;  Cy'  prus'  was  wrested  from  the  power  of  the  Per- 
sians ;  and  Byzan'  tium,*  already  a  flourishing  city,  fell,  with  all  its 
wealth,  into  the  hands  of  the  Grecians.  (B.  C.  476.) 

16.  Cimon  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  Persia  many  years 
later,  daring  which  the  commercial  power  and  wealth  of  the  Athe- 
nians were  continually  increasing  ^  but  both  parties  finally  becoming 
tired  of  the  contest,  after  the  death  of  Cimon  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  with  the  Persian  monarch,  which  stipulated  that  the  16- 


t,  Jfye' «/«  was  ft  promontory  of  I6nU  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite  the  sonthem  extremitj  of  tb* 
i8lsndofS4moe.    (MapNoAV.) 

3.  Cyprus  is  a  large  and  fertile  island  near  the  north-eastern  angle  of  the  Mediterranean, 
between  Asia  Minor  and  Syria :— greatest  len|:th,  one  hundred  and  thirty4wo  miles ;  aTerage 
breadth,  ttom  thirty  to  thirty-flre  miles.  Under  the  oppressive  rule  of  the  Turks,  who  con- 
quered the  Island  fh>m  the  Venetians  in  1571,  agriculture  was  greatly  neglected,  aod  the  popu- 
lation reduced  to  one-eerenth  of  its  former  nu  nber.    {Maps  Nos.  IV.  and  V.) 

a.  BfuiM'  (laM,  now  Constantinopls.    See  iescription,  p.S18. 


OaAP.IVJ  GRBOIAN  HISTORT.  81 

nian  oities  in  Aaia  dioold  be  left  in  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  inde- 
pendence, and  that  no  Persian  army  should  come  within  three  days' 
march  of  the  sea-coast.^ 

17.  While  the  war  with  Persia  continued,  a  sense  of  common  dan- 
gers had  united  the  Greeks  in  a  powerful  and  prosperous  confederacy, 
but  now  jealouaes  broke  out  between  several  of  the  rival  cities, 
particularly  Athens  and  Sparta,  which  led  to  political  dissensions 
and  civil  wars,  the  cause  of  the  final  ruin  of  the  Ghrecian  republics. 
The  authority  of  Cimon  among  the  Athenians  had  gradually  yielded 
to  the  growing  influence  of  his  rival  Per'  ides,  who,  bold,  artful,  and 
eloquent, — a  general,  philosopher,  and  statesman, — ^managed  the 
multitude  at  his  will,  and  by  his  patronage  of  literature  and  the  arts, 
an'd  the  extension  of  the  Athenian  power,  raised  Athens  to  the  sum- 
mit of  her  renown.  Sparta  looked  on  with  ill-disguised  jealousy  as 
island  after  island  in  the  M!  gean  yielded  to  the  sway  of  Athens,  and 
flaw  not  with  unconcern  the  colonies  of  her  rival  peopling  the  wind- 
ing shores  of  Thrace  and  Maeedon.  Athens  had  become  the  mis- 
tress of  the  seas,  while  her  commerce  engrossed  nearly  the  whole 
trade  of  the  Mediterranean. 

18.  But  Sparta  was  also  powerful  in  her  resources,  and  in  the 
military  renown  and  warlike  character  of  her  people,  and  she  dis- 
^Lained  the  luxuries  that  were  enervating  the  Athenians.  Complaints 
and  reclamations  were  frequent  on  both  sides ;  and  occasions  for 
war,  when  sought  by  both  parties,  are  not  long  delayed.  But  while 
the  Spartans  were  secretly  favoring  the  enemies  of  Athens,  although 
still  in  avowed  allegianoe  with  her,  Lac6nia  was  laid  waste  by  an 
earthquake  (464  B.  C),  and  Sparta  became  a  heap  of  ruins.  A  re 
volt  of  the  Helots  followed ;  Sparta  itself  was  endan-  ^^  .^^^^ 
gered;  and  the  remnant  of  the  Mess^nians,  making  a  visbbnian 
▼igorous  effort  to  recover  their  freedom,  fortified  the  ^^^^ 
memorable  hill  of  Ith6me,  the  ancient  citadel  of  their  fathers. 
Here,  for  a  long  time,  they  valiantly  defended  themselves ;  and  the 
Spartans  were  compelled  to  invoke  the  Athenians  and  others  to  their 
assistance.  (461  B.  C.)  After  Efeveral  years'  duration,  the  third  and 
last  Mes86nian  war  was  terminated  by  an  honorable  capitulation  of 
the  Mess^ians,  who  were  allowed  to  retire  from  the  Peloponnesus 

a.  Tb»  itarf  <irthiB  fhmoos  treaty,  however,  generally  called  the  Clmoniaa  treaty,  and  attrib- 
uted to  Cimon  hlnuelf,  has  been  regarded  by  some  writers  as  a  fiction,  which,  oiiglnatiDg  in 
Ibe  aehoola  of  Oreelc  rfaetoridana,  was  transmitted  thence  through  the  orators  to  the  historians. 
(See  TkirwtU^  i.  p.  905,  and  note.)  Grote,  however,  v.  33G-42,  admits  the  reality  of  the  treaty 
Iral  plaoea  it  after  the  death  of  Cimon. 


82  AKdKST  HBTOET.  [Fml 

witk  their  propertj  tnd  their  fiuniliei,  aad  to  jon  tke  Atlwiiin  odl- 
on  J  of  Nanpae'  tns. 

19.  WhUe  the  Athenians  were  engaged  in  koatilitiflB  with  wfual 
of  iheir  northern  neighborsL  Sparta  sent  her  forces  into  the  Bqb6- 
tian  territory,  to  counteract  the  growing  inioenee  of  AAens  in 
that  quarter.  The  mdignant  Athenians  married  out  to  meet  them, 
bat  were  worsted  in  the  battle  of  Tan'  agra.'  In  the  following  year, 
howerer,  thej  were  enabled  to  wipe  off  the  stain  of  their  defeat  b j  a 
victory  OTer  the  aggregate  Theban  and  BonStian  forces  then  in  jli- 
anoe  with  Sparta ;  wherebj  the  anthority  and  inflneaee  of  Sparta 
were  again  confined  to  the  Peloponn^sos. 

20.  Other  eyents  soon  occurred  to  embitter  the  ammosities  of  the 
rival  States,  and  prepare  the  way  for  a  general  war.  Corinth,  a 
D6rian  city  favorable  to  Sparta,  having  become  involved  m  a  war 
with  Corey'  ra,*  one  of  her  colonies,  the  latter  applied  for  and  ob- 
tained assistance  from  Athens.  Potidie'  a,"  a  Corinthian  colony  trib- 
utary to  Athens,  soon  aft^r  revolted,  at  the  same  time  daiming  and 
obtaining  the  assistance  of  the  Corinthians ;  and  thns  in  two  in- 
stances were  Athens  and  Corinth,  though  nominally  at  peace,  brov^t 
into  conflict  with  each  other  as  open  enemie&  The  Corinthians,  now 
accusing  Athens  of  interfering  between  them  and  their  colonies, 

IT  riRsr    ^^li'urged  her  with  violating  a  treaty  of  tiie  eonfoderated 
pjcLOPONifi-  States  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  easily  engaged  the  Laoe- 
SUM  wAft.    ^[jgm^QiiLiis  in  their  quarrel.     Such  were  the  immo^to 
causes  which  opened  the  First  Pdoponnesian  War,    . 

21.  The  minor  States  of  Greece  took  sides  as  inclinati^m  or  bter- 
est  prompted,  and  nearly  all  were  involved  in  the  contest  The 
Spartans  and  their  confederates  were  the  most  powerful  by  land, 
the  Athenians  by  sea ;  and  each  t>^an  the  war  by  displaying  ita 
strength  on  its  peculiar  element.  While  a  Spartan  army  of  sixty 
thousand,  led  by  their  king,  Arehidimus,  ravaged  At'  tioa,  and  sat 
down  before  the  very  gates  of  Athens,  the  naval  force  of  the  Athen 

I.  Tan'  mgroj  ft  city  iMwr  the  soatli-eutMni  extremity  of  BcsbtU,  was  iltiiafted  on  aa  eml^ 
nence  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  rirer  AabpoMf  aad  near  its  mouth.    {Map  No.  L) 

SL  Corey'  ra^  now  Or/it,  the  mo0t  important,  although  not  the  largest,  of  the  I6nian  ialands, 
la  situated  near  the  coast  of  Bplnia,  tn  the  l&nSan  Sea.  Al  Ua  northern  extfeaaity  it  laaeparatoii 
from  the  coast  by  a  channel  only  three-fiAha  of  a  mile  wide.  Hie  atrongly-fortifled  eit;ii  of  OoiAi, 
the  eapttal  of  the  Idnlan  Repubtte,  atanda  on  the  atte  of  the  aneient  dty  of  0»rc!y'ra,  on  the 
^ftslemalde  of  the  island. 

3.  Potidm'  a  waa  Situated  on  the  isthmus  that  oonnecta  the  moat  weaten  of  the  three  1iae». 
doaian  peninsulas  In  the  JR'  geao  with  the  aoain  land.  Tliere  ara  no  remains  of  the  dty  eodafc- 
Ing.    (Jfap-No.  I.) 


Chop.  IV.]  GRECIAN  HISTORY.  83 

ianB,  consisidng  of  nearly  two  hundred  galleys,  desolated  the  ooaats  of 
the  Peloponn^sQB.  (6.  0.  431.)  The  Spartans  being  recalled  to  pro- 
tect their  own  homes,  Per'  icles  himself,  at  the  head  of  the  largest 
force  mustered  by  the  Athenians  during  the  war,  spread  desolation 
over  the  little  territory  of  Meg^  ara,'  then  in  alliance  with  Sparta. 

22.  In  the  following  year  (B.  0.  430)  the  Spartan  force  a  second 
time  inTaded  At'  tioa^when  the  Athenians  again  took  refdge  within 
their  walls ;  bnt  here  the  plague,  a  calamity  more  dreadful  than  war, 
attacked  them,  and  swept  away  multitudes  of  the  citizens,  and  many 
of  the  prinoipal  men.  In  the  third  year  of  the  war.  Per'  icles  him- 
self fell  a  victim  to  its  ravages.  Before  this,  Potidse'  a  had  surren- 
dered to  the  Athenians  (B.  0.  430),  who  banished  the  inhabitants, 
and  gave  their  vacant  lands  and  houses  to  new  colonists ;  and  when 
PUtse'a,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  was  compelled  to  surren- 
der to  the  Spartans,  the  latter  cruelly  put  the  little  npmnant  of  the 
garrison  to  death,  while  the  women  and  children  were  made  slaves 
(B.  C.  427.) 

23.  After  the  struggle  had  continued  with  various  success  ten. 
years,  both  parties  became  anxious  for  peace,  and  a  treaty,  for  a 
term  of  fifty  years,  called  the  peace  of  Nic'  ias,  was, concluded,  on 
the  basis  of  a  mutual  restitution  of  all  conquests  made  during  the 
war.  (421  B.  G.)  Yet  interest  and  indmation,  and  the  ambitious 
views  of  party  leaders  among  the  Athenians,  were  not  long  in  find- 
ing plausible  pretexts  for  renewing  the  struggle.  The  B€e6tian, 
Meg&rian,  and  Corinthian  allies  of  Sparta,  refused  to  accede  to  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  by  making  the  required  surrenders,  and  Sparta 
had  no  power  to  compel  them,  while  Athens  would  accept  no  less 
than  she  had  bargained  for. 

24.  At  the  head  of  the  party  which  aimed  at  severing  the  ties 
that  bound  Athens  and  Sparta  together,  was  Alcibiades,  a  wealthy 
Athenian,  and  nephew  of  Per'  ides, — a  man  ambitious,  bold,  and 
eloquent, — an  artful  demagogue,  but  corrupt  and  unprincipled,  and 
reckless  of  the  means  he  used  to  accomplish  his  purposes.  By  his 
artifices  he  involved  the  Spartans  in  a  war  with  their  recent  allies 
the  Ar' gives,  and  induced  the  Athenians  to  send  an  armament 
against  the  D6rian  island  of  M^los,"  which  had  provoked  the  enmity 

1.  Mt^  vrtu,  ft  dtj  of  At'tica,  and  capital  of  a  dbtiict  of  the  same  name,  was  about  twenty.- 
Are  miles  west,  or  nortlFweet,  of  Athena,  and  was  eonnooted  with  the  port  of  Nls'  aa  on  the 
Baron'  le  Gulf  by  two  walla  atinlltfr  to  thoae  which  connected  Athena  and  the  Pirn'  na.  The 
iBl4enib1e  tillage  of  Meg*  ara  occupies  a  part  of  the  ilte  of  the  andent  city.    {Maf  No.  L) 

S.  MUoM  now  caUed  MUo^  la  an  Island  belonging  to  the  group  of  the  QyC  ladea^  about  serenlf 


84  '  ANCIENT  HI8T0BT.  [PaktI 

of  Athens  hj  its  attachment  to  Sparta,  and  which  was  oompelledy 
after  a  vigorous  siege,  to  surrender  at  discretion.  With  deliberate 
cruelty  the  conquerors,  imitating  the  Spartans  at  the  reduction  of 
Plates' a,  put  to  death  all  the  adult  citizens,  and  enslaved  the  women 
and  children — an  act  which  provoked  universal  indignation  through* 
out  Greece.  (B.  C.  416.) 

25.  Soon  after  the  surrender  of  Melos,  the  Athenians,  at  the  in- 
stigation  of  Alcibiades,  fitted  out  an  expedition  against  Sicily,*  uik> 
der  the  plea  of  delivering  a  people  in  the  western  part  of  the  island 
firom  the  tyranny  of  the  Syracusans,'  a  Ddrian  colony ;  but,  in  reality, 
to  establish  the  Athenian  supremacy  in  the  island.  (415  B.  C.) 
T.  noiuAif  The  armament  fitted  out  on  this  occasion,  the  most 
KXPiDiTioN.  powerful  that  had  ever  left  a  Grecian  port,  was  intrust- 
ed to  the  joint  command  of  Alcibiades,  Nic'  ias,  and  Lam'  achus ; 
but  ere  the  fleet  had  reached  its  destination,  Alcibiades  was  sum- 
moned home  on  the  absurd  charge  of  impiety  and  sacrilege,  con- 
nected with  designs  against  the  State  itself  Fearing  to  trust 
himself  to  the  giddy  multitude  in  a  trial  for  life,  he  at  once  threw 
himself  upon  the  generosity  Of  his  open  enemies,  and  sought  refuge 

miles  east  from  the  southern  part  of  Lao6nla.    It  has  one  of  the  best  hsrbon  In  the  Grecian 
Archipelago.    Near  the  town  of  Castro  htfve  been  discoTered  the  remains  of  a  theatre  bnUt  of 
'  the  finest  iiiart>le,  and  also  nwnerofosoataoombs  cut  In  the  solid  rook.    (Map  No.  UI.) 

1.  Sicilf,  the  largest,  most  Important,  most  fruitful,  and  most  celebrated  island  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  separated  ttom  the  southern  extremitj  of  Italy  by  the  strait  of  Messina,  only  two 
milea  across,  and  lseighty*llTe  miles  distant  from  Gspe  Bon  In  AfHea.  It  is  of  a  triaDfoIar  shapsy 
and  was  anciently  called  TrinaeriOy  from  Its  terminating  in  three  promontories.  SioUy,  th* 
name  by  which  it  is  usually  known,  seems  to  have  been  derived  fh>m  the  SietUi,  its  earliest 
known  inbabUanls.  Its  length  east  and  west  is  about  two  hundred  and  fifteen  miles ;— greatesi 
breadth,  one  hundred  snd  filly  miles.  The  volcano  iEtna,  the  most  celebrated  of  European 
mountains,  near  the  eastern  cosst  of  the  island,  rises  to  the  height  of  nearly  eleven  thousand 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  >  (Mtgi  No.  Vin.    For  history  of  SicUy,  see  p.  115.) 

S.  Syraeiwa,  the  most  famous  of  the  cities  of  SicUy,  wss  situated  on  the  south'^astem  coast, 
partly  on  a  small  island,  and  partly  on  the  main  land.  Among  Uie  existing  remains  of  the 
aodent  city  are  the  prisons,  cut  in  the  soUd  rock,  which  have  been  admirably  described  by 
Ctoero  in  his  oration  against  Verres.  Tlie  catacombs,  alao  excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  and 
consisting  of  one  principal  street  and  several  smaller  ones,  are  of  vast  extent,  and  may  be  truly 
called  a  dty  of  the  dead.  The  modern  city,  however,  containing  a  population  of  tn'elvo  or  tU- 
teen  thousand  inhabitants,  has  little  except  its  ancient  renown,  its  noble  harbor,  and  the  ex- 
treme  beauty  of  its  situation,  to  recommend  It.  {Map  No.  VIII.)  "■  lu  streets  are  narrow  and 
dirty ;  Its  nobles  poor ;  its  lower  orders  ignorant,  superstitions,  idle,  and  addicted  to  festivals. 
Much  of  its  Cartile  land  Is  become  a  pestilential  mardi ;  and  that  commerce  which  once  filled 
the  finest  port  in  Europe  with  the  vessels  of  Italy,  Rhodes,  Alexandria,  Carthage,  and  every 
other  maritime  power,  is  now  confined  te  a  petty  cossUng  trade.  Such  .is  modem  Syracuse. 
Yet  the  sky  which  canopies  it  is  still  brilUant  and  serene ;  the  gokien  grain  is  sdU  ready  to 
spring  almost  spontaneously  from  Its  fields ;  the  axure  waves  still  beat  against  its  walls  i» 
send  its  nsviee  over  the  main ;  nature  Lb  stlU  prompt  to  pour  ^rth  her  bounties  with  a  liberal 
band ;  but  man,  ahu !  is  changed ;  his  liberty  is  lost ;  and  with  that,  the  genius  of  a  nation 
riss^  sinks,  and  is  extinguished."— JVtc^As*^  Grttta, 


CfliP.  rVJ  *   GRECIAN  HISTORY.  85 

at^arta.  When,  soon  after,  he  lizard  that  the  Athenians  had  oon- 
denmed  him  to  death,  "  I  hope,"  said  he,  ^^  to  show  them,  that  I  am 
still  alive." 

26.  By  the  death  of  Lam'  achos,  Nic'  ias  was  soon  after  left  in 
sole  command  of  the  Athenian  forces  before  Sjrracuse,  but  he  wasted 
his  time  in  fortifying  his  camp,  and  in  useless  negotiations,  until  the 
Syraeusans,  having  received  succor  from  Corinth  and  Sparta  under 
the  £unous  Spartan  general  Gjlip'  pus,  were  able  to  bid  him  defi- 
ance. Although  new  forces  were  sent  out  from  Athens,  yet  l^e 
Athenians  were  defeated  in  several  engagements,  when,  still  linger- 
ing in  the  island,  their  entire  fleet  was  eventually  destroyed  by  the 
Syracusans,  who  thus  became  masters  of  the  sea.  The  Athcnia^ 
forces  tiien  attempted  to  retreat,  but  were  overtaken  and  compelled 
to  surrender.  (B.  0.  413.)  The  generals  destroyed  themselves,  on 
learning  that  their  death  had  been  decreed  by  the  Syracusan  assem- 
bly. The  common  soldiers,  to  the  number  of  seven  thousand,  were 
crowded  together  during  seventy  days  in  the  gloomy  prisons  of 
Syracuse,  when  most  of  the  survivors  were  taken  out  and  sold  as  slaves. 

27.  The  aid  which  Gylip'  pus  had  rendered  the  Syracusans  again 
brou^t  Sparta  and  Athens  in  direct  conflict,  and  opened  the  second 
Peloponn^sian  war.  The  result  of  the  Athenian  expe-  ^  bbcond 
dition  was  the  greatest  calamity  that  had  &llen  upon  pzloponnk 
Athens.  Several  of  her  allies,  instigated  by  Alcibiades,  ®'^^  ^^^ 
who  was  now  active  in  the  Spartan  councils,  revolted;  and  the 
power  of  Tisapher'  nes,  the  most  powerfiod  satrap  of  the  king  of  Persia 
in  Asia  Minor,  was  on  the  point  of  being  thrown  into  the  scale  against 
the  Athenians,  when  a  rupture  between  the  Spartans  and  Alcibiades 
dianged  the  aspect  of  afiGurs,  and  for  awhile  revived  the  waning 
glory  of  Athens.  By  his  intrigues,  Alcibiades,  who  now  sought  a 
reconciliation  with  his  countrymen,  detached  Tisapher'  nes  from  the 
interests  of  Sparta,  and  effected  a  change  of  government  at  Athens 
from  a  democracy  to  an  aristocracy  of  four  hundred  of  the  nobility ; 
bat  the  new  government,  dreading  the  ambition  of  Alcibiades,  re- 
fbsed  to  recall  him.  Another  change  soon  followed.  The  defeat  of 
the  Athenian  navy  at  Er^tria,^  and  the  revolt  of  Euboe'  a,  produced 
a  new  revolution  at  Athens,  by  which  the  government  of  the  four 
hundred  was  overthrown,  and  democracy  restored.  Alcibiades  was 
immediately  recalled ;  but  before  his  return  he  aided  in  destroying 

t.  Eritna  waa  a  town  on  Um  wettern  ooaiiof  the  Uland  of  Euboe'a.  Its  ralna  an  ttUl  to 
be  fMB  ten  or  twelvo  mitoa  aoutli-eaat  ftom  tbo  priMn'.  Neg'  ropOnt.    (^Xap  Mo.  I.) 


M  ANCIENT  HISTORY.'  [Paw  I 

die  PeloponnMan  fleet  in  the  battle  of  CjB'ioos.*  (B.  C.  411.) 
8oon  after,  Alcibiades  was  welcomed  at  Athena  with  great  entiuifli* 
ftsm,  a  gelden  crown  was  decreed  hini)  and  he  was  appointed  com- 
manderin-chief  of  all  the  forces  of  the  oomm<Hiwealth  both  by  land 
uid  by  sea. 

28.  Alcibiades  was  stQl  destined  to  experience  the  instability  of 
fortune,  for  when  one  of  his  generals,  contrary  to  instmctions,  attacked 
the  Spartan  fleet  and  was  defeated,  an  nnjnst  saq^ioion  of  treadiery 
feU  upon  Alcibiades ;  the  former  charges  against  him  were  reyived, 
and  he  was  deprived  of  his  command  and  again  banished.  Th« 
a&irs  of  Sparta  were  retriered  by  the  crafty  Lysan'  der,  a  general 
whose  abilities  the  Athenians  ooold  not  match  since  they  had  de* 
prived  themselves  of  the  services  of  Alcibiades.  The  Spartan 
general  had  the  art  to  gain  the  confidence  and  cooperation  of  Cyras, 
a  yoimger  son  of  Darius  No'  thus,  the  Persian  king,  whom  the  latter 
had  invested  with  supreme  authority  over  the  whole  maritime  re- 
gion of  Asia  Minor. 

29.  Aided  by  Persian  gold,  Lysan'  der  found  no  difficulty  in  man- 
ning a  numerous  fleet,  with  which  he  met  the  Athenians  at  ^'gos- 
Pot'  amos.'  Here,  during  several  days,  he  declmed  a  battle,  but 
seizing  the  opportunity  when  nearly  all  the  Athenians  were  dispersed 
on  shore  in  quest  of  supplies,  he  attacked  and  destroyed  all  their 
ships,  with  the  exception  of  eight  galleys,  and  took  three  thousand 
prisoners.  The  fiite  of  the  prisoners  is  a  shocking  proof  of  the  bar- 
barous feelings  and  manners  of  the  age,  for  all  of  them  were  rc: 
morselessly  put  to  death,  in  revenge  for  wme  recent  cruelties  of  the 
Athenians,  who  had  thrown  down  a  precipice  the  crews  of  two  captured 
vessels,  and  had  passed  a  decree  for  cutting  off  the  right  thumb  of 
the  prisoners  whose  capture  they  anticipated  in  the  coming  battle. 

30.  Thus,  in  one  short  hour,  by  the  culpable  negligence  of  their 
generals,  were  the  affairs  of  the  Athenians  changed  from  an  equality 
of  resources  with  their  enemy,  to  hopeless,  irretrievable  ruin.  The 
maritime  allies  of  Athens  immediately  submitted  to  Lysander,  who 
directed  the  Athenians  throughout  Greece  to  repair  at  once  to 
Athens,  with  threats  of  death  to  all  whom  he  found  elsewhere  ^  and 

1.  Cfft'  iau  was  an  ialaiid  of  the  Propon'  tla,  (now  wa  of  MarmorB,)  oa  the  northern  coasi 
of  Myi'  ia.  It  was  separated  from  the  main  land  hy  a  very  nairow  channel,  which  has  tinco 
Seen  flUad  up,  and  U  to  now  a:  peatarala.    {Map  No.  IV.) 

S.  JE' go»-Pot' omo»^  ("goat's  river")  was  a  small  stream  of  the  Thraclan  Ohenon6sa8»  which 
Sows  into  the  Hellespent  from  the  west  The  phwe  where  the  Athenians  landed,  appeara  te 
have  been «"  a  mere  open  b«Beh,  without  any  habitations.'*    (ThlnraU,  1 4B9.)    <Jir19R0.IV> 


Our.  IV.]  OKBCIAS  HBTORT.  87 

niieii  fianine  began  to  prej  upon  the  oolleoted  mnltitade  in  the 
«ii]r,  he  appeared  before  the  Pira'  us  with  hiB  fleet,  while  a  large 
force  from  Sparta  blockaded  Athens  by  land.  The  Athenians  had 
no  hopes  of  effectual  resistance,  and  only  delayed  the  istoender  to 
plead  for  the  best  terms  that  could  be  obtained  from  the  conquerors. 
Compelled  at  last  to  submit  to  whateyer  terms  were  dictated  to  them, 
they  agreed  to  destroy  the  long  walls,  and  the  fortifications  of  the 
Pine'' US ;  to  surrender  i^  dieir  ships  but  twelve;  to  restore  their 
exiles ;  to  r^lnquish  their  conquests ;  to  become  a  member  of  the 
Pelopontt6sian  confederacy;  and  to  serve  Sparta  in  all  her  expedi- 
tions, whether  by  sea  or  by  land.  (B.  C.  404.)  Thus  dosed  the 
seoond  Pelopomi^ian  war,  in  the  profotmd  humiliation^of  Athens. 

31.  A  change  of  government  followed,  as  directed  by  Lysander, 
and  eonformable  to  the  aristocratic  oharaot«r  of  the  Spartan  institu- 
tioDS.  All  anthonty  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  thirty  arohons, 
known  as  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  whose  power  was  supported  by  a 
Spartan  garrison.  Their  cruelty  and  rapadty  knew  n^  bounds,  and 
fiUed  Athens  with  universal  cUsmay.  A  large  band  of  exiles  soon 
accumulated  in  the  friendly  Theban  territories,  and  choosing  Thrasy- 
btilus  for  their  leader,  they  resolved  to  strike  a  blow  for  the  deliver- 
asDce  of  their  counlnry.  They  first  seized  a  small  fortress  on  the 
frontiers  of  Attica,  when,  tiieir  numbers  rapidly  increasing,  they  were 
enaUed  to  seiie  the  Pine'  us,  where  they  defeated  the  force  which 
was  bron^  against  them.  The  rule  of  the  tyrants  was  overthrown, 
and  a  council  of  ten  was  elected  to  fill  their  places ;  but- the  latter 
emulated  the  wickedness  of  their  predecessors,  and,  when  the  popu- 
lace turned  against  them,  applied  to  Sparta  for  assistance.  But  the 
Spartan  councils  were  divided,  and  eventually,  by  the  aid  of  Sparta 
herself,  the  ten  were  deposed,  when,  the  Spartan  garrison  being 
witibdzawn,  Athens  again  became  a  democracy,  with  tiie  power  in 
the  httids  of  the  people.     (B.  G.  403.) 

32.  It  was  during  the  rule  of  democracy  in  Athens  that  the  wise 
and  virtuous  Soerstes,  the  best^and  greatest  of  Grecian  philosophers, 
was  condemned  to  dead)  on  the  absurd  charge  of  impiety,  and  of 
corrupting  the  morals  of  the  young.  His  accusers  appear  to  have 
been  instigated  by  personal  resentment,  which  he  had  innocently  pro- 
voked, and  by  envy  of  his  many  virtues ;  and  the  result  shows  not 
only  the  instability,  but  the  moral  obliquity  also,  of  the  Athenian 
character.  The  defence  whfch  Socrates  made  before  his  judges  is 
in  the  tone  of  a  man  who  demands  rewards  and  honors,  instead  of 


88  ANOIEHT  HISTORt.  [PawL 

the  ptmiiihment  of  a  male&otor  ;  and  when  the  sentence  of  death  had 
been  pronounced  against  him,  he  spent  the  remaining  days  which  the 
laws  allowed  him  in  impressing  on  the  minds  of  his  friends  the  most 
sublime  lessons  in  philosophy  and  virtue ;  and  when  the  &tal  hour 
arrived,  drank  the  poison  with  as  much  composure  as  if  it  had  been 
the  last  draught  of  a  cheerful  banquet 

33.  Cyrus  has  been  mentioned  as  one  of  the  sons  of  Darius  No'  thus, 
and  governor  of  the  maritime  region  of  Asia  Minor.  As  his  ambi- 
tion  led  him  to  aspire  to  the  throne  of  Persia,  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  elder  brother,  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  he  had  aided  Sparta  in  ihe 
Peloponnesian  war,  with  the  view  of  claiming,  m  return,  her  assist- 
Mice  against  his  brother,  should  he  ever  have  occasion  tor  it  When, 
therefore,  the  latter  was  promoted  to  the  throne  in  accordance  with 
^e  dying  bequest  of  his  father,  Cyrus  prepared  for  the  execution 
of  his  'design  by  raising  an  army  of  a  hundred  thousand  Persian 
and  barbarian  troops,  which  he  strengthened  by  an  auxiliary  force 
of  thirteen  thousand  Grecians,  drawn  principally  f^om  the  Cbreek 
cities  of  Asia.  On  the  Grecian  force,  commanded  by  the  Spartan 
Clear'  chus,  Cyrus  placed  his  main  reliance  for  success. 

34.  With  these  forces  he  marched  from  Sardis  in  the  Spring  of  ^ 
the^  year  401,  and  with  little  difficulty  penetrated  into  the  heart  of 
the  Persian  empire,  when  he  was  met  by  Artaxerx'  es,  seventy  mOes 
from  Babylon,  at  the  head  of  nine  hundred  thousand  men.  In  the 
battle  whidi  followed,  this  immense  force  was  at  first  routed ;  bat 
Cyrus,  rashly  charging  the  centre  of  the  guards  who  surrounded  his 
brother,  was  slain  on  the  field,  when  the  whole  of  his  barbarian 
troops  took  to  flight,  leaving  the  Gh'eeks  almost  alone  in  the  midst 
of  a  hostile  country,  more  than  a  thousand  miles  from  any  friendly 
territory. 

35.  The  Persians  proposed  to  the  (Grecians  terms  of  accommo- 
dation, but  having  invited  their  leaders  to  a  conference  they  mer- 
cilessly put  them  to  death.  No  alternative  now  remained  to  the 
Greeks  but  to  submit  to  the  enemy,  or  fight  their  way  back  to 
their  native  country.  Where  submission  was  death  or  slavery  they 
could  not  hesitate  which  course  to  pursue.  They  chose  Xen'  ophon, 
a  young  Athenian,  for  their  leader,  and  under  his  conduct  ten  thou- 
sand of  their  number,  after  a  march  of  four  months,  succeeded  in 
reaching  Grecian  settlements  on  the  banks  of  the  Eux'  ine.  Xen  'o- 
phon  himself,  who  afterwards  became  the  historian  of  his  country, 
has  left  an  admirable  narrative  of  the  ^^  Retreat  of  thf  Ten  Thou- 


CBir.  IV.]  GBECIAN  BISTORT.  89 

sand,"  writteiK  nith  great  clearness  and  singular  modesty.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  works  bequeathed  ns  by  antK^uity,  as  the 
Betreat  itself  is  the  most  famous  military  expedition  on  record. 

36.  The  part  whieh  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  took  in  the  expedi- 
tion of  Cyrus  inTolved  them  in  a  war  with  Persia,  in  which  they ' 
were  aided  by  the  Spartans,  who,  under  their  king  Agesilius,  de- 
feated Tifiapher'nes  in  a  great  battle  in  the  plains  of  Sirdis  (B.  0 
395)';  but  Agesilius  was  soon  after  recalled  to  aid  his   ^^^  third 
countrymen  at  home  in  another  Peloponn6sian  war,  which  p]>x.opoNitB- 
had  bcMBn  fomented  chiefly  by  the  Persian  king  himself,   ^^^  ^^^ 
in  order  to  save  his  own  dominions  from  the  ravages  of  the  Spartans. 
Artazerx'  es  supplied  Conon,  an  Athenian,  with  a  fleet  which  defeat-  . 
ed  the  Spartan  navy ;  and  Persian  gold  rebuilt  the  walls  of  Athens. 
On  the  other  hand,  Athens  and  her  allies  were  defeated  in  the 
vicinity  of  Ccmnth,  and  on  the  plains  of  Coron6a.'  (B.  0.  394). 
Pinally,  after  the  war  had  continued  eight  years,  articles  of  peace 
were  arnmged  between  Artaxerx'es  and  the  Spartan  Antal'cida^ 
hence  called  the  peace  of  Antal'  cidas,  and  ratified  by  all  the  parties 
engaged  in  the  war,  almost  without  opposition.     (387  B.  C.)     The 
Greek  cities  in  Asia,  together  with  the  islands  Olazom'ensd*  and 
Cy' pros,  were  giventip  to  Persia,  and  the  separate  independence  of 
aU  tiie  other  Greek  cities  was  guaranteed,  with  the  exception  of  the 
islandfl  Im'  brus,  Lem'  nos,  and  Scy^  rus,*  which,  as  of  old,  were  to 
belong  to  Athens. 

37.  The  terms  of  the  peace  of  Antal'  cidas,  directed  by  the  king  of 
Persia,  were  artfully  contrived  by  him  to  dissolve  the  power  of 
Greece  into  nearly  its  original  elements,  that  Persia  might  there- 
after have  less  to  fear  from  a  united  Greek  confederacy,  or  the  pre- 
ponderating influence  of  any  one  Grecian  State.  It  was  the  un- 
worthy jealousy  of  the  Grecians,  which-  the  Persian  knew  how  to 
stimulate,  that  prompted  them  to  give  up  to  a  barbarian  the  free 
cities  of  Asia^  and  this  is  the  darkest  shade  in  the  picture.  Both 
Athens  and  Sparta  lost  their  former  allies ;  and  though  Sparta  was 


1.  Cgrcnia  was  A  cfty  of  BcB6tia,  to  the  Boath-MAt  of  Ourrvnta^  and  two  or  three  miles 
■ootlMreBi  fh>m  the  Oopslc  Lake.    South  of  CoronAa  was  Mount  Helicon.    ( Jft^p  No.  I.) 

2.  The  Clavm'  ena  here  mentioned  was  a  small  island  near  the  Lydian  ooast,  west  of 
SmTrna,  and  in  what  is  now  called  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna.    (Map  No.  IV.) 

X  in'  bnuj  Lem'  n««,  sad  Scjf'  rua,  (now  Imbro,  Statlmene,  and  Scyro,)  are  ielanda  of  the 
JR'  gemn.  Hie  flnt  is  about  ten  miles  west  from  the  entranoe  to  the  He^  lespont,  and  the  second 
about  forty  miles  southriTreBt.  Scy'nu  is  ab>ut  twenty-flre  miles  north-east  from  Eaboa'a. 
Olfap  No.  in.) 


90  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  [Pin  I 

tbe  most  strongly  in  &Tor  of  the  terms  of  tiie  treatj,  yet  Atlisnt 
was  the  greatest  gainer,  for  she  onee  more  became,  althon^  a  small, 
yet  an  independent  and  powerful  State. 

38.*  It  was  not  long  before  ambition,  and  the  resentment  of  past 
injuries,  iuTolved  Sparta  in  new  war&  She  oompdied  Mantin^a,^ 
which  had  formerly  been  her  unwilling  ally,  to  throw  down  her 
walls,  and  dismember  the  city  into  its  <Nr]ginal  divisionB,  under  the 
X  pretext  that  the  Mantindans  had  supplied  one  of  the  enemies  of 
Sparta  witii  com  during  the  preceding  war,  and  had  evaded  their 
share  of  service  in  the  Spartan  army.  The  jealousy  of  Sparta  was 
next  aroused  against  the  rismg  power  of  Olyn'tiius,'  which  had 
become  engaged  in  hostilities  with  some  rival  cities ;  and  the  Spar- 
tans readily  aoeepted  an  invitation  of  the  latter  to  send  an  army  to 
their  aid.  As  one  of  the  Spartan  forces  was  marching  through  ^e 
Theban  territories  on  this  errand,  the  Spartan  general  fraudulently 
seised  upon  the  Oadm^ia,  or  Theban  citadel,  although  a  state  of 
peace  existed  between  Thebes  and  Sparta.     (B.  C.  382.) 

39.  The  political  moraliiy  of  the  Spartans  is  clearly  exhibited  in 
the  arguments  by  which  AgesiOtns  justified  tiiis  palpable  breach  of 
the  treaty  of  Antal'  cidas.  He  dl^lared  that  the  only  question  for 
the  -Spartan  people  to  consider,  was,  whether  they  were  gainers  or 
losers  by  the  transaction.  The  assertion  made  by  the  Athenians  on 
a  former  occasion  was  confirmed,  that,  ^^  of  all  States,  Sparta  had 
most  glaringly  shown  by  her  conduct  that  in  her  political  transactions 
she  measured  honor  by  inclination,  and  justdce  by  expediency." 

40.  On  the  seizure  of  the  Theban  citadel  the  most  patriotic  of 
the  citizens  fled  to  Athens,  while  a  &ction,  upheld  by  the  Spartan 
/garrison,  ruled  the  city.  After  the  Thebans  had  submitted  to  this 
foke  four  years  they  rose  against  their  tyrants  and  put  them  to 
leath,  and  being  re-enforced  by  the  exiles,  and  an  Athenian  army, 
soon  forced  the  Spartan  garrison  to  ci^itulate.  (B.  0.  379.)  Pelop'- 
idas  and  Epaminon'  das  now  appeared  on  the  field  of  action,  and  by 
their  abilities  raised  .Thebes,  hitherto  of  but  little  political  import- 

1.  Mamtinia  was  in  the  eastora  part  of  AroAdIa,  serenteen  mUes  west  from  Afgos.  It  was 
situated  In  a  marshy  plain  through  which  flowed  the  small  river  A'  phis,  whose  waten  ftnmd 
a  Bubterranean  passsge  to  the  sea.  ManUn«a  Is  wholly  indebted  fbr  its  celebrity  to  the  great 
battle  fought  in  its  ricinlty  in  the  year  368  between  the  Spartans  and  Thebans.  (See  p.  91.) 
The  locality  of  the  batUe  was  about  three  miles  southwest  from  the  city.  The  mins  of  the 
ancient  town  may  be  seen  near  tbe  wretched  modem  hamlet  of  Paiaiofli.    (Map  No.  I.) 

8.  oifn'  tkut  wos  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  Macedonia,  six  or  seven  miles  north-east  from 
PotldsB'a.    (MapVo.l) 


Our.  TV,]  aRfiCIAlf  mSTOET.  ^t 

IBM,  to  ihe  first  rtaok  in  power  among  the  Grecian  States.  AI- 
tliao^  Athena  joined  Thebes  in  the  beginning  of  the  contest,  yet 
the  afterwards  took  the  side  of  the  Spartans.  At  Teg'jra,  ^  Pe- 
hp'  idas  defeated  a  greatly  superior  force,  and  k^led  the  two  Spartan 
generals  \  at  Leno'  tra,'  Epaminon'  das,  with  a  force  of  fdx  thousand 
Tfaebans,  defeated  the  Lacedsemo' nian  army  of  more  than  double 
that  number.  (B.  0.  July  8,  371.)  Epaminon'das  afterwards  in-. 
vaded  Laodnia,  and  appeared  before  the  very  gates  of  Sparta,  where 
a  hostile  force  had  not  been  seen  during  five  hundred  years ;  and  at 
Maatin^  he  defeated  die  enemy  in  the  most  sanguinary  contest  ever 
foa^t  between  Orecians.  (B.  G.  362.)  But  Epaminon^das  fell  in 
the  moment  of  yietory,  and  the  glory  of  Thebes  perished  with  him. 
A  general  peace  was  soon  after  established,  on  the  single  condition 
that  each  State  should  retain  its  respective  possessions. 

41.  Four  years  after  the  battle  of  Mantin^a  the  Grecian  States 
again  became  involved  in  domestic  hostilities,  known  as  the  Sacred 
War,  the  second  in  Grecian  history  to  which  that  epi-  yn^  sboond 
thet  was  applied.*^  Burmg  the  preceding  war,  th^h6-  8acrkd  wae. 
eians,'  although  in  alliance  with  Thebes  by  treaty,  had  shown  such  a 
predilection  in  favor  of  ^arta,  thit  the  animosity  of  the  Thebans 
was  ronsed  against  their  reluctant  ally,  and  they  availed  themselves 
of  the  first  opportunity  to  show  their  resentment.  The  Ph6cians 
having  taken  into  cultivation  a  portion  of  the  plain  of  Del'  phos, 
which  was  deemed  sacred  to  Ap611o,  the  Thebans  caused  them  to 
he  aeeosed  of  sacrilege  before  the  Amphictyon'  ic  council,  which  con 
demned.them  to  pay  a  heavy  fine.  The  Ph6cians  refused  obedience, 
and,  enoouraged  by  the  Spartans,  on  whom  a  similar  penalty  had 
been  imposed  for  their  treacherous  occupation  of  the  Theban  citadel, 
took  np  arms  to  resist  the  decree,  and,  under  their  leader,  Philom6- 
hm,  plundered  the  sacred  treasures  of  Del'  phos  to  obtain  the  means 
for  carrying  on  the  war. 

1.  Ti^yra  was  a  amaU  Tillage  of  BcB6tla,  near  the  northem  ahore  of  the  Oopalc  Lake. 
(Jir«9'No.I.) 

8.  Leme'  tra  (now  Lefka)  waa  a  amall  town  of  Bo»6tla,  about  ten  mllea  aontb-weat  from 
TbebeBi  and  four  or  flye  milea  from  the  Ck)rlntUan  Golf.  It  la  now  only  a  heap  of  rolna. 
(JIfap  No.  L) 

a.  PMcis  waa  a  amall  tract  of  country,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Thea'  aaly,  -eaat  by  B<B6tlay 
aoafh  by  the  Corinthian  GuU;  and  weal  by  L6cria,  ^tdlia,  and  Ddria.    (Map  No.  I.) 

au  The  flrat  aaerad  war  waa  carried  on  agalnat  the  fnhabitania  of  the  town  of  Cria'  aa,  on  the 
northern  ahore  of  the  Corinthian  Guli;  In  the  time  of  Solon.  The  Criaeeana  were  charged  witk 
•skxtioA  and  Tioleooe  towmrda  the  atnmgera  who  paaaed  through  their  territory  on  their  way 
t»  Hm  Delphle aaaetiuuy.  *<Oria'aa  waa  raaed  to  ttie  ground,  ita  harbor  choked  up,  tfnd  tta 
fhdiftil  plain  tamed  faito  a  wiklemeaC*— rktnaeU,  i.  15S. 


92  ANCIEIIT  HI3IOBT.  [FabtL 

42.  The  ThelMDS,  L6oriaDS,*  TheasiliaaB,  and  newly  all  ihe  Stotea 
of  Northern  Greece,  leagued  against  the  Ph6cian8,  while  Athens 
and  Sparta  declared  in  their  &Tor,  bat  gave  ikcm  little  aotiye  as* 
sistance.  At  first  the  Thebans,  confident  in  their  strength,  *  pat 
their  prisoners  to  death,  as  abettors  of  sacrilege;  bat  Philomelas 
retaliated  so  sererely  npon  some  Thebans  who  had  fallen  into  his 
power,  ad*  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the  crime.  After  the  war  had 
continued  five  years,  a  new  power  was  brooght  forward  on  the 
theatre  of  Grecian  history,  in  the  person  of  Philip,  who  had  recently 
established  himself  on  the  throne  of  Mac'  edon,  and  whom  some  of 
the  Thessilian  allies  of  Thebes  applied  to  for  aid  against  the  Ph6- 
cians.  The  interference  of  Philip  forms  an  important  epoch  in 
Grecian  afiiairs,  at  which  we  interrapt  oar  narrative  to  trace  the 
growth  of  the  Maced6nian  monarchy  down  to  the  time  when  its 
history  became  united  with  that  of  its  southern  nei^bors. 


SECTION  IL 

QEBOIAK  mnOBT  VBOM  THE  ISTABIJBaMXZrr  Or  PHOIP  OH  THX  TBEOHfE  OF 
XACKDON  TO  THE  BEDDOnON  OF  GREKOX  TO  A  KOMAN  FEOTIKCB: 

360  TO  146  B.  a  =  214  tbabs. 

ANALYSIS.  L  GeognpUcal  vsoomA  of  lfacod6nia.— S.  Earl j  hMory  of  Maeedinia.  Gr»- 
elan  nilera.  Philip  or  mac'  bdom.— ^  Philip^s  residenoe  at  Thebea.— 4.  HIa  uauipatloii  of  Um 
kingdom  of  Mac'  edon.  Ula  wan  with  the  lUyr'  lana  and  other  tribes.  His  flrat  efforts  against 
the  Ph6claiis.— <5.  Philip  redaces  Ph^cia.  Decree  of  the  Amphictyon'  ic  council  against  Ph6ela. 
GrowinglnflaenoeofPhilip.— 6.  The  ambitions  projects  of  Philip,  [lllyr'ia.  Epirus.  Acar* 
ntoia.]— 7.  Kuptore  between  Philip  and  the  Athenians.  [Cherson^sus.]  Devotion  of  the 
orator  ifis' chines  to  Philip.  [Amphis'sa.]  PhUi'p  throws  off  the  mask.  [Elat«ia.]— 8.  Thebes 
and  Athens  prepare  to  oppose  him.  Dissensions.— 9.  The  masterly  policy  of  Philip.  Hie  ooi* 
fbderaey  against  him  dissolved  by  the  battle  of  Charonia.  [Chaeronia.]— iOi  Philip's  treaiment 
of  the  Thebans  and  the  Athenians.  General  congress  of  the  Grecian  States,  and  death  of 
Philip. 

11.  ALKZAKDia  soeoeeds  Philip.  He  qnells  the  revolt  against  him. '  His  cruel  treatment  of 
the  Thebans.— 12.  Servility  of  Athens.  Preparations  of  Alexander  for  his  career  of  Eastern 
conqnest— 13.  Results  of  his  first  campaign.  [Oran'  icofl.  Halicarnas'  sus.}— 14.  j^e  resumes 
his  march  In  the  spring  of  333.  Defeats  Darius  at  Is*  sas.  [Cappaddcta.  CillC  la.  Is'  sua.} 
Besults  of  the  battle.  Eflbct  of  Alexander's  kindness— 15.  Reduction  of  Palestine.  [Gaza.] 
Expedition  into  Egypt.  [Alexandria.]  Alexander  returns  and  crosses  the  Euphrates  in  search 
of  Darius.— 16.  The  opposing  forces  at  Che  battle  of  Arb^la.  [Arb^la.  India.]— 17.  Results  of 
the  battle,  and  death  of  Darius.— 18.  Alexander's  residence  at  Babylon.    His  march  beyond 

1.  The  LSeriaiu  proper  inhabited  a  small  territory  on  the  northern  ahore  of  the  GorintMan 
Gulff  west  of  Ph6cis.  There  were  other  L6crian  tribes  northhoast  of  Ph6cia,  whose  tenitoiy 
pordered  on  the  Eubca'  an  Gulf.    (Map  No.  L) 


Omp.  IV.]  GRECIAir  HISTORY.  98 


CHxphftiia  B.>-10.  RI»  ratam  to  Persia.  [PeraUai  Gulf  G«dr6sls.]-  His  meas. 
ures  for  conaoUdatiog  his  empire.— SO.  His  sickness  and  death.— 21.  His  character.— SS.  As 
Judged  ef  by  his  actions.  The  resalts  of  his  conquests.  [Seteuda.}— S3.  Contentions  that  followed 
hbdeatb^— 94.  GTectancaofederaer  against  Maoed6nian  supremacy.  Sparta  and  Thebes.  Atheoa 
Is  finally  oorapeUed  to  yield  to  Antip'  ater.— SS.  Gassan'  der^s  osurpatlon.  Views  and  conquests 
of  Antig*  onus.    Final  dissolution  of  the  Macedonian  em)>tre.    [Ip'  sus.    Phryg'  la.] 

SS.  Hie  Ibar  kjngdoms  that  arose  on  the  ntlna  of  the  empire.  Those  of  flgypt  and  Syria  the 
■KMk  powerful.— S7.  The  empire  of  Ga«aan'  der.  Usurpation  of  Demetrius.  Character  of  hla 
government.  The  war  carried  on  against  him.— 28.  Unsettled  state  of  Mac'  edon,  Greece,  and 
WeHem  Asia.— 29.  CUtie  Invasion  of  Mac'  edon.  [Adriat'lc.  Panubnla.]— 30.  Second  Celtic 
IftTaaioa.  The  Celts  are  repelled  by  the  Ph6Glans.  Death  of  Brennua,  their  chief,- 31.  Antig*- 
onus,  son  of  Demetrius,  recovers  the  throne  of  his  father.  Is  invaded  by  P>-r'  rhus,  king  of 
Epima.— 32.  Pyr*  rhas  marches  Into  Southern  Greece.  Is  repulsed  by  the  Spartans.  He  enters 
Ar  gosL    Hla  death^-33.  Remarks  on  the  death  of  Pyr*  rhus.    Ambitloua  views  of  Antig'  onus 

34.  Thc  AcHJE'Ajf  Lkaocb.  Ar&tus  seizes  Sicyon,  which  Joins  the  league.— 35.  Ar&tus 
rescues  Corinth,  which  at  lint  Joins  the  league.  Conduct  of  Athens  and  Sparta.^^.  Antig*- 
omis  IL— 37^  League  of  the  JBtdllans,  who  invade  the  MessAnians.  [^t6Ua.]  Defeat  of  Ar4- 
toB.  General  war  between  the  respective  members  of  the  two  leagues.— 38.  Results  of  this 
war.  The  war  between  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians.  Policy  of  Philip  fl.  of  Mac' edon.— 
SBl  He  enters  Into  an  alliance  with  the  Carthaginians.  His  deftet  at  Apolldnia.  [ApoUOnla.] 
— IOl  He  causes  the  death  of  Ar&tos.  Roman  intrigues  in  Greeoe.-<41.  Overthrow  of  Philip's 
power.  The  Romans  promise  independence  to  Greece.— 42.  Remarks  on  the  sincerity  of  the 
piooriaa.  TVeatment  of  the  iEtdliaaa.  ExtlnetioQ  of  the  Maoed6iilan  monarchy.  [Pyd'  na.] 
—13.  Ui^Jaat  treatment  of  the  Achte'  ans.  >  Roman  ambassadors  Insulted.— 44.  The  Achss'  an 
war,  and  reducUon  of  Greece  to  a  Roman  province.  Remarks  of  Thirwall. — 45.  Henceforward 
GvseiBnUsloiy  Is  absorbed  In  that  of  Rome.  Condition  of  Greece  shioe  the  Persian  wars.  In 
OiedayaorStrabo. 

OoTKMvoKAKT  HistokYv— 1*  CotempOTsry  aoualsof  othoT  wOlons:— PBTBian^— EgyptlaiM.— 
RxrroaT-or  thb  Jbwb.— 2l  Rebuilding  of  the  second  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The  Jews  during 
the  reigns  of  Xerxes  and  Aitaxerxos.  Nehemiah's  administration.— 3.  Judea  a  part  of  the  saf 
lapy  of  Syria.  Judea  after  the  division  of  Alexander's  empire.  Judea  Invaded  by  Ptolemy 
8iMery-4.  Judea  subject  to  Ilgypt.  Ptolemy-PfaUadelpbus.  The  Jews  place  themselves  under 
Ibe  rule  of  Syria.- 5.  Civil  war  among  the  Jews.  Antiochus  plunders  Jerusalem.  Attempts  to 
astaUlsh  the  Grecian  polythel8mv-«w  Revolt  of  the  Mac' cabees.— 7.  ConUnuation  of  the  war 
with  ^ria.  [Bethdron.]  Death  of  Judas  Maccabeus.— 8.  The  Syrtan^Jbeeome  masters  of  the 
country.    Prosperity  of  the  Jews  under  Simon  Maccabeus.- 9.  The  remaining  history  of  the 


la  GmnciAR  CoLomaa.  Those  of  Thrace,  Mao'  edon,  and  Asia  Minor.  Of  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
Cyren&lca.  11.  Maora  Grjecia.  Early  settlements  in  western  Italy  and  in  Sicily.  [CdnuB. 
Neep'olts.  Nax'os.  G^la.  Messina.  Agrigen' turn.]- 12.  On  the  south-eastern  coast  of 
Baly.  Hialory  of  Syb  arts,  Crot6na,  and  T^uen'  turn.  [Desori ption  of  the  same.]— 13.  First  twa 
eeoturiea  of  Sicilian  histoiy.  [Him'  era.]  G^la  and  Agrigen'  turn.  The  despot  G^lo.- 14.  Grow- 
ing power  of  Syracuse  under  his  authority.— 15.  The  Carthaginians  In  Sicily— defeated  by  G6Io. 
[Vteor*  viQa.}-^6.  Hiero  and  Thrasybalns.  [.fitna.]  Revolution  Aid  change  of  goveramenk-^ 
17.  Civil  commotions  and  renewed  prosperity.  [Kamarina.]— 18.  Syracuse  and  Agrigen' turn  at 
fhe  time  of  the  breaking  out  of  the  PeloponnAslan  war.  The  lon'lc  and  D6rian  cities  of  Sidly 
daring  the  struggle.  Sicilian  oongress.--lQ.  Ouairel  between  the  dtiea  of  Belinua  and  Egea'  ta. 
[Deaeription  of  the  same.]  llie  Athenian  expedition  to  Sicily.  [Cat' ana.]— SO.  Events  up  to 
tiie  beginning  of  the  siege  of  Syracuse.— 21.  Death  of  Lam'  achus,  and  arrival  of  Gylip'  pus,  the 
8paf«an^--«2.  Both  parties  reinforced— various  battlea— total  defeat  of  the  Atbenlans^83.  Car- 
Oaghiian  encroachments  in  Sicily— resisted  by  DIoays'  iua  the  Elder.  Division  between  the 
Greek  and  Carthaginian  territories.  [Him' era.]- 24.  The  administration  of  TimOleon.  Of 
Agath'oclea.   The  Itomans  become  masters  of  Sicily. 

SS.  CvaaHA'  ica.— Colonised  by  Lacedcemdnians.  Qyr«ne  Its  chief  city.  Its  ascendancy  ovet 
tha  Libyan  tribes.  War  with  the  Egyptians.— 26.  Tyranny  of  Ageeilkua— founding  of  Bar'  ca 
-4ie  war  which  followed.  AgesU&ua.  Civil  diesensiona.  Camby' see.- 27.  Sabseqaent  hl»> 
tgqrofCyr^neaiidBar'ca.   Diringolflhad  Qfrtaeans.   G^naaaa  BDentioBed  ta  BIbto  hManr. 


04  ANcnara  histobt.  [Pjwl 

1.  Mic'EDON,  or  Macedonia,  whose  boondariea  varied  greatly  at 
different  times,  had  its  south-eastern  borders  on  the  JE'  geaa  Sea, 
while  further  north  it  was  bounded  by  the  rirer  Stry'  mon,  whidi 
separated  it  from  Thrkce,  and  on  the  south  by  Thes'  saly  and  Epi- 
nis.  On  the  west  Maoed6nia  embraced,  at  times,  many  of  the  II- 
lyrian  tribes  which  bordered  on  the  Adriatic.  On  the  north  the 
natural  boundary  was  the  mountain  chain  of  Has'  mus.  The  prin- 
cipal river  of  Maced6nia  was  the  Axius  (now  the  Yardar),  which  feU 
into  the  Thermiic  Gulf,  now  called  the  Gulf  of  Salon'  iki 

2.  The  history  of  Macedonia  down  to  the  time  of  Philip,  the 
father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  Tha 
early  Maceddnians  appear  to  have  been  an  Illyr'  ian  tribe,  dilu- 
ent in  race  and  language  from  the  Hellenes  or  Greeks  :  but  Herod'- 
otus  states  that  the  Macedonian  monarchy  was  founded  by  Greeks 
from  Ar'gos;   and   according  to  Greek  writers,  twelve  or  fifttoo 

%  FHTLip  OP  Grecian  princes  reigned  there  before  the  aooession  of 
mao'kdor.    Philip,  who  took  charge  of  the  government  about  th* 
year  360  B.  0.,  not  as  monarch,  but  as  guardian  of  the  in&nt  son 
of  his  elder  brother. 

3.  Philip  had  previously  passed  several  years  at  Thebes,  as  a 
hostage,  where  he  eagerly  .availed  himself  of  the  excellent  oppor- 
tunities which  that  city  afforded  for  the  acquisition  of  various  kinda 
of  knowledge.  He  successfully  cultivated  the  study  of  the-  Greek 
language;  and  in  the  conversation  of  such  generals  and  statesmen 
as  Epaminon'  das,  Pelop'  idas,  and  their  friends,  became  aoquamted 
with  the  details  of  the  military  tactics  of  the  Greeks,  and  learned 
the  nature  and  working  of  theii*  democratical  institutions.  Thus, 
with  the  superior  mental  and  physical  endowments  which  nature  had 
given  him,  he  became  eminently  fitted  for  the  part  which  he  after- 
wards  bore  in  the  intricate  game  of  Grecian  politics. 

4.  After  Philip  had  successfully  defended,  the  throne  of  Mac'  edon 
during  several  years,  in  behalf  of  his  nephew,  his  military  successes 
enabled  him  to  take  upon  himself  the  kingly  title,  probably  with  the 
unanimous  consent  of  both  the  army  and  the  nation.  He  annexed 
several  Thracian  towns  to  his  dominioQS,  reduced  the  IUjt^  ians  and 
other  nations  on  his  northern  and  western  borders,  and  was  at  times 
an  ally,  and  at  others  an  enemy,  of  Athens.  At  length,  during  the 
sacred  war  against  the  Ph6cians,  the  invitation  which  he  received 
from  the  Thessdlian  allies  of  Thebes,  as  already  noticed,  afforded 
him  a  pretence,  which  he  had  long  eoveted,  for  a  more  active  inter- 


Cup.  IY.]  OBEOIAir  HISTORY.  99 

ferenee  m  the  a&irs  of  Ms  southern  neighbors.  On  entering  Thes'- 
Balj,  boweyer,  on  his  southern  march,  he  was  at  first  repulsed  by  the 
Ph^dans  and  their  allies,  and  obliged  to  retire  into  Maced6nia,  but, 
soon  returning  at  the  head  of  a  more  numerous  army,  he  d^eated 
the  enemy  in  a  decisiye  battle,  and  would  have  marched  upon  Ph6ois 
at  once  to  terminate  the  war,  but  he  found  the  pass  of  Thermop'  yl» 
strongly  guarded  by  the  Athenians,  and  thought  it  prudent  to  with- 
draw his  forces. 

5.  StiU  the  sacred  war  lingered,  although  the  Phocians  desired 
peace;  but  the  revengefdl  spirit  of  the  Thebans  was  not  allayed; 
Philip  was  again  urged  to  crush  the  profaners  of  the  nationsd  re- 
ligion, and  having  succeeded,  in  spite  of  the  warnings  of  the  patriotic 
Demosthenes,  in  lulling  the  suspicions  of  the  Athenians  with  pro- 
posals  of  an  adyantageous  peace,  he  marched  into  Ph6cis,  and  com- 
pelled the  enemy  to  surrender  at  discretion.  The  Amphictyon'  ic 
eooncfl,  being  now  reinstated  in  its  ancient  authority,  with  the  power 
of  Philip  to  enforce  its  decrees,  doomed  Ph6ciB  to  lose  her  inde- 
pendence forever,  to  haye  her  cities  leyelled  with  the  ground,  and 
her  population,  after  being  distributed  in  villages  of  not  more  than 
Mtj  dwellings,  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute  of  sixty  talents  to  the  temple, 
until  the  whole  amount  of  the  plundered  treasure  should  be  restored. 
Finally,  tiie  two  yotea  which  the  Ph6cians  had  possessed  in  the 
Amphictyon'  ic  eoxmcil  were  transferred  to  the  king  of  Mao'  edon 
aad  his  successors.  The  iafiuence  which  Philip  thus  obtained  in 
tibe  counoils  of  the  Qrecians  paved  the  way  for  the  oyerthrow  of 
their  liberUes. 

6.  From  an  early  period  of  his  career  Philip  had  aspired  to  the 
soTcreignty  of  all  Greece,  as  a  secondary  object  that  should  prepare 
the  way  for  the  conquest  of  Persia,  the  great  aim  and  end  of  all  his 
ambitious  projects ;  and  after  the  close  of  the  sacred  war  he  accord- 
ingly exerted  himself  to  extend  his  power  and  infioence,  either  by 
arms  or  negotiation,  on  every  side  of  his  dominions ;  but  his  in- 
trigues in  At'  tica,  and  among  the  Peloponn^sian  States,  were  for  a 
time  counteracted  by  the  glowing  and  patriotic  eloquence  of  the 
Athenian  Demosthenes,  the  greatest  of  Grecian  orators.  In  his 
military  operations  Philip  ravaged  Illyr'ia* — ^reduced  Thes'saly 
move  nearly  to  a  Macedbnian  province — conquered  a  part  of  th» 

L  The  teqn  lUffr'  ia^  or  Illyr'  icmn  was  applied  to  the  country  bordering  on  the  eastern  ahore 
of  the  Adriatic,  and  extending  from  the  northern  ertremity  of  the  Gulf  aoath  to  the  bonlttt 
oCKphrv.    (jirapMo.VIlL) 


96  AKOIBNT  HISTOBT.  [Pam  1 

Thracian  territory— extended  his  power  into  EpimB  and  AotmAnia' 
— and  would  have  gained  a  footing  in  £'  lis  and  Aoh4^  on  the 
western  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  had  it  not  been  for  the  watchful 
jealousy  of  Athens,  which  oonoerted  a  league  among  several  of  the 
States  to  repel  his  encroachments. 

7.  The  first  open  rupture  with  the  Athenians  occurred  while 
Philip  was  engaged  in  subduing  the  Grecian  cities  on  the  Thracian 
coast  of  the  Hel'  lespont,  in  what  was  called  the  Thracian  Cher8on6» 
BUS.*  A  little  later,  the  Amphictyon'  ic  council,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  ^s' chines,  an  orator  second  only  to  Demosthenes,  but 
secretly  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  king  of  M^'  edon,  appointed 
Philip  to  conduct  a  war  against  Amphis'  sa,*  a  L6crian  town,  which 
had  been  convicted  of  a  sacrilege  similar  to  that  of  the  Ph6cians. 
It  was  now  that  Philip,  hastily  passing  through  Thrace  at  the  head 
of  a  powerful  army,  first  threw  off  the  mask,  and  revealed  his  de- 
signs against  the  liberties  of  Greece  by  seizing  and  fortifying 
Elat^ia*  the  capital  of  Ph6cis,  which  was  conveniently  situated  for 
commanding  the  entrance  into  B<»6tia. 

8.  The  Thebans  and  the  Athenians,  suddenly  awaking  from  their 
dream  of  security,  from  which  all  the  eloquent  appeals  of  Demosthe- 
nes had  not  hitherto  been  able  to  arouse  them,  prepared  to  defend 
their  territories  from  invasion ;  but  most  of  the  Peloponnesian  States 
kept  aloof  through  indifference,  rather  than  through  fear.  Even  in 
Thebes  and  Athens  there  were  parties  whom  the  gold  and  persua- 
siods  of  PhOip  had  converted  into  allies;  and  when  the  armies 
marched  forth  to  battle,  dissensions  pervaded  their  ranks.  The 
spirit  of  Grecian  liberty  had  already  been  extinguished. 

9.  The  masterly  policy  of  Philip  still  led  him  to  declare  that  the 
sacred  war  against  Amphis'  sa,  with  the  conduct  of  whioh  he  had 

1.  JiemrnAnia^  lytqg  aoiith  of  EpfitM,  also  bordored  on  tho  AdrUttc,  or  Itelan  Ma.  Fmrn 
JEt6Ua  on  the  east  it  was  separated  by  the  AcheloUs,  probably  the  largest  river  In  Greece. 
Hie  AcamAniana  were  almost  constantly  at  war  with  the  ^BtAHans,  and  were  tu  behind  the 
vest  of  the  Greeks  in  mental  coltnre.    (JMqiNo.L) 

iiL  The  TTkraeian  Chersonitiu  (**  Thracian  peninsula")  waa  a  peninsula  of  Tbrace,  between 
the  Mellan  Gulf  (now  Gulf  of  S&ros)  and  the  HeV  lespont.  The  fertility  of  its  soil  early  attracted 
the  Grecians  to  ita  sborea,  whSeh  soon  became  oowded  with  flooilahlnt  and  popnlar  eitfeai 
<JlfapNo.in.} 

3.  Av^hu'ta^  the  chief  town  of  Lderis,  was  about  seren  miles  west  fhnn  Ddphl,  near  tho 
head  of  ttfe  Oriaean  Gulf,  now  Gulf  of  flalOna,  a  brsneh  of  the  Corinthian  Gum  xTha  modem 
town  of  SalOna  represents  the  ancient  Amphls'  sa.    (Map  No.  I.) 

4.  ElaUiu,  a  dty  in  tlie  nortb-eaat  of  Pb6cis,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oephis'aos,  was  about 
twenty-five  miles  north-east  firom  DelphL    Ita  ruins  are  to  be  seen  on  a  site  oalled  FJtpkU, 

'  (Map  No.  I.) 


Ootf.  IV  J  GEECIAN  HISTORY.  97 

been  intruBied  by  the  Amphictyon' ic  eouncil,  was  his  only  objeot; 
and  lie  had  a  plausible  excuse  for  enteriug  BoeoCia  when  the* The- 
baas  and  Athenians  appeared  as  the  allies  of  a  city  devoted  by  the 
gods  to  destruction.  At  Chaeronea*  the  hostile  armies  met,  nearly 
equal  in  number;  but  there  was  no  Per'  icles,  nor  Epaminou'  das,  to 
match  the  warlike  abilities  of  Philip  and  the  young  prince  Alex- 
ander, the  latter  of  whom  commanded-  ar  wing  bf  the  Macedonian 
army.  The  day  was  decided  against  the  Grecians,  although  their 
loss  in  battle  was  not  large ;  but  the  event  broke  up  the  feeble  con* 
fiederacy  against  Philip,  and  left  each  of  the  allied  States  at  his 
mercy. 

10.  While  Philip  treated  the  Thebans  with  some  severity,  and 
obliged  them  to  ransom  their  prisoners,  and  resign  a  portion  of 
their  territory,  he  exercised  a  degree  of  lenity  towards  the  Athen- 
iaoB  which  excited  general  surprise — offering  them  terms  of  ^eace 
which  they  themselves  would  scarcely  have  ventured  to  propose  to 
him.  He  next  assembled  a  congress  of  all  the  Grecian  States,  at 
Corinth,  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  affairs  of^Greece.  Here  all 
his  proposals  were  adopted,  war  was  declared  against  Persia,  and 
Philip  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grecian  forces ;  but 
irhile  he  was  making  preparations  for  his  great  enterprise  he  was 
AMassinated  on  a  public  occasion  by  a  Maced6nian  nobleman,  in  re- 
T«Dge  for  some  private  wrong. 

11.  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  then  at  the  age  of  twenty  years, 
saooeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  of  Mao'  edon.  At  once  the  lUyr'- 
ims,  Thraoians,  and  other  northern  tribes  that  had  been 

made  tributary  by  Philip,  took  up  arms  to  recover  their  dbb  the 
independence;  but  Alexander  quelled  the  spirit  of  re-  orbat. 
ToU  in  a  single  campaign.  During  his  absence  on  this  expedition,  the 
Grecian  States,  headed  by  the  Thebans  and  Athenians,  made  prepara- 
tions to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Mac'  edon ;  but  Alexander,  whose  maiehes 
were  unparalleled  for  their  rapidity,  suddenly  appeared  in  their  midst 
Thebes,  the  first  object  of  his  vengeance,  was  taken  by  assault,  in 
which  six  thousand  of  her  warriors  were  slain.  Ever  distinguished 
by  her  merciless  treatment  of  her  conquered  enemies,  she  was  now 

%  lb*  plain  of  ChmroHiOj  on  which  the  battle  wai  fought,  is  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Oe]>his' ans  riverain  BoeOtUs  a  few  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  Cop&ic  lake.  In  the  J9U 
4C7  B.  C.  the  Aibemaos  had  been  defeated  on  the  same  spot  by  the  Bcsutians ;  and  in  the 
jmt  S6  B.  C.  the  same  place  witnessed  a  bloody  ffiflignment  between  the  Boraaas,  uaOif 
%0a»aBdaietroopeofMithrkl4tei.    (JUvNo^L) 

B 


98  AKOIBNT  mSTOBY.  [Pam  L 

doomed  to  safier  the  extreme  penalties  of  war  whioli  she  had  often 
inflicfed  on  othera  Most  of  the  oiiy  was  levelled  with  the  ground, 
and  thirty  thousand  prisoners,  besides  women  and  children,  were  oon** 
demned  to  slayer  j. 

12.  The  other  Grecian  States  which  had  provoked  the  resentment 
of  Alexander,  hastily  renewed  their  submission ;  and  Athens,  with 
servile  homage,  sent  an  embassy  to  congratulate  the  youthful  hero  on 
his  recent  successes.  Alexander  accepted  the  excuses  of  all,  renewed 
the  confederacy  which  his  father  had  formed,  and  havUtg  intrusted 
the  government  of  Greece  and  Mac'edon  to.  Antip'ater,  one  of  his 
generals,  set  out  on  his  career  of  eastern  conquest,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  only  thirty-five  thousand  men,  and  taking  with  him  a  treasury 
of  only  seventy  talents  of  silver.  He  had  even  distributed  nearly  all 
the  remaining  property  of  his  crown  among  his  friends ;  and  when  he 
was  asked  by  Perdic'  cas  what  he  had  reserved  for  himself,  he  an- 
swered, "  My  hopes." 

13.  Early  in  the  spring  of  the  year  334,  Alexander  crossed  the 
Hel'  le^nt,  and  a*few  days  later  defeated  an  immense  Persian  army 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Gran'  icus,'  with  the  loss  on  his  part  of 
only  eighty-five  horsemen  and  thirty  light  infantry.  Proceeding 
thence  south  towards  the  coast,  the  gates  of  Sardis  and  Eph'  esus 
were  thrown  open  to  him ;  and  although  at  Miletus  and  Halicar- 
nas'  sus'  he  met  with  some  resistance,  yet  before  the  close  of  the 
first  campMgn  he  was  undisputed  master  of  all  Asia  Minor. 

14.  Early  in  the  following  spring  (B.  C.  333),  he  directed  hia 
march  farther  eastward,  through  Oappad6cia*  and  Gilic'  ia,*  and  »on 
the  coast  of  the  latter,  near  the  small  town  of  Is'  sua,*  again  met 

1.  Tlie  Cfran'  ieusy  thd  nme  as  the  Turkish  DeinoUko,  ia  a  a  araall  strefun  of  Mjrs'  la,  in  Asia 
Minor,  which  flowa  from  Mount  I'da, eaai of  Troj^  northward  faito  the  Propon'tia,  or  Sen  of 
Marm6rB.    (^opNo.  IV.) 

Sl  Halieamiu'  su*,  the  principal  ^ity  of  C&ria,  was  situated  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Oef  arate  Onli;  now  Gulf  of  Koa,  one  hnndred  milea  aonth  from  SmTma.  HaUoaraaa*  sua  was 
fihe  blrlhrplaoo  of  Herod'  otus  the  biatorlaa,  of  Dionya'  tus  the  historian  and  critic,  and  of  Hentr 
ditus  the  poeL  It  was  Artemis'  la,  queen  of  Cfcrla,  who  erected  the  splendid  mausoleum,  or 
tomb,  to  her  hvaband,  Maosfrlos.  The  Turkish  town  of  Bo^drotm,  is  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Baficarnas'  sua.  Near  the  modem  town  are  to  be  seen  old  walls,  exquisite  sculptures,  frag^ 
ments  of  oolumns,  and  the  remains  of  a  theatre  two  hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  diameter, 
which  seems  to  hare  had  OilKy-six  rows  of  marble  seats.    {Map  No.  lY.) 

3.  CappadUia  was  an  inWor  province  of  Asia  Minor,  south-east  of  Galfctia.    {Mop  No.  IV.) 

4.  Cilie'  ia  was  south  of  0appad6ci8,  on  the  coast  of  the  Meditemnean.    {Map  No.  IV.) 

5.  /«'  tu$  (now  Aiasse,  or  Urzln)  was  a  sea-port  town  of  OUlc'  la,  at  the  north-eastern  ft- 
tremlty  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  at  tbe  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Is' sua.  The  plain  between  the 
aea  and  the  mountains,  where  the  battle  waa  fought,  was  less  than  two  miles  in  width,— a  BQf> 
Ment  space  for  the  CTolutioos  of  Ihe  Mae'  edonlan  phalanx,  but  not  laiga  anough  for  the  maa- 
mnms  of  io  great  an  army  as  that  of  Darius.    {MnpTH^lV,} 


Cair.  IV.]  GRECIAJ^'  HISTORY.  ^  99 

tlie  Persian  army,  numbering  seven  hundred  thousand  men,  and 
eommanded  by  Darius  himself,  king  of  Persia.  In  the  battle  which 
followed,  Alexander,  as  usual,  led  on  his  army  in  person,  and. fought 
in  the  thickest  of  the  fight.  The  result  was  a  total  rout  ofv  the  Per- 
sians, with  a  loss  of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  men,  while  that 
of  the  Oreeks  and  Maced6nians  was  les»  than  &ye  hundred.  The 
Persian  monarch  fled  in  the  beginning  of  the  engagement,  leaving 
his  mother,  wife,  daughters,  and  an  infant  son,  to  the  mercy  of  the 
victor,  who  treated  them  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  respect 
When,  afterwards,  Darius  heard,  at  the  same  time,  of  the  generous 
treatment  of  his  wife,  who  was  accounted  the  most  beautiful  woman 
in  Asia, — of  her  death  from  sudden  illness,  and  of  the  magnificent 
burial  which  she  had  received  from  the  conqueror, — ^he  lifted  up  his 
hands  to  heaven  and  prayed,  that  if  his  kingdom  were  to  pass  from 
himself,  it  might  be  transferred  to  Alexander. 

15.  The  conqueror  next  directed  his  march  southward  through 
northern  Syria  and  Palestine.  At  Damascus  a  vast  amoimt  of 
treasure  belonging  to  the  king  of  Persia  fell  into  his  hands :  the 
eity  of  Tyre,  after  a  vigorous  siege  of  seven  months,  and  a  desperate 
resistance,  was  taken  by  storm,  and  thirty  thousand  of  the  Tyrians 
sold  as  slaves.  (B.  0.  332.)  After  the  fall  of  Tyre,  all  the  cities 
of  Palestine  submitted,  except  Gaza,'  which  made  as  obstinate  a  de- 
fence as  Tyre,  and  was  as  severely  punished.  Prom  Palestine  Alex- 
ander proceeded  into  Egypt,  which  was  eager  to  throw  off  the  Per- 
sian tyranny,  and  he  took  especial  care  to  conciliate  the  priests  by 
the  honors  which  he  paid  to  the  Egyptian  gods.  After  having 
founded  a  new  city,  which  he  named  Alexandria,^  and  crossed  the 

1.  OazA,  an  early  Pbillstine  city  of  groat  natural  strength  in  tlie  sonth-westem  part  of  Palestine, 
vas  dxteen  miles  aoath  of  Ascalon,  and  but  a  short  distance  trom  the  Mediterranean.  The 
ptaoe  was  called  Oonstaotia  by  the  Romans,  and  Is  now  called  Raesa  by  the  Arabs.  (Map  No.  \t) 

S.  Alexandria  la  about  fourteen  miles  south-west  Trom  the  Canopic,  or  most  western  branch 
of  the  Nile,  and  Is  bnilt  partly  on  the  xiidge  of  land  between  the  sea  and  the  bed  of  the  old 
Lake  Mare^tia,  and  partly  on  the  peninsula  (formerly  island)  of  PbAros,  which  projects  into 
the  Mediterranean.  Alexandria,  the  site  of  which  was  most  admirably  chosen  by  its  founder, 
la  the  only  port  on  ttie  Egyptian  coast  that  has  deep  water,  and  that  is  accessible  at  all  tea- 
aooa.  Lake  Maredtls,  which  for  many  ages  after  the  Greek  and  Roman  dominion  in  Egypt 
waa  tnoetly  diiednp,  and  whose  bed  was  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  Mediterranean,  had  no 
outlet  to  the  sea  until  the  English,'  in  the  year  1801,  opened  a  passage  into  it  from  the  Bay 
'  or  Abookir,  wh«n  It  soon  resumed  its  ancient  extent  The  ancient  canal  trom  Alexandria  to  the 
mie,  a  distance  of  forty-aight  miles,  was  reopened  in  1819.  While  the  commerce  of  the  Indiev 
waa  carried  on  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  IsUimus  of  Suez,  Alexandria  was  a  great  com- 
mercial amportani;  but  it  rapidly  declined  aHer  the  discorery  of  the  passage  to  India  by  way 
of  the  Ospe  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  probable  that  the  commerce  of  the  east,  through  the  agency 
oTflleaiD,  will  again  flow,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the  ancient  channel,  and  that  Alexandria  wlU 
agaio  baoome  a  9r«at  oommerdai  emporium.    (Map  No.  V.) 


100  ANCH&RT  HIST0B7.  {FmbX 

Libyan  desert  to  consult  the  oraole  of  Ji\piter  Am'  mon,  he  returned 
to  Palestine,  when,  learning  that  Darfos  was  making  rait  propane 
tions  to  oppose  him,  he  crossed  the  Enphrates,  and  directed  his 
march  into  the  Tery  heart  of  the  Persian  empire,  declaring  that  *'  the 
world  could  no  more  admit  two  masters  than  two  sons." 

16.  On  a  beautiful  plain  twenty  miles  distant  from  the  town  of 
Arb61a,'  whence  the  battle  derives  its  name,  the  Persian  mo^ardi, 
surrounded  by  all  the  pomp  and  luxury  of  Eastern  magniftoenoe,  had 
collected  the  remaining  strength  of  his  empir^^  consisting  of  an  ' 
army,  as  stated  by  some  authors,  of  more  than  a  million  of  foot 
soldiers,  and  forty  thousand  cavalry,  besides  two  hundred  soythed 
chariots,  and  fifteen  elephants  brought  from  the  west  of  India.'  To 
oppose  this  force  Alexander  had  only  forty  thousand  foot  soldiers, 
and  seven  thousand  cavalry,  but  they  were  well  armed  and  discip- 
lined, confident  of  victory,  aud  led  by  an  able  general  who  had  never 
experienced- a  defeat,  and  who  directed  the  operations  of  the  battle 
in  person.  (6.  G.  331.) 

17.  Darius  sustained  the  conflict  with  better  judgment  and  mora 
courage  than  at  Is'  bus,  but  the  oool  intrepidity  of  the  Macedonian 
phalanx  was  irresistible,  and  the  field  of  battle  soon  became  a  scene 
of  slaughter,  in  which,  some  say,  forty  thousand,  and  others,  three 
hundred  thousand  of  the  barbarians  were  slain,  while  the  loss  of 
Alexander  did  not  exceed  five  hundred  men.  Although  Dasius  es- 
caped with  a  portion  of  his  bodyguard,  yet  the  result  of  the  battle 
decided  the  contest,  and  gave  to  Alexander  the  dominion  of  the  Per- 
sian empire.  Not  long  after,  Darius  himself  was  slain  by  one  of 
his  own  officers. 

18.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Arbela,  Alexander  proceeded  to 
Babylon,  and  during  four  years  remained  in  the  heart  of  Persia,  re 
Aucing  to  subjection  the  chiefs  who  still  struggled  for  independenoe, 
and  regulating  the  government  of  the  conquered  provinces.  Am- 
bitious of  farther  conquests,  he  passed  the  Indus,  and  invaded  the 
country  of  the  Indian  king  P6ru8,  whoiik  he  defeated  in  a  sanguinary 
engagement,  and  took  prisoner.  When  brought  into  the  presence 
of  Alexander,  and  asked  how  he  would  be  treated,  he  replied,  "  Like 
a  king ;"  and  so  pleased  was  the  conqueror  with  the  lofty  demeanor 

1.  ^rMa  wu  ftbont  fortjr  mllM  Mst  of  tlie  TIgrti,  awl  tworty  mOm  MOflKeMl  from  tli» 
pUin  of  6wgam61a,  where  Oie  teitto  was.  fought  GmugamAIa,  a  ■mall  hamlet,  wae  a  ihoit 
diatanoe  soatb-oaat  from  the  tfte  of  Nineveh 

&Thetann/»iMiwaaappitodh7th»aaelwt«eognplMntoancfaMlvaMar  Ailtowhtahli   « 
««  or  the  river  iBdM.    (JWvNaV.) 


Om^TV.}  OSBOIAK  HISTOET.  101 

of  the  oapdre,  and  witb  ibe  ralor  iriiioh  he  hed  shown  m  batflo,  that 
he  not  onlj  re-instated  him  in  his  royal  dignity,  bnt  conferred  upon 
him  a  large  addition  of  territory.  Alexander  continued  his  march 
eaatwsrd  until  he  reached  the  Hyphiaisy'  the  most  eastern  tributary 
of  the  Indus,  when  his  troops,  seeing  no  end  of  their  toils,  refused 
to  follow  him  farther,  and  he  was  reluctantly  forced  to  abandon  the 
career  of  conquest  which  he  had  marked  out  for  himself  to  the 
eastern  ocean. 

19.  Besolving  to  return  into  Central  Asia  by  a  new  route,  he  de- 
■ooided  the  Indus  to  the  sea,  whence,  after  sending  a  fleet  with  a 
portion  of  his  forces  around  through  the  Persian  Gulf'  to  the  Eu« 
phrites,  he  marched  with  the  rest  of  his  army  through  the  barren 
wastes  of  Gedr6sia,'  and  after^nuch  suffering  and  considerable  loss, 
arrived  once  more  in  the  fertile  provinces  of  Persia.  For  some  time 
alter  his  return  his  attention  was  engrossed  with  plans  for  organizing, 
on  a  permanent  basis,  the  government  of  tiie  mighty  empire  which 
be  had  won.  Aiming  to  unite  the  conquerors  and  the  conqueredi 
00  as  to  form  out  of  both  a  nation  independent  alike  of  Maced6nian 
and  of  Persian  prejudices,  he  married  Statira,  the  oldest  daughter  of 
Darius,  and  united  his  principal  officers  with  Persian  and  Median 
women  of  the  noblest  &milies,  while  ten  thousand  of  his  soldiers 
were  induced  to  follow  the  example  of  their  superidrs. 

20.  Bu€  while  he  was  occupied  with  these  cares,  and  with  dreams 
of  future  conquests,  his  career  was  suddenly  terminated  by  death. 

^  On  settmg  out  to  visit  Bjibylon,  soon  after  the  decease  of  an  inti- 
mate Mend,  which  had  caused  a  great  depression  of  his  spirits,  he 
was  warned  by  the  magicians  that  Babylon  would  be  fiital  to  him ; 
but  he  proceeded  to  the  city,  where,  haunted  by  gloomy  forebodings 
■End  superstitious  fancies,  he  endeavored  to  dispel  his  melancholy  by 
indulging  more  freely  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table.  Excessive  drink 
ing  at  length  brou^t  to  a  crisis  a  fever,  which  he  had  probably  con 

1.  Tb*  MfpkdMiM,  Bov  adled  SapaA,  or  Dm#,  to  tho  miMi  e«st«ra  tributary  of  the  Indoi 
no  Swgedge,  which  enters  the  Beyah  (torn  the  eaet,  baa  been  mtotaken  by  10100  writen  for  tk  } 
aaeleAyphUto.    (JtapTXcY.) 

9L  Tbe  Penian  Ov^to  an  ezteoslte  arm  of  the  Indian  oomb,  feperatlBg  Sonthem  Perti* 
ttcm  Arabia.  Daring  a  long  period  It  waa  the  thoroughflure  for  tlte  commerBe  between  tko 
vejrtera  world  and  India.  Tbe  navigation  of  the  OuU;  eapeeialty  along  the  Arabian  oo«M,  a 
tediona  and  dlOccdt,  owii«  to  ita  irameroaa  lalanda  and  reefe.  Tbe  Bahrein  lalanda,  near  t  ^ 
Arabian  ahore,  are  celebrated  for  their  pearl  flahcriea,  which  yield  peoiia  of  tbe  talue  of  more 
Chan  a  million  doltors  annually.    (Map  No.  V.) 

a.  0«dr<*M,corrMpondlngtothemodernPiBntonproTfaieeof  Jtfaran,toaMndyandbBrf«ni 
ngioiHe]rtendii«  along  the  ibora  of  thalndtoaOoean  ttom  the  rtTer  Indna  to  the  moutftof 
"    -     '   iQolC    (Jir^NaV.) 


102  ^  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  fF^nZ 

tracted  in  the  manhes  of  Assyria,  and  iduoh  Baddenlj  termiaatod  hiB 
life  in  the  thirtj-thir'd  year  of  hia  age,  and  the  thirteenth  of  his 
reign.  (B.  C.  May,  324.) 

21.  The  character  of  Alexander  has  afforded  matter  for  much  diseoa- 
sion,  and  is,  to  this  day,  a  subject  of  dispute.  At  times  he  waa 
guilty  of  remorseless  and  unnecessary  cruelty  to  the  vanquished,  and 
in  a  fit  of  passion  he  slew  the  friend  who  had  saved  his  life;  but  on 
other  occasions  he  was  distinguished  by  an  excess  of  lenity,  and  bj 

.  the  most  noble  generosity  and  benevolence.  His  actions  and  char- 
acter were  indeed  of  a  mixed  nature,  which  is  the.  reason  that  some 
have  regarded  him  as  litUe  more  than  a  heroic  madman,  while  others 
give  him  the  honor  of  vast  and  enlightened  views  of  policy,  which 
aimed  at  founding,  among  nations  hitherto  barbarous,  a  solid  and 
flourishing  empire. 

22.  If  we  are  to  judge  by  his  actions,  however,  rather  than  by  his 
supposed  moral  motives,  he  was,  in  reality,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
men ;  great,  not  only  in  the  vast  compass  and  persevering  ardor  of 
his  ambition,  which  ''  wept  for  more  worlds  to  conquer,"  but  great  in 
the  objects  and  aims  which  ennobled  it,  and  great  because  his  adven- 
turous spirit  and  personal  daring  never  led  him  into  deeds  of  rash- 
ness; for  his  boldest  military  undertakings  were  ever  guided  by 
sagacity  and  prudence.  The  conquests  of  Alexander  were  highly 
beneficial  in  their  results  to  the  conquered  people ;  for  his  was  the 
first  of  the  great  monarchies  founded  in  Asia  that  contained  any  ele- 
ment of  moral  and  intellectual  progress — ^that  opened  a  prospect  of  ■ 
advancing  improvement,  and  not  of  continual  degradation,  to  its* 
subjects.  To  the  commercial  world  it  opened  new  countries,  and 
new  channels  of  trade,  and  gave  a  salutary  stimulus  to  industry  and 
mercantile  activity :  nor  were  these  benefits  lost  when  the  empire 
founded  by  Alexander  broke  in  pieces  in  the  hands  of  his  successors; 
for  the  passages  which  he  opened,  by  sea  and  t)y  land,  between  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Indus,  had  become  the  highways  of  the  commerce 
of  the  Indies;  Babylon  remained  a  famous  port  until  its  rival,  Seleu'- 
cia,^  arose  into  eminence ;  and  Alexandria  long  continued  to  rAeive 
and  pour  out  an  inexhaustible  tide  of  wealth. 

1.  Seleu'  eta,  bi^lt  by  Selen'  cos,  one  of  Alexander's  generalai  was  sitoated  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  about  tortj-fLve  miles  north  of  Babylon.  Selea'cus  designed  It  a^a  (tee 
Grecian  city ;  and  many  ages  after  the  flUl  of  the  Maoed6ntan  empire,  it  retained  the  charao- 
torlsUcs  of  a  Grecian  colony,— arts,  military  virtue,  and  the  lore  of  fl-eedom.  When  at  the 
taeight  of  its  prosperity  It  contained  a  population  of  six  hundred  thousand  dtteens,  goTeroed  bgr 
A  lenate  of  tUree  hundred  nobles. 


Obap.  IV.}  GRECIAN  HISTORY.  i03 

23.  The  sodden  death  of  Alexander  left  the  goyemment  in  a  very 
unsettled  condition.  As  he  had  appointed  no  siieoessor,  sevelral  of  his 
generals  contended  for  the  throne,  or  for  ihe  regency  during  the^ 
minority  of  his  sons :  and  hence  arose  a  series  of  intrigues,  and 
bloody  wars,  which,  in  the  course  of  twenty-three  years,  caused  the 
destmction  of  the  entire  family  of  Alexander,  and  ended  in  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Miaced6nian  empire. 

24.  When  intelligence  of  the  death  of  Alexander  reached  Greece^ 
Uie  country  was  ah*eady  on  the  eye  of  a  revolution  against  Antip'- 
ater ;  and  Demosthenes,  still  the  foremost  advocate  of  liberty,  now 
found  little  difficulty  in  uniting  several  of  the  States  with  Athens  in 
a  oonfisderacy  against  Maced6nian  supremacy.  Sparta,  however,  was 
too  proud  to  act  under  her  ancient  rival,  and  Thebes  no  longer  ex- 
isted. Antip'  ater  attempted  to  secure  the  straits  of  Thermop'  yln 
against  l^e  confederates,  but  he  was  met  by  Leos'  thenes,  the  Athe- 
nian general,  and  defeated.  Eventually,  however,  Antip'  ater,  havmg 
received  strong  reinforcements  from  Mac'  edon,  attacked  the  confeder- 
ates, and  completely  annihilated  their  army.  Athens  was  compelled 
to  abolish  her  democratic  form  of  government,  to  receive  Maoed6nian 
garrisons  m  her  fortresses,  and  to  surrender  a  number  of  her  most 
famous  orators,  including  Demosthenes.  The  latter,  to  avoid  falling 
into  the  hands  of  Antip'  ater,  terminated  his  life  by  poison. 

25.  Antip'  ater,  at  his  death,  left  the  government  in  the  hands  of 
Polysper'  chon,  as  regent  during  the  minority  of  a  son  of  Alexander ; 
but  Gassan'  der,  the  son  of.Antip'  ater,  soon  after  usurped  the  sover- 
eignty of  Greece  and  Mac'  edon,  and,  for  the  greater  security  of  his 
power,  caused  all  the  surviving  members  of  the  family  of  Alexander 
to  be  put  to  dea^h.  Antig'  onus,  another  of  Alexander's  generals, 
had  before  this  tim^  overrun  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  his  am- 
bitious views  extended  to  the  undivided  sovereignty  of  all  the  coun- 
tries which  had  been  ruled  by  Alexander.  Four  of  the  most  powerful 
of  the  other  generals,  Ptol'  emy,  Seleu'  cus,  Lysim'  achus,  and  Oas- 
san'der,  formed  a  league  against  him,  and  fought  with  him  the 
famous  battle  of  Ip'  sus,^  m  Phryg'  ia,*  whioh  ended  in  the  defeat . 
and  death  of  Antig'  onus,  the  destruction  of  the  power  which  he  had 
raised,  and  the  final  dissolution  of  the  Maced6nian  empire,  three 
hundred  and  one  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

h  J^'MUM  wai  a  dt7  of  Phiyg&Ja,  dmot  \h»  ■oathflrn  booodtfy  of  GaliUa,  bat  iti  exact  W 
edtty  ia  unknow-n.    (AT^  No.  IV.) 
a  Pkrpg'  ia  waa  tha  central  proviooe  ^f  weetern  Asia  Minor.    {Mt^s  Noi.  IV.  end  V.) 


104  ANCIENT  HISTOET.  [Pa»I 

26.  A  new  partition  of  the  provinces  was  now  made  into  fonr  in- 
dependent kingdoms.     Ptoremj  was  oonfirmed  in  the  posaession  of 

^gypt,  together  with  Lib'  ya,  and  part  of  the  neighboring  territories 
of  Arabia ;  Seleu'  ens  received  the  countries  embraced  in  the  east- 
em  conquests  of  Alexander,  and  the  whole  region  between  the  coast 
of  Syria  and  the  Euphrates ;  but  the  whole  of  this  vast  empire  soon 
dwindled  into  the  Syrian  monarchy :  Lysim'  aohus  received  the 
northern  ^d  western  portions  of  Asia  Minor,  as  an  appendage  to  his, 
kingdom  of  Thrace ;  while  Cassan'  der  received  the  sovereignty  of 
Greece  and  Mac'  edon.  Of  these  kmgdoms,  the  most  powerful  were 
Syria  and  £gypt ;  the  former  of  which  continued  under  the  dynasty 
of  the  Seleu'  cidas,  and  the  latter  under  that  of  the  Plol'  emies,  until 
both  were  absorbed  in  the  growing  dominion  of  the  Boman  empire. 
Of  the  kingdom  of  Thrace  under  Lysim'  achus,  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  speak  in  its  farther  connection  with  Qreoian  history. 

27.  Cassan'  der  survived  the  establishment  of  his  power  only  four 
years.  After  his  death  his  two  sons  quarrelled  for  the  succession, 
and  called  in  the  aid  of  foreigners  to  enforce  their  claims.  Deme- 
trius, son  of  Antig'onus,  having  seized  the  opportunity  of  inter- 
ference m  their  disputes,  cut  off  the  brother  who  had  mvited  his  aid, 
and  made  himself  master  of  the  throne  of  Mac'  edon,  which  was  en- 
joyed by  his  posterity,  except  during  a  brief  interrupticm  after  his 
dealli,  down  to  the  time  of  the  Boman  conquest  Demetrius  possessed 
in  addition  to  Mac'  edon,  Thes'  saly.  At'  tioa,  and  B(B6tia,  together 
with  a  great  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus;  but  his  government  was 
that  of  a  pure  military  despotism,  which  depended  on  the  army  for 
support,  wholly  independent  of  the  good  will  of  the  people.  Aim- 
ing to  recover  his  fetther's  power  in  Asia,  he  excited  tiie  jealousy  of 
Seleu'  cus,  king  of  Syria,  who  was  able  to  induce  Lysim'  achus,  of 
Thrace,  and  Pyr'  rhus,  king  of  Eplrus,  to  commence  a  war  against 
him.  The  latter  twice  overran  Macedonia,  and  even  seized  the 
throne,  which  he  held  during  a  few  months,  while  Demetrius  was 
driven  from  the  kingdom  by  his  own  rebellious  subjects ;  but  his  son 
Antig'  onus  maintained  himself  in  Peloponnesus,  waiting  a  favorable 
opportunity  of  placing  himself  on  the  throne  of  bis  father. 

28.  During  a  number  of  years  Mac'  edon,  Greece,  and  Western 
Asia,  were  harassed  with  the  wars  excited  by  the  various  aspirants 
to  power.  Lyisim'  achus  was  Befeated  and  slain  in  a  war  with  Se- 
leu'cus;  and  the  latter,  invading  Thrace,  was  assassinated  by 
Ptol'  emy  Cerau'  nus,  who  then  usurped  the  government  of  Thra  ^ 


Cma  IV.]  OREOIAir  BISTORT.  105 

and  Mac'  edon.  In  this  sitaati<m  of  a&irS)  a  stonn,  unseen  in  the 
distance,  bat  which  had  long  been  gatibering,  suddenly  burst  upon 
Mac'  edon,  threatening  to  convert,  by  its  ravages,  the  whole  Greciail 
peninsula  into  a  scene  of  desolation. 

29.  A  vast  horde  of  barbarians  of  the  Celtic  race  had  for  some 
time  been  aeonmulating  around  the  head  waters  of  the  Adriat'  ic,^ 
making  Pann6nia*  the  chief  seat  of  their  power.  Influenced  by 
hopes  of  plunder,  rather  than  of  conquest,  they  suddenly  appeared 
on  the  frontiers  of  Mac'  edon,  and  sent  an  embassy  to  Cerau'  nus, 
offaring  peace  if  he  were  willing  to  purchase  it  by  tribute.  A 
haiighty  defiance  from  the  Maceddnian  served  only  to  quicken  the 
march  of  tibe  invaders,  who  defeated  and  killed  Cerau'  nus  in  a  great 
battle,  and  so  completely  routed  his  army  that  almost  all  were  slam 
or  taken.  (B.  C.  280.)  The  conquerors  then  overran  all  Mac' edon 
to  the  borders  of  Thes'  saly,  and  a  detachment  made  a  devastating 
inroad  into  the  rich  vale  of  the  Peneus.  The  walled  towns  alone, 
which  the  barbarians  had  neither  the  skill  nor  the  patience  to  reduce 
by  siege,  held  out  until  the  storm  had  spent  its  fury,  when  the  Celts, 
scattered  over  the  ooxmtry  in  plundering  parties,  having  met  with 
0ome  reverses,  gradually  withdrew  from  a  country  where  there  was 
little  left  to  tempt  their  cupidity. 

30.  In  the  followi^g  year  (279  B.  C.)  another  band  of  Celts,  esti- 
mated at  two  hundred  thousand  men,  under  the  guidance  of  their 
principal  Brenn  or  chief,  called  Bren'  nus,  overran  Maced6nia  with 
little  resistance,  and  passing  through  Thessaly,  threatened  to  extend 
ih^  ravages  over  southern  Greece ;  but  the  allied  Qrecians,  under 
the  Athenian  general,  Cal'lipus,  met  them  at  Thermop' ylas,  and  at 
first  r^ulsed  them  with  considerable  loss.  Eventually,  however, 
the  secret  path  over  the.  mountains  was  betrayed  to  the  Celts  as  it 
bad  been  to  the  Persian  army  of  Xerxes,  and  the  Grecians  were 
ibroed  to  retreat  A  part  of  the  barbarian  army,  under  Bren'  nus, 
then  marched  into  Ph6cis,  for  the  purpose  of  plundering  Delphi; 
bat  their  atrocities  roused  against  them  the  whole  population,  and 
they  found  their  entire  march,  over  roads  mountainous  and  difficult, 

1.  The  Jliriat'  ie  or  HadriMie  (now  most  genenOIy  called  the  Onif  of  reniU)  it  that  large 
mm  <tf  the  Meditamaeaa  tea  which  Ilea  between  Italy  and  tite  opposite  shone  of  niyr'la, 
Eplraa»  and  Greece.  The  aouthem  portion  of  the  gulf  Is  now,  as  anciently,  galled  the  I6nUn 
Ma.  The  Adriat'  Ic  deriyed  Its  name  Arom  the  once  flouriahing  sea-port  town  of  A'  dria  north 
or  the  river  Po.  The  harbor  of  A'  dria  has  long  been  filled  np  hj  the  mod  and  other  depoaito 
brooght  down  bj  the  rlvera,  and  the  town  la  npv  nineteen  miles  inland.    (Map  No.  VIII.) 

9L  P««isMia,  anerwards  a  Boman  province,  waa  north  of  lUyr*  ia,  having  the  Daanbe  tat  Its 
wnteBB  and  eaataro  boundary.    {Map  Ne.  VIU  Ic  UL) 


106  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  [Pa»L 

beset  with  enemies  boming  for  reTenge.  The  invaders  also  suffered 
greatly  from  the  cold  and  storms  in  the  defiles  of  the  momitains.  It 
was  said  that  the  gods  fought  for  the-  saored  temple,  and  that  an 
earthquake  rent  the  rocks,  and  brought  down  huge  masses  on  tiie 
heads  of  the  assailants.  Certain  it  is  that  the  invaders,  probably 
acted  upon  by  superstitious  terror,  were  repidsed  and  disheartened 
Bran'  nus,  who  had  been  wounded  before  Delphi,  is  said  to  have  killed 
himself  in  despair ;  and  only  a  remnant  of  the  barbarians  regained 
their  original  seats  on  the  Adriat'  io.  • 

31.  After  the  repulse  of  the  Celts,  Antig'onus,  the  son  of  Dem6- 
triu.s,  was  able  to  gain  possession  of  the  throne  of  Mac'  edon,  but  he 
found  a  formidable  competitor  in  Pyr'  rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  who  re- 
solved to  add  Mac'  edon,  and,  if  possible,  the  whole  of  Greece  to  his 
own  dominion.  Pyr'  rhus  had  no  sooner  returned  from  his  fiimous 
expedition  into  Italy,  of  which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  in 
Roman  history,*  than  he  seized  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  against 
Antig'  onus,  and  invaded  Macedonia  with  his  small  army,  (274  B.  C.) 
the  remnant  of  the  forces  which  he  had  led  against  Rome,  but  which 
he  now  strengthened  with  a  body  of  Celtic  mercenaries.  When 
Antig'  onus  marched  Against  him,  many  of  his  troops,  who  had  little 
affection  or  respect  for  their  king,  went  over  to  Pyr'  rhus,  whose 
celebrated  military  prowess  had  won  their  admiration. 

32.  Antig'  onus  then  retired  into  Southern  Ghreece,  whither  he 
was  followed  by  Pyr'  rhus,  who  professed  that  the  object  of  his  expe- 
dition was  merely  to  restore  the  freedom  of  the  cities  which  were  held 
in  subjection  by  his  rival;  but  when  he  reached  the  borders  of 
Lac6nia  he  laid  aside  the  mask,  and  began  to  ravage  the  country, 
and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  surprise  Sparta,  which  was  lit- 
tle prepared  for  defence.  He  then  marched  to  Ar'  gos,  whither  he 
had  been  invited  by  one  of  the  rival  leaders  of  the  people,  but  he 
found  Antig'  onus,  at  the  head  of  a  strong  force,  encamped  on  one 
of  the  neighboring  heights.  Pyr'  rhus  gained  entrance  into  the  city 
by  night,  through  treachery,  but  at  the  same  time  the  troops  of  Antig'- 
onus  were  admitted  from  an  opposite  quarter — the  citizens  arose  in 
arms,  and  a  fierce  struggle  was  carried  on  in  the  streets  until  day- 
light, when  Pyr'  rhus  himself  wasislain  (272  B.  C.)  by  the  hand  of  an 
Ar'give  woman,  who,  exasperated  at  seeing  him  about  to  kill  her  son, 
hurled  upon  him  a  ponderous  tile  from  the  house-top.  The  greater 
part  of  the  army  of  Pyr' rhus,  chiefly  composed  of  Maceddnians, 

A.  Sm  pig*  149. 


Cwp.  TV.]  GRSJOIAN  mSTORT.  107 

then  went  over  to  their  former  sovereign,  who  soon  after  gained  the 
throne,  of  Mac'  edon,  which  he  held  nntil  his  death. 

33.  The  death  of  Pyr'  rhus  forms  an  important  epoch  in  Grecian 
history,  as  it  pnt  an  end  to  the  struggle  for  power  among  Alexander's 
saooessors  in  the  West,  and  left  the  field  clear  for  the  final  contest 
between  the  liberty  of  Greece  and  the  power  of  Mac'  edon,  which 
was  only  terminated  by  the  ruin  ef  both.  When  Antig'onus  re- 
turned to  MM  edon,  its  acknowledged  sovereign,  he  cherished  the 
hope  of  ultimately  reducing  all  Greece  to  his  sway,  little  dreaming 
that  the  power  centered  in  a  recent  league  of  a  few  Achae'  an  cities 
was  destined  to  become  a  formidable  adversary  to  his  house. 

34.  The  Acha!  an  League  comprised  at  first  twelve  towns  of 
Achdia,  which  were  aasociated  together  for  mutual  safety,  forming  a 
little  federal  republic — all  the  towns  having  an  equality  m,  achjb'am^ 
of  representation  in  the  general  government,  to  which     i-eaque. 

all  matters  affecting  the  common  welfare  were  intrusted,  each  town 
at  the  same  time  retaining  the  regulation  of  its  own  domestic  policy. 
The  Achae'  an  league  did  not  biecome  of  sufficient  political  importance 
to  attract  the  attention  of  Antig'  onus  until  about  twenty  years  after 
the  death  of  Pyr'  rhua,  when  Ardtus,  an  exile  from  Sic'  yon,  at  the 
head  of  a  small  band  of  followers,  surprised  the  city  by  night,  and 
without  any  bloodshed  delivered  it  from  the  dominion  of  the  tyrants 
who,  under  Maced6nian  protection,  had  long  oppressed  it  with 
despotic  sway.  (251  B.  C.)  Fearful  of  the  hostility  of  Antig'onus, 
Ardtus  induced  Sic'  yon  to  join  the  Achse'  an  league,  and  although 
its  power  greatly  exceeded  that  of  any  Achas'  an  town,  it  claimed  no 
superiority  of  privilege  over  the  other  members  of  the  confederacy, 
but  obtained  only  one  vote  in  the  general  council  of  the  league ;  a 
precedent  which  was  afterwards  strictly  adhered  to  in  the  admission 
of  other  cities.  Ardtus  received  the  most  distinguished  honors  from 
the  Achae'  ans,  and,  a  few  years  after  tlie  accession  of  Sic'  yon,  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  armies  of  the  confederacy.  (B.  0.  246.) 

35.  Corinth,  the  key  to  Greece,  having  been  seized  by  a  stratagem 
of  Antig'  onus,  and  its  citadel  occupied  by  a  Maced6nian  garrison, 
was  rescued  by  a  bold  enterprise  of  Ardtus,  and  induced  to  join  the 
league.  (243  B.  G.)  Other  cities  successively  gave  in  their  adhe- 
rence, xmtil  the  confederacy  embraced  nearly  the  whole  of  Pelopon- 
ndsus.  Although  Athens  did  not  unite  with  it,  yet  Ardtus  obtained 
ihe  withdrawal  of  its  Macedonian  garrison.  Sparta  opposed  the 
league — ^induced  Ar'  gos  and  Corinth  to  withdraw  from  it— 4ind  by 


i08  ANCIENT  mSTOBY.  [PaetL 

her  suceesaes  over  the  Ach»'  ans,  eyentaally  indaced  them  to  eall  ib 
the  aid  of  the  Maoed6nians,  their  former  enemiea 

36.  Antig'  onus  II.,  readily  embracing  the  opportunity  of  restor- 
ing the  influence  of  his  family  in  Southern  Greece,  marched  against 
the  Laced83m6nians,  oyer  whom  he  obtained  a  deoisiye  victory, 
which  placed  Sparta  at  his  mercy.  But  he  used  his  victory  moder- 
ately, and  granted  the  Spartsy;^s  peace  on  liberal  terms.  On  his 
death,  which  occurred  soon  after,  he  was  Bucceede<J||pn  the  throne 
of  Mao'  edon  by  his  nephew  and  adopted  son,  Philip  II.,  a  youth  of 
Only  seyenteen. 

37.  The  ^t61ians,^  the  rudest  of  the  Grecian  tribes,  who  had 
acquired  the  character  of  a  nation  of  freebooters  and  pirates,  had 
at  this  time  formed  a  league  similar  to  the  Ach»'  an,  and  counting 
on  the  inexperience  of  the  youthful  Philip,  and  the  weakness  of>the 

^AchsD'ans,  began  a  series  of  unprovoked  aggressions  on  the  sur- 
rounding States.  The  Mess^nians,  whose  territory  they  had  invaded 
by  way  of  the  western  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  called  upon  the 
AchsB'  ans  for  assistance,  but  Aritas,  going  to  their  relief,  was  attack- 
ed unexpectedly,  and  defeated.  Soon  after,  the  youthful  Philip  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Achso'  ai)  League,  when  a  general  war  be- 
gan between  the  Maced6nians,  Aclue'ans,  and  their  confederates, 
on  the  one  side,  and  the  ^t61ian8,  who  were  aided  by  the  Spartans 
and  E' leans,  on"  the  other. 

38.  The  war  continued  four  years,  and  was  conducted  with  gre&t 
cruelty  and  obstinacy  on  both  sides ;  but  Philip  and  the  Achsd'  ans 
were  on  the  whole  successful,  and  the  ^t61ian8  and  their  allies  be- 
came desirous  of  peace,  while  new  and  ambitious  views  more  eagerly 
inclined  Philip  to  put  an  end  to  the  unprofitable  contest  At  this 
time  the  Cartha^ians  and  Romans  were  contending  for  mastery 
in  the  second  Punic  war,  and  Philip  began  to  view  the  struggle  as 
one  in  which  an  alliance  with  one  of  the  parties  would  be  desirable, 
by  opening  to  himself  prospects  of  future  conquest  and  glory.  By 
siding  with  the  Oarthaginians,  who  were  the  most  distant  party,  and 
from  whom  he  would  have  less  to  fear  than  from  the  ItoBU.n3,  he 
hoped  to  be  able  eventually  to  insure  to  himself  the  sovereignty  of 
all  Greece,  and  to  make  additions  to  Maced6nia  on  the  side  of  Italy. 
He  therefore  proposed  terms  of  peace  to  the  JSt61ians ;  and  a  treaty 

1.  JSUlim  WM  a  oooatry  of  Northern  Greaee,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tbes'  nly,  on  th* 
«ait  by  D6rla,  Phteta,  and  L6cria,  on  the  south  by  the  Corinthian  GulA  and  on  the  weal  by 
Acamanla.  It  was  In  general  a  rongb  and  moimtainoni  covntry,  although  lome  of  the  valleya 
itNTtheirtetUlty.    (JftyNcI.) 


Chap.  IV.]  GRECIAN  HISTOBT.  109 

was  oonoluded  at  Naupao'  tns,  which  left  all  the  parties  in  the  .war  in 
the  enjoyment  of  their  respeotiye  possessions.  (217  B.  0.) 

39.  After  the  great  battle  of  Can'  nse,^  which  seemed  to  have  ex- 
tingaished  the  last  hopes  of  Rome,  Philip  sent  enyojs  to  Hannibal, 
the  Carthaginian  general,  and  concluded  with  him  a  treaty  of  strict 
allianoa  He  next  sailed  with  a  small  fleet np  the  Adriatic,  and 
wliile  besieging  AppolI6nia,^  a  town  in  Illyr'  ia,  was  met  and  defeated 
by  ^e  Roman  prsBtor,  M.  Valerius,  who  had  been  sent  to  snccor 
the  Hlyr'ians.  (215  B.  G.)  Philip  was  forced 'to  bum  his  ships, 
and  retreat  over  land  to  Maced6nia,  leaying.  his  baggage,  and  the 
arms  of  many  of  his  troops,  in  the  enemy's  hands.  Such  was  the 
nnfortonate  issue  of  his  first  encounter  with  the  Roman  soldiery. 

40.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Maced6nia,  finding  Ar&tna  in  the 
way  of  his  projects  against  the  liberties  of  Sonthem  Greece,  he' 
contrived  to  have  the  old  general  removed  by  slow  poison ; — ^a  crime 
which  filled  all  Qreeoe  with  horror  and  indignation.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  Romans,  while  recovering  ground  in  Italy,  contrived  to 
keep  Philip  busy  at  home,  by  inciting  the  ^t61ians  to  violate  the 
recent  treaty,  and  inducing  Sparta  and  E'  lis  to  join  in  a  war  against 
Mac'edon.  Still  Philip,  supported  for  awhile  by  the  AchsB'ans, 
under  their  renowned  leader,  Philopoe'  men,  maintained  his  ground, 
until,  first,  the  Athenians,  no  longer  able  to  protect  their  fallen  for- 
tunes, solicited  aid  from  the  Romans;  and  Anally,  the  Achad'ans 
themselves,  being  divided  into  factions,  accepted  terms  of  peace. 

41.  Philip  continued  to  struggle  against  his  increasing  enemies, 
until,  bdng  defeated  in  a  great  battle  with  the  JlomanSj^  he  pur* 
ehaaed  peace  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  greater  part  of  his  navy,  the 
payment  of  a  tcibnte,  and  the  resignation  of  his  supremacy  over  the 
Grecian  Statea  At  the  celebration  of  the  Isth'mian  games  at 
Corinth  the  terms  of  the  Roman  senate  were  made  known  to  the 
Grecians,  who  received,  with  the  height  of  exultation,  tiie  proclama- 
tion that  the  independence  of  Greece  was  restored,  under  the  au* 
spices  of  the  Roman  arms.  (196  B.  C.) 

42.  Probably  nothing  was  &rther  from  the  intention  of  the  Roman 
senate  thim  to  allow  the  Grecian  States  to  regain  their  ancient  power 
and  sovereignty,  and  it  was  sufficient  to  damp  the  joy  of  the  more 

1.  AfoU^U  WM  situated  on  the  northern  side  of  the  rirer  A6a»  (now  Vojutaa)  near  its 
month.  Its  ruins  still  retain  the  name  of  Pottinu  Apo116nla  was  foanded  by  a  colony  from 
Ooiinlb  tad  Coicyra,  and,  aooording  to  Stnbo,  was  renowned  ft>r  the  wisdom  of  iU  laws. 

a.aMp.l«.  h.Battto«rC3nieoephate,it7li.Q.   ■Mp.JOl. 


110  .  AKCIENT  HISTOKT.  [PiarL 

ooDsidenite  ^that  the  boon  of  freedom  which  Rome  affected  to  bestow 
was  tendered  by  a  master  who  oodid  resome  it  at  his  pleasure.  At 
the  first  opportunity  of  interference,  therefore,  which  opened  to  the 
Romans,  the  JESt61ians,  who  had  espoosed  the  canse  of  Antfochas, 
king  of  Syria,  the  enemy  of  Rome,  were  reduced  to  poverty  and  de- 
prived of  their  independence.  At  a  later  period  Per'  sens,  the  sno- 
cesser  of  Philip  on  the  throne  of  Mao'  edon,  being  driven  into  a  war 
by  Roman  ambition,  finally  lost  his  kingdom  in  the  battle  of  Pydkia,' 
in  which  twenty  thousand  Maoed6nians  were  slain,  and  ten  thousand 
taken  prisoners,  while  the  RoMan  army,  commanded  by  Lt^cius 
^mil'ius  PaiUus,  lost  scarcely  a  hundred  men.  (168  B.  C.)  The 
Macedonian  monarchy  was  extinguished,  and  Per'  sens  himself,  a 
wanderer  from  his  country,  was  taken  prisoner  in  an  island  of  the 
M*  gean,  and  conyeyed  to  Rome  to  grace  the  triumph  of  the  con- 
queror. 

43.  Soon  after  the  fidl  of  Per'  sens,  the  Achss'  ans  were  charged 
with  having  aided  him  in  the  war  against  Rome,  and,  without  a 
shadow  of  proof,  one  thousand  of  their  worthiest  citizens,  among  < 
whom  was  the  historian  Polyb'  ius,  were  sent  to  Rome  to  prove  their 
innocence  of  this  charge  before  a  Roman  tribunal.  (167  B.  0.) 
Here  they  were  detained  seventeen  years  without  being  able  to  obtain 
a  hearing,  when  three  hundred  of  the  number,  the  only  surviving 
remnant  of  the  thousand,  were  finally  restored  to  their  country.  The 
exiles  returned,  burning  with  vengeance  against  the  Romans ;  other 
causes  of  animosity  arose;  and  when  a  Roman  embassy,  sent  to 
Corinth,  declared  the  will  of  the  Roman  senate  that  the  Ach»'  an 
League  should  be  reduced  to  its  original  limits,  a  popular  tumult 
arose,  and  the  Roman  ambassadors  were  publicly  insulted. 

44.  War  soon  followed.  The  Achss'  ans  and  their  aQies  were  de- 
feated by  the  consul  Mum'  mius  near  Corinth,  and  that  city,  then  the 
richest  in  Greece,  after  being  plundered  of  its  treasures,  was  con- 
signed to  the  flames.  The  last  blow  to  the  liberties  of  the  Hell6nio 
race  had  been  struck,  and  all  Greece,  as  far  as  Epirus  and  Maced6- 
nia,  now  become  a  Roman  province,  under  the  name  of  Achdia. 
(146  B.  C.)  "  The  end  of  the  Achae'  an  war,"  says  Thirwall,  "  was 
the  last  stage  of  the  lingering  process  by  wliich  Rome  enclosed  her 
victim  in  the  coils  of  her  insidious  diplomacy,  covered  it  with  the 

1.  Pyd'  na  waa  a  dty  near  the  Boutb-eaatorn  extremity  of  Maced6niaf  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Therm&ic  GuIi;  (now  Gulf  of  .Salonikl.)  The  ancient  Pydna  la  now  oalled  Kidm.  Dr. 
Clarke  observed  here  a  vast  mound  of  earth,  which  he  considered,  with  much  probability,  aa 
marking  the  site  of  the  great  boittle  fought  there  by  ttue  Romans  and  Macedunkma.   {Map  Na  L) 


Otatf.  VL]  JEWISH  BISTORT.  1 1 1 

dime  of  ber  sycophants  and  hirelings,  crashed  it  when  it  began  to 
straggle,  and  then  oaknlj  preyed  upon  its  vitals.'' 

45.  We  have  now  arrived  at  the  proper  termination  of  Grecian 
history.  Niebuhr  has  remarked,  that,  "  as  rivers  flow  into  the  sea, 
so  does  the  history  of  all  the  nations,  known  to  have  existed  pre- 
viooBly  in  the  regions  around  the  Mediterranean,  terminate  in  that 
of  Bome."  Henceforward,  then,  the  history  of  Greece  becomes  in- 
volved in  the  changing  fortones  of  the  Roman  empire,  to  whose  early 
annals  we  shall  now  retom,  after  a  brief  notice  of  the  cotemporary 
history  of  sorronnding  nations.  With  the  loss  of  her  liberties  the 
^ory  of  Greece  had  passed  away.  Her  population  had  been  gradu- 
ally diminishing  since  the  period  of  the  Persian  wars ;  and  from  the 
epoch  of  the  Roman  conquest  the  spirit  of  the  nation  sunk  into  de- 
spondency, and  the  energies  of  the  people  gradually  wasted,  until,  no 
kfter  iban  the  days  of  Strabo,'  Greece  existed  only  in  the  remembrance 
of  the  past  Then,  many  of  her  cities  were  desolate,  or  had  sunk  to 
insignificant  villages,  while  Athens  alone  maintained  her  renown  for 
philosophy  and  the  arts,  and  became  the  instructor  of  her  conquer- 
ors ; — ^large  tracts  of  land,  qnce  devoted  to  tillage,  were  either  barren, 
or  had  been  converted  into  pastures  for  sheep,  and  vast  herds  of 
cattle;  while  the  rapacity  of  Roman  governors  had  inflicted  upon 
the  sparse  population  impoverishment  and  ruin. 

COTEMPORARY  HISTORY:  490  to  146  B.  C. 

1.  Of  the  cotemporary  annals  of  other  nations  during  the  authentic 
poiod  of  Grecian  history,  there  is  little  of  importance  to  be  nar- 
rated beyond  what  will  be  found  connected  with  Roman  aflairs  in  ^a 
subsequent  chapter ;  although  the  Grecian  cities  of  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
Cyrenaica,  considered  not  as  dependent  colonies  of  the  parent  St$te,  but 
as  separate  powers,  will  require  some  farther  notice.  Of  the  history 
of  the  Medes  and  Persians  we  have  already  given  the  most  interesting 
portion.  04Egyptian  history  little  is  known,  beyond  what  has  been 
narrated,' until  the  beginning  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ptol'emies  (30 1 
B.  0.,)  and  of  the  events  from  that  period  down  to  the  time  of  Ro- 
man interference  in  tiie  affairs  of  Egypt,  we  have  room  for  only  occa- 
sional notices,  as  connected  with  the  more  important  i.  HisroRr 
histories  of  other  nations.  Of  the  civil  annab  of  the  <>»  ™«  "^^ 
Jews  we  shall  give  a  brief  sketch,  so  as  to  continue,  from  a  preced* 

L  «rift«  wM  a  eetobntod  geograplitr,  bora  al  AmAtfa  In  Foatna,  about  llie  year  M  B.  a 


112  AHCIEMT  msrORT.  [Pjmtl 

ing  chapter,  the  history  of  Jndea  down  to  the  time  when  that  eouitry 
became  a  proyince  of  the  Roman  empire. 

2.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  rebuilding  of  the  second  temple  of 
Jerusalem  was  completed  dm'ing  the  reign  of  Darios  Hjstas'peSi 
about-  twenty-five  years  before  the  commencement  of  the  war  betweea 
the  Greeks  and  Persians.  During  the  foUowing  reign  of  Xerxes,  the 
Jews  appear  to  have  been  treated  by  their  masters  with  respect,  and 
also  during  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Artazerx'  es  Longimtou^ 
who  had  taken  for  his  second  wife  a  Jewish  damsel  named  Esther, 
the  niece  of  the  Jew  Mor'  decai,  one  of  the  officers  of  the  palace. 
The  story  of  Himan,  the  wicked  minister  of  the  king,  is  doubtfeas 
fmnilUr  to  all  our  readers.  After  the  Jews  had  been  delivered  from 
the  wanton  malice  of  H&man,  Nehemf  ah,  also  an  officer  in  the  king's 
palace,  obtained  for  them  permission  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the  holy 
city,  and  was  appointed  g(fvemor  over  Judea.  With  the  dose  of 
the  administration  of  NehemCah  the  annals  embraced  in  the  Old 
Testament  end,  and  what  farther  reliable  information  we  possess  of 
the  history  of  the  Jews  down  to  the  time  of  the  Eoman  conquest  ie 
mostly  derived  from  Josephus. 

3.  After  Nehemiah,  Judea  was  joined  to  the  satr^y  of  Syria,  a«* 
though  the  internal  government  was  still  administered  by  the  high* 
priests,  under  the  general  superintendence  of  Persian  officers — ^the 
people  remaining  qui^t  under  the  Persian  government  After  die 
division  of  the  vast  empire  of  Alexander  among  his  generals,  Judea, 
lying  between  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  being  coveted  by  the  monarchs 
of  both,  Bu£Fered  greatly  from  the  wars  which  they  carried  on  against 
each  other.  At  one  time  the  Egyptian  monarch,  Ptol'  emy  S6ter, 
having  invaded  the  country,  stormed  Jerusalem  on  the  Sabbath  day, 
when  the  Jews,  from  superstitious  motives,  would  not  defend  their 
city,  and  transported  a  hundred  thousand  of  the  population  to 
Egypt, — apparently,  however,  as  colonists,  rather  than  as  prisoners. 

4.  During  the  reigns  of  Ptol'  mny  86ter,  PtoV  emy  Phikdel'phuB, 
PtoFemy  Euer'getes,  and  PtoFemy  Philop'ater,  Jud^  remained 
BuJKjeot  to  Egypt,  but  was  lost  by  Ptol'  emy  Epiph'  anes.  PtoF  emy 
PhUadel'  phus,  by  his  generous  treatment  of  the  Jews,  induced  large 
numbers  of  them  to  settle  in  Egypt  He  was  an  eminent  patron  of 
learning,  and  caused  the  septuagint  translation  of  the  scriptures  to  be 
made,  and  a  copy  to  be  deposited  in  the  famous  library  whidb  he  es- 
tablished at  Alexandria.  On  the  accession  of  PtoF  emy  Epiph'  anes 
to  the  throne,  (204  B.  C.)  at  the  age  of  only  five  years,  Antioohus 


CBir.  IV.]  JEWISH  BISTORT.  113 

^e  Oreai,  king  of  Syria,  easily  persoaded  the  Jews  to  place  them- 
selves Tmder  his  rule,  and  in  return  for  their  confidence  in  him  he 
conferred  such  favors  upon  Jerusalem  as  he  knew  were  best  calculated 
to  win  the  hearts  of  the  people. 

5.  Antiochua  Epiph'  anes,  the  sacoessor  of  Antiochns  the  Great^ 
having  invaded  Egypt,  a  false  rumor  of  his  death  was  brought  to 
Jerusalem,  whereupon  a  civil  war  broke  out  between  two  fEiotions  of 
the  Jews  who  had  long  been  quarrelling  about  the  office  of  the  high- 
priesthood.  The  tumult  was  quelled  by  the  return  of  Antiochus, 
who,  exasperated  on  learning  that  the  Jews  had  made  public  rejoic- 
ings at  his  snpposea  death,  marched  against  Jerusalem,  which  he 
plundered,  as  if  he  had  taken  it  by  storm  from  an  enemy.  ( 169  B.  C.) 
He  even  despoiled  the  temple  of  its  holy  vessels,  and  carried  off  the 
treasures  of  the  nation  collected  there.  Two  years  later  he  attempted 
to  carry  out  the  plan  of  reducing  the  various  religious  systems  of  his 
empire  to  one  sbgle  profession,  that  of  the  Grecian  polytheism.  He 
polluted  the  altar  of  the  temple-— put  a  stop  to  the  duly  sacrifice — 
to  the  great  festivals — ^to  the  rite  of  circumcision — ^burned  the  copies 
of  the  law — ^and  commanded  that  the  temple  itself  should  be  convert- 
ed into  an  edifice  sacred  to  the  Olympian  Jupiter. 

6.  These  acts,  and  the  insolent  cruelties  with  which  they  were  ac- 
companied, met  with  a  fierce  and  desperate  resistance  from  the  brave 
&mily  of  the  Mac'  cabees,*  or.  Asmon^ans,  who,  under  their  heroic 
leader  Judas,  first  fled  to  the  wilderness,  and  the  caves  of  the  meun- 
tians,  where  they  were  joined  by  numerous  bands  of  their  exasperated 
countrymen,  who,  ere  long,  began  to  look  upon  Judas  as  an  instru- 
ment appointed  by  heaven  for  their  deliverance.  Thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  every  impregnable  cliff  and  defile  of  his  mountain* 
land,  Judas  was  successful  in  every  encounter  in  which  he  chose  to 
engage  with  the  Syrians : — ^by  rapid  assaults  he  made  himself  master 
of  many  fortified  places,  and  within  three  years  after  the  pollution 
of  the  temple  he  had  driven  out  of  Judea  |pur  generals  at  the  head 
of  large  and  r^ular  armies.  He  then  went  up  to  Jerusalem,''and 
although  a  fortress  in  the  lower  city  was  still  held  by  a  Syrian  garri- 
son, he  restored  the  walls  and  doors  of  the  temple,  caused  the  daily 
sacrifice  to  be  renewed,  and  proclaimed  a  solemn  festival  o(  eight  days 
on  the  joyful  opcuuon. 

a.  The  appalUUoii  of  Mae'  utbtM  wag  glran  ttiem  (h>m  the  initial  lettan  ofthe  text  di^layed 
on  ttwIritaiMlard,  which  wu.  Mi  Chanuka  Hm/ur,  JU«*/  *«Who  la  Uke  unto  thee  among 
Ihe  9od%  O  Loid  r-Aom  Bxod.  xr.  11. 

8 


114  AKCIENT  mSTORT.  (Tiial. 

7.  The  war  wHh  Syria  eontmned  daring  the  brief  reign  of  the 
yonthfiil  son  of  Antiochns  Epiph'  anes,  and  was  extended  into  the 
Bobaequent  reign  of  Demetrius  Soter,  (B.  C.  162,)  who  sent  two 
powerful  armies  into  Judea,  the  first  of  which  was  defeated  in  the 
defile  of  Beth6ron/  and  its  general  slain.  Another  army  was  more 
saceessful,  and  Judas  himself  fell,  after  having  destroyed  a  multi- 
tude of  his  enemies ;  but  his  body  was  reooyered,  and  he  was  buried 
in  the  tomb  of  his  fathers.  "  And  all  Israel  mourned  him  with  a 
great  mourning,  and  sorrowed  many  days,  and  said,  How  is  the 
mighty  &llen  that  saved  Israel" 

8.  After  the  death  of  Judas  a  time  of  grea^ibulation  followed; 
the  Syril[ns  beeame  masters  of  the  country,  and  Jonathan,  the  brother 
of  Judas,  the  new  leader  of  the  patriotic  band,  was  obliged  to  retire 
to  the  mountains,  where  he  maintained  himself  two  years,  while  the 
cities  were  occupied  by  Syrian  garrisons.  Eventually,  during  the 
changing  revolutions  in  the  Syrian  empire  itself,  Jonathan  was  en- 
abled^to  establish  himself  in  the  priesthood,  and  under  his  adminis- 
tration Judea  again  became  a  flourishiug  State.  Being  at  length 
treacherously  murdered  by  one  of  the  Syrian  khigs,  (B.  0.  143,)  his 
brother  Simon  succeeded  to  the  priesthood,  and  during  the  seven 
years  in  which  he  judged  Israel,  general  prosperity  prevailed  through- 
out the  land.  "  The  husbandmen  tilled  the  field  in  peace,  and  the 
earth  gave  forth  her  crops,  and  the  trees  of  the  plain  their  fruits. 
The  old  men  sat  in  the  streets ;  all  talked  together  of  their  blessings, 
and  the  young  men  put  on  the  glory  and  the  harness  of  war." 

9.  The  remaining  history  of  the  Jews,  from  the  time  of  Simon 
down  to  the  formation  of  Judea  into  a  Ba>man  province,  is  mostly 
occupied  with  domestic  commotions,  whose  details  would  possess 
little  interest  for  the  general  reader.  The  circumstances  which 
placed  Judea  under  the  sway  of  the  Bomans  will  be  found  detailed 
in  their  cojmection  with  Roman  history.^ 

10.  Before  the  beginning  of  the  "authentic  period"  of  Grecian 
history,  various  circumstances,  such  as  the  desire  of  adventure,  com- 

n.  GExciAN  mercial  interests,  and,  not  unfrequently,  civil  dissensions 

ooLoiaKs.    at  home,  led  to  the  planting  of  Grecian  colonies  on  many 

distant  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.     Those  of  Thrace,  Mac'  edon, 

and  Asia-Minor,  were  ever  intimately  connected  with  Greece  proper, 

in  whose  general  history  theirs  is  embraced ;  but  the  Greek  cities 

L  Betk6r9H  WM  a  vilUig*  about  ten  miles  north-west  from  Jenualoiw  * 


Obmb.  IV.]  ORECIAK  OOLONIEa  115 

of  Italy,  Sioily,  and  Cyren^ica,  were  too  far  removed  from  the  drama 
that  mis  enactmg  aroond  the  shores  of  the  iB'gean  to  be  more  than 
oceaaionally  and  temporarily  affected  by  the  ohanging  fortmies  of  the 
papeot  States.  Neyertheless,  a  brief  notice  of  those  distant  settle- 
ments that  eyentoally  rivalled  even  Athens  and  Sparta  in  power  and 
resoaroee,  cannot  be  nnintereeting,  and  it  will  serve  to  give  the  reader 
more  aooorate  views,  than  he  would  otherwise  possess,  of  the  extent 
and  importanoe  of  the  field  of  Grecian  history. 

11.  At  an  early  period  the  shores  of  southern  Italy  and  Sicily 
were  peopled  by  Greeks  ]  and  so  numerous  and  powerful  did  the 
Greeiantnties  in  those  countries  become,  that  the  whole  were  comprised 
by  Strabo  and  others  under  the  appellation  Magna  m.  xagka 
Gracia  or  "  Great  Greece"— an  appropriate  name  for  a  osmjia, 
region  containing  many  cities  far  superior  in  size  and  population  to 
any  in  Greece  itself  The  earliest  of  these  distant  Grecian  settle- 
ments appear  to  have  been  made  at  Ctimse,^  and  Neap'  olis,'  on  the 
western  coast  of  ttaly,  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 
Naz'  08,*  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  was  founded  about  the  year 
735  B.  C;  and  in  the  following  year  some  Corinthians  laid  the 
foondation  of  Syraousa  Gela,^  on  the  western  coast  of  the  isknd, 
and  Mess^a*  on  the  strait  between  Italy  and  Sicily,  were  founded 

1.  OtaM,  a  dtj  of  Gunpanla,  on  the  western  ooaet  of  Italy,  a  abort  distance  north-west  from 
Keapolia,  and  about  a  hundred  and  ten  miles  sontli-eaBt  from  Rome,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
tmnded  by  a  Grecian  colony  ftom  Eubcs'  a  about  the  year  1060  B.  G.  CumiB  was  built  on  a 
locfcy  hin  washed  by  the  sea ;  and  the  same  name  U  stiU  applied  to  the  rains  that  Ue  scattered 
aiooad  its  base.  Some  of  the  most  splendid  fictions  of  Virgil  relate  to  the  Cum»an  Sibyl, 
whose  caTe,  hewn  out  of  solid  rock,*  actually  existed  on  the  top  of  the  hill  of  Cnmse.  (^Map 
Now  VOL) 

9L  Jfeap'  Msy  (a  Greek  word  meaning  the  nno  etCy,)  now  called  Jfiapln^  was  founded  by  a 
eokmy  from  Cnm»*  It  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  in  the  immediate 
■fkAaStf  of  BAoont  VetuTlus,  one  hundred  and  eighteen  miles  aontb-eaa^ftom  Rome.  (Map 
Ko.  vm.) 

3.  /fax' 09  was  north-east  flrom  Mount  iEtna,  and  about  equi^stant  fh>m  Mess&na  and 
CU'ana.  NaTos  was  twice  destroyed;  first  by  Dlonysius  the  Elder,  and^ afterwards  by  the 
fltooll ;  after  which  Tkuromenlum  was  built  on  its  site.  The  modem  Tagnmna  occupies  the 
Aa  of  the  ancient  dty.   j(Jlf^  No.  YIII.) 

4.  Oila  was  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  a  short  distance  flrom  the  sea,  on  a  riTcr  of  the 
Moie  name,  and  about  sixty  miles  west  from  Syracuse.  On  the  site  of  the  ancient  dlj  stands 
the  modem  TWra  JViwo.    (.Wop  No.  VIII.) 

5.  M€0§Ana^  stUI  a  city  of  conslderBble  extent  under  the  name  of  Mt*9ina^  was  situated  at 
the  nortb-easCera  extremity  of  the  idand  of  Sicily,  on  the  utralt  of  Ito  own  name.  It  was  re> 
gaided  by  the  Greeke  as  the  key  of  the  island,  but  the  drenmsuince  of  its  commanding  position 
always  made  It  a  tempting  prize  to  the  ambitious  and  powerftil  neighboring  princes.  It  under- 
went a  great  rariety  of  changes,  under  the  power  of  the  Syracusans,  CSarthaglnians,  and  Ro- 
nana.  It  was  treadierously  seised  by  the  MamertinI,  (see  p.  19S)  who  slew  the  nudes,  andtook 
Ihe  wlaee  and  chOdien  as  their  property,  and  called  the  city  Hamertlna.  Finally,  a  porUon  of  < 
IhetBhaMtaalaeiQed  in  the  aid  of  the  Bomam,  and  thus  began  the  flntPunio  war.   nnsB.CO 


116  AiroIKNT  mSTOBT.  [Pj«i 

soon  after.    Agrigen' torn,'  <m  the  Booth-wcrtcrn  ootsti  was  fimnded 
about  a  oentoi^  later. 

12.' In  the  meantime  the  Greek  cities  Sjb'aris,  Grotdna,*  aad 
Taren'  turn,*  had  been  planted,  and  had  rapidly  grown  to  power  and 
opulence,  on  the  sonth-eastem  coast  of  Italy.  The  territorial  do^ 
minions  of  Syb'  aris  and  Grotona  extoided  across  the  peninsola  from 
sea  to  sea.  The  former  possessed  twenty-fiye  dependent  towns,  and 
ruled  over  four  distinct  tribes  or  nations.  The  territories  of  Grotdna 
were  still  more  extensive.  These  two  Grecian  States  were  at  the 
pjATJitii^m  of  their  power  about  the  year  560  B.  G. — ^the  time  of  ths 
accession  of  Pisis'  tratos  at  Athens ;  but  they  quarrelled  with  each 
other,  and  the  result  of  the  fatal  contest  was  the  ruin  of  Syb' aris, 
510  B.  G.  At  the  time  ot  the  invasion  of  lUly  by  Pyr'  rhos,  (see 
p.  149.)  Grotona  was  still  a  considerable  city,  extodding  on  both  sides 
of  the  JBsirus,  and  its  walls  embracing  a  circumference  of  twelve 
miles.  Taren'  turn  was  formed  by  a  colony  from  Sparta  about  the 
year  707, — soon  after  the  first  Mess^nian  war.  No  details  of  its  his- 
tory during  the  first  two  'hundred  and  thirty  years  of  its  ezistenoe 


«TlM  modflni  d^  hai  a  moii  impodaff  spiMwuee  from  Um  mh,  fomlBg  a  Sdb  olraulir 
■weep  aboat  two  miles  in  Ieiii3:tti  on  ttie  west  shore  of  its  magn!flcent  haibor,  from  whieh  It 
rises  In  the  fonn  of  an  amphillientre ;  sikI  being  built  of  while  stone,  it  sliikiDgljr  oontrsoli 
with  the  daik  fronts  that  eorer  Uw  forests  In  the  backgronnd."    (Map  No.  vm.) 

L  Agrigok'  tMM  was  situated  near  the  southern  shore  of  SleHy,  about  midwaj  of  the  Island. 
Next  to  Sjmciise  11  was  not  only  one  of  the  largest  and  most  fiunoos  cities  of  Sicily,  but  of  th» 
andent  world ;  and  its  rotns  an  stUl  impoelngly  grsnd  and  magnlfloenU  The  modem  tows 
of  OirgemU  lies  adjacent  to  the  ruiBS»  from  which  It  Is  separated  by  the  small  lirer  Afoagaa. 
(Jfdy  No.  VIU.) 

Sl  Sfb'  arU  was  a  dty  of  south-eastern  Italy  on  the  Tarenttae  Golf.  CMtina  was  aboia 
Berenty  miles  south  of  it  Pythogorss  redded  at  Crot6na  during  the  latter  years  of  his  lite; 
and  Milo,  the  most  celebrated  athlete  of  anUquity,  was  a  natlTe  of  that  city.   The  Sybarites 

were  noted  for  the  excess  to  which  they  carried  the  refinements  of  luxury  and  aensnality. 

The  CTeats  whieh  led  to  the  destmetion  of  Syb'  aris,  about  510  B.  C,  are  thus  related.  A 
democratical  party,  having  gained  the  aaoeodsncy  at  Syb'  aris,  expelled  five  hundred  of  the 
prindpal  citizens,  who  sought  reAige  at  Crot6na.  The  latter  revising,  by  the  advice  of  Pytha- 
goras^  to  give  up  the  ftagitivee,  a  war  ensued.  HUo  led  out  the  Grotoniats,  ten  thousand  in 
number,  who  were  met  by  three  hundred  thousand  Syb'  arites ;  but  the  fomer  gained  a  oomr- 
plete  victory,  and  then,  maaching  immedlafdy  to  Syb'  arts,  totally  destroyed  the  dty.  (Map 
No.  VUI.) 

3.  TVirm'  (tm,  the  emporium  of  the  Greek  towns  of  Italy,  was.  an  important  commsrolal 
city  near  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  the  same  name.  It  stood  on  what  was  formerly  an  isthmus, 
but  wl)ioh  is  now  an  isUnd,  separating  the  gulf  from  an  imier  bay  fifteen  or  sixteen  miles  In 
drcumference.  The  earty  Tarentloes  were  noted  for  their  military  skill  and  prowess,  and  for 
the  cultivation  of  literature  and  the  arts ;  bat  their  wealth  and  abundaoAe  so  enervated  their 
minds  and  bodies,  and  corrupted  their  morals,  that  even  the  neighboring  barbarians,  who  had 
bated  ami  feared,  learned  eventuaUy  to  despise  them.  The  Tarentines  fell  an  easy  prey  to  tha 
Romans,  after  Pyrrhus  had  withdrawn  from  Italy.  (See  p.  150.)  The  modera  town  of  Toranl^ 
,  containing  a  population  of  about  eighteen  thousand  InhabltantSi  oeeapies  the  dte  of  tha  andm 
dty.    (JfrjrNcVIU.) 


OBtf.IV.l  QRSCIAK  0OLOKIS8.  117 

are  knovm  to  qb;  but  m  the  fotorth  centurj  B.  0.  the  Tarentipea 
aland  foremost  among  the  Italian  Greeks. 

13.  During  the  first  two  oentories  after  the  founding  of  Naz'  os  in 
Sicily,  Grecian  settlements  were  extended  over  the  eastern,  southern, 
«nd  western  sides  of  the  island,  while  ^im'  era'  was  the  only  Gre- 
eiAn  town  on  the  northern  coast.'   These  two  hundred  years  were  a 

'  period  of  pro^rity  among  the  Sicilian  Greeks,  who  did  not  yet  ex- 
tend their  residences  oy^  the  island,  but  dwelt  chiefly  in  fortified 
towns,  and  exercised  authority  over  the  surrounding  native  popula- 
tion, which  gradually  became  assimilated  in  mahners,  language,  and 
religion,  to  the  higher  dvilieation  of  the  Greeks.  During  the  sixth 
e«itary  before  the  Ohristian  era,  the  G^reek  eities  in  Sicily  and 
aonthem  Italy  were  among  the  most  powerful  and  flourishing  that 
bore  the  Hellenic  name.  Gela  and  Agrigen'  tum,  on  the  south  side 
of  Sicily,  had  then  become  the  most  prominent  of  the  independent 
Sicilian  goyemments ;  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  we 
find  G61o>  a  despot,  or  self  constituted  ruler  of  the  former  city,  sub- 
jecting other  towns  to  his  authority,  and  iinally  obtaining  possession 
of  Syracuse,  which  he  made  the  seat  of  his  empire,  (485  B.  0.) 
leaving  G^la  to  be  govemed  by  his  brother  Hiero,  the  first  Sicilian 
nder  of  that  name. 

14.  G^lo  strengthened  the  fortifications  and  greatly  enlaiged  the 
limits  of  Syracuse,  while,  to  occupy  the  enlarged  space,  he  dis- 
mantled many  of  the  surrounding  towns,  and  transported  their  inhab- 
itants to  his  new  capital,  which  now  became,  not  only  the  first  city 
in  Sicily,  but,  according  to  Herod'  otus,  superior  to  any  other  Helle- 
nic power;  for  we  are  told  that  when,  in  481  B.  C,  the  Corinthians 
aolicited  aid  from  Gelo  to  resist  the  invasion  of  .Xerxes,  the  Syraou- 
aans  could  offer  twenty  thousand  heavy  armed  soldiers,  and,  in  all,  an 
army  of  thirty  thousand  men,  besides  furnishing  provisions  for  the 
entire  Grecian  host  so  long  as  the  war  might  last ;  but  as  G61o  de- 
manded to  be  constituted  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Greeks  in 
the  war  against  the  Persians,  the  terms  were  not  agreed  to. 

15.  During  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes,  a  formidable  Oar* 
ihaginian  force  under  Hamil'  car,  said  to  consist  of  three  hundred 
thousand  men,  landed  at  Panor'  mus,'  a  Carthaginian  sea-port  on  the 


J.  Bm'  gra  wu  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily,  near  tl>e  month  of  the  rirer  of  the  i 
auM,  one  hundred  and  ten  'miles  nortli-west  from  Syrsouseb   The  modem  town  of  Tmrnimif 
ift  tha  noutit  of  the  rlrer  Leonardo,  oocoplee  the  site  of  the  ancient  d^.    (JO^  No.  VZn.) 

ft  ^MMKiMw,  aappofltfd  to  have  been  flnt  nittlMi  by  PboBDidaai,  via  in  th^  natOtwmtam 


118  AKOIEirr  mSTORT.  IPinl 

BQftlieni  coast  of  the  ialand,  and  proceeded  to  attack  ihe  Gtreek  city 
of  Him' era.  (480  B.  G.)  G6I0,  at  the  head  of  fifty-five  thousand 
men,  marched  to  the  aid  of  his  brethren ;  and  in  a  general  battle 
which  ensned,  the  entire  Carthaginian  force  was  deslrojed,  or  com- 
pelled to  surrender,  Hamil'  car  himself  being  numbered  among  the 
riain.  The  victory  of  Him'  era  procured  for  Sicily  immunity  from 
foreign  war,  while  at  the  same  time  the  defeat  of  Xerxes  at  Sal'  amis 
dispelled  the  terrific  doud  that  overhung  the  Greeks  in  that  quarter. 
16.  On  the  death  of  O6I0,  a  year  after  the  battle  of  Him' era,  the 
government  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  brother  Hiero,  a  man  whose 
many  great  and  noble  qualities  were  alloyed  by  insatiable  cupidity 
and  ambition.  The  power  of  Hiero,  not  inferior  to  that  of  G^lo, 
was  probably  greater  than  that  of  any  other  Gf  ecian  ruler  of  that 
period.  Hiero  aided  the  Greek  cities  of  Italy  against  the  Carthagi- 
nian and  Tyrrii6nian  fleets ;  he  founded  the  city  of  Mf^ih,^  and 
added  other  cities  to  his  government  He  died  after  a  reign  of  ten 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Thrasybdlis,  whose  cruelties 
led  to  his  speedy  dethronement,  which  was  followed,  not  only  by  the 
extinction  of  the  Gel6nian  dynasty  at  Syracuse,  but  by  aQ  extensive 
revolution  in  the  other  Sicilian  cities,  resulting,  after  many  years  of 
civil  dissensions,  in  the  expulsion  of  the  other  despots  who  had  relied 
fbr  protection  on  the  great  despot  of  Syracuse,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  governments  more  or  less  democratical  throughout  the 
island. 
.  17.  The  G^6nian  dynasty  had  stripped  of  their  possessions,  and 
banished,  great  numbers  of  citizens,  whose  places  were  filled  by  for- 
eign mercenaries ;  but  the  popular  revolution  reversed  many  of  these 
procecdmgs,  and  restored  the  exiles ;  although,  in  the  end,  adherents 
of  the  expelled  dynasty  were  allowed  to  settle  partly  in  the  territory 
of  Messdna,  and  partly  in  Kamarina."  After  the  commotions  at- 
tendant on  these  changes  had  subsided,  prosperity  again  dawned  on 


part  of  Sicily,  and  had  a  good  and  capadons  harbor.  It  early  paatad  Into  the  hands  of  the 
Oartha«inlana,  and  was  their  stronghold  In  Magna  Gnaela.  It  Is  now  called  PtUenMt  and  Is 
the  capital  city  and  principal  searport  of  SlcUy,  having  a  popuiatton  of  about  one  hondred  and 
fifty  thoosand  inhabitants.  It  is  bttilt  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  Bay  of  Palenno,  in  a  plain, 
which,  from  its  luxuriance,  and  fhym  Its  being  surrounded  by  mountains  on  three  sides,  has 
been  termed  the  »  golden  shdl,*'  eonca  d*  <nv.    {Map  No.  VIIT.) 

1.  JEV  noy  flnt  called  liUtgut^  Was  a  small  town  on  the  southern  declivity  of  Mount  JEi'  na, 
near  Oat' ana.   The  aivlent  site,  now  marfcedwith  ruins,  bears  ihe  name  Ckutro,  {Map  Ko, 

vin.) 

9.  Kamarina  was  on  the  southern  ccaat,  about  fifty  miles  south^wect  fhua  Syracuse^  and 
twenty  miles  southHsaat  Awt  f 


Cstf.ir.]  C^REOXAK  OOLONlSa  119 

Sicily,  and  the  sabaeqaent  period  of  more  than  fifty  years,  to  the 
^me  of  ^e  /^Ider  Dionjsins,  has  been  deisoribcd  as  by  far  the  best 
and  happiest  portion  of  Sicilian  history. 

18.  At  the  time  of  the  •breaking  out  of  the  Peloponn6sian  war, 
431  B.  C,  Syracuse  was  the  foremost  of  the  Sicilian  cities  in  power 
and  resources.  Agrigen'  turn  was  but  little  inferior  to  her,  while  in  her 
foreign  commerce  and  her  public  jnonuments  the  latter  was  not  sur- 
passed by  any  Grecian  city  of  that  age.  In  the  great  Peloponn^sian 
struggle,  the  Ion'  ic  cities  of  Sicily,  few  in  number,  very  naturally 
sympathized  with  Athens,  and  .the  D6rian  cities  with  Sparta;  and  in 
^e  fifth  year  of  the  war  we  find  the  Ion'  ic  cities  soliciting  Athens 
fi:>r  aid  against  Syracuse  and  her  allies.  Successive  expeditions  were 
sent  <mt  by  Athens,  and  soon  nearly  all  Sicily  was  involved  in  the 
war,  when  at  length,  in  424  B.  CL,  a  congress  of  the  Sicilian  cities 
decided  upon  a  general  peace  among  themselves,  to  the  great  dissat- 
isfaction of  the  Athenians,  who  were  abeady  anticipating  important 
conquests  on  the  island. 

19.  A  few  years  later,  (417  B.  C.,)  a  quarrel  broke  out  between 
the  neighboring  Sicilian  cities  Selinus  and  Eges'  ta,^  the  latter  of 
which,  although  not  of  Grecian  origin,  had  formerly  been  m  alliance 
with  Athens.  Selinus  was  aided  by  the  Sjracusans ;  and  Eges'  ta 
applied  to  Athens  for  assistance,  making  false  representations  of  her 
own  resources,  and  enlarging  upon  the  dangers  to  be  apprehended 
from  Syracusan  aggrandizement  as  a  source  of  strength  to  Sparta. 
The  Athenian  Nic'ias,  most  earnestly  opposed  any  farther  interven- 
tion in  Sicilian  affairs ;  but  the  counsels  of  Alcibiades  prevailed, 
and  in  the  summer  of  415  B.  C,  the  largest  armament  th^t  had  ever 
left  a  Grecian  port  sailed  on  the  most  distant  enterprize  that  Athens 
had  ever  undertaken,  under  the  command  of  three  generals,  Nic'  ias. 
Lam'  achus,  and  Alcibiades ;  but  the  latter  was  recaUed  soon  after 
the  fleet  had  reached  Cat' ana,'  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island. 


1.  SeHmw  wis  a  flovlahlng  dty  of  moro  than  thirty  thousand  Inhabitant!,  on  the  toutbern 
■bore  or  the  W08t«ni  part  of  the  island.  Ito  ruina  may  still  be  seen  near  what  ta  called  TVrra 
A'  PMwu.  Eget'  ta,  called  by  the  Romans  Segesta,  was  on  the  northern  coast,  near  the 
modem  AUnto.  Selinus  and  Ege«'  ta  were  engaged  in  almost  continual  wars  with  each  other. 
After  the  Athenian  expedition  the  EgesUns  called  to  their  assistance  the  Oarthaginlans,  who 
IooIl,  plundered,  and  nearly  destroyed  Selinus;  but  Eges' ta,  under  Oarthaginian  rule,expe> 
rlcDCed  a  Ihte  but  lltUe  better.    (JITap  No.  VIII.) 

%  Cat'  ana,  now  Catania  was  at  the  southern  base  of  Mount  MV  na,  thirty-two  milea  north 
thmi  Syracuse.  The  distance  from  the  city  to  the  summit  of  the  mountain  was  ttiirty  miles. 
ObtAnia  haa  been  rqMatedly  destroyed  by  earthqoakea,  and  by  torrents  of  Uqnld  Are  fh>m  the 
neisbto  nog  Tolcano ;  but  it  has  risen  like  the  ihbled  phcsolz»  mora  aplandid  tma  Its  «riM% 


120  AKOmiT  mSTORT.  [Pa»]. 

20.  From  Gafftaa  Nic'iM  sailed  uooxid  tke  nortlieni  ootst  to 
Eges'  ta,  whence  he  inarched  the  land  forces  back  throng  the  island 
to  Cat'  ana,  haTing  achieved  nothing  hut  the  acqaisition  of  a  few  in* 
significant  towns,  while  the  Sjraoosans  improved  the  time  in  making 
I^^arations  to  receive  the  invaders.  At  length,  about  the  last  of 
October,  Nic'  ias  sailed  with  his  whole  force  to  Syracose  defeated 
the  Syracusans  in  the  battle  which  followed — and  then  went  into 
winter  quarters  at  Nax'  oe ;  but  in  the  spring  he  returned  to  his 
former  station  at  Gat'  ana,  soon  after  which  he  commenced  a  regular 
fii^  of  Syracuse. 

21.  In  a  battle  which  was  fought  on  the  grounds  south  of  the  city, 
towards  the  river  Anapus,  Lam'  achus  was  slain,  althov^  the  Athe- 
nians were  victorious.  Nic'  ias  oontinn^  to  push  forward  his  suc- 
cesses, and  Syracuse  was  on  the  point  of  surrendering,  when  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Spartan  general  Gylip'pus  at  ojnoe  changed  the  fortune 
of  war,  and  the  Athenians  were  soon  riiut  up  in  tiieir  own  lines. 

22.  At  the  solicitation  of  Nic'  ias  a  large  reenforcement,  commanded 
by  the  Athenian  general  Demosthenes,  was  sent  to  his  assistance  in 
the  spring  of  413;  but  at  the  same  time  tiie  Spartans  reenforced 
Gylip'pus,  and,  in  addition,  sent  out  a  force  to  ravage  At'tica. 
During  the  summer  many  battles,  both  on  land  and  in  the  harbor  of 
Syracuse,  were  fought  by  the  opposing  forces,  in  nearly  all  of  which 
the  Syracusans  and  their  allies  were  victorious ;  and,  in  the  end,  the 
entire  Athenian  force  in  Sicily,  numbering  at  the  time  not  less  than 
forty  thousand  men,  was  destroyed.  "  Never  in  Grecian  history," 
says  Thucyd'  ides,  "  had  ruin  so  complete  and  sweeping,  or  victory 
so  glorious  and  unexpected,  been  witnessed.'' 

23.  Soon  after  the  termination  of  the  contest  between  the  Athe- 
nians and  Syracusans,  the  Carthaginians  again  sought  an  opportunity 
of  invading  the  island,  and  estabUi^ed  themselves  over  ito  enture 
western  half;  but  they  were  ably  resisted  by  Dionysins  the  Mder, 
"  tyrant  of  Syracuse,"  who  was  proclaimed  chief  of  the  republic 
about  405  B.  C. ;  and  it  was  owing  to  his  exertions  that  any  part 
of  the  island  was  saved  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  . 
It  was  at  length  agreed  that  the  river  Him' era'  should  form. the 
limit  between  the  Grecian  territories  on  the  east  and  the  Carthagi- 

■nd  it  atin  a  baanUftil  citf.  The  slraeto  an  paved  with  Utb  ;  and  hmuM,  palMes,  chiindMi, 
«d  QOttvenls,  am  baUt  of  It  Kemalu  of  ancient  templee,  aqaeduela,  ImUm,  *&,  tn  nvatK" 
wm.   The  environs  are  flvitftil,  and  weUealtlfated.    (Map  Vo.  VUl.) 

1.  The  river  Mim'$n  iMre  nenUoned,  now  tlie  Sk^o^  ftUfe  Into  the  : 
MaiiMniocNMlktotlioiifMefaaiB.   (JK^KaVOL) 


<fB*p.fv.]  ORTCIAN  COLOIOES.  121 

nian  dependencies  on  the  west ;  but  the  peace  was  soon  broken  bj 
the  Carthaginians,  who,  amid  the  civil  dissensions  of  the  Greeks^ 
sought  every  opportunity  of  extending  their  dominion  over  the  entire 
island.  , 

24.  Subsequently  the  aspiring  power  of  Carthage  was  checked  by , 
Timoleon',  and  afterwards  by  Agath'ocles.  The  former,  a  Corinthian 
by  birth,  having  made  himself  master  of  the  almost  deserted  Syra- 
cuse, about  the  year  340  B.  C,  restored  it  to  some  degree  of  its 
former  glory.  He  defeated  the  Carthaginians  in  a  great  battle,  and 
established  the  affairs  of  government  on  so  firm  a  basis  that  tlie 
whole  of  Sicily  continued,  many  years  after  his  death,  in  unusual 
quiet  and  prosperity.  Agath'  ocles  usurped  the  sovereignty  of  Syra* 
cuse  by  the  murder  of  several  thousand  of  its  principal  citizens  in 
the  year  317  B.  C.  He  maintained  his  power  twenty-eight  years. 
Having  been  defeated  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  being  besieged  in 
Syracuse,  with  a  portion  of  his  army  he  passed  over  to  Africa,  where 
he  sustained  himself  during  four  years.  In  the  year  306  he  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  the  Carthaginians.  He  died  by  poison,  289  B.  C, 
leaving  his  influence  in  Sicily  acid  southern  Italy  to  his  son-in-law, 
the  tamoxis  Pyr'  rhus,  king  of  Ef^ftus.  After  the  death  of  A^ath'- 
ocles,  the  Carthaginians  gained  a  decided  ascendancy  in  Sicily,  when 
the  Romans,  alarmed  by  the  movements  of  so  powerful  a  neighbor, 
and  being  invited  over  to  the  assistance  of  a  portion  of  the  people 
of  Messdna,  commenced  the  first  Punic  war,  (265  B.  C.,)  and  after  a 
struggle  of  twenty-four  years  made  themselves  masters  of  the  whole 
of  Sicily, — ^nearly  a  hundred  years  before  the  reduction  of  Greece 
itself  to  a  Roman  province. 

25.  On  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  within  the  district  of  the 
modem  Barca,  the  important  Grecian  colony  of  Cyreniica^  was 
planted   by   Lacedsemonian    settlers  from   Thera,*  an        ,y, 
island  of  the  iB'gaen,  about  the  year  630  B.  C.     Its  craiNA'icA. 
chief  city,  Cyrene,  was  about  ten  miles  from   the  sea,  having  a 
sheltered  port  called  Apollonia,  itself  a  considerable  town.     Over 

•the  Libyan  tribes  between  the  borders  of  Egypt  and  the  Great 
Desert,  the  Cyreneans  exercised  an  ascendancy  similar  to  that  which 
Carthage  possessed  over  the  tribes  farther  westward.  About  the 
year  550  B.  C,  one  of  the  neighboring  Libyan  kings,  finding  the 
Cheeks  rapidly  encroaching  upon  his  territories,  declared  himself 

L  C|rrMUiM»  Bee  p.  TD.       ' 

%  TUrtf  mam  «Mtori«,  Mooged  to  the  doHa  eelled  tbe  J^niu,   (JKy  ITg^  ID.) 


r 


ndbjaet  «o  Egypi^  wben  a  large  Bgyptian  army  marofaed  to  lua  assist- 
•Boe,  but  tko  EgjpiiaDB  experienced  so  eomplete  a  defeat  that  few 
ef  them  e^er  retomed  to  their  own  ooontry.  We  find  that  the  next 
Egyptian  king,  Amisis,  married  a  Cyrenean. 

26.  Soon  after  the  defeat  of  the  Egyptians,  the  tyranny  of  the 
Oyrenean  king,  Agesilins,  led  to  a  rerolt  among  his  subjecta,  who^ 
being  joined  by  some  of  the  neighboring  tribes,  founded  Uie  city  of 
Bar'  ea,  about  seventy  miles  to  the  westward  of  Cyrene.  In  the 
war  whkk  followed,  a  great  battle  was  fought  with  the  allies  of  Bar'  ca, 
in  which  Agenlius  was  defeated,  and  seven  thousand  of  his  men  were 
left  dead  on  the  field.  The  successor  of  AgesiUus  was  deposed  fnmx 
the  kingly  dfioe  by  the  people,  who,  in  imitation  of  the  Athenians, 
then  established  a  republican  government,  (543  B.  €.,)  under  the  di- 
rection of  ]>em6nax,  a  wise  legislator  of  Mantin^a.  But  the  son  of 
the  deposed  monarch,  having  obtained  assistance  from  the  people  of 
Simos,  regained  the  throne  of  Gyrene,  about  the  time  that  the  Per- 
nan  prince  Camby'ses  conquered  Egypt  Both  the  Cyrenean  and 
the  Barean  prinoe  sent  their  submission  to  tlie  great  conqueror.  Soon 
after  this  event  the  Persian  satrap  of  Egypt  sent  a  large  force  against 
Bar'  ea,  whidi  was  taken  by  perfidy,  and  great  numbers  of  the  in* 
habitants  were  carried  away  into  Persian  slavery. 

27.  At  a  later  period,  Oyr6ne  and  Bar'  ca  fell  under  the  power  of 
the  Oarthagmia^ '  they  subsequently  formed  a  dependency  of  Egypt ; 
send  in  the  year  76  B.  0.,  they  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a 
Roman  province.  Gyrtoe  was  the  birth-place  of  the  poet  Callim'- 
achus ;  of  Bratos'  thenes  the  geographer,  ajitronomer,  and  mathema- 
tician ;  and  of  Oam^ades  the  sophist  Cyrenean  Jews  were  present 
at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  pentecost :  it  was  Simon,  a  Cyrenean 
Jew,  whom  the  soldiers  oempelled  to  bear  the  Saviour^s  cross ;  and 
Christian  Jews  of  Cj^^ne  were  among  the  first  preachers  of  Chris- 
tianity to  the  Greeks  of  Antioch.  (Matthew,  xxviL  32 :  Mark,  xt. 
21 :  Acts,  ii  10 :  vL  9 :  XL  2a) 


<3w  7.]  tMlUK  BIUX^T.  U3 


CHAPTER  y. 

ROMAN  HISTORY: 

ISOM  TBI  VOmrDlKQ  OF  BOMS,  758  B.  C,  TO  THf  OONQUESTB  OV  OESXOB  AND 
OABTBAGX,  146  B.  0.  =  607  TXAB5. 

SECTION   I. 
XMLT  iVAUr:  BQMX  DNDift  KBX  kibob:  xMMKa  610  ■.  a 

AVALTfflB.  L  Italt— names  and  cocte&t  of/— ^  MoontatDa,  and  (Mtle  plaitia.— 3.  Climate^^ 
4.  Prfadpal  Statoa  and  trlbec^--<8L  Ost  earlieat  iafbniiation  of  Italj.  E'lrnacaD  civilization. 
Clbe  Etnucaiw.  The  Tlber.]-^  Bootbern  Italy  and  Sicily  colonized  by  Greeks.  The  rise  of 
Borne,  between  the  EtruseaDS  on  the  one  side  and  the  Creelu  on  the  other.— 7.  Sources  and 
chandar  of  early  Bonm  hlatoty^-a  Tbe  Roman  legeoda,  down  to  the  fooixllng  of  Alba.- 
[Lavin'iam  L4tlam.  iUba.)^9.  The  Roman  legends  conilnned,  ^wn  to  the  saving  ol 
Bom'  nloa  and  R^mos.— 10.  To  the  death  of  Amu'  llus.— U.  Augiules  for  selecting  the  site  and 
aaoM  of  a  efty.—lS.  The  Fovmiiiia  ow  Romk.  [Description  of  Aneient  and  Modem  Rome.]—. 
JA.  filnitagnm  oTRomulttS  to  procure  wivea  for  his  followers.  [Sabinea.}— 14.  War  with  thb 
Sabiiiks.  Treachery  and  fhte  of  Tarp^ia.— IS.  Reconciliation  and  union  of  the  Sabines  and 
Bomana.  Death  of  TuUlns.  [Laurentinea.]— 16.  The  interretaing  period,  to  the  death  of 
Bom'Qina.   DealbofRoni'iilas. 

17.  Rnle  of  the  senators.  Election  of  Nuva,  the  9d  king.  His  Institutions,  and  death. 
tfAnna.}— IflL  Reign  of  Tul'  livs  Hostil'ios,  the  3d  king,  and  first  dawn  of  historic  tmtb.-^ 
1ft  Jieceod  of  the  Horfctfi  and  OarUtlLr-ao.  Tragic  death  of  Horitla.  Submladon,  treachery, 
and  removal  of  the  Albans.  Death  of  Tul'  lias.— 81.  The  reign  of  An'  ous  Mar'  tius,  the  4th 
king.  [Oflda.]— 8S.  Tarqcin  tbk  Eldrr,  the  5th  king.  His  origin.  Unanimously  called  to 
tto  IteOBB^  CIteqiibi'  U.JHO.  Hia  wars.  Uto  pnbUc  worics.  His  daith.-«4.  8br'  vids 
Tin.'  uvs,  the  6(h  king.  Legends  concerning  him.  Wars,  &;c.— 25.  Division  of  the  people 
Into  oentmlea.  Federal  nnion  with  the  Latins.  Administration  of  Justice,  &c— 26.'  Displeas* 
VM  «f  Ibe  paMdam,  and  moider  of  Serviiis.--S7.  The  reign  of  Tabquxk  tb^  ^roud,  the  7th 
king.  His  reign  disturbed  by  dreams  and  prodigies.— 28.  Tbe  dispute  between  Sextns,  hie 
brothers,  and  CoUatinus.  How  settled.  [Ardea  Coll&tia,}— 29.  The  story  of  Lucretia,  and 
fcinliknaent  ofthe  TtsrqBins. 

1.  Italt,  known  in  ancient  times  by  the  names  Hespena,  Ausonia, 
Satur'  nia,  and  <En6tfiay  comprises  the  whole  of  the  central  penin- 
sula of  southern  Eorope,  extending  from  the  Alps  ii/a  i.  ttalt. 
southern  direction  nearly  seven  hundred  and  seventy  miles,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  about  three  hundred  and  eighty  miles  in  north- 
em  Italy,  to  less  than  eighty  near  its  centre. 

%  The  mountains  of  Italy  are  the  Alps  on  its  northwestern  bound- 
ary, and  the  Apennines,  which  latter  pass  through  the  peninsula  nearly 
in  its  centre,  and  send  off  numerous  branches  on  both  sides.  They 
•!•  BiQoh  Laos  ragged  than  tibe  Alps,  and  abound  in  riob  forests  and 


IM  AXOIBXT  mBTmT.  [PavI 

pasture  land.  But  though  for  the  most  part  moimtamoiiB,  Italy,  has 
Bome  plains  of  considerable  extent  and  extraordinary  fertility.  Of 
these  the  most  extensive,  and  the  richest,  is  that  of  Lombardy  in  the 
north,  watered  by  the  ri^er  Po  and  its  nnmeroos  branches,  embrac- 
ing an  area  of  aboat  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  t?renty  miles,  and  now 
containing  a  vast  number  of  cities.  The  next  great  plain  stretches 
along  the  western  coast  of  central  Italy  about  two  hundred  miles^ 
from  the  river  Amo  in  Tuscany,  to  Terraeina,  sixty  miles  south-east 
from  Rome.  Although  this  plain  was  once  celebrated  for  its  fertility, 
and  was  highly  cultivated  and  populous,  it  is  now  comparatively  a 
desert,  a  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of  fnalariay  which  inleots 
these  districts  to  such  an  extent  as  to  reader  them  at  certain  portions 
of  the  year  all  but  uninhabitable.  The  third  great  plain  (the  Aptk- 
lian)  lies  along  the  eastern  coast,  towards  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  peninsula,  and  includes  the  territory  occupied  by  the  ancient 
Daimians  Peuc^tians,  and  Messipians.  A  great  portion  of  this  plain 
has  a  sandy  and  thirsty  soil,  and  is  occupied  mostly  as  pasture  land 
in  winter.  The  plain  of  Naples^  on  the  western  coast,  is  highly  fer- 
tile, and  densely  peopled. 

3.  The  climate  of  Italy  is  in  general  delightful,  the  excennve 
heats  of  summer  being  moderated  by  the  influence  of  the  mountuns 
and  the  surrounding  seas,  while  the  cold  of  winter  is  hardly  ever 
extreme.  In  the  Neapolitan  provinces,  which  lie  in  the  latitude  of 
central  and  southern  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  snow  is  rare,  and 
the  finest  fruits  are  found  in  the  valleys  throughout  the  wmter.  At 
the  very  southern  extremity  of  Italy,  which  is  in  the  latitude  of 
Richmond,  Virginia,  the  thermometer  never  falls  to  the  freezing 
point.  From  a  variety  of  circumstances  it  appears  that  the  dimate 
of  Italy  has  undergone  a  considerable  change,  and  that  the  winters 
axe  now  less  cold  than  formerly ;  although  probably  the  summer- 
heat  was  much  the  same  in  ancient  times  as  At  present. 

4.  The  principal  States  of  ancient  Italy  were  Oisal'piae  Gaul, 
Etruria,  Um'bria,  Picenum,  Litium,  Campania,  Sam'nium,  AptUia,. 
Caldbria,  Lucdnia,  and  Bruti6rum  A'ger, — the  situation  of  which, 
together  with  the  names  of  the  principal  tribes  that  inhabited  them, 
may  be  learned  irom  the  map  of  Ancient  Italy  accompanying  this 
volume.     (See  Maps  Nos.  VIII.  and  X.) 

5.  The  earliest  reliable  information  that  we  possess  of  Italy  rep- 
resents the  country  in  th^  possession  of  numerous  indflpendent  tribss, 


ChiT  Y.]  BbMAK  HBTORT.  125 

aianj  of  iduoh,  espeeially  those  in  the  soathera  part  of  the  pemnsula, 
were,  like  the  early  Grecians,  of  Pelas'  gic  origin.  Of  these  tribes,  the 
Etrnrftns  or  Etms'  oans,^  inhabiting  the  western  coaste  aboye  the 
Tiber,*  were  the  most  important;  as  it  appears  that,  before  the 
foonding  of  Rome,  thej  had  attained  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
power  and  civilisation ;  and  two  oentories  after  that  event  they  were 
masters  of  the  oommerce  of  the  western  Mediterranean.  Many 
works  of  art  attributed  to  them  still  exist,  in  the  walls  of  cities,  in 
Tast  dikes  to  reclaim  lands  from  the  sea,  and  in  subterranean  tunnels 
cot  l^ugh  the  sides  of  hills  to  let  off  the  lakes  which  had  formed  hi 
the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes. 

6.  It  appears  that  during  the  height  of  Etrus'  can  power  in  Italy,  • 
the  southern  portions  of  the  peninsula,  together  with  Sicily,  jfirst 
began  to  be  colonized  by  Grecians,  who  formed  settlements  at  Camaa 
and  Neap'  olis,  as  early  as  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  at  Taren'  turn,  Crot6na,  Nax'  os,  and  Syracuse, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century ;  and  such  eventuall^%e- 
came  the  nxmiber  of  the  Grecian  colonies  that  all  southern  Italy, 
in  eonnection  with  Sicily,  received  the  name  of  Magna  Grecia.  (See 
p.  115.)  But  while  the  old  Etriirian  civilization  remained  nearly 
stationary,  fettered,  as  in  ancient  Egypt,  by  the  sway  of  a  sacerdotal 
easle,  whose  privileges  descended  by  inheritance, — and  while  the 
Greek  colonies  were  dividing  and  weakening  their  power  by  allowing 
to  every  city  an  independent  sovereignty  of  its  own,  there  arose  on 
the  western  coast,  betwe^i  the  Etrus'  eans  on  the  one  side  and  the 
Gkeeks  on  the  other,  the  small  commonwealth  of  Rome,  whose  power 
ere  long  eclipsed  that  of  all  its  rivals,  and  whose  dominion  was  des- 
tined, eventually,  to  overshadow  the  world. 

L  Hm  EtritrUns,  or  Etrtu'  ean$y  were  the  Inhabltaots  of  Etruria^  a  celebratod  country  ot 
Half,  ly&s;  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Tiber.  They  were  farther  advanced  in  civilizalion 
ttum  any  of  their  Eoropean  cotemporariea,  except  the  Greeks,  but  their  origin  Is  involved  in 
dMcarity,  and  of  their  early  histopy  little  is  known,  as  their  writings  have  long  since  perished,  and 
tbdr  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  on  brass  are  utterly  unintelligible.     {Maps  Jfos.  Vlfl.  and  X.) 

%  The  river  Tiher^  called  by  the  ancient  Latins  Albula^  and  by  the  Greeks  TJiijmbris,  the 
OMMt  eelebrated,  though  not  the  largest  river  of  Italy,  rises  in  the  Tuscan  Apennines,  and  hai 
a  general  southerly  course  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  until  it  reaches  Rome,  when  it 
tarns  soutb-weat,  and  enten  the  Mediterranean  by  two  mouths,  seventeen  milos  fW>m  Rome, 
temUnattng  in  a  mUrshy  pestiferous  tract.  Its  waters  have  a  yellowish  hue,  being  discolored 
by  ihe  mod  with  which  they  are  loaded.  Anciently  the  Tiber  was  capable  of  receiving  vessels 
of  eoosklerable  burden  at  Rome,  and  small  boats  to  wilhln  a  short  distance  of  iu  source,  but 
tbe  flotraace  of  the  river  Arom  the  sea,  and  ita.aub«eqneut  navigaUon,  have  become  so  difficult, 
that  the  harbor  of  OsUa  at  iU  mouth  has  long  been  relinquished,  and  Cioita  Fteekia  is  now 
tii0  port  of  Rome,  although  at  the  distance  of  thirty-aix  miles  north,  with  which  it  is  coimecled 
BtybyaioadL    (Afiyia  Xqb.  VUL  and  X.) 


IM  AXOtSST  HffinOBT.  ^         tPMtut 

7.  What  hifltoriani  hare  related  of  liie  fbundiiig  of  Rome,  and  of 
tbe  first  ooDtory,  at  least,  of  its  existenoe^  has  heen  drawn  fh>m 
Dnmeroiis  traditionary  legends,  known,  from  their  eharader,  to  be 
mostly  fabuloos,  and  has  therefuv  no  valid  elsims  to  anflietttieity. 
Still  it  is  proper  to  relate,  as  an  introduction  to  what  is  better  known, 
the  story  most  accredited  by  the  Romans  fhemselres,  and  contained 
In  their  earliest  writings,  while  at  the  same  time  we  express  tiie 
opinion  that  it  has  little  or  no  foundation  in  trath > 

8.  The  Roman  legends  state  l^at,  immediately  after  the  MI  of 
Troy,  Mn^,  a  celebrated  Trojan  wairior,  escaping  from  his  ^Moted 
coantiy,  after  seven  years  of  wanderii^  aarrived  on  the  western  coast 
of  Italy,. where  he  established  a  colony  of  his  oomntrymen)  and  bnilt 
the  city  of  Lavin'  iom.'  From  Latfnns,  a  king  of  the  coontry,  whom 
he  had  slain  in  battle,  and  whoso  subjects  he  incorporated  witii  his 
own  followers,  the  onited  people  were  called  Laiini  or  LaHns,  and 
their  coontry  LdHttm,*  Afber  the  li^se  of  thirty  years,  which  were 
ocApied  mostly  in  wars  with  neighboring  tribes,  ^  Latins,  now  in- 
creased  to  thirty  hamlets,  removed  their  capital  to  Alba,'  a  new  city 
which  they  bailt  on  the  Alban  Mcmit,  and  which  continued  to  be  the 
head  of  the  confederate  people  during  three  centuries. 

9.  The  old  Roman  legends  go  on  to  state,  that,  at  an  nncertaiii 
date,  Prdcas,  king  ef  Alba,  left  two  sons  at  his  death,  and  that 
Ni\mitor  the  elder,  being  weak  and  spiritless,  suffered  Amtllius  the 
younger  to  wrest  the  government  from  him,  to  murder  the  only  son, 
and  to  consecrate  the  daughter  of  his  brother  to  the  service  of  ^e  . 
temple,  in  the  character  of  a  vestal  virgin.  But  the  attempts  of 
Amviltus  to*  remove  all  claimants  of  the  throne  were  fruitless,  fbr 
Syr  via,  the  daughter  of  Niimitor,  became  the  mother  of  twin  sons, 

• 

I.  Lttvin'  ittfR,  a  city  of  L&tittm,  was  abont  eli^teen  mHei  aonfh  of  Rome.  11k*«modem 
Tillage  of  PnuticOf  aboat  three  miles  from  the  ooMt,  Is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  tha 
ancient  citj.    (Mapt  Nos.  VIII.  and  X.) 

S.  Ancient  Ldtium  extended  (Vom  the  Tiber  southward  along  the  coast  about  fifty  miles,  to 
the  Clrcssan  promontory.  It  was  afterwards  extended  farther  south  to  the  rlrer  LIris,  and  at  a 
itlU  later  period  to  the  Vultumus.  The  early  inhabitants  of  L&tlum  were  the  Latins^  (also  a 
general  term  applied  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  L&tlum,)  Rntulians,  Hemiclans^  and  Volsbiana. 
{Maps  Nos.  VIII.  and  X.) 

3.  Mba  appears  to  have  beon  about  fifteen  miles  south-east  from  Romeuon  the  eastern  shora 
of  the  Alban  lake,  and  on  the  western  declivity  of  the  Alban  Mount  The  modem  TlUa  of 
Palazzuolo  is  supposed  to  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  Alban  city.    (Map  No.  Z.) 

a.  **  The  Trojan  legend  is  doubtless  a  home  sprung  fable,  having  not  the  least  hlstorfeil  tmth| 
nor  even  tlie  slightest  historical  Importance."— Nlebuhr^  Rom.  Hist.,  I.  p.  107. 

**  Niebttbr  has  shown  the  oariy  history  of  Rome  to  be  unworthy  of  credit,  and  mad*  it  bnpQS* 
rible  for  any  one  to  rerlTe  the  old  belief.^*— Antbon'B  Oaa.  Diet. ;  aitiele  Roma. 


CBif.T.]  SOMAN  HI8T0RY.  197 

Bom'  ulna  and  R6mn8,  by  Mars,  tiie  god  of  war.  AmdHnfl  ordered 
tiiait  tlie  mother  and  her  babes  should  be  drowned  in  the  Tiber ;  but 
while  8jV  via  perished,  the  infants,  placed  in  a  cradle  of  rushes,  float- 
ed to  the  shore,  where  they  were  fonnd  by  a  she  wolf,  which  carried 
them  to  her  den,  and  nursed  them  as  her  own  offspring. 

10.  After  awhile  the  children  were  discovered  by  the  wife  of  a 
shepherd,  who  took  them  to  her  cotti^e  on  the  Palatine  hill,  where 
they  grew  np  with  her  twelve  sons, — and  being  the  stoutest  and 
bravest  of  the  shepherd  lad*,  they  became  their  leaders  in  every 
wild  foray,  and  finally  the  heads  of  rival  Actions — ^ihe  followers  of 
Rom' alas  being  called  Quinctil'  ii,  and  those  of  Remus  Fdbii.  At 
length  Remus  having  been  seized  and  dragged  to  Alba  as  a  robber, 
the  secret  of  the  royal  parentage  of  the  youths  was  made  known  to 
Rom'  ulna,  who  armed  a  band  of  his  comrades  and  rescued  R^mufl 
from  danger.  The  broU|ers  then  slew  the  king  Amt!kHus,  and  the 
people  of  Alba  again  became  subject  to  Ndmitor. 

11.  Rom'ulus  and  R6mus  next  obtamed  permission  from  their 
grandfather  to  build  a  city  for  themselves  and  their  followers  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tiber ;  but  as  they  disputed  about  the  location  and 
name  of  the  city,  each  desiring  to  call  it  after  his  own  name,  they 
agreed  to  settle  their  disputes  by  auguries.  Each  took  his  station 
at  midnight  on  his  chosen  hill,  Rom'ulus  on  the  Pal'atine,  and 
R6mus  on  the  Av'  entine,  and  there  awaited  the  omens.  R4mus 
had  the  first  augury,  and  saw  six  vultures  flying  from  north  to  south ; 
but  scarcely  were  the  tidings  brought  to  Rom'ulus  when  a  flock  of 
twelve  vultures  flew  past  the  latter.  Each  claimed  the  victory,  but 
the  party  of  Rom'  ulus,  being  the  stronger,  confirmed  tie  authority 
of  their  leader. 

12.  Rom'  ulus  then  proceeded  to  mark  out  the  limits  of  the  eity 
by  cuttmg  a  furrow  round  the  foot  of  the  Pal'  atine  hill,  which  he 
inclosed,  on  the  line  thus  drawn,  with  a  wall  and  ditch,  n.  fodndikq 
But  scarcely  had  the  walls  begun  to  rise  above  the  sup-  o»  *oMa. 
face,  when  R^mus,  still  resenting  the  wrong  he  had  suffered,  insult- 
ingly leaped  over  the  puny  rampart,  and  was  immediately  slain, 
either  by  Rom'  ulus  or  one  of  his  followers.  His  death  was  regard- 
ed as  an  omen  that  no  one  should  cross  the  walls  but  to  his  destruc^ 
tion.  Soon  the  slight  defences  were  completed,  and  a  thousand  rude 
huts  marked  the  beginning  of  the  "  eternal  city  Rom:,'"  within  whose 

1.  8MdMerlpttoDorBoiM|M9e58SaiMilUpblfo»X 


128  AirCIENT^  HISTORY.  [Pin  I 

limits  strangers  from  every  land,  exiles,  and  even  oriminmis,  and 
fugitives  from  justice,  found  an  asylum.  The  date  usually  assigned 
for  the  founding  of  the  city  is  the  753d  year  before  the  Christian  era. 

13.  But  the  Romans^  as  we  most  now  call  the  dwellers  on  the 
Par  atine,  were  without  wives;  and  the  neighboring  tribes  scorn* 
fully  declined  intermarriages  with  this  rude  and  dangerous  horde. 
After  peaceful  measures  had  failed,  Rom'  ulus  resorted  to  stratageoL 
He  proclaimed  a  great  festival ;  and  the  neighborbg  people,  es- 
pecially the  Lat'  ins  and  Sdbines,*  came  in  numbers,  with  their 
wives  and  daughters,  to  witness  the  ceremonies ;  but  while  they  were 
intent  on  the  spectacle,  the  Roman  youths  rushed  in,  and  forcibly 
bore  off  the  maidens,  to  become  wives  of  the  captors. 

14.  War  followed  this  outrage,  and  the  forces  of  three  Latin 
cities,  which  had  taken  up  arms  without  concert,  were  successively 
defeated.     At  last  the  Sdbine  king,  Titus  Tatius,  brought  a  power- 

m.  wAa  ^^  army  against  Rome,  "which  rlom'  ulus  was  unable  to 
WITH  THK  resist  in  the  open  field,  and  he  therefore  retreated  to 
BA*  BXKia.^  |.jj^  Q^^j^  ^jjQg  j^g  fortified  and  garrisoned  the  Gapitoline 
hill,  over  against  the  Pal'  atine  on  the  north,  intrusting  the  command 
of  it  to  one  of  his  most  faithful  officers.  But  Tarpeia,  the  daughter 
of  the  commander,  dazzled  by  the  golden  bracelets  of  the  Sibines, 
agreed  to  open  a  gate  of  the  fortress  to  the  enemy  on  condition  that 
they  should  give  her  what  they  bore  on  their  left  arms — ^meaning 
their  golden  ornaments.  Accordingly  the  gate  was  opened,  but  the 
traitress  expiated  her  crimes  by  her  death ;  for  the  Sibines  over- 
whelmed her  with  their  shields  as  they  entered,  these  also  being 
carried  on  their  left  arms.  To  this  day  Roman  peasants  believe 
that  in  the  heart  of  the  Gapitoline  hill  the  fair  Tarpeia  is  still  sitting, 
bound  by  a  spell,  and  covered  with  the  gold  and  jewels  of  the  Si- 
bines. 

15.  The  S4bines  next  tried  in  vain  to  storm  the  city,  and.Rom'- 
ulus  made  equally  fruitless  attempts  to  recover  the  fortress  which  he 
had  lost  While  both  parties  thus  maintained  their  positions,  the 
Sabine  women,  now  reconciled  to  their  lot,  and  no  longer  wishing  for 
revenge,  but  for  a  recoiftiliation  between  their  parents  and  husbands, 
rushed  in  between  the  combatants,  and  by  earnest  supplications  in- 

1.  The  territory  of  Uie  SAbinu  laj  to  the  north-east  of  Rome.  At  the  time  whea  Ita  limita 
were  most  clearly  defined  it  was  separated  from  L&tiura  on  the  south  by  the  river  Anio,  from 
Etruria  by  the  Tiber,  IVom  Umbria  by  the  river  Nar,  and  ttom  Piceuum  on  the  east  by  Um 
Apennines,    (.tfapf  Noe.  VUL  and  X«) 


Our.T.]  BOMAV  HISTORT.  129 

doced  ihem  to  agfee  to  a  suspension  of  hostilities,  which  terminated 
in  a  treaty  of  peace.  The  Sibines  and  Romans  were  henceforth  to 
form  one  nation,  having  a  common  religion,  and  Rom'ulus  and 
TAtius  were  to  reign  jointly.  Not  long  after,  Tatius  was  slain  by 
some  Lanrentines'  on  the  occasion  of  a  national  sacrifice  at  Lavin^ 
ium,  and  henceforward  Rom'  nlus  ruled  over  both  nations. 

16.  At  this  point  in  Roman  history,  remarks  Niebuhr,  the  old 
Roman  legend,  oi  poetic  lay^  is  suspended  until  the  death  of  Rom'- 
ulus ;  while  the  intervening  period  has  been  filled  by  subsequent  writers 
with  accounts  of  Etrus'  can  wars,  which  find  no  place  in  the  ancient 
legend^  and  which  are  probably  wholly  fictitious.  Just  before  the 
death  of  Rom'  ulus,  who  is  said  tQ  have  ruled  thirty-seven  years,  the 
poetic  lay  is  resumed.  It  relates  that,  while  the  king  was  reviewing 
his  people,  the.  son  withdrew  his  light,  and  Mars,  descending  in  a 
whirlwind  and  tempest,  bore  away  his  perfected  son  m  a  fiery  chariot 
to  heaven,  where  he  became  a  god,  under  the  name  of  Quirinus.^ 
(B.  C.  716.) 

17.  The  legend  further  relates  that  after  the  death  of  Rom' ulus, 
the  chosen  senators^,  or  elders  of  the  people,  who  were  also  called 
patres,  oxfcUhers,  retained  the  sovereign  power  in  their  i^.  numa. 
hands  during  a  year ;  but  as  the  people  demanded  a  king,  it  was 
finally  agreed  that  the  Romans  should  choose  one  from  the  Sdbine 
part  of  the  population.  The  election  resulted  in  the  choice  of  the 
wise  and  pious  Ndma  Pompil'  ius,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of 
Titius.  After  Ndma  had  assured  himself  by  auguries  that  the 
gods  approved  of  his  election,  his  first  care  was  to  regulate  the  laws 
of  landed  property,  by  securing  the  hereditary  possession  of  land  to 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  citizens,  thereby  establishing  the 
most  permanent  basis  of  civil  order.  He  then  regulate^  the  ser- 
Tioes  of  religion,  prMending  that  he  seceived  the  rituals  of  the  law 
firom  the  goddess  Eg^ria :  he  also  built  the  temple  of  JAnus  ;*  and 

L  Ibe  Lnrgaiiniu  were  ttie  people  of  Lawen'  tmm^  the  chief  dty  of  ZrMntm.  Laaren'  turn 
wae  eighteeD  miles  eouth  from  Rome,  on  Ihe  ooest,  aad  near  ibe  spot  now  called  PtAemo, 
<Jiri9«Noa.VIILuidX.) 

8.  JAnMB  wu  an  •neteot  lUUan  deity,  whoee  origin  is  traced  back  to  India..  He  was  repre- 
MDled  acftioetlmea  with  two  ftMes  looking  in  opposile  directions,  and  aomeUmes  with  font.  He 
was  the  god  of  the  year,  and  also  of  the  d«y,  and  had  charge  of  the  gates  of  heaven  through 

a.  Riebohr  deals  sererely  with  those  writers  who,  In  attempting  to  deduce  hlstorie  truth 
ftom  this  poetical  flctioil^  have  made  the  supposition  that,  instead  of  an  eclipse,  there  was  a 
tanpesti  and  that  the  senator  i  themselves  tore  Bom'  ulus  to  pieces.  (See  Niebuhr,  i.  1S7-S-- 
tSm  Schaiti^  Borne,  p.  90.) 


13d  AlfOIKNT  mSTORT.  [Pjjtri. 

*fter  a  quiet  and  prosperons  reign  of  forty-two  years  lie  ffell  asleep 
f^l  of  days  and  peaceful  honors.  (673  B.'  C.)  The  l^nd  ad<b 
that  the  goddess  Egeria,  through  grief  for  his  loss,  melted  away  in 
tears  into  a  fountain. 

18.  The  deal^  of  Ndma  was  followed  by  another  interr^tiiny 
after  which  the  young  and  warlike  Tullus  Hostilius  was  chosen  king. 
A  gleam  of  historic  truth  falls  "upon  his  reign,  uid  Hie  y,  TULma 
purely  poetic  age  of  Roman  story  here  begins  to  dtsap-  «»««». 
pear  in  our  confidence  that  such  a  king  as  TuUus  Hostilius  actually 
existed,  and  that  durmg  his  reign  the  Albans  became  united  with 
the  Romans.  Still,  the  story  of  the  Alban  war,  and  of  subsequent 
WW8  during  the  life  of  Tullus,  retam  much  of  l^;endary  fiction,  des 
titute  of  historic  certainty. 

19.  A  tradition  of  the  Alban  war,  preserved  by  the  early  poets, 
relates,  that  when  the  armies  of  Rom^  and  Alba  were  drawn  up 
against  each  other,  their  leaders  agreed  to  avert  the  battle  by  a 
combat  between  three  twin  brothers  on  the  one  side,  and  three  on 
the  other^  whose  mothers  happened  to  be  sisters,  although  belonging 
to  different  nations.  The  Rt)man  brothers  were  caUed  Hordtii,  and 
the  Albans  Curidtii.  Meeting  in  deadly  encounter  between  the  two 
armies,  two  of  the  Hordtii  fell,  but  the  third,  still  unwounded,  re- 
sorted to  stratagem,  and,  pretending  to  flee,  was  followed  at  unequal 
distances  by  the  wounded  Curidtii,  when,  suddenly  turning  back,  he 
overcame  them  in  succession. 

20.  A  mournfid  tragedy  followed.  At  the  gate  of  the  city  tlie 
victor  was  met  by  his  sister  Horitia,  who,  having  been  affiaLced  to 
one  of  the  Curidtii,  and  now  seeing  her  brother  cxultingly  bearing 
off  the  spoils  of  the  slain,  and,  among  the  rest,  the  embroidered 
cloak  of  her  betrothed,  which  she  herself  had  woven,  gave  way  to  a 
burst  of  grief  and  lamentation,  which  so  incensed  her  brother  tha( 
he  sl^w  her  on  the  spot  For  this  act  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
but  was  pardoned  by  the  interference  of  the  people,  although  they 
ordered  a  monmnent  to  be  raised 'on  the  spot  where  HoratiafelL* 
By  the  terms  of  an  agreement  made  before  the  combat  the  Albans 
were  to  submit  to  the  Romans ;  but  not  long  after  this  event  they 
showed  evidence  of  treachery,  when,  by  order  of  Tullus,  their  city 

which  the  snn  panes ;  and  hence  all  gates  and  doors  on  earth  were  sacred  to  him.  JeamMJj^ 
ttie  first  month  in  the  religions  year  of  the  Romans,  was  named  after  him.  His  temples  at 
Borne  were  mimerons,  and  in  time  of  war  the  gates  of  the  principal  one  were  open,  but  Im 
ttm*  of  pMce  they  were  closed  to  keep  wan^witbin. 


CkAP  y.}  BOHAN  WmORY.  131^ 

was  kvelled  to  the  ground,  and /the  people  were  removed  to  the 
Caslian  hill>  adjoining  the  Pal'  atine  on  the  eaat  After  a  reign  of 
thirtj-tiro  years,  TuIIub  and  all  his  fiunily  are  said  to  have  been 
kiUed  bj  lightning.     (642  B.  C.) 

21.  We  find  the  name  of  Anous  Martins,  said  to  hare  been  a 
grandson  of  Ndma,  next  on  the  list  of  Roman  kings.     He  is  rep- 
resented both  as  a  warrior,  and  a  restorer  of  the  ordi-    ^l  angto 
nanees  and  ritnals  of  the  eeremonial  law,  which  had  fiiUen    hartius. 
into  disuse  dnring  the  reign  of  his  predecessor.     He  subdued  many 

•  of  the  Latin  towns — ^founded  the  town  and  port  of ^  Ostia^ — built  the 
first  bridge  over  the  Tiber — and  established  that  principle  of  the 
Boman  common  law,  that  the  State  is  the  original  proprietor  of  all 
lands  in  the  commonwealtL  The  middle  of  his  reign  is  said  to  have 
been  the  era  of  the  legal  constitution  of  the  plebeian  order,  and  the 
assignment  of  lands  to  this  body  out  of  the  conquered  territories. 
He  is  said  to  have  reigned  twenty-four  years. 

22.  The  fourth  king  of  Rome  was  Tarquinius  Priscus,  or  Tarquin 
the  Elder.  The  accounts  of  his  reign  are  obscure  and  conflicting. 
By  some  his  parents  are  said  to  hayeded  from  Corinth  to  Tarquin'  ii,' 
a  town  of  Etruria,  where  Tarquin  was  bom :  by  others  y^.  TABQuiii 
lie  is  said  to  have  been  of  Etruscan  descent ;  but  Niebuhr  nn  xldb. 
beiieyes^hn  to  have  been  of  Latin  origin.  Having  taken  up  his 
residence  at  Rome  at  the  suggestion  of  his  wife  Tanaquil,  who  was 
celebrated  for  her  skill  in  auguries,  he  there  became  distinguished 
for  his  courage,  and  the  splendor  in  which  he  lived;  and  his  liber- 
ality and  wisdom  so  gained  him  the  favor  of  the  people  that,  when 
the  throne,  became  vacant,  he  was  called  to  it  by  the  unanimous 
voice  of  the  senate  and  citizens.     (617  B.  C.) 

.  23.  Tarquin  is  said  to  have  carried  on  successful  wars  against  the 
Etms'  cans,  Latins,  and  Sdbines,  and  to  have  reduced  all  those  people 
tmder  the  Roman  dominion ;  but  his  reign  is  chiefly  memorable  on 
account  of  the  public  works  which  he  commenced  for  the  security 
and  improvement  of  the  city.     Among  these  were  the  embanking  of 

L  Of'tio,  the  early  port  and  harbor  of  Borne,  onoe  a  place  of' great  wealth,  popolatioB,  aaA 
trnportanoe,  wai  lituated  on  the  east  aide  of  the  Tiber,  near  its  mouth,  fifteen  miles  from 
Borne.  Oe'tia,  which  sttll  retains  its  andent  name,  is  now  a  miserable  village  of  scaroely  a 
hundred  liihabitanto,aMi  is  aimoeliminhabitable,  from  Malaria ;  the  l^ver  whUh  U  engeBderft 
carrying  off  annnally  nearly  all  whom  neceiijty  confines  to  this  pestilential  region  daring  th* 
bot  season.   The  harbor  of  Os'  tin  is  now  merely  a  shallow  pool.  {Map»  N*  is.  VIII.  and  X.) 

9,  Targmin'  m,  one  of  the  most  powerful  dUes  of  Btruria,  was  aboot  fr4^y  mtles  nortlMreei 
from  Borne,  on  tHe  left  bank  of  the  rirer  Malta,  seTersl  miles  from  Its  mouth.  The  ralna  of 
TSuxkina  mark  the  site  of  the  andent  dty.    (Mapa  Nos.  vni.  and  X.) 


ia2  ANCIENT  HISTORT.  .  [PamI 

the  Tiber ;  the  sewers,  wldch  je\  remain,-  for  draining  the  marshes 
and  lakes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital ;  the  porticos  around  the 
market-place,  the  race-course  of  the  circus,  and  the  foundations  of  the 
city  walls,  which  were  of  hewn  stone.  It  is  said  that  Tarquin,  after 
a  reign  of  Uiirty^eight  years,  was  assassinated  at  the  instigation  of 
the  sons  of  Ancus  Martins,  who  feared  that  he  would  secure  the  suc- 
cession to  his  son-in-law  Servius  Tullius,  his  own  &yorite,  and  the 
darling  of  the  Roman  .people.     (579  B.  C.) 

24.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  sons  of  Ancus  Martins,  the 
senate  and  the  people  decided  that  Servius  should  rule  over  thern.^ 
The  birth  of  this  man  is  said,  in  the  old  legends,  to  have  ym.  ssRviin 
been  very  humble,  and  his  infancy  to  have  been^  attended     ^ui^ids: 
with  marvellous  omens,  which  foretold  his  future  greatness.     Of  his 
supposed  wars  with  the  revolted  Etrus'  cans  nothing  certain  is  known ; 
but  his  renown  as  a  law-giver  rests  on  more  substantial  grounds  than 
his  military  fame. 

25.  The  first  great  political  act  of  his  reign  was  the  institution  of 
the  census,  and  the  division  of  the  people  into  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
three  centuries^  whose  rights  of  suffrage  and  military  duties  were 
regulated  on  the  basis  of  property  qualifications.  The  several  Latin 
communities  that  had  hitherto  been  allied  with  the  Bomans  by  treaty 
he  now  incorporated  with  them  by  a  federal  union ;  and^  render 
that  union  more  firm  and  lasting,  he  induced  the  confederates  to 
unite  in  erecting  a  temple  on  Mount  Aventine  to  the  goddess  Diana, 
and  there  unitedly  to  celebrate  her  worship.  He  also  made  wise 
regulations  for  the  impartial  administration  of  justice,  prohibited 
bondage  for  debt,  and  relieved  the  people  from  the  oppressions  with 
which  they  already  began  to  be  harassed  by  the  higher  orders. 

26.  His  legislation  was  received  with  displeasure  by  the  patricians ; 
and  when  it  was  known  that  Servius  thought  of  resigning  the  crown,  and 
establishinga  consular  form  of  government,  which  would  have  rendered  • 
a  change  of  his  laws  difficult,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  for  securing 
the  throne  to  Tarquinius,  sumamed  the  Proud,  a  son  of  the  former 
king,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Servius.  The  old  king  Servius 
was  murdered  by  the  agents  of  Tarquin,  and  his  body  left  exposed 
Ib  the  street,  while  his  wicked  daughter  Tullia,  in  her  haste  to  con- 
gratulate her  husband  on  his  success,  drove  hef  chariot  over  her 
father^s  corpse,  so  that  her  garments  were  stained  with  his  blood. 
(535  B.  C.) 

27    The  reign  of  Tarquinius  Superbus,  or  the  Proud,  was  distiii- 


Ohap.  y.]  KOMAK  HISTORY.  133 

gaifihed  by  a  series  of  tyrannioal  usurpations,  wbich  made  his  name 
odious  to  Jill  classes;  for  although  he  at  first  gratified  his  supporters 
by  diminishing  the  privileges  df  the  plebeians,  or  the  i^.  tarquiic 
common  people,  he  soon  made  the  patricians  themselves  ™«  p»oud. 
feel  the  weight  of  his  tyranny.  The  laws  of  Servius  were  swept 
away — ^the  equality  of  civil  rights  abolished — and  even  the  ordinances 
a£  religion  suffered  to  fall  into  neglect  But  although  Tarquin  was 
a  ^nant,  he  exalted  the  Roman  name  by  his  successful  wars,  and 
alliances  wiih  the  surrounding  nations.  In  the  midst  of  his  successes, 
howeTcr,  he  was  disturbed  by  the  most  fearful  dreams  and  appalling 
prodigies.  He  dreamed  l^at  the  sun  changed  its  course,  rising  in 
the  west ;  and  ths^  when  the  two  rams  were  brought  to  him  fbr  sac- 
rifice, one  of  them  pushed  him  down  with  its  horns.  At  one  time  a 
serpent  crawled  from  the  altar  and  seized  the  flesh  which  he  had 
brought  for  sacrifice  :  a  flock  of  vultures  attacked  an  eagle's  nest  in 
his  garden,  threw  oiit  the  unfledged  eaglets  upon  the  ground  and 
drove  the  old  birds  away ;  and  when  he  sent  to  Delphi  to  consult  the 
oracle,  the  responses  were  dark  and  fearful. 

28.  The  reverses  threatened  were  brought  upon  him  by  the  wick- 
edness of  Seztus,  one  of  his  sons.  It  is  related  that  while  the  Ro- 
mans were  besieging  Ardea,^  a  Rutulian  city,  Seztus,  with  his 
brothers  Titus  and  Aruns,  and  their  cousin  Collatinus,  happened  to 
be  disputing,  over  their  wine,  about  the  good  qualities  of  their  wives, 
when,  to  settle  the  dispute,  they  agreed  to  visit  their  homes  by  sur- 
prise, and,  seeing  with  their  own  eyes  how  their  wives  were  then  em- 
ployed, thus  decide  which  was  the  worthiest  lady.  So  they  hastily 
rode,  first  to  Rome,  where  they  found  the  wives  of  the  three  Tar- 
quins  feasting  and  making  merry.  They  then  prpceeded  to  Oollitia,' 
the  residence  of  Collatinus,  where,  although  it  was  then  late  at  night, 
they  found  his  wife  Lucretia,  with  her  maids  around  her,  all  busy 
working  at  the  loom.  On  their  return  to  the  camp  all  agreed  that 
Lucretia  was  the  worthiest  lady. 

29.  But  a  spirit  of  wicked  passion  had  seized  upon  Seztus,  and  a 
fern  days  later  he  went  alone  to  Oolldtia,  and  being  hospitably  lodged 
in  his  kinsman's  house,  violated  the  honor  of  Lucretia.     Thereupon 

h  jarieof  a  eitj  of  LAUmq,  and  the  capital  of  the-  RatuUaai;  wu  about  twenty-fbor  miles 
mnlh  than  Bimie,  and  lliree  miles  from  the  sea.  Some  ruins  of  the  anelent  city  are  still  yislbl^ 
■Ddbeartbe'nameofAfdfl*.    (Jlfs^  Nos^  VUI.  and  X.) 

fi,  CMTAcia,  a  town  of  Litttmn,  was  near  the  sooth  hank  of  the  river  Anio,  twelve  or  thirteen 
■Bee  east  from  Borne.  Its  miiis  may  atlU  be  tnoed  on  a  hill  which  has  obtained  the  name  of 
CtoCiilari*.    (Jlfi^.Soa.Vm.aBdX.) 


134  ANCIENT  mSTORT.  [PjmI 

she  sent  in  haste  for  her  fkther,  and  hnsbaitd,  and  o&er  rdttti?ea| 
and  having  told  them  of  the  wicked  deed  of  Sextos,  and  made  theai 
swear  that  they  would  avenge  it,  she  drew  a  knife  from  her  bosom 
and  stabbed  herself  to  the  heart  The  yow  was  renewed  over  ^ 
dead  body,  and  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  who  had  long  concealed  patri- 
otic resolutions  under  tibe  mask  of  pretended  stupidity,  and  thus 
saved  his  life  from  the  jealousy  of  Tarquin,  exhibited  the  corpse  to 
the  people,  whom  he  influenced,  by  his  eloquence,  to  pronoimoe  sen* 
tence  of  banishment  against  Tarquin  and  his  fi^mily,  and  to  dedare 
that  the  dignity  of  king  should  be  abolished  forever.     (510  B.  C.) 


SECTION  IL 

THB  aOlCAir  REPUBUO,  FROM  THX  ABOUTIOir  OF  ROTALTT,    610  B.O., 
TO  THE  BEGINNINO  OF  THB  WARS  WITfl  OARTBAGE: 

268  B.  a  =  247  tears. 

ANALTSIS.  1.  Royalty  aboUsbad.  The  laws  of  Serrioi  reestablished.  Comsuls  etooted^- 
&  Aristocratic  character  of  the  goTwnment.  Tba  straggle  between  the  patricians  and  ple- 
beians begins.-~3.  Ejctent  of  Roman  territory. — 4.  Conspiracy  in  foror  of  the  Tarqulna.  Enva'' 
CAM  war.—S.  Conflicting  aeoonnts.  Legend  of  the  Etroa'  can  war.  [Clttsiam.]— &  Hm  stoty 
of  Mutlus  Scasv'  ola.— 7.  Fsrttier  account  of  the  Roman  legend.  The  probable  truth.— 6.  Hu- 
miliating condition  of  the  plebeians  afler  the  Ebus  can  war.— 9.  Continued  oontentiona.  Hie 
oflloe  of  Dictator.— 10.  Cljneanutaooes  of  the  first  Plbbciam  Inscrrbcteor.  [VolBdaDa.}— 11. 
Co&Aision.  Withdrawal  of  the  Plebeians.  [Mons  Sacer.]— 12.  The  terms  of  reconciliation. 
Office  and  power  of  the  Tribunks.— 13.  League  with  the  Latins  and  Hemldans.— 14.  Vol- 
BciAN  AND  JRnrnxx  WARS.  Coutradictory  statements.  [iEqniana.  CerioO.]  Propoaal  of 
CorloUnus.— 15..  His  trial— exilo— and  war  against  the  Romans.— 16.  Tine  stoiy  of  CindnAtus.- 
17.  The  public  lands— and  the  fhte  of  Spurius  Cassius.— 18.  Coiftinued  dexpands  of  the  people. 
Election  and  office  of  ths  Dbcbm' tirb.— 19.  The  lsw»  of  the  decern'  virs.— SO.  The  deeam'- 
▼trs  are  oontinned  in  office— thair  additional  lawa— and  tyranny.— 21.  Ibe  story  of  Virginia.— 
S2.  Orerthrow  of  the  decem'  rirs,  and  death  of  Appius.— 33.  Plebeian  innovations.  The  office 
of  Cknsors.— 84.  Rome,  as  viewed  by  the  surrounding  people.  CiroumstaBees  that  led  to  the 
WAR  WITH  Vbii.  [Situation  of  Veil.]— 25.  Destroction  of  Veli,  aiMi  ezteBsloo  of  Rooub 
territory. 

96.  Gallic  IinrAsioir,  Circumstances  of  the  Introduction  of  the  Oauls  Into  Italy.  [Clsalplna 
Gaul.}— 97  The  Roman  ambassadors.  Conduct  of  Bronnns.— 96.  The  Romana  deflaated  by  th* 
Gauls.  General  abandonment  of  "Rome.  [The  Allia.  Roman  Forum.]— 20.  Entrance  of  the 
.Gauls  IntQ  the  city.  Massacre  of  the  Senators.  Rome  plundered  and  burned.— 30  VaiiLat- 
tempts  to  storm  the  citadeL  The  Roman  legend  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Gauls.  The  more 
probable  account.  [Tbe  Venetians.]— 31.  The  rebuilding  of  Rome.— 39.  Renewal  of  the  Plb- 
BBiAN  AND  pATRiciAN  coimsTs.  Philanthropy  and  subsequent  history  of  Manlius.— 33.  Ooa-. 
tinned  oppression  of  the  plebeiaha.— 34.  Great  reforms  made  by  Ltdniaa  Stolo  and  fiudoa  8ex- 
tus.  The  office  of  Prjrtor.— 35.  Progreas  of  the  Roman  power.  The  Samhite  eontederaqy 
[The  Samnttes.]— 36.  Piksr  8a«i«itb  war.  [Cap'oa.]  League  with  the  Bamnitee.  Latlft 
war^— 37  Sbconb  SAiiinTB  war.— Deibat  of  the  Romaoa,  and  rtMwed  aUlanee.    [Qaodia* 


Omm.  7.]  SGirAK  mSTORT.  185 


t.y-'m,  TlM  iOMto  daelaiw  Um  trealj' void.  MBgnonimttr  of  FooOhm-^  The  nnmB 
OkJfinTS  WAR.  Fate  of  PodUob.  [IJqi'bria.]— 40.  War  with  the  Tarkntinks  akp  Pyr* 
Ksva — 41.  Fint  encounter  of  Pyr'  rbus  with  the  Ronuuu.— 42.  Pyr'  rhuB  attempts  negotiation. 
Bte.  aaeoiMl  lMUUe.~4aL  -Story  of  the  generoelty  of  FaMeiaa,  and  magnanfanity  of  Pyr'  rinis, 
fyf  ttiam  paaaes  over  to  Slcilj— retuma,  and  ranewi  the  war-is  defeated—Rod  abaDdons  Italy. 
Boman  supremacy  orer  all  Italy.  [Rubicon.  Amus.  Tnscan  Sea.]— 44.  Alliance  with  Egypt. 
tlaffHiw  Rflttra.    Wldeninff  drele  of  Soman  hiHoiy. 

1.  Aa  narrated  at  the  eiose  of  the  preyions  seotion,  royalty  waa 
ftbolidied  at  Borne,  after  an  exktenoe  of  two  hundred  and  forty 
years.  The  whole  Boman  people  took  an  oath  that  whoever  should 
express  a  widi  to  rule  as  king  idionld  bo  declared  an  outlaw.  The 
knrs  of  Servius  were  redsiablished,  and,  aeoording  to  the 

eode  which  he  had  proposed,  the  royal  power  was  in- 

trusted  to  two  eonsuls,^  anBually  elected.    The  first  chosen  were 

Blitns  and  Collatinua 

2.  From  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  and  the  downfall  of  mon- 
arehy,  is*  dated  the^commeneement  of  what  is  called  the  B/yman 
RtpMic  Yet  the  government  was  at  this  time  entirely  aristo^ 
eratieal ;  ior  all  political  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  nobility, 
from^whom  th^  eonsuls  were  chosen,  and  there  was  no  third  party 
te  hold  the  balanee  of  power  between  them  and  the  peopla  Hence 
arose  a  struggle  be^een  these  two  divisions  of  the  body  politio ; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  bahmce  was  properly  adjusted  by  the  in- 
ereaaed  privileges  of  the  plebeians,  and  a  more  eqiul  distribution  of 
power,  tiiat  the  oommonwealth  attained  tha^strength  and  infiuence 
which  predminenily  exalted  Borne  above  the  surrounding -nations. 

3.  The  territory  possessed  by  Bome  under  the  last  of  the  kings 
10  known,  from  a  treaty  made  with  Carthage  in  the  first  year  of  the 
Bepublio,  to  have  extended  at  least  seventy  miles  along  the  coast 
south  of  the  Tiber.  Yet  all  thb  sea^eoast  was  destined  to  be  lost 
to  Bome  by  oiyil  dissenffiens  andbad  government,  b^ore  her  power 
was  to  be  finoly  established  there. 

R.  The  tMndM  had  it  tnt  neaily  the  mow  power  aa  the  kings;  and  all  other  maglalrataa 
were  ■nfejleei  to  them,  except  the  tribmes  of  the  people^  They  summoned  the  meetings  of  the 
icmiitri  and  of  the  assemblies  of  the  people— they  bad  the  chief  direction  of  the  foreign  aflkirs 
•r  Ibe  gufeiUMWit-they  Med  sofclieni  appofaited  moat  of  the  military  ofloers,  and,  hi  time 
•r  war,  had  aaprtme  oomnaod  of  the  armiee.  In  dangerous  oo]]|)nBctures  tbej  were  armed 
wHh  absolute  power  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  that  **  they  should  take  care  that  the  republic 
neeiTca  no  hRrm.**  Their  badges  of  office  were  the  toga  prmUxta^^r  mantle  bordered  witl^ 
f«rpla»  nnd  an  ln>ry  aoeptre ;  and  When  Ihey  appeared  In  public  they  were  accompanied  by 
twelvn  oflfeers  called  lUtart,  each  of  whom  carried  a  bundle  of  rods,  C/m'  cm,)  with  an  axe 
^00*rt»)  placed  in  ihe  mkUle  of  them  »-~(be  former  denoting  the  power  of  aeousingi  or  of 
r  liimiil nil   ami  Mm  Itimy  thn  power  of  Ufe  and  tenth. 


186  AJrCIENT  aiSTOBT.  [PAStL 

4.  The  efforts  of  Tarquin  to  recoTer  the  throne  gaye  rise  to  a  eon- 
spiracy  among  some  lof  the  younger  patricians  who  had  shared  in 
the  tyrant's  extortions.  Anoiong  the  conspirators  were  the  sons.c^ 
Bfutus ;  and  the  duty  of  pronouncing  their  fate  devolved  upon  the 
consul  their  father,  who,  laying  aside  parental  affection,  and  acting 
the  part  of  the  magistrate  only,  condemned  them  to  death.  The 
n.  snna'  can  oause  of  the  Tarquins  was  also  espoused  by  the  Etrus'* 

WA&.       cans,  to  whcmi  they  had  fled  for  protection,  and  thus  a  war 
was  kindled  between  the  two  people. 

5.  The  accounts  of  the  events  and  results  of  this  war  are  exceed* 
ingly  conflicting.  The  ancient  Boman  legend  relates  that  when 
Porsenna,  king  of  Glusium,*  the  most  powerful  of  the  Etrus'can 
princes,,  led  an  overwhelming  force  against  Borne,  the  Bomans  were 
at  flrst  repulsed,  and  fled  across  a  wooden  bridge  over  the  Tib^ ; 
and  that  the  army  was  saved  by  the  valor  of  Horatius  C6cleB,  who 
alone  defended  the  pass  against  thousands  of  ikie  enemy,  amtil  the 
bridge  was  broken  down  in  the  rear,  when  he  plunged  into  the  stream, 
and,  amid  a  shower  of  darts,  safely  regained  the  opposite  shore. 

6.  It  is  farther  related,  that  when  Porsenna  had  deduced  Borne 
to  extremities  by  fiunine,  a  young  man,  Mutius  Sosbv'  ola,  undertook, 
with  the  approbation  of  the  Senate,  to  assassinate  the  invading  king. 
Making  his  way  into  the  Etrus'  can  camp,  he  slew  one  of  the  king'ji 
attendants,  whom  he  mistook  for  Porsenna.  Being  disarmed,  and 
threatened  with  tortur%  he  scornfully  thrust  his  right  hand  into  the 
flame,  whwe  he  held  it  until  it  was  consumed,  to  show  that  the  rack 
bad  no  terrors  for  him.  The  king,  admiring  such  heroism,  gave  him 
his  life  and  liberty,  when  Sc»v'  ola  warned  him,  as  a  token  of  grati- 
tude, to  make  peace,  for  that  three  hundred  young  patricians,  as  brave 
as  himself,  had  conspired  to  destroy  him,  and  that  he,  SceeV  ola,  had 
only  been  chosen  by  lot  to  make  the  first  ^tempt 

7.  The  Boman  legend  asserts  that  Porsenna,  alarmed  for  his  life, 
offered  terms  of  peace,  which  were  agreed  upon.  And  yet  it  is  known, 
from  other  evidence,  that  the  Bomans,  about  this  time,  surrendered 
their  city,  and  became  tributary  to  the  Etrus'  cans ;  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  when,  soon  after,  Porsenna  was  defeated  in  a  war  with  the 
Latins,  the  Bomans  embraced  the  opportunity  to  regain  their  inde- 
pendence. 

8.  It  was  only  while  the  attempts  of  the  Tarquins  to  regain  the 

L  0««<MHiMnrCaiw«,waiatowii  of  Etrirla,  tlttttttd  ontlMweftflni  bank  oTtlMrivw 
Ctaiil%atilt>iitai7ortlMTttNr,«bMl«lglil74T«aUM  nortlepait  fhsnttonM.  {Mt^Vo.  VUL} 


CajaV.]  ROMAN  HISTORY.  137 

tbnme  excited  alarm,  and  the  Etrus'  can  war  condnned,  that  the  goT- 
emment  under  the  first  consuls  was  administered  with  justice  and 
moderation.  When  these  dangers  were  over,  the  patricians  again 
b^an  to  exert  their  tyranny  over  the  plebeians,  and  as  nearly  all 
the  wealth  of  the  State  had  been  engrossed  by  the  former,  the  latter, 
were. reduced  to  a  condition  differing  little  from  the  most  abject 
slavery.  •  A  decree  Against  a  plebeian  debtor  made  not  only  him, 
but  hia  children  also,  slaves  to  the  creditor,  who  might  imprison, 
0Gonrge,  or  otherwise  maltreat  them. 

9.  The  contentions  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians  were  at 
length  carried  to  such  an  extent^  that  in  time  of  war  the  latter  re- 
fused to  enlist ;  and  as  the  consuls,  for  some  cause  now  unknown, 
could  not  be  confided  in,  the  plebeians  were  induced  to  consent  to 
the  creation  of  a  dictator ,  who,  during  six  months,  had  ni.  office  o» 
supreme  power,  not  only  over  patricians,  plebeians,  and  dictatob. 
consuls,  but  also  over  the  laws  themselve&  Under  a  former  law  of 
Valerius  the  people  had  the  right  of  appeal  from  a  sentence  of  the 
oonsul  to  a  general  assembly  of  the  citizens;  but  from  the  decision 
of  the  dictator  there  was  no  appeal,  and  as  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Senate,  this  office  gave  additional  power  to  the  p'^trician  order.^ 

10.  During  a  number  of  years  dictators  continued  to  be  appointed 
in  times  of  great  public  danger ;  but  they  gave  only  a  temporary 
calni  to  the  popular  dissensions.  It  \yas  during  a  war  with  the  Vol- 
sciaus^  and  Sabines  that  the  long-accumulating  resentment  of  the 
plebeians  against  the  patricians  first  broke  forth  in  open  ly.  plebstan 
insurrection.  An  old  man,  haggard  and  in  rags,  pale  insurebotion 
and  fEimishing,  escaping  from  his  creditor's  prison,  and  bearing  the 
marks  of  cruel  treatment,  implored  the  aid  of  the  people.  A  crowd 
gathered  around  him.  He  showed  them  the  scars  that  he  had  re: 
ceiyed  in  war,  and  he  was  recognized  as  a  brave  captain  who  had 
fought  for  his  country  in  eight  and  twenty  battles.  His  house  and 
farm-yard  having  been  plundered  bythe  enemy  in  the  Etrus'  can  war, 

L  The  Volieiantyrere  the  moat  floathem  of  tbo  tribes  thai  inhabited  Litium.  Their  terri- 
tory, extandkig  along  the  coast  southward  from  Antiuin  about  fifty  miles,  twanned  with  cities 
fiUed  with  a  hardy  and  warUke  race.    (Jlfap#  Noa.  VUI.  and  X.) 

a.  The  oflbe  ot  dictator  had  existed  at  Alba  and  other  Latin  towns  long  before  this  time. 
The  authority  of  all  the  other  magistrates,  except  that  of  the  tribunes,  (see  p.  138,';  ceased  as 
toom  as  the  dictator  was  appointed.  He  had  the  power  of  life  and  death,  except  pcc- 
haps  hi  the  case  of  knights  and  senators,  and  flrom  his  decision  there  was  no  appeal ;  bat  for 
aot  abuse  of  his  power  be  might  be  called  to  account  after  his  resignation  or  the  expiration  of 
Ma  term  of  oAca  At  first  the  dictator  was  taken  from  the  patrician  ranks  only ;  but  about  the 
year  350  B.  C.  It  was  opened  by  C.  Marclna  to  the  plebeians  alao.    See  Nlebuhr's  Rome,  1. 870 


188  ANCIENT  HISTORT.  [Pixrl 

ftunine  bad  finrt  compelled  him  to  sell  bis  all,  and  tben  to  borrow; 
and  wben  he  could  not  pay,  his  creditors  had  obtained  judgment 
against  him  and  his  two  sons,  and  had  put  them  in  chains.  (495 
B.  C.) 

11.  Confusion  and  uproar  spread  through  the  city.  All  who  had 
been  pledged  for  debt  were  clamorous  for  relief;  the  people  spurned 
the  summons  to  enlist  in  the  legions ;  compulsion  was  impossible, 
and  the  Senate  knew  not  how  to  act.  At  length  the  promises  of  the 
consuls  appeased  the  tumult;  but  finally  the  plebeians,  after  having 
been  repeatedly  deceived,  deserted  their  officers  in  the  very  midst 
of  war,  and  marched  in  a  body  to  Mons  Sacer,'  or  the  Sacred  Mount, 
within  three  miles  of  Rome,  where  they  were  joined  by  a  vast  mul- 
titude of  their  discontented  brethren.  (493  B.  C.) 

12.  After  much  negotiation,  a  reconciliation  was  finally  effected 
on  the  terms  that  all  contracts  of  insolvent  debtors  should  be  can-  • 
celled ;  that  those  who  had  incurred  slavery  for  debt  should  recoyer 
their  freedom ;  that  the  Valerian  law  should  be  enforced,  and  that 
two  abnual  magistrates,  (afterwards  increased  to  five,)  called  trib- 

V.  TRIBUNES  **»«^*  whose  persons  were  to  be  inviolable,  should  be 

OF  nn     chosen  by  the  people  to  watch  over  their  rights,  and  pre- 

TxoFLK,     ^^^  ^^y  abuses  of  authority.     It  will  be  seen  that  the 

power  of  the  tribunes,  so  humble  in  its  origin,  eventually  acquired  a 

preponderating  infiuence  in  the  State,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 

monarchical  supremacy.^ 

13.  During  the  same  year  that  the  office  of  the  tribunes  wad 
created,  a  perpetual  league  was  made  with  the  Latins,  (493  B.  C.) 
and  seven  years  later  with  the  Hernicians,  who  inhabited  the  north- 
eastern parts  of  Litium,  both  on  terms  of  perfect  equality  in  the 
contracting  parties,  and  not,  as  befbre,  on  the  basis  of  Roman  supe- 

L  The  Man»  Sacar^  or  **  Sacrad  Bfountefav"  is  a  low  range  of  sandiloae  hOto  extendlas 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  Anio,  near  iU  oonfloenoe  with  the  Tiber,  about  three  miles  fton 
Rome.    {Map*  Nos.  VIIL  aod  X.) 

a.  The  trVnuua  of  tJu  fopU  wore  no  external  marks  of  disUnctlon ;  but  an  officer  called 
arator  attended  them,  to  clear  the  way  and  sammon  people.  Their  chief  pow«r  at  first  com 
sisted  in  preventing,  or  arresting,  by  the  word  vet«,  **  I  forbid,'*  iny  measnre  which  tbey 
thought  detrimental  to  the  interteta  of  the  people. 

b.  After  the  plebeians  had  withdrawn  to  the  **  Sacred  Momit,"  the  Senate  despatched  an 
embassy  of  ten  men,  headed  by  Menenius  Agrippa,  to  treat  with  the  insurgents.  Agrippa  is 
said,  on  this  occasion,  to  have  related  to  the  people  the  since  well-known  fable  of  the  Brtly  and 
the  Members.  The  latter,  provoited  at  seeing  all  the  flruits  of  their  toil  and  cace  applied  to 
the  use  of  the  belly,  refused  to  perform  any  more  labor ;  in  consequence  of  whioh  the  wbola 
body  was  in  dinger  of  perishing.  The  people  understood  the  moral  of  Uie  IhUe,  and  \ 
ready  to  enter  upon  a  n^otlatlbn. 


F 


CMEIKTI]  ROMAN  HISTORY.  139 

• 

riofitj.  Tliese  leagaes  nRide  with  eitiesr  that  were  once  subject  to 
tile  RomaDB,  sliow  that  the  Roman  power  had  heen  greatly  dimin- 
idied  by  the  plebeian  and  aristocratic  contentipns  in  the  early  years 
ef  the  BepnbHc.  • 

14.  In  the  interval  between  these  treaties,  occnrred  important 
wars  with  the  Yolscians  and  ^qnians.*     The  historical  yj  yolsoian 
emtradietions  of  this'  period  are  so  numerous,  that  little   and  iSQur- 
felianee  can  be  placed  on  the  details  of  these  wars ;  but    ^  ^^*^ 
it  is  evident  that  the  Yolscians  and  ^^uians  were  defeated,  and  that 
CmB  MarcTQS,  a  Roman  nobleman,  acquired  the  surname  of  Coriold- 
Boa  fh>m  his  bravery  at  the  capture  of  the  Yolscian  town  of  Corf oli* 
and  tbat  Lucius  Qninctius,  called  Cincinndtus,  acquired  great  dis- 
linetioB  by  his  conduct  of  the  war  against  the  ^quians.     CorioUnus 
belonged  te  the  patrician  order,  and  was  an  enemy  of  the  tribunes ; 
and  it  is  related  that  when,  during  a  &mine,  a  Sicilian  prince  sent  a 
krge  sn^y  of  com  to  relieve  the  dietresses  of  the  citizens^  Coriold- 
AOB  proposed  in  the  Senate  that  the  plebeians  should  not  sh^re  in 
the  8abfli<fy  imtil  they  had  sisrrendered  the  privileges  which  they  had 
ttoipiitwd  by  their  recent  secession. 

15.  The  rage  of  the  plebeians  was  excited  by  this  proposition,  and 
^y  would  have  proceeded  to  violence  against  Goriolinus,  had  not 
the  tribunes  summoned  him  to  trial  before  the  assembly  of  the  peo- 
ple: The  senators  made  the  greatest  efforts  to  save  him,  but  the 
eoaunoM  condemned  him  to  e»le.  Enraged  by  this  treatment,  he 
Went  over  to  tiie  Yolscians— was  appointed  a  general  in  their  armies 
'^-Aiid,  afier  defeatmg  the  Romans  in  several  engagements,  laid  siege 
to  ihe  city,  which  must  have  surrendered  had  not  a  deputation  of 
Roman  matrons,  headed  by  the  wife  and  the  mother  of  CorioUnus, 
prevailed  upon  him- to  grant  his  countrymen  terms  of  peace.  It  is 
said  that  on  his  return  to  the  Yolscians  he  lost  his  life  in  a  popular 
tumult ;  but  a  tradition  relates  that  he  lived  to  a  very  advanced  age, 
Mkd  that  he  waii  often  heard  to  exclaim,  '*  How  miserable  is  the  con- 
dition of  an  old  man  in  banishment." 

16.  It  is  related  that  during  the  war  with  the  iBquians  the  eneipy 
had  surrounded  the  Roman  consul  in  a  defile,  where  there  was  neither 
forage  fot  the  horses  nor  food  for  the  men.     In  this  extremity,  the 

L  The  JEqmiant  dwelt  prindpally  in  the  upper  TaHey^  the  Anio^  north  of  thai  atraem,  and 
between  the  Sabines  and  the  ATaral.    (.»<};>«  Nob.  YIU.  and  X.) 

S.  CvHWj  ia  sappoied  to  have  been  about  twenty-two  or  twenty-three  miles  south-east  fW)iii 
Bone.  A  hill  now  known  by  the  name  of  MonU  Oure«,  is  thou^^t,  with  some  degree  of  prob- 
flMlty,  to  reprsient  the  site  of  this  sneient  Volsclaa  dty.    (JUtap  No.  X) 


140  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  [Fttt  I 

Senate  and  people  chose  CmoinnAtiis  dieter,  and  aending  in  haste 
to  inform  him  of  his  election,  the  depnties  found  him  at  work  in  his 
field,  dressed  in  the  plain  habit  of  a  Roman  farmer.  .After  he  had 
put  on  his  toga,  or  cloak,  that  he  might  receive  the  message  of  the 
Senate  in  a  becoming  manner,  he  waa  saluted  as  dictator,  and  eon- 
ducted  into  the  city.  He  soon  raised  an  army,  surrounded  the  enemj; 
and  took  their  whole  force  prisoners,  and  at  the  end  of  sixteen  days, 
having  acoomplished  the  deliverance  of  his  country,  resigned  his 
power,  and  returned  to  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  private  life.^ 

17.  The  first  acquisitions  of  territory  made  by  the  Romans  appear 
to  have  been  divided  among  the  people  at  large ;  but  of  late  the  con- 
quered lands  had  been  suffered  to  pass,  by  connivance,  occupation,  or 
purchase,  chiefly  into  the  hands  of  the  patricians.  The  complaints 
of  the  plebeians  on  this  subject  at  length  induced  one  of  the  consuls, 
Spurius  Cassius,  to  propose  a  division  of  recently-conquered  lands 
into  sniall  estates,  for  the  poorer  classes,  who,  he  maintained,  were 
justly  entitled  to  their  proportionate  share,  as  their  valor  and  labors 
had  helped  to  acquire  them.  But  while  this  proposition  alarmed 
the  Senate  and  patricians  with  danger  to  their  property,  the  motives 
of  Cassius  appear  to  have  been  distrusted  by  all  classes,  for  he  was 
charged  with  aiming  at  kingly  power,  and,  being  convicted,  was  ig- 
nominiously  beheaded,  and  his  house  rased  to  the  ground.  (458  B.  C.) 

18.  Still  the  people  continued  to  demand  a  share  in  the  conquered 
lands,  now  forming  the  estates  of  the  wealthy,  and,  as  the  only  way 
of  evading  the  difficulty,  the  Senate  kept  the  nation  almost  constantly 
involved  in  war.  During  thirty  years  succeeding  the  death  of  Cas- 
sius, the  history  of  the  Republic  is  obcupied  with  desultory  wars 
waged  against  the  iESquians  and  Yolscians,  and  with  continued  strug- 
gles between  the  patricians  and  plebeians.  At  length  the  tribunes 
succeeded  in  getting  their  number  increased  from  five  to  ten,  when 
tlie  Senate,  despairing  of  being  able  to  divert  the  people  any  longer 
firom  their  purpose,  consented  to  the  appointment  of  ton  persona, 

vii.  THc     hence  called  decern'  virs^  who  were  to  compile  a  body  of 
DECKMYiRa  laws  for  the  commonwealth,  and  to  exercise  all  the  pow- 
ers of  government  until  the  laws  shonld  be  completed.     (451  B.  C.) 

19.  After  several  months*  deliberation,  this  body  produced  a  code 

a.  It  should  be  remarked  here,  that  the  story  of  Clndnn&tas  formed  the  subject  of  a  bean'tl- 
ftal  poem,  to  the  substance  of  which  most  writers  have  given  the  credit  of  historical  authen- 
ticity, although  Niebuhr  has  shown  that  the  truth  of  the  legend  will  not  stand  the  test  of 
criticism.    (See  Niebuhr,  roL  IL  pp.  125-6.  and  AmoUTs  Rome,  1.  pp.  131-5^  and  notel^ 


Our.T.]  KOMAK  mSTORT.  141 

m 
of  laws,  engrayen  on  ten  tables,  which  continued;  down  to  the  time 

of  the  emperors,  to  be  the  basis  of  the  civil  and  penal  jurisprudence 
of  the  Roman  people,  though  almost  concealed  from  view  under  the 
enormous  mass  of  additions  piled  upon  it.  The  new  constitution 
aimed  at  establishing  the  legal  equality  of  all  the  citizens,  and  there 
wasft^show  of  dividing  the  great  offices  of  State  equally  between  patri- 
oans  and  plebeians,  but  the  exact  character  of  the  ten  tables  cannot 
now  be  satisfactorily  distinguished  from  two  others  that  were  sub- 
sequently enacted. 

20.  After  the  task  of  the  decemvirs  had  been  completed,  all  classes 
miited  in  continuing  their  office  for  another  year ;  and  an  equal  num- 
ber of  patrician§  and  plebeians  was  elected ;  but  the  former  appear 
to  have  sought  Sieats  in  the  government  for  the  purpose  of  overthrow- 
ing the  constitution.  The  decemvirs  now  threw  off  the  mask,  and 
enacted  two  additional  tables  of  laws,  by  which  the  plebeians  were 
greatly  oppressed,  for,  among  the  laws  attributed  to  the  tiffelve  tables, 
we  find  that  although  all  classes  were  liable  to  imprisonment  for 
Uebt,  yet  the  pledging  of  Ae  person  affected  plebeians  only, — that  the 
latter  were  excluded  from  the  enjoyment  of  the  public  lands, — ^that 
their  intermarriage  with  patricians  was  prohibited, — and  that  consuls 
oould  be  elected  from  the  patrician  order  only.  Moreover,  the  de- 
cemvirs now  refused  to  lay  down  the  powers  of  government  which 
had  been  temporarily  granted  them,  and,  secretly  supported  by  the 
patrieiaos,  ruled  wi^out  control,  thus  establishing  a  tyrannical  oli* 
garchy. 

21.  At  length  a  private  injury  accomplished  what  wrongs  of  a 
more  public  nature  had  failed  to  effect.  Appius  Glauditis,  a  leading 
decemvir,  had  &llen  in  love  with  the  beautiful  Virginia,  daughter  of 
Yirginins,  a  patrician  officer ;  but  finding  her  betrothed  to  another,  in 
order  to  accomplish  his  purpose  he  procured  a  base  dependant  to 
claim  her  as  his  slave.  As  had  been  concerted,  Virginia  was  brought 
befnre  the  tribunal  of  Appius  himself,  who,  by  an  iniquitous  decision, 
ordered  her  to  be  surrendered  to  the  claimant.  It  was  then  that  the 
distracted  father,  having  no  other  means  of  preserving  his  daughter's 
honor,  stabbed  her  to  the  heart  in  the  presence  of  the  Qourt  and  the 
assembled  people.  (448  B.  0.) 

22.  A  general  indignation  against  the  decemvirs  spread  through  the 
dty ;  the  army  took  part  with  the  people ;  the  power  of  the  decern* 
virs  was  overthrown ;  and  the  ancient  forms  of  government  were  re- 
stored ;  while  odditiimal  righto  were  ooooeded  to  the  oommdUB,  bj 


148  A5CISRT  HniOKT.  {PmI 

giTing  to  tkeir  Toiety  ia  oerUm  oaseSf  &M  anlliority  of  law.  Apphu^ 
LftTuig  i^een  impeached,  died  in  priBon,  probably  by  his  own  ba&d, 
befofe  the  day  appointed  for  his  trial 

23.  Other  plebeian  innovationB  followed.  After  a  difficolt  strug- 
gle the  marriage  law  waa  repealed,  (B.  C.  445,)  and  two  years  later 
military  tribunes,  with  consular  powers,  were  choaen  from  the  ple- 
beian ranks.  One  important  dul^  of  the  consols  had  been  the  taking 
of  the  census  once  in  every  five  years,  and  a  new  distrtbution  of  the 
people,  at  such  times,  among  the  different  classes  or  ranks,  aeoording 
to  their  property,  character,  and  families.  But  the  patricians,  un- 
willing that  this  power  should  devolve  upon  the  plebeians,  stipulated 
that  these  duties  of  the  consular  office  should  be  disjoined  from  the 
military  tribuneship,  and  conferred  upon  two  new  o&oere  of  patrioiaa 

"TnLomox  birth,  who  were  denominated  censors ;*^  and  thus  the 
OP  CCN80MS.  long-oontinued  efforts  of  the  people  to  obtain,  from  their 

own  number,  the  election  of  officers  with  full  consular  powers,  wer0 

defeated. 

24.  But  while  dissensions  continued  to^ark  the  domestiocDuacik 
of  the  Romans  with  the  appeacance  of  divided  strength  and  waated 
energies,  the  state  of  affiiirs  presented  a  different  a^ct  to  the  sur* 
rounding  people.  They  saw  m  Rome  only  a  nation  of  warriors  that 
had  already  recovered  the  strength  it  had  lost  by  a  revolutionaiy 
change  of  government,  and  that  was  now  marching  on  to  increased 
dominion  without  any  signs  of  weakness  in  the  foreign  wars  it  had  to 
maintain.  Veil,*  the  wealthiest  and  most  important  of  the  Etrusoan 
cities,  had  long  been  a  check  to  the  progress  of  the  Romans  north  of 
the  Tiber,  and  had  often  sought  occasion  to  provoke  hostilities  with 

zz.  WAB     ^^  young  republic.     At  length  the  chief  of  the  people 
WITH  vKii.  of  y  ^  put  to  death  the  Roman  ambassadors ;  and  the 
Roman  Senate,  being  refused  satisiEaction  for  the  outrage,  formally 
resolved  that  V^ii  should  be  destroyed. 

25.  The  Etruscan  armies  that  marched  to  the  rolief  of  Yiii  were 

1.  FHi,  mmwroiu  ramaiDS  of  wMeb  sdli  exist,  was  ^bont  twalTO  m!lM  north  from  Rome,  at 
•  plBM  BOW  known  ^taeanM  of  r/ttMteAnMM.   (JUyw  Noa.  VIIL  anl  Z.) 

a.  An  Imporiant  dnty  of  tlie0in##r«  waa  that  of  loapeeUng  the  monla  of  the  people.  Hmt 
had  the  power  of  inflicting  yariona  marks  of  disgrace  upon  those  who  deserred  it,-Hmoh  aae» 
eluding  a  senator  from  the  senate-house— depriving  a  knight  of  his  pabllc  horse  If  he  did  not 
take  proper  care  of  It ;— and  of  punishing,  in  Tarious  ways,  those  who  did  not  coltiTate  their 
gmwds  properly— (hoie  who  lived  too  loiig  ainanied--«nd  those  who  wweof  diMolate  avV" 
als.  They  had  charge,  also,  of  the  public  works,  and  of  letting  oat  the  public  lands.  Tha 
p  of  oenaor  was  esteemed  highly  honorable.  In  allusion  to  the  severity  with  which  Galo 
I  Ui  dAlei^  be  to  cnuntnlr  MyM^  at  tU  pMMtt  ddr,  »€iMl>  fte  C 


Cmaa^y.]  JKOCAK  HSBIOBt:  14S 

Mpestedlj  defeated  by  ihe  Bomaa  legions,  and  the  people  of  Y^ 
weace  finaliy  eompelled  to  shut  themselTes  up  in  their  city,  which  wae 
taken  by  the  Roman  dictator,  Oamillus,  after  a  blockade  and  eiege 
of  nearly  ten  years.  (396  B.  C.)  The  spoil  taken  from  the  ooa- 
<{iiered  «ty  was  given  to  the  army,  the  captiyes  were  sold  for  the 
benefit  of  the  State,  and  the  ornaments  and  images  of  the  gods  were 
transferred  to  Bome.  The  conquerors  also  wreaked  their  vengeance 
OB  tke  towns  which  had  aided  Y6ii  in  the  war,  and  the  Romim  territory 
was  extended  &rther  north  of  the  Tiber  than  at  any  previous  period. 

26.  Bat  while  tiie  Bomans  were  enjoying  the  imaginary  security 
wliifih  these  socceesfiil  wars  h^  given  them,  they  were  suddenly  as- 
sailed by  a  new  enemy,  Irhich  threatened  the  extinotion  of  the  Bo- 
man  name.  Bnring  the  recent  Etrosoa^  wars,  a  vast  horde  of  barba^ 
nans  of  the  Gallic  or  Celtic  race  had  orossed  the  Alps  z.  <7aixio 
from  the  imknown  regions  of  the  north,  and Jiad  sat  down  n^Aaioy. 
in  the  plains  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the  country  known  as  Cisalpine 
GaoL'  Tradition  relates  that  an  injured  citizen  of  Clusium,  an 
fitmaoan  city,  went  over  the  mountains  to  these  Oauls,  taking  with 
him  a  quantity  of  the  firuits  and  wines  of  Italy,  and  promised  these 
rude  people  that  if  they  would  leave  their  own  inhospitable  country 
■ad  foUow  him,  the  land  which  produced  ^U  these  good  things 
afaoold  be  ^eirs,  ^or  it  was  inhabited  by  an  unwarlike  race ;  where- 
apen  the  whole  Glallic  people,  with  their  women  and  children,  crossed 
die  Alps,  and  marohed  direct  to  Clusium.  (391  B.  C) 

27.  Obtain  it  is  that  the  people  of  Clusium  sought  aid  from  the  Bo- 
mans, who  sent  three  of  the  nobility  to  remonstrate  with  the  Brennus, 
er  ckiefiain  ei  tiie  Gauls,  but  as  the  latter  treated  them  with  derision, 
liiey  forgot  their  Btuared  character  as  ambassadors,  and  joined  the 
Ghtsiana  in  a  sally  against  the  besiegers.  Immediately  Brennus 
ordered  a  retreat,  that  ^  might  not  be  guilty  of  shedding  the  blood 
of  ambassadors,  and  £[)rthwith  demanded  satis&ction  of  the  Boman 
K&ate;  and  when  this  was  refused  he  broke  up  his  camp  before 
Chiaium  and  took  up  his  march  for  Bome  at  the  head  of  seventy 
thousand  of  his  p^le. 

28.  Eleven  mil^  from  the  city,  on  the  banks  of  the  Al'  ia,'  a  battle 

L  dsalpins  Oanl^  mining  **Gaiil  thia  tide  ofthe  AlpA,"  to  diBttngoSA  it  from  *^  Gml  be> 
yowl  Ui»  MpB^  embraced  aU  that  portion  of  Northern  Italy  that  wm  watered  by  tbe  rlter  Vo 
and  tto  namecoaa  tribuiaries,  exteoding  aonfh  on  the  Adrialio  coast  to  tbe  river  Kablcon,  and 
OD  Um  Tnacan  ooaat  to  tbe  river  Macra.    (Map  No.  IX.)  ^^ 

aite^'^iioirtlie^M,WMi  a  flMai  aUvam  tbat  SmtmI  Into  UktTOmtttm  tte  taitf 


l44  ANCIENT  HISTORT.  (T^nl 

was  foaght,  and  the  Romiuis,  forty  thousand  in  number,  were  defeat- 
ed. (390  B.  C.)  Brennos  meditated  a  sadden  march  to  Rome  to  eon- 
summate  his  victory,  but  his  troops,  abandoning  themselves  to  pillage, 
rioting,  and  drunkenness,  refused  to  obey  the  voice  of  their  lead^, 
and  thus,  the  attack  being  delayed,  the  existence  of  the  Roman  na- 
tion was  saved.  The  defeat  on  the  Al'  ia  had  rendered  it  impossible 
to  defend  the  city,  but  a  thousand  armed  Romans  took  possessiop  of 
the  capitol  and  the  citadel,  and  laying  in  a  store  of  provisions  deter- 
mined to  maintain  their  post  to  the  last  extremity,  while  the  mass  of 
the  population  sought  refuge  in  the  neighboring  towns,  bearing  with 
them  their  riches,  and  the  principal  oljects  of  their  religious  venera- 
tion. But  while  the  rest  of  the  people  quitted  their  homes,  eighty 
priests  and  patricians  of  the  highest  rank,  deeming  it  intolerable  to 
survive  the  republic  and  the  worship  of  the  gods,  sat  down  in  the 
Forum,^  in  their  festal  robes,  awaiting  deatL 

29.  Onward  came  the  Gauls  in  battle  array,  with  horns  and 
trumpets  blowing,  but  finding  the  walls  deserted,  they  burst  open  the 
gates  and  entered  the  city,  which  they  found  desolate  and  death-like. 
They  marched  cautiously  on  till  they  came  to  the  Forum,  where,  ia 
solemn  stillness,  sat  the  aged  priests,  ^md  chiefs  of  the  senate,  look- 
ing like  beings  of  another  world.  The  wild  barbarians,  seized  witii 
awe  at  such  a  spectacle,  doubted  whether  the  gods  had  not  oome 
down  to  save  the  city  or  to  avenge  it.  At  length  a  Gaul  went  up  to 
one  of  the  priests  and  gently  stroked  his  white  beard,  but  the  old  man 
indignantly  repelled  the  insolence  by  a  stroke  of  his  ivory  sceptre. 
He  was  cut  down  on  the  spot,  and  his  death  was  the  signal  of  a 
general  massacre.  Then  the  plundering  commenced  :  fires  htcke  oat 
in  several  quarters ;  and  in  a  few  days  t^e  whole  city,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  houses  on  the  Pal'atine,  was  burnt  to  the  ground.* 
(390  B.  C.)  • 

30.  The  Gauls  made  repeated  attempts  to  storm  the  citadel,  but 
in  vain.  They  attempted  to  climb  up  the  rocks  in  the  night,  but 
the  cackling  of  the  sacred  geese  in  the  temple  of  Ji^no  awoke  Mar- 
cus Man'lius,  who  hurled  the  foremost .  Gaul  headlong  down  the 

• 

1.  Hie  Roman  F\>rum  was  a  Urge  open  space  between  the  CapitoUne  and  Pal'  atine  hills,  snr- 
l^unded  by  poitiooa,  shops,  die.,  where  aasembUea  of  the  people  were  generally  held,  JnsUce 
administered,  and  public  business  transacted.  It  Is  now  a  mere  open  space  strewed  for  the 
most  part  with  ruins,  which,  in  the  course  of  centaries,  have  accumulated  to  such  an  extent  u 
^to  raise  the  surface  fh>m  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  abore  its  ancient  lerel.   Seep.  563. 

a.  DUferent'wTlten  have  given  the  date  of  the  takiiig  of  Borne  by  the  Qeida,  lh>iB  38S  to 


CHIP.  V.]'  EOMAir  HISTORY.  146 

preeq>ioe,  and  prevented  ihe  ascent  of  those  who  were  raoimttng  after 
him.  At  length  famine  began  to  be  felt  bj  the  garrison.  Bnt  the 
host  of  the  besiegers  was  gradually  melting  away  by  sickness  and 
want,  and  Brennns  agreed,  for  a  thousand  pounds  of  gold,  to  quit 
Borne  and  its  territory.  According  to  the  old  Boman  legend,  Ca- 
mil'Ius  entered  the  city  with  an  army  while  the  gold  was  being 
weighed,  and  rudely  accosting  Brennus,  and  saying,  "  Itos  the  custom 
of  us  Bomans  to  ransom  our  country,  not  with  gold,  bnt  with  iron," 
ordered  the  gold  to  be  carried  back  to  the  temple,  whereupon  a  bat- 
tle ensued,  and  ihe  Gkuls  were  driven  fsom  the  city.  A  more  proba-- 
ble  account,  however,  relates  that  the  Gauls  were  suddenly  called 
home  to  protect  their  own  country  from*  an  invasion  of  the  Venetians.^ 
According  to  Polybius  this  great  Gallic  invasion  took  place  in  the 
8sme  year  that  the  ^<  peace  of  Antalcidas'^  was  concluded  between 
the  Greeks  and  Persians.     (See  p.  89.) 

31#  The  walls  uid  houses  of  Bome  had  now  to  be  built  anew,  and 
so  great  did  the  task  appear  that  the  citizens  clamored  for  a  removal 
to  Veil ;  but  the  persuasion  of  Camil'  lus,  and  a  lucky  omen,  in- 
duced them  to  remain  in  their  ancient  situation.  Yet  they  were  not 
aHowed  to  rebuild  their  dwellings  in  peace,  for  the  surrounding  iia-' 
lions,  the  Sabines  only  excepted,  made  war  upon  them ;  but  their 
attacks  were  repelled,  and  one  after  another  they  were  made  to  yield ^ 
tcT&e  sway  of  Bome,  which  ultimately  became  the  sovereign  city  of 
Italy.  t 

32.  Soon  after  the  rebuilding  of  the  cit^the  old  contests  between 
the  patricians  and  plebeians  were  renewed,  with  all  their  former  vio 
lence.     The  cruelties  exercised  towards  helpless  credit-  xi.  flvbsiaii 
org  appear  to  have  aroused  the  sympathies  of  the  patrician  ^^^/^^' 
if  an'  lius,  the  brave  defender  of  the  capitol,  for  he  sold 


tiie  most  valuable  part  of  his  inheritwce,  and  declared  that  so  long 
as  a  single  pound  remained  no  Boman  should  be  carried  into  bondage 
for  debt  Henceforward  he  was  r^arded  as  the  patron  of  the  poor, 
bat  for  some  hasty  words  was  thrown  into  prison  for  slandering  the 
government,  and  for  sedition.  Beleased  by  ike  damors  of  the  mul- 
titude, he  was  afterwards  .Accused  of  aspiring  to  kingly  authority ; 
and  the  more  common  account  states  that  he  was  convicted  of  treason, 
and  sentenced  to  be  thrown  headlong  from  the  Tarp^ian  rock,  the 
scene  of  his  former  glory.     But  another  account  states  that,  being 

I.  The  rtnetiaiu  were  »  people  of  andcDt  Italy  who  dwelt  north  of  the  moathTof  the  Fo, 
■nmod  the  bead-wa(«in  of  the  Adriatic.    (Mcf  Ko.  Vin.) 
G  10 


146  ANOnSHT  mSIOfiT.  [PiW  L 

im  iasiinreotioiif  and  in  posMwdoB  <xi  tbe  oapilol,  a  treaolMroiui  wb^n 
buried  him  down  the  preo^ioe.*    (384  B.  C.) 

33.  The  plebeiiuifl  mounied  the  fiiie  of  Man'  Uus^  but  hif  deadi 
was  a  patrlmn  triumph.  The  oppreaaion  of  the  plebeiaiUB  now  inr 
oAaBed,  until  nniTersal  difitress  prevailed :  debtors  were  eyerj  day 
oQnsigned  to  aUvery,  and  dragged  to  private  dnngeona;  the  number 
ef  free  tnfcisens  was  visiUj  decreaaing;  those  who  remained  were  re- 
daoed  to  a  state  of  dependence  by  their  ddi>ts,  and  Eome  was  on  the 
point  of  degenerating  into  a  miserable  oUgarehy,  when  her  deeline 
was  wrested  by  the  appearanoe  of  two  men  who  ohaaged  the  fate 
of  their  oountry  and  of  the  world. 

34.  The  authors  of  the  great  reform  in  the  oonstitutioa  were  Li- 
oinhis  Stole  and  Luoius  Sextius.  Confining  themselves  strictly  ta 
the  paths  peraoitted  by  the  laws,  they  succeeded,  after  a  stn^le  of 
five  years  against  every  species  of  fraud  and  violence,  in  obtainiBg 
for  the  plebeians  an  acknowledgment  of  their  rights,  and  all  possible 
guarantees  for  their  preservation.  (376  to  371  B.  0.)  The  history 
of  the  atriiggto  would  be  too  long  for  insertion  here.  As  on  a  former 
occasion,  it  was  only  in  the  last  extremity,  when  the  people  had 
taken  up  arms,  and  gathered  together  uiM>n  the  Aventine,  that  the 
patrician  senate  yielded  its  sanction  to  the  three  bills  brou|^t  forward 

4by  Licinius.     The  first  abolished  the  military  t^ibuneship,  and  gained 

for  the  plebeians  a  share  in  the  ccmsulship  :  the  second  regulated  the 

sharesj  divisions,  and  rents,  of  the4>ublic  lands :  the  third  regulated 

the  rate  of  interest,  gave  present  relief  to  unfortonate  debtors,  and 

seoored  personal  freedom  against  the  rapacity  of  creditors.     To  save 

zn.  oFFiox  something  from  tiie  general  wreck  of  their  power,  the 

OF  p&croft.  patricians  stipulated  that  the  judicial  functions  of  the 

,   consul  should  be  exercised  by  a  new  officer  wilh  the  title  of  Frator^^ 

diosen  from  the  patcidan  ordef ;  yet  within  thirty>five  years  afber 

the  passage  of  the  laws  of  Licinius,  not- only  the  praetorship,  but  the 

dictatorship  also,  waji  opened  to  the  plebeians. 

35.  The  legislation  of  Licmius  freed  Borne  from  internal  dissen* 
stos,  and  gave  new  development  to  her  strength  and  warlike  < 


1.  Tb»  pratffTB  were  Judidal  maglstratoSy— ofBoem  answering  to  the  modern  ehfef-jnctlee  or 
dumoeilor.  The  modem  English  forms  of  JndleUl  prooeedlngs  tn  the  trial  Oi  eansea  are  moallEf 
taken  ftom  those  obeerred  by  the  Soman  pr»ton.  At  fini  but  one  prater  wis  chosen ;  aftep> 
wards,  when  foreigners  became  nnmerous  at  Rome,  another  pnetor  was  added  to  administer 
jostlce  to  them,  or  between  them  and  the  citizens.  In  later  times  sabordlnate  Judges,  called 
provincial  pneton,  were  appointed  to  administer  Jastice  In  the  provinces. 

a.  See  Niebahr,  i.  87S. 


08MLY.]  BcaiAir  HisTOBY.  Mr 

gioL  OocrMJonaiHy  tfie  Osola  eame  down  from  ike  north  ad(d  made 
inroads  vpon  the  Roman  teiritories,  hnf  thej  were  kiTariablj  driTon 
babk  with  loss ;  while  the  Etms'  cans^  almost  oonstantlj  at  war  with 
Some,  grew  kes  and  lees  formidable,  from  repeated  defeat&  On  the 
aanthy  however,  a  new  and  dangerous  enemy  appeared  in  the  Sam- 
nite'  confederacy,  now  in  the  fulness  of  its  strength,  and  in  extent 
of  territory  and  popnlation  far  superior  to  Rome  and  her  allies. 

86.  Cap' na,*  a  WBidthy  city  of  Campinia,  having  obtained  from 
Kone  the  promise  of  protection  against  the  Samnites,   ^^  ^^^^^ 
tiie  lalter  hooghtily  engaged  in  the  war,  and  with  a  larger     sAioran 
anny  than  Rome  conld  master  invaded  the  territory  of       ^^^ 
Ganq^inia,  hot  in  two  desperate  battles  were  defeated  by  the  Ro 
maoa     Twa  years  later  the  Samnites  proffered  terms  of  peace, 
which  were  accepted.     (341  B.  G.)    ^league  with  ihe  Samnites  ap- 
pears to  have  lundten  the  connection  that  had  loog  existed  between 
Rome  and  Latkun,  and  althon^  the  hitter  was  willii^  to  submit  to 
a  eommon  government,  and  a  complete^  union  as  one  nati<m,  yet  the 
Romans,  rejeoting  all  con^omise,  haughtily  determined  either  that 
their  eity  must  be  a  Latin  town,  or  the  Latins  be  subject  to  Rome. 
The  result  of  the  Latin  war  was  the  annexation  of  all  Latium,  and 
of  Campania  also,  to  the  territory  of  the  Republic.     (338  B.  C.) 

37.  The  Samnites  were  alarmed  at  these  successes,  and  Roman 
eiMroaehments  soon  involved  the  two  people  in  another  war.     The 
Samnites  lost  several  battles,  but  under  their  able  general  Pontius 
they  effectually  humbled  the  pride  of  Rome.     The  armies  of  the 
two-  Roman  consuls,  amounting  to  twenty  thousand  men,  ^^  sboond 
whiKe  passing  through  a  narrow  defile  call  the  Caudine     i axnite 
Forks^*  were  surrounded  by  the  enemy,  and  in  this  situa*       ^^^' 
Uon,  unable  either  to  fi^t  or  to  retreat,  were  obliged  to  surrender.- 
(321  B.  C.)    The  terms  of  Pontius  were  that  the  Roman  soldiers 

flheuld  be  allowed  to  return  to  their  homeS}  after  passing  under  the 

•  • 

L  Hm  SammiUt  dwelt  at  the  distance  of  aboat  ninety  miles  south-east  fh>m  Rome,  tl.elr 
tartflOTy  tying  betw«ea  Apulia  on  the  east  andOaupAnia  and  L&timn  on  the  west.  (Mapg 
IfakVHLandX.) 

9L  Cap'  CM,  the  capital  of  Oamp4nia,  was  aboni  three  n^es  from  the  left  bank  of  the  riTer 
TidtV  BOfl,  (BOW  Tultarao;)  about  one  hundred  and  five  miles  south-east  ftom  Rome.  The 
MtnalBi  oC  ili  aadeiil  sapUtheatie,  said  to  haTe  been  capable  of  oontalnlng  one  hundred 
ftonaand  speetalors,  and  some  of  its  tombs,  4e«^  attest  its  ancient  splendor  and  magnificence. 
Two  and  a  half  miles  ftrom  the  site  of  the  ancient  dty,  is  the  modem  city  of  Cap^  ua,  on  the 
iaftb«okortl»V«l«an».   (JAyNo.vni.) 

X  The  Cmdine  Fork*  were  a  narrow  pass  in  the  Samnite  territory,  about  thlrty-flvo  mllea 
IfromtteGap'na.  Tlftepraseiit  vaUeyofdAfyaio,  (prForchiadlArpaiaOnotfiurffOni 
k  la  tfaom^lo  answer  Id  Ifate  peas.*  « 


148  AsaiBsv  mfftonr. .  [Pahi 

yoke ;  that  there  sbould  be  a  renewal  of  the  ineieiii  equal  alliaDot . 
between  Rome  and  Samniimi)  and  a  restoration  of  all  places  that 
had  been  dependent  upon  Samnhim  before  the  war.  For  the  fnlfil* 
ment  of  tilese  stipulations  the  oonsnls  gave  their  oaths  in  the  name 
of  the  republic,  and  Pontius  retained  mx  hundred  Roman  ixughts«s 
hostages. 

38.  But  notwithstanding  the  reoent  disaster,  and  the  liard.&4a 
that  mi^t  be  anticipated  for  the  hostages,  the  Roman  senate  imme- 
diately declared  the  peace  null  and  Toid,  and  deereed  that  those  who 
had  sworn  to  it  diould  "he  given  up  to  the  Samnites,  as  persons  who 
ha4  deceived  them.  In  vain  did  Pontius  demand  either  that  the. 
whole  army  should  be  again  placed  in  his  power,  or  that  the  ttrms 
of  capitulation  should  be  strictly  fulfilled ;  but  he  showed  magna- 
nimity of  soul  in  refusing  to  accept  the  consuls  and  other  ofiieers 
whom  the  Romans  would  have  given  up  to  his  vengeance.  Not  long 
after,  the  six  hundred  hostages  wwe  restored,  but  on  what  oonditiona 
is  unknown. 

39.  The  war,  being  again  renewed,  was  continued  with  brief  inter- 
vals of  truce,  during  a  period  of  thirty  years ;  and  although  the  Sam- 

ZY.  THIRD   ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  times  aided  by  Umbrians,'  Etrus'cana, 

8AMMITB     and  Oauls,  the  desperate 'valor  of  the  Romans  repeatedly 

^^'       triumphed  over  all  opposition.-  The^last  great  battle, 

which  occurred  fifty-one  years  from  the  commencement  of  the  first 

Samnite  war,  and  which  decided  the  contest  between  Rome   and 

Samnium,  has  no  name  in  history,  and   the   place  where   it  was 

fought  is  unknown,  but  its  importance  is  gaiSiered  from  the  common 

statement  that  twenty  thousand  Samnites  were  left  dead  on  the  field 

and  four  thousand  taken  prisoners,  and  that  among  the  latter  was 

Pontius  himself.     (B.  C.  292.)     He  was  led  in  chains  to  grace  the 

triumph  of  the  Roman  general,  but  the  senate  tarnished  its  honor 

by  ordering  the  old  man  to  execution.     (291  B.  0.)     One  year  alter 

*the  defeat  of  Pontius,  the  l^amnites  submitted  to  the  terms  dictated 

by  the  conquerors.     (290  B.  JC.) 

40.  The  Samnite  wars  had  made  the  Romans  acquainted  with  tiie 
Grecian  cities  on  the  eastern  coast,  and  it  was  not  long  before  they 

XVI.  WAR    ^o^»<i  *  pretext  for  war  with  Taren'  tum,  the  wealthiest 
wirn  THB    of  the  Greek  towns  of  Italy.    The  Tarentines,  abandoned 
TARBNTiNEs.  ^  ^^^^^  ^^^  luxuTy,  had  often  employed  mercenary  Gro- 
\ 

1.  a■l'^W«,t]Mt0rrilol7<>ra6l7mbrlflM^WM•Mtor«nlrii^OBtlMleAltel^ 
and  Mrtb  of  th»  atbiiie  Urrltorjr.  \JIUpt  Jloi.  Vkif.  Mid  X^ 


Cup,  T.J  BOKAST  HISTOBT.  149 

man  troops  in  their  wars  with  the  rude  tribes  by  which  they  were 
snrroimded,  and  now,  when  pressed  by  the  Bomans,  they  again  had 
reoomrse  to  foreign  aid,  and  applied  for  protection  to  Pyr'  rhos,  king 
of  Epirns,  who  has  preyionaly  been  brought  under  onr  notice  in  con- 
nection with  events  in  Grecian  history.     (See  p.  106.) 

41.  Pyr'rhus,  ambitious  of  military  fame,  accepted  the  iayitation 
of  the  Tarentmes,  and  passed  over  to  Taren'  tmn  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  nearly  thirty  thoosand  men,  having^among  his  forces  twenty 
elephants,  the  first  of  those  animals  that  had  been  seen  in  Italy.  In 
&e  first  battle,  which  was  fought  with  the  consul  LsdTinus,  seven 
times  was  Pyr'rhus  beaten  back,  and  to  his  elephants  he  was  finally 
indebted  for  his  victory.  (280  B.  0.)  The  valor  and  military  skill , 
of  the  Bomans  astonished  Pyr'  rhns,  who  had  expected  to  encounter 
only  a  horde  of  barbarians.  As  he  passed  over  the  field  «f  battle 
after  the  fight,  and  marked  the  bodies  of  the  Bomans  who  had  fallen 
in  their  ranks  without  turning  thdr  backs,  and  observed  their  counte- 
nances, stem  even  in  deaths  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed  in  admira- 
tion: <^With  what  ease  I  could  conquer  th^e  world  had  I  the  Bo- 
mans lor  soldiers,  or  had  they  me  for  their  king." 

42.  Pyr^  rhu^  now  tried  the  arts  of  negotiation,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose sent  to  Borne  his  friend  Cin^as,  the  orator,  who  is  said  to  have 
won  more  towns  by  his  eloquence  than  Pyr'  rhus  by  his  arms ;  but 
all  his  proposals  of  peace  were  rejected,  and  Oineas  returned  filled 
with  admiration  of  liie  Bomans,  whose  city  he  said,  was  a  temple, 
and  their  senate  an  assembly  of  kings.  The  war  was  renewed,  and 
in  a  second  battle  Pyr'  rhus  gained  a  dearly-bought  victory,  for  he 
left  the  flower  of  his  troops  on  the  field.  "  One  more  such  victory," 
he  replied  to  those  who  congratulated  him^  "  and  I  am  undone  "  * 
(279  B.  C.) 

43.  It  is  related  that  while  tfie  armies  were  facing  each  other  the^ 
third  time,  a  letter  was  brought  to  Fabricius,  the  Boman  consul  and 
eominander,  fro^  the  physician  of  Pyr'  rhus,  offering,  for  a  suitable 
reward,  to  poison  the  king,  and  that  Fabricius  thereupon  nobly  in- 
formed Pyr'rhus  of  the  treachery  that  was  plotted  against  him. 
When  ihe  message  was  brought  to  Pyr'  rhus,  he  was  astonished  at 
the  generosity  of  his  enemy,  and  exclaimed,  "  It  would  be  easier 
to  turn  the  sun  from  his  course  than  Fabriciiis  from  the  path  of 
honor."  Not  to  be  outdone  m  magnanimity  he  released  all  his 
prisoners  without  ransom,  and  soon  after,  withdrawing  his  forces,  * 
passed  over  into  Sicily,  where  his  aid  had  been  requested  by  the  - 


150  AKOmr  HI810RT.  fltetl 

Ch^koitiegftgfttnsttlieCarllMginiaiis.  (276B.0.  Seep.  1^1.)  &•> 
turning  to  Italy  aftor  an  absenoe  of  three  yeafs,  ke  i«Beired  hostOi* 
ties  with  the  Ramans,  bnt  was  defeated  in  a  great  liattle  by  the  oonsiil 
Onrins  Denta^  after  which  he  left  Itdy  witii  {w^eOipita^oo,  and 
sought  to  renew  his  broken  fortunes  in  the  Grecian  wars.  The  de- 
parture of  Pjr'rhns  was  soon  followed  by  the  fiJl  ef  Taren'tum, 
and  the  establishment  of  Roman  sopremaoy  over  all  Italy,  frcMb  tka 
Rubicon'  and  the  Amns,*  on  the  northern  frontier  of  Umbria  and 
Etruria,  to  the  Sicilian  straits,  and  from  the  Tuscan*  sea  to  the 
Adriat'  ic. 
44.  8oTereigns  of  all  Italy,  the  Romans  nour  began  to  extend  tMr 
•  infiuenoe  abroad.  Two  years  after  the  defeat  ci  Pyr'  rhus,  Ptol'  eny 
Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  songfat  the  friendship  and  alliance  of 
Rome  by  embassy,  and  the  Roman  senate  honored  the  proposal  bj 
sending  ambassadors  in  retom,  with  rich  presents,  to  Alezandifak 
An  interference  with  the  affitirs  of  Sicily,  soon  after,  bronght  on  % 
war  with  Carthage,  at  this  time  a  powerfiol  repuMio,  soperiw  in 
strength  and  resources  to  the  Roman.  -  From  this  period  the  Roman 
annals  begin  to  embrace  the  histories  of  surrounding  nations,  and 
the  circle  rapidly  enlarges  untO  all  the  then  known  world  it  drawn 
within  the  Tortez  of  R,oman  ambiti<m. 


SECTION  III. 


ns  BOittM  BiroBuo,  raoM  i1b  »iwa«auwi  or  nn  oABnuoanlir  inam, 
268  B.  o ,  TO  THs  axDnonoir  of  obkbob  anIi  oaethagb  to  fES 

CONDITION  OF  ROMAN  PROYINOBB :  146  B.  a  ^  117  TXAB8. 

AKALTSI8.  1.  Geographical  aooomit  of  CARTlfI«fe.  CTaiil8.>--t.  AMen  doniuloH  ti 
Oirthige.  Foraign  pommAoot.  Trade.  [Swdiniiu  Oortka.  BftlMflo  Ul«.  Malte.}^^ 
CaivmBfltanoes  of  Roman  inlerferenoe  in  tb«  alUn  of  Slcn7.--4.  Gommencemeiit  of  the  TntiT 
Pumc  War.  The  Caithaginlani  driven  from  fflcfly.  The  Bomaaa  take  Agrtgentnm.^S.  TlM 
OwthaglsiaiiB  nrage  Itdy.   BvUdlngortteant  Boinafteet   FInt  mnA  enoonRter  wllk  lh» 

L  The  RuHcon^  which  formed  in  part  the  bonndarj  between  Italj  proper  anS  CSaalpiDO 
Ganl,  Sb  a  amall  stream  which  flOls  Into  ihe  Adriat'ie,  eighteen  or  twenty  mUee  aoalh  of  ]Ut>- 
Oina.    (.¥ap  No.  VUI.) 

Sl  The  river  Jmus  (now  the  Jlmo)  was  the  boundary  of  Etrcnia  on  the  north  until  the  tUne 
of  Angustna.  On  both  Its  banks  stood  Florentla,  the  modern  Pltrencs ;  and  eight  mHea  ihMa 
Ui  month,  on  its  right  bmk,  stood  Ptoie,  the  modem  PUa.    (JUtf  No.  VIU.) 

a.  The  Tutcan  Sea  was  that  part  of  the  MeditemaeMi  which  oileiMled  along  the  ooaat  of 
Etmrta,  or  Tuscany.    {Map  No.  Vm.) 


teir.  V.J  ROMiJT  RI8TORT.  151 


aBOigbitoiWr--d.  HwiMPdari^ofctytiigihairarlato  AMm.  fleeonS  dofett  of  the  Oh- 
CbagliiiaoA.— 7.  Begnlus  iRTadee  tbe  Oarthagtiriim  terrlUNy.  His  irat  inoMiaes,  and  Aial  d»< 
teaL  [HerauBan  promontofy.  cajpea.}— 6.  Boman  disasten  on  tbe  aea.  Redaction  of  the 
BomaB  fleeL  Bomao  victory  in  Sldly.— fi.  kegnlna  is  sent  to  Roiiio  wUh  propoiak  of  peaeo. 
His  retoni  to  Quthage,  and  auboeqaeni  firte.— 10.  BaJbaegnont  eyanta  of  ttia  war.  Oondlttooa 
of  the  peace,  and  extenaon  of  the  Boman  dominion. 

UL  General  peaee.  GIraunalaneea  that  led  to  the  Ilviwl'ux  WAk.  pUjr'laM.}— 18.  Be- 
ndlB  or  the  war.  Gratttnde  <rf  the  Oreeka.  Wam  wm  thb  Gajjuu  [Claattdli]m.}-13.  Hatt'- 
ikar*a  derigna  upon  Spain.  His  enmity  to  the  Bomana.  [Spain.]— 14.  Progreas  of  the  Oartha)- 
gfBiana  In  Spain.  Hannlbal'a  oonqneati  there.  Boman  emtMUMy  to  Otithage.  (Bagontiun. 
Ibenia.    Chtahmfat] 

- 15.  Opening  of  the  Sacoxn  Pumc  Was.  Plana  of  the  opposing  generals.  Hannibal's  march 
to  Italy.  Batllea  on  the  Tldnns  and  the  Trebia.  [OaoL  Bfarsedies.  Turin.  Tldans.  Nu- 
aiidSa.  B.P01  TVeMa.}—l«.  Batttoaof  IWi^imemiaandanmaB.  ITnAmmm,  Oannn.]— 17. 
DeteCloB  from  the  canse  'of  Rome.  Goucagei  and  renewed  efforta,  of  the  Romans.— Id.  Bannl- 
toatCapna.  Saeoessftdtaetioaof  Fabius  Maximas.  HasdrubaL  FUl  of  Syracuse.  [Metaurua. 
Airhfan^dm]— 10.  fidpio  caiilee  the  war  into  AfHoa.  Hla  aoeoeasea.  Beeail  of  Hannibal, 
from  Italy.  CUaca.3-ao.  Oonfldenoe  of  the  Oarthagialana  in  Hannibal.  Battle  of  SSamu  II0 
terms  of  peace;    IMumph  of  Sdpio.    [Zama.] 

SI.  The  dislreases  which  the  war  had  brought  npon  fbe  Bomana.  Their  iiq6on<inerable 
spirit,  and  ranewed  prosperity.— 89L  State  of  the  world— flivorable  to  tike  advancement  of  the 
Boman  republic.— 523.  A  Gebciaii  Wax.— 24.  Syriaji  War.  Terms  of  the  peace.  Disposal  of 
Hie  eomiaered  provinces.  [Magneela.  Pergamaa.]— 85.  The  Ihte  of  Bannib^  and  8dpio.-^aS. 
Reduction  of  Greece.  Tboi  Tb»o  Puhio  Was.  Belatkma  of  the  ^yth^wtflFf  and  BxAnana 
alnce  the  battle  of  Zama.— 27.  .Condition  of  CarUiage.  Boman  armament.  Demands  of  the 
Bomana.— 88.  The  exasperated  Cartfaaglniana  prepare  for  war.— 89.  Events  and  results  of  ibb 
4MalesL    JlestnictSQnOfOlBrlfaa8e,146B.O. 


1.  Carthage,  believedLto  have  b^en  fonnded  by  a  Pboenician  colony 
from  Tyre  in  tbe  ninth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  was  situated 
on  a  peninsula  of  the  northern  ooast  of  Africa,  about 

twelve  milA,  according  to  Livy,  north-east  from  the 
modem  city  of  Tunis,'  but,  according  to  some  modem  writers^ 
only  three  or  four  miles.  Probably  the  city  extended  over  a  great 
part  of  the  space  between  Tunis  and  Cape  Carthage.  Its  harbor 
was  southward  from  the  city,  and  was  entered  from«what  is  now  ih6 
aulf  of  Tunis. 

2.  The  Carthaginians  early  assumed  and  maintained  a  dominioii 
over  the  surrounding  Libyan  tribes.  Their  territory  was  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Oreoian  Cyreniica;  their  trading  posts  ex- 
tended westward  along  the  coast  to  the  pillars  of  Hercules;  and 
among  their  foreign  possessions  may  be  enumerated  their  depen- 


1.  7\uus  is  about  four  mllea  flom  the  sea,  and  three  milea  south-west  Bmn  the  rains  of 
ancient  Gartbage.  Among  theae  rains  have  been  discovered  namerous  reservoirs  or  lai^ 
daterna,  and  the  remains  of  a  grand  aqueduct  which  brought  water  to  tbe  city  from  a  distance 
of  at  least  fifty  miles.  According  to  Strabo,  Tunis,  or  7Vn««,  existed  before  tbe  foundation  of 
Gaithage.  Tbe  chief  events  in  the  history  of  Tunis  an  ita  numerous  aeiges  and  capturei^ 
^ee  pp.33i^lQ.  M^  No.  VnL> 


152  AHCIEirr  HISTOBT.  [PawL 

denoies  in  BOiith-western  Spain-,  in  Sioilj,  and  in  Sardinia,^  Oornea,* 

the  Balearic^ Isles,'  and  Malta/  It  is  believed  that  thej  carried  on 
an  extensiTe  caravan  trade  with  Hhe  African  nations  as  far  as  th« 
Niger ;  and  it  is  known  that  they  entered  into  a  commercial  treaty 
with  Rome  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century ;  ^et  £bw  details 
of  their  history  are  known  to  us  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the 
first  Carthaginian  war  with  Syracuse,  about  480  B.  C. 

3.  At  the  time  to  which  we  have  brought  down  the  details  of  Ro- . 
man  history,  the  Mamertines,  a  band  of  Campanian  mercenaries, 
who  had  been  employed  in  Sicily  by  a  former  king,  having  estab^ 
lished  themselves  in  the  island,  and  obtamed  possession  of  Mess^na^ 
by  fraud  and  injustice,  quarrelled  among  themselves,  one  party  seek- 
ing  the  protection  of  Carthage,  and  the  other  that  of  Rome.  The 
Greek  towns  of  Sicily  were  for  the  most  part  already  in  friendly  al- 
liance with  the  Carthaginians,  who  had  long  been  aiming  at  the  com- 
plete possession  of  the  island ;  and  the  Romans  did  not  hesitate  to 
avail  themselyes  of  the  most  trifling  pretexts  to  defeat  the  ambitious 
designs  of  their  rivals. 

4.  The  first  Punic*  war  commenced  263  years  B.  C,  eight  years 
n.  Wbst     After  the  surrender  of  Taren'  tum,  when  the  Romans 

yoNio  WAE.  jxiBde  a  descent  upon  Sicily  with  a  large  army  under  the 

1.  Sardinia  la  a  hflly  bnt  fertile  island  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  one  handred  and  thirty 
miles  south-west  from  the  nearest  Italian  coast.  At  an  earlj  period  the  OsTthaginians  formed 
lettlements  there,  but  the  shores  of  the  island  fell  into  the  haiids  of  the  Ronuss  in  the  intenral 
between  the  first  and  second  Punic  wan,  237  B.  C  The  inhabitants  of  the  interior  bravely  d». 
ftnded  themselyes,  and  were  never  completely  subdued  by  the  Roman  arms.    (Map  No.  VIII.) 

2.  Corgiea  Ilea  directly  north  of  Sardhaia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  strait  of  BoniiMo^ 
ten  miles  in  width  in  the  narrowest  part.  Some  Greeks  from  Phdcis  settled  here  at  an  early 
period,  but  were  driven  out  by  the  Carthaginians.  The  Romans  took  the  island  from  the  latter 
831  B.  a    (Jtfop  No.  \iIII.) 

3.  The  BaUarie  Met  were  those  now  known  9A  Majorca  and  Minorca,  the  former  of  which 
Is  on9  hondrod  and  ten  miles  east  from  the  coast  of  Spain.  By  some  the  ancient  Ebusna,  now 
Jvica,  ia  ranked  among  the  Baleares.  The  term  Balearic  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word 
Hlieijt,  ""to  throw,*^— alluding  to  the  lomarkable  skill  of  the  inhabitants  in  using  the  sling. 
At  an  early  date  the  PhoBnicians  formed  settlements  in  the  Baleares.  They  were  succeeded  by 
the  Carthaginians,  from  whom  the  Romans,  under  Q.  Metellos,  conquered  these  islands  133 
B.C.    (Jlfop  No.  IX.) 

4.  Malta,  whose  ancient  name  was  Mdita^  is  an  island  of  the  Mediterranean,  sixty  miles 
■oath  from  fiidly.  The  Phasnicians  early  pHanted  a  oolony  here.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Carthaginians  about  four  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  in  the  second  Punic  war 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  who  made  it  an  appendage  of  their  province  of  Sicily.  See 
•]8op.4eOL    (Jira^NcVIIt.)  f 

a.  The  term  Punic  means  simply  **  Carthaginian.'*  It  Is  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  pkeinikta^ 
In  its  sense  of  ftarple,  which  the  Greeks  applied  to  Phmnlcians  and  Carthaghilans,  in  allusion 
to  the  flunous  purple  or  crimson  of  t^re,  the  parent  city  of  Carthage.  The  Romans,  adapting 
fbe  word  to  the  analogy  of  the  Latin  tongue^  ohaogod  it  to  PnnUnu,  whence  the  S&gltsh  word 


OBtf.t.]  ROMAH  HISTORY.  153     - 

temmand  of  the  ocnuml  Claudias.  After  they  hod  gained  possession  of 
Hessana,  in  the  second  year  of  the  war,  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse, 
the  second  of  the  name,  deserted  his  former  allies  and  joined  the  ^ 
Romans,  and  ere  long  the  Carthaginians  were  driven  from  their  mostv 
important  stations  in  the  island,  although  their  superior  naval  power 
still  enabled  them  to  retain  the  command  of  the  surrounding  seas, 
and  the  possession  of  all  the  harbors  in  Sicily.  The  Carthaginians 
finrtlfied  Agrigentnm,  a  place  of  great  natural  strength ;  yet  the  Ro- 
mans besieged  the  city,  which  they  took  by  storm,  after  defeating  an 
immense  army  that  h^  been  sent  to  its  relief.     (262  B.  C.) 

5.  But  while  the  Sicilian  towns  submitted  to  the  Roman  arms,  a 
Carthaginian  fl^t  of  sixty  ships  ravaged  the  coast  of*Italy ;  and  the 
Bomans  saw  the  necessity  of  being  able  to  meet  the  enemy  on  their 
own  element  Unacquainted  with  the  building  of  large  ships,  they 
must  have  been^obliged  to  renounce  their  design  had  not  a  Cartba- 
gnuan  ship  of  war  been  thrown  upon  the  Italian  coast  by  a  storm 
From  the  model  thus  furnished  a  hundred  and  thirty  ships  were 
built  within  sixty  days  after  the  trees  had  been  felled.  The  Oartha- 
ghiians  ridiculed  the  awkwardness  and  clumsiness  of  their  structure, 
and  thought  to  destroy  the  whole  fleet  in  a  single  encounter ;  but  the 
Roman  commander,  having  invented  an  elevated  draw-bridge,  with 
grappling  irons,  for  the  purpose  of  close  encounter  and  boarding, 
lioldly  attacked  the  enemy,  uid  took  or  destroyed  forty-five  of  the 
Carthaginian  vessels  in  the  first  battle,  while  not  a  single  Roman  ship 
was  lost    (260  B.  C.) 

6.  After  the  war  had  continued  eight  years  with  varied  success,  in- 
volving in  its  ravages  not  only  Sicily,  but  Sardinia  and  Corsica  alsQ, 
a  Roman  armament  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  ships,  intrusted  to 
the  command  of  the  consuls  RegiOus  and  Manlius,  was  prepared  for 
the  great  enteriNrise  of  carrying  the  war  into  Africa.  But  the  Car- 
thaginians met  these  preparations  with  equal  efforts,  and  under  their 
two  greatest  commanders,  Hanno  and  Hamil'  car,  went  out  to  meet 
the  enemy  with  three  hundred  and  fifty  ships,  which  carried  no  less 
than  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men.  In  the  engagement  that 
followed,  the  rude  force  of  the  Romans,  aided  by  their  boarding 

/bridges,  overcame  all  the  advantages  of  naval  art  and  practice. 
Again  the  Carthaginians  were  defeated, — ^more  than  thirty  of  their 
flhip§  being  sunk,  and  sixty -four,  with  all  their  crews,  taken.  (256 
B  C.) 

7.  Regnlus  proceeded  to  Africa,  and  landing  on  the  eastern  coast 


154  ANCIENT  HfiSnyttT.  [Piȣ 

of  tho  HermflBMi  promontoiT*  took  Cljp^ea'  bj  Biorm,  oosqnered 
Tunis,  received  the  sabmiMion  of  aeTentjfoiir  towns,  and  laid  WMte 
the  country  to  the  yery  gates  of  Carthage.  An  ombaMy  sued  for 
peace  in  the  Roman  camp ;  but  the  t^ma  oiTered  by  Regofaui  wer6 
little  better  than  destruction  itself,  and  Carthage  woold  probably 
have  perished  thus  early,  had  not  foreign  aid  unexpectedly  oome  to 
her  assistance.  All  of  a  sudden  we  find  Xanthip'  pus,  a  Spartaa 
general,  with  a  small  body  of  Grecian  troops,  among  tibe  Cartha|p« 
nians,  promising  them  victory  if  they  would  give  him  the  conduct  of 
the  war.  A  presentiment  of  deliyeranoe  pemtded  the  people,  and 
Xanthip'  pus,  after  having  arranged  and  exercised  the  Oarthaginian 
army  before  the  city,  went  out  to  meet  the  greatly  superior  IbroeB  of 
the  Romans,  and  gained  a  complete  viotorjbover  them.  (255  B.  C) 
Regains  himself  was  taken  prisoner,  and,  out  of  tiie  whole  Romaa 
army,  only  two  th(msand  escaped,  and  shut  themselves  up  in  Olyp'efeb 
Of  Xanthip'  pus  nothing  is  known  beyond  the  events  connected  with 
this  Carthaginian  victory. 

8.  A  Roman  fleet,  sent  to  bring  off  the  garrison  of  Clyp'  ea,  guned 
a  signal  success  over  the  Carthaginians  near  the  HermsMm  promon- 
tory, but  on  the  return  voyage,  while  off  the  southern  coast  of  Sioilji 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  a  tempest.  Another  fleet  that  had  laid 
waste  the  Libyan  coast  experienced  a  similar  fate  on  its  retnn^ — a 
hundred  and  fifty  ships,  and  the  whole  booty,  being  tfirallowed  up  lA 
the  waves.  The  Romans  were  discouraged  by  these  disasters,  and 
for  a  time  abandoned  the  sea  to  their  enemies,  ike  senate  having  at 
one  time  decreed  that  the  fleet  should  not  be  restored,  but  limited 
to  sixty  ships  for  the  defence  of  the  Italian  coast  and  the  protection 
of  transports.  Still  the  war  was  continued  on  the  land,  and  in  Sicily 
the  Roman  consul  Metellus  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Cartha* 
ginians^ear  Panor'mus,  killing  twenty  thousand  of  the  enemy,  and 
taking  more  than  a  hundred  of  their  elephants.  (250  B.  C.)  This 
was  the  last  great  battle  of  the  first  Punic  war,  although  the  contest 
Was  continued  in  Sicily,  mostly  by  a. series  of^Jowly-conducted  iiegeff, 
eight  years  longer.  ^ 

9.  Soon  after  the  defeat  at  Panor'mus,  the  Carthaginians  sent  ail 
embassy  to  Rome  with  proposals  of  peace.     Regulus  was  taken  from 

1.  Tbe  Hermwam  pnmonUrjf^  or  ^^promonloiy  of  Mereoiy^  is  the  hum  u  the  modem  Oqw 
Bm,  usueUy  called  the  northern  cape  of  Aftlee,  at  a  distance  of  about  fbrlj-llTe  miles  north- 
east from  the  site  of  Oarthage.   (Jir<v  No.  vni.) 

S.  Oyp' ««,  DOW  jiUib'  M,  was  altoated  on  the  peoiBsala  which  tvmliietes  in  G^ie  Bm,  a 
short  distance  south  fh>m  the  oape.    {Map  No.  VIIL). 


Obr.y.]  BOMAK  HISTOBT.  155 

ktf  chmgeon  to  aooofiipany  the  embassy,  the  OarUiagbiians  trnsting 
that,  weary  of  his  long  captivity,  he  would  urge  the  senate  to  accept 
the  proffered  terms ;  bat  the  inflexible  Bonum  persnaded  the  senate 
to  reject  the  proposal  and  contmne  the  war,  assuring  his  cotmtrymen 
that  the  resources  of  Carthage  were  already  nearly  exhausted. 
Boond  by  his  oath  to  retnm  as  a  prisoner  if  peace  were  not  con- 
eluded,  he  Tolxmtarily  went  ]>ack  to  his  dungeon.  It  is  generally 
stated  that  after  his  return  to  Oarthage  he  was  tortured  to  death  by 
the  exasperated  Carthaginians.  But  althou^  his  martyrdom  has 
been  sung  by  Roman  poets,  and  his  self-sacrifice  extolled  by  orators, 
there  are  strong  reasons  fbr  belieTing  that  he  died  a  natural 
4eatfa.» 

10.  The  subsequent  erentsi  of  the  first  Punio  war,  down  to  within 
s  year  of  its  termination,  were  generally  unfortunate  to  the  Romans; 
but  enrentually  the  Cartha^nian  admiral  lost  nearly  his  whole  fleet 
in  a  naval  battle.  (241  B.  C.)  Again  the  Carthaginians,  having 
exhausted  the  resources  of  their  treasury,  and  unable  to  equip 
another  fleet,  sought  peace,  whidi  was  finally  concluded  on  the  con- 

^  ditions  that  Cartiu^e  should  evacuate  Sicily,  and  the  small  islands 
lying  between  it  and  Italy,  pay  three  thousand  two  hundred  talents 
of  silver,  and  restore  the  Roman  prisoners  without  ransom.  (B.  0. 
240^  SicOy  now  became  a  Roman  province ;  Corsica  and  Sardinia 
were  added  two  years  later ;  and  tiie  sway  of  Rome  was  extended 
ever  all  the  important  islimds  which  Carthage  had  possessed  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

1 1.  Soon  after  the  termination  of  the  first  Punic  war,  Rome  found 
herself  at  peace  with  all  the  world,  and  the  temple  of  Jinus  was 
shut  for  the  second  time  since  the  foundation  of  the  city.  m.  nxTa'- 
But  the  interval  of  repose  was  brief  A  war  soon  broke  "»  ▼a*-  > 
oat  with  the  Illyr'ians,*  which  led  the  Roman  legions,  for  the  fi!i:st 
time,  aoroas  the  Adriatic.  (229  B.  C.)  The  Illyr'ians  had  com- 
mitted numerous  piracies  on  the  Italian  coasts,  and  when  ambassa- 
dors were  sent  to  demand  reparation.  Tea'  ta,  the  Illyr'  ia&  queen, 
told  them  that  piracy  was  the  national  custom  of  her  subjects,  and 
ahe  could  not  forbid  them  what  was  their  right  and  privilege.  One 
of  the  ambassadors  thereupon  told  her  that  it  was  the  custom  of  the 

L  Tbe  Ilifr'ians  were  inhabltanta  of  lUfr' im  or  Jffyr'wiia,  a  coantiy  bordering  ob  tke 
Adrlitt'  ic  see,  oppodte  Italy,  and  bordered  on  the  loutti-eaBt  by  Spiral  and  Maoedtola.  ( Jffp 
JlouVnL) 

•.  irUb«hr»  B.  in.  p.  STS.  md  4t.  TO. 


IM  ANCIENT  mpDBT.  (PWI. 

Bomans  to  do  swaj  witli  bad  castomB;  and  so  inoeofled  was  the 
qneen  at  his  boldness  that  she  procured  his  assassLnation. 

12.  The  Illjr'  ians,  after  saooessire  defeats,  were  glad  to  condade 
a  peace  with  the  Romans,  and  to  abandon  their  piracies,  both  on  the 
Italian  and  Grecian  coasts.  (228  B.  C.)  Seyeral  Greek  communi- 
ties showed  themselres  grateful  for  the  favor ;  a  copy  of  the  treaty 
was  read  in  the  assembly  of  the  Achssan  league ;  and  the  Corinthians 
conferred  upon  the  Romans  the  right  of  taking  part  in  the  Isthmian 
games.     Roman  encroachments  on  the  territory  of  the  Gauls  next 

^  ^^  brought  on  a  war  with  that  fierce  people,  and  a  vast  swarm 
WITH  THE  of  the  barbarians  poured  down  upon  Italy,  and  adTsnced 
oAuu.  irresistibly  aS  far  as  Clusium,  a  distance  of  only  three 
days'  journey  from  Rome.  (226  B.  C.)  After  four  years  continu- 
ance the  war  was  ended  by  a  great  victory  gained  over  the  (jauls  bj 
Claudius  Marcellus,  at  Clastid'  ium,*  where  the  noted  Gallic  leader, 
Yiridomaros,  was  slain.     (222  B.  C.) 

13.  While  Rome  was  thus  engaged,  events  were  secretly  ripening 
for  another  war  with  Carthage.  Hamil'  car,  the  soul  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian councils,  and  the  sworn  enemy  of  Rome,  had  turned  his  eyes , 
to  Spain,'  with  the  view  of  forming  a  province  there  which  should 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  ^<  I  have  three  sons," 
said  this  veteran  warrior,  "  whom  I  shall  rear  like  so  many  lion's- 
whelps  against  the  Romans."  When  he  set  out  for  Spain,  where 
Carthage  then  l^d  several  colonies,  he  toak  his  son  Hannibal,  ihea 
only  nine  years  ef  age,  to  the  altar,  and  made  him  swear  eternal 
enmity  to  Rome. 

14.  In  a  few  years  the  Carthaginians  gained  possession  of  all  the 
south  of  Spain,  and  HamiF  oat  being  dead,  the  youthful  Hannibal, 
who  proved  himself  the  greatest  general  of  antiquity,  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  their  armies.  The  rapid  progress  of  his  Spanish 
conquests  alarmed  the  Romans.     When  the  people  of  Sagun'  tum,' 

L  aasUd'  t«m,  (now  Ckiasteggio^)  vu  In  that  part  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  called  Ltgnrtt,  south 
af  the  rlrer  Po^  and  a  abort  distance  aoiUh-eiat  fh>m  the  modem  Pania,  (See  Pavia,  Map  No. 
VUL) 

3.  Spain^  (oonaUllng  of  the  present  Spidn  and  Portugal,)  called  hj  the  Greeks  Ihtna^  and  bf 
the  Romans  MUpanui^  embraced  all  the  great  penlnsola  tn  the  sooth-west  of  Europe.'  Tba 
divisions  by  which  it  is  best  known  in  ancient  history  are  those  of  Tarraconauit^  L%*iU%i^^ 
and  Bmtiea,  which  were  made  during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  when,  for  the  first  time,  the 
oountry  was  wholly  subdued  by  the  Romans.    {Map  No.  Xin.) 

3.  Sagun'  turn  was  built  on  a  bill  of  black  marble  in  the  east  of  Spain,  about  four  miles  from 
Ibe  Mediterranean,  and  fifteen  miles  nortb-east  from  the  modem  Valencia.  Half  way  up  tba 
hiU  are  still  to  be  seen  the  ruins  of  a  theatte,  forming  an  exact  seml-clrde,  and  capable  of 
accommodating  nine  thousand  spectetors.    Other  ruins  ate  «>uiid  in  the  TiehiUy.    Tbeoattlo«r 


OaAW.Y,]    '  BOMAN  HIBTORT.  157 

a  Greoiao-eiiy  od  the  eMMm  ooast,  faund  themselyes  exposed  to  his 
rage,  they  applied. to  Borne  for  aid;  but  the  ambassadors  of  tha 
latter  power,  who  had  been  sent  to  remonstrate  with  Hannibal,  were 
treated  with  o<Hitempt ;  and  Sagon'  torn,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months^ 
was  taken.  (219  B.  G.)  Hannibal  then  crossed  the  Iberus/  and  - 
mTaded  the  tribes  of  Oatalonia,'  which  were  in  alliance  with  Borne. 
A  Boman  embassj  was  then  sent  to  Carthage  with  the  preposterous 
demand  that  Hannibal  and  his  army  should  be  deliyered  up  as  satis-  « 
fitustion  for  the  trespass  upon  Boman  territory ;  and  when  this  was 
lefosed,  the  Boman  commissioners,  according  to  the  prescribed  form 
of  their  country,  made  the  declaration  of  war.  Both  parties  were 
already  prepared  for  the  long-anticipated  contest.     (218  B.  C.) 

15.  The  plan  of  Hannibal,  at  the  op^iing  of  the  second  Punio 
war,  was  to  carry  the  war  into  Italy ;  while  tiiat  of  the  Boman  con- 
aok,  Publius  Soipio  and  Sempr6nius,  was  to  confine  it  to  Spain,  and 
to  attack  Carthage.  Hannibal  quickly  passed  over  the  y.  moono 
Pyrenees,  and  rapidly  trayersing  the  lower  part  of  Gaul,*  ^^^^^  ^^a. 
though  opposed  by  the  warlike  tribes  through  which  his  march  lay, 
and  avoiding  the  army  of  Scipio,  which  had  landed  at  Marseilles,* 
caroBSed  the  Alps  at  the  head  of  nearly  thirty  thousand  men,  and  had 
taken  Turin*  by  storm  before  Scipio  could  return  to  Italy  to  oppose 

dtadel  OD  the  top  of  One  hin  has  been  saoceeBlyely  occupied  by  the  Sagnn'  tinea,  Cartheginlan^ 
KomaiM,  Moon,  and  Spaniards.  Along  the  foot  of  the  hill  has  been  boUt  the  modem  town  of 
Mm^i0dr^  now  contabdng  a  population  of  about  six  thousand  Inhabltaats.    ^Mmp  Mo.  XIU.) 

1.  /Mtm,  now  the  fftro,  rifn  in  the  north  of  Spahi,  in  the  coontiy  of  the  ancient  Cantabrl, 
and  flows  with  a  sontb-eastem  oourae  Into  the  MeditemuMan  sea.  Before  the  second  Punic 
war  this  river  formed  the  bonndarj  between  the  Homan  and  Oaithaglnian  territories ;  and.  In 
tbm  time  of  Charlemagne^  between  the  Mooriah  and  Christian  dombilonSb    {Map  No.  XIII.) 

SL  Ctaalffmia  is  the  name  by  which  the  north-eastern  part  of  Spain  has  long  been  Icnown,  and 
It  la  now  a  province  of  modem  ^palo.    ( Jfaj^No.  XIII.) 

2.  Gmml  embraced  nearly  the  aame  territory  as  modem  France.  When  Snt  known  it  was 
divided  amoi«  the  three  great  naUons  of  the  Beign,  the  Oeltce,  and  the  Aqultani,  bat  tb* 
XomaDScaBedaU  the  Inhabitants  Ofl«^,wbUe  the  Greeks  called  them  CWto.  The  Celts  proper 
inhabited  the  northwestern  part  of  the  conntry,  the  Belgae  the  north-eaetem  and  eastern,  and 
the  Aqnitani  the  southwestem.  The  divisions  by  which  Gaul  is  best  known  in  ancient  history 
an  LiigdaneMis»  Belglca,  Aquttania,  and  Narbonensis,-H»Ued  Um  «^Four  Gaols,**  which  were 
ealabllsbed  by  the  BomaM  after  the  oonqoest  of  ttieoountiy  by  Julius  OsBsar.  As  for  back  as 
we  can  penetrate  into  the  history  of  weatem  Europe,  the  Gallic  or  Ceiac  race  ocnupied  nearly 
an  Gaol,  together  with  the  two  gieat  islands  northwest  of  the  country,  one  of  which,  (England 
aad  BootiaiMl)  they  caned  A]b4n, «« White  Island,"  and  the  other  (Ireland)  they  oaUed  Er-in, 
••laleoftheWeet.''    gVap  No.  XIIL) 

4.  JMbr^MttM,  aneleiitly  eaUed  JtttOa,  was  originally  settted  by  a  Greek  colony  ftom 
Ph6da.  It  is  aowa  fatfgeeommereialolty,and  sea-portottheMeditecranean,dtaal«lina 
beaoliftU  plafB  ott  the  east  sMe  of  Ihe  bay  of  the  Ouif  of  Lyons.  •  ( JTstp  No.  XIII.) 

5.  TWin,  caUed  by  the  Homans  AmgMfta  TawinanMh  »«▼  »  !««•  ^  ^  northHwestem 
Italy,  la  altaated  on  the  northen  or  western  side  of  the  river  Po,  eighty  miles  southwest  oT 


156  AKOnERT  HBSrORT.  [PabtI 

hu  progrei%  In  a  puiial  encoimter  on  tlie  Tiolnns'  the  Samaa 
eaTnlry  wm  beaten  by  the  Spanish  and  Nnmidian  horBem«i,*  and 
Seipio,  who  had  been  aetereljT  wounded,  retreated  aeross  the  Po*  to 
await  the  arriTal  of  8empr6niiu  and  his  army.  Boon  aflk^,  the 
en^re  Boman  army  waa  defeated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tr^bia,^ 
when  the  heaitating  Gktnla  at  onoe  eeponaed  the  oanae  of  Uie  viotors. 
(218  B.  C.) 

*  16.  In  the  following  year  Hannibal  advanced  towarda  Borne,  and 
8empr6niaa,  falling  into  an  ambnacade  near  Lake  Traflim6nnB,*  waa 
dain,  and  hia  whole  army  oat  to  pieces.  (217  B.  C.)  In  another 
campaign,  Hannibal,  after  paaaing  Borne,  and  penetrating  into 
aouthem  Italy,  having  increased  hia  army  to  fifty  thoaaand  men,  de- 
feated the  conaola  JBmiliiiB  and  Yarro  in  a  great  batde  at  Cannae.* 

.  (216  B.  0.)  The  Bomana,  whose  nnmbers  exceeded  thoae  of  die 
enemy,  loat,  in  killed  alone,  according  to  the  lowest  calcolation,  mor« 
than  forty-two  thousand  men.  Among  the  alain  waa  JBmilina,  one 
of  the  consola. 

17.  The  calamity  which  had  befallen  Bome  at  Cannas  shook  the 
allegiance  of  some  of  her  Italian  aabjects,  and  the  faith  of  her 
allies;  many  of  the  Grecian  cities,  hoping  to  recover  their  inde- 
pendence, made  terms  with  the  victors ;  Syracuse, deserted  the  oaose 
of  Bome ;  and  Philip  of  Mao'  edon  sent  an  embassy  to  Italy  and 
formed  an  alliance  ^rith  Hannibal.  (See  p.  109.)  But  the  Bomana 
did  not  despond.  They  made  the  most  vigorona  preparationa  t0 
carry  on  the  war  in  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Spain,  and  Africa,  as  well  as 
in  Italy :  they  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Grecian  States  of  2St61ia, 
and  ihns  fonnd  aofficient  employment  for  Phttip  at  home,  and  in  the 

1.  Tub  7¥ei«««,  now  Ticinoy  entan  the  Po  fhim  ttie  nortti  about  tireatf  wOm  sooUFtrMt 
from  Bnian.  Nmt  tto  junollon  with  Ibo  Po  ■tood  the  netait  eHf  of  TWImmn,  now  oalled 
Fmm.   (JIAv  Mo.  vm.) 

S.  A^taUrfte  W88  a  oonntry  of  northern  AlHea,  ad||oinlng  the  OarthaslBiaii  terrNoffTon  Che 
weat,  and  embracing  the  eartenvpart  of  the  tanrltoiT  of  modem  Alglera.    (JM^  Ko.  IX.) 

3.  The  river  Po,  the  EHd'  ntus  or  Padmt  ot  the  andeata,  riaes  la  the  Alpa,  on  thft  eonlnes 
ef  Aance;  and,  flowing  eaatwaid,  reoetres  dmtng  Its  long  coone  to  the  AdriaTle,  a  taal  no»- 
ber  of  tribntary  atieams.  It  dtrldea  (he  graat  plain  of  Lombaidy  Inio  two  neariy  equal  perla. 
(Map  No.  Vin.) 

4.  The  Tribta  la  a  aouthem  trfbntarj  of  the  Fo,  wbleh  entera  that  ttream  near  the  modem 
eltjr  of  PUumfy  (anelently  oaUed  Plae^mtia)  tbiny-Sre  milea  aonth-eMfc  tnm  Mlaa.  (M^ 
No.  vm.) 

5.  Lifte  TVoflaUmft,  (now  oaDed  Pinyja,}  waa  In  Brute,  war  the  nber,  elghtf  milea 
north  ftom  Some.    (JKvNo.Via) 

a  Camnm,  a*  ancient  ettf  of  Apulia,  waa  altoated  near  Oie  rirer  Anidvf  (nowOfento)  avw 
orrfz  milea  from  (he  Adrlat'le.  The  aeeoe  of  the  great  bettte  between  the  Somana  and  Gbrlha- 
gfaidmia  la  maifeed  by  the  name  of  ctmp*  di  gmnfrnty  *^Md  of  blood  ;«*  and  ipeara,  heada  of 
laneaa,  and  other  pleeea  of  armor,  itUloontiniie  to  be  tamed  np  by  the  ploagfa.  ( JIAip  No.  VUp 


Cut.  T.J  HOMAK  HlEm>Ry.  ISi 

4Bai  redaeed  him  to  the  l»nn3a&g  neceasity  of  making  a  separate 
peaoe. 

18.  From  the  field  of  CannaB  Hannibal  led  his  foroes  to  Cap'na, 
whieh  at  onoe  opened  its  gates  to  receire  him,  bnt  his  veterans  werd 
«n0ryated  by  the  Inxnries  and  debauoheries  of  that  lioentioos  city. 
In  the  meantime  Fabins  Mazimns  had  been  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Roman  army  in  Italy,  and  by  a  new  and  cautions  system 

*<xf  tactics — ^by  avoiding  deeisiye  battles — ^by  watching  the  motions 
of  ^ke  enmiy,  hMrassing  their  march,  and  intercepting  their  con- 
voys, he  gradnally  wasted  the  strength  of  Hannibal,  who  at  length 
ffnunoned  to  his  asi^tance  his  brother  Has'  dmbal,  who  had  been 
eentending  with  the  Scipios  in  Spain.  Has'dmlMil  crossed  the 
Pyroiees  and  the  Alps  with  little  opposition,  but  on  the  banks  of 
the  fifetaams^  he  was  enlarapped  by  the  consnls  Livins  and  Nero,— » 
his  whole  army  was  oat  to  pieoes,  and  he  himself  was  slain.  (B.  0. 
207.)  His  gory  head,  thrown  into  the  camp  of  Hannibal^  gave  the 
latter  the  first  intelligence  of  this  great  misfortune.  Before  this 
event  the  anoioit  city  of  Syracuse  had  been  taken  by  storm  by  the 
RooiaoB,  after  the  siege  had  been  a  long  time  protracted  by  the  me- 
^^Mt^n^'^l  skill  of  the  funoos  ArohimMes.* 

19.  At  length  the  youthM  Cornelius  Scipio,  the  son  of  Publius 
Beipio,  having  driven  the  Oarthaginians  from  Spain,  and  being 
elected  eonsui,  gained  the  consent  of  the^  senate  to  carry  the  war 
into  Afirica,  although  this  boldJueasure  wa»  opposed  by  the  age  and 
eiperience  of  the  great  Fabins.     Soon  after  the  landing  of  Scipio 

Utica,*  Masednis'  sa,  king  of  the  Numidians,  who  had  prenously 


L  Ite  Mtimmt,  mom  Oie  Mktro^  wm  •  riTer  of  Umbria,  wUob  floired  Into  the  Adriat'  la 
Ite  battle  wu  firagbt  on  the  left  bank  of  the  rirer,  at  a  place  now  oooopled  by  tbe  yilbge  of 
JteM«»rMM.    {JfapHcXUL) 

SL  Tbe  city  of  Ckteaetood  on  tihe  banks  of  tbe  rirer  Bagnda,  (now  tbe  JWp«r4Uk,)  a  ftw 
vOea  noilb^west  from  Ourtbage.  Ita  rains  are  to  be  seen  at  the  present  daj  near  tbe  pw^  of 
■'-^-     (JTarHo-Vin.) 


'a.  jJrekJmUet^  the  moat  celebrated  matbewiattdan  among  the  ancients,  waa  a  natlre  of  Slyii^ 
MSB.  He'Waa  highly  skilled  In  aatronomy,  meehanlos,  geometry,  hydrostatics,  and  optka,  la 
aH  oi  which  be  produced  many  extnordliiary  InTentkAS.  Hts  knowledge  of  the  principle  of 
ipecMc  gravitlea  enabled  hfan  to  detect  the  fraudulent  mixture  of  silver  In  the  golden  crown  of 
Rfwe^  kl]«  of  Sytaeoee,  by  comparing  the  quantity  of  water  displaced  by  eqniX  weights  of 
goldandsUTcr.  The  thoi«kt  ooeorred  to  him  vpon  obaeiTing^  Vhile  he  waa  In  the  bath,  thai 
be  displaced  a  bulk  of  water  equal  to  his  own  body.  He  was  so  highly  excited  by  the  die* 
eoTcry,  thai  be  1e  said  to  have  ran  naked  oat  of  the  bath  Into  the  street,  exchdming  mreka  t 
*  I  hare  Ibond  It.**  His  acquaintance  with  the  power  of  the  lever  la  evinced  by  his  ftuaone 
deefihtlon  to  Hlero :  **Give  me  where  1  ma^  stand,  and  I  will  move  the  worid."  At  the  time 
tf  lfaesli«eof  ayiMWetetosaUICaJMfearBdtbeBomaaSeeibyBCaMef  ImmeBsriefleet* 
IngmlirorB. 


160  AKOIENT  mSTOBT.  fPAiirl 

been  in  alUanoe  with  the  Carthaginiana,  went  onar  to  the  BomanBi 
and  aided  in  snrpriBing  and  burning  the  Carthaginian  camp  of  SLas'- 
drubal,  still  another  general  of  that  name.  Both  Tnnis  and  Utiea 
were  next  besieged ;  the  former  soon  opened  its  gates  to  the  BoHkana, 
and  the  Carthaginian  senate,  in. despair,  recalled  Hannibal  from 
Italy,  for  the  defence  of  the  oitj.     (202  B.  C.) 

20.  Peace,  which  Hannibd  himself  advised,  might  even  now  have 
been  made  on  terms  honorable  to  Carthage,  had  not  the  Carthagi- 
nians, elated  bj  the  presence  of  their  fiivorite^hero,  and  confident 
of  his  snccess,  obstinately  resisted  any  concession.  Both  generala 
made  preparations  for  a  decisive  engagement,  and  the  two  armies 
met  on  the  plains  of  Zama  ;*  but  the  forces  of  Hannibal  were  mostly 
raw  troops,  while  those  of  Scipio  were  the  disciplined  legions  that 
had  so  often  conqnered  in  Spain.  Hannibal  showed  himself  worthy 
of  his  former  fame ;  but  after  a  hard-fongfat  battle  the  Romans  pre- 
vailed, and  Carthage  lost  the  army  which  was  her  only  reliance. 
Peace  was  then  conclnded  on  terms  dictated  by  the  conqueror.  Car- 
thage consented  to  confine  herself  to  her  African  possessionB,  to  keep 
no  elephants  in  future  for  purposes  of  war,  to  give  up  all  prisoners 
and  deserters,  to  reduce  her  navy  to  ten  small  vessels,  to  undertake 
no  war  without  the  consent  of  the  Romans,  and  to  pay  ten  thousand 
talents  of  silver.  (202  B.  C.)  Scipio,  on  his  return  home,  received 
the  title  of  Africani)s,  and  wlus  honored  with  the  most  magnifioeni 
triumph  that  had  ever  been  exhibited  at  Rome. 

21.  The  second  Punic  war  had  brought  even  greater  distress  upon 
the  Roman  people  than  upon  the  Carthaginians,  for  during  the  six- 
teen years  of  Hannibal's  occupation  of  Italy  the  greater  part  of  the 
Roman  territory  had  lain  waste,  and  was  plundered  of  its  wealth, 
and  deserted  by  its  people ;  and  famine  had  often  threatened  Rome 
itself;  while  the  number  of  the  Roman  militia  on  the  roUs  had 
heem  reduced  by  desertion,  and  the  sword  of  the  enemy,  from  two 
hundred  and  seventy  thousand  nearly  to  the  half  of  that  number. 
Tet  in  their  greatest  adversity  the  Roman  people  had  never  given 
way  to  despair,  nor  shown  the  smallest  humiliation  at  defeat,  nor 
manifested  the  least  design  of  concession ;  and  when  the  pressure  of 
war  was  removed,  this  same  unconquerable  sjHrit  rapidly  raised 
Rome  to  a  state  of  prosperity  and  greatness  which  she  had  never  at- 
tained before.  ,  ^ 

1.1%eeifyorz«iiM,ttie  iiteoT  which  is  oooapled  by  the modfln  vllh«» «r  ZMMrfa,  wai 
•boot  a  httndred  mU«i  aouttiweit  ftom  Oulhase.    (Map  No.  VIU.) 


Cbup.T.]  KOMAH  HI8T0BT.  161 

• 

22,  The  state  of  the  world  was  now  highly  favorable  ^or  the  ad- 
Tanoement  ^f  a  great  military  republic,  like  that  of  Eome,  to  univer- 
sal dominion.  In  the  ESast,  the  kingdoms  formed  from  the  fragments 
of  Alexander's  mighty  empire  were  either  still  engaged  in  mutual 
wars,  or  had  sunk  into  the  weakness  of  exhausted  energies;  the 
Grecian  States  were  divided  among  themselves,  each  being  ready  to 
throw  itself  upon  foreign  protection  to  promote  its  own  immediate 
interests ;  while  in  the  West  the  Romans  were  masters  of  Spain ; 
their  colonies  were  rapidly  encroaching  on  the  Gallic  provinces ;  and 
tibey  had  tributaries  among  the  nations  of  Northern  Africa. 
•  23.  The  war  with  Carthage  had  scarcely  ended  when  an  embassy 
from  Athens  solicited  the  protection  of  the  Bomans  against  the  power 
of  Irnilip  II.  of  Mac'  edon ;  and  war  being  unhesitatingly  yi.  ^  orb- 
declared  against  Philip,  Roman  diplomacy  was  at  once  ^'^  ^^^ 
plunged  into  the  maze  of  Grecian  politics.  (B.  C.  201.)  After  a 
war  of  four  years  Philip  was  defeated  in  the  decisive  battle  of 
Cynooeph'  ake,  (B.  C.  197,)  and  forced  to  submit  to  svch  terms  as 
the  conquerors  pleased  to  dictate ;  and  at  %hi  Isthmian  games  the 
Greeks  received  with  gratitude  the  declaration  of  their  freedom  under 
the  protection  of  Rome.  When,  therefore,  a  few  years  later,  the 
JBt61ians,  dissatisfied  with  the  Roman  policy,  invited  Antiochus.of 
Syria  into  Europe,  and  that  monarch  had  made  himself  master  of 
EuboD'a,  a  plausible  pretext  was  again  offered  for  Roman  inter- 
ference :  and  when  the  iBt61ians  had  been  reduced,  Antiochus  driven 
back,  and  Greece  tranquillized  upon  ^man  terms,  an  Asiatic  war 
was  open  to  the  cupidity  of  the  Romans. 

24.  After  a  brief  struggle,  Antiochus,  completely  overthrown  in 
the  general  battle  of  Magnesia,*  (B.  C.  191,)  purchased  a  peace  by 
surrendering  to  the  Romans  all  those  portions  of  Asia  yj^  btbian 
Minor  bounded  on  the  east  by  Bithyn'ia,  GaUtia,  Cap-  "^^^ 
pad6cia,  and  Cilio'ia,^  pledging  himself  not  to  interfere  in  ^e  affairs 
of  the  Roman  allies  in  Europe — ^giving  up  his  ships  of  war,  and 
paying  fifteen  thousand  talents  of  silver.  The  Romans  now  erected 
the  conquered  provinces,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  Greek  maritime 
towns,  into  a  kingdom  which  they  conferred  upon  Ei\menes,  their 

h  JUgnUia,  (now  JMmsm,)  a  dtj  of  Lydia,  w«s  aitnatadon  the  loathem  tida  of  tbe  riTw 
B^pam,  (fMW  IMtu,)  twanty-aight  mllea  nortli-eaat  ttom  SmTraa.  Tbe  modam  Maaln  la 
one  a<  the  naalMt  towiw  of  Aaia  Minor,  and  oontatna  a  populaUon  of  about  thirty  thoosand 
tehabilantiL  Tbera  was  anolhar  Magn^da,  now  in  ruina,  flf^  mUea  aooth-east  ftom  Smyroa. 
(Jir«9No.IV.) 

a.  Sea  Map  of  AaU  Minor,  No.  VL 

11 


le^  ASamsr  HISTORT.  (Pmaft 

illy,  a  petty  prince  of  PeT'.gamus,"  ifi^e  to  ^  Rhodiims,  dao  IIiot 
allies,  they  gave  the  provinces  of  Lyo'  ia  and  Ciria.* 

25,  Soon  after  the  close  of  the  second  Pnnic  war,  Hannibal, 
having  incurred  the  enmity  of  some  of  his  couniaTmen,  retired  to 
Syria,  where  he  joined  Ant^ochns  in  the  war  against  Rome.  A  danse 
in  the  treaty  with  the  Syrian  monarch  stipulated  ihAt  Hannibal 
should  be  ddiivered  np  to  the  Romans ;  but  he  avoided  ihe  danger 
by  seeking  refuge  at  the  court  of  Prlisias,  king  of  Bithjm'  ia,  where 
he  remained  about  five  years.  An  embas^  was  finally  sent,  to  de^ 
mand  him  of  Prdsias,  who,  afraid  of  giving  off^nee  to  the  Romanfl^ 
agreed  to  give  him  up,  but  tjie  aged  veteran,  to  avoid  Iklling  into  the> 
hands  of  his  ungenerous  enemies,  destroyed  himself  by  poison,  iq  the 
sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  The  same  year  witaiessed  the  deatili  of 
his  great  rival  and  conqueror  Scipia.  (B.  6.  183.)^  The  latter, 
on  his  return  from  carrying  on  the  war  against  AiiKochnfl,  was 
charged  with  secreting  part  of  the  treasure  received  from  the  Syrian 
king.  Scorning  to  imswer  tiie  unjust  accusation,  he  went  as  an  exile 
into  a  country  village  of  Italy,  where  he  soon  after  died. 

5^.    The  events  that  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Maced6nian 
monarchy,  and  the  reduction  ^f  Greece  to'  a  Roman  j^rovince,  have 

ym.  THIRD  been  related  in  a  former  ch^ter.^'    Already  the  Uiird 

FUKio  wAm.  Punic  war  was  drawing  to  a  dose,  and  the  same  year 
that  Greece  lost  her  liberties  under  Roman  dominion,  witnessed  the 
destruction  of  the  miserable  remains  of  the  once  proud  republio  of 
Carthage.  During  the  fifty  years  that  had  elapsed  since  ike  battle 
of  Zama,  the  conduct  of  the  Carthaginians  had  not  afforded  the  Ro- 
mans wiy  cause  whatever  for  complaint,  and  amicable  relations  be- 
tween the  two  people  might  still  have  continued ;  but  the  expediency 
of  a  war  with  Carthage  was  a  favorite  topic  of  debate  in  the  Roman 
senate,  and  it  is  said  that,  of  the  many  speedies  which  the  elder  Cato 
made  on  this  subject,  all  ended  with  the  sentence,  delenda  est  Car* 
^  thagOf "  Carthage  must  be  destroyed." 

27.  Carthage,  still  a  wealthy,  but  feeble  city,  had  long  been  har- 
assed by  the  encroachments  of  Massinis'^sa,  king  of  Numid'  ia,  who 

1.  The  Per' gamut  here  Aentloned,  tty»  most  tmpprtaiit  dty  of  MyBia,  waa  sltqatod  in  the 
^em  part  of  that  country,  in  a  pUOB  wai^ 
Oatous.    (Map  No.  TV.) 

a.  See  Map  of  Asia  Minor,  No.  VI. 
c  Seep,  110. 


Om0F,.r.j  -  HOltAl^  aiStOET.  168 

wpfwn^  to  hare  been  iiusli^ted  to  bostOe  ftcts  bj  tihe  Bomans;  and 
alihoii^  MaanniB'  aa  had  wrested  from  Carthage  a  large  portion  of 
iier  tvritor  J,  yet  the  Romans,  seeking  a  pretext  for  war,  cidled  Gar- 
iiiage  to  aooonnt  for  her  eonduct,  and  without  waiting  to  listen  to 
expoBtdadon  or  sabmission,  sent  an  army  of  more  than  eighty 
thoaaaod  men  to  Sioily,  to  be  tiiere  got  in  readiness  for  a  descent 
upon  tilie  Afirican  coast  (149  B.  0.)  At  Sicily  the  Carthaginan 
ambassadors  were  received  by  the  consols  in  command  of  the  army,  and 
required  to  give  up  three  hundred  dbildren  of  the  noblest  Carthaginian 
fiuailies  a«  hostages ;  and  when  this  demand  had  been  complied  with 
the  army  crossed  over  and  landed  near  Carthage.  The  Carthagi- 
nians were  now  told  that  they  must  deliver  up  all  their  arms  and 
munitions  of  war ;  and,,  hard  as  this  command  was,  it  was  obeyed.* 
The  perfidious  Bomaos  next  demanded  that  the  Carthaginians  should 
abandon  their  city^  allow  its  walls  to  be  demolished,  and  remove  to 
a  place  ten  miles  inland,  where  they  mi^ht  build  a  new  city,  but 
witkottt  walls  or  fortifications. 

28.  When  these  terms  were  made  known  to  the  Carthaginian 
miate,  the  people,  exasperated  to  madness,  immediately  put  to  death 
all  the  "Bomans  who  were  in  the  city,  closed  the  gates,  and,  for  want 
of  other  weapons,  collected  stones  on  the  battlementc(  to  repel  the 
iinrt  attacks  of  the  enemy.  Hasdrubal,  who  had  been  banished  be- 
eauae  he  was  an  enemy  of  the  Bomans,  was  recalled,  Mid  unexampled 
exertions  made  for  defence  :  the  brass  and  iron  of  domestic  utensils 
were  manufactured  into  weapons  of  trar,  and  the  women  cut  off  their 
long  hair  to  be  converted  into  strings  for  the  bowmen  and  cordage 
for  the  shipping. 

29.  The  Bomans  had  not  anticipated  sudbi  a  display  (^  courage 
and  patriotism,  and  the  war  was  prolonged  until  the  fourth  year 
after  its  eommenoement.  It  was  the  struggle  of  despair  on  the  part 
of  Carthage,  and  could  end  only  in  her  destruction.  The  city  was 
finally  taken  by  Scipio  ^mili&nus,  the  adopted  son  of  the  groat 
AfHcinus,  when  only  five  thousand  citizens  were  found  within  its 
walls,  fifty  thousand  having  previously  surrendered  on  different  occa- 
sions, and  been  carried  away  into  idavery.  Hasdrubal  begged  his 
life,  which  was  granted  only  that  he  might  adorn  the  triumph  of 
the  Boman  general ;  but  his  wife,  reproaching  him  for  his  cowardice, 
threw  herself  with  her  children  into  the  flames  of  the  temple  in 

a.  ^Boman  wmmtMlonen  were  lent  Into  Che  dt^,  wbo  oanied  awaj  tiro  tboiiaand  cattF 
pidl%aiMl  tw«  Inuidredthoiiiaiid  iiiUeof  anaor.* 


164  AKOIENT  mSTOBT.  [PjuI 

which  she  had  taken  refuge.  The  walls  of  Carthage  were  lereUed 
to  the  ground,  the  buildings  of  the  oitj  were  burned,  a  part  of  the 
Carthaginian  territory  was  given  to  the  king  of  Numid'  ia,  and  tiie 
rest  became  a  Boman  province.  (146  B.  C.)  Thus  perished  the 
republic  of  Carthage,  aft^r  an  existence  of  nearly  eight  hundred 
years, — ^iike  G  reece,  the  victim  of  Roman  ambition.  * 


We  giTe  below  a  deacripUon  pf  Jenuolem,  which  was  omitted  by  mifltake  ia  its  proper 
place.' 

JtrutaUm,  a  (kmoua  etty  of  aoatheni  Palestine,  asd  long  the  capital  of  the  idngdom  of 
Judah,  !•  situated  on  a  bill  in  a  mountainous  country,  between  two  small  Tall^r>>  la  one  ot 
which,  on  the  west,  the  brook  Gibon  runs  with  a  south-eastern  course,  to  Join  tlie  brook 
Kedron  in  the  narrow  valley  of  Jehoebapfaat,  east  of  the  otty.  The  modem  city,  built  abool 
three  hundred  years  ago,  is  entirely  surrounded  by  walls,  barely  two  and-  a-half  milea  In 
circuit,  and  flanked  here  and  there  with  square  towers.  The  boundaries  of  the  old  city  varied 
greatly  at  dtllbrent  times ;  and  they  are  so  Imperfectly  marked,  the  walls  having  been  wholly 
destroyed,  that  few  fSscts  can  be  gathered  respecting  them.  The  interior  of  Hie  modern  dty  to 
divided  by  two  valleys,  Intenecting  each  other  at  right  angles,  into  four  hills,  on  which  hlstoffy« 
■acred  and  profene,  has  stamped  the  imperishable  names  of  Zion,  Acra,  Bezeiha,  and  Moriah. 
Mount  Zion,  on  the  south-west,  the  *^  City  of  Dayld,**  Is  now  the  Jewish  and  Armenian  qoartert 
Acra,  or  the  lower  city,  on  the  north-west,  is  the  Christian  quarter ;  while  the  Most^oe  of  Omar, 
with  iti  sacred  enclosure,  occupies  the  hill  of  Moriah,  which  was  crowned  by  the  Hause  ef  tis 
L0rd  built  by  Solomon.  West  of  the  Christian  quarter  of  the  eity  ia  Mount  Oalvaiy,  the  eeeaa 
of  the  Saviour's  crucifixion ;  and  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  Is  the  Monat 
of  Olives,  on  whuse  western  slope  are  the  gardens  of  Gethsemane,  enclosed  by  a  wall,  and  sUn 
In  a  sort  of  ruined  cultivation.  A  little  west  of  Mount  ZIon,  and  near  the  base  of*  Monnt  Qsh 
vary,  is  the  pool  of  Gihon,  near  which  '*  Zadok  the  priest  and  Nathan  the  prophet  aaototed 
Solomon  king  over  Israel.**  South  of  Mount  Zion  Is  the  valley  of  Hinnom«  watered  by  the 
brook  Glhon.  A  short  distance  up  the  valfey  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  issuing  th>m  beoeath  th» 
walls  of  Mount  Moriah,  is 

<"  snoa*s  brook,  that  flow*d  • 

Fast  by  the  oracles  of  God.** 

Jerusalem  and  its  suburbs  abound  with  many  interesting  looallllea,  well  autbenUcated  as  the 
■oenes  of  events  connected  with  the  history  of  the  patriardis,  and  the  sufferings  of  Christ ;  but 
to  hundreds  of  othenf  shown  by  the  monks,  minnte  crltlclnn  denies  any  claims  to  oor  respecL 
Considered  as  a  modem  town,  the  city  Is  of  very  little  importance:  its  populaUon  ia  about  ten 
thousand,  two-thirds  of  whom  are  Mohammedans :  it  has  no  trade— no  Industry  whatever^ 
nothing  to  give  it  commercial  Importance,  except  the  manufeotore^  by  the  monks,  of  diella^ 
beads,  and  reUcs,  large  quantiUes  of  which  are  shipped  flnom  the  port  of  Jaife,  for  Italy,  Spatoit 
and  Portugal. 

Jerusalem  is  generally  believed  to  be  identical  with  the  Salem  of  which  Melefatoedek  was 
king  in  the  time  of  Abi«iam.  When  the  IsraeUtes  entered  the  Holy  Land  It  was  in  th« 
possession  of  the  Jebusites;  and  although  Joshua  took  the  city,  ih%'Citadsl  on  Monnt  Zion  was 
held  by  the  Jebusites  untU  they  were  dlsloiged  by  David,  who  made  Jerusalam  the  metropoUt 
of  his  kingdom. 


Ctaiib  Til  BOMAN  HIBTORT.  166 

V 

CHAPTER   VI. 

ROMAN  HISTORY: 
miOM  TBI  ooNQunr  of  e^XKoi  and  oarthage,  146  b.  c,  to  nnq 

OOXMINOSmNT  OF  THK  OHBISnAM  B&A. 

AKALTSDS.  1.  Sltaatlcm  of  Spaik  avtce  tsk  fall  or  Gi  stbaok.  [OelttMrlsiH.  Lvrf* 
IWaMLj-a.  Chtraeler,  eoq>loit%  and  death  of  VM&tlnu^-S.  SnlMeqiient  Uatoiy  of  the  Loalti^ 
qlaiiiL  War  with  tho  Noman'  tiaiw.  [Naman'  tia.] — 4.  Sbryilb  war  ik  Sicily.  Situation  of 
Bdly.  Erenta  of  the  Serrile  war.-— 5.  Dissbnbion^  or  thb  Gracchi.  Gornipt  state  of  societj 
■t  Ram».-^  Ooonby  and  dty  popolation.— 7.  Bfforta  of  the  tribunes  Character  asd  efbrto 
of  Ttbeitaa  GiacchusL  Condition  of  (he  public  land^^A  The  agrarian  laws  proposed  bj 
TSberfna.— 9.  Opposed  by  the  nobles,  but  finally  paased.  Triumvirate  appointed  to  enfbroe 
Oiam.  IMspoaMon  of  the  treuores  of  AV  tahis.— 10.  arcamitanoea  of  the  death  of  Tlberiiia^^ 
11.  Oonlhiiied  opposition  of  the  aristooraqr— tribuneship  of  Gains  Gracchua— and  circunvitancea 
of  hb  deaifa.— IS.  Condition  of  Rome  after  the  foil  of  the  GrBcchi.<-13.  Profligacy  of  the  Ro- 
ma acBata,  and  ebeoBBtanees  of  the  flrsk  JnouRTaiNS  war.— 14.  Renewal  of  the  wai;  with 
Jagortlta.  Events  of  the  war,  and  Ihte  of  Jugurtha.  [MauritAnia.]— 15w  Grrma«ic  Intasior. 
[Cfanbri  and  Tea' tones.]  Successive  Roman  defeats.  [Danube.  Noreja.]  10.  M&rius,  ap- 
yokaHed  to  the  eommand,  defeats  the  Tea'  tones.  |11ie  Rhone.  Alx.]  17.  The  ambri.  Great* 
MSB  of  the  danger  with  which  Rdme  waa  threalened.— 18.  Thb  social  war.— 19.  First 
MiTHHiOATic  War.  [Pontus.  Eu'menes.  Per*  gamus.]— 20.  Causes  of  the  Mlthridatlc  war, 
and  Boocesses  of  MIthrldiites.— Civil  war  bbtwrbn  Ma'rivs  aicd  Stlla.— 22.  Triumph  of 
9»  MArtan  Ihctlon.  Death  and  character  of  M&rina.— S3.  Conttooanoe  of  the  olvil  war. 
JSvenfa  in  the  East:  9yUa  master  of  Rome.-4{3.  Proscription  and  massscres.  Death  of  Sylla 
— S5.  The  M&rlan  faction  in  Spain.    Skrvilb  war  in  Italy. 

SB.  Sfeconi  Ain»  tbird  •MmniiOATic  warb.  LqcoIIiis.  Mantt'  Ins,  and  the  Ifanil'  laa 
law^— ^.  Pompey's  successes  in  the  East.  Reduction  of  Palestine.  Death  of  MithridMes.— 28. 
GkucBPiRACT  OF  Catilirb.  Situation  of  Romo  &t  this  poilod.  Character  and  designs  of  GntUine. 
Ctrenmstaneea  that  Ihvored  iiis  schemes.  By  whom  opposed.'— 29.  Cicero  elected  consul. 
FUgfat^  defeat,  and  deatli  of  OatHine^— 30.  Thb  First  Triuhviratb.  Division  of  power.— 31. 
Cnaar's  conquests  in  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Britain.  Death  of  Cmssos.  Rivalry  between  Cnsar 
nd  Fmnpcy.  {Tl»  Rhine.  Paithia.]— 38.  Conuneneementof  the  driL  war  bbtwbbn  Ojbsar 
anv  PoKTBT.  FUght  of  the  latter.  [Raven*  na.J— 33.  GiB8ar*8  SHocesses.  Sole  dictator.  Hla 
defeat  at  Dffrseh'  ium.— 34.  Battle  of  Phars&lia.  Flight,  and  death  of  Pompey.  [Phars&lla* 
PsiBB' slum.}— 3S.  Cleopatra.  Alexandrine  war.  Reduction  of  Pontoa.  [pharos.]— 36.  Cnsar*a 
ekmenej.  Serriltty  of  the  senate.  Ihe  war  In  Africa,  and  death  of  Oato.  [Thapeua.]— 37. 
Honors  bestowed  upon  Cesar.  Useftil  changea— reformation  of  the  cslendar.— 38.  The  war  in 
Spain.  [Mnnda.]— 39.  Cnsar^  dictator  for  life.  His  gigantic  projects.  He  is  suspected  of 
idnitair  «t  wweign  power.~>40.  Conspiracy  agohist  Mm.  His  death.— 41.  Conduct  of  Btuftis. 
Mark  Antony%  oration.  ItTeffeets.— 48.  Ambition  of  Antony,  avil  war.  Scooin)  Triumvi- 
KATB.  The  proaorlption  that  followed.— 43.  Bratua  and  Cttssius.  Their  defeat  al  PhiUppl. 
CPblifpfl.}~44.  Antony  in  Asia  BAlnor,— at  the  eoort  of  aecpatra.  [Tkrsus.]  Civil  war  hi 
Italy.— 49^  ABteny*^  return.  ReooDCillation  of  the  rivals,  and  division  of  the  empire  among 
meoL  [BraBdiisium.]— 40.  The  peace  Is  soon  broken.  Sextius  Pompey.  Lep'idua.  Antony. 
^47.  Th«  war  between  Oct&vhia  and  Antony.  Battle  of  Actlnm,  and  dlsgracefti]  flight  of 
ABteuj4  10,  Death  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra.— 49,  Octa'  vids  solb  hastbr  of  thb  Romaw 
«»«A  Honon  and  oflleea  confemd  upon  him.  Charaeler  of  his  government— 50.  Snooess* ' 
MwBfv-Mlowedhf  ikgenamlpeaee.   Sxtent  of  the  Roman  empire.    Biith.of  the  SaTlflur, 


• 

1.  AmsK  the  fiJl  of  Carthage  and  the  Oreoiaa  npmblies,  wfakh 

were  the  clonng  eyenta  of  the  weoeding  chapter,  the  atisntion  of 

the  Boman  4>eo.ple  was  for  a  time  principally  directed  to  l^win. 

When,  near  the  doee  of  the  aecond  Punic  war,  the  Oar* 

1.  BPADf 

AMTEM,  THB  thaginian  dominion  in  Spain  ended,  that  oountry  waa  lo- 

r ALL  or  *  garded  aa  heing  under  Boman  jariiMliction;  althon^, 

beyond  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Bonum  garriaoiuii 

the  native  tribes,  the  most  prominent  of  which  were  the  Geltib^rianji* 

and  LositAnians,'  long  maintained  their  independence. 

2.  At  the  close  of  the  third  Pnnic  war,  Yiriithos,  a  Lont^miaa 
prince,  whose  character  resembles  that  of  the  Wallace  of  Scotland, 
had  triumphed  over  the  Boman  legions  in  several  engagements,  sad 
had  already  deprived  the  republic  of  nearly  half  of  her  possessions  i& 
the  peninsula.  During  eight  years  he  bade  defiance  to  tiie  most  for- 
midable hosts,  and  foiled  the  ablest  generals  of  Borne,  when  the 
Boman  governor  Ca»'  pio,  unable  to  cope  with  so  great  a  genend| 
treacherously  procured  his  assassination.*    (B.  C.  140.) 

3.  So<m  after  the  death  of  Yiriithus  the  Lusitinians  submitted  to 
a  peace,  and  many  of  them  were  removed  from  their  mountain  &st- 
nesses  to  the  mild  district  of  Yalen'  cia,*  where  they  completely  lost 
their  warHke  diaracter ;  but  the  *Numaa'  tians*  rejected  with  soom 
the  insidious  overtures  of  their  invaders,  and  continued  the  war. 
Two  Boman  generals,  at  the  head  of  large  armies,  were  conquered 
by  them,  and  on  both  occasions  treaties  of  peace  were  concluded 
with  the  vanquished,  bx  the  name  of  the  Boman  people,  but  a£ber* 

1.  Tkt  CSrfctft^rtfaiw,  wlKweeoaatiywwecaiietJiiiMoalM  CWMMrusooeopled  OwgraBlut  put 
or  the  intortor  of  8|mIb  troinid  Uk«  hettd  waters  of  ttie  Ti«ai. 

SL  llw  lAuUimiams,  wboM  wantrf  was  oslled  LtuiUitiiaf  dwelt  on  ttw  Attsnttc  otmitt,  and 
wh«ii  ttm  known,  principally  between  the  tiren  Douro  and  1^^raa> 

S.  Hie  modem  district  or  prorinoe  of  Falmuia  extends  about  two  budred  milea  along  tbs 
soath-eastern  coast  of  Spain.  Tbe  dty  of  Valenela,  situated  near  the  month  of  the  river 
Goadalayiar,  (the  ancient  Tosia,)  Is  Us  o^itaL    (.Ifa^  No.  XIU.) 

4.  JVkauw'c^  a  odebialed  town  of  the  Oelliberians,  was  sitoaled  near  the  sonroeof  tho 
rfTer  Donro,  and  near  the  site  of  the  modern  vlUage  of  Otooalsr,  and  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty^hre  miles  north-east  lh>m  Madrid. 


a.  F$r4tkm»i9idni  a  shepherd,  caUed  by  the  Remans  a  robber,  tlhen  a  goeriUa  cfaM;  and 
finally  an  eminent  military  hero,  aroused  the  LusttAniana  to  aTeage  the  wkh^b  and  ii^oriea  t» 
flicted  vpqfk  them  by  Boman  am|illto&  He  waa  nnrlvaUed  in  fertility  of  rssonroes  under  deftati 
sun  in  the  conduct  of  his  tro^  and  eounge  in  the  hour  of  battte.  Aoeustomed  to  a  Ikua 
life  la  the  mountataS)  he  nerer^indul^Bd  himself  with  the  luxury  of  a  bed:  brs«il  and  naaal 
were  his  only  fojd,  and  water  his  only  berenge;  and  being  robust,  hardy,  ndroM,  alwas* 
eheerAil,  and  dreading  no  danger,  he  knew  how  to  sTaU  himoetf  ofttue  wild  (AiTahy  of  his 
oonntrymea,aDdtokeepaUvelnthemthesplrttof  fteedom.  During  eight  yews  he  coastanUir 
barsased  the  Boman  amlea,  and  defaalort  many  Boman  genanda,  seveeslof  wkom  loit  MmIv 
ttvwiftbaitte.   °T  -ft-t tlill  IItm  hi  fbfl  songi aatf  IihimIs  nf  iiaiij  r|i ito 


r 


TI]  BOMAK  HXBrOftT.  Mff 

wmrdB  sejeetod  hj  the  Romaa  smate.  Soip'io  .Amilidhtua,  at  the 
kead  of  sixty  thottsand  mea,  iras  thai  sent  to  ^oondoot  the  war,  and 
hji]^  siege  to  Nmnaii'  tia,  garrisoned  by  leas  than  ten  thousand 
men,  he  finally  reduced  the  city,  but  not  until  the  Numan'  tians, 
von  cni  by  toil  and  limine,  and  finally  yi^ding  to  deq>air,  had  de- 
stroyed all  their  women  and  ohildren,  md  then,  setting  fire  to  their 
etty,  had  peridied,  almost  to  a  man,  on  their  own  swords,  or  in  the 
iamea.  (B.  G.  183.)  The  destruotion  of  Numan'  tia  was  followed  * 
fay  the  submiiwion  of  nearly  all  the  tribes  of  the  peninsula,  and  Spain 
henoefbrtli  became  a  Boman  pro^oe. 

4.  Two  years  before  the  fisdl  of  Numan'  tia,  Sicily  had  become  the 
Hieatre  <^  a  serrile  war,  which  merits  attmoition  principally  on  ao< 
eoont  of  the  yiew  it  gires  of  l^e  state  of  the  eonqsered  countries 
thttn  vkder  the  jurisdiction  of  Borne.  The  calamities  which  usually 
fiillow  in  the  train  of  long-continued  war  had  swept  away  n,  bsbytlb 
most  of  the  original  pc^pulation  of  Sicily,  and  a  large  'vmu  ^ 
portion  of  the  cultivated  lands  in  the  island  had  been  added,  by  con- 
quest, to  the  Boman  jpublio  domain,  whu^  had  been  formed  into 
large  estates,  and  let  out  to  (peculators,  who  paid  rents  for  the  same 
into  the  Boman  lareasury.  In  the  wars  of  the  Bomans,  and  indeed 
of  most  nations^at  this  period,  laige  numbers,  of  the  m^tiyes  taken 
ig  war  were  sold  as  slaves;  and  it  was  by  slave  labor  the  estates  in 
EBeily  were  cultivated.  The  slaves  in  Sicily  were  cruelly  treated, 
and  aa  most  of  them  Bad  once  been  free,  and  some  of  high  rank,  it 
is  j^ot  surprising  that  thiay  should  seek  every  &vorable  opportunity 
to  rise  against  their  masters.  When  once,  therefore,  a  revolt  had 
brakan  out,  it  ^ead  ri^idjy  over  the  whole  island.  Seventy  thou 
sand  of  the  slaves  were  at  <me  time  under  arms,  and  in  four  success- 
ive campMgns  four  Boman  pnetorian  armies  were  defeated.  The 
most  frigh^il  atrocities  were  perpetrated  ea  both  sides,  but  the' re- 
bellion was  finally  quelled  by  tiie  destruction  of  most  of  those  who 
had  taken  part  in  it.    (B.  0.  133.) 

5.  While  these  events  were  occuring  in  the  Boman  provinces,  af- 
fiy»»in  the  capital,  generally  known  in  history  as  the  '<  dissensiona 
of  the  Gracchi,"  were  hgit  ripening  for  civil  war.     More 

•  UL   SISSEIf- 

than  two  hundred  years  had  elapsed  since  the  animosi-     bioms  op 
tiee  of  patricians  and  plebeians  were  extinguished  by  an     ^^™^ 
eqmd  participation  in  public  honors ;  but  the  wealth  of 
conquered  provinces,  and  the  numerous  lucrative  and  honorable 
offees,  both  civil  and  mititavyy  thai  had  been  created,  had  produced 


168  AirotSRT  HIBTORT.  t^mtL 

oonrnption  at  home,  by  giving  rise  to  faotiona  whidi  ooniended  for 
the  greatest  share  of  the  spoils^  while,  apart  from  these,  nev  dis- 
tinotioBS  had  arisen,  and  the  rich  and  the  poor,  or  the  illnsteioQS  and 
.  the  obscore,  now  formed  the  great  parties  in  the  States 

6.  As  the  nobles  availed  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  ih^ 
station  to  aocomnlate  wealth  and  additional  honors,  the  large  slave 
plantations  iw^eased  in  the  country  to  the  dispaSragement  of  free 
labor,  and  the  detriment  of  small  landholders,  whose  numbers  were 
•constantly  diminishing,  while  the  city  gradually  became  erowded 
with  an  idle,  indigent,  and  turbnlent  populace,  attracted  thither  by 
tiie  frequent  cheap  or  gratuitous  distributions  of  com,  and  by  the 
frequency  of  the  public  shows,  and  made  up,  in  part,  6f  emancipated 
riaves,  who  were  kept  as  retainers  fai  the  fronilies  of  their  fanaet 
mastecB.  So  long  as  large  portiona  of  Italy  remained  unsettled, 
there  was  an  outlet  for  the  redundancy  of  this  growing  populace ;  but 

*  the  entire  Italian  territory  being  now  occupied,  Uie  indigent  could 
no  longor  be  provided  for  in  the  country,  and  the  practice  of  colo- 
nizing distant  provinces  had  not  yet  been  ado|>ted. 

7.  The  evils  of  such  a  state  of  society  were  numerous  and  for- 
midable,  and  such  as  to  threaten  the  stabilUiy  of  the  republic 
Against  the  increasing  political  influence  of  the  artstooracy,  iiie 
tribunes  of  the  people  had  long  struggled,  but  rather  as  fiMtiouf 
demagogues  than  as  honest  defenders  of  popular  ri^ts.  At  length 
Tiberius  6rac'  chus,  a  tribune,  and  grandson  of  Scipio  Afrioanns, 
one  of  the  noblest  and  most  virtuous  among  the  young  men  of  his 
time,  commenced  the  work  of  reform  by  proposing  to  enforce  the 
*Licinian  law,  which  declared  that  no  individual  should  possess  more 

Uian  five  hundred  jugers,^  (about  two  hundred  and  seventy^five  acres) 
of  the  public  domain.  This  law  had  been  lopg  neglected,  so  that 
nunlbers  of  the  aristocracy  now  cultivated  vast  estates,  the  occupancy 
of  which  had  perhaps  been  transmitted  from  father  to  son  as  an  in- 
heritance, or  disposed  of  by  purchase  and  sale ;  and  although  the 
republic  rtiU  retained  the  fee  simple  in  such  lands,  and  eovld  at  any 
time  legally  turn  out  the  occupants,  it  had  long  ceased  to  be  thoo^t 
probable  that  its  rights  would  ever  be  exercised. 

8.  The  law  of  Tib^us  Orac'  chus  went  even  beyond  strict  legal  jna> 
tice,  by  proposing  that  buildings  and  improvements  on  the  public  lands 
shoidd  be  paid  for  out  of  the  public  treasury.  The  impression  has 
generally  prevailed  that  the  Agrarian  laws  proposed  by  Tiberius 

IL  Ai^avirwuiiMrlyJftMiUitliforoorMrtk 


Qbap.  YI]  JftOMAH  HISTOBT.  109 

Orae^ohns  were  a  direct  and  violent  infringement  of  the  rights  of 
private  property;  but  the  genius  and  learning  of  Niebuhr  have 
shown  that  thej  effected  the  distribution  of  public  lands  only,  and 
not  those  of  private  citisens ;  although  there  were  doubtless  instances 
'  where,  inoidentally,  they  violated  private  rights. 

9.  When  the  senators  and  noises,  w^p  were  the  principal  land- 
holders,  perceived  tl^t  their  interests  were  attacked,  their  exaspera- 
tion  was  extreme ;  and  Tiberius,  whose  virtues  had  hitherto  been  ac- 
knowledged by  all,  was  denounced  as  a  factious  demagogue,  \  disturber 
of  (he  public  tranquillity,  and  a  traitor  to  the  conservative  interests 
of  the  republic.  When  the  law  of  Tiberius  was  about  to  be  put  to 
the  vote  in  the  assemblies  of  tUe  people,  the  corrupt  nobles  engaged 
Octavins,  one  of  the  tribune's  colleagues,  to  forbid  the  proceecUngs ; 
but  the  people  deposed  him  from  the  tribuneship,  and  the  agrarian 
law  was  passed.  A  permanent  triumvirate,  or  committee  of  three, 
ofmsisting  of  Tiberius  Grac'  ohus,  his  brother  Caius,  and  Ap'  plus 
Clan'  dius,  was  thefl  appointed  to  enforce  the  law.  ,  About  the  same 
time  a  law  was  passed,  providing  that  the  treasures  which  At'  talus, 
king  of  Per'  gamus,  had  recently  bequeathed  to  the  Roman  people, 
should  be  distributed  among  the  poorer  citizens,  to  whom  lands  were 
to  be  assigned,  in  order  to  afford  them  the  means  of  purchasing  the 
Deoessary  implements  of  husbandry.*^ 

10.  At  the  expiration  of  the  year  4>f  his  tribuneship,  Tib6riu8 
offered  himself  for  reelection,  conscious  that  unless  shielded  by  the 
saer^dness  of  the  <^lce  of  tribune,  his  person  would  no  longer  be 
safe  from  the  resentment  of  his  enemies.  After  two  of  the  tribes 
had  voted  in  his  fiivor,  the  opposing  party  declared  the  votes,  illegal, 
and  the  disputes  which  followed  occupied  the  day.  On  the  following 
morning  the  people  again  assembled  to  the  election,  when  a  rumor 
was  circulated  that  some  of  the  nobles,  accompanied  by  bands  of 
armed  retainers,  designed  to  attaek  the  crowd  and  take  the  life  of 
Tiberius.  A  tumult  ensued,  and  a  false  report  was  carried  to  the 
senate,  then  in  session,  that  Tiberius  had  demanded  a  crown  of  the 
peopla  The  senate  seiied  upon  this  pretext  for  violent  interference; 
but  when  the  consul  refused  to  disturb  the  people  in  their  legal  as- 
sembly, the  senators  rose  in  a  body,  and,  headed  by  Soip'  io  Nasica, 

t.  In  133  B.  C.  At'  tains  Fhilomitor  bequeathed  his  kingdom  and  all  his  treasures  to  the  Ro- 
mm  people.  M'  talu  was  one  of  the  wont  specimens  of  Eastern  despots,  and  toolc  grsat 
iWlttit  In  dispatching  his  nearest  reUtivea  hj  poison.  The  Romans  bad  long  looked  upon 
Ma  ki^pdom  as  their  propertgr,  and  bis  wUl  was  pit>babl7  dmwn  op  bgr  Bomaa  dlotatkm. 

VL 


170  ANCIENT  HISTORT.  [Pak^ 

and  aooompanied  by  a  crowd  of  armed  dependants)  proceeded  to  ^ 
assembly,  where  a  oonflict  ensaed,  in  which  Tiberius  and  about  three 
hundred  of  his  adherents  were  slain.     (B.  C.  132.)  « 

1 1.  Notwithstanding  this  di^;racefal  victory,  and  the  persecutioiifl 
that  followed  it,  the  rnling  party  could  not  abolish  the  triumvirate 
which  had  been  appointed  to  execute  the  law  of  Tiberius.  Borisg 
ten  years,  however,  little  Was  accomplished  byihe  popular  party, 
owing  to  the  powerful  opposition  of  the  aristocracy ;  but  after  Cdjns 
Grac'  chus,  a  younger  brother  of  Tiberius,  had  been  elected  tribane, 
the  cause  of  the  people  received  a  new  impulse ;-  an  equitable  diyision 
of  the  public  lands  was  commenced,  and  many  salutary  reforms  were 
made  in  the  administration  of  ihe  government.  But,  at  length, 
C^us  being  deprived  of  the  tribuneship  by  hiae  returns  and  bribery, 
and  his  bitter  enemy  Opim'  his  having  been  elected  consul  by  the 
aristocratic  faction,  and  afterwards  appointed  dictator  by  the  senate, 
tiie  followers  of  Ciius  were  driyen  from  th6  city  by  armed  violence, 
and  three  thousand  of  their  number  slain.  (B.  0.  120.)  The  head 
of  Ciius  was  thrown  at  the  feet  of  Opim'  ius,  who  bad  o£fered  for  it 
a  reward  of  its  weight  in  gold.*^ 

12.  Thus  ended  what  has  been  termed  the  ^<  dissensions  of  the 
Gracchi;''  and  with  that  noble  family  perished  the  freedom  of  the 
republic.  An  odious  aristocracy,  which  derived  its  authority  from 
wealth,  now  ruled  the  State :  the  tribunes,  becoming  rich  themiselves, 
no  longer  interposed  their  authority  between  the  people  and  their 
oppressors ;  while  the  lower  orders,  reduced  to  a  state  of  hop^esB 
subjection,  and  xlespairing  of  liberty,  became  factious  and  torlmkit, 
and  ere.  long  prepared  the  way,  first  for  the  tyranny  of  a  perpetoal 
dictatorship,  and  lastly  for  the  establishment  of  a  monarchy  on  the 
ruins  of  the  commonwealth. 

13.  The  profligacy  and  corruption  of  the  senate  were  mamfest  itf 
the  events  that  led  to  the  Jugur'  thino  war,  ^Hiioh  began  to  embroil 

_  •.  TiMrioi  aod  C&iiu  Grac  ohus,  tboogti  of  the  noblest  origin,  and  of  superior  natural  eo- 
dowmenta,  are  sold  to  hare  been  indebted  more  to  the  Judiciona  care  of  their  widowed  motbcr 
Oomelia,  tban-to  natore,  for  the  ezoeUenoe  of  their  ^haraetera.  Thla  diatlngolshed  Konaa 
matron,  the  daogfater  of  Solp'  to  AMetaua  the  Elder,  occaples  a  high  rank  for  the  purity  and 
excellence  of  her  private  character,  as  well  aa  for  her  noble  an(L  elevated  sentiments.  The  M- 
lowing  anecdote  of  Cornelia  is  often  cited.  A  Oam^intan  ladjr  who  waa  ai  the  time  on  a  vWI 
to  her,  baring  diaplayed  to  ComeUa  soma  very  beantiAU  ornaments  which  she  possessed,  de> 
aired  the  latter,  iu  return,  to  exhibit  her  own.  The  Roman  mother  purposely  detained  her  ia 
^  conversation  until  her  chHdren  returned  ttom  school,  when,  pointing  to  them,  she  exelalmsd, 
•* There  are  my  omamenta."  She  bore  the  untimely  death  of  her  sons  with  great  magnanimity, 
and  tn  honor  of  her  a  statue  waa  afterwards  erected  by  the  Roman  people,  bearing  tbr  m  ^ 
terlptiou  ttie  wordi^ «  <WMtta,  wMAAr  ^  a«  Oi-aeeU** 


Char  VI]  ROMAN  fflSTORY.  171 

the  republic  soon  after  the  fall  of  the  Grac'chi.     The  Numid'iaa 
kiDg  Micip'  sa,  the   son  of  Massinis'  sa,  had  divided   iv.  jugue'- 
his  kingdom,  on  his  death-bed,  between  his  two  sons  thine  war. 
Hieittp'  sal  and  Adher'  bal,  and  his  nephew  Jognr'  tha ;   but  the 
latter,  resolving  to  obtain  possession  of  the  whole  inheritance,  soon 
murdered  Hiemp'  sal,  and  compelled  Adher'  bal  to  take  refuge  in  - 
Rome.     The  senate,  won  by  the  bribes  of  the  usurper,  decreed  a 
division  of  the  kingdom  between  the  two  claimants,  giving  to  Jugur'  tha 
the  better  portion ;  but  the  latter  soon  declared  war  against  his  cousin, 
andf  having  gained  possession  of  his  person,  put  him  to  death.     The 
senate  could  no  longer  avoid  a  declaration  of  war  against  Jugur'  tha; 
but  he  would  have  escaped  by  an  easy  peace,  after  coming  to  Rome 
to  plead  his  own  cause,  had  he  not  there  murdered  another  relative, 
whom  Kfe  suspected  of  aspiring  to  the  throne  of  Nuniid'  ia.     (B.  C. 
109.) 

14.^  Jugur' tha  was  allowed  to  return  to  Africa ;  but  his  briberies 
of  the  Roman  senators  were  exposed,  and  the  war  against  him  was 
begun  anew.  After  he  had  defeated  several  armies,  Metel'  lus  drove 
him  from  his  kingdom,  when  the  Numid'  ian  formed  an  alliance  with 
Bac'  ohus,  king  of  Mauritania,*  but  their  united  forces  were  success- 
irely  rout^  by  the  consul  Mdrius,  formerly  a  lieutenant  in  the  army 
of  Metel'  lus,  but  who,  after  obtaining  the  consulship,  hiid  beeij  sent 
to  terminate  the  war.  Eventually  the  Moorish  king  betrayed  Jugur'- 
tha  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  as  the  price  of  his  own  peace^and 
security,  (B.  C.  106,)  and  the  captive  ntonarch,  after  gracing  the 
triumph  of  Mdrius,  was  condemned  to  be  starved-to  death  in  prison. 

15.  Soon  after  the  fall  of  Jugur'  tha,  Marius  was  recalled  from 
his  command  in  Africa  to  defend  the  northern  provinces  of  Italy 
against  a  threatened  invasion  from  immcnse*^  hordes  of  the  Cim'  bri 
and  Tea'  tones,*  German  nations,  who,  about  the  year  v.  oermanio 
113,  had  crossed  the  Danube*  and  appeared  on  the  east-     invasion 

1.  MamHUtM  was  an  extemdf«  Mimtry  of  Nortbera  Aftiea,  west  of  Namid'  ia,  embraclog 
tb0  preaent  Moroooo  and  part  of  Algiers.    {Map  No.  IX.) 

S.  The  Vmube^  the  laigeat  river  in  EaropO)  exeept  the  Volga,  rises  in  the  sontb-westem  part 
9t  Gennanj,  in  the  Dochj  of  Uaden,*oni7  about  thirty  miMS  from  the  Rhine,  and  after  a  general 
wntli-easlem  tourse  of  nearly  eighteen  hundred  miles,  falls  into  the  Black  Sea.  (Map  No.  VUI.) 

«.TIie  barbarian  torrent  of  the  dm' bri  «od  7Vh' f(nu«  appears  to  bare  originated  beyond 
a*  ERmw  The  original  seat  of  the  dm'  hri  was  probably  the  CImbrlan  peninsula,  so  called  by 
tbe  Bomana,— the  same  as  the  modem  Jntland,  or  Denmark.  Opinions  differ  concerning  the 
TcNT  tones,  some  believing  Ihem  to  have  been  tbe  oollectlye  wanderers  of  many  tribes  between 
tbe  Viitnis  and  tbe  Elbe,  while  others  fix  their  original  seats  in  northeni  Scandinavia— that  is, 
hk  Urn  north  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 


172  AJfOIKNT  HSSTCttY.  [Pj»  L 

■ 

era  declmtiea  of  the  Alps,  whtre  the  RomaiiB  goArd^  tiie  prnwrn 
into  Italy.  The  first  year  of  the  appearance  of  these  mikiMmm 
tribes,  from  which  is  dated  the  beginning  of  (German  history ,»  thej 
defeated  the  Roman  consul  Papir'  ins  Gar'  bo,  near  Noreja,^  in  the 
%mountains  of  the  present  Styr'  ia.  Proceeding  thence  towards  south- 
era  Gaol  they  demanded  a  country  from  the  Romans,  for  which  they 
promised  military  assistance  in  war ;  but  when  their  request  was  re- 
fused they  determined  to  obtain  by  the  sword  what  was  denied  them 
by  treaty.  Four  more  Roman  armies  were  successively  vanqui^ed 
by  them,  the  last  under  the  consuls  Man'  lius  and  Gsa'  pio  in  the  year 
105,  with  the  prodigious  loss  of  80,000  Roman  soldiers  dain,  and 
40,000  of  their  slaves. 

16.  Fortunately  for  the  Romans,  the  enemy,  after  this  great  vic- 
tory, turaed  aside  towards  the  south  of  France  and  Spain,  while 
Marins,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  northern 
army,  marching  over  the  Alps  towards  Oaul,  formed  a  defensive 
camp  on  the  Rhone.*  The  Germans,  returaing,.  in  vain  tempted 
Marius  to  battle,  after  which  they  divided  into  two  hands,  the  Gim'- 
hri  taking  up  their  march  for  Italy,  while  the  Teu'  tones  remained 
opposed  to  Mdrius.  £ut  when  the  Teu'  tones  saw  that  their  chal- 
lenge for  battle  was  not  accepted,  they  also  hroke  up,  and  mardung 
past  the  Romans,  jeeringly  asked  them  "  if  they  had  any  commissions 
to  send  to  their  wives.''  M^ius  followed  at  their  side,  keeping  upon 
the  heights,  but  when  he  had  arrived  at  the  present  town  of  Aix,*  in  the 
south  of  France,  some  accidental  skirmishing  at  the  outposts  of  the 
two  armies  brought  on'  a  general  battle,  which  continued  two  days, 
and  in  which  the  natioiT  of  the  Teu'  tones  was.  nearly  annihilated, 
(B.  G.  102,) — two  hundred  thousand  of  them  being  either  killed  or 
taken  prisoners.  ^ 

17.  In  the  meantime  the  consul  Gatul'lus  had  been  repulsed  by 
the  Gim'  bri  in  northera  Italy,  and  driven  south  of  the  Po.  M4rius 
hastened  to  his  assistance,  and  their  united  forces  now  advanced 
across  the  Po,  and  defeated  the  Gim'  bri  in  a  great  battle  on  the  Rau- 

1.  Alvr^ro,  or  Jf^rnm,  wm  the  cftpttai  of  the  Roman  pr^TlMe^of  ^eriefm,  TIm  rito  of  UUt 
dty  it  In  tbe  prmeOL  Amriam  provfuee  of  Stfrio,  about  sUty  bbIIm  nortii-eMt  ft«a  LaylMeh. 
(,Mt^  No.  vnL) 

St.  The  JUkon4  risea  in  SwiUerlaod,  paatei  ttarongh  the  Lake  of  Oentfa,  and  after  onltias 
with  the  Bttone  flows  toutb  through  the  aoulh-eaatem  part  of  Ftanee,  and  dlachaigei  lit  waMn 
bjr  four  Btomhs  into  the  MedUenraaeaa.    (Mapmo.Xnh) 

3.  ^t'zjcaUedby  theBoiDaBa.4fiM£te<«,lafiti]atedinaplala>Uleeni]iileaiiorth€rii^ 
MUiea.    (.«vKo.XUL) 

a.  Kohlrauaoh^  Germany,  ph  43 


OHtf.yii.  Boujkjs  mxroRT  173 

£aik  pkins.*  (B.  C  101.)  Thus  ended  the  irar  with  ihe  Oermaa 
«atioii8.  The  dimger  with  whidi  it  for  a  time  threatened  Rome  was 
eompared  to  that  of  the-  great  Gallie  inyasion,  nearly  three  hundred 
jears  b^ore.  The  Romans,  in  gratitnde  to  their  deliverer/  now 
Btjled  Marine  the  third  founder  of  the  oity. 

18.  A  still  more  dangeronsjwar,  called  the  social  war,  soon  after  broke 
oat  between  the  Bomans  and  their  Italian  allies,  caused  ^^  ,.^ 
bj  the  tmjnst  treatment  of  the  latter,  who,  forming  part  of  booxal  war. 
the  commonwealth,  and  sharing  its  burdens,  had  long  in  vain  de- 
manded for  themselves  the  civil  and  political  privileges  that  were 
enjoyed  by  citizens  of  tiie  metropolis.  The  war  continued  three 
years,  and  Rome  would  dod}tle6S  have  fallen,  had  she  not,  toon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  struggle,  granted  the  Latin  towns,  more 
tium  fifty  in  mmiber,  all  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens,  and  thus  se- 
cured their  fidelity.  (90  B.  G.)^  The  details  of  this  war  are  little 
known,  but  it  is  supposed  Uiat,  during  its  continuance,  more  than 
Ihree  himdred  thousand  Italians  lost  their  lives,  and  that  many 
iloarishing  towns  were  reduced  to  heaps  of  ruins,  ^he  Romans 
were  eventually  compelled  to  oBer  the  rights  of  citizenship  to  all' 
that  should  lay  down  their  arms ;  and  tranquillity  was  thus  restored 
to  most  of  Italy,  although  the  Samnites  continued  to  resist  until 
they  WCT'C  destroyed  as  a  nation.  * 

19.  While  these  domestic  dangers  were  threatening  Rome,  an  im- 
portant African  war  had  broken  out  with  MithriddteS)  king  of  Pontus.* 
It  has  been  related  that  in  the  time  of*  Antiochus  the    ^^   „^g. 
Great,  king  of  Syria,  the  Romans  obtained,  by  conquest  MTHairtAno 
and  treaty,  the  western  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  most       ^^ 

of  which  they  conferred  upon  one  of  their  allies,  Etimenes,  king  of 
Per'gamus,  and  that  At' talus,  a  subsequent  prince  of  Per'gamus, 
gave  back  these  same  provinces^  by  will,  to  the  Roman  people.  (See 
p.  161  and  p.  169.) 

20.  The  Romans,  thus  firmly  established  in  Asia  Minor,  saw  with 
jealousy  the  increasing  power  of  Mithridates,  who,  after  reducing 
the  nations  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  had  added  to  his 

L  Pwhu  v«  a  oooDtry  of  A«Ui  Minor,  on  tba  ioutb-«a8leni  eoMt  of  the  Enxina^  bavkig 
Oalohki  on  tlie  flMt,  and  Paphlagftnift  and  GaI4ti«  on  Um  west. 

a.  The  anetloealtty  la  unknown,  but  it  waa  on  a  nortliera  bimnch  of  Uie  Po,  between  Ver. 
eeOi  ami  Verana,i»Qbablj  near  tba  praMotMUan.  Some  eaj  near  VeroeUi,  on  the  weet  bank 
of  tba  fHiiiftM 

b.  Tbta  waa  done  hj  the  oelebraled  Ltz  Jmlioj  or  JoUan  Uw,  propoaad  l^  L.  Jnliua  Cbht, 


174  AirOIE5T  HISTOET.  [PabvL 

diKiuiiioiiB  on  the  west,  Paphlag6iiia  and  Oappadoeia,*  wlikii  bB 
claimed  by  inlieritanoe.  Nioomedes,  king  of  Bithjn'  la,  diaputing^ 
with  him  the  right  to  the  hitter  proyinoes,  appealed  to  the  Koman 
senate,  which  decUred  that  the  diluted  difltricts  should  be  firee 
States^  subject  to  neither  Nioom^des  nor  MithridAtes.  The  latter 
then  entered  into  an  alliance  with  TigrAnea,  king  of  Ann6nia, — 
seized  the  disputed  prorinces — drove  Nicom6de8  from  his  kingdom-^ 
defeated  two  large  Roman  armies,  and,  in  the  year  88»  before  the 
end  of  the  social  war,  had  gained  possession  of  all  Asia  Minor.  All 
the  Greek  islands  of  the  ^gean,  except  Rhodes,  yolontarily  sub- 
mitted to  him,  and  nearly  all  the  Grecian  States,  with  Athens, 
throwing  off  the  Roman  yoke,  placed  themselyes  under  his  protectioB. 
Mithridates  had  received  a  Greek  education,  and  was  looked  upon 
as  a  Grecian,  which  accounts  for  the  readiness  with  which  the  Greeks 
espoused  his  cause. 

21.  The  Roman  senate  gave  the  command  of  the  ]V{ithridatic  war 
to  Sylla,  a  man  of  great  intellectual  superiority,  but  of  profligate* 
morals,  who  had  served  under  Mirius  against  Jugur'  tha  and  the 

no.  CIVIL    Cim'  bri,  and  had  rendered  himself  eminent  by  his  ser- 
WAR  BE-     vices  in  the  social  war.     The  ambitious  Mdrius,  though 
aius  AND  -  iiu)re  than  twenty  years  die  senior  of  Sylla,  had  long 
BYLLA.      regarded  the  Httter  as  a  formidable  rival,  and  now  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  decree  of  the  people,  by  which  the  com- 
mand was  transferred  from  Sylla  to  himself.     Sylla,  then  at  the 
head  of  an  army  in  the  Samnite  territory,  immediately  marched 
against  Rome,  and  entering  the  city,  broke  up  the  faction  of  Mirius, 
who,  after  a  series  of   romantic  adventures,  escaped  to  Africa.^ 
(88  B.  C.) 

22.  Scarcely  had  Sylla  departed  with  his  army  for  Greece,  to  carry 
on  the  war  against  Mithriddtes,  when  a  fierce  contest  arose  within 

a.  See  Map  of  Asia  MiDor,  No.  IV. 

b.  MAriiiB  fled  first  to  Oatia,  and  tbeDoe  along  the  sea-ooaat  to  Mintor'  na,  where  be  «w  P^ 
on  shore,  at  the  raouth  of  the  Liris,  and  abandoned  by  the  crew  of  the  vessel  that  carried  him- 
Afler  in  vain  seelcing  shelter  in  the  cottage  of  an  old  peasant,  be  was  forced  to  hide  himMlf  in 
the  mud  of  Cbe  Pontine  marshes ;  bat  be  was  discovered  by  his  vigilant  pursuers,  dragged  oat, 
and  thrown  into  a  dungeon  at  Mintur'  nas.  No  one,  however^  had  the  courage  to  put  blm  to 
death  ;  and  the  maglstratee  of  Mintur'  nm  therefore  sent  a  public  slave  into  the  prison  to  kill 
him ;  bat  as  the  barbarian  approached  the  hoary  warrior  his  courage  Mled  him,  and  Use  Min- 
tur' nians,  mcyved  by  compassion,  put  M&rioa  on  board  a  boat  and  transported  )nm  to  AlHot* 
Beinff  set  down  at  Carthage,  the  Roman  go^mor  of  the  district  sent  to  inform  him  that  uniosi 
he  left  Africa  he  should  treat  him  as  a  public  enemy.  **  Go  and  tell  him,*'  replied  (he  wanderer, 
**  that  you  have  seen  the  exile  M&rius  silting  on  the  ruins  of  Carthage."  In  the  following  year 
during  the  absence  of  Sylla,  he  returned  to  Italy.  For  localities  of  Pontint  MartkUt  lArih 
and  Mtntw  nm,  see  Hap  No.  X. 


Chat.YL]  ROHAN  HISTORY.  175 

tbe  eiij  between  the  partisans  of  S  jUa  and  M^ins ;  one  of  the  oon- 
Bvls,  Oiona,  esponsing  the  caose  of  the  latter,  and  the  other,  Oct^- 
Tins,  that  of  the  former.  Cinna  recalled  the  i^^ed  Mdrius ;  both 
parties  flew  to  arms ;  and  all  Italy  became  a  prey  to  the  horrors  of 
ciTil  irar.  (B.  C.  87.)  The  senate  and  the  nobles  adhered  to  Octi- 
▼ins ;  but  Rome  was  besieged,  and  compelled  to  surrender^  to  the 
adrerse  faction.  -  Then  commenced  a  general  massacre  of  all  the  op- 
ponents of  Mdrins,  which  was  continued  five  days  and  nights,  until 
the  streets  ran  with  blood.  Haying  gratified  his  revenge  by  this 
bloody  victory,  MArius  declared liimself  consul,  without  going  through 
~  tiie  formality  of  an  election,  and  chose  Cinna  to  be  his  colleague ; 
but  sixteen  days  later  his  life  was  terminated  by  a  sudden  fever,  at 
tiie  age  of  seventy-one  years.  Mirius  has  the  character  of  having 
been  one  of  the  most  successful  generics  of  Rome ;  but  after  having 
borne  away  manj»  honorable  offices,  and  performed  many  noble  ex- 
ploits, he  tarnished  his  glory  by  a  savage  and  in&mous  old  age. 

23.  During  three  y^ars  after  the  death  of  Mirius,  Sylla  was  con 
ducting  the  war  in  Greece  and  Asia,  while  Italy  was  completely  in 
th«  hands  of  the  party  of  Cinna.  The  latter  even  sent  an  army  to 
Asia  to  ^ttack  Sylla,  and  was  preparing  to  embark  himself,  when  he 
was  slain  in  a  mutiny  of  his  soldiers.  In  the  meantime  Sylla,  hav- 
ing takeni  Athens  by  storm,  and  defeated  two  armies  of  Mithriddtes, 
condoded  a  peace  with  that  monarch ;  (84  B.  C.,)  and  having  induced 
the  soldiers  sent  against  him  to  join  his  standard,  he  returned  to  Italy 
at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men  to  take  vengeanee  upon  his  ene- 
mies, who  had  collected  an  army  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  cohorts, 

,  numbering  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  men,*  to  oppose  him. 
(B.  C.  83.)  But  none  of  the  generals  of  this  vast  army  were  equal, 
in  military  talents,  to  Sylla ;  their  forces  gradually  deserted  them, 
and  after  a  short  but  severe  struggle,  Sylla  became  master  of  Rome. 

24.  A  dreadful  proscription  of  his  enemies  followed,  far  exceed* 
ing  the  atrocities  of  Mdrius ;  for  Sylla  filled  not  only  Rome,  but 
all  Italy,  with  massacres,  which,  in  the  language' of  the  old  writers,' 
bad  neither  numbers  nor  bounds.  He  caused  himself  to  be  appointed 
dictator  for  an  unlimited  time,  (B.  C.  81,)  reestablidied  thp  govern- 
ment on  an  aristocratioal  basts,  and  after  "having  fuled  nearly  three 
years,  to  the  astonishment  of  every  one  he  resigned  Ms  power,  and 
retired  to  private  life.     He  died  soon  after,  of  a  loathsome  disease,  *  . 

B.  '*From  tbe  time  of  M&rlag,  the  Soman  military  forces  are  always  eomited  by  eoborta  or 
tauS  biitinofii,  eadi  eontaintng  tout  hundred  and  twenty  meo.*'— Mlebnhr,  tr.  19Si 


176  ANcnarr  histoet.  [Pm  l 

at  the  a^  of  sixty  years^  leayisg,  by  hk  own  direction,  tke  foUowinf^ 
oharacteriBtio  inscription  to  be  engrayed  on  his  tomb.  "  H^  lias 
Sylla,  who  was  neyer  ontdone  in  good  offices  by  his  friend,  nor  in 
sots  of  hostility  by  his  enemy."     (B.  G.  77.) 

25.  A  Marian  fftction,  headed  by  Sert6riiis,  a  man  of  great  mili- 
tary talents,  still  existed  in  Spain,  threatening  to  soTer  that  province 
from  Rome,  and  establish  a  new  kingdom  there.  *  After  Sert6riiii 
had  defeated  seyeral  Roman  armies,  the  youthful  Pompey,  after- 
wards sumamed  the  Great,  was  sent  against  him ;  but  he  too  waa 
Tanquished,  and  it  was  not  until  the  insurgents  had  been  depriyed  of 
their  able  leader  by  treachery,  that  the  rebellion  was  quelled,  and 
Spain  tranquilliaed.  (B.  G.  70.)  During  the  continuance  of  the 
Spanish  jrar,  a  formidable  revolt  of  the  slaves,  headed  by  Spar'  taeua, 

n.  snviLs  ^  celebrated  Radiator,  had  broken  out  in  Italy.  At  first 
WAR  IN  Spar'  tacus  and  his  companions  formed  a  desperate  band 
"^^'  X  of  robbers  and  murderers,  but  their  numbers  eventually 
increased  to  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  and  three  praeto- 
rian and  two  consular  armies  were  completely  defeated  by  them. 
The  war  lasted  upwards  of  two  years,  and  at  one  time  Rome  itself 
was  in  danger ;  but  the  rebels,  divided  among  tiiemselves,  were  finally 
overcome,  and  nearly  all  exterminated,  by  the  pr»tor  Gras'  sua,  the 
growing  rival  of  Pompey.     (B,  G.  70.) 

26.  During  the  progress  of  these  events  in  Italy,  a  seccmd  war  had 
broken  out  with  Mithriddtea,  (83  B.  G.,)  but  after  a  continuance  of 

two  years  it  had  been  terminated  by  treaty.  (81  B.  0.) 
AND  THUD  Seven  years  later,  Mithridates,  who  had  long  been  pre- 
xxTHEiDATio  paring  for  hostilities,  broke  the  second  treaty  between.^ 

him  and  the  Romans  by  the  invasion  of  Bythyn'  ia,  and 
thus  commenced  the  third  Mathridattc  war.  At  first  LucuUus,  who 
was  sent  against  him,  was  successful,  and  amassed  immense-treasures; 
but  eventually  he  was  defeated,  and  Mithridates  gained  possession 
of  nearly  all  Asia  Minor.  Manil'  ius,  the  tribune,  then  proposed 
that  Pompey,  who  had  recently  gained  great  honor  by  a  successful 
war  agaiost  the  pirates  in  the  Mediterranean,  should  be  placed  over 
all  the  other  generals  in  the  Asiatic  provinces,  retaining  at  the  same 
time  the  commaad  by  sea.  This  was  a  greater  accumulation  of 
power  {han  had  ever  been  intrusted  to  any  Roman  citizen,  but  the 
*  law  was  adopted.  It  was  on  this  ocasion  that  the  orator  Gicero 
pronounced  his  famous  oration  Fro  lege  Manilia^  (^^  for  the  Manilian 
law.*')    Caesar  also,  who  was  just  then  rising  into  eminence^  approved 


Csin  VI]  ttOMAN  HIBTOET.  177 

Iba  measore,  wbSe  the  friends  of  Ctsb'sob  in  vain  attempted  to  de* 
feat  it 

27.  Pompey,  then  passing  with  a  large  army  into  Asia,  (B.  C.  66,) 
ID  one  campaign  defeated  Mithridites  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  drove  the  monarch  from  his  kingdom ;  and  in  the  following  year, 
after  fedncing  Syria,  thns  putting  an  end  to  the  empire  of  the  Seleu'- 

*cid2e  he  found  an  opportunity  of  extending  Boman  interference  to  the 
a&ita  of  Palestine.  Each  of  the  two  claimants  to  the  throne,  the 
Ivothers  Hyreanus  an«^  Aristobtilus,'  sought  his  assistance,  and  as  he 
decided  IB  &yor  of  the  former,  the  latter  prepared  to  resist  the  Boman, 
and  skat  himself  up  in  Jerusalem.  After  a  siege  of  three  months 
the  city  was  taken ;  its  walls  and  fortifications  were  thrown  down ; 
Hyreanus  was  appointed  to  be  high-priest,  and  goyemor  of  the 
country,  but  was  required  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Romans;  while 
Aristobdlus,  with  his  sons  and  daughters,  was  taken  to  Rome  to 
grace  the  triuni)>h  of  Pompey.  From  this  time  the  situation  of 
Judea  diCered  li|tle  from  ihat  of  a  Boman  province,  although  for  a 
>hile  later  it  was  goyemed  by  natiye  princes ;  but  all  of  ihem  were 
more  or  less  subject  to  Boman  authority.  About  the  time  of  Pom- 
poy's  conquest  6f  Jerusalem,  Mithridates,  driven  from  one  province 
to  another,  uid  finding  no  protection  even  among  his  own  relatives, 
terminated  his  life  by  poison.  ($.  0.  63.)  His  dominions  and  vaat 
weaMi  were  variously  disposed  of  by  Pompey  in  the  name  of  the 
Boman  people. 

28.  While  Pompey  was  winning  laurels  in  Asia,  the  republic  was 
Inronght  near  the  brink  of  destruction  by  a  conspiracy  headed  by  the 
infamous  Oatiline.  Bome  was  at  this  time  in  a  state  of  compete 
anarchy;  the  republic  was  a  mere  name;  the  laws  had  ^  oonspi 
lost  their  power ;  the  elections  were  carried  by  bribery;  raoy  of 
and  the  city  populsce  was  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  °^'''^^°^  • 
nobles  in  their  feudB  again&t  one  another.  In  this  corrupt  state  of 
tilings  SergiuB  Oatiline,  a  man  of  patrician  rank,  and  of  great  abili- 
ties, but  a  monster  of  wickedness,,  who  had  acted  a  distmguished 
part  in  ihe  bloody  scenes  of  Sylla^s  tyranny,  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  confederacy  of  profligate  young  nobles,  who  hoped,  by 
derating  their  leader  to  the  consulship,  or  by  murdering  those  wh) 
opposed  them,  to  mike  tibemselves  masters  of  Borne,  and  to  gain 
possession  of  the  public  treasures,  and  the  property  «f  the  citizens. 
Many  oiroomstaDces,  favored  the  audacious  schemes  of  the  conspira- 
tors.    Pompey  was  abroad — ^Gras'  sus,  striving  with  mad  eagerness 

H*  12  ' 


I 
178  AiroiEirr  hibtobt.  [p^mL 

for  power  and  rlclies,  countenanced  the  growing  inflaence  of  OatOine, 
OS  a  means  of  his  own  aggrandizement — Csssar,  laboring  to  reviTe 
the  party  of  Marias,  and  courting  the  &7or  of  the  pec^le  bj  pnblio 
shows  and  splendid  entertainments,  spared  Catiline,  and  perhaps  se- 
cretly encouraged  him,  ^hile  the  only  two  eminent  Romans  who 
boldly  determined  to  uphold  their  falling  country  wei«  Gato  the 
younger,  and  the  orator  Cicero.  * 

29.  While  the  storm  which  Catiline  had  been  raising  was  threat- 
ening to  burst  upon  Rome,  and  every  one  dreaded  the  arch-conspira* 
tor,  but  no  one  had  the  courage  to  come  forwarcl  against  him,  Cicero 
offered  himself  a  candidate  for  the  consulship,  in'opposition  to  CatUinOi 
and  was  elected.  An  attempt  of  the  conspirators  to  murder  Cicero  in  his 
own  house  was  frustrated  by  the  watchful  vigilance  of  the  consul ;  and 
a  fortunate  accident  disclosed  to  him  all  their  plans,  which  he  laid  be- 
fore the  senate.  Even  in  the  senate-house  Catiline  boldly  confronted 
Cicero,  who  there  pronounced  against  him  that  famdhs  oration  which 
saved  Rome  by  driving  Catiline  from  the  city.  Catilme  then  fled  to 
Etruria,  where  he  had  a  large  force  already  under  lurms,  while  sevB-* 
ral  of  his  confederates  remained  in  the  city  to  open  the  gates  to  hiia 
on  his  approach  ;  but  they  were  apprehended,  and  brought  to  punish- 
ment. An  army  was  then  sent  against  the  insurgents,  who  were 
completely  defeated ;  and  most  of  them,  imitating  Catiline^  fou^t 
to  the  last,  and  died  sword  in  hand.  (B.'C.  63«)  Cicero,  to  whom 
the  Romans  were  indebted  for  the  overthrow  of  the  conspiracy,  wafl 
now  hailed  as  the  Father  and  Deliverer  of  his  country. 

30.  Soon  after  the  return  of  Pompey  from  Asia,  the  jealousies 
between  him  and  Cras'  sus  were  renewed ;  but  Julius  Csesar  succeeded 

xn  THE  ^  reconciling  the  rivals,  and  in  uniting  them  with  him- 
FIRST  TRi-  self  in  a  secret  partnership  of  power,  called  the  First  Tri- 
uMviRATB.  ,iniy irate.  (60  B.  C)  These  men,  .by  their  united  in- 
fluence, were  now  able  to  carry  all  their  measures ;  and  they  virtually 
usurped  the  powers  of  the  senate,  as  well  as  the  command  of  the 
legions.  CsBsar  first  obtainei  the  office  of  consul,  (B.  C.  59,)  and, 
when  the  year  of  his  consulship  had  expired,  was  made  commander 
of  all  Gaul,  (B.  C.  58,)  although  but  a  small  portion  of  fhsi  country 
yas  then  under  the  Roman  dominion.  Cras'  sus,  whose  avarice  was 
unbounded,  soon  after  obtained  the  command  of-  Syria,  famed  for  its 
luxury  and  wealth ;  while  to  Pompey  were  given  A£rica  and  Spain, 
although  he  left  the  care  of  his  provinces  to  oth^s,  and  stiU  remained 
in  Italy. 


Chap.  VI]  EOMAH  HISTOBY.  179 

31.  In  ihe  course  of  eight  years  Oseaar  conquered  all  Oaol,  whioh 
consisted  of  a  great  ni:ynber  of  separate  nations — twice  passed  the 
Bhine'  into  Germany — and  twice  passed  over  into  Britain,  and  jimb- 
doed  the  sonthem  part  of  the  island.  Hitherto  Britain  had  been 
Imown  only  by  name  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  and  its  first  inva- 
sion by  Gassar,  in  the  year  55  B.  C.,  is  the  beginning  of  its  authentic 

•history.  The  disembarkation  of  the  Bomans,  somewhere  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Kent,^  was  firmly  disputed  by  the  natives ;  but  stem 
discipline .  and  steady  valor  overawed  them,  imd  they  proffered  sub- 
mission. A  second  invasion  in  the  ensuing  spring  was  also  resisted ; 
but  genius  and  science  asserted  their  usual  superiority;^  and  peace, 
and  the  withdrawal  of  the  invaders,  were  purchased  by  the  payment 
of  tribute.  In  the  meantime  Cras'  sus  had  fallen  in  Parthia,'  (B.  C. 
52,)  thus  leaving  but  two  masters  of  the  Boman  world ;  but  Pompey 
bad  already  become  jealous  of  the  greatness  of  Osesar's  fiune,  and  on 
the  death  of  Julia,  the  wife  of  Pompey  and  daughter  of  Caesar,  the 
last  tie  that  bound  these  friends  was  broken,  and  they  became  rivals, 
and  enemies.  Pompey  had  secured  most  of  the  senate  to  his  inter- 
ests ;  but  Caesar,  though  absent,  had  obtained,  by  the  most  lavish 
bribes,  numerous  and  powerful  adherents  in  the  very  hearjb  of  Borne. 
Among  others,  Mark  Antony  and  Quintus  Cassius,  tribunes  of  the* 
people,  favored  his  interests 

32.  When  Caesar  requested  that  he  might  stand  for  the  consulship 
in  his  absence,  the  senate  denied  the  request.     When  or-    zm.  civil 
dered  to  disband  his  legions  and  resign  his  provinces,  he  ^^^^^^^^ 
immediately  promised  compliance,  if  Pompey  would  do  and  pomw. 
the  same;  but  the  senate  peremptorily  ordered  him  to  disband  his 

L  Hie  KiiM  riMft  to  SwttzertaiMl,  only  ft  few  mfles  from  flie  loiirce  at  the  Rhone— ptuee 
tfarooQ^  Lake  ConsUmoe— then  flows  weet  to  the  town  of  Bule^  near  the  borden  of  FraiMW^ 
theooe  generally  north-west  to  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean.  It  formed  the  ancient 
botuMlary  between  Gaol  and  the  German  tribes,  and  was  first  passed  by  Jalius  Ciesar  in  hto 
faiTaaion  of  the  German  nation  of  the  Sicambri. 

9.  Parikia  was  originally  a.  small  extent  of  conntry,  south-east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  After 
Ihe  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  a  separate  kingdom  waa  formed  there,  which  gradaaUy  es- 
tcnded  to  the  Indus  on  the  east  and  the  Tigris  on  the  west,  nntil  It  embraced  the  fklrost  prov- 
Ineea  Of  the  old  Peoian  monarchy.  By  the  victory  over  Crassas  the  Parthlons  obtained  a  great 
Increase  of  power,  and  during  a  long  time  afler  this  event  they  were  almost  oonstantly  at  war 
with  the  Romans.  The  Parthian  empire  was  overthrown  bflhe  sonthem  Persians  S9S  years . 
sAer  the  CShristian  era,  when  the  later  Persian  empire  of  the  Sasaanidm  was  established.  «The 
mode  of  fighting  adopted  by  the  Parthian  cavalry  was  peculiar,  and  well  calculated  to  annoy^ 
lit  hen  apparently  tai  ftaU  retreat,  they  would  turn  round  on  their  steeds  ^nd  diseharge  their 
afrowB  with  the  most  unerring  accuracy ;  and  hence,  to  borrow  the  language  of  an  ancient 
writer,  It  was  victory  to  themjif  a  counterfeit  flight  threw  their  pursuers  into  disorder." 

a.  Ibe  plaoe  where  OBesr  ft  believed  to  have  landed  Is  at  the  town  of  Deal,  near  what  la 
called  the  Sooth  Fofeland,  sizty-Blx  miles  aOQUMast  froa  London. 


180  AKODSNT  mSTOBT.  [Past  1 

amiy  before  a  i^eoified  daj,  tmder  tiie  penalty  of  bein^  dedar^  a 
public  onemj;  (B.  C.  49.)  The  tribunes  Antony  and  Caasius  fled 
to  the  artny  of  Gsesar  then  at  Rayen'  na,^  bearing  with  them  the  hois- 
tile  mandate  of  the  senate,  and  by  their  harangues  inflaming  the  sol- 
diers against  the  meamires  of  the  senatorial  party.  CaBsar,  eonfldeni 
of  the  support  of  his  troops,  now  passed  the  Rubicon  in  hostile  array, 
an  act  deemed  equiyalent  to  an  open  declaration  of  war  f^ainst  his' 
country.  The  senate  and  Fompey,  alarmed  at  the  rapidity  of  kia 
niOYements,  and  finding  their  forces  daily  deserting  them,  fled  across 
the  Adriat'  ic  into  Greece ;  and  in  sixty  days  from  the  passage  of  the 
Rubicon;  Csesar  was  master  of  all  Italy. 

33.  Caosar  soon  obtained  the  surrender  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia^ 
after  which  he  passed  over  to  Spain,  where  Pompey^s  lieutenants 
commanded, — rapidly  reduced  the  whole  Peninsula,  took  Marseilles 
by  siege  on  his  return  through  Gkiul,  and,  on  his  arrival  at  Rome, 
was  declared  by  the  remnant  of  th^  senate  sole  dictator ;  but  niter 
eleven  days  he  laid  aside  the  office,  and  took  that  of  consul.  Pompey 
had  already  collected  a  numeroxis  army  in  the  eastern  provmces, 
and  -thither  Caesar  followed  him.  Near  Dyrraoh'  ium,*  in  lUyr'  i- 
onm,  he  assaulted  the  intrenched  camp  of  Pompey,  but  was  re- 
pulsed with  the  loss  of  many  standards,  and  his  own  camp  would 
have  been  taken  had  not  Pcmipey  called  off  his  troops,  in  i^prehoi- 
sion  of  an  ambuscade;  on  which  O^esar  remarked  that  "the  war 
would  have  been  at  an  end,  if  Pompey  had  known  how  to  profit  by 
viotpry.^' 

-  34.  Caesar  then  boldly  advanced  into  Thes' saly,  followed  by  Pompey 
at  the  head  of  a  superior  force.  The  two  armies  met  on  the  phuns 
of  Pharsdlia,*  where  was  fought  the  battle  which  decided  jbhe  ^ite  of 
the  Roman  world.     (B.  C.  48.)     Caesar  was  completely  victorious, 

1.  Raven'  ma  was  originallj  bolU  on  the  ahora  of  the  AdrUt'  Ic,  near  the  moat  sontbem 
month  of  the  river  Pp.  Angnstua  conatmcted  a  new  harbor  three  mllea  from  the  old  town, 
and  henceforward  the  new  harbor  became  the  principal  station  of  the  Roman  Adriat'  ic  fleet} 
bnt  such  was  the  aecamulatioB  of  mud  brought  down  by  the  streams,  that,  as  Gibbon  relate^ 
■0  early  as  the  fifth  or  sixth  century  after  Christ,  **  the  port  of  Augustus  waa  converted  inio 
pleasant  orchards ;  and  a  lonely  grove  of ipines  eoyered  tho  ground  where  the  Roman  lleei 
once  rode  at  anchor."  Baven'  na  was  the  capital  of  Italy  daring  the  last  years  of  the  Western 
empire  of  tho  Romans,  and  it  stiU  contains  numerooa  interesting  specimens  of  thB  arehitectura 
9f  that  period. 

8.  Dyrrack'  iuMy  which  waa  a  Grecian  dty,  at  first  called  Efiiamnut^  was  situated  on  tb« 
niyrian  coast  of  Macedonia,  north  of  ApoUonla.  Its  modem  name  is  />Mrazz«,  an  onhealthy 
village  of  Turkish  Albania. 

3.  PkaraAlia  was  a  city  situated  in  the  central  portion  of  Tbesaaly,  on  a  southem  tribatai7 
of  the  Peneus.  ^  The  name  of  Pharta^  applied  to  a  few  ruins  about  fifteen  miles  south-weat 
fr<ta  LarlMa,  nurka  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  ^ 


CH4F.VL]  EOMAN  HISTORT.  181 

aaA  Pompey,  ileeiiig  in  disgdae  fSrom  the  field  of  battle,  attended 

only  l^y  his  son  Sextus,  and  a  few  followers  of  rank,  punraed  his 

i  way  to  Mytil6ne,  where  he  took  on  board  his  wife  Cornelia  and 

1 1  sailed  to  Egypt,  inteiufing  to  claim  the  hospitality  of  the  yt^mg  king 

i  Ptol'  emy,  whose  fitther  he  had  befriended.     PtoF  emy,  then  at  war 

\  with  his  sister  Cleopatra,  was  encamped  with  his  army  near  Pehisi- 

am,*  whither  Pompey  directed  his  course,  after  sending  to  infenn 

the  king  of  his  approach.     In  the  army  of  Ptol'  emy  there  was  a 

Boman,  named  JSeptim'  ins,  who  advised  the  yonng  prince  to  put 

!i         Pompey  to  death,  in  order  to  secore  the  fayor  of  CsBsar ;  and  jnst 

fj         as  Pompey  was  stepping  oa  shore  from  a  boat  that  had  been  sent  to 

reeeive  him,  he  was  stabbed,  in  the  i^ight  of  his  wife  and  son.     Soon 

sdfter  CsBsar  arriyed  at  Alexandria  in  l&gypt  in  pursoit  of  the  fugi* 

tiyes;  when  the  ring  and  head  of  Pompey,  which  were  presented  to 

him,  gave  him  the  first  information  of  the  &te  of  his  riyal.     He 

shed  tear9  at  the  sight,  and  torned  away  with  horror  from  the  spee- 

tede.     He  afterwards  ordered  the  head  to  be  burned  with  perfumes, 

in  the  Boman  method,  and  loaded  with  fayors  those  who  had  adhered 

to  Pompey  to  the  last 

35.  Gsesar,  in  his  eager  pursuit  of  Pompey,  had  taken  with  him 
to  Alexandria  only  a  small  body  of  troops,  and  when,  captivated  .by 
the  fhEBcma  and  beauty  of  Cleopatra,  the  Egyptian  queen,  who  ap- 
plied to  him  for  protection,  he  decided  against  the  claims  of  her 
brother,  the  party  of  the  latter  conceived  the  plan  of  overwhelming 
him  in  Ale^nndria,  so  that  his  situation  there  was  similar  to  that  of 
Cortes  ia  Mexico.  The  royal  palace,  in  which  Cseear  had  fortified 
himself^  jna  set  on  fire,  and  the  celebrated^  library  established  there 
by  PtoFemy  Philadelphus  was  burnt  to  ashes.  With  difficulty 
Caesar  escaped  from  the  city  to  the  ishmd  of  Pharos,*  where  he 
maintained  himself  until  reinforcements  arrived.  He  ^n  over- 
threw the  power  of  Ptol'  6my,  >rho  lost  his  life  by  drowning,  and 
after  having  established  Cleopitra  on  the  throne  he  marched  against 
Phainioes,  king  of  Pontus,  son  of  Mithridites,  whose  dominions  he 
ndoeed  with  sodi  rapidity  that  he  announced  the  result  to  the  Bo* 

L  P«MMim  WM  »  ftontier  dtj  of  ligypt,  at  tbe  entnaoe  of  tiia  Mftcm  mouth  of  Um 
Kite.  '^ 

&  FftcTM  WMmttinntalMKltiiflie^bay  of  Alexandria,  at  tlM  eoiraiioa  of  the  prtndpal  bar- 
feor,  one  nile  ftx>m  the  Bhore,  with  which  it  was  oonoeoted  by  a  canieway.  The  celebraled 
«1^wer  or  Phoioa'*  waa  Imilt  on  tbe  Idand  fai  the  reign  of  Ptol'  emy  Philadelphiia,  to  urve 
maWghthntHo  ThemodemUghthonielower,  which •tandaon  the liland,  has nothli« of  the 
besatjandtrudenrortheoldriia.  « 


182  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  [PiwL 

man  senat3  in  the  well  known  words,  veniyVidij  vid,  "  I  oame,  I  mwy 
I  conquer  3d." 

36.  On  CsBsar's  return  to  Borne,  (B.  G.  47,)  after  an  absence  of 
nearly  two  years,  he  granted  a  general  amnesty  to  all  the  followers 
of  Pompey,  and  by  his  clemency  gained  a  strong  ho}d  on  the  a&eo- 
tions  of  the  people.  The  servility  of  the  senate  knew  no  bounds, 
and  the  whole  republic  was  placed  in  his  hands.  Still  there  was  a 
large  and  powerful  party  in  Africa  and  Spain  opposed  to  hiip,  headed  by 
Cato,  the  sons  of  Pompey,  and  other  generals.  Caesar,  passing  over  to 
Africa,  defeated  his  enemies  there  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Thapsus,' 
after  which  the  inflexible  Cato,  who  commanded  the  garrison  of  Utioa,  • 
having  adviat^  his  followers  not  to  continue  their  resistance,  commit- 
ted suicide.  (46  S.  C.)  He  had  seen,  he  said,  the  republic  passing 
away,  and  he  could  live  no  longer.  Caesar  expressed  his  regret  that 
Cato  had  deprived  him  of  the  pleasure  of  pardoning  hiuL 

37.  The  war  in  Africa  had  been  finished  in  five  months  Fresh 
honors  awaited  Caesar  at  Rome.  He  enjoyed  four  triiunphs  in  one 
month ;  the  senate  created  him  dictator  for  ten  years ;  he  was  ap- 
pointed censor  of  the  public  morahs,  and  his  statue  was  placed  oppo- 
site that  of  Jupiter,  in  the  capitol,  and  inscribed,  ^>  To  C8Q^ar,  the 

t  demigod."  He  made  many  useful  changes  in  the  laws,  corrected 
many  abuses  in  the  administration  of  justice,  extended  the  privileges 
of  Roman  citizens  to  whole  cities  and  provinces  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire,  and  reformed  the  calendar  upon  principles  established 
by  the  Egyptian  astronomers,  by  making  an  intercalation  of  sixty- 
seven  days  between  the  months  of  November  and  December,  so  thai 
tiie  name  of  the  December  month  was  transferred  from  the  time  of 

,  ths  .autumnal  equinox  to  that  of  the  winter  solstice,  where  it  still  re- 
mains. 

38.  From  the  cares  of  civil  government  Caesar  was  called  to  Spain, 
where  Cn^us  and  Sextus,  the, two  soife  o£  Pompey,  had  raised  a  large 
army  against  him.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  45  he  defeated  them  in  a 
hard-fought  battle  in  the  plains  of  Munda,*  after  having  been  obliged, 
in  order  to  encourage  his  men,  to  fight  in  the  foremost  ranks  as  a 
common  soldier.     Caesar  said  that  he  had  often  fought  for  victory, 

.  but  that  in  this  battle  he  fought  for  his  life.    The  elder  i>f  Fompey^s 

L  Tkapnu,  now  Dem§a»^  was  a  town  of  UtUe  importance  on  the  aea-ooaat,  about  one 
hiudred  miles  south-east  from  Carthage.  ^ 

a.  Munda  was  a  town  a  short  distance  from  the  Mediterranean  in  the  soothem  part  of  ^Mda. 
Tbm  little  Tillage  of  Mtnda  in  Grenada,  twenty-flre  miles  west  ttom  Malaga,  is  sappoaed  lo  be 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  d^.         ^ 


GkAP.VXJ  ROMAN  mSTORT.  188 

moB  was  slain  in^the  pnrsait  after  the  battle,-but  Sextos  the  younger 
eflcaped.  After  a  campaign  of  nine  months  Caesar  returned  to  Kome, 
and  eajojed  a  triumph  for  the  reduotion  of  Sj^ain,  which  had  termi- 
Dated  the  oiyil  war  in  the  Boman  provinces. 

39.  Caesar  was  next  made  dictator  for  life,  with  the  title  of  impera^ 
tor  and  the  powers  of  sovereigBtj,  although  the  outward  form  of  the 
republic  was  allowed  to  remain.  His  ever  active  mind  now  planned 
a  series  of  foreign  conquests,  and  formed  vast  designs  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  empire  which  he  had  gained.  He  ordered  tiie  laws 
^  be  digested  into  a  code,  he  undertook  to  drain  the  great  marshes  in' 
tiie  vidnitj  of  Bome,  to  form  a  capacious  harbor  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tiber,  to  cat  across  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  to  make  roads  across 
^  Apennines,  dig  canals,  collect  public  libraries,  erect  a  new 
theatre,  and  build  a  magnificent  temple  to  Mars.  But  whiler  he  was 
oeeapied  with  these  gigantic  projects  the  people  became  suspicious 
^  he  courted  the  title  of  king ;  and  at  his  suggestion,  as  is  sup- 
posed, Mark  Ant<m7  offered  him  a  royal  diadem  during  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  feast  of  the  Lupercalia ;  but  no  shout  of  approbation  fol- 
ded tiie  acty  and  he  was  obliged  to  decline  Uie  bauble.* 

40.  A  large  number  of  senators,  headed  by  the  prsetorif  Casaius 
ttd  BrutuSy  regarding  Caasar  as  an  usurper,  soon  after  formed  a  con- 
piracy  to  take  his  life,  and  fixed  on  the  fifteenth  (the  Ides)  of  March, 
s  day  appointed  for  the  meeting  of  the  senate,  for  the  execution  of 
^^  plot  As  soon  as  Oaesar  had  taken  his  seat  in  the  sepate-house, 
^  eonspirators  crowded  around  him,  and  as  one  of  them,  pretending 
^  vge  soxne  request,  laid  hold  of  his  robe  as  if  in  the  act  of  sup- 
plication, the  others  rushed  upon  him  with  drawn  daggers,'  and  he 
^11  pierced  with  twenty-three  wounds,  at  the  base  of  Pompey's  statue, 
*UA  was  sprinkled  with  his  blood.b    (B.  C.  44) 

41.  As  soon  as  the  deed  of  death  was  consummated,  Brutus  raised 

# 

a.  *>  Yoa  all  did  aeoi  that  on  the  Lnpercal, 
I  thrice  preaeDled  him  a  kiogiy  crown, 
Which  he  did  thrice  raftue»    Waa  this  ambition  t 
Te^firntua  eaya,  he  waa  ambitiova ; 
And  aorc^  he  ia  an  honorable  man." 

Antonyms  Oration.    Shak*pear«?»  Jnlhu  Cmot. 
b*  *'Forwben  the  noble  GBBaar  aajir  him  atab, 
lagratitade,  mere  atrong  than  traitora  arma, 
Qnlte  vanqniahed  him :  then  bant  hla  mighty  heart ; 
^  And,  in  hia  mantie  mnflfling  np  hia  Amc^ 

Even  at  the  baae  of  fompey'a  atatoe, 
Which  all  the  while  ran  blood,  great  Caesar  felL" 

Antwing**  OrotUm. 


184  AKCIKNT  mSTOBT.  [PabtL 

Ilia  Uoodj  dagger,  and  oongratolated  the  aenate,  and  Oieero  in  par* 
tieolar,  on  the  reeorery  of  liberty;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  senn^ 
tore  fled  in  diamaj  from  Rome,  or  ahnt  themaelyea  up  in  their  honaes; 
and  as  the  conspirators  had  formed  no  plana  of  fdtnre  action,  the 
minda  of  the  citiaena  were  in  the  ntmoet  sia^enae ;  bat  tranquillity 
preyailed  uitil  the  day  i4>pointed  by  the  senate  for  the  foneraL 
Then  Mark  Antony,  who  had  hitherto  nrged  coneiliation,  ascended 
the  rostmm  to  deliver  the  fikneral  oration.  After  he  had  wnraghl 
vpon  the  minda  of  the  people  in  a  most  artful  manner  by  ennmerating 
the  great  exploits  and  noble  deeda  of  the  mordered  Caesar,  he  lifted 
up  the  bloody  robe,  and  showed  them  fite  body  itseli^  'all  marred  by 
traitora.'  The  multitude  were  seised  with  such  indignation  and 
rage,  that  while  some,  tearing  up  the  baefaes  of  the  senate-house, 
l^;Rnned^  them  a  funeral  pile  and  burnt  the  body  of  Cttsar,  othera 
ran  through  the  sti^ets  with  drawn  weapons  and  flamuig  torchea,  de- 

,  nounmng  Tengeance  against  the  conspirators.  Brutua^and  Gasdus, 
and  their  adherents,  fied  firom  Rome,  and  prepared  to  defend  them- 
selyes  by  force  of  arms.  * 

42.  Antony,  assisted  by  Lep'  idus,  now  sought  to  plaoe  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  State ;  but  he  found  »  rind  in  the  young  Octavina 
Cseear,  the  grandson  of  Gsraar's  sister  Julia,  and  princ^al  heir  of  the 
murdered  dictator.  The  senate  adhered  to  the  interests  of  OctaTius, 
and  declared  Antony  a  public  enemy,  and  several  battles  had  already 
been  fougl^  between  the  opposing  parties  in  the  north  of  Italy  and 
Oaul,  when  the  three  leaders,  Antony,  Lep'  idus,  and  Ootavius,  hav- 
ziY  THx  ^^  ^^^  ^  private  conference  on  a  small  idand  of  the 
nooKo  TBI-  Rhine,  agreed  to  settle  their  differences,  and  take  up<m 
*™'^^'^"'  themselves  tibe  government  of  the  republic  for  five  years — 
thus  forming  the  Second  Triumvirate.  (B.  O.  43.)  A  cold-blooded 
proscription  of  the  enemies  of  the  seversd  parties  to  the  compact  fol- 
lowed. Antony  yielded  his  own^bnde,  and  Lep' idus  his  own 
broiler,  while  Octavius,  to  his  eternal  in&my,  consented  tathe  sac- 
rifice of  the  virtuous  Cicero  to  satisfy  the  vengeance  of  his  colleagues. 
Cicero  was  betrayed  to  the  assassins  sent  to  dispatch  him,  by  one  of 
his  own  domestics ;  but,  tired  of  life,  he  forbade  his  servants  to  de- 

'fend  him,  and  yielded  himself  to  his  fiite  without  a  struggle. 

43.  Brutus  and  Caasius,  at  the  head  of  the  republican  party,  had 
by  this  time  made  themselves  masters  of  Macedonia,  Gre^,  and 

the  Asiatic  provinces ;  and  Octavius  and  Antony,  'as  soon  as  they 
had  settled  the  government  at  Rome,  set  out  to  meet  them.     At 


Gu».TI]  .       ^        BOMAN  HIBTORT.  185 

Plillip'pi,^  a  town  in  Thi^aee,  Wo  batUes  were  foaght^  and  fortimep 
rathar  than  talent,  gare  the  victory  to  the  triumyirs.  (B.  C.  42.) 
Both  Oassias  and  BrutoSy  giving  way  to  despair,  d^troyed  them- 
aelves ;  their  army  was  dispersed,  and  most  of  the  soldiers  af&r- 
narda  entered  the  service  of  the  victors.  Ootavins  returned  with 
his  l^ons  to  Italy,  while  Antony  remained  as  the  master  of  the . 
Eaatem  provinces. 

44  From  Greeoe  Antony  passed  over  into  Asia  Minor,  where  he 
eaoaed  great  distress  hy  the  heavy  tribute  he  exacted  of  the  inhab- 
itants. While  at  Tarsus,'  in  Oilioia,  the  celebrated  Cleopatra  came 
to  pay  him  a  visit;  and  so  captivated  was  the  Boman  wi^  the 
diarms  and  beauty  of  the  Egyptian  queen,  that  he  accompanied  her 
on  her  return  to  Alexandria,  where  he  lived  for  a  time  in  indolence, 
dissipation,  and  luxury,  neglectful  of  the  calls  of  interest,  honor,  ^d 
ambition.  In  the  meantime  a  civil  war  had  broken  out  in  Italy ;  for 
the  brother  of  Antony,  aided  by  Fulvia,  ihe  wife  of  the  latter,  had  . 
taken  up  arms  against  Octavius;  but  it  was  not  until  the  rebellion 
had^been  quelled,  and  Octavius  was  everywhere  triumphant,  that  An- 
tony saw  the  Necessity  of  returning  to  Italy. 

45.  On*  his  way  he  met  at  Athens  his  wife  Fulvia,  whom  he  blamed 
as  the  cause  of  the  recent  disasters,  treated  her  with  the  utmost  con- 
tempt,  and  leaving  her  on  her  death-bed  hastened  to  fight  Augustus 
All  thought  that  another  fierce  struggle  for  the  empire  was  at  hand ; 
bat  the  rivals  had  a  personal  interview  at  BrundAsium,'  where  a  re- 
conciliation was  effected.  To  secure  the  permanence  of  the  peace, 
Antony  married  Octavia,  the  half-sister  of  Octavius.  A  new  division 
of  the  empire  was  made;  Antoqy  was  to  have  the  eastern  provinces 
beyond  the  Ionian  sea ;  Octavius  the  western,  and  Lep'  idus  Africa ; 

1.  PkU^^  a  cUj'  in  the  western  part  of  Tluraoe,  aflerwarde  indottod  In  Maced6nla,  was 
ibom  aerenty-llTe  miles  nortlKeasI  fh>m  the  present  Sslonlki.  In  adiUtion  to  the  rictory  gained 
here  by  Antony  and  Octavliu,  it  is  rendered  more  Interesting  ftrom  the  circumstanoe  of  its 
befaig  the  first  place  where  the  Gospel  was  preached  by  St.  Paal,  (see  Acts,  xvl.,)  and  also  ftom 
the  Epistle  addressed  by  him  to  the  PhilippiaM,  The  mlns  of  the  city  stUl  retain  the  name 
of  JFUibaM,  pronounced  nearly  the  same  as  Philippi.    (Map  No.  I.) 

8.  7Vir«a«,  the  capital  of  Cllicia,  was  situated  on  the  river  Cydnus,  about  twelve  miles  flrom 
die  Bteditenanean.  It  was  the  birth-place  of  St.  Pan],  of  Antlp'  ater  the  stole,  and  of  Athen- 
odtoua  the  philosopher.  It  is  still  a  viUage  of  some  six  or  seven  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
ibme  remains  of  ita  ancient  magnificence  are  still  visible.  The  visit  of  Cleopatra  to  Antony-^ 
beraelf  atfiied  Uke  Venus,  and  her  attendants  like  cuplds.  In  a  galley  covered  with  gold,  whosd 
sails  were  of  purple,  the  oars  of  sliver,  and  cordage  of  sillc— is  finely  described  in  Shakspeare'e 
play  of  Antony  and  aeopfttra,  Act  II.  scene  %   (Map  No.  IV.) 

SL  Brumdktivm^  now  BriiuUti^  one  of  the  moat  important  otUes  of  ancient  Raly,  and  the 
port  whence  the  intercourse  between  Italy  and  Greece  and  the  East  was  oaually  canied  on, 
was  sttAaied  on  the  coast  of  Apulia,  about  three  hundred  miles  sonth-east  ftom  Bonie.  It  once 
bad  an  ozoellent  harbor,  wUflh  is  BOW  neaily  filled  up.  (Jlffsp  No.  VUO 


186  ANOtoT  mSTOBT.  .  [PamL 

and  soon  aflter,  Sextius  Pompej,  who  had  }ong  maintained  himself  in 
,  Sicily  against  the  triomyirs,  was  admitted  into  the  partnership,  and 
assigned  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  Achaia. 

46.  The  peace  thus  concluded  was  of  short  duration.  Octaviua, 
without  any  reasonahle  pretext  for  hostilities,  quarrelled  with  Sextius 
Pompey  and  drove  him  from  his  dominions.  Pompey  fled  to  Phrygia, 
where  he  was  slain  by  one  of  Antony's  lieutenants.  Lep'  idus  and 
Octavius  next  quarrelled  about  the  possession  of  Sicily ;  but  Octaviua 
corrupted  the  soldiers  of  Lep'  idus,  and  induced  them  to  desert  tiieir 
general,  who  was  compelled  to  surrender  hi»  proyince  to  his  riyaL 
Amtony,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  engaged  in  an  unsuccessful  expe- 
dition agaii^t  the  Parthians;  after  which,  returning  to  Egypt,  he 
once  more  became  enslayed  by  the  charms  of  Cleopatra,  upon  whom, 
he  conferred  several  Roman  provinces  in  Asia.  When  his  wife  Oc- 
tavia  set  out  from  Rome  to  visit  him  he  ordered  her  to  return,  and  aftei^ 
wards  repudiated  her,  pretending  a  previous  marriage  with  Cleopatra. 

47.  After  this  insult  Octavius  could  no  longer  keep  peace  with  him, 
and  as  the  war  had  long  been  anticipated,  the  most  formidable  prepa- 
rations were  made  on  both  sides,  and  both  parties  were  soon  in 
readiness.  Their  fleets  met  off  the  promontory  of  Ac'  tium,*  in  the 
I6nian  sea,  while  the  hostile  armies,  dra^hi  up  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
strait  which  enters  the  Ambra^ian  Gulf,  were  spectators  of  the  battle. 
(B.  C.  31.)  While  the  victory  was  yet  undecided^  Cleopatra,  viho 
had  accompanied  Antbny  with  a  large  force,  overcome  with  anxiety 
and  fear,  ordered  her  galley  to  remove  from  the  scene  of  action.  A 
large  number  of  the  Egyptian  ships,  witnessing  her  flight,  withdrew 
from  the  battle ;  and  the  infatuatecl  Antony,  as  soon  as  he  saw  that 
Cleopitra  had  fled,  apparently  losing  his  self-possession,  hastily  fol- 
lowed her  in  a  j^uick-sailing  vessel,  and  being  taken  oh  board  the 
galley  of  Cleopatra,  became  the  companion  of  herflight.  The  fleet 
of  Antony  was  annihilated,  and  his  land  forces,  soon  after,  made 
terms  with  the  conqueror. 

48.  Octavius,  after  first  returning  to  Italy  to  tranquillize  some  dis- 
turbances there,  pursued  the  fugitives  Ajo  Egypt  Autony  endeavored 
to  impede  the  march  of  the  victor  to  Alexandria,  but  seeing  all  his 
efforts  fruitless,  in  a  paroxysm  of  rage  he  reproached  Cleopitra  with 
being  the  author  of  his  misfortunes,  and  resolving  never  to  fall  alive 
into  the  bands  of  his  enemy,  he  put  an,  end  to  his  own  life.     When 

1.  The  promontory  of  Ae'  tittm  was  a  amall  neck  of  land  at  the  nortb-westera  extremity  o( 
Aeanania,  at  the  eatraaoe  of  the  AnbracuM  Gu^f^  now  Gulf  oTdflrU. 


OuF.  VI]  ROMAN  mSTORT.  18T 

Oleopdtra,  who  lad  shut  herself  up  in  her  palace,  found  that  Oota-' 

[\        Tins  deigned  to  spare  her  only  to  adorn  his  triomph,  she  caused  a 

i"        poisonous  viper  to  be  applied  to  her  arm;  and  thus  followed  Antony 

f         in  death.     (B.  C.  30.)     Egypt  immediately  submitted  to  the  sway 

of  Octayhis,  and  became  a  proyince  of  the  Roman  empire. 

49,  The  death  of  Antony  had  put  an  end  to  the  Triumvirate ;  and 
Octavius  was  now  left  sole  master  of  the  Roman  world.     While 
taking  the  most  effectual  measures  to  secure  his  power,    zr.  oota- 
he  dissembled  his  real  purposes,  and  talked  of  restoring    ^^*  ^^" 
the  republic;  but  it  was  evident  that  a  free  constitution  ^hs  aoMAH 
eould  no  longer  be  maintained ; — the  most  eminent  citi-      wokld. 
KBs  bedougl^t  him  to  take  the  government  into  his  own  hands,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  28th  year  before  the  Ohristian  era,  the  history 
of  the  Roman  R^mMic  ends.     All  the  armies  had  sworn  allegiance 
to  OctavioB ;  he  was  made  pro-consul  over  the  whole  Roman  empire — 
he  gave  the   administration  of  the  provinces  to  whomsoever  he 
pleased — and  appointed  and  removed  senators  at  his  wiU.     In  the 
27th  year  B.  C.  the  senate  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  Augustus, 
or  "  The  Divine,"  and  of  Imperator,  or  *'  chief  governor,"  for  ten 
years,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  sixth  month  of  the  Roman  year, 
(August)  as  that  of  Julius  Caesar  had  been  given  to  the  fifth,  and 
fimr  years  later  he  was  made  perpetual  tribune  of  the  people,^  which 
rendered  his  person  sacred.     Although  without  the  title  of  a  mon- 
arch, and  discarding  the  insignia  of  royalty,  his  exalted  station  con 
5erred  upoji  him  all  the  powers  of  sovereignty,  which  he  exercised, 
nevertheless,  with  moderation, — seemingly  desirous  that  the  triumvir 
Octavius  should  be  forgotten  in  the  mild  reign  of  the  emperor  Augustus. 
50.  After  a  series  of  successful  wars  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  in  Spain, 
and  the  subjugation  of  Aquitdnia,  Pann6nia,  Dalmdtia^  and  Illy'ria, 
by  the  Roman  arms,  a  general  peace,  with  the  exception  of  some 
trifling  disturbances    in    the  frontier    provinces,  was    established 
througiioat  the  vast  dominions  of  the  empire,  which  now  extended 
on  the  east  from  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile  to  the  plains  of  Scythia, 
and  on  the  west  from  the  Libyan  deserts  and  the  pillars  of  Hercules 
to  the  German  ocean.*     The  temple  of  Jdnus  was  now  closed  ^  for 
the  third  time  since  the  foundation  of  Rome.     It- was  at  this  auspi- 
eioas  period  that  Jesus  Christ,  the  promised  Messiah,  was  born ; 
ind  thus,  literally,  was  his  advent  the  herald  of  <<  peace  on  earth, 
and  good  will  toward  men." 

a.(B.aia  8mh^>no.ix,)  bi(ii.ato.) 


PART    II. 
MODERN    HISTORY 

CHAPTEE   I. 

KOMAV   HISTORY  CONTINUED,  FROM   THK  GOICMENOEMBNT  Of 

THS  CHRISTIAN  ERA,  TO  THE  OVERTHROW  OF  THE  WESTERN 

EMPIRE  OF  THE  ROMANS^  A.  D.  I,  TO  A.  D.  476. 

SECTION   L 

BOMAV  HBTOftT  VftOK  THE    BEOIHXINO  OF  THB  0HRJ8TUN  ERA  TO  THX  DXATM 
OF  DOMITIAN,  THX  LAST  OF  THB  TWXLYK  OSSABSi  A.  D.  96. 

« 

ANALYSIS.  1.  Easlibk  Ain>  latbk  bistokt  or  tbs  BiiniiB  comyakvu.— 3..  Tte  •nipiiii 
■t  tiM  eml  of  (he  flnt  oeotofy  of  Um  Gbriatian  era.  Hie  feeUng  with  which  we  bmy  over  the 
doeiag  toeoet  of  Honuui  history.  Importaooe  of  the  history  of  the  **  decline  and  fkQ  **  of  the 
empire.    Sabjects  of  the  present  chapter. 

a.  Juuoa  Cmuam.  OommeDoement  of  the  Romeo  empire.— 4.  The  reign  of  Auovrmi. 
Rebellion  of  the  Gemuns.— <S.  Grief  of  Augustas  at  the  loss  of  his  legions.  The  danger  of  inva- 
sion averted.— 6.  Theacccasion  of  Tibb'  kius.  The  aeiection  of  Aitnre  sovereigns.— 7.  Character 
of  Tiberloa,  and  oommenoement  of  his  reign.— &  German  wai»--€lerman'  Icus.— Hi  8e|*Bui| 
the  jninister  of  Tiberius.  [C&pree.]— 10.  The  death  of  S^&nus.  Death  of  Tiberius.  Cmd- 
flxion  of  tlie  Savioar.- 11.  Calio'  uljl.  His  character,  and  wicked  actions.— IS.  Bis  follies. 
His  extravaganoe.  His  death.— 13.  Clausids  proclaimed  emperor.  Bii  charaeter.— 14.  Hie 
two  wtvea.  His  deaths— 19.  Foreign  events  of  the  reign  of  Claudius.— 16.  Nbro.  The  first  five- 
years  of  his  reign.  Death  of  Agrippina,  and  of  Burrhus,  Seneca,  and  Lucan.  Oonflagratloo 
of  Rome — 17.  PersecnUons  of  the  Christians.  Nero's  extravagant^— 1&  The  provtifoee  pU- 
leged  by  him.  His  popularity  with  the  rabble.  Revolts  against  him.  His  death.T-U».  Foreign 
events  of  the  reign  of  Nero.    [Druids.    Thelc^nl     London.] 

SO.  End  of  tlie  reign  of  the  Julian  fhmlly.  Brief  reign  of  Galba.— 81.  Character,  and  reign 
of  Omo.— SS2.  Character,  and  reign  of  Vitbe.'  uos.  Revolt  in  Syria.— 83.  Vitel'  llus,  forced  to 
rssist,  Is  finally  pot  to  death  by  the  populace.— 94.  Temporary  rule  of  Domitlan.  Character, 
and  reign  of  Vbspasia.k.— 25.  Beginning,  and  causes  of  the  Jbwish  war.- i(6  Situation  of  Jem* 
salem,  and  eommeneement  of  the  siege  by  the  Roman  army.  Expectations  of  Titus.— ST.  Prom- 
ises made  to  the  Jews.  Their  strange  infiUuation.— 28,  The  horrors  of  the  siege.— 20.  Dreadfal 
mortality  in  the  city.  The  fall  of  Jerusalem.— 30.  The  number  of  those  who  perished,  and  of 
those  made  prisoners.  Fate  of  the  prisoners.  Destruction  of  the  Jewish  natkm— 31.  Compl»> 
Hon  of  the  conquest  of  Britain.  The  enlightened  policy  of  Agrlc'  ola.  [Caledonia.}— 32.  Trrcs 
wicceeds  l^espaslan.  His  charaeter.  Evento  of  his  brief  reign.  [Vesuvias.  HeronlaneinB. 
PompeU.>-l3L  DoKiTUH.   His  chameter,  and  the  otaarsoler  of  his  reign.   Penecaliontr-^ 


OhuKl]  BOMAN  BISTORT.  189 


PMvtodU  aflhira.  Tbe  tvinmphs  of  DomMan.  [Bf oeda.  Dacfau  Gennanjr.]— 35.  Death  of 
I>Diidtian.— 3&  Cloae  of  the  reign  of  the  **  Twelve  Ciesara.*'  Their  flereral  deaths.  Cbaracter 
eCOieUatory  of  the  Boman  empetora  thus  &r«— 37.  The  dtj  of  Home^  and  the  Bomiui  empire. 
( of  Btttiooal  decay.  / 


1.  As  we  enter  upon  the  tinie  of  the  Roman  emperors,  Roman  his- 
tory, 80  highly  pleasing  and  attraotiTe  in  its  early  stages,  and  during 
the  erantfol  period  of  the  Republic,  gradually  declines  in  interest  to 
the  geo^ral  reader ;  forHhe  Roman  people,  whose  many  i.  baelikk 
Tirtnes  and  Bufferings  awakened  our  warmest  sympathies,   ^^  ^^'^^^ 
had  now  become  corrupt  and  degenerate ;  the  liberal^in-  ths  emfirb 


I  of  their  popular  assemblies,  and  the  freedom  of  oohparkdl 
the  Roman  senate,  had  given  place  to  arbitrary  force ;  and  although 
the  splendors  of  the  empire  continue  to  dassle  for  a:;rhile,  hencefor- 
ward the  political  history^  of  the  Romans  is  little  more  than  the 
biographies  of  individual  rulers,  and  their  few  advisers  and  asso- 
eiates  in  power,  who  controlled  the  political  desUnies  of  more  than 
a  hundred  millions  of  people. 

2.  We  shall  find  Uiat,  at  the  end  of  the  first  c^tury  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  empire,  having  already  attained  its  &11  strength 
and  Aiatnrity,  began  to  verge  towards  its  d^line ;  and  we  are  apt  to 
hurry  over  the  closing  scenes  of  Roman  history  with  an  instinctive 
Useling  that  shrinks  from « the  contemplation  of  waning  glories  and 
national  degeneracy,     ^ut  while  the  history  of  the  Republican  era 
may  exceed  in  interest  that  of  the  "  decline  and  fall "  of  the  empire, 
yet  the  latter  is  of  fiir  greater  political  importance  tiian  the  former ; 
for,  including  the  early  history  of  many  important  sects,  and  codes, 
and  systems,  whose  influences  still  exist,  it  is  the  link  that  connects 
the  past  with  the  present — ^the  Ancient  with  the  Moduli  world. 
The  theologian  and  jurist  must  be  £&miliar  with  it  in  order  to  under- 
stand much  of  the  learning  and  history  of  their  respective  depart- 
aenta ;  and  it  deserves  the  careful  preparatory  study  of  every  reader 
of  modem  European  history ;  as  nearly  all  the  kingdoms  of  modem 
Surope  have  arisen  from  the  fragments  into  which  the.  empire  of 
the  CsBsars  was  broken.     We  proceed  then,  in  the  present  chapter, 
to  a  brief  survey,  which  is  aU  that  our  limited  space  will  allow,  of^ 
first,  the  overtowering  greatness,  and,  second,  the  decline,  and  final 
overthrow,  in  all  the  west  of  Europe,  of  that  mighty  fabric  of  em- 
pire which  valor  had  founded,  and  enlightened  policy  had  so  long 
sustained,  upon  the  seven  hills  of  Rome. 
3.  Tbe  raU  of  Julius  OsBsar,  who  is  oaUad  the  first  of  the  twelve 


190  MODBBK  HIBTORT.  [PiMlL 

CaBBKB,  although  be  was  not  nominally  king^  was  that  of  one  who  pos- 
n.  JvuDs  Bessed  all  the  eflsential  attributes  of  Bovereignty ;  sad 
o^BAR.  firom  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  which  decided  the  &te 
of  the  Roman  world,  might  with  propriety  be  dated  the  oommenoe- 
ment  of  the  Roman  empire,  although  its  era  is  usually  dated  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twenty-eighth  year  before  the  Christian  era, — ^the 
time  of  the  general  acknowledgment  of  the  sovereignty  of  AngnstiiB. 

4.  The  reign  of  Angostus  continued  on  til  the  fborteenth  year 
m.  AVQV9-  ^^^^^  ^he  birth  of  Christ — ^forty-fonr  years  in  all,  dating 

^^^^  from  the  battle  of  Ac'  tium,  which  made  Augustas  sole 
sovereign  of  the  empire.  After  the  general  peace  which  followed  the 
early  wars  and  conquests  of  the  emperor,  the  great  prosperity  of  his 
reign  was  disturbed  by  a  rebellion  of  the  Germans,  which  had  been 
provoked  by  the  extortions  of  Varus,  the  Roman  commander  on  the 
northecn  frontier.  Varus  was  entrapped  in  the  depths  of  the  Oermaa 
forests,  where  nearly  his  whole  army  was  annihilated,  and  he  himself^ 
in  despair,  put  an  end  to  his  own  life.  (A.  D.  9.)  Awful  vengeance 
was  taken  upon  the  Romans  who  became  prisoners,  many  of  them 
being  sacrificed  to  the  gods  of  the  G-ermans. 

5.  The  news  of  the  defeat  of  his  general  threw  Augustus  into  trans- 
ports of  grief,  during  which  he  frequently  exclaimed,  ^^  Varus,  restore 
me  my  legions  1"  It  was  thought  that  the  Germans  would  cross  the 
Rhine,  and  that  all  Gaul  would  unite  with  them  in  the  revolt ;  but 
a  large  Roman  army  under  Tiberius,  the  son-in-law  and  heir  of 
Augustus,  ^as  dent  to  guard  the  passes  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  danger 
was  averted. 

6.  Augustus,  having  designed  Tiberius  for  his  successor,  associated 
him  in  his  oounsels,  and  conferred  upon  him  so  large  a  share  of  present 
power,  that  on  the  death  of  the  emperor,  Tib6rius  easily  took  his 

place,  so  that  the  nation  scarcely  perceived  the  change 
of  masters.  (A.  D.  14.)  The  policy  of  Augustus  in 
selecting,  and  preparing  the  way  for,  the  future  sovereign,  was  sue-' 
eessfully  imitated  by  nearly  all  his  successors  during  nearly  two  cen- 
turies, although  the  emperors  continued  to  be  elected,  ostensibly  at 
least,  by  the  authority  of  the  senate,  and  the  consent  of  the  soldiers. 

7.  Tiberius,  a  man  of  reserved  character,  and  of  great  dissimula- 
tion,— suspicious,  dark,  and  revetigefiil,  but  possessing  a  handsome 
figure,  and  in  his  early  years  e^ibiting  great  talents  and  unwearied 
industry,  having  yielded  with  feigned  reluctance  to  the  wishes  of  the 
senate  that  he  would  undertake  the  govenunent,  oommsboed  his 


Chi^.I]  :         HOMAN  HISTORr.  191 

reign  wiih  the  appearance  of  jostice  and  moderation ;  Imt  after  nine 
years  of  dissimulation,  his  sensual  and  tyrannical  character  openlj 
exhibited  itself  in  the  Yioions  indulgence  of  every  base  passion,  and 
the  perpetration  of  the  most  wanton  cruelties. 

8.  The  early  part  of  his  reign  is  distinguished  by  the  wars  carried 
on  in  Germany  by  his  accomplished  general  and  nephew,  the  virtu- 
oils  Qerman'  icus ;  but  Tiberius,  jealous  of  the  glory  and  tame  which 
German'  icus  was  winning,  recalled  him  from  his  command,  and  then 
sent  him  as  governor  to  the  Eastern  provinces,  where  all  his  under- 
takings were  thwarted  by  the  secret  commands  of  the  emperor,  who 
was  supposed  to  have  caused  his  death  to  be  hastened  by  poison. 

9.  The  only  confidant  of  Tiberius  was  his  minister  Sejdnus,  whose 
diaracter  bore  a  great  resemblance  to  that  of  his  sovereign.  Secret- 
ly aspiring  to  the  empire,  he  contrived  to  win  the  heart  of  Tiberius  by 
exciting  his  mistrust  towards  his  own  funily  relatives,  most  of  whom 
he  caused  to  be  poisoned,  or  condemned  to  death  for  suspected  trea- 
son ;  but  his  most  successful  project  was  the  removal  of  Tiberius 
from  Kome  to  the  little  island  of  Cdprese,*  where  the  monarch  re- 
mained during  a  number  of  years,  indulging  his  indolence  and  de- 
baacheries,  while  Sej&nus,  ruling  at  Rome,  perpetrated  the  most 
shocking  cruelties  in  the  name  of  his  master,  and  put  to  death  the 
most  eminent  citizens,  scarcely  allowing  them\he  useless  mockery  of 
a  trial. 

10.  But  Sejinns  at  length  fell  under  the  suspicion  of  the  empe- 
ror, and  the  same  day  witnessed  his  arrest  and  execution — a  mem- 
orable example  of  the  instability  of  human  grandeur.  His  deaths 
was  followed  by  a  general  massacre  of  his  friends  and  relations.  At 
length  Tiberius  himself,  after  a  long  career  of  crime,  felling  sick, 
was  smotj^red  in  bed  by  one  of  his  officers,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
base  Galig'  ula,  the  son  of  German'  icus,  and  adopted  heir  of  the 
emperor.  It  was  during  the  f%ign  of  Tiberius  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
crucified  in  Judea,  under  the  prsetorship  of  Pontius  Pilate,  the  Ro- 
man governor  of  that  province. 

11.  Calig'ula,  whose  real  character  was  unknown  to  the  people, 

1.  C*prt«y  now  called  Capri,  is  a  small  Island,  about  ten  miles  in  drcumferenoe,  on  the 
soQih  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  iMy  of  Naples.  It  is  sorr^nnded  on  all  sides  but  one  hf  loAy 
and  peipendicular  diflb ;  and  in  the  centre  is  a  sedaded  vale,  remarlEable  for  Its  beauty  and 
sslobrity.  The  tyrant  was  led  to  select  this  spot  for  his  abode,  as  well  from  its  difficulty  of  ao- 
eesB,  as  flrom  the  mildnen  and  salubrity  of  its  climate,  and  the  unrivalled  magnificence  of  the 
prospects  which  it  aflbids.  He  is  said  to  have  built  no  less  than  twelve  viUas  in  different  parts 
or  the  Island,  and  to  hav^  named  them  after  the  twelve  celestial  divinitiei.  The  ruins  of  om 
ftfOiflm   thit  VUla  of  JoTe-fl»  ittll  to  be  teeo  on  the  rammit  ofa  ellff  opporttd  B^rmu. 


IM  MODmH  H1BT0ET.  n^ixrU 

received  from  them  an  eDtlnisiMiic  welcome  ob  Us  ftooeision  to  ih% 
T.  cALio'.  thronC)  {A,  B.  37,)  bat  they  aoon  foimd  him  to  be  a 
ULA.  greater  monster  of  wickedneas  and  diasimilation  than  his 
predecessor.  A  detailed  description  of  his  wicked  actions,  which 
some  have  attributed  to  madness,  woold  afford  Uttle  pleasore  to  the 
reader.  Not  satisfied  with  mere  mnrder,  he  ordered  all  the  prisoners 
in  Rome,  and  numbers  of  the  aged  and  infirm,  to  be  thrown  to  wild 
beasts ;  he  claimed  divine  honors,  erected  a  temple,  and  instituted  a 
college  of  priests  to  saperinten4  his  own  worship ;  and  finding  the 
■enate  too  backward  in  adulation,  he  aeriouslj  contemplated  the 
massacre  of  the  entire  body. 

12.  His  follies  were  bo  less  conspicuous  than  his  rices.  For 
his  favorite  horse  Incitdtus  he  claimed  greater  respect  and  rever- 
ence than  were  due  to  mortals :  he  built  kim  a  stable  of  marble 
and  a  manger  of  ivory,  and  frequently  invited  him  to  the  imperial 
table ;  and  it  is  said  that  his  death  alone  prevented  him  from  con- 
ferring upon  the  animal  the  honors  of  the  consulship  1  A  fortune 
of  eighteen  millions  sterling,  which  had  been  left  by  Tiberius,  was 
squandered  by  Oalig'  ula,  in  a  most  senseless  mannerj  in  little  more 
than  a  year,  while  fresh  sums,  raised  by  confiscations,  were  lavished 
in  the  same  way.  At  length,  after  a  reign  of  four  years,  Calig'  ula 
was  murdered  by  his  own  guards,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  senators, 
who  suddenly  awoke  to  the  wild  hope  of  restoring  the  Republic. 

13.  The  illusion  soon  disappeared,  for  the  spirit  of  Roman  liberty 
no  longer  existed.  The  Pra&torian  gaards,^  who  had  all  the  power 
in  their  own  hands,  insisting  upon  being  governed  by  a  monarch, 
proclaimed  the  imbecile  Claudius  emperor,  at  a  time  when  he  expected 

TL         nothing  but  death ;  and  their  choice  was  sanctioned  by 

CLAUDIUS. .  the  senate.     Claudius  was  an  uncle  of  the  late  emperor, 

and  brother  of  Qerman'  icus.     He  was  so  deficient  in  judgmoit  and 

reflection  as  to  be  deemed  intolerably  stupid ;  he  was  not  destitute  of 

•.  Tbe  PreUrian  guarda  ware  gnuiiuUy  Imtitatod  by  Aaga^  to  proteei  hit  ponoD,  ftw* 
tbe  miAte,  keep  th«  Tetenna  and  legions  in  check,  and  prevent  or  crush  the  lint  moTecoenta 
of  rebellloo.  Something  similar  to  them  bad  existed  from  Che  earliest  times  In  tbe  body  of 
a&ined  gnidt*  who  accompanied  the  general  In  his  mllltaiy  expedltloos.  AC  first  Augustus 
stationed  three  cohorts  only  in  the  eapiul :  bat  llbirlus  assembled  sll  of  (hem,  to  the  nnmber 
of  ten  thousand,  at  Rome,  and  assigned  them  a  permanent  and  wetMbrtified  camp  dose  to  tho 
walls  of  the  city,  on  tbe  broad  summit  of  the  Qnlrinal  and  Vhnlnal  hills.  This  measure  c/ 
Tiberius  forerer  rlroted  the  fbUers  of  his  country.  The  Pnetorlan  bands,  soon  learning  tb«lr 
own  strsngtb,  and  the  weakness  of  the  dvil  government,  became  eyentually  the  real  master* 
of  the  •mplre.-Otbbon's  a6me,  1. 61 ;  sad  Niebuhr,  v.  7S. 


CNup.L]  ^  EOMAK  HISTOBY.  193 

good  nature,  bnt  nnfortuimtely  lie  was  made  the  dupe  of  abandoned 
&Torites,  for  whose  crime  history  has  unjustly  held  him  responsible. 
14  For  a  time  his  wife  Messalina,  the  mpst  dissolute  and  aban- 
doned of  women,  ruled  him  at  pleasure ;  and  numbers  of  the  most 
worthy  citizens  were  sacrificed  to  her  jealousy,  avarice,  and  revenge ; 
bat  finally  she  was  put  to  death  by  the  emperor  for  her  shameless  in- 
fidelity to  him.  Claudius  then  married  his  niece  Agrippina.  theu  a 
widow,  and  the  mother  of  the  afterwards  infamous  Nero.  8he  was 
no  less  cruel  in  disposition  than  Messalina ;  her  ambition  was  un- 
^  bounded,  and  her  avarice  insatiable.  After  having  prevailed  upon 
Claudius  to  adopt  as  his  heir  and  successor  her  son  Nero,  to  the 
exclusion  of  his  own  children,  she  caused  the  emperor  to  be  poisoned 
by  his  physician.  (A.  D.  54.)  As  Agrippina  had  gained  the  captain 
of  the  Pradtorian  guards  to  her  interest,  the  army  proclaimed  Nero 
emperor,  and  the  senate  confirmed  their  choice. 

15.  Th3  foreign  events  of  the  reign  of  Claudius  were  of  greater 
'  importance  than  his  domestic  administration.     Julius  Caesar  had 

first  carried  the  Homan  arms  into  Britain  in  a  brief  and  fruitless  in- 
TBoon ;  but  during  the  reign  of  Claudius  the  Romans  began  to 
think  seriously  of  reducing  the  whole  island  under  their  dominion. 
At  first  Claudius  sent  over  his  general  PlauHus,  (A.  B.  43,)  who 
gained  some  victories  over  the  rude  inhabitants.  Claudius  himself 
then  made  a  journey  into  Britain,  and  received  the  submission  of  the 
tribes  that  inhabited  the  south-eastern  parts  of  the  island ;  but  the 
other  Britons,  under  their  king  Carac'  tacus,  maintained  an  obstinate 
resistance  until  the  Boman  army  was  placed  under  the  command  of 
Ostorius,  who  defeated  Carac'  taous  in  a  great  battle,  and  sent  him 
prisoner  to  Kome.     (A.  D.  51.) 

16.  Nero,  the  successor  of  Claudius,  was  a  youth  of  only  seventeen 
when  he  ascended  the  throne.  (A.  D.  54.)  He  had  been  nurtured 
in  the  midst  of  crimes,  and  the  Roman  world  looked  upon 

him  with  apprehension  and  dread ;  but  during  five  years, 
while  he  still  remained  under  the  influence  of  his  early  instructors, 
Seneca  aiid  Burrhus,  he  disappointed  the  fears  of  all  by  the  mildness 
of  his  reign.  At  length  his  mother  Agrippfna  fell  under  the  sus- 
picion of  designing  to  restore  the  crown  to  the  still  surviving  son  of 
Claudius;  and  the  emperor  caused  both  to  be  put  to  death.  After 
this  he  abandoned  himself  to  bloodshed,  in  which  he  took  a  savage 
delight  He  is  accused  of  having  caused  the  death  of  his  able  mm- 
I  13 


194  MODEBV  BISTORT.  [Past  II  . 

ister  BorrhuB  by  poison ;  Seneca^  the  philosopher,  Lueanl*  the  poet, 
and  most  of  the  leading  nobles,  were  condemned  on  the  charge  of 
treason ;  and  a  conflagration  in  Rome  which  lasted  nine  days,  and 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the  city,  (A.  D.  64,)  was  generally  be 
lieyed  to  have  been  kindled  by  his  orders ;  and  some  reported  that 
in  order  to  enjoy  the  spectacle,  he  ascended  a  high  tower,  where  he 
amnsed  himself  with  singing  the  Destruetion  of  Troy. 

17.  In  order  to  remove  the  suspicions  of  the  people,  he  oansed  a 
report  to  be  circulated  that  the  Christians  were  the  authors  of  the 
fire ;  and  thousands  of  that  innocent  sect  were  put  to  death  under  ^ 
cbcumstances  of  the  greatest  barbarity.  Sometimes,  covered  by  the 
skins  of  wild  beasts,  they  were  exposed  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  de- 
vouring dogs ;  some  were  crucified :  others,  wrapped  in  combustible 
garments,  which  were  set  on  fire,  were  made  to  serve -as  torches  to 
illuminate  the  emperor^s  gardens  by  night.  Nero  often  appeared  on 
the  Roman  stage  in  the  character  of  an  actor,  musician,  or  gladiator ; 
he  also  visited  the  principal  cities  of  Oreeoe  in  succession,  where  ha  ' 
obtained  a  number  of  victories  in  the  public  Grecian  games. 

18.  While  he  was  engaged  in  these  extravagances,  the  provineea 
of  the  empire  were  pillaged  to  support  his  luxuries  and  maintain  his 
almost  boundless  prodigalities.  To  the  lower  classes,  who  felt  no- 
thing of  his  despotism,  he  made  monthly  distributions  of  com,  to  the 
encouragement  of  indolence ;  and  he  gratified  the  poptUace  of  Rome 
by  occasional  supplies  of  wine  and  meat,  and  by  the  magnificent 
shows  of  the  circus.  Nero  was  popular  with  the  rabble,  which  ex- 
plains the  &ct  that  his  atrocities  and  follies  were  so  long  endured 
by  the  Roman  people.  At  length,  however,  the  standard  of  revolt 
was  raised  in  Gaul  by  Yindex,  the  Roman  governor,  and  soon  after 
by  Galba  in  Spain.     Yindex  perished  in  the  struggle;  and  Galba 

ft.  StueetL,  Oia  morel  philoeopber,  was  bom  at  Cordova  in  Spain,  in  the  Mcond  or  third 
jear  of  the  Chri«tian  em;  bat  aft  an  early  age  he  went  to  reside  at  Roma  Mesaalina, 
who  bated  him,  caused  him  to  be  banished  to  Corsica,  where  he  remained  eight  years  ;  but 
Agrlppina  recalled  him  from  banishment,  and  appointed  Mm,  in  conjunction  with  Bnnbns, 
tDtor  to  Nero.  Burrtras,  a  man  of  stem  Tlrtne,  instructed  the  prince  in  military  seieaee : 
Seneca  taught  him  philosophy,  the  One  arts,  and  elegant  accomplishments.  Although  Seneca 
laid  down  excellent  rales  of  morality  for  others,  his  own  character  is  not  above  reprosoh. 
Being  ordered  by  Nero  to  be  his  own  executioner,  he  caused  his  reins  to  be  opened  in  a  hot 
bath ;  but  as,  at  his  age,  the  blood  (lowed  alowly,  he  drank  a  dose  of  hemlock  to  acoelemte 
bto  death. 

b.  LncaiL,  a  nephew  of  Seneca,  and  abo  a  native  of  Cordova,  was  an  eminent  Latin  po«k| 
although  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-seven  yean.  Of  his  many  poems,  the  PkanalU^ 
or  war  between  Gisaar  and  Pompey,  is  the  only  one  that  has  eaeaped  deatmctton.  Bt  lacviW 
flneoailigr  oTKeK)  by  vaoqvlihtaw  Idm  !n  a  poetloil  codIMI. 


CfliP.IJ  ROMAN  HISTORT.  195 

would  have  been  ruined  had  not  the  Praetorian  gaards,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  their  commander  Otho,  renounced  their  allegianoe.  With 
this  latter  calamity  Nero  abandoned  all  hope ;  and  when  he  learned 
that  the  senate  had  declared  him  an  enemy  to  the  country,  too  cow- 
ardly to  kill  himself,  he  sought  death  by  the  hands  of  one  of  his 
freedmen,  from  whom  he  received  a  mortal  woxmd.     {A^D.  68.) 

19.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Nero  the  empire  en- 
joyed, in  general,  a  profound  peace ;  the  only  wars  of  importance 
being  with  the  Parjthians  and  the  Britons.  The  form&r  were  defeated 
and  reduced  by  Cor'  bulo,  the  greatest  general  of  his  time.  This 
virtuous  Roman  had  kept  his  faith  even  to  Nero  ;  but  the  only  re- 
ward which,  he  received  from  the  Snperor  for  his  victories,  was — 
death.  In  Britain,  Suet6nius  PauHnus  defeated  the  inhabitants  in 
several  battles,  and  penetrating  into  the.  heart  of  the  country,  de- 
stroyed the  consecrated  groves  and  altars  of  the  druids.^  After- 
wards the  Ic^ni,*>  under  the  command  of  their  queen  Boadio'  ea,  re-  ' 
Tolted,  burned  London,*^  then  a  flourishing  Roman  colony,  reduced 
many  other  settlements,  and  put  to  death,  in  aU,  seventy  thousand 
Romans.  Suet6nius  avenged  their  fate- in  a  decisive  battle,  in 
which  eighty  thousand  Britons  are  said  to  have  perished.  The  heroic 
Boadic'  ea,  rather  than  submit  to  the  victor,  put  an  end  to  her  life  by 
poison.  During  the  reign  of  Nero  also  occurred  the  famous  rebel- 
lion in  Judea,  and  the  beginning  of  the  war  which  resulted  in  the 
destruction  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

20.  With  the  death  of  Nero  the  reign  of  the  Julian  family,  or 
the  true  line  of  the  Caesars,  ended ;  although  six  succeeding  empe- 
rors are  included  in  what  are  usually  styled  "  the  twelve  Caesars."  A 
series  of  sanguinary  wars,  arising  from  disputed  succession,  followed. 

«.  The  imidg  wen  the  prieata  or  ministers  of  religion  among  the  anoienl  Gaols  and  Britona. 
Their  chief  KBt  waa  an  lAnd  of  the  Irish  Sea,  now  called  AngUtey^  which  was  talcen  by  Sue- 
t6fdiia  after  a  fhnatical  resistance.  This  general  cut  down  the  groTes  of  the  drulda,  and  nearly 
«xtermlnatod  both  the  priests  and  their  religion.  The  draids  believed  in  the  existence  of  one  So- 
prane  Bdns,  a  state  of  Aitore  rewards  and  punishments,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  its 
mMOiigntlon  through  diftrent  bodies.  They  possessed  some  knowledge  of  geometry,  natural 
pliiloeopliy,  and  astronomy ;  they  practiced  astrology,  magic,  and  sooth-saying  ^  tbey  regarded 
fbe  Hilatletoe  as  the  holiest  objoct  hi  nature,  and  esteemed  the'  oak  sacred ;  they  abhorred  im- 
ages ;  they  worshipped  fire  as  the  emblem  of  the  sun,  and  in  their  sacrifices  (rften  immoI»> 
ted  human  Tictims.  Tbey  exercised  great  authority  in  the  goTemmeat  of  the  State,  appointed 
tte  highest  officers  fai  the  cities,  and  were  the  chief  administrators  of  Justice.    On  the  intro- 

I  dnctiott  of  Christianity  hiio  Britain,  the  druldical  order  gradually  ceased. 

I  b.  The  lUni  inhabited  the  country  on  the  eastern  coast  of  England.    Their  chief  town  WM 

I  »  place  BOW  called  Csal«r,  about  three  miles  ttom  Norwich. 

c.  /.ea^M,  aadantly  LemdiMiwm^  was  In  eTisteBne,  as  a  town  of  the  THnohaDtea,  before  the 
af  Jnliva  Gawr. 


196  MODEBir  H13T0RT.  [PadE 

At  first  GMba,  then  in  the  seventy-third  year  af  hiB  ure,  a  man  of  un- 
blemished personal  character,  was  uniyersallj  acknowl- 
edged emperor ;  bat  he  soon  lost  the  attachment  of  the 
soldiery  by  his  parsimony,  while  the  inflaence  of  injudicious  fayorltes 
led  him  into  unseasonable  severities  for  the  suppression  of  the  eno^ 
mous  vioes  of  the  times.  Several  revolts  against  his  authority 
rapidly  succeeded  each  other,  and  finally,  Otho,  who  had  been  among 
the  foremost  to  espouse  his  cause,  finding  that  Oalba  refused  to 
nominate  him  for  his  successor,  procured  a  revolt  of  the  Prsetorian 
guards  in  his  own  favor.  After  a  brief  struggle  in  the  streets  of 
Romoy  Galba  was  slain,  after  ajeign  of  only  seven  months. 

21.  While  the  unworthy  OtR,  a  passive  instrument  in  the  hands 
of  a  licentious  soldiery,  remained  at  Rome,  with  the  title  of  emperor, 

immersed  in  pleasures  and  debaucheries,  Yitel'  lius,  a 
man  more  vulgar  and  vicious  than  Otho,  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  legions  under  his  command  on  the  Qerman  frontie^ 
A  brief  but  sanguinary  struggle  followed,  and  Otho,  having  sustained 
a  defeat  in  the  north  6f  Italy,- fell  by  his  own  hand,  after  a  reign  of 
ninety-five  days. 

22.  Vitel'  lius,  entering  Rome  in  triumph,  ordered  more  than  a 
hundred  of  the  praetorian  guards  to  be  put  to  death ;  but  he  en- 

X.  vitbl'-  deavored  to  win  the  favor  of  the  populace  by  large 
LIU8.  donations  of  provisions,  and  expensive  games  and  enter- 
tainments. His  personal  character  was  cruel  and  contemptiliie. 
Under  the  most  frivolous  pretences  the  wealthy  were  put  to  death, 
and  their  property  seized  by  the  emperor ;  and  in  less  than  four 
months,  as  stated  by  historians,  this  bloated  and  pampered  ruler  ex- 
pended on  the  mere  luxuries  of  the  table  a  sum  equal  to  ab^ut 
seven  millions  sterling.  But|  while  wallowing  in  the  indulgence  of 
the  most  debasing  appetites,  he  was  startled  by  the  intelligence  iJiat 
the  legions  engaged  in  the  Jewish'  war  in  Syria  had  declared  their 
general,  Vespasian,  emperor,  and  were  already  on  their  march 
towards  Rome. 

23.  As  province  after  province  submitted  to  Vespasian,  and  his 
generals  rapidly  overcame  the  little  opposition  they  encountered, 
Vitel'  lius  in  dismay  would  have  abdicated  his  authority,  but  the 
Praetorian  guards,  dreading  the  strict  discipline  of  Vespasian,  com- 
pelled the  wretched  mouarch  to.  a  farther  resistanoe.  Rome  how- 
ever easily  fell  into  ■  tbe  hands  of  the  oonquerors,  and  ViteV  lins, 
having  retained  the  scep'^rc  only  eight  months,  was  igncH&uaiouBlj 


OUfit]  BOHAK  mSTORT.  197 

put  to  deatJi,  and  his  mangled  oaroass  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  amid 
the  execrations  of  the  same  fickle  multitude  that  had  so  recently 
welcomed  his  aceession  to  power.     (A.  D.  Dec.  69.) 

24.  Daring  seyeral  months,  Domitian,  the  second  son  of  Vespasian, 
ruled  at  Rome  in  the  absence  of  his  father,  taking  part  with  the 
contending  Actions,  committing  many  acts  of  cruelty,  and  already 
exhibiting  the  passions  and  vices  which  characterized  his  later  years ; 
but  at  length  the  arrival  of  the  monarch  elect  restored  tranquillity 
and  diffused  universal  joy.  (A.  D.  70.)  Vespasian  was  xi.  tespa- 
universally  known  and  respected  for  his  virtues,  and  his  bian. 
mild  and  happy  reign  restored  to  the  distracted  empire  some  degree 
of  its  former  prosperily.  He  improv^^  the  discipline  of  the  army, 
enlarged  the  senate  to  its  former  numbers,  and  revived  its  authority, 
reformed  the  courts  of  law,  and  enriched  Rome  with  many  noble 
bnildiligs,  of  which  the  Colosseum  still  remains,  in  much  of  its 
ancient  grandeur — ^the  pride  and  glor  j  of  his  reign. 

25.  Three  years  before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  Vespasian  had 
been  sent  into  Judea  by  Nero,  (A.  D.  67,)  at  the  head  of  sixty 
thousand  men,  to  conduct  the  war  against  the  Jews,  who  xii.  jswibh 
had  revolted  a^nst  the  Roman  power.  T\\fj  had  "^ab. 
been  driven  to  reoellion  by  the  execution  and  tyranny  of  Floras  the 
Roman  governor,  and  having  once  taken  up  arms  they  were  so 
strangely  in&tuated  as  to  believe  that,  although  without  a  regular 
anny,  or  munitions  of  war  of  any  kind,  they  could  resist  the  united 
force  of  the  whole  Roman  empire.  The  war  thus  commenced  was 
one  of  extermination,  in  which  mercy  was  seldom  asked  or  i^hown  by 
either  party 

26.  While  the  war  raged  around  Jerasalem,  and  city  after  city 
taken,  and  desolated  by  the  massacre  of  its  inhabitants,  there 
three  hostile  factions  in  Jerusalem,  afterwards  reduced  to  two, 

hoLdinft  possession  of  different  parts  of  the  city,  and  wasting  their 
strength  in  cruel  conflicts  with  each  other.  When  Vespasian  depart- 
ed for  Rome  to  assume  the  royal  authority,  he  left  the  conduct  of 
the  war  to  his  son  Titus,  who  soop  after  commenced  the  siege  of  Je- 
rusalem, during  the  time  of  the  feast  of  the  passover,  when  the  city 
was  crowded  with  -people  from  all  Judea.  Titus  expected  that  al- 
though Jerusalem  was  defended  by  six  hundred  thousand  men,  such  a 
multitude  gathered  within  the  walls  of  a  poorly-provisioned  city, 
would  occasion  a  famine  that  would  soon  make  a  surrender  inevitable. 

27.  Although  the  Jews  were  promised  liberty  and  safety  if  they 


198  MODERN  HI8T0BT.  [PabU 

would  snrrender  the  city ;  and  Josephofl,  the  fotore  historian  of  his 
country,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Romans,  was  sent  to 
expostulate  with  them  on  the  folly  of  longer  resistanoe ;  yet  they  re- 
jected all  warnings  and  counsel  with  scorn  and  derision ;  and  although 
the  opposing  Jewish  factions  were  embroiled  in  a  cItII  war,  with  a 
strange  infatuation  both  declared  their  resolution  to  defend  the  city 
to  the  very  last,  confident  that  God  would  not  permit  his  temple  and 
city  to  fall  before  the  heathen. 

28.  The  horrors  of  the  siege  surpassed  all  that  the  pen  can  de- 
scribe. When  the  public  granaries  had  become  empty  the  people 
were  plundered  of  their  scanty  stores,  so  that  the  famine  devoured  by 
houses  and  by  fiunilies.  At  length  no  table  w%^  spread,  nor  regular 
meal  eaten  in  Jerusalem.  People  bartered  all  their  wealth  for  a  meas- 
ure of  com,  and  ate  it  in  secret,  uncooked,  or  snatched  half  baked  from 
the  coals.  They  were  often  compelled,  by  torture,  to  discoyer  their 
food,  or  were  still  more  cruelly  treated  if  they  had  eaten  it.  Wives 
would  steal  the  last  morsel  from  their  husbands,  children  from 
parents,  mothers  from  children ;  and  there  were  instances  cif  dead 
infants  being  eaten  by  their  parents ;  so  that  the  ancient  prophecy, 
in  which  Moses  hi^  described  the  punishments  6f  the  unbelieving 
Jews,  was  fulfilled.* 

29.  At  length  the  dead  accumulated  so  &st  that  they  were  left  un- 
buried,  and  were  cast  off  the  walls  by  thousands  down  into  the  val^ 
leys  \  and  as  Titus  went  his  rounds,  and  saw  the  putrefying  masses, 
he  wept,  and,  stretching  his  hands  to  heaven,  called  God  to  witness 
that  this  was  not  his  work  !  *  By  slow  degrees  one  wall  after  another 
was  battered  down ;  but  so  desperate  was  the  defence  of  the  Jews 
that  it  was  three  months  after  the  lower  city  was  taken  before  the 
Romans  gained  possession  of  the  temple,  and,  in  its  destruction,  com- 
pleted the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  (A.  D.  70.)  Titus  would  have  saved 
the  noble  edifice,  but  was  unable  to  restrain  the  rage  of  his  soldiery, 
and  the  Temple  was  burnt. 

30.  Josephus  computes  the  number  of   his  countrymen  who 
'  perished  during  the  war  at  more  than  one  million  three  hundred 

thousand,  with  a  total  of  more  than  a  million  prisoners.     Thousands 

of  the  latter  were  sent  to  toil  in  the  Egyptian  mkes ;  but  such  were 

'  their  numbers  that  they  were  offered  for  sale  "  till  no  man  would 

bu}  them,'^  and  then  they  were  sent  into  different  provinces  as  pre- 

s.  Deat  xiTllk  96,  ff7. 


Gnff.1]  EOMAN  HISTORY.  199 

leots,  wliere  tiiey  were  consumed  by  the  sword,  or  by  wild  beasts  in 
the  amphitheatres.  With  the  destritetion  of  the  holy  city  and  its 
&moii]s  temple  Israel  ceased  to  be  a  Dation,  and  thus  was  inflicted 
the  doom  which  the  unbelieving  Jews  invoked  when  they  cried  out, 
^'  His  blood  be  on  us  and  on  our  children." 

31.  Britain  had  been  only  partially  subdued  prior  to  the  reign  of 
Yespasian,  but  during  the  two  years  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  its 
conquest  was  completed  by  the  Roman^goyernor  Julius  Agzic'  ola, 
who  was  justly  celebrated  for  his  great  merits  as  a  general  and  a  states- 
man. Carrying  his  victorious  arms  northward  he  defeated  the  Brit- 
tons  in  every  encounter,  penetrated  the  forests  of  Caledonia,'  and 
established  a  chain  of  fortresses  between  the  Friths  of  Clyde  and 
Forth,  which  marked  the  utmost  permanent  extent  of  the  Roman 
domini6n  in  Britain.  The  Justnesses  of  the  Scottish  highlands  were 
ever  too  formidable  to  be  overcome  by  the  Roman  arms.  By  an 
enlightened  policy  Agric'  ola  also  taught  the  Britons  the  arts  of 
peace,  introduced  laws  and  government  among  them,  induced  them 
to  lay  aside  their  barbarous  customs,  taught  them  to  value  the  con- 

'  venieneies  of  life,  and  to  adopt  the  Roman  language  and  manners. 
The  life  of  Agric'  ola  has  been  admirably  written  by  Tac'  itus,  the 
historian,  to  whom  the  former  had  given  his  daughter  in  marriage. 

32.  On  the  death  of  Vespasian  (A.  D.  79)  his  son  Titus  succeeded 
to  the  throne.  Previous  to  his  accession  the  general  opinion  of 
the  people  was  un&vorable  to  Titus,  but  afterwards  his 

JQIL  TirUfl. 

conduct  changed,  and  he  is  celebrated  as  a  just  and 
humane  ruler ;  and  so  numerous  were  his  acts  of  goodness,  that  his 
grateful  subjects  bestowed  upon  him  the  honorable  title  of  '*  benefac- 
tor of  the  human  race."  During  his  brief  reign  of  little  more  than 
two  years,  Rome  and  the  provinces  were  in  the  enjoyment  of  peace. 
snd  prosperity,  only  disturbed  by  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,' 

1.  Ancient  CaledSnia  comprehended  that  portion  of  Scotland  which  lay  to  the  north  of  the 
FbrUk  and  the  Clyde.  A  frith  is  a  narrow  passage  of  the  sea,  or  the  opening  of  a  river  into 
the  aee.    AgriC  ola  penetratedjiocth  aa  far  aa  the  river  TViy.    (See  Map  No.  XVI.) 

2.  Jf»unt  Vea%viu»^  ten  miles  south-east  fh>m  the  city  of  Naples,  la  the  only  actlre  volcano 
■t  present  existing  on  the  European  continent  Its  extreme  height  is  three  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  ninety  feet— about  two^Ulhs  of  that  of  JEX'  na.    Its  first  known  eruption  occurred 

•  <Ni  the  24th  of  August,  A.  0. 79,  when  Ifercul&neum  and  Pompeii  were  burled  under  showers 
of  volcanic  ashes,  sand,  stonesi,  and  lafa,  and  the  elder  Pliny  lost  his  life,  being  suflTocated  by 
ttke  solphnrona  vapor  as  he  approached  to  behold  the  wonderM  phenomena.  It  is  related  tliat, 
mA  waa  the  immense  quantity  of  volcanic  ashes  thrown  out  during  Aiis  eruplion,  the  whole 
coontry  waa  Involved  in  pitchy  darkness ;  and  that  the  aahes  fell  In  Egypt,  Syria,  and  varioua 
perta  of  Aala  Minor.  Since  the  destruction  of  Hercul4neum  and  FOmp^U  there  have  been 
aeaily  fiflj  authenticated  eroptioni  of  VeaaviuiL 


200  MODERK  HIST02T.  [Fjttli 

wbich  caoficd  the  deftnictioii  of  Herenlanenm'  snd  Pompeii,* 
(A.  D.  70.)  and  bv  a  great  tire  at  Kome,  wbich  was  followed  by  a 
pestilence.     (A.  D.  80.) 

33.  Domitian  raceeedcd  hi9  brother  without  oppositioii,  (A.  O.  81,) 
although  the  perfidy  and  cnieltv  of  his  character  were  notorious. 

xiY.  He  began  hu  reign  by  an  afiectation  of  extreme  irirtae, 
poMrriAH.  if^i  ^jin  unable  long  to  disiniiae  hifl  vicea.  There  was 
no  law  but  the  will  of  the  tjrant,  who  caused  many  of  the  most 
eminent  senators  to  be  pnt  to  death  without  eren  the  form  of  trial ; 
and  when,  by  his  infamous  vices,  and  the  openness  of  his  debaucheries, 
he  had  sunk,  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects,  to  the  lowest  stage  of 
degradation,  he  caused  himself  to  be  worshipped  as  a  god,  and  ad- 
dressed  with  the  reverence  due  to  Deity.  Both  Jews  and  Christians 
were  persecuted  by  him,  and  thousands  of  them  put  to  death  because 
they  would  not  worship  his  statues.  This  is  called  in  ecdesiastioal 
history  the  second  great  persecution  of  the  Christians,  that  under 
Nero  being  the  first. 

34.  It  was  m  the  early  part  of  this  reign  that  Agrie'  ola  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  Britain  ;  but  on  the  whole  the  reign  of  Bomi- 
tian  was  productive  of  little  honor  to  the  Roman  arms,  as  in  Mce  'sia,' 
and  Ddcia/  in  Germany,*  and  Pann6nia,  the  Romans  were  defeated, 

1.  Hereuldnemm  wtt  close  to  lh«  Mft,  wath  of  VMavtm,  mod  eight  miks  HMlh-MSt  ftam  the 
dty  or  Naples.  Uttl«  b  known  of  U  except  Ub  destraciioo.  It  was  completely  buried  under 
ft  ibower  of  tabes,  over  vhich  a  stream  of  lara  (lowed,  and  afterwards  hardened.  So  changed 
waa  the  aspect  of  the  whole  ooontry,  and  even  the  oatlines  of  the  coast,  that  an  knowledge  «r 
Ihe  dtj,  beyond  its  name,  was  soon  lost,  when,  In  1713,  after  a  ooDcealoient  of  more  than  six- 
teen centuries,  accident  led  to  the  discovery  of  its  ruins,  seventy  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
groand. 

a.  Pot^iii  was  llfteea  miles  south-east  fh>m  Naples,  and  was  not  buried  by  lava,  but  by 
ashes,  sand,  and  stones  only,  and  at  a  depth  of  only  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  above  the  buildings.  It 
has  b««n  excavated  much  more  extensively  than  Hescul&neam— dlschwlng  the  city  walls, 
atreel^  temples,  theatres,  the  forum,  hatha,  momimenta,  private  dweUinga,  domestic  utensib^ 
Jcc,— the  whole  conrejring  the  Impression  of  the  actual  presence  of  a  Roman  town  in  all  the 
circumstantial  reality  of  its  existence  two  thousand  years  ago.  "The  discovery  of  Pompeii  has 
thrown  a  strouc^  and  steady  flt^ht  on  many  points  >counected  with  the  private  life  and  economy 
of  the  ancientA,  that  were  previously  Involved  in  the  greatest  obscurity.**— The  small  number 
of  skeletons  clidcovcrcd  in  HerculAnenm  andTomp«ii  render  It  quite  certain  that  most  of  tha 
Snhabltanls  saved  themselves  by  flight. 

3.  Mv'  gia,  extending  north  to  the  Danube  and  eastward  to  the  Kiixine,  ecMresponded  to  the 
present  Turkish  provinces  of  Ser'  via  and  Bu'ghria.    {Map  No.  IX.) 

4.  D&cia  was  an  extensive  frontier  province  north  of  the  Danube,  extending  easi  to  the- 
Euxine.  It  embraced  the  northern  portions  of  the  present  Turkey,  together  with  TtansylTtnla 
and  0  port  of  Hungary.    {Map  No.  IX.) 

5.  The  word  Ornnknia  was  employed  by  the  Romans  to  designate  all  the  oountry  east  of  the 
Khlne  and  north  of  the  Danube  as  far  as  the  German  ocean  and  the  Baltic,  and  esstward  m 
fu  as  Sarm  Atla  and  D&da.  The  limits  of  Germany,  as  a  Roman  piorlDce,  were  very  IndcSolta 
{Map  No.  IX.) 


CtoF.I]  ROMAl*  HISTORY.  201 

md  whole  provisoes  lost.  In  Moe'  sil,  Domitian  himself  was  several 
times  defeated,  yet  he  wrote  to  the  senate  boasting  of  extraordinary 
victories,  and  the  servile  body  decreed  him  the  honors  of  a  triumph. 
In  a  similar  manner  other  triumphs  were  decreed  him,  which  caused 
Pliny  the  younger  to  say  that  the  triumphs  of  Domitian  were  always 
evidence  of  some  advantages  gained  by  the  enemies  of  Rome. 

35.  At  length,  after  a  reign  of  fifteen  years,  Domitian  was  assassi- 
nated at  the  instigation  of  his  wife,  who  accidentally  discovered  that 
her  own  name  was  on  the  fatal  list  of  those  whom  the  emperor  designed 
to  put  to  death.  The  soldiers,  whose  pay  he  had  increased,  and  with 
whom  he  often  shared  his  plunder,  lamented  his  fate ;  but  the  senate 
ordered  his  name  to  be  struck  from  the  Roman  annals,  and  obliter- 
ated from  every  public  monument. 

36.  The  death  of  Domitian  closes  the  reign  of  those  usually  de- 
nominated "  the  twelve  Cawars,"  only  three  of  whom,  Augustus, 
Yespasian,  and  Titus,  died  natural  deaths.  Julius  Caesar  fell  under 
the  da^ers  of  conspirators  in  the  very  senate-house  of  Rome.  Ti- 
berius, at  the  instigation  of  Calig'  ula,  was  smothered  on  a  sick  bed : 
Calig'  ula  was  murdered  in  his  own  palace  while  attending  a  theatri- 
cal rehearsal :  Claudius  was  poisoned,  at  the  instigation  of  his  own 
wife,  by  his  favorite  physician :  Nero,  by  the  aid  of  his  freedman, 
committed  suicide  to  avoid  a  public  execution  :  the  aged  Galba  was 
slain  in  the  Roman  forum,  in  a  mutiny  of  his  guards :  Otho,  on 
learning  the  success  of  his  rival  Y  iter  lius,  committed  suicide :  Yi- 
tel'  lius  was  dragged  by  the  populace  through  the  streets  of  Rome, 
put  to  death  with  tortures,  and  his  mangled  carcass  thrown  into  the 
Tiber ;  and  Domitian  was  killed  in  his  bed-chamber  by  those  whom 
he  had  marked  for  execution.  The  heart  sickens  not  more  at  the 
Teoital  of  these  murders  than  of  the  crimes  that  prompted  them ; 
and  thus  far  the  history  of  the  Roman  emperors  is  little  else  than 
a  series  of  constantly  recurring  scenes  of  violence  djid  blood. 

37.  But  as  we  pass  from  the  city  of  Rome  into  the  surrounding 
Roman  world,  we  almost  forget  the  revolting  scenes  of  the  capital  in 
view  <^  the  still-existing  power  and  majesty  of  the  Roman  empire — 
an  empire  the  greatest  the  world  has  ever  seen — and  still  great  in 
the  remembrance  of  the  past,  and  in  the  influences  which  it  has  be- 
queathed to  modern  times.  While  the  emperors  were  steeped  ta  the 
grossest  sensuality,  and  Rome  was  a  hot-bed  of  infamy  and  crime, 
the  numerous  provincial  governments  were  generally  administered 
with  ability  and  success ;  and  the  glory  of  the  Roman  arms  was 

I* 


202  MODERN  HISTORT.  [Piifll 

Bosiained  in^  repellmg  the  bafbluroos  hordes  that  preaeed  upon  the 
frontiers.  But  national  valor  cannot  oompenflate  for.  the  want  of 
national  virtue :  the  soul  that  animated  the  Bepublio  was  dead ;  the 
spirit  of  freedom  was  gone ;  and  national  progress  was  already  be- 
ginning to  give  place  to  national  decay. 


SECTION  II. 


ftOXAN  BISTORT  FROM  TBI  DEATH  OF  DOMITIAM,   JC  JK  9^  TO  TBB  MTAB- 

LX8HMSNT  OF  XILITA&T   DBSTOnSM,  AFTER  THX  IfUADRE  OW 
ALEZANDKR   SEYS' RUB,   A.  D.  236  =  189  TEARS 

ANALTSTS.  1.  Nbrva.  His  character,  reign,  and  death.  [Um'brla.]— S.  Trajah.  Rlf 
ehaiacter,  and  eharaoter  of  hia  reign.  Remarkable  words  attributed  to  blm.— 3.  HU  wan 
and  conqiieflts.  His  death.  [Ctee'  Iphon.  Tmjan*s  column.]-^.  Penecutiona  of  the  ChriiliBn 
daring  the  reign  of  TV^Jan.  The  proverbial  goodness  of  TraJan^s  charBct«r.— 5.  Acoeisiott  of 
AnaiAN.  His  peaceAil  policy.  General  admintBtimtion  of  the  goTemmemt  His  visit  to  ths 
provinces.— C.  Revolt  of  the  Jews.  Resnlts  of  the  Jewish  war.  Defences  la  Britain.  [Bolway 
Frith.  River  Tyne.]— 7.  Doubirul  estimate  of  Adrian's  character  and  reign.  His  ruling 
pa8SlonB.~-8.  Accession  of  Titvs  Airroin'  irvs.— 9.  His  cluuracter,  and  the  cfaaracter  of  faii 
reign.— 10.  Makgus  Auax'  lios  Amtoni'  mus.  Virus  associated  with  Urn. — IL  War  with  the 
Parthiana.  With  the  Germans.  Remarkable  deliverance  of  the  Roman  army.— 12.  CSiarsder 
of  the  five  preceding  reigns.  The  evils  to  which  an  aibitivy  government  is  liable.  lUnstiated 
in  the  annals  of  the  Roman  emperors.— 13.  Accession  of  Cox'  modus.  Beglnnfiig  <^  his  gov^ 
ernmeot.— 14.  The  Incident  which  decided  his  fluctuating  character.  His  aobseqnent  wicked- 
ness.—15.  His  debaneheries  and  craelties.  His  death.— 16.  The  brief  reign  of  Pbktihai.— 17. 
Disposal  of  the  empire  to  Dm'  ids  Juua'  Ncrf.- 18.  Dangerous  position  of  the  new  ral«r.r-19. 
His  competitors.  [DalmatU.]  Successes  of  StPTiii'  lus  Bkvb'  rds,  and  death  of  ^nlitavs. 
—90.  Dissimulation  of  8ev«rus.  He  defeats  Niger  at  Issus  in  Asia.  His  oonUnned  duplicity. 
Overthrow  and  death  of  Albinos.  [Lyons.]— SI.  Subsequent  reign  of  Sevens.  Hia  last  tUnsi* 
and  death.  [York.]— 92.  Caracal'  la  and  G6t«.  Death  of  the  Utter.  Character,  reign,  snd 
death  of  Caracal'  la.  Brief  relgn  of  Macrx'  mus.- 23.  Accession  of  Elaoaba'  lus.- **•  H** 
ch^hicler  and  foUies.  Clrcnmslances  of  his  death.— 25u  ALRXAivnRR  Ssvn'  nus.  His  atteav** 
to  reform  abnses.    Chsracter  of  his  administration.    His  death.    His  suoceesor. 

1.  Domitian  was  succeeded  by  Nerva,  who  was  a  native  of  Vto!- 
bria,*  but  whose  family  orignally  came  from  Crete.  He  was  the 
first  Roman  emperor  of  foreign  extraction,  and  was  chosea 
by  the  senate  on  account  of  his  virtues.  His  mild  and. 
equitable  administration  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  sanguinary 
rule  of  Domitian ;  but  his  excessive  lenity,  which  was  his  greatest 
ffiult,  encouraged  the  profligate  to  persevere  in  their  accustomed 

J.    Un'bria  was  a  conntry  of  Italy  east  of  Etriirla  and  north  of  the  Sabbie  terrttoiT* 
The  ancient  Um'  brians  were  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  nomerous  nations  of  Italy*    ("^^ 

Ko.vm. 


GsAF.I]  KOMAN  HISTORT.  '  203 

peooIatioiusL  At  length  the  ezoesses  of  his  awn  goards  con^dnoed 
him  that  the  governmeDt  of  the  empire  required  greater  energy  than 
he  poaaeesed,  and  he  therefore  wisely  adopted  the  excellent  Trajan 
as  his  successor,  and  made  him  his  associate  in  the  sovereignty. 
Nerva  soon  after  died,  (A.  D.  98,)  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his 
age,  having  reigned  but  little  more  than  sixteen  months. 

2.  Trajan,  who  was  by  birth  a  Spaniard,  proved  to  be  one  of  v 
Bome's  best  sovereigns ;  and  it  has  been  said  of  him  that  he  was 
equally  great  as  a  ruler,  a  general,  and  a  man.     After 

he  had  made  a  thorough  reformation  of  abuses,  he  re- 
stored as  much  of  the  free  Roman  constitution  as  was  consistent 
with  a  monarchy,  and  bound  himself  by  a  solemn  oath  to  observe  the 
laws ;  yet  while  he  ruled  with  equity,  he  held  the  reins  of  power 
with  a  strong  and  steady  hand.  Np  emperor  but  a  Trajan  could  have 
used  safely  the  remarkable  words  attributed  to  him,  when,  giving  a 
sword  to  the  prefect  of  the  Praetorian  guards,  he  said,  "  Take  this 
sword  and  use  it ;  if  I  have  merit,  for  me ;  if  otherwise,  against  me." 

3.  In  his  wars,  Trajan,  commanding  in  person,  conquered  the 
Ddcians,  after  which  he  passed  into  Asia,  subdued  Armenia,  took 
Seleiicia  and  Ctes'iphon,'  the  latter  the  capital  of  the  Parthian 
kingdom,  and  sailing  down  the  Tigris  displayed  the  Roman  standards 
ioft  the  first  time  on  the  waters  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  whence  he  passed 
into  the  Arabian  peninsula,  a  great  part  of  which  he  annexed  to  the 
Roman  empire.  But  while  he  was  thus  passing  from  kingddm  to 
kingdom,  emulatmg  the  glory  of  Alexander,  and  dreaming  'of  new 
conquests,  he  was  seized  with  a  lingering  illness,  of  which  he  died 
in  Cilicia,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign.  (A.  D.  117.)  His 
ashes  were  conveyed  to  Rome  in  a  golden  urn,  and  deposited  under 
the  famous  column  which  he  had  erected  to  commemorate  his  Dacian 
victories.* 

1.  cut*  ipk4m  was  a  dty  of  Paithia,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  to  and  piree 
uOm  dUani  fkom  9ele<icla. 

.  a.  Tr^an^  oolunin,  which  la  stf  II  standing,  is  the  most  beantlAiI  mansolonm  erer  erected  to 
departed  greatness.  Its  height,  not  Indodhig  the  baae^  which  is  now  cofwed  with  rabblah,  la 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  ten  inches;  and  the  entire  column  is  composed  of  twenty-four 
great  blocks  of  marble,  so  curiously  cemented  as  to  seem  one  entire  stone.  It  is  ascended  on 
the  Inside  by  one  hundred  and  eighty-are  winding  steps.  The  noblest  omameni  of  this  pillar  was 
e  brxmze  statue  of  Tndan,  twenty-flTO  feet  in  height,  representing  him  in  a  ooat  of  anns,  holding 
In  the  left  hand  a  sceptre,  and  in  the  right  a  hoUow  globe  of  gold,  in  which,  It  has  been  sasert- 
ed,  the  sshes  of  the  emperor  were  deposited.  The  column  is  now  surmounted  by  a  statue  of 
8L  Peter,  which  Sixtus  V.  had  the  bad  taste  to  substitute  in  place  of  thai  of  Tntfan.  Or  the 
external  fece  of  the  column  is  a  series  of  bas4«lie&,  running  in  a  vpinl  course  np  the  shofli 
lepreeenting  Tr^)an*s  rictoriss,  and  containing  two  thousand  five  hundred  human  flgureSb 


204  MODERK  HISTOBT.  (PakA 

A.  The  rfiarscter  of  Trajan,  otbennFC  just  md  antmUcls  staitied 
bf  the  approral  whicb  lie  zave  to  the  persecntion  of  Cbristians  in 
tte  eastern  prorinces  of  the  empire ;  for  mlthongb  be  did  not  directly 
promote  that  per?e<ntion,  he  did  little  to  check  its  progress,  and  al- 
lowed the  enemies  of  the  Christians*  to  triumph  over  them.  Still, 
the  goodnes!*  of  his  character  was  long  prorerbial.  inasmnch  as,  in 
later  times,  the  senate,  in  f.'licitating  the  accession  of  a  new  emperor, 
were  accustomed  to  wish  that  he  might  surpass  the  prosperity  of 
Angostns  and  the  rirtne  of  Trajan. 

5.  Whether  Trajan,  in  his  last  moments,  adopted  his  relative 
Adrian  as  his  sncceswr,  or  whether  the  will  attributed  to  him  was 
fbrged  by  the  empress  Plotina,  is  a  doubtful  point  in  history;  but 

Adrian  succeeded  to  the  throne  with  the  unanimous  dee* 
laration  of  the  Asiatic  armies  in  his  &vor,  whose  choice 
waa  immediately  ratified  by  the  senate  and  people.  His  first  care 
was  to  make  peace  with  the  surrounding  nations ;  and  in  order  to 
prescrre  it  he  at  once  abandoned  all  the  conqnests  made  by  his  pre- 
decessor, except  that  of  Dacia.  and  bounded  the  eastern  proyioces 
by  the  riTer  Euphrates.  He  diminished  the  military  establishments, 
lowcfed  the  taxes,  reformed  the  laws,  and  encouraged  literature.  He 
also  passed  thirteen  years  fn  risiting  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire, 
inspecting  the  administration  of  government,  repressing  abuses,  and 
erecting  and  repairing  public  edifices. 

6.  During  his  reign  occurred  another  war  with  the  Jews,  who,  in- 
oensed  at  the  introduction  of  Roman  idoktry  into  Jerusalem,  were 
excited  to  revolt  by  an  impostor  who  called  himself  Bar-C6cbab,  (the 
mm  of  a  star,)  and  who  pretended  to  be  the  expected  Messiah.  Two 
hundred  thousand  devoted  followers  soon  flocked  to  the  Jewish  stand- 
ard, and  for  a  time  gained  important  advantages ;  but  Sev^rus,  after- 
wards emperor,  being  sent  against  them,  in  a  sanguinary  war  of  three 
years'  duration  he  accomplished  the  almost  total  destruction  of  the  Jew- 
ish nation.  More  than  five  hundred  thousand  of  the  mie^ided  Jews 
are  estimated  to  have  fallen  by  the  sword  during  this  period ;  ^^ 
thosa  who  survived  were  "  scattered  abroad  among  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth." — In  Britain,  Adrian  repaired  the  frontier  fortresses  of  Agric  • 
ola  as  a  bulwark  against  the  Caled6nians,  and  erected  a  second  wall) 
firom  the  Solway  Frith*  to  the  Tyne,'  remains  of  which  are  still  visible. 

1.  Sottoay  FritA,  the  north-eutern  arm  of  the  Irbh  sea,  dlTldes  EoglaiMi  from  ScoUini 
{Map  No.  XVI.) 

t.  The  Tifne,  an  Important  river  In  the  north  of  England,  enters  the  sea  on  the  easWro  oos«S 
■t  the  feottthem  •zfrainity  of  Northumberland  ooonty.    {Map  No.  X  VI^ 


CkAP.l]  ROMAK  HISTOfir  2W 

7.  AltLougli  the  general  tenor  of  the  reign  of  Adrian  deserred 

S raise  for  its  equity  and  moderation,  yet  his  character  had  some 
ark  stains  npon  it ;  and  the  Bomans  of  a  later  age  donhted  whether 
he  should  be  reckoned  among  the  good  or  the  bad  princes.  He  al« 
lowed  a  severe  persecution  of  the  Jews  and  Christians;  he  was 
jealous,  suspicious,  superstitious,  and  revengefjil ;  and  although  in 
general  he  was  a  just  and  able  ruler,  he  was  at  times  an  unrelenting 
ftod  cruel  tyrant.  His  ruling  passions  were  curiosity  and  vanity  j 
and  as  they  were  attracted  by  difierent  objects,  his  character  as- 
sumed the  most  opposite  phases. 

8.  Adrian,  a  short  time  previous  to  his  death,  (A.  D.  138,)  adopted 
for  his  successor,  Titus  Antoninus,  sumamed  Pius,  on  iv.  Tmm 
condition  that  the  latter  should  associate  with  him,  in  ahtoni' Nua. 
the  empire,  Marcus  Aur^lius,  and  the  youthful  Y^rus.  Antoninus, 
immediately  after  his  t accession,  gave  one  of  his  daughters  in  mar- 
riage to  Marcus  Aur61ius,  afterwards  called  Marcus  Aurelius  Anto- 
ninus ;  but  while  he  associated  the  worthy  Aur6Iius  in  the  labors  of 
government,  he  showed  no  regard  for  the  profligate  V6rus. 

9.  During  twenty-two  years  Antoninus  governed  the  Ropian  world 
with  wisdom  and  virtue,  exhibiting  in  his  public  life  a  love  of  re- 
ligion, peace  and  justice;  and  in  his  private  character  goodness, 
amiability,  and  a  cheerful  serenity  of  temper,  without  affectation  or 
vanity.  His  regard  for  the  future  welfare  of  Rome  is  manifest  in 
the  fevor  which  he  constantly  showed  to  the  virtuous  Aurelius :  the 
latter,  in  return,  revered  the  character  of  his  benefacter,  loved  him 
as  a  parent,  obeyed  him  as  a  sovereign,  and,  after  his  death,  regulated 
his  own  administration  by  the  example  and  maxims  of  his  predecessor. 

10.  On  the  death  of  Antoninus,  (A.-  D.  161,)  the  senate,  distrustr; 
inff  V^rus  on  account  of  his  vices,  conferred  the  sever-    ^  „.„^„„ 
eignty  upon  Marcus  Aurelius  alone ;  but  the  latter  im-    aurelius 
mediately  took  V^rus  as  his  colleague,  and  gave  him  his  ^^'^wi'  nub. 
daughter  in  marriage ;  and  notwithstanding  the  great  dissimilarity 
in  the  characters  of  the  two  emperors,  they  reigned  jointly  ten 
year's,  until  the  death  of  V6rus,  (A.  D.  171,)  without  any  disagree- 
ment ;  for  V6rus,  destitute  of  ambition,  was  content  to  leave  the 
weightier  affairs  of  government  to  his  associate. 

1 1.  Although  Aur6lius  detested  war,  as  the  disgrace  of  humanity 
and  its  scourge,  yet  his  reign  was  less  peaceful  than  that  of  his  pre 
deccssor;  for  the  Parthians  overran  Syria;  but  they  were  eventually 
repulsed,  and  some  of  their  own  cities  captured.     Daring  five  years 


S06  MODERN  BISTORT.  [PakU 

Anr^Utts,  in  person,  oondocted  a  war  against  the  Oennac  tribes, 
withoat  onoe  returning  to  Rome.  Daring  the  German  war  occurred 
that  remarkable  deliverance  of  the  emperor  and  his  army  frofll 
danger,  which  has  been  related  both  by  pagan  and  Christian  writers 
It  is  said  that  the  Bomans,  dra?m  into  a  narrow  defile,  where  they 
could  neither  fight  i|or  retreat,  were  on  the  point  of  perishing  by 
thirst,  when  a  yiolent  thunder-storm  burst  upon  both  armies,  and 
the  lightning  fired  the  tents  of  the  barbarians  and  broke  up  their 
«amp,  while  the  rain  relieved  the  pressing  wants  of  the  Romans. 
Many  ancient  fi&thers  of  the  Church  ascribed  the  seasonable  shower 
to  the  prayers  of  the  Christian  soldiers  then  serving  in  the  imperial 
army ;  and  we  are  told  by  Eus^bius  that  the  emperor  immediately 
gave  to  their  division  the  title  of  the  "  Thundering  Legion,"  and 
henceforth  relaxed  his  severity  towards  the  Christians,  whose  perse- 
3ution  he  had  before  tolerated.  , 

12.  The  reigns  of  Nerva,  Trajan,  Adrian,  and  the  two  Atonines, 
oomprised  a  happy  period  in  the  annals  of  the  Roman  empire. 
These  monarchs  observed  the  laws,  and  the  ancient  forms  of  civil 
administration,  and  probably  allowed  the  Roman  people  all  the  free- 
dom they  were  capable  of  enjoying.  But  under  an  lurbitrary  gov- 
ernment there  is  no  guarantee  for  the  continuance  of  a  wise  and 
equitable  administration ;  for  the  next  monarch  may  be  a  profligate 
sensualist,  an  imbecile  dotard,  or  a  jealous  tyrant;  and  he  may 
abuse,  to  the  destruction  of  his  subjects,  that  absolute  power  which 
others  had  exerted  for  their  welfare.  The  uncertain  tenure  by  which 
the  people  held  their  lives  and  liberties  under  despotic  rule,  is  ^y 
illustrated  in  the  dark  pictures  of  tyranny  which  the  annals  of  the 
Roman  emperors  exhibit.  The  golden  age  of  Trajan  and  the  An- 
tonines  had  been  preceded  by  an  age  of  iron ;  and  it  was  followed 
by  a  period  of  gloom,  of  whose  public  wretchedness,  the  shortness, 
and  violent  termination,  of  most  of  the  imperial  reigns,  is  sufficient  proof. 

13.  Com' modus,  the  unworthy  son  of  Aurelius,  succeeded  to  the 
VL  ooM.'-    throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  (A  D.  180,)  amidst 

MODUS,  the  acelamations  of  the  senate  and  the  armies.  During 
three  years,  while  he  retained  his  father^s  counsellors  around  him,  he 
ruled  with  equity  and  moderation ;  but  the  weakness  of  his  mind 
and  the  timidity  of  his  disposition,  together  with  his  natural  indo- 
lence, rendered  him  the  slave  of  base  attendants ;  and  sensual  indul- 
gence and  crime,  which  others  had  taught  him,  finally  degenerated 
into  a  habit,  and  became  the  ruling  passions  of  his  soul. 


Cup  I]  ROMAK  BISTORT.  WT 

14.  A  &tal  incideiit  decided  his  fluctuating  charact'er,  and  sad- 
deolj  developed  his  dormant  cmelty  and  thirst  for  blood.  In  an 
attempt  to  assassinate  him,  the  assailant,  aiming  a  blow  at  him  with 
a  dagger,  exclaimed,  "  the  senate  sends  jou  this.''  The  menace  pre- 
vented the  deed ;  but  the  words  sunk  deep  into  the  mind  of  Com'- 
modus,  and  kindled  the  utmost  fury  of  his  nature.  It  was  found 
that  the  conspirators  were  men  of  senatorial  rank,  who  had  been  in- 
stigated by  the  emperor's  own  sister.  Suspicion  and  distrust,  fear 
and  hatred,  were  henceforth  indulged  by  the  raiperor  towards  the 
whole   body  of  senators:    spies  and  informers  were  encouraged; 

'  neither  virtue  nor.  station  afforded  any  security;  and  when  Com'- 
modus  hacf  once  tasted  human  blood,  he  became  incapable  of  pity  or 
remorse.  He  sacrificed  a  long  list  of  consular  senators  to  his  wanton 
sospicion,  and  took  especial  delight  iA  hunting  out  and  exterminating 
all  who  had  been  connected  with  the  family  of  the  Antonines^ 

15.  The  debaucheries  of  Com' modus  exceeded,  in  extravagance 
and  iniquity,  those  of  any  previous  Roman  emperor.  He  was 
averse  to  every  rational  and  liberal  pursuit,  and  idl  his  sports  were 
mingled  with  cruelty.  He  cultivated  his  physical;  to  the  neglect  of 
his  mental  powers ;  and  in  shooting  with  the  bow  and  throwing  the 
javelin,  Rome  had  not  his  superior.  Delighting  in  exhibiting  to  the 
people  his  superior  skill  in  archery,  he  at  one  time  caused  a  hundred 
lions  to  be  let  loose  in  the  amphitheatre ;  and  as  they  ran  r&ging 
around  the  arena,  they  successively  fell  by  a  hundred  arrows  from 
the  royal  hand.  He  fought  in  the  circus  as  a  common  gladiator,  and, 
always  victorious,  often  wantonly  slew  his  antagonists,  who  were  less 
completely  armed  than  himself.  This  monster  of  folly  and  wicked- 
ness was  finally  slain,  (A.  D.  193,)  partly  by  poisoning  and  partly  by 
stranding,  at  the  instigation  of  his  favorite  concubine  Marcia,  who 
accidentally  learned  that  her  own  death,  and  that  of  several  officers 
of  the  palace,  had  been  resolved  upon  by  the  tyrant. 

16.  On  the  death  of  Com'  modus  the  throne  was  offered  to  Per'ti- 
nax,  a  senator  of  consular  rank  and  strict  integrity,  who  yu,  per'  ti- 
aocepted  the  office  with  extreme  reluctance,  fully  aware        wax. 

of  the  dangers  which  he  incurred,  and  the  great  weight  of  responsi- 
bility thrown  upon  him.  The  virtues  of  Per'  tinax  secured  to  liim 
the  love  of  the  senate  and  the  people ;  but  his  zeal  to  correct  abuses 
provoked  the  anger  of  the  turbulent  Praotorian  soldiery,  who  pre- 
ferred the  &tor  of  a  tyrant  to  the  stem  equality  of  the  laws ;  and 


208  MODERN  HISTORT.  [PiBrll 

after  m  reign  of  three  month?,  Per^  timz  was  afaun  in  the  imperial 
palaee  by  the  same  goards  who  had  plaeed  himMm  the  throne. 

17.  Amidst  the  wild  disorder  that  attended  the  violent  death  of 
the  emperor,  the  Praetorian  gnards  proclaimed  that  they  would  dis- 
pose of  the  sovereignty  of  the  Roman  world  to  -the  highest  bidder; 
and  while  the  body  of  Per'  tinax  remained  mibaried  in  the  streets 

Tin.  Dm'  ick  of  Rome,  the  prize  of  the  empire  was  purchased  by  a 

jcua'vol    yi^^  and  wealthy  old  senator,  Did' ins  JnliAnns,  who, 

repairing  to  the  Praetorian  camp,  outbid  all  competitors,  a^  actually 

paid  to  each  of  the  soldiers,  ten  thousand  in  number,  more  than  two 

hundred  pounds  sterling,  or  nearly  nine  millions  of  doUars  in  all. 

18.  The  obsequious  senate,  overawed  by  the  soldiery,  ratified  tlie 
unworthy  negotiation  ;  but  the  Praetorians  themselves  were  ashamed 
of  the  prmce  whom  their  avarice  had  persuaded  them  to  aooept ;  the 

•  citixens  looked  upon  his  elevation  with  horror,  as  a  lasting  insult  to 
the  Roman  name ;  and  the  armies  in  the  provinces  were  unanimotu 
in  refusing  allegiance  to  the  new  ruler,  while  the  emperor,  trembling 
with  the  dangers  of  his  position,  found  hinself,  although  on  the 
throne  of  the  world,  scorned  and  despised,  without  a  friend,  and 

^  even  without  an  adherent 

19.  Three  competitors  soon  appeared  to  contest  the  throne  with 
Julidnus, — C16dius  Albfnus,  who  commanded  in  Britain, — Pescen'- 

IX.  bkftim'-  iii«8  Niger  in  Syria, — and  Septim'  ius  Scv6rus  in  D«l- 
m  BST^ro.  mdtia'  and  Pann6nia.  The  latter,  by  his  nearness  to 
Rome,  and  the  rapidity  of  his  marches,  gained  the  advance  of  his 
rivals,  and  was  hailed  emperor  by  the  people :  the  Pithless  Pneto- 
rians  submitted  without  a  blow,  and  were  disbanded ;  and  the  senate 
pronounced  a  sentence  of  deposition  and  death  against  the  terror- 
stricken  Juliinus,  whose  anxious  and  precarious  reign  of  sixty-fiv« 
days  was  terminated  by  the  hands  of  the  common  executioner. 

20.  While  Sev^rus,  employing  the  most  subtle  craffc  and  dissimu- 
lation, was  flattering  Albfnus  in  Britain  with  the  hope  of  being  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  empire,  he  rapidly  passed  into  Asia,  and  after 
several  engagements  with  the  forces  of  Niger  completely  defeated 
them  on  the  plains  of  Issus,  where  Alexander  and  Darius  had  long 
before  contended  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  world.     Such  was  the 

1.  D^tUtiMy  laelaitlj  a  put  of  fflyr'  icam,  and  now  the  most  ioiitbeni  protfaee  of  tM 
AMtrlan  empira,  oompritet  a  loi«  and  narrow  terrttory  on  tiM  eaiUin  ■horo  of  tlM  Aiito^''^ 
After  the  divlalon  of  the  Roman  provinoea  under  Con'  itantine  and  TheodAilni,  Dalmiti*  h0 
came  one  of  the  moat  Important  pnrta  of  the  empire. 


Oaip.  I]  ROMAK  HISTORY.  209 

dnplicitj  of  Sev^TOS,  that  even  in  the  letter  in  wbich  be  annonnced 
tie  Tictory  to  Albiiius;  he  addressed  the  latter  with  the  most  friendly 
salutations,  and  expressed  the  strongest  regard  for  his  welfare,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  intrusted  the  messengers  charged  with  the  letter 
to  desire  a  private  andience,  and  to  plnnge  their  dagger  to  the  heart 
of  his  rival.  It  was  only  ^hen  the  infamous  plot  was  detected  that 
Albinus  awoke  to  the  reality  of  his  situation,  and  began  to  make 
vigorous  preparations  for  open  war.  This  second  contest  for  empire 
was  decided  against  Albinus  in  a- most  desperate  battle  near  Lyons,^ 
in  Gaul,  (A.  D.  197,)  where  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  Romans 
are  said  to  have  fought  on  each  side.  Albinus  was  overtaken  in 
flight,  and  slain ;  and  many  senators  and  eminent  provincials  suf- 
fered death  for  the  attachment  which  they  had  shown  to  his  cause. 

21.  After  Sev6rus  had  obtained  undisputed  possession  of  the  em- 
pire, he  governed  with  mildness :  considering  the  Roman  world  as, 
his  property,  he  bestowed  his  care  on  the  cultivation  and  improve- 
ment of  so  valuable'  an  acquisition,  and  after  a  reign  of  eighteen 
years  he  could  boast,  with  a  just  pride,  that  he  received  the  empire 
oppressed  with  foreign  and  domestic  wars,  and  left  it  established  in 
profound,  universal,  and  honorable  peace.  In  his  last  illness,  Sev6rus 
deeply  felt  and  acknowledged  the  littleness  of  human  greatness.  Bom 
in  an  African  town^  fortune  and  merit  had  elevated  him  from  an 
humble  station  to  the  first  place  among  mankind  ;  and  now,  satiated 
with  power,  and  oppressed  with  age  and  infirmities,  all  his  pros- 
pects in  life  were  closed.  "  He  had  been  all1;hings,"  he  said,  "  and 
all  was  of  little  value."  Calling  for  the  urn  in  which  his  ashes  were 
to  be  inclosed,  he  thus  moralized  on  his  decaying  greatness.  "  Little 
urn,  thou  shalt  soon  hold  all  that  will  remain  of  him  whom  the 
world  could  not  contain."  He  died  at  York,'  in  Britain,  (A.  D.  21 1 ,) 
having  been  called  into  that  country  to  repress  an  insurrection  of  the 
Caledonians. 

I.  Z,vonSf  called  by  the  Bomans  Lugd^num,  Is  sltaated  at  the  confluence  of  the  riven 
Shone  and  Saone.  The  Roman  town  was  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Rhone.  Giesar  conqnered  the  place  from  the  Ganls :  Augustus  made  !t  the  capital  of  a  proT- 
inoe ;  and,  being  enlarged  by  succeeding  emperors,  it  became  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
Roman  worid.  It  is  now  the  principal  manufacturing  town  of  France,  containing  a  population 
Of  about  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.    (Map  No.  Xlfl.) 

9L  Tin-k,  caned  by  the  Romans  Ebor'  antm.  Is  situated  on  the  river  Ouse,  one  hundred  and 
■evQOty  miles  N.  N.  west  fh>m  London.  It  wa^  the  onpital  of  the  Roman  province,  and  next 
to  London,  the  most  important  city  in  the  Island.  It  was  successivelj^  the  residence  of  Adrian, 
fierfirua,  G«ta  and  Oaracal'  la,  Constan'  tius  ChlOms,  Con'  stantine  the  Great,  &c  The  modem 
city  can  sUll  show  many  y&A\ge6  of  Roman  power  and  magnificence.  Constan'  ttus  Chl6ni% 
the  (kUier  of  Con'  stantine  the  Great,  died  here.    (Map  No.  X  VL) 

14 


SiO  MODERN  mSTOBT.  [PinlL 

22.  Sererns  had  left  the  empire  to  his  two  sons  Gftneal'  h  aod 
X,  C2AEA-  Geta,  bat  the  former,  whose  mbcondact  had  imbittered 
^^^  *^     the  last  daj8  of  his  father,  soon  after  his  accession  slew 

his  brother  in  his  mother's  anna  His  character  resembled  that  of 
Com'modos  in  cruelty,  bat  his  extortions  were  carried  to  a  &r 
greater  extent  After  the  Roman  world,  had  endured  his  tyranny 
nearly  six  years,  he  was  assassinated  while  in  Syria,  at  the  instiga- 
ZL  «Acii'-  tion  of  Macrinus,  the  captain  of  the  guards,  (A.  D.  217,) 
MM.  ^iiQ  succeeded  to  the  throne ;  but  after  a  reign  of  four- 
teen months,  Macrinus  lost  his  life  in  the  straggle  to  retain  his 
power. 

23.  Bassi^us,  a  youth  of  foorteen,  and  a  cousin  of  Caracal' Is, 
had  been  consecrated,  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Syrian  worship, 
to  the  ministry  of  high-priest  of  the  sun ;  and  it  was  a  rebellion  of 
the  Eastern  troops  in  his  favor  that  had  overthrown  the  power  of 
Macrinus.  Although  these  events  occurred  in  distant  Syria,  yet  the 
Roman  senate  ai^d  the  whole  Roman  world  received  with  servile 

ziL  xLAOA-  submission  the  emperors  whom  the  army  successively 
ba'  LU8.  offered  them.  As  priest  of  the  sun  Bassidnus  adopted 
the  title  of  Elagabilus,^  and  on  his  arrival  at  Rome  established 
there  the  Syrian  worship,  and  compelled  the  grandest  personages  of 
the  State  and  the  army  to  officiate  in  the  temple  dedicated  to  the 
Syrian  god.  ^ 

24.  The  follies,  gross  licentiousness,  boundless  prodigality,  and 
cruelty  of  this  pagan  priest  and  emperor,  soon  disgusted  even  the 
licentious  soldiery,  the  only  support  of  his  throne.  He  established 
a  senate  of  women,  the  subject  of  whose  deliberations  were  dress 
and  etiquette ;  he  even  copied  the  dress  and  manners  of  the  female 
sex,  and  styling  himself  empress,  publicly  invested  one  of  his  officers 
with  the  title  of  husband.  His  grandmother  Mob'  sa,  foreseeing  that 
the  Roman  world  would  not  long  endure  the  yol^e  of  so  contemptible 
a  monster,  artfully  persuaded  him,  in  a  favorable  moment  of  fond- 
ness, to  adopt  for  his  successor  his  cousin  Alexander  Severus ;  yet, 
soon  after,  Elagabilus,  indignant  that  the  affections  of  the  army 
were  bestowed  upon  another,  meditated  the  destruction  of  Severus, 
but  was  himself  massacred  by  the  indignant  Praetorians,  who  dragged 
his  mutilated  corpse  through  the  city,  and  threw  it  into  the  Tiber, 
while  the  senate  publicly  branded  his  name  with  mfamy.    (A.  D.  222.) 

a.  A  name  derived  fh>m  two  Syrian  words,  e/a  a  god,  and  fahal  to  Torm :— stgnlOrfoK  ^ 
temlng,  or  phutlc  god,— a  proper  and  even  bappy  epitbet  for  the  luii.— Gibbon.  L  A 


Oaip.L]  ROMAN  HISTORY.  Sll 

25.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  Alexander  Sey^ras  was  raised  to  the 
tiirone  by  the  Praetorian  guards.     He  proved  to  be  a  ^^^^  -ald- 
wise,  energetic,  and  virtuous  prince :  he  relieved  the    andbe  sb- 
provinces  of  the  oppressive  taxes  imposed  by  his  prede-      '"'^^'s. 
eeflsoTB,  and  restored  the  dignity,  freedom,  and  authority  of  the 
senate;  bnt  his  attempted  reformation  of  the  military  order  served 
(mly  to  inflame  the  ills  it  was  meant  to  cure.     His  administration  of 
the  government  was  an  unavailing  struggle  against  the  corruptions 
of  ^e  age ;  and  ^fter  many  mutinies  of  his  troops  his  life  was  at 
length  sacrificed,  after  a  reign  of  fourteen  years,  to  the  fierce  discon- 
tents of  the  army,  whose  power  had  now  increased  to  a  height  so 
dangerous  as  to  obliterate  the  faint  image  of  laws  and  liberty,  and 
introduce  the  sway  of  military  despotism.     Mjax'  imin,  the  instigator 
d  the  revolt)  was  proclaimed  emperor. 


SECTION    III. 

aOKAV  BBIOaT  FBOM  THX  X8TABLI8HMEMT  OF  KHJTART  DE8POTI81C,   AFTXR  TH> 

XUBJnCR  OF  ALEZAlTDKa  SBVX' RV8,   A.   D.' 235,   TO  THX  BUBVXRBION  OF  THS 

WX8TKXN  EMFIHK  OF  THE  SOXANS,    A.  D.   47  6  =  241    TEAKS. 

ANAI^YSIS.  1.  Earliest  aocoant  of  the  Thraclan  Max'  iHiit.— 8.  HU  origin.  HIb  history 
down  to  the  death  of  Alexander  Sev^ms.  [The  Goths.  Al&ni.]— 3.  Max'  imln  proclaimed 
emperuf  bj  the  army.  OommeDcemeot  of  his  reign.— 4.  Goa'  vikv.  Pufik'  ifua  amd  Balbi'- 
MXTM.  Death  of  Max'  imln.  The  Sbcokd  Gor'  bian.-^.  Crerman  and  Persian  wars.— d.  S&por, 
Ihe  Ptera&an  kin^.  Death  of  Gor*  dian,  and  accession  of  Philip  the  Arabiax.— 7.  Insnirectiona  > 
and  rebelliona.  Db'  cxus  proclaimed  emperor,  and  death  of  Philip.  CVer6na.]-&  War  with 
the  Goth«,'and  death  of  D^cios.  Reign  of  Gallus  Emilia'  bus.  Accession  of  Valb'  rian. — 
9.  Wortby  charadler  of  Valerian.  Ravages  of  the  barbarians.  Spain,  Gaol,  and  Britain. 
^The  Penians.  (The  Frsnks.  Hie  Aleman'  ni.  Lombardy.]— 10.  Valerian  taken  prisoner. 
B!a  treatment.  Gailib' bus.— 11.  Odenitns,  prince  of  Palmyra.  He  ronts  the  Persians. 
(Palmyra.}— 13.  Nmnerons  competitors  for  the  throne.— 13.  Death  of  Galii^nus,  and  accession 
«r  Claudivb.  [Milan.]- }4.  Character,  reign,  and  death  of  Claodloa.  [Sir*  mtam.]— 15.  Quxn- 
tax.iUB.— 10.  Th6  reign  of  Aure'  liab.  His  wars.  Zenubia.  Character  of  Aur61ian.  His 
death.  [Tibar.  Byzan'  tium.]— 17.  An  interregnnm.  Election  of  Tacitus.  His  reign  and 
death.  [Bos' poms.}— 16.  Flo'rxab.  The  reign,  and  death,  of  Probus.  [aarmatia.  Van'- 
dals*}— 19.  Reign  of  Ca'  rub.  His  character,  and  death.  Numb'  rian  and  Cari'  nus^— SO.  Su- 
perstition, and  retreat,  of  the  Roipan  army  in  Persia.  Character  of  Carinas,  and  death  of 
Kmniftrlan.— 21.  Garlnus  marches  aguinst  Diocletian.  His  death.  Dioclb'  tiaji  acknowledged 
•mperor.    His  treatment  of  the  vanqolshed. 

S2L  The  reign  of  Diocletian,  an  Important  epoch.    [Copts  and  AbyssinJana.}— S3.  Division 
of  the  imi«rf%l  authority.— S4.  The 'rale  of  Maxim' ian.     [NicomAdia.]    Of  his  colleagn* 
'  tins,    dbantries  ruled  by  Diocletian,  and   his  colleague  Gaierins.— 25.  Important 
I  of  the  reign  of  DiocieUan.    The  insurrection  in  Britain.— SO.  Revolt  in  Egypt  and 
AMca.  [Bosirii  and  Cop'tos.  The  Moors.:~S7.  Hie  war  with  Parria.    [Antioell. 


313  VODERK  HIBTOBT.  [P10IL 

K««Mtii.>-«L  PeiwciitlfM  or  tlM  ChrtsttaM.    DIodAIlM'^  «dicl  ^iImI  tW.   ^  Bcwtla, 

and  effecU  of  ihis  per*ecution.^30.  DiocletUo  aod  Maxim'  ian  lay  down  the  iceptfe,aiMi  retire 
to  prirale  Ufe.  <»alb  axra  axd  Cohstah'  nra  acknowledged  aoTereigna.  Dlaeord  and  con- 
Anion.— 31.  Death  of  ConMin'  tioai  Com'  rrAim!«K  proclaimed  empeiw.  Six  ooinp«ttton  for 
tbe  Ibrone.  Death  of  (^al^riua.— 32.  ("onTerMon  of  l>m'  staotine,  and  uiumph  of  Cbri»tiuaily. 
— 33w  Moat  important  orenta  in  the  rvign  of  0»a'  ttantloe.  The  choice  of  a  new  capital.— 34. 
Eemoral  of  tbe  aeai  of  goTerameat  10  Byian'  tlnm,  and  tbe  diancea  that  followed*  Oon'  ito- 
tine  divides  the  empire  among  hi/ three  tons  and  two  nephews.  His  d«atb.~35b  Sixteen  yean 
of  Civil  wan.  CoMSTAiv'Tit' a  II.  becomes  sole  emperor.  His  reign  of  twenty-foiir  yean.  His 
Jcaih.  (The  Saxons.}— 38.  JoLi  AN  T«B  ArosTATB.  Hiaebancter.  HosUlitjr  to  the  Christiana. 
—37.  His  eflbrU  against  Christianity.  Tbe  res«ilt.— 38.  His  attempt  to  rebuild  Jemaalem.— 38. 
Causes  of  the  sospension  of  the  work. — 10.  Julianas  invasion  of  Penia.  His  death.— 31.  Tba 
lirief  Pbign  of  Jo'  tun.— 4SL  Valbntin'  i ah  elected  emperor.  Aesociales  Ua  brothar  Va'  lbkb 
wHh  him.    Final  diviston  of  tbe  empire.    The  two  capitals.    Borne. 

43.  Baebabian  inroads.  Picts  and  Scots.— 44.  Death  of  Vaientin' ian,  and  w^ward  pro- 
gress of  the  Hana.  Tbe  Vis'  igoths  are  allowed  to  settle  in  Thrace.— 4S.  Tbe  Os'  trogotbs  crom 
the  Danube  In  anns.  The  two  dirisioos  raise  tbe  staodard  of  war.  Death  of  Vilena. 
[Adrian^ple.]— 44.  Gea'  tian  emperor  of  the  West.  Thbodo'  sios  emperor  of  tbe  East.  The 
Goths.  Many  of  tbem  settle  Ih  Thrace,  Phrygia,  Ifcc— 47.  Death  of  Grltlan.  Valbntik'  iak 
11.  His  death.  Theoduslus  sole  emperor.  Death  of  Tbeoduains.  Dirlsion  of  the  empfiw  b»> 
tween  Hono'  rics  and  Arca'  dius.— 48.  Civil  wars.  Al'  aric  thb  Gotr  ravages  Greece,  and 
then  passes  into  Italy.  [Julian  Alpsw]— 49.  Hon6rius  Is  relieved  by  SUI'  icho.  [As'  U  PoUen'- 
tla.]  Rome  saved  by  Stil'  icbo.-^50.  Raven'  na  becomes  the  capital  of  Italy.  Deloge  of  bar- 
barians. [Raven'  na.  Van'  dais.  Su^vL  Buigim'  dlan&}— Sf.  Italy  delivered  by  8iU'  Icbo. 
[Florence.}— as.  Stil' icbo  pat  to  death.  Massacre  of  the  Goths,  and  reroll  of  the  Gothie 
aokiiers.— S3.  Rome  besieged  by  Al'  aric.  His  terms  of  rttn8om.-^Sl  Tbe  terms  flnally  agreed 
upon.  Rejected  by  Hoooriua.  [Tineany.}  Al'  aiie  retnras  and  redocos  Rome.— AS.  Pillage 
of  Rome.  Al'aric  abandons  Rome.  His  death  and  burial.— 50.  The  Goths  withdraw  from 
Italys  The  Vis'  igoths  in  Spain  and  Gaol.  Saxons  establish  themselves  in  England.^57.  The 
Van' dais  in  Spain  and  Africa.  Valbntim'iah  llf.  CoiiqDBSTs  or  At'tila.  [Andaloala. 
TheHonai  ChahNMb  Venetian  Republlc.]-^S8.  Extinction  of  tbe  empire  of  the  Huns.  Sita- 
ation  of  the  Roman  worid  at  this  period.  Rome  pillaged  by  the  Van'  dals,  A.  D.  455.— 5BL 
Avx'TUS.  Majo' BiAN.— 00.  Sbvb' BUS.  Van' dal  in vftslons.  Expedition  against  Carthage.— 61. 
RevoluUonary  changes.  Demands  of  the  barbarians,  and  scbvbbsioii  or  thb  Wbstbrk 
Ekpirb.    [Her'aU.] 

1.  *  Thirty-two  years  before  the  murder  of  Alexander  Sey6riis, 
the  emperor  Septim'  ios  Sev^rus,  returning  from  his  Asiatic  expe- 
dition, halted  in  Thrace  to  celebrate  with  military  games  the  birth- 
day of  his  younger  son  Geta.  Among  the  crowd  that  flocked  to 
behold  their  sovereign  was  a  young  barbarian  of  gigantic  stature^  ' 
who  earnestly  solicited,  in  his  rude  dialect,  that  he  might  be  allowed 
to  contend  for  the  prize  of  wrestling.  As  the  pride  of 
'  discipline  would  have  been  disgraced  in  the  overthrow  of 
a  Bomao  soldier  by  a  Thracian  peasant,  he  was  matched  with  the 
stoutest  followers  of  the  camp,  sixteen  of  whom  he  successively  laid 
on  the  ground.  His  victory  was  rewarded  by  some  trifling  gifts,  and 
a  permission  to  enlist  in  the  troops.  The  next  day  the  happy  bar- 
barian was  distinguished  above  a  crowd  of  recruits,  dancing  and  ex- 
ulting after  the  fashion  of  his  country.  As  soon  as. as  be  perceived 
that  be  had  attracted  the  emperor's  notice,  he  ran  up  to  his  honBi 


Cbat.IJ  ^-  EOHAJf  BISTORT.  218 

and  fottowed  him  on  foot,  without  the  least  appearance  of  &tigae,  in 
a  long  and  rapid  career.  "  Thracian,"  said  Sey^rus,  with  astonish- 
ment, "  art  thou  disposed  to  wrestle  after  thy  race  ?^'  "  Most  wil- 
lingly, sir,"  replied  the  unwearied  youth,  and  almost  in  a  breadth 
o?erthrew  seven  of  the  strongest  soldiers  in  the  army.  A  gold  collar 
was  the  prize  of  his  matchless  vigor  and  activity,  and  he  was  imme- 
diately appointed  to  serve  in  the  horse-guards,  who  always  attended 
on  the  person  of  the  sovereign.'^ 

2.  Max'imin,  for  that  was  the  name  of  the  Thracian,  was  de- 
scended from  a  mized  race  of  barbarians, — ^his  father  being  a  Groth,' 
and  his  mother  of  the  nation  of  the  Alani."  Under  the  reign  of  the 
first  Sevenjs  and  his  son  Caracal'  la  he  held  the  rank  of  centurion ; 
bat  he  declined  to  serve  under  Macrinus  and  £lagabalu8.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Alexander  he  returned  to  court,  and  was  promoted  to  vari- 
oos  military  offices  honorable  to  himself  and  useful  to  the  nation, 
but,  elated  by  the  applause  of  the  soldiers,  who  bestowed  on  him  the 
names  of  Ajax  and  Hercules,  and  prompted  by  ambition^  he  con- 
i^ired  against  his  benefactor,  and  excited  that  mutiny  in  which  the 
latter  lost  his  life. 

3.  Declaring  himself  tlie  friend  and  advocate  of  the  military  order, 

1.  Tbe  Ootis,  a  poweifal  northern  nation,  who  acted  an  important  part  in  the  orerthrow  of 
tbe  Boman  empire,  wera  probably  a  Scythian  tribe,  and  came  origioally  from  Asia,  whence 
tb^  paaeed  north  into  Scandinavia.  When  flrat  Icnown  to  the  Romans,  a  large  dtviaion  of 
tfa^  nation  11  red  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  Euxine.  About  the  middle  of  the  third 
eentary  of  our  era  tbey  crowed  the  Dnles'  tar,  and  detraatated  DAoia  and  Thrace.  Tbe  emperor 
IMdiiB  loat  hia  life  in  opposing  them ',  after  which  his  successor  Gal'  lus  iuduced  them  by 
noney,  to  withdraw  to  their  old  seats  on  the  Dnles'  ter.  (See  p.  315.)  Soon  after  this  period 
fbe  6otfaa  appear  in  two  grand  divisions ;— the  Os'trogoths,  or  Eastern  Goths,  passing  the 
Eoxine  into  Asia  Minor,  and  ravaging  Bythin'  ia ;— and  the  Vis'  igoths,  or  Western  Goths, 
gradoally  pressiug  upon  the  Roman  proyinces  along  the  Danube.  About  the  ye^r  375,  tbe 
Bom,  eoming  ftom  the  East,  fell  upon  the  Os'  trogoths,  and  drove  them  npon  th£  Vis'  igoths, 
who  weoe  then  living  north  of  the  Danube.  A  vast  muIUtade  of  tbe  latter  were  permitted  by 
tbe  emperor  V&lens  to  settle  in  Moe'  siii,  and  on  the  waste  lands  of  Thrace ;  but  being  soon  oftor 
Jollied  by  their  Eastern  brethren,  they  raised  the  standard  of  war,  carried  their  rarages  to  the  very 
0tfeB  of  Oonstantinople,  and  UUed  V41en8  in  battle.  (8eep.8S8.)  It  waaAi' arte,  king  of  tbe 
Via' igotlis,  who  plundered  Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the  flAh  century.  (See  p.  331.)  Tbe  Vis' i- 
fotfas  afterwards  passed  into  Spain,  where  they  founded  a  dynasty  which  reigned  nearly  three 
eentarfoe,  and  waa  finally  oonqnered  by  tbe  Moors,  A.  D.  711.  In  the  meantime  the  Os'  trogoths 
had  been  following  in  tbe  path  of  their  brethren,  and  in  the  year  493  theb*  great  Iring  Theod'  oric 
defeated  Odoaeer,  and  seated  himself  on  the  throne  of  Italy.  (See  p.  339.)  The  Gothic  kingdom 
laarrirt  only  till  the  year  554,  when  it  was  overthrown  by  Nar'  ses,  the  general  of  Jnstin'  ian. 
^5«e  p.  341.)  From  this  period  the  Goths  no  tonger  occupy  a  promineal  place  In  hlstoiy, 
•xoept  In  Spain. 

SL  Tbe  Mimi,  Dkawlae  a  Scythian  race,  when  flnt  known  oeenpied  Om  eonntry  between  tbe 
Vol^a  and  the  Don.  Being  oonquered,  erentually,  by  the  Huns,  roost  of  the  AJans  united 
-with  their  oonqueior^  and  proceed  with  them  to  Invade  the  Umits  of  the  Gothlo  ompiro  of 

a.  Gibbon,  1,  W. 


214  MODERN  HIOTORY.         «  [PitrE 


/ 


Max'  imin  was  unanimously  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  applftnding 
legions,  who,  now  composed  mostly  of  peasants  and  barbarians  of 
the  frontiers,  knowing  no  country  but  their  camp,  and  no  science  but 
that  of  war,  and  discarding  the  authority  of  the  senate,  looked  npon 
themselves  as  the  sole  depositaries  of  power,  as  they  were,  in  reality, 
the  real  masters  of  the  Roman  world.  Max'  imin  commenced  his 
reign  by  a  sanguinary  butchery  of  the  friends  of  the  late  monarch; 
but  his  avarice  and  cruelty  soon  provoked  a  civil  war,  and  raised  19 . 
against  him  several  competitors  for  the  throne. 

4.  At  first  the  aged  and  virtuous  Gor'dian,  pro-oonsol  of  Afiica, 

was  declared  sovereign  by  the  legions  in  that  part  of  the 

'  Roman  world,  but  he  persisted  in  refusing  the  dangerous 

hdnor  until  menaces  compelled  him  to  accept  the  imperial  title.    At 

Rome  the  news  of  his  election  was  received  with  universal  joj,  and 

confirmed  by  the  senate;  but  two  months  after  his  accession  he 

perished  in  a  struggle  with  the  Roman  governor  of  Mauritania,  who 

still  adhered  to  Max'  imin.     Two  senators  of  consular  dignity,  Pu- 

m.  puPM-   P^^^'^;  (sometimes  caUed  Max'  imus)  wid  Balblnus,  were 

ia»  AND     then  declared  emperors  by  the  senate  ;*and  soon  after, 

BALBi  HUB.   ji^j'  imjjj^  whiltf  ou  his  march  from  Pann6nia  to  Rome, 

was  slain  in  his  tent  by  his  own  guards.    (A.  D.  238.)     Only  a  few 

IV.  SECOND  <^y8  ^^1"  ^^^  Pupi6nus  and  Balblnus  were  slain  in 

00a'  DiAN.    a  mutiny  of  the  troops.  1   The  youthful  Gor'  dian,  grand- 

son  of  the  former  Oor'  dian,  was  then  declared  emperor. 

5.  During  these  rapid  changes  in  the  sovereignty  of  the  Roman 
world,  the  empire  was  involved  in  numerous  foreign  wars,  which 
gradually  wasted  its  strength  and  resources,  and  hastened  its  down- 
fall. Oq  the  north,  the  German  nations,  and  other  barbarian  tribes, 
almost  constantly  harassed  the  frontier  provinces ;  while  in  the  east 
the  Persians,  after  overthrowing  the  Parthian  empire,  and  establish- 
ing the  second  or  later  Persian  empire  under  the  dynasty  of  the 
Sassan'  idae,  (A.  D.  226,)  commenced  a  long  series  of  destructiTe 
wars  against  the  Romans,  with  the  constant  object  of  driving  the 
Utter  from  Asia. 

6.  At  the  time  of  the  accession  of  the  second  Gor'  dian  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Roman  empire,  Sdpor,  the  second  prince  of  the 
Sas'  sanid  dynasty,  was  driving  the  Romans  from  several  of  their 
Asiatic  provinces.  The  efforts  of  Gor'  dian,  who  went  in  person  to 
protect  the  provinces  of  Syria,  were  partially  suooesaful ;  but  whik 


Chaf.I]  EOMAir  HISTORY.  215 

the  jontbfiil  conqueror  was  pursuing  his  adyantages,  he  was  supplanted 
in  the  affections  of  his  army  by  Philip  the  Arabian,  the    ^  philip 
prefect  or  commander  of  the  Praetorian  guards,  who  caused        toe 
hia  monarch  and  benefactor  to  be  slain,  (A.  D.  244.)     ^*^'^n- 

7.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  generals  of  Philip  were  disposed 
to  imitate  the  example  of  their  master,  and  that  insurrections  and 
rebellions  were  frequent  during  his  reign.     At  length  &  rebellion 
having  broken  out  in  Pann6nia,  Decius  was  sent  to  sup-        ^^ 
press  it,  when  he  himself  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 

the  fickle  troops,  and  compelled,  by  the  threat  of  instant  death,  to 
submit  to  their  dictation.  Philip  immediately  marched  against  De- 
dua,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Ver6na.*     (A.  D.  249.) 

8.  Several  monarchs  now  succeeded  each  other  in  rapid  succession. 
B^cins  soon  fell  in  battle  with  the  Goths,  (A.  D.  251,)  large  num- 
b^s  of  whom  during  his  reign  first  crossed  the  Danube,  and  deso- 
lated the  Roman  provinces  in  that  quarter.     Gal'  lus,  a    vn.  gal'-  « 
general  of  Decius,  being  raised  to  the  throne,  concluded        ^^^ 

a  dishonorable  peace  with  the  barbarians,  and  renewed  a  violent  per- 
secution of  the  Christians,  which  had  been  commenced  by  Decius 
As  new  swarms  of  the  barbarians  crossed  the  Danube,  the  pusillani 
mous  emperor  seemed  about  to  abandon  the  defence  of  vni.  jooli 
the  monarchy,  when  iEmilianus,  governor  of  Pann6nia      a'  "us. 
and  Moe'  sia,  unexpectedly  attacked  the  enemy  and  drove  them  back 
into  their  own  territories.     His  troops,  elated  by  the  victory,  pro- 
daimed  their  general  emperor  on  the  field  of  battle ;  and  Gal'  lus 
was  soon  after  slam  by  his  own  soldiers.    In  three  months    a.  vale- 
a  similar  fate  befel  ^milianus,  when  Valerian,  governor       ^"^• 
of  Gaul,  then  about  sixty  years  of  age,  a  man  of  learning, -wisdom, 
•ad  virtue,  was  advanced  to  the  sovereignty,  not  by  the  clamors  of 
the  army  only,  but  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  Roman  world. 

9.  Valerian  possessed  abilities  that  might  have  rendered  his  admin 
istration  happy  and  illustrious,  had  he  lived  in  times,  more  peaceful, 
and  more  favorable  for  the  display  and  appreciation  of  virtue ;  bat 
his  reign  had  not  only  a  most  deplorable  end,  but  was  marked,  through- 
out, with  nothing  but  confusion  and  calamities.  At  this  time  the 
Goths,  who  had  already  formed  a  powerful  nation  on  the  lower  Dan- 

L  FtrAM,  •  large  and  floiifWhiiiff  Boman  dty  of  GftBlpine  Gaul,  still  retalnt  tto  anelent  nani«^ 
It  i»  sitnated  on  both  lidas  ofthe  riyer  Adiga,  aixty-fonr  miles  west  trom  Venice.  The  great  glory- 
«C  Vertna  ia  Its  amphitheatre^  one  of  the  noblest  «x]sting  monnments  of  the  ancient  Romam, 
ittd,euiptli«tliaOoloaiAam  at  BoiM»  the  laigest  extant  edifice  or  Its  class.  ItlssappoiHl 
to  h«y»  been  enable  of  amwnmndiitlng  twenty  thonaand  tpeemxm,    (Mdp  Vo.  XVHi^ 


816  HODEBN  BISTORT.  [Fait  a 

ube  and  the  northern  coasia  of  the  Black  Sea,  raraged  the  Boman  do- 
minions on  their  horderB,  and  penetrating  into  the  interior  of  Greece, 
or  Achdia,  destroyed  Ar'  gos,  Corinth,  and  Athens,  bj  fire  and  by 
the  sword :  the  Franks/  who  had  formed  a  kingdom  on  the  lower 
Rhine,  began  to  be  formidable  :  the  Aleman'  ni*  broke  through  their 
boundaries,  and  advanced  into  the  plains  of  Lom'bardj*:  Spain, 
Gaul,  and  Britain,  were  virtually  torn  away  from  the  empire,  and 
governed  by  independent  chiefe;  while  in  the  East,  the  Persians, 
uider  their  monarch  Sapor,  fell  like  a  mountain  torrent  upon  Syria 
and  Cappadocia,  and  almost  effaced  the  Roman  power  from  Asia. 

10.  Valerian  in  person  led  the  Roman  army  against  the  Persians, 
bat,  penetrating  beyond  the  Euphrates,  he  was  surrounded  and  taken 
prisoner  by  Stipor,  who  is  accused  of  treating  his  royal  captive  with 
wanton  and  unrelenting  cruelty, — using  him  as  a  stepping-stone  when 
he  mounted  on  horseback,  and  at  last  causing  him,  after  nine  years 
of  captivity,  to  be  flayed  alive,  and  his  skin  to  be  stuffed  in  the  form 
X.  OALUB-  ^^  *^®  living  emperor — dyed  in  scarlet  in  mockery  of 
WU8.  his  imperial  dignity,  and  preserved  as  a  trophy  in  a 
temple  of  Persia.  Gallienus,  the  unworthy  son  of  Valerian,  receiv- 
ing the  news  of  his  father's  captivity  with  secret  joy  and  open  in- 
difference, immediately  succeeded  to  the  throne.     (A.  J).  259.) 

H.  At  the  time  when  nearly  every  Roman  town  in  Asia  had  sub- 
mitted to  Sapor,  Odenatus,  prince  of  Palmyra,*  who  was  attached 

1.  Tbe  F)rank*y  or  ^  Freemen,'*  were  a  oonrederatfon  of  the  rudest  of  the  Gemunle  trfbei, 
and  were  llni  known  U>  tbe  Bonans  ea  iahabitii^  tbe  nniiMroiu  Uleto  formed  by  the  mouth  of 
the  Rhine ;  but  they  aflerwarda  croeaed  into  Gaul,  and,  in  the  hitter  paK  of  lue  fifth  oeolai7, 
under  their  leader  CloTia,  laid  the  foundation  of  tbe  French  monarchy.    (See  also  p.  ^0 

S.  Tbe  jf /email' Hi,  or  "^ali  umw,**  that  la,  men  of  aU  tribes,  wtera  also  a  German  conttAtneft 
rituated  on  the  aortbem  borders  of  Switzerland.  They  were  finally  OTerthrown  by  Clovis,  after 
which  thoy  were  dispersed  over  Gaul,  Switzerland,  and  northern  Italy. 

3.  /^W  kardj^  embraced  most  of  the  great  plahi  of  northern  Italy  watand  }fjihm^o^aAf» 
tribaiaries. 

4.  Palmyra^  "The  ancient  '♦Tadmor  in  the  wilderness''  built  by  king  Solomon,  (2.  <*">"• 
▼lit.  4,)  was  situated  in  an  oaata  of  the  Syrian  desert,  about  one  hundrad  and  forty  mUsi 
north-east  from  Damaacns.  The  flnt  notioe  we  bare  of  it  in  Boman  htsiory  is  at  the  eomr 
menoement  of  the  wars  with  the  Parthlans,  wtien  it  was  permitted  to  maintain  a  state  of  inde- 
pendenee  and 'neutrality  between  the  contending  parties.  Being  on  the  cal^ran  route  Itoa  the 
coast  of  Syria  to  the  regions  of  Mesopotimia,  Persia,  and  India,  it  was  Iwc^  the  principal  em* 
porium  of  commerce  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  worlds— a  city  of  merchants  and  fso- 
tors,  whose  wealth  Is  still  attested  by  the.  number  and  msgniflcence  of  Its  ruins.  Afl«r  the 
▼ictorles  of  "nrnjan  had  estabUsbeii  the  unquestionable  praponderanoe  of  the  Boman  ana«»  H 
became  allied  to  tiie  empire  as  a  free  SUUe,  and  was  greatly  favored  by  Adrian  and  the  Antih 
nines,  during  whose  reigns  it  attained  its  greatest  splendor.  OdMiAtua  maintained  its  glorTi 
and  for  his  defeat  of  the  Persians  the  Boman  senate  oontored  on  him  the  UUe  of  Augustus 

associated   him  wlih  Galii^nus  in  the  empir*^  but   hia  queen  and  auctesaor,  ths 
US  Zeabbia,  brokn  the  aUUuioo  with  ttm  imbecUn  GnIUAaiia» aim«nd  JBr'o'k  mbs'^ 


OuE-L]  MOUAJS  QISTORT.  217 

to  the  Boman  interest,  desirous  mt  least  to  secure  the  forbearenoe  of 
the  conqaeror,  sent  Sipor  a  magnificent  present  of  camels  and  m&e- 
chandise,  accompanied  with  a  respectfal,  but  not  servile,  epistle ;  bat 
the  haughty  monarch  ordered  the  gifts  to  be  thrown  into  the  Eaphrd« 
tes,  and  returned  for  an  answer  that  if  Odenatus  hoped  to  mitigate 
his  punishments  he  must  prostrate  himself  before  the  throne  of 
Sapor  with  his  hands  tied  behind  his  back.  The  Palmyrean  prince^ 
reading  his  fate  in  the  angry  message  of  Sapor,  resolved  to  meet  the 
Persian  in  arms.  Hastily  collecting  a  little  army  from  the  villages 
of  Syria,  and  the  tents  of  the  desert,  he  fell  upon  and  routed  the 
Persian  host,  seized  the  camp,  the  women,  and  the  treasures  of  8i- 
yoTj  and  in  a  short  time  restored  to  the  BoMans  most  of  the  prov- 
inces of  which  they^had  been  despoiled. 

12.  The  indolence  and  inconstancy  of  Oallienus  soon  raised  up  a 
host  of  competitors  for  the  throne,  generally  reckoned  thirty  in  all, 
although  the  number  of  actual  pretenders  did  not  exceed  nineteen. 
Among  these  was  Odenatus  the  Palmyrean,  to  whom  the  Koman 
senate  had  intrusted  the  command  of  the  Eastern  provinces,  after 
associating  him  with  Oallienus.  Of  all  these  competitors,  several 
of  whom  were  models  of  virtue,  two  only  were  of  noble  birth,  and 
not  one  enjoyed  a  life  of  peace,  or  died  a  natural  death.  As  one 
after  another  was  cut  off  by  the.  arms  of  a  rival,  or  by  domestic 
treachery,  armies  and  provinces  were  involved  in  their  falL  During 
the  deplorable  reigns  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus,  the  contentions  of 
tiie  imperial  rivals,  and  the  arms  of  barbarians,  brought  the  empire 
to  the  very  brink  of  ruin. 

13.  Gallienus,  after  a  reign  of  nine  years,  was  murdered  while  he 
was  besicjging  one  of  his  rivals  in  Mediolanum  ;^  {Milan, 

A.  D.  268  \)  but  before  his  death  he  had  appointed  Mar-  ^ 

cos  Aurelius  Claudius,  a  general  of  great  reputation,  to  succeed  him, 
and  the  choice  was  confirmed  by  the  joyful  acclamations  of  the  army 
and  the  people. 

mlnSonsi  and  uMuned  the  tilto  of  **  AuguaU,  Queen  of  the  East.**  The  emperor  Aor^Uea 
nurcbed  againet  tbe  Ul-Cated  Palmyra  with  an  irrwistible  force ;  the  walls  of  the  clly  were 
fazed  lo  the  groimd ;  and*  the  aeat  of  commerce,  of  arta,  and  of  Zenobia,  gradiiaUy  auuk  into 
an  obapure  town,  a  trifling  fortress,  and,  at  length,  a  miierable  Arab  Tillage. 

X.  MsdMAntm^  now  Milan,  was  a  city  of  Cisalpine  Ganl,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  weat 
fhMD  Venice,  sitoated  in  a  beautiful  plain  between  two  small  streams  the  Olona  and  Lambm, 
which  unite  at  San  Angelo  and  form  a  nor|;hem  tributary  of  the  Po.  Mediolanum  was  ao- 
naxed  to  the  EU>man  dominions  by  Scipio  Naaica,  191  a  C.  A  good  apecimen  of  ancient  fio- 
aan  areblMciure  may  still  be  seen  a^  Mian,  being  a  range  of  sixteen  beauUAil  GoiiAthlaa 
coIamna,wUh  their  ai9hltisv%MbreL^  church  at  San  Lonnso.   {Jfa^NaVIUOk 

E 


S18  MODIBK  HIBTOBT.  [PauH. 

14.  A  Baooeflskm  of  better  prinoes  now  restored  for  awh3e  the  de^ 
oayiDg  energies  of  the  empire.  Claudius  merited  the  confidence 
which  had  been  placed  in  his  wisdom ^  valor,  and  virtue;  and  his 
early  death  was  a  great  misfortune  to  the  Roman  world.  After 
having  overthrown  and  nearly  destroyed  an  army  of  three  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  Goths  and  Van' dais,  who  had  invaded  the  em- 
pire by  the  way  of  the  Bos'  poms,  Claudius  was  cut  off  by  a  pesti* 
lenoe  at  Sir'  mium,'  as  he  was  making  preparations  to  march  against 
the  &mous  Zendbia,  the  '^  Queen  of  the  East,"  and  the  widow  and 
successor  of  Oden^tus. 

15.  Qubtil'ius,  the  brother  of  Claudius,  was  proclaimed  emperor 
zn.  Qom-  by  ^^  acclamations  of  the  troops ;  but  when  he  learned 
hl'  icb.     that  the  great  army  of  the  Danube  had  invested  Aur61iaa 

with  imperial  power,  he  sunk  into  despair,  and  terminated  his  life 
after  a  reign  of  seventeen  days. 

16.  The  reign  of  Aur^lian,  which  lasted  only  four  years  and  nine 
zm.  Auai-  months,  was  filled  with  lAmorable  achievement&     After 

"^-  a  bloody  conflict,  he  put  an  end,  by  treaty,  to  the  (jh)thio 
war  of  twenty  years'  duration ;  he  chastised  and  drove  back  the 
Aleman'  ni,  who  had  traced  a  line  of  devastation  from  the  Danube 
to  the  Po ;  he  recovered  Oaul,  Spain,  and  Britain ;  and  passing  into 
Asia  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  he  destroyed  the  proud  monarchy 
which  Zen6bia  had  erected  there,  and  led  that  unfortunate,  but  heroic 
princess,  captive  to  Rome.  Being  presented  irith  an  elegant  villa 
at  Tibur,'  the  Syrian  queen  insensibly  sunk  into  a  Roman  matron, 
and  her  daughters  married  into  the  noblest  families  of  the  empire. 
With  great  courage  and  superior  military  talents,  Aur^lian  possessed 
m^ny  private  virtues ;  but  their  influence  was  impaired  by  the  stern- 
ness and  severity  of  his  character.  He  fell  in  a  conspiracy  of  hia 
X  officers  near  Byzan'  tium,'  while  preparing  to  carry  on  a  war  with 
Perma.     (A.  D.  March,  275.) 

1.  Sir'  mium  wu  an  important  dty  In  the  80Qth'«88t6rn  part  of  Pann6nla,  on  tho  nortboRi 
■ld«  of  the  rirer  Sure.    It»  ruins  may  be  seen  near  the  town  of  Mitrmiti^  in  Austrian  Slaronia. 

a  TYfrvr,  now  Tivolif  (te^-ro-le)  was  sltnateil  at  the  cascades  of  the  A'  nio,  now  the  Terer> 
6ne,  eighteen  miles  north-east  from  Rome.  Its  andent  inliabitanU  frere  called  the  Ti^rtinu 
The  declivities  in  the  Tictnity  of  Tibur  were  anciently  interspersed  with  splendid  villas,  the 
fltYorite  reeldences  of  the  reflned  and  luxurious  cltlxens  of  Rome,  among  which  may  bo  men- 
tioned those  of  Sallnst,  MsBoinas,  Tibnl'  lus,  V&ma,  At'  tleni,  Csssius,  Brutus,  «te.  Here  Vfrgll 
and  Horace  elaborated  their  immortal  works.  Although  the  temples  and  theatres  of  sncient 
TIbur  hare  crumbled  into  dust,  its  orohards,  its  gardens,  and  its  cool  recesses,  still  bloom  and 
flourish  in  unfading  beauty.    {Map  No.  X.) 

9.  Bytan'  tt'itin,  now  Oonstantlnople,  a  oeiebrateif  dty  of  Thrsoe  on  the  western  shore  of  fha 
Tbiadan  Boa' porta,  ia  soppoMdto  ha^  boan  flrandwi  by  a  Dortin  ooloiij  fttMn.  Meg*  an,  lad 


Chur.  I]  -ROMAK  HISTORY.  219 

17.  On  the  death  of  Atir61ian,  a  generous  and  unlooked-for  dis- 
interestedness was  exhibited  by  the  army,  which  modestly  referred 
the  appointment  of  a  saccessor  to  the  senate.  For  six  months  the 
■enate  persisted  in  declining  an  honor  it  had  so  leng  been  unaccus- 
tomed to  enjoy ;  and  daring  this  period  the  Roman  world  remained 
without  a  sovereign,  without  a  usurper,  and  without  a  sedition.  At 
length  the  senate  yielded  to  the  continual  request  of  the 

legions,  an3  elected  to  the  imperial  dignity  Marcus 
Claudius  Tacitus,  a  wealthy  and  virtuous  senator,  who  had  already 
passed  his  seventy-fifth  year.  Tacitus,  after  enacting  some  wise 
laws,  and  restoring  to  the  senate  its  ancient  privileges,  proceeded  to 
join  the  army,  which  had  remained  assembled  on  the  Bos'porus'  for 
the  invasion  of  Persia ;  but  the  hardships  of  a  inUitary  life,  and  the 
cares  of  government,  proved  too  much  for  his  constitution,  and  he 
died  in  Cappad6cia,  after  a  reign  of  little  more  than  six  months. 
(A.  D.  Sept.,  275.) 

18.  F16riuK,  a  brother  of  Tacitus,  showed  himself  unworthy  to 
reign,  by  assuming  the  government  without  even  con-    ^v.  fl(/- 
suliing  the  senate.     His  own  soldiers  soon  after  put  him       iuan. 

to  death,  while  in  the  meantime  the  Syrian  army  proclaimed  their 
leader,  Pr6bus,  emperor.  The  latter  proved  to  be  an  zyj.  p^o'- 
exoellent  sovereign  and  a  great  general ;  and  in  the  wars  ^^ 
whioh  he  carried  on  with  the  Franks,  Aleman'ni,  Sarmatians,'  Goths, 
and  Van'  dais,'  he  gained  greater  advantages  than  any  of  his  prede- 
oessoHL  In  the  several  battles  which  he  fought,  four  hundred  thou- 
sand of  the  barbarians  fell ;  and  seventy  cities  opened  their  gates  to 

Iff  Bftma  a  TbradaD  prlnoe,  aboat  tbe  middle  of  the  aerenth  oentnxy  before  the  CbristUa  era. 
n  was  destroyed  bj  the  Peralans  in  the  reign  of  Dariua :  it  raaisted  successfully  tbe  arms  of 
VWOp  of  Mae'  edon :  dnrtng  the  reign  of  Philip  IL  it  placed  itself  uoder  Roman  sway :  it  waa 
deetfoyed,  and  aftenrarda  rabpUt«  by  Septlm'  ins  SevAras ;  and  in  the  year  338  A.  D^  Con'stan* 
tine  made  it  tbe  capital  of  the  Roman  empire.  On  tbe  subjagatlon  of  the  western  empire  by 
ttw  barbaifansi)  A.  D.  47ll|  it  oontinned  to  be  the  capital  of  the  eastern  empire.  It  was  taken 
by  tte  emeadere  In  tbe  year  1S04;  aad  in  1453  it  fetl  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  when  tbe 
bat  remnant  of  the  Roman  empire  was  flnally  snppressed.    (Map  No.  III.) 

1.  The  B09'f9ru9y  (eorrapted  by  modem  orthography  to  Bos'phorusi)  is  the  strait  which 
eoDUBeu  the  Snzino  or  Black  See,  with  the  Propon'  tie  or  Sea  of  Marm6ra.  Tbe  length  of  thia 
remarkable  channel  is  abont  soTenteeen  mileef  with  a  width  varying  ttom  half  a  mile  to  two 
Bllea.    (.VarNaVli^ 

8.  ABdem  «ar«aiM  extended  ftom  the  Ball^  Sea  and  the  TU' tola  to  the  Ouptan  Sea  and  the 
Volga.  European  Sarm&tla  embraced  Poland,  Lithotoia,  Prussia,  and  a  part  of  Rtusla. 
Ailatic  Serm&tia  oonpriaed  the  oonntry  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  river  Don. 

a  The  Fea'  iaU  were  a  people  of  Germany,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  Gothic  origin. 
Tbey  fbnned  one  of  tbe  three  divisions  of  the  great  Slavonian  rsoe ;— via..  Vandals,  An'  tes^ 
and  atavoniaiis  proper.   The  Slavoniaa  laogaa^a  is  the  stem  from  which  have,  issued  the 


fi20  IfiODEEET  HBTQ&T.  [Pivli 

him.  After  be  had  secored  a  general  peacebj  his  vielorM,  he  em- 
ployed his  armiee  in  nmfiil  public  works ;  but  the  soldiers  disdained 
such  employment,  and  idiile  they  were  engaged  in  draining  a  manib 
near  Sir'  miom,  in  the  hot  days  of  summer,  they  bn^  out  into  a 
furious  mutiny,  and  in  their  sudden  rage  slew  their  emperor.  (A.  D. 
282,) 

19.  The  legions  next  raised   Oiros,  prefect  of  the  Prasioriaa 
zYii.       guards,  to  the  throne.     He  was  fiill  of  warlike  ambttioa, 

oa'bus.     hq^  the  desire  of  military  glory,  and  seems  to  hxve  held 

a  middle  rank  between  good  and  bad  princes.     He  signalised  the 

beginning  of  his  reign  by  a  memorable  defeat  of  the  Sanmaiians  in 

lUyr'  icum,  sixteen  thousand  of  whom  he  slew  in  batti.&     He  then 

marched  against  Persia,  and  had  already  carried  his  yictorioQs  anna 

beyond  the  Tigris,  when  he  was  killed  in  his  tent,  as  was 

NuicsRiAV    generally  believed  by  lightning.     (A.  D.  288.)    Num6- 

AND        rigrQ^  one  of  the  sons  of  Cdrus,  who  had  accompanied  his 

father  in  his  eastern  expedition,  and  Garinus  his  elder 

brother,  who  had  been  left  to  gorem  Rome,  were  immediately  a«v 

knowledged  emperors  by  the  troops. 

20.  On  the  death  of  Gdms,  the  eastern  army,  superstitioosly  re- 
garding places  or  persons  struck  by  li^tning  as  singularly  devoted 
to  the  wrath  of  heaven,  refdsed  to  advanoe  any  farther;  and  the  Per- 
sians beheld  with  wonder  the  unexpected  retreat  of  a  victorious 
army. — While  Carinus  remained  at  Rome,  immersed  in  pleaeiffCi, 
and  acting  the  part  of  a  second  Com'  modus,  t^M  virtnous  Num^riaa 
perished  by  assassination.  The  army  of  the  latter  then  chose  for 
his  successor  Diocletian,  the  commander  of  the  domestic  body  guards 
of  the  late  emperor.     (A.  D.  Dec,  285.) 

21.  Carinus,  being  determined  to  dispute  the  suoceasion,  marched 
with  a  large  army  against  Diocletian,  whom  he  was  on  the  point  of 
defeating  in  a  desperate  battle  on  the  plains  of  Margus,  a  small  city 
of  Ma'  sia,  when  he  was  slain  by  one  of  his  own  officers  in  revenge 
for  some  private  wrong.     The  army  of  Carinus  then  acknowledged 

xiz.  DiooLib-  Diocletian  as  emperor.     He  used  his  victory  with  mild- 
TiAN.       nessy  and,  contrary  to  the  common  practice,  respected 
the  lives  and  fortunes  of  his  late  adversaries,  and  even  oontinued  in 
their  stations  many  of  the  officers  of  Cirinus. 

22.  The  reign  of  Diocletian  is  an  important  epoch  in  Roman 
history,  as  it  was  one  of  long  duration  and  gensrai  pvaqperity,  and  is 


OhuAl]  ftOMAK  HIBIOftT.  821 

the  begimtbig  of  ihe  dirinon  of  tbe  Boman  world  into  the  Eastern 
and  WeBtem  empire.  The  aooeesion  of  Dioel^tian  also  marks  a  new 
efaronologreal  era,  oalled  the  '^  era  of  Dioel^tian,"  or,  <<  the  era  of 
mar^^,"  which  was  long  reoognised  in  the  Christian  ohiirch,  and  is 
still  used  by  the  Copts  and  Abjssinians.* 

23.  The  natural  tendency  of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  empire  to 
beeome  separated  from  the  western,  together  with  the  difficulties  of 
mling  singly  over  so  many  provinces  of  different  nations  and  diverse 
interests,  led  Diocletian  to  form  the  plan  of  dividing  the  imperial 
authority,  and  goveming  the  empire  from  two  centres,  although  the 
w&ole  was  still  to  remain  one.  He  therefore  first  took  as  a  oolleagoe 
hiB  friend  and  fellow  soldier  Maxim'  ian ;  but  still  the  weight  of  the 
publie  administralaon  appearing  too  heavy,  the  two  sovereigns  took 
eadi  a  subordinate  coUeagoe,  to  whose  name  the  title  of  CsBsar  waa 
prefixed. 

24.  Maxim'  ian  made  Milan  his  capital,  while  Diocletian  held  his 
court  at  Nicom^dia,'  in  Asia  Minor.     Maxim'  ian  ruled  z^.  maxim'- 
orer  Italy  and  Africa  proper ;  while  his  subordinate  col-        '^• 
league,  Gonstan'  tins,  administered  the  government  of  Gaul,  Spain, 
Britain,  and  Mauritania.     Diocletian  reserved,  for  his  personid  su- 
pervision, nearly  all  the  empire  east  of  the  AdriaV  io,  except  Pann6- 
nia  and  Mo'  sia,  whidi  he  conferred  upon  his  sflbordinate  colleague 
Chlerius.     Eadi  of  the  four  rulers  was  sovereign  within  his  own 
jurisdiction;  but  each  was  prepared  to  assist  his  colleagues  with 
eomisel  and  with  arms;  while  Diocletian  was  regarded  as  the  father 
and  head  of  the  empire. 

25.  The  most  important  events  of  the  reign  of  Diocletian  were 
the  insurrection  of  Carausius  in  Britain,  a  revolt  in  Egypt  and 
throughout  northern  Africa,  the  war  against  the  Persians,  and  a  long- 
eontinued  .persecution  of  the  Christians.  During  seven  years,  CaraiV 
sius,  the  commander  of  the  northern  Roman  fleet,  ruled  over  Britain, 
and  diffused  beyond  the  columns  of  Hercules  the  terror  of  his  name. 
He  was  murdered  by  his  first  minbter  Alec'  tus ;  but  the  latter, 
soon  after,  was  defeated  and  slain  in  battle  by  Constan' tins ;  and 
after  a  separation  of  ten  years,  Britain  was  reunited  with  the  empire. 

26.  The  suppression  of  a  formidable  revolt  in  Egypt  was  accom- 

L  9h«  Coptt  are  Cauirtlans— deaeendAiito  of  the  anotont  Egyptiaoi,  as  diftiagaltfaed  flrom  the 
Anblaiia  and  oOier  Inhabltanta  of  modern  EgypV  llie  AkfsBiniaMs,  Inhabltaals  of  AbyMinla, 
In  CMten  AMca,  proAaa  ChriHiaiiity,  bat  it  haa  imie  tnflaeDee  orer  thetr  conduct. 

«.  XUmiUdia  was  la  BIQiyn'la,  at  tbe  eastern  extremitj  of  tbe  Propon'  tls,  or  Sea  of  Ifar- 
m^bn,  tb«Bndmlir-Jr«<«aQpleeflieilleorttienoleBteliy. 


MODSBV  HI8IO&T.  [PsnlL 

pliahed  bj  Diod^tian  himasl^  who  took  %  ieniUe  yengeaBee  upoD 
AlezAndria,  aod  atterlj  destrojed  the  proad  citieB  of  Bmins  and 
Gop'  to8.*  In  the  meantime  a  oonfederaey  of  fiye  Moorish'  nations 
attacked  all  the  Roman  provinees  of  Africa,  from  the  Nile  westward 
to  Mount  Atlas,  but  the  barbarians  were  vanquished  bj  the  arms  of 
Maxim'  ian. 

27.  Next  commenced  the  war  with  Persia,  which  waa  carried  on 
by  Galerius,  although  Diocletian,  taking  his  station  at  An'  tiooh,"  pre- 
pared and  directed  the  military  operations.  In  the  first  campaign 
the  Roman  army  received  a  total  overthrow  on  the  very  ground 
rendered  memorable  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  Craaaos.  In  a  second 
campaign  Galerius  gained  a  complete  victory  by  a  night  attack ;  and 
by  the  peace  which  followed,  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Roman 
world  was  extended  beyond  the  Tigris,  ao  as  to  embrace  the  greater 
part  of  Carduchia,  the  modem  Kurdistan'/ 

28.  The  triumphs  of  Diocletian  are  sullied  by  a  general  pme- 
cntion  of  the  Christians  (the  tenth  and  last),  which  he  is  said  to 
have  commenced  at  the  instigation  of  Ghil^rius,  aided  by  the  artifices 
of  the  priesthood.  (A.  D.  303.)  The  famous  edict  of  Diod^tian 
-against  the  Christians  excluded  them  from  all  offices,  ordered  their 
churches  to  be  pulled  down,  and  their  sacred  books  to  be  burned,  and 
led  to  a  general  aoMndiscriminate  massacre  of  all  such  as  professed 
the  name  of  Jesus. 

L  Poor  dUet  or  Egypt  bore  ttaeiuuna  of  S««<rt».  TIm  one  deiiroTed  bj  DtocMtiiB  «*•  to 
the  Thebiiia,  or  soothem  Egypt,— geoerally  celled  Upper  EgypL  Cap'  Us  wee  Ukewlte  is 
Upper  E^pt,  eeet  of  the  Nile.  Its  Ikvoreble  eitaetlon  tor  ooaunerae  eeoeed  H  egain  to  eriie 
aAer  its  deetniction  by  Dioel^Uan. 

S.  The  Moor*,  whose  name  Is  derived  fifom  a  Greek  word  (JHevrM)  eignMyiiig  ''dark,''  *'ob- 
•cure,"  are  nellves  of  the  northern  coast  of  AfHea,  or,  more  properly,  of  the  Roman  Jfoar** 
UnU.  The  Moon  were  originaUy  fkom  Aala,  awl  are  a  people  dietinet  fton  the  mUtf  Arsh^ 
Berbera,  ice.  The  modem  Moors  are  dttoendants  of  the  ancient  Mauritinians,  intennUed 
with  their  Arab  conquerors,  and  with  the  remains  of  the  Van'  dais  who  once  itiled  over  the 
eountry. 

3.  A»'  tioek,  onoe  eminent  for  its  beauty  and  greatneas,  waa  situated  In  northern  Syria»  en 
the  Icfl  bank  of  the  Oron'  tee,  (now  the  Aasxy,)  twenty  miles  fh>m  Its  entrance  Into  the  Medi- 
terranean. An'tioch  waa  the  capital  of  Uie  Maoed6nlan  kingdom  of  Qyria;  and  about  the 
year  65  B.  C  the  conquests  of  Pompey  brought  it,  with  the  whole  of  Syria,  under  the  control 
of  the  Romans.  It  was  long  the  centre  of  an  extensive  commerce,  Uie  residence  of  the  gov^ 
emor  of  Syria,  the  frequent  resort  of  the  Roman  emperors,  and,  next  to  Rome,  Ihe  most  eele* 
brated  city  of  ibe  empire  for  the  amusemenu  of  the  circus  and  the  theatre.  Paul  and  Baniabsa 
planted  there  the  doclriues  of  Christianity;  and  **the  disciples  were  called  Christians  Ibvt  In 
An'  tioch."-.Acta,  xi.  20.    (Jlf^^  No.  VIL) 

4.  Kurdutnn\  comprised  chiefly  within  the  basin  of  the  Tigris,  IsoUimed  partly  by  Tarfcer 
and  parily  by  Persia.  It  is  the  country  of  ihe  Kurds,  in  whoae  character  the  love  of  theft  and 
brigandage  is  a  marked  feature ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  when  visited  by  traveHers  they  eierdM 
Uie  moat  generoua  hoapitalUy,  and  oOeii  Ibroe  handaooM  preaaDta  on  their  d^Mitiflg  foeA 


Oiup.I]  ROMAir  HISTORY.         ^  223 

29.  Daring  ten  years  the  persecation  ooniiniied  with  Boaroely  miti- 
gated horrors  ^  and  such  mnltitades  of  Ohristums  soffMred  death  that 
at  last  the  imperial  murderers  boasted  that  tfaey4tad  extbgoished 
the  Christian  name  and  religion,  and  restored  the  worship  of  the 
gods  to  its  former  parity  and  splendor.  In  spite,  howeyer,  of  the 
efforts  of  tyranny,  the  Christian  Chorch  sorvived,  and  in  a  few  years 
reigned  triumphant  in  the  very  metropolis  of  heathen  idolatry. 

30.  After  a  reign  of  twenty  years^  Diocletian,  in  the  presenoe  of 
a  large  conoourse  of  citizens  and  soldiers  who  had  assembled  at* 
Nicom^dia  to  witness  the  spectacle,  voluntarily  laid  down  the  sceptre, 
and  retired  to  private  life ;  and  on  the  same  day  Maxim'  ian,  accord- 
ing  to  previous  agreement,  performed  a  similar  ceremony 

at  Milan.     (May  Ist,  305.)     Gal^rius  and  Constan'  tins    uni  akd 
were  thereupon  acknowledged  sovereigns ;  and  two  sub-     oonstan'- 
ordinates,  or  Caesars,  were  appointed  to  complete  the 
system  of  imperial  government  which  Diocletian  had  established. 
But  this  balance-of-power  system  needed  the  firm  and  dexterous 
hand  of  its  founder  to  sustain  it ;  and  the  abdication  of  DiocUtiaa 
was  followed  by  eighteen  years  of  discord  and  confusion. 

31.  One  year  after  the  abdication  of  the  sovereigns,  Constan'tioa 
died  at  York,  in  Britain,  when  his  soldiers  proclaimed  his  eon  Con'- 
stanUne  emperor.  In  a  short  time  the  empire  was  divid-  yrrr  oom'- 
ed  between  six  sovereignfr;  but  Con'stantine  lived  to  arAaiTuiK. 
see  them  destroyed  in  various  ways ;  and,  eighteen  years  after  his 
accession,  having  overcome  in  batUe  Licin'  ius,  the  last  of  his  rivals, 
he  was  thus  left  sole  master  of  the  Roman  world,  whose  dominions 
extended  from  the  wall  of  Scotland  to  Kurdistan',  and  from  the  Bed 
Sea  to  Mount  Atlas  in  Africa.  Oal^rius  had  already  died  of  a 
lo^hsome  disease,  which  was  considered  by  many  as  a  punishment  from 
Heaven  for  his  persecution  of  the  Christians. 

32.  Con'  stantine  has  been  styled  the  first  Christian  emperor. 
Daring  one  of  his  campaigns  (A.  D.  312)  he  is  said  to  have  seen  a 
miraculous  vision  of  a  luminous  cross  in  the  Heavens,  on  which  was 
inscribed  the  following  words  in  Greek,  "  By  this  conquerP  Certain 
it  is  that  from  this  period  Con'  stantine  showed  the  Christians  marks 
of  positive  favor,  and  caused  the  cross  to  be  employed  as  the  imperial 
standard :  in  his  last  battle  with  Licin'  ius  it  was  the  emblem  of  the 
cross  that  was  opposed  to  the  symbols  of  paganism ;  and  as  the  latter 
went  down  in  a  night  of  blood,  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  the 
Boman  world  was  deemed  complete. 


224  MOBERK  HIBTORT.  [PjstU 

33.  The  most  Importuit  events  in  the  feign  of  Oon'  stantine,  after 
he  had  restored  the  outward  unity  of  the  empire,  were  bis  wars  with 
the  Sarmitians  and  Goths,  whom  he  severely  chastised  ;^hi8  domestic 
difficulties,  in  which  he  showed  little  of  the  character  of  a  Christian ;  . 
and  the  establishment,  at  Byzan'  tium,  of  the  new  capital  of  the  Ro- 
man empire;  afterwards  called  Constantinople,  from  its  founder. 
The  motives  which  led  Con'  stantine  to  the  choice  of  a  new  capital, 
on  a  spot  which  seemed  formed  by  nature  to  be  the  metropolis  of  a 
great  empire,  were  those  of  policy  and  interest^  mingled  with  feel- 
ings of  revenge  for  insults  which  he  had  received  at  Rome,  where 
he  was  execrated  for  abandoning  the  religion  of  his  forefathers. 

34.  The  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  waa  follovred  by  an 
entire  change  in  the  forms  of  civil  and  military  administration.  The 
military  despotism  of  the  former  emperors  now  gave  place  to  the 
despotism  of  a  court,  surrounded  by  all  the  forms  and  ceremonies, 
the  pride,  pomp,  and  circumstances,  of  Eastern  greatness :  all  mag- 
istrates were  accurately  divided  into  new  classes,  and  a  uniform  sys- 
tem of  taxation  was  established,  although  the  amount  of  tribute  was 
imposed  by  the  absolute  authority  of  the  monarch.  Finally  Con^- 
Btantine,  as  he  approached  the  end  of  his  life,  went  back  to  the  sys- 
tem of  Diocletian,  and  divided  the  empire  among  his  three  sons 
Con' stantine,  Constan' tins,  and  Con'stans,  and  his  two  nephews, 
Dalmatius  and  Hannibalianus.  After  a  reign  of  thirty-one  ye^rs 
Con'  stantine  the  First  died  at  Nioom6dia,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three 
years.     (A.  D.  337.) 

35.  The  division  of  sovereign  power  among  so  many  rulers  in- 
volved the  empire  in  frequent  insurrections  and  civil  wars,  until, 

xxTiT.  oo!<-  sixteen  years  from  the  death  of  Con'  stantine,  Constan  • 
btaw'tios  u.  tins,  or  Constan'  tins  II.,  after  having  seen  all  his  ri«rf» 
overcome,  and  several  usurpers  vanquished,  was  left  in  the  sole  pos- 
session of  the  empire.  During  his  reign  of  twenty-four  years  h« 
was  engaged  in  frequent  wars  with  the  Franks,  Saxons,*  Aleman'  ni, 
and  Sarmitians,  while  the  Persians  continued  to  harass  the  Eastern 

1.  The  SAx«ns  were  a  people  of  Germany,  whose  origliial  seats  appear  to  haTe  been  on  Ih* 
neok  of  the  Cimbric  peninsula,  (now  Denmark,)  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Baltic,  and  embrs^ 
log  the  present  Slevnrick  and  Uolsteln.  (&Up  No.  XVH.)  Jhe  eailjr  Saxons  were  a  nation  or 
flahemien  and  pirates ;  and  it  appears  that  attor  they  had  extended  their  depredaUons  to  the 
coasts  of  Britain  and  eastern  and  southern  Gaul,  numerous  auxiliaries  from  the  shores  of  ^ 
BalUc  Joined  them,  and,  gtadually  coalescing  with  them  into  a  aaUooal  body,  accepted  the  nsfl« 
and  tbo  laws  of  the  Saxons.  In  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  oontary,  the  Saxons  were  convertea 
to  Christianity  by  the  Roman  missionaries ;  and  half  a  century  later  they  had  obtained  a  p(*- 
t  establishment  in  Britaio. 


0BAP.I]*  ROMAN  HISTORY.  ^  225 

proTineea  While  Oonstan'  tins  was  Bustaming  a  doubtful  war  in 
the  East,  his  eousiii  Jtlilian,  whom  he  had  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Western  provinces,  with  the  title  of  Gieear,  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  his  victorious  legions  in  GauL  Preparations  for  civil 
war  were  made  on  both  sides ;  but  the  Roman  world  was  saved  from 
the  calamities  of  the  struggle  by  the  sudden  death  of  Constau'  tins. 
(A.  D.  361.) 

36.  J\ilian,  commonly  called  the  Apostate,  on  aeoount  of  his  relaps- 
ing from  Christianity  into  paganism,  possessed  many  ami-       ^^ 
able  and  shining  qualities,  and  his  application  to  business  jv'  uan  tbb 
was  intense.     He  reformed  numerous  abuses  of  his  prede-    ^'^^^'^^ 
oessor,  but,  in  the  great  object  of  his  ambitiop,  the  restoration  of 
ancient  paganism,  Although  he  had  issued  an  edict  of  universal  toler- 
ation, he  showed  a  marked  hostility  to  the  Christians,  subjecting 
them  to  many  disabilities  and  humiliations,  and  allowing  their  ene- 
mies to  treat  them  with  excessive  rigor. 

37.  Trained  in  the  most  celebrated  schools  of  Greciai^  philosophy  at 
Athfflis,  Jt\lian  was  an  able  writer  and  an  artful  sophist,  and,  employ- 
ing the  weapons  of  argument  and  ridicule  against  the  Christians,  ho 
strenuously  labored  to  degrade  Christianity,  and  bring  contempt  upon 
its  followers.  In  this  effort  he  was  parj;ially  suooeesfnl;  but  ere 
long  the  sophisms  of  the  '*  apostate  emperor"  were  ably  refuted  by 
St  Cyril  and  others,  and  the  result  of  the  controversy  was  highly 
favorable  to  the  increase  and  spread  of  the  new  religion. 

39.  Not  relying  upon  the  weapons  of  argument  and  ridicule  alone, 
Jt^lian  aimed  what  he  thought  would  be  a  deadly  blow  to  Christi- 
anity, by  ordering  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  to  be  rebuilt,  hoping 
thus  to  ftlsify  the  language  of  prophecy  and  the  truth  of  Revela- 
tion. But  although  the  Jews  were  invited  from  all  the  provinces  of 
the  empire  to  assemble  once  more  on  the  holy  mountain  of  their 
fiitfaers,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  secure  the  success  of  the  under- 
taking, both  by  the  emperor  and  the  Jews  themselves,  the  work  did 
not  prosper,  and  was  finally  abandoned  in  despair. 

39.  Most  writers,  both '  Christians  and  pagans,  declare  that  the 
work  was  frustrated  in  consequence  of  balls  of  fire  that  burst  from 
the  earth  and  alarmed  the  workmen  who  were  employed  in  digging 
the  foundations.  Whether  these  phenomena,  so  gravely  and  abun- 
dantly attested,  were  supernatural  or  otherwise,  does  not  affect  the 
authenticity  of  the  prophecy  that  pronounced  desolation  upon  Jen;- 
salem.     The  most  powerful  monarch  of  the  earth,  stimulated  by 

15 


226  lommv  msrcMiT.  [Pmii 


prid«,  pa»ion  and  interest,  and  aided  hj  a  Maln^t  people^  i 

ed  to  erect  a  building  in  one  of  his  citieB,  but  fiMmd  all  liis  efiirts 

ram,  because  '^  the  finger  of  God  was  there."'  ^ 

40.  During  the  same  year  in  which  Jnlian  altwpted  the  rs- 
bnildbg  of  the  temple,  he  set  oat  with  a  large  army  for  the  con- 
quest of  Persia^  The  Persian  monardi  made  oi^eitttrea  of  peaoi 
through  his  ambassadors ;  bat  Julian  dismissed  them  with  the  decla- 
ration that  he  intended  speedOj  to  yisit  the  court  of  Persia.  He 
marched  with  great  rapidity  into  the  heart  of  the  ooontry,  overcom* 
ing  all  obstacles,  bat  being  led  astray  in  the  desert  by  treaeheroos 
gaides,  his  army  was  redoced  to  great  distress  by  want  of  provisiom^ 
and  he  was  forced  to  oommenoe  a  retreat  At  length  Jdlian  fcitnaalf^ 
in  a  skirmish  which  proved  &Torable  to  the  KoriianSy  was  mortally 
woonded  by  a  Persian  jayelin.  He  died  the  same  night,  qpending 
his  last  moments,  like  Socrates,  in  philosophical  disooorse  with  his 
friends.     (A.  D.  363.) 

41.  In  the  death  of  JiUian,  the  race  of  the  great  Con'  stantine  was 
extinct ;  and  the  empire  was  left  without  a  master  and  without  an 

zxT.  heir.  In  this  situation  of  affiura,  Jovian,  who  had  held 
icfyiMt.  Bome  important  offices  under  Con' stantine,  was  pro* 
daimed  emperor  by  the  army,  whidi  was  still  surrounded  by  the 
Persian  hosts.  The  first  care  of  J6Tian  was  to.  conclude  a  dishono^ 
able  peace,  by  which  five  provinces  beyond  the  Tigris,  the  whole  of 
Mesopatamia,  and  several  fortified  cities  in  other  districts,  weve  sur- 
rendered to  the  Persians.  On  his  arrival  at  An'  tioch,  J6viaii  re- 
voked the  edicts  of  his  predecessor  against  the  Christians.  Soon 
after,  while  on  his  way  to  Constantinople,  he  was  found  dead  in  his 
bed,  having  been  accidentally  sa£focatecl,  as  was  supposed,  by  the 
fum^s  of  burning  charcoal.     (Feb.  A.  D.  364.) 

42.  After  an  interval  of  ten  days,  Valentin'  ian,  the  commander 

of  the  body  guard  at  the  time  of  J6vian'8  death,  wss 
bmtik'  iax    elected  emperor.     One  month  later  he  sssooiated  wit^ 
f^       himself,  as  a  colleague  in  the  empire,  his  brother  Y  ^ilen<i 
upon  whom  he  conferred  the  government  of  the  Eastern 


Va'  LE>-8. 


ft.  The  pfobabie  explanation  of  the  remarkable  IneideDU  atteodins  Ihe  attempt  of  JuUaa  ^ 
rebuild  the  temple,  is,  that  the  ntimeroui  tubtemuiean  excarationa,  reMrvoIra,  kc^  benealb 
and  arouiid  the  ruins  of  the  temple,  which  bad  been  negleeted  during  a  period  of  ihne  hnndred 
yean,  had  become  flUed  with  Inflammable  air,  which,  taking  Are  ftom  the  torches  of  Ihe  woifc- 
men,  repelled,  by  terrific  expln«lon%  those  who  attempted  to  explore  the  mine.  fVom  a  aim'' 
lar  cause  terrible  accidents  sometimes  occur  In  deeply-exeavated  mtnas.— S«s  JMVsm»'«  ^f'^ 
M  Oibhin  ;  OiMm,  roL  U.  p.  4C7. 


0ta4r.I]  BOMAN  HISTORT.  227 

|»OTinces,  from  the  lower  Dannl^e  to  the  oon&ies  of  Persia ;  while 
^e  reserved  for  nimself  the  exleusiye  territory  reaching  from  the 
extremity  of  GreeceL  to  the  wall  of  Scotland,  and  from  the  latter  to 
the  foot  of  Mount  Atlas.  This  was  the  final  division  of  the  Roman 
world  into  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empire.  The  capital  of  tlie 
former  was  established  at  Constantinople,  and  of  the  latter  at  Milan. 
The  eity  of  Rome  had  long  been  fiilling  into  negfect  and  insignifi- 
eanoe. 

43.  Soon  after  the  period  at  which  we  have  now  arrived,  the 
inroads  of  the  barbarian  tribes  upon  the  northern  and      xxvn, 
eastern  frontiers  of  the  empire  became  more  vexatious   barbarian 
and  formidable  than  ever.     The  Picts  and  Scots*  ravaged     ^^^oads. 
Britain ;  the  Saxons  began  their  pirtCbies  in  the  Northern  seas ;  the 
German  tribes  of  the  Aleman'  ni  harassed  Graul ;  and  the  Goths 
crossed  the  Danube  into  Thrace;  but  during  the  twelve  years  of 
Yaientin'  ian's  reign,  his  firquiess  and  vigilance  repulsed  the  barba- 
rians at  every  point,  while  his  genius  directed  and  sustained  the 
feeble  counsels  of  his  brother  Yilens. 

44.  About  the  time  of  the  death  of  Yalentm'  ian,  (A.  D.  375) 
Yalens  was  informed  that  the  power  of  the  Goths,  long  the  enemies 
of  Rome,  had  been  subverted  by  the  Huns,  a  fierce  and  warlike  race 
of  savages,  till  then  unknown,  who  coming  from  the  East,  and  crossing 
the  Bon  and  the  sea  of  Azof,  had  driven  before  them  the  European 
nations  that  dwelt  north  of  the  Danube.  The  Yis'  igoths  first  solicited 
from  the  Roman  government  protection  against  their  ruthless  in- 
vaders; and  a  vast  multitude  of  these  barbarians,  whose  numbers 
amounted  to  near  a  million  of  persons,  of  both  sexes,  and  all  ages, 
were  permitted  to  settle  on  the  waste  lands  of  Thrace. 

45.  In  the  meantime  the  Os'  trogoths,  pressed  forward  by  the  un- 
relenting Huns,  appeared  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  solicited 
the  same  indulgence  that  had  been  shown  to  their  countrymen ;  and 
when  their  request  was  denied  they  crossed  the  stream  with  arms  in 
their  ^nds,  and  established  a  hostile  camp  on  the  territories  of  the 
empire.  The  two  divisions  of  the  Gothic  nation  now  united  their 
foroes  under  their  alke  general  Frit'  igem,  and  raising  the  standard 

1.  Tht  Piett  were  a  0B]ed6iiIaii  raoe,  ftaaed.  for  their  marauding  expeditions  into  the  eoontry 
•onlh  of  tbem.  Tlie  Seats  wece  also  a  Caledonian  race,  who  are  believed  to  have  oome,  origin* 
aOy,  ftom  Spain  into  Inland,  whence  they  paoed  over  into  SeoUand.  The  genuine  descend; 
oiior  the  ancient  Scotch  aito  beUeved  to  be  the  Gals,  or  Hlghlanden,  who  speak  the  Eno 
«r  O^eUo  langiiAge,  which  diifen  biU  Utile  from  the  Irish. 


MODBRir  HSnOET.  [FmU 

of  war  derutated  Thrace,  Mac'  ed<m,  «od  Thes'  walj,  and  eairied 
their  ravages  to  the  very  gates  of  Gonatantinople.  In  a  decisive  battle 
fought  near  Adnan6ple*  the  Romans  were  defeated,  and  Yileos  him* 
■elf  was  slain.     (A.  D.  378.) 

46.  Oritian,  the  son  of  Valentin' iaa,  and  hia  suooeasor  in  the 

Western  empire,  was  already  on  his  march  to  the  aid  of 

eaA'nAV     V41ens,  when  he  heard  the  tidings  of  the  d^eat  and 

AifD        death  of  his  unfortunate  colleague.     Too  weak  to  avenge 

nooDo  aiTO.  j^.g  ^^^  ^^^  conscious  of  his  inability  to  sustain  alone 

the  sinking  weight  of  the  empire,  he  dtose  as  his  associate  Thted6- 

■ius,  afterwards  called  the  Great,  assigned  to  him  the  government  of 

the  East,  and  then  Tetnmed  to  his  own  provinces.     Theod6sius,  by 

his  prudence,  rather  than  his  valor,  delivered  his  provinces  from  the 

%oourge  of  barbarian  warfare.  *"  The  Ooths,  after  the  death  of  their 

great  leader  Frit'  igem,  were^distracted  by  a  multiplicity  of  counsels « 

and  while  some  of  them,  falling  back  into  their  forests,  carried  their 

eonquests  to  the  unknown  regions  of  the  North,  others  were  allowed 

to  settle  in  Thrace,  Phrygia,  and  Lydia,  where,  in  the  bosom  of  des* 

potism,  they  cherished  their  native  freedom,  manners,  and  language,  and 

lent  to  the  Roman  arms  assistance  at  once  precarions  and  dangerous. 

47.  Five  years  after  the  accession  of  Theodosius,  Gritian  perished 
zxxz.  vAtr  ii^  An  attempt  to  quell  a  revolt  of  Max'  imus,  governor 

■MTiif'  IAN  n.  of  Britain,  who  had  been  joined  by  the  legions  of  Ganl. 
Valentin' ian  II.,  who  succeeded  Gritian,  was  driven  from  Italy  by 
tiie  usurper,  and  forced  to  take  refuge  in  the  court  of  Theod6eiiis; 
but  the  latter,  marching  into  Italy,  defeated  and  slew  Max' imus,  and 
restored  the  royal  exile  to  his  throne.  (A.  B.  388.)  The  murder 
of  Valentin'  ian  by  the  Gaul  Abrogas'  tes,  and  the  revolt  which  1m 
excited,  (A.  D.  392,)  again  called  for  the  interferenoe  of  Theod6sins 
in  the  affairs  of  the  West  His  arms  soon  triumphed  over  all  oppo- 
fttion ;  and  the  whole  empire  again  came,  for  the  last  time,  into  the 

,   hands  of  one  individual     (A.  D.  394.)     Theod6sius  died 

aim  AND  four  months  after  his  victory,  having  previously  bestowea 
aboa'  DIC8.  ^pQQ  ijjg  youngest  son,  Hon6rius,  the  throne  of  Milan,  and. 
upon  the  eldest,  Arcidius,  that  of  Constantinople. 

1.  ^driafOpUj  one  of  Uie  mott  important  dtiet  of  Tbraoe,  itood  on  the  toft  bank  aCfbBti^ 
HelmM,  now  the  JfortlM,  In  one  of  the  rteheet  and  Snest  plaint  of  the  world,  one  hendrad  iBd 
fUnj4wit  mtlet  north-weat  from  Conitantinopta.  li  waa  fomMled  by  and  named  afler  the  en* 
peror  Adrian,  although  in  early  timet  a  amaU  Ibndan  Tillage  eaialed  thera»  called  Utka^^^ 
It  la  now  the  leoond  otty  in  ttae  Tariiiah  emplra^  containing  a  population  of  nol  le«  than  oat 
bnndrtd  Uiouaaod  ioiila.    (Map  JHo,  VU.) 


CtaAtkl]  BOMAN  HIBTOItY.  229 

48.  Tbe  oi^il  ware  Aat  followed  the  aceemion  of  the  new  empe- 
ror were  booo  mtemipted  by  the  more  important  events  of  new  bar- 
b«rian  myasiona.     Soaroely  had  Theodosins  expired,  when  the  Gothic 
Bation,  guided  by  the  bold  and  artful  genius  of  Al'ario,  ^^^  j^^,^ 
who  had  learned  his  lessons  of  war  in  the  school  of     uo  tbs 
Frit'  igem,  was  again  in  arms.     After  nearly  all  Greece      *^"' 
had  been  ravaged  by  the  invader,  StiVioho,  the  able  general  of 
HoD6riaB,  came  to  its  assistance ;  but  Al'  aric  evaded  him  by  passing 
into  EpiruB,  and  socm  after,  crossing  the  Julian  Alps,'  advanced 
toward  Milan.     (A.  t).  403.) 

49.  Hon6riuB  Ited  from  his  capital,  but  was  overtaken  by  the 
•peed  of  the  Gt>thic  cavalry,  and  obliged  to  shut  himself  up  in  the 
little  fortified  town  of  As'  ta,'  where  he  was  soon  surrounded  and 
besieged  by  the  enemy.  Stil'  icho  hastened  to  the  relief  of  his  sov- 
ereign, and  suddenly  fitHing  upon  the  Goths  in  their  camp  at  Pollen'- 
tia,*  routed  them  with  great  slaughter,  released  many  thousand  prison^ 
era,  retook  the  magnificent  spoils  of  Corinth,  Athens,  Argos,  and 
Sparta;  and  made  captive  the  wife  of  Al'aric.  The  Gothic  chief, 
undaunted  by  this  sudden  reverse,  hastily  collected  his  shattered 
army,  and  breaking  through  the  unguarded  passes  of  the  Apennines, 
spread  desolation  nearly  to  the  walls  of  Rome.  The  city  was  saved 
by  the  diligence  of  Stil'  icho  ;  but  the  withdrawal  of  the  barbarians 
from  Italy  was  purchased  by  a  large  ransom. 

50.  The  reoent  danger  to  which  Hon6riu8  had  been  exposed  at 
Milan,  induced  the  unwarlike  emperor  to  seek  a  more  secure  retreat 
in  the  fortress  of  Raven'  na,*  which,  from  this  time  to  the  middle  of 

1.  AogiMiiB  dlTlded  the  Alpine  chain,  which  extends  fh>m  the  GuIfofQenoft  to  the  Adriat'- 
le,  ts  a  creacent  form.  Into  seren  portions ;  of  which  the  Julian  range,  terminating  in  Illyr"- 
ieom.  Is  the  moet  eaateni. 

9L  ^t'ta  (now  Atti)  was  on  the  north  ride  of  the  river  Taniraa,  (now  TVmAro)  in  Lig<iriai 
twenty-eight  mllee  aonth-east  from  Turin.  ' 

3.  **  Tbe  Toettges  of  PMen'  tia  are  twenty4lTe  miles  to  the  sooth-oast  of  Turin.**  (Oibbtn,  It 
S91.)  <*The  inodem  Tillage  of  PMtniA  stands  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.**— OaiMr*s 
/coif,  L  88. 

4.  Ra.v€%*nik  was  sttoated  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriat'  ic,  a  short  distance  below  the  mouths 
of  flie  Po.  A  *.thongh  originally  founded  on  the  sea-diore,  in  the  midst  of  marshes,  In  the  dayt 
of  Strsbo  th«  marshes  had  greatly  increased,'  seaward,  owing  to  tbe  accumulation  of  mud 
hvongfat  dowi  by  ttie  Po  and  other  rivers.  In  the  latter  limes  of  the  republic  it  was  the  great 
MTal  station  of  the  Romans  on  the  Adriat'  ie.  Augustus  constructed  a  new  hari)or  three  miles 
Ihym  the  old  town,  but  In  ooTery  long  time  this  was  filled  up  also,  and,  **  ss  eariy  as  the  fifth  or 
rixth  eeotnry  of  the  Christian  era,  the  port  of  Augustus  was  eonverted  into  pleasant  gardens; 
and  a  lonely  grove  of  pines  coversd  the  ground  where  the  Roman  fleet  once  rode  at  anchor.* 
iOiHvfk,  U.  »4.)  But  this  very  eircumstanee,  though  H  lessened  the  naval  importance,  in- 
ereised  the  strength  of  the  place,  and  the  shallowness  of  the  water  was  a  barrier  against  large 
ships  of  the  «oems .   The  only  meana  ef  aooe«  Inland  was  by  a  long'  and  hutdw  oauseway 


ssa  MODXBN  manroRx:  [Paitil 

the  eighth  oentarj;  waa  oonsidered  as  the  seat  of  gOTemmaDt  and  the 
capital  of  Italy.  The  fears  of  Hon^rins  were  not  without  Comida> 
tion ;  for  scarcely  had  Al'  aric  departed;  whea  another  deluge  of  bar- 
i>arian%  consisting  of  Vandals,'  Suevi,'  Borgnn'  dians/  Gbths,  and 
Alani,  and  numbering  not  less  than  two  hundred  thousand  fighting 
men,  under  the  command  of  Radagiisus,  poured  down  upon  Italy. 

51.  The  Roman  troops  were  now  called  in  from  the  proyinces  for 
the  defence  of  Italy,  whose  safety  was  again  intrusted  to  the  counsels 
and  the  sword  of  Stil'  icho.  The  barbarians  passed,  without  resist- 
ance, the  Alps,  the  Po,  and  the  Apennines,  and  were  allowed  by  the 
wary  Stil'  icho  to  lay  siege  to  Florence,*  when,  securing  all  the  passes, 
he  in  turn  blockaded  the  besiegers,  who,  gradually  wasted  by  famine, 
were  finally  compelled  to  surrender  at' discretion.  (A.  D.  406.)  The 
triumph  of  the  Roman  arms  was  disgraced  by  the  execution  of 
Ritiagaisus ;  and  one-third  of  the  vast  host  that'had  aooompanied 
him  into  Italy  were  sold  as  slavea 

Mranl  mlln  In  extant,  over  an  otharwiae  impaaiable  moraai ;  and  thla  nTwraa  might  ba  tuSit 
guarded  or  destroyed  on  the  approach  of  a  hostile  army.  Being  otherwiae  fortified,  it  waa  a 
plaoa  of  great  atrength  and  safety ;  and  daring  the  last  yean  of  the  Weatem  empire  was  the 
c^iltal  of  Italy,  and  snooeaalTely  the  resklenoe  o(  Uondrtua,  Valentin'  Ian,  Odo4oer,  Iheod'  ork, 
and  the  aucoeedlng  Gothic  monarcha.  It  is  now  a  place  of  about  sixteen  thonaand  inhabitant^ 
and  ia  chiefly  deserving  of  notice  (br  its  numerona  architectural  ranains.    (Mmp  No.  Vin.) 

L  r«n'4«te,aeep.S10. 

SL  The  Suivi  were  a  people  of  eastern  Germany  who  Anally  settled  In  and  gare  their  name 
to  the  modem  Su^ia. 

3.  Ibe  Bmynn'^MNu— dwellers  in  hirfB  or  towna— a  name  giTcn  lo  them  by  the  mors 
notnade  tribes  of  Germany,  were  a  numerous  and  warlike  people  of  the  Gothic  or  Vas'  dal 
race,  who  can  be  traced  back  to  the  banks  of  (he  Elbe.  DriTen  southward  by  the  Gep'i<to> 
ihey  preaaed  upon  the  Aleman'  ni,  with  whom  they  were  in  almoat  continual  war.  Hmt  ^^^ 
granted  by  HonOrius,  the  Eoman  emperor,  the  territory  extending  from  the  I^ke  of  Geneva  to 
the  Junction  of  the  Rhine  with  the  MoeeUe,  as  a  reward  for  having  aent  him  the  head  of  the 
nauiper  Jovlnus.  A  part  of  Switzerland  and  a  large  portion  of  eastern  France  l>ek>nged  to 
their  new  kingdom,  which,  as  early  aa  the  year  470,  was  known  by  the  name  of  Buiguody- 
Their  seat  of  government  was  sometimes  at  Lyons,  and  sometimes  at  Geneva.  OonliDUsIly 
endeavoring  to  extend  their  limits,  they  were  at  last  completely  subdued,  in  a  war  wiUi  the 
Franks,  by  the  son  of  Qovia,  after  aovia  himaelf  had  taken  Lyona.  Their  name  was  ibr  a 
long  time  retained  by  the  powerAil  dukedom,  aOcrwarda  province  of  Buigundy,  now  dirided 
Into  several  departmentt, 

4.  rurmctf  (anciently  FhrnUia;)  la  a  cUy  of  central  Italy  on  the  river  Amo,  (andenOy  Ammi) 
ood  hundred  and  eighty-seven  miles  norih-weat  (torn  Rome.  It  owes  its  first  distinction  to  9yll>» 
who  planted  In  It  a  Roman  colony.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  it  waa  one  of  the  principal  dtfes  of 
Italy.  In  541  it  was  almoat  wholly  deatroyed  by  Totiia,  king  of  Uie  Gotha,  but  was  restored  bf 
Charlemagne,  aAer  which  it  was,  for  a  long  time,  the  chief  city  of  one  of  the  moat  fiunous  of  tiia 
Italian  republics.  It  Is  now  Uie  capital  of  the  grand-docby  of  TWcaaf  ,  which  comprises  ih* 
northern  part  of  ancient  Etrdria.  With  a  population  of  one  hundred  thousand.  It  bears  the 
aspect  of  a  city  filled  wiUi  noblea  and  their  domesUce— a  city  of  bridges,  churches,  and  palace^ 
It  haa  produced  more  celebrated  men  tiuin  any  other  city  of  Italy,  or  perhaps  of  ^^"^^ 
among  whom  may  be  specified  Dan'  te,  Petrarch,  Bocc&cio,  Lorenzo  de  Medid,  ^'^^^ 
Mlchml  An'  gelo^  MacchiavoUi,— the  Popes  Leo  X  an4  2LU  and  Clement  VII,  VUI^  tad  Xll. 


Obat.!]  ROHAN  HISTOBT.  .231 

52.  Two  years  after  the  great  victory  of  StU'icho,  that  minister, 
wheee  genius  might  have  delayed  the  fall  of  the  empire,  was  treach- 
erously murdered  by  the  orders  of  the  jealous  and  unworthy  Hon6- 
riu&  The  monarch  had  soon  reason  to  repent  of  his  guilty  rashness. 
Adopting  the  counsels  of  his  new  ministers,  he  ordered  a  massacre  of 
tiie  families  of  the  barbarians  throughout  Italy.  Thirty  thousand 
Gothic  soldiers  in  the  Roman  pay  immediately  revolted,  and  invited 
Al'aric  to  avenge  the  slaughter  of  his  countrymen. 

53.  Again  Al'arie  entered  Italy,  and  without  attempting  the 
liopeless  siege  of  Eaven'  na  marched  direct  to  Bome,  which,  during 
a  period  of  more  than  six  hundred  years,  had  not  been  violated  by 
the  presence  of  a  foreign  enemy.  After  the  si^  had  been  protracted 
until  the  rigors  of  fuuine  had  been  experienced  in  all  their  hc^rror, 
and  thousands  were  djring  daily  in  their  houses  or  in  the  streets  for  want 
of  sustenance,  the  Romans  sought  to  purchase  the  withdrawal  of  their 
invaders.  The  terms  of  Al'  aric  were,  at  first,  aU  the  gold  and  silver  in 
ih»  city,  all  the  rich  and  precious  movables,  and  all  this  slaves  of  bar- 
barian origin.  When  the  ministers  of  the  senate  asked,  in  a  modest 
md  suppliant  tone,  "  If  such,  0  King,  are  your  demands,  what  do  you 
intend  to  leave  us  ?"     "  Tovn  lives,"  replied  the  haughty  conqueror. 

54.  The  stem  demands  of  Al'  aric  were,  however,  somewhat  re- 
lazed,  and  Rome  was  allowed  to  purchase  a  temporary  safety  by  pay^w 
ing  an  enormous  ransom  of  gold  and  silver  and  merchandize. 
Al'  aric  retired  to  winter  quarters  in  Tuscany,'  but  as  Hon6riu8  and 
Mb  ministers,  enjoying  the  security  of  the  marshes  and  fortifications 
of  Raven'  na,  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty  that  had  been  concluded 
by  the  Romans,  the  Goth  turned  again  upon  Rome,  and,  cutting  off 
the  supplies,  compelled  the  city  to  surrender.  (A  D.  409.)  He 
then  conferred  the  sovereignty  of  the  empire  upon  At'  talus,  prefect 
of  the  city,  but  soon  deposed  him  and  attempted  to  renew  his  nego- 
tiations with  Hon6rius.  The  latter  refiised  to  treat,  when  the  king 
of  the  Goths,  no  longer  dissembling  his  appetite  for  plunder  and  re- 
venge, appeared  a  third  time  before  the  walls  of  Rome ;  treason 
opened  the  gates  to  him,  and  the  city  of  Romulus  was  abandoned, 
to  the  licentious  fury  of  the  tribes  of  Germany  and  Scythia* 

1.  Tiucanf^  tfttr  the  Call  of  the  Western  empire,  soccenfvely  belonged  \o  Che  Ootha  lad 
liOmbarda.  Chailcmagne  added  it  to  his  dominiona,  bat  ander  his  sneoesaors  it  became  in- 
dependent. In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  It  was  dirlded  among  (he  famoos  repab- 
fica  of  Florence,  Piao,  and  Sienna:  in  1531  theao  were  reunited  into  a  dochy  which,  in  1737, 
Ml  bxto  the  honda  of  the  houae  of  Aostrla.  In  1801  Napoloon  erected  It  Into  the  kingdom  of 
nrtete:lttltOSHiraalnooipotBt«lwUhtlie  Franchenpiret  aiidtAlS14itreTer.edlo  Aoatria. 


55.  The  piety  of  tlie  Goths  spared  tlM  dmebes  and  religknu 
hovses,  for  Al'  ario  himself,  sod  numy  of  his  souairymeii,  ptofesiod 
the  name  of  Christtsns ;  hut  Rome  was  pillaged  of  her  wealth,  and 
a  terrihle  slaughter  was  made  of  her  citiaen&  *  Still  Al'  aric  was  im^ 
willing  thai  Rome  should  be  totally  mined ;  and  at  the  end  of  six 
days  he  abandoned  the  city,  and  took  the  road  to  noathen  Italy.  As 
he  was  preparing  to  invade  Sieily,  with  the  niterior  design  of  sobjii> 
gatmg  Africa,  his  oonqnests  were  terminated  by  a  premmtnre  death. 
(A.  D.  410.)  EQs  body  was  interred  in  the  bed  of  a  small  riynlet* 
and  the  captives  who  prepared  his  grave  were  murdered,  that  the 
Romans  might  never  learn  the  plaoe  of  his  sepnltnre. 

56.  After  the  death  of  Al'aric,  the  Goths  gradually  withdrew 
from  Italy,  and,  a  few  years  later,  that  branch  of  the  nation  called 
Vis'  igoths  established  its  supremacy  in  Spain  and  the  east  of  GaoL 
Toward  the  middle  of  the  same  oentory,  the  Britons,  finally  aban- 
doned by  the  Romans,  and  unable  to  resist  the  barbarous  inroads  of 
the  Picts  and  €cots,  applied  for  assistanoe  to  the  Angles'  and  Sazflos, 
warlike  tribes  from  the  coasts^of  the  Baltic.  The  latter,  after  drir 
ing  back  the  Picts  and  Soots,  turned  their  arms  against  the  Britoos, 
and  after  a  long  struggle  finally  established  themselves  in  the  island. 

57.  During  these  events  b  the  north  and  west,  the  Van' dais,  a 
Gothic  tribe  whidi  had  aided  in  the  reduction  of  Spain,  and  whose  nam^ 
with  a  slight  change,  has  been  given  to  the  fertile  province  of  Andalusia, 
passed  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  under  the  guidance  of  their  chief  G^  * 

yy^„       serio,  and,  in  the  course  of  ten  years,  completed,  in  tM 

vAuonn''  Cloture  of  Carthage,  the  conquest  of  the  Roman  pro^' 

*^  ""•     inces  of  northern  Africa.     (A.  D.  439.)     Hondrius  wai 

already  dead,  and  had  been  succeeded  by  Valentin'  ian  III.,  a  yoatn 

j^j^^jjj      only  six  years  of  age.     In  the  meantime  At'  tila,  ivsuj 

ocmQuasm    called  the  '<  soourge  of  Qod  ^'  for  the  ohastisem^t  of 

or  AT'ni.A.  ^^  |j^^  y,^  i„^  become  the  leadw  of  the  BvaaaA' 

hordes.     He  rapidly  extended  his  dominion  over  all  the  tribes  of 

Germany  and  Scythia,  made  war  upon  Persia,  defeated  Theodseicfl) 

1.  Jingitt,    From  tbem  the  English  hare  derirod  thatr  name.  own^ 

&  Andaiiuia^  bo  called  from  the  Fm'  dmlty  oomprieed  the  fovr  BloorMi  kJagdooiB  ^^'^j**^ 
CordoYm,  JteD,  and  GranAda.  It  ta  the  moat  loatheRi  diTlaloii  of  Spain.  Tn^  •^  ^ 
Beaeeaa  were  nativea  of  this  provioGe.    (Jf<y  Mo.  XIII.)  «  ^^^^ 

3.  Ibe  ifaiu,  when  flnt  known,  in  the  cenlory  before  the  Christian  era,  dwelt  on  the  '^'^^'^ 
boiden  of  the  OMplan  sea.    The  power  of  the  Huns  fell  with  At'  tfla,  and  the  nation  wss  0M« 
sAer  dlspened.    The  present  H%ngarUn»  are  descended  from  the  Hans,  IntenBisfll^ 
TmrtEish,  SteTonie,  and  Gennan  races. 

a.  The  B«««»ctfnw,  a  small  stream  thai  waabes  tha  waJla  of  OBOSOilia,  MW  Qssat 


ChuKl]  SOMAN  HISTORY.  S38 

the  emperor  of  &e  East,  in  three  l)loody  battles,  and  after  rayaging 
Thraoe,  Maoeddoia,  and  Greece,  purnied  hie  deeolating  march  west- 
ward into  Gaol,  hat  was  defeated  by  the  Eomans  and  their  Gothic 
aUies  in  the  bloody  batUe  of  Chalons.'  (A.  D.  451.)  The  next 
year  the  Hnns  ponred  like  a  torrent  upon  Italy,  and  spread  thcii* 
imTages  over  all  Lomhardy.  This  visitation  was  the  origin  of  the 
Venetian  republic,"  which  was  founded  by  the  fogitives  who  fled  at 
the  terror  of  the  name  of  At'  tila. 

58.  The  death  of  the  Hunnio  chief  soon  after  this  inroad,  the  ciTil 
wars  among  his  followers,  and  the  final  extinction  of  the  empire  of 
the  Hnns,  might  have  afibrded  the  Romans  an  opportunity  of  esoap- 
mg  frcm  the  ruin  which  impended  oyer  them,  if  they  had  not  been 
lost  to  all  feelings  of  national  honor.  But  they  had  admitted  iiumer- 
ons  bands  of  barbarians  in  their  midst  as  confederates  and  allies; 
and  these,  courted  by  one  faction,  and  opposed  by  another,  became, 
ere  long,  the  actual  rulers  of  iAie  country.  The  provinces  were  pil- 
laged, the  throne  was  shaken,  and  often  overturned  by  seditions ;  and 
two  years  after  the  death  of  At'  tila,  Rome  itself  was  nxiv.  thb 
taken  and  pillaged  by  a  horde  of  Van'  dais  from  Africa,  ▼an'  pals. 
eonducted  by  the  fiunous  Gen'  serio,  who  had  been  invited  across  the 
Mediterranean  to  avenge  the  insults  which  a  Roman  princess^  had 
received  from  her  own  husband.     (A.  D.  455.) 

1.  aUcnt  (flbafa-Ioiig)  is  ■  dtj  of  France,  on  the  river  Mame,  a  branch  of  the  Seine,  nlnety- 
iv«  mOee  eiit  ftom  FBria,  and  twenly-MTen  mile*  aoulh-eaflt  ftom  Rheims.  It  ia  altoated  In 
tbe  mkkUe  of  eztenaiTe  meadows,  which  were  formerly  known  as  the  Oatalaaniaa  flekls, 
(OtMra,  iii.  340.)  In  the  battle  of  Cb&lons  the  nations  from  the  Oaapian  sea  to  the  Atlantic 
ftv^ht  toflrBdier ;  and  the  nomber  of  the  barbarians  slain  lias  been  Tario&ly  estimated  at  from 
cme  handled  and  sixty-two  thousand  to  three  bimdred  thousand.    {M^p  No.  XIIL) 

5L  Tbe  origin  of  Feniee  dates  flrom  Oie  inrasion  of  Italy  by  the  Hans,  A.  D.  453.  The  city  is 
bant  on  a  doater  of  numeroos  small  Islands  in  a  shallow  bat  extenslYe  higoon,  In  the  north- 
vealem  part  of  the  Adriat'  lo,  north  of  the  Po  and  the  Adiga,  abont  four  miles  fh>m  the  nttla 
land.  It  is  dirided  into  two  principal  portions  by  a  wide  canal,  crossed  by  the  principal  bridge 
In  tbe  city,  the  celebrated  Rialto.  Venice  is  traversed  by  narrow  lanes  instead  of  streets,  sel- 
dom more  than  five  or  six  lieet  in  width  1  but  the  grand  thorougUkrea  are  ih»  canals;  and 
gondolaa,  or  canal  boats,  are  the  onivenal  sabstitute  for  carriages. 

VenSee  gmdoally  became  a  wealthy  and  poweriVd  Independent  oommerolal  dty,  maintaining 
tta  fteadom  agsinst  Cbariemagne  and  bis  suoeessors,  and  yielding  a  merely  nominal  allegiaae» 
to  tbe  Greek  emperors  of  Constantinople.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  tbe  n^ 
pabljc  was  mistress  of  several  populous  proTinees  In  Lorn'  bardy,-H>f  Crete  and  (^ma— of  ^ 
Ibegrsaler  part  of  southern  Greece, and  most  of  the  isles  of  the  .£gean  sea;  and  it  contiooed  ' 
to  ei^roas  the  prindpal  trade  in  £astera  pioduota,  tUI  the  discovery  of  a  route  to  India  by  Um 
Ckpe  of  Good-Hope  turned  this  trafflc  into  a  new  channeL  From  this  period  Venice  npmr 
declined.  Stripped  of  independence  and  wealth,  she  now  -jgr  only  a  preearioas  eiistenes^ 
a«l  Is  slowly  sinking  into  tbe  wares  lh>m  which  she  aroae.    (Map  No.  Vm.) 

a.  Badosfla,  llie  widow  of  Valendn'  tan  UI.,  had  tieen'^eompelled  to  marry  Bfax'  tmna,  Um 
vmderavand  successor  In  the  empire^  of  her  Into  liuabund,  and  U  was  she  who  invUed  ttaa 
Van' dal  oUef  to  avenge  h«r  wroi«i. 


284  MODSBV  mSTOET.  [PA»a 

59.  Afler  tha  wididnnral  of  tlM  Ymii'dals,  wkidi  ooooned  the 
jmr  of  Uie  dMlh  of  Yalootiii'  kn  IIL,  At'  Hqs,  a  Gwai,  wu  insUUed 

2^^^^       Emperor  by  the  infliMDoe  of  the  gentle  andhamane 

Aw'ncB.     Theod'onc,  king  of  the  Vis'  igothfl ;  bot  he  was  aoon  de- 

KAjo  UAX.  p^jg^  1^^  j^l^r  ^^^^  ^^  Gothio  commander  of  the  barba* 

,    rian  allies  of  the  Romans.     (A.  D.  456.)     The  wise  and  benefioeot 

Hajorian  was  then  adranoed  to  the  throne  by  Bic'  imer ;  bat  his 

Tirtoes  were  not  appreciated  by  his  subjects ;  and  a  sedition  of  the 

troops  compelled  him  to  lay  down  the  soeptre  alter  a  reign  of  four 

yeara    (A.  D.  461.) 

60.  Ric'  imer  then  advanced  one  of  his  own  creatores,  Serums,  to 
TXTfL      ^^  nominal  sovereignty;  bnt  he  retained  all  the  powm 

n^rAu"-  of  state  in  his  own  hands.  Annnally  the  Yan'  dais  from 
Africa,  having  now  the  control  of  the  Mediterranean,  sent  out  from 
Carthage,  their  seat  of  empire,  piratical  vessels  or  fleets,  which 
Spread  desolation  and  terror  over  the  Italian  coasts,  and  entered  at 
will  nearly  every  port  in  the  Roman  dominions.  At  length  applica- 
tion for  assistance  was  made  to  Leo,  then  sovereign  of  the  Eastern 
empire,  and  a  large  armament  was  sent  from  Constantinople  to  Car 
thage.  But  the  aged  Gen'seric  eluded  the  immediate  danger  by  a 
truce  with  his  enemies,  and,  in  the  obscurity  of  night,  destroyed  by 
y  fire  almost  the  entire  fleet  of  the  unsuspecting  Romans. 

61.  Amid  the  frequent  revolutionary  changes  that  were  occurring 
I                in  the  sovereignty  of  the  Western  empire,*  Roman  freedom  and  dig- 
nity were  lost  in  the  influence  of  the  confederate  barbarians,  who 
formed  both  the  defence  and  the  terror  of  Italy.    As  the  power  of  the 

I  Romans  themselves  declined,  their  barbarian  allies  augmented  their 

I  demands  and  increased  their  insolence,  until  they  finally  insisted 

I  with  arms  in  their  hands,  that  a  third  part  of  the  lands  of  I^J 

I  should  be  divided  among  them.     Under  their  leader  Odoicer,  a  chief 

of  the  barbarian  tribe  of  the  Her'  uli,'  they  overcame  the  little  re- 

1.  or  all  ttia  btrbftriMM  who  thraw  ttiemadTM  on  the  rains  of  the  Romin  empire,  It  if  f^ 
I    .  41flloaIt  to  traee  the  origin  of  the  Her'  a/t.    Their  names,  the  only  remains  of  their  langa«8^ 

an  Gothic ;  and  it  Is  believed  thai  they  came  originally  from  Scandinivla.   They  were  a  flerca 
I  peoplOi  who  disdained  the  use  of  armor :  their  braTery  was  like  madneas :  in  war  they  showed 

no  pity  for  age,  nor  respect  for  sex  or  condition.  Among  themselres  there  was  the  same 
tirodty :  the  side  and  the  aged  were  pot  to  death  at  their  own  request,  daring  a  solemn  festi- 
val ;  and  the  widow  hung  henelf  upon  the  tree  which  shadowed  her  hosband's  tomb.  ^^ 
Her*  ull,  though  bnve  and  fom|^labie,  were  few  in  number,  cfadming  to  be  mostly  of  royal 
blood ;  and  they  soem  not  so  mScb  a  nation,  as  a  confederacy  of  princes  and  nobles,  boand  hf 
an  oath  to  Uve  and  die  togeUier  with  their  arms  in  their  haada.    (0«MoN,iil.8;aiidNote^4BM-) 

a.  Hie  remaining  soTcreigna  of  the  Western  empire,  down  to  the  thne  of  Us  snbrenlOB 
wtn  AathemLu%  Olyb'  fins,  Glyceras,  Ndpos^  and  Aimu**  tad»« 


r 


eup.IJ  ROMAN  HISTOBT.  SdS 

Btstance  that  was  offered  them ;  and  the  conqueror,  abolishing  the  im- 
perial titles  of  Ctesar  and  Augustus,  proclaimed  him« 
ie!f  king  of   Italy.     (A.  D.  476.)     The  Western  em-  ykbsxon  o»  • 
pire  of  the  Romans  was  subverted :  Koman  glory  had   ™'  wnr- 
passed  away :  Roman  liberty  existed  only  in  the  remem- 
hranoe  of  the  past :  the  rude  warriors  of  Germany  and  Scythia  pos- 
sessed the  city  of  Romulus ;  and  a  barbarian  occupied  the  palace  of 
Ae  Csesars. 


^M  MODEBV  mSTORT.  [PivIL 


» 


I  CHAPTER   IL 

i 

HISTORY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES: 

BXTBHDIXO  rmOM  THS  OVKETHIOW  OF  THS  WCBTKEN   KMPIKX   OW  THV  WOOiAM 

I  A.  D.  476,  TO  THB  DuoovntT  or  amkuca,  A.  D.  1492  =  1016  tkai& 

SECTION    I. 

QSMS&AL  mnOST,   VmOM  THE  OYKETHKOW  OF  THB  WISTKftir   WKBIMM  OF  TBM 
EOMAXB*  TO  THS  BXGIIINIMO   OF  THE  TKZfTH  CENTUAT:  =  424  TKAX8. 

ANALYSIS,  h  lirrmoDvcTOBTT  The  period  embraced  In  the  Middle  Ages.-8.  Unfai- 
■tnicUve  character  of  lu  eeriy  hialory.  At  what  period  lis  uflerol  hlstoiy  begine.-^  Extenl 
of  the  bartMiriau  irnipthMM.  The  Eeatem  Roman  empire.  Remainder  of  the  Roman  worid.— 
4.  The  poeeeesioat  of  the  oonqneron  toward  the  doae  of  the  itxth  eentniy.    Tlie  chanfM 

I  -wrought  by  them.    Plan  of  the  preeeat  chapter. 

i  5.  Tna  Monarcbt  or  tbk  Hta'  cli.    Its  orerthrow.— «.  Monabcst  op  th«  Of 'TaotfOTSt. 

Theod'  oric  Treatment  of  hte  Roman  and  barbarian  sabjecta.— 7.  General  prosperity  of  ^^  ^^^ 
Bxtent  of  hla  empire.  The  Os'  trogoth  and  VU'  Igoth  nationa  again  dtfided.— 8.  The  saeeenort 
of  Theod'  oric  The  emperor  of  the  Eaat.  -0.  Thb  »▲  or  JuanR'  ian.  Stale  of  the  kii«don< 
Persian  war.— 10.  Justin'  ian^  armiea.  Absence  of  military  spirit  among  the  people— H-  AP 
rtcaa  war.  First  expediUon  of  Beliairiua,  and  oyertbrow  of  the  kingdom  t>r  the  Van'dslSi 
FMe  of  Gel'  imer.  His  Van'  dal  sabjecta.— 13.  Sicily  subdued.  BellsArius  advances  Into  Italy. 
Besieged  In  Rome.— 13.  The  Gothic  kii«  Vit'iges  surrenders.  Float  redaction  of  Italy  bT 
Kar'  ses.— 14.  Second  war  with  Pwsla.  Barbarian  Inyasion  repeUed  by  BelisArios.  Mourdtil 
Ihte  of  BellsArios.  Death  and  character  of  Justin'  ian.— IS.  His  reign,  why  memorable.  Iti 
brightest  ornament.  Remark  of  Gibbon.  History  of  the  »  Pandects  and  Code."— 16-  Subse- 
quent history  of  the  Eastern  empire.  Invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Lombards.— 17.  Tas  Lo»baV> 
MORAncHT.  Its  extent  and  charseter.— 18.  Period  of  general  repose  throughout  Wea«n 
Europe.  Events  In  the  EasL— 19.  The  darkness  that  rests  upon  European  hLatory  at  Ihi* 
period.    Remark  of  SIsmondi.    The  dawning  light  ftom  Arabia. 

90.  Tbb  Saeacbn  Empirb.  History  of  the  Arabiansr- 91.  Ancient  religion  of  the  Arabs.  Be- 
llgious  toleration  In  Arabia.  [Judaism.  The  Magian  Idolatry.]— 33.  Mahomet  begins  to  preach  a 
new  religion.— 93.  The  decUued  medium  of  divine  communication  with  him.  Declared  origta  ^ 
the  Koran.— 34.  The  materials  of  the  Koran.  Chief  points  of  Moslem  Ikith.  Punishment  of  tM 
wicked.  The  Moslem  paradise.  Eflbcto  of  the  predestinarian  doctrine  of  MahomeU  Practical  pari 
•r  the  new  religion.  Miradce  attributed  to  Blahomet.  [Mecca.]— 85.  Beginning  of  Mabome» 
piwching.  TheHeginu— 96.  Mahomet  at  Medina.  [Medina.]  ProgresBofthe  new  religion  tbroagb 
out  all  Arabia.  [Mussulman.]— 97.  The  apostasy  that  followed  Mahomet's  death.  RestoraUoo  of 
religious  unity.— 9a  Saracen  conquoats  in  Persia  and  Syria.  [Saracens.  Bozrah.]— 3^-  ^^ 
quest  of  all  Syria.  [Ernes'  sa.  Baalbec  Yermouk.  Aleppo.]— 30.  Conquest  of  P&t^  ^ 
expiration  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassan'  Idn.  [Cadisiah.  Review  of  Persian  History. j-^'* 
Conquest  of  Egypt.  DestrocUon  of  the  Alexandrian  library.— 39.  Death  of  Omar.  Oslipb'*' 
of  Othman.— 33.  Military  events  of  the  reign  of  Othman.  [Rhodes.  Tripoli.]  Othman'k  suo* 
ceeaora.  Conquest  of  Carthage,  and  all  northern  AfHca.-34.  Introduction  of  the  Saraceof  ifl<^ 
«paln^-35.  Deisat  of  Roderie,  and  final  conquest  of  Spain.  [GuadalAte.  Guadalqulver.  ll«ri- 
da.]— 30.  Saracen  eneroachmenta  In  Ganl.  Inroad  of  AbdetFahnum.  [Tbid  Fjnat&k]r^'  ^^^^ 


Our.nj  lilDDLlS  AOSB.  88T 

ttaworthsflvMsenlMrtibyGbttleslIaitd.  bBportaneeorflHsTfotorj.  [fom.  PoMta^ 
— «3.  IbeEMteni  SaiaeenB  at  this  period.  [Hfndoetao.]  Termioatlon  of  tiie  civil  power  of 
flie  eentnl  cailptuite.— 39.  The  power  that  next  promlnenUy  occupies  the  fleid  of  history. 

40.  HmuLKcsT  ow  nu  Frakks:  Its  orlgtn.  CToumay.  Osmbray.  Teroiune.  ODlogne.] 
Gtork.  Bxtflofc  of  his  monarchy.  [Soiasons.  Paris.]— 41.  Religious  character  of  Qorls.  Hl« 
terbarlties.— 4S.  The  desoeniants  of  CIotIs.  Royal  murders.  Regents.  Charles  MarteL 
PtaplB,  me  llrat  monarch  of  the  OsrloWnglaa  dynssty.  [Papal  anlhorlty.]— 43.  The  reigii,  and 
fbe  charaetei^  of  Pepin.  His  divtilon  of  the  kiiigdom.-~44.  Firsi  aeU  of  the  velgn  of  caiarl»> 
Biagne.  [The  Loire.]  The  Saxons.  Motives  that  led  Charremagne  to  declare  war  against  them. 
(Tbe  EIhe.}-45.  His  first  lirnpUon  into  their  territory.  [Weaer.]  History  of  Wttikind.  Baxon 
tebdHon.  Changes  produced  by  these  Saxon  wan.— 4&  Oauses  of  the  war  with  the  Lombarda. 
Orerthrow  of  the  Lombard  kingdom.  [Geneva.  Pavia.]— 47.  Charlemagne's  expediUon  into 
8pa±D.^  [Ostaldnia.  '  Pampeluna.  Saragos'  sa.  Roncesralles.] — 48.  Additional  conquests. 
CfaailenegBecrownedemperoratRoiM.—4d.  importance  of  0iis  event.  Qenerai  charaeier  of 
fbe  reign  of  Chariemagne^  [Aix-Ia-Chapelle.]  His  pffvate  lilb.  His  cruelties.  Concluding 
caOmate.— 50.  Causes  that  led  to  (he  division  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne.— 51.  Invasion  of 
the  MocthmeAr--98.  Ravages  of  the  Hongarians.  The  aenoens  on  the  Mediterrftaean  ooaati. 
Cfaaagea,  and  increadng  oonlbsion,  in  European  aociety.    The  island  of  Britain. 

S3.  EaeusH  Histost.  Saxon  conquests.  Saxon  Heptarchy.— 54.  Introduction  and  spread 
«r  ChrMianity.-40.  Union  of  the  Saxon  kingdoms.  Reign  of  Egbert,  and  ravages  of  the 
Korlhaaen^— Ml  The  sneeeaioca  of  Egbert.  Aooeaaion  of  Alfted.  State  of  the  khigdom^-jnr. 
Alfred  withdrawa  from  public  life— lives  as  a  peasant— visits  the  Danish  camp.— 58.  Defeata 
ihe  Denea,  and  overthrows  the  Danish  power.  Defence  of  [he  Idngdom.— 59.  Limited  sov*- 
«nignty  of  Alfred.  Daniih  Invasion  under  Hastli«a.  The  Danes  wHhdraw.  Alfred's  power 
«t  the  time  of  his  death.— «a  Institutions,  character,  and  laws,  of  Alfred. 

1.  The  "Middle  Ages,"  to  which  it  is  impossible  to  fix  aocnrate 
limits,  maj  be  considered  as  embracing  that  datk  and  j^  intbo- 
gloomy  period  of  about  a  thousand  years,  extending  from  wotoby. 
the  fidl  of  the  Western  empire  of  the  Romans  nearly  to  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  at  which  point  we  detect  the  dawn  of  mod- 
em eiYiltzation,  and  enter  upon  the  dearly-marked  outlines  of  modem 
history.* 

2.  The  history  of  Europe  during  seyeral  centuries  after  the  orer- 
tiirow  of  the  Western  Roman  empire  offers  little  real  instruction  to 
repay  the  hibor  of  wading  through  the  intricate  and  bloody  annals 
of  a  barbarous  age.  The  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  had  carried 
away  with  it  ancient  civilization  ;  and  during  many  generations,  the 
elements  of  society  which  had  been  dismptured  by  the  surges  of 
barbarian  power,  continued  to  be  widely  agitated,  like  the  waves  of 
the  ocean,  long  aft«r  the  fufj  of  the  storm  has  passed.  'It  is  only 
when  the  victors  and  the  vanquished,  inhabitants  of  the  s!|me  country, 
had  become  fused  into  one  people,  and  a  new  order  of  things,  new 
bonds  of  society,  and  new  institutions  began  to  be  developed,  that 
the  useful  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  begins. 

8.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  it  was  not  Italy  alone  that  was 

a.  **  The  ten  eontnriea,  from  the  fUlh  to  the  flfieenth,  seam,  in  a  general  point  efTiev,  to  ooD> 
the  paiforl  «r  «M  Middle  il«M^"-iiraflsin. 


MODEBK  HlSnrOBT.  [Pa0IL 

affscted  bj  tlie  tide  of  barbftiiaa  oonqnert ;  but  that  the  Btoim  sproid 
likewise  oyer  Oaul,  Spain,  Britain,  and  Northern  Africa ;  while  the 
feeble  empire  which  had  Constantinople  for  its  centre,  alone  escaped 
the  general  min.  Here  the  majesty  of  Rome  was  still  faintly  rep- 
resented by  the  imaginary  saooessors  of  Augustus,  who  continued 
until  the  time  of  the  g-usades  to  exercise  a  partial  sorereignty 
oyer  the  East,  from  the  Danube  to  the  Nile  and  the  Tigris.  Th^ 
remamder  of  the  Roman  world  exhibited  one  scene  of  general  ruin ; 
for  wherever  the  barbarians  marched  in  successive  hordes,  their 
route  was  marked  with  blood :  cities  and  villages  were  repeatedly 
plundered,  and  often  destroyed ;  fertile  and  populous  provinces  were 
converted  into  deserts ;  and  pestilence  and  famine,  following  in  the 
train  of  war,  completed  the  desolation. 

4.  When  at  length,  toward  the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  the 
frenzy  of  conquest  was  over,  and  a  partial  calm  was  restored,  the 
Saxons,  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  were  found  to  b^  in  possession 
of  the  southern  and  more  fertile  provinces  of  Britain  :  the  Franks 
or  Freemen,  a  confederation  of  Germanic  tribes,  were  masters  of 
Oaul :  the  Huns,  from  the  borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  occupied 
Pann6nia ;  the  Goths  and  the  Lombards,  the  former  originally  from 
northern  Asia,  and  the  latter  of  Scandinavian  origin,  had  established 
themselves  in  Italy  and  the  adjacent  provinces;  and   the  Gothic 
tribes,  after  driving  the  Van'  dais  from  Spain,  had  succeeded  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  peninsula.     A  total  change  had  come  over  the 
state  of  Europe :  scarcely  any  vestiges  of  Roman  civilization  re* 
mained ;  but  new  nations,  new  manners,  new  languages,  and  new 
names  of  countries  were  everywhere  introduced ;  and  n^w  forms  of 
government,  new  institutions,  and  new  laws  began  to  spring  up  out 
of  the  chaos  occasioned  by  the  general  wreck  of  the  nations  of  the 
Roman  world.     In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  pass  rapidly  over 
the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  aiming  only  to  present  the  reader 
such  a  general  outline,  or  framework,  of  its  annals,  as  will  aid  in  the 
search  we  shall  subsequently  make  for  the  seeds  of  order,  snd  the 
first  rudiments  of  policy,  laws,  and  civilization,  of  Modem  Europe. 

5.  After  "Odoicer,  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of  the  Her'uli,  had  con- 
quered Italy,  he  divided  one  third  of  the  ample  estates  of  the  nobles 

u.  TOT  MOW-  *°^^g  ^^^  followers;  but  although  he  retained  the  gov- 
AftcHT  OP    emment  in  his  own  hands,  he  allowed  the  ancient  forms 
THE  HEa'uLL  ^£  administration  to  remain ;  the  senate  continued  to  Bit,  . 
as  usual ;  and  after  seven  years  the  consulship  was  restored ;  whilo 


Obap.II]  MIBBLE  ages.  239 

Bone  of  the  mnni^pal  or  provincial  authorities  were  changed. 
Odoaoer  made  some  attempts  to  restore  agriculture  in  the  provinces ; 
but  still  Italy  presented  a  sad  prospect  of  misery  and  desolation. 
After  a  duration  of  fourteen  years,  the  feeble  monardiy  of  the 
Her'  nil  was  oyerihrown  by  the  Os'  trogoth  king,  Theod'  oric,  who, 
disr^arding  his  plighted  faith,  caused  his  royal  oaptive,  Odo^cer,  to 
be  assassinated  at  the  close  of  a  conciliatory  banquet.     (A.  D.  493.) 

6.  Theod' oric,  the  first  of  the  Os' trogoth  kings  of  Italy,  had 
been  brought  up  as  a  hostage  at  the  court  of  Constantinople.     At 
times  the  friend,  the  ally,  and  the  enemy  of  the  imbecile 
monarehs  of  the  Eastern  empire,  he  restored  peace  to    aeohy  or 
Italy,  and  a  degree  of  prosperity  unusual  under  the  ™*  oe'Tao- 
sway  of  the  barbarian  conquerors.     Like  Odoaeer,  he  in-      ^*'™*- 
dulged  his  Roman  subjects  in  the  retention  of  their  ancient  laws, 
language,  and  magistrates;  and  employed  them  chiefly  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  goyemment ;  while  to  his  rude  Qothic  followers  he 
confided  the  defence  of  the  State ;  and  by  giving  them  lands  which 
they  were  to  hold  on  the  tenure  of  military  service,  he  eudeavored 
to  unite  in  them  the  domestic  habits  of  the  cultivator,  with  the  ex- 
ercises and  discipline  of  the  soldier. 

7.  Theod' oric  encouraged  improvements  in  agriculture,  revived 
tlie  spirit  of  commerce  and  manufactures,  and  greatly  increased  the 
population  of  his  kingdom,  which,  at  the  close  of  his  reign,  embraced 
nearly  a  million  of  the  barbarians,  many  of  whom,  however,  were 
soldiers  of  fortune  and  adventurers  who  had  flocked  from  all  the  sur* 
rounding  barbarous  nations  to  share  the  riches  and  glory  which 
Theod'  oric  had  won.  Theod'  oric  reigned  thirty-three  years ;  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  his  kingdom  occupied  not  o&ly  Sicily  and 
Italy,  but  also  Lower  Ckul,  and  the  old  Roman  provinces  between  ^ 
the  head  of  the  Adriat'  io  and  the  Danube.  If  he  had  had  a  son  to 
whom  he  might  have  transmitted  his  dominions,  his  Gothic  succes- 
sors would  probably  have  had  the  honor  of  restoring  the  empire  of 
the  West ;  but  on  his  death,  (A.  D.  526)  the  two  nations  of  the  Os'- 
trogotlft  and  the  Vis'  igoths  were  again  divided ;  and  the  reign  of 
the  Great  Theod'  oric  passed  like  a  brilliant  meteor,  leaving  no  per- 
manent impression  of  its  glory. 

8.  Seven  Os'  trogoth  kings  succeeded  Theod'  oric  on  the  throne 
of  Italy  during  a  period  of  twenty-seven  years.  Nearly  all  met 
with  a  violent  death,  and  were  constantly  engaged  in  a  war  witlf 
Jfustin'  ian,  emperor  of  the  East,  who  finally  soooeeded  in  reducing 


240  uomaus  hbiwt.  [PiMa 

lUlj  under  his  domiiiioB.  The  rei|;ii  of  thii  moiMTOh  m  ths  mort 
brillmnt  period  in  the  history  of  the  Eastern  empire;  and  u  it  M- 
lows  immediately  after  the  career  of  Theod'oric  in  the  West,  and 
embraces  all  that  is  interesting  in  the  history  of  the  period  which  k 
occupies,  we  pass  here  to  a  brief  survey  of  its  annals. 

9.  The  year  after  the  death  of  Theod'  oric,  Justin'  ian  succeeded 
^  ^^^  his  uncle  Justin  on  the  throne  of  the  Eastern  empire. 
SKA  c9     His  reign  is  often  alluded  to  in  history  as  the  '^  Era  of 

jimui'uy.  Jos'tijuan."  On  his  accession  he  found  the  kingdom 
torn  by  domestic  factions ;  hordes  of  barbarians  menaced  the  fron- 
tiers, and  often  adranced  from  the  Danube  three  hundred  miles  into 
the  country ;  and  daring  the  first  five  years  of  his  reign  he  waged  an 
ezpeDsive  and  unprofitable  war  with  the  Persians.  The  conclusion 
of  this  war,  by  the  purchase  of  a  peace  at  a  costly  price,  enabled 
Justin'  ian,  who  was  extremely  ambitious  of  military  fame,  to  tarn  his 
arms  to  the  conquest  of  distant  provinces. 

10.  Justin'  ian  never  led  his  armies  in  person ;  and  his  troops  oon* 
sistod  chi^y  of  barbarian  mercenaries — Scythians,  Persians,  Her'  uli, 
Van'  dais,  and  Ooths,  and  a  small  number  of  Thracians :  the  ei^ai 
of  the  empire  had  long  been  forbidden,  under  preceding  emperors, 
to  carry  arms,— «  sin^'t-sighted  policy  which  Justin'  iaa^s  timidity 
and  jealousy  led  him  to  adopt :  and  so  little,  of  military  i^irit  re- 
mained among  the  people,  that  they  were  not  only  incapable  of  fight- 
ing in  the  open  field,  but  formed  a  very  inadequate  defence  for  tbe 
ramparts  of  their  cities.  Under  these  ciroumstancesy  with  bat  a 
small  body  of  regular  troops,  and  without  an  active  militia  from 
which  to  recruit  his  armies,  the  military  successes  of  Jastin'  ian  are 
among  the  diffcult  problems  of  the  age. 

1 1.  Africa,  still  ruled  by  the  Van'  dais,  first  attracted  the  military 
ambition  of  Justin'  ian,  althou^  his  designs  of  concftiest  were  con* 
oealed  under  the  pretence  of  restoring  to  the  Van'  dal  throne  its 
legitimate  successor,  of  the  race  of  the  renowned  Gen'  seric  I^^ 
first  expedition,  Ubder  the  command  of  Belis&rius,  the  greatest  gen- 
eral of  his  age,  numbering  only  ten  thousand  foot  soldiers  and  fi^^ 
thousand  horsemen,  landed,  in  September  533,  about  five  days'  jour- 
ney to  the  south  of  Carthage.  The  Afrricans,  who  were  A^ill  called 
Jiomans,  long  oppressed  by  their  Van'  dal  conquerors,  hailed  BeUsi- 
ritts  as  a  deliverer;  and  Gel'  imer,  the  Van'  dal  king,  who  ruled  o^*' 

%ight  or  nine  millions  of  subjects,  and  who  could  muster  eigbty  tbou' 


OoAP.ILl  MIDDLE  AGES.  '  241 

■and  warriors^  of  Ufl  own  nation,  fonnd  himself  middenlj  alone  with' 
his  Van'  dais  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  population.  Twice  Gel'  imer 
was  routed  in  battle ;  and  before  the  end  of  November  Africa  was 
eonquered,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Van'  dais  destroyed.  GeV  imer 
himself,  having  capitulated,  was  removed  to  Galatia,  where  ample 
possessions  were  given  him,  and*  where  he  was  allowed  to  grow  old  in 
peace,  surrounded  by  his  friends  and  kindred,  and  a  few  faithful  fol- 
•lowers.  The  bravest  of  the  Van'  dais  enlisted  in  the  armies  of  Jus- 
tin' ian ;  and  ere  long  the  remainder  of  the  Van'  dal  nation  in  Africa, 
being  involved  in  the  ooavulsions  that  followed,  entirely  disappear^. 

12.  Justin'  ian  next  projected  the  oonquest  of  the  Gothic  empire 
of  Italy,  and  its  dependencies ;  and  in  the  year  535  Belisdrius  land- 
ed in  Sicily  at  the  head  of  a  small  army  of  seven  thousand  five  hun- 
dred men.  'In  the  first  campaign  lie  subdued  that  island :  in  the 
second  year  he  advanced  into  southern  Italy,  where  the  old  Eoman 
population  welcomed  him  with  joy,  and  the  Goths  found  themselves 
as  onfiavorably  situated  as  the  Van'  dais  had  been  in  Africa ;  but, 
deposing  their  weak  prince,  they  raised  Vit'iges  to  the  throne,  who 
wy  a  great  general  and  a  worthy  rival  of  Belisdrius.  The  latter 
gained  possession  of  Rome,  (Dec.  536,)  where  for  more  than  a  year 
he  was  besieged  by  the  Goths ;  and  although  he  made  good  his  de- 
fence, almost  the  entire  population  of  the  city  in  the  meantime  per 
ished  by  famine. 

13.  Yit'iges  himself  was  next  besieged  in  Baven'na,  and  was 
finally  forced  to  surrender  the  place,  and  yield  himself  j)ri8oner. 
(Dec.  539.)  He  was  deeply  indebted  to  the  generosity  of  Justin'  ian, 
who  allowed  him  to  pass  his  days  in  affluence  in  Constantinople 
The  jealousy  of  Justin'  ian,  however,  having  recalled  Belisirius  from 

.Italy,  in  a  few  years  the  Goths  recovered  their  sway ;  but  it  was  over 
a  country  almost  deserteot  of  its  inhabitants.  At  length,  in  the  year 
552,  Justin'  ian  formed  in  Italy  an  army  o£  thirty  thousaM  men, 
which  he  placed  under  the  command  of  the  eunuch  Nar'  ses,  who 
unexpectedly  proved  to  be  an  able  general.  In»  the  following  year 
the  last  of  the  Os'  trogoth  kings  .was  slain  in  battle,  and  the  empire 
of  Justin'  ian  was  extended  over  the  deserted  wastes  of  the  once  fer- 
tile uid  populous  Italy.     (A.  D.  554.) 

14.  In  the  Bast,  Justin'  ian  was  involved  in  a  second  war  with 
Ghosroes,  or  Nashirvan,  the  most  celebrated  Persian  monarch  of  the 

L  tiibbon,  iii.  C3,  Miy»  one  huudred  and  sixty  thousand ;  and  aUmondi,  Fall  of  tlio  Roman 
Empire,  1. 221,  haa  tho  ume  number.    Sue  the  correction  In  Milman's  Notes  to  Gibbon. 

•fc  i« 


24S  MODERN  HBSTOR^  [PawIL 

StfSMiid  dynasty.  HostiliiieB  were  carried  on  daring  sixteen  yeara 
(A.  P.  540 — 556)  with  dtrelenting  obstinaey  on  both  sides;  but  after 
a  prodigious  waste  of  human  life,  the  frontiers  of  the  two  empifea 
remained  nearly  the  same  as  they  were  before  the  war.  When  Jos- 
tin'  ian  was  nearly  eighty  years  of  age  he  was  again  obliged  to  have 
reoonrse  to  the  serrioes  of  his  old  general  Belisdrins,  not  less  aged 
Ihan  himself,  to  repel  an  invasion  of  the  barbarians  who  had  ad- 
vanced to  the  very  gates  of  Constantinople.  At  the  head  of  a  amaS. 
band  pf  veterans,  who  in  happier  years  had  shared  his  toils,  he  drove 
back  the  enemy ;  but  the  applauses  of  the  people  again  excited  the 
jealousy  and  fears  of  the  ungrateful  monarch,  who,  charging  his 
faithful  servant  with  aspiring  to  the  empire,  caused  his  eyes  to  be 
torn  out,  and  his  jrhole  fortune  to  be  confiscated ;  and  it  is  said  thai 
the  general  who  had  conquered  two  kingdoms,  was  to  be  seen  Uind, 
and  led  by  a  child,  going  about  with  a  wooden  cup  in  his  hand  to  so- 
licit charity.  Justin'  ian  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-three,  after  a 
reign  of  more  than  thirty-eight  years.  (Nov.  565.)  The  character 
of  Justin'  ian  was  a  compound  of  good  and  bad  qualities ;  for  al- 
though personally  inclined  to  justice,  he  often  overlooked,  through 
weakness,  the  injustice  of  others,  and  was  in  a  great  measure  ruled 
during  the  first  half  of  his  reign  by  his  wife  Theod6ra,  an  unprin- 
cipled woman,  under  whose  orders  many  acts  of  oppression  and 
cruelty  were  committed. 

15.  The  reign  of  Justin' ian  forms  a  memorable  epoch  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world.  He  was  the  l^t  Byzantine  emperor  who,  by  his 
dominion  over  the  whole  of  Italy,  reunited  in  some  measure  the 
two  principal  portions  of  the  empire  of  the  Caasars.  But  his  exten- 
dve  conquests  were  not  his  chief  glory :  the  brightest  ornament  of 
his  reign,  whicli  has  immortalized  his  memory,  is  his  famous  compi? 
lation  of  the  Roman  laws,  known  as  the  "  Pandects  and  Code  of 
Justinian."  "  The  vftin  titles  of  the  victories  of  Justin'  ian,"  says 
Gibbon,  "are  crumbled  into  flust:  but  the  name  of  the  legislator 
is  inscribed  on  a  fair  and  everlasting  monument."  To  a  commission 
of  ten  emiment  lawyers,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Trib6nian,  Jus- 
tin' ian  assigned  the  task  of  reducing  mto  a  uniform  and  consistent 
code,  the  vast  mass  of  the  laws  of  the  Boman  empire ;  and  after  this 
had  been  completed,  to  another  commission  of  seventeen,  at  the 
head  of  which  also  was  TriB6nian,  was  assigned  the  more  difficult 
work  of  searching  out  the  scattered  monuments  of  ancient  jurispru- 
dence)-—of  collecting  and  putting  in  order  whatever  was  useful  in 


CMkp.n]  MIDDLE  AGES.  243 

tlie  booios  of  farmer  jnrisconsults,  and  of  extracting  the  true  spirit 
of' the  laws  from  questions,  dii^utes,  conjectures,  and  judicial  de- 
cisions of  the  Koman  civilians.  This  celebrated  work,  containing 
the  immense  store  of  the  wisdom  of  antiquity,  after  being  lost  during 
several  centuries  of  the  Dark  Ages,  was  accidentally  brought  to  light 
*  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  contributed  greatly  to 
the  revival  of  civilization ;  and  the  digest  which  Gibbon  has  made 
of  it  is  sow  received  as  the  text  book  on  eivil  Law  in  some  of  the 
universities  of  Europe.^ 

16.  The  history  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  empire,  during'  several 
cmturies  after  Justin'  ian,  is  so  extremely  complicated,  and  its  an- 
nals so  obscure  and  devoid  of  interest,  that  we  pass  ftemKby,  for  sub- 
jects of  greater  importance.  Three  years  after  the  death  of  Justin'- 
ian,  Italy  underwent  another  revolution.  In  the  year  568,  the  whole 
Lombard  nation,  comprising  the  fiercest  and  bravest  of  the  Germanic 
tribes,  led  by  their  king  Alboin,  and  aided  by  twenty  thousand  Sax- 
ons, descended  from  the  eastern  Alps,  and  at  once  took  possession 
of  northern  Italy,  which,  from  them,  is  called  Lombardy.  The 
Lombard  monarchy,  thus  established,  lasted,  under  twenty-one  kings, 
during  a  period  of  little  more  than  two  centuries. 

17.  As  the  Lombards  advanced  into  the  country,  tjie  inhabitants 
shut  themselves  up  in  the  walled  cities,  many  of  whichj      ^  ^^ 
after  enduring  sieges,  and  experiencing  the  most  dread-     Lombard 
ful  calamities,  were  compelled  to  surrender;   but  the   ^^**^™^- 
Lombard  dominion  never  embraced   the   whole  peninsula.      The 
islands  in  the  upper  end  of  the  Adriat'  ic,  embracing  the  Venetian 

'  League,  the  country  immediately  surrounding  Raven'  na,  together 
jrith  Rome,  Naples,  And  a  few  other  cities,  remained  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  emperors,  or  were  at  times  inde- 
pendent of  foreign  rule.  The  Lombards  were  ruder  and  fiercer  than 
Hhe  Gk)ths  who  preceded  them ;  and  they  at  first  proved  to  the  Ital- 
ians far  harder  task-masters  than  any  of  the  previous  invaders ;  but 
the  change  from  a  wandering  life  exerted  an  influence  favorable 
to  their  civilization ;  and  their  laws,  considered  as  those  of  a  barba- 
rous people,  exhibited  a  considerable  degree  of  wisdom  and  equality. 

18.  The  period  at  which  we  have,  now  arrived,  towards  the  close 
of  the  sixth  century,  exhibits  the  first  interval  of  partial  repose  that 
had  fallen  ilpon  Western  Europe  since  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
empire.     Some  degree  of  quiet  was  now  settling  upon  Italy  under 

a.  Votai  to  Gibbon,  UL 19L 


244  MODERN  HISTORY.  \7mJL 

the  rule  of  the  Lombard  kings :  the  Goths  were  coDSoUdatmg  their 
power  in  Spain  :  a  stable  monarchy  was  gradually  rinng  in  Franoey 
from  the  union  of  the  Gallic  tribes ;  and  the  Saxons  had  firmly  es- 
tablished themselves  in  the  south  of  Britain.  The  only  events  in 
the  East  that  attract  our  notice  consist  of  a  series  of  wars  between 
the  Gree'k  emperors  and  the  Persians,  during  which  period,  if  we  are 
to  rely  upon  doubtful  narratives  which  wear  the  air  of  fables,  at  one 
time  all  the  Asiatic  provinces  of  the  Eastern  empire  were»conqaered 
by  the  Persians;  and  subsequently,  the  whole  of  Persia,  to  the 
frontiers  of  India,  was  conquered  by  the  monarchs  of  the  Eastern 
empire.  Eventually  the  two  empires  appear  to* have  become  equally 
exhaust cd^;  and  when  peace  was  restored  (A.  D.  628)  the  ancient 
boundaries  were  recognizeii  by  both  parties. 

19.  But  while  a  degree  of  comparative  repose  was  settling  upon 
Europe,  a  night  of  darkness,  owing  to  the  absence  of  all  reliable 
documents,  rests  upon  its  history,  down  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 
"  A  century  and  a  half  passed  away,"  says  Sismondi,  "  during  which 
we  possess  nothing  concerning  the  whole  empire  of  the  West,  except 
dates  and  conjectures."^  This  obscurity  lasts  until  a  new  akkd  unex- 
pected light  breaks  in  from  Arabia ;  when  a  nation  of  shepherds  and 
robbers  appears  as  the  depository  of  letters  which  had  been  allowed 
to  escape  from  the  guardianship  of  e^ry  civilized  people. 

20.  Turning  from  the  darkness  which  shrouds  European  hiatory 
in  the  seventh  century,  we  next  proceed  to  trace  the  remarkable  rise 
and  establishment  of  the  power  of  the  Saracens.     In  the  parched, 

vr  THE  8^ii^.y>  ^^^^  1^  freat  part,  desert  Arabia,  a  country 
8ARA0EN.  nearly  four  times  the  exlent  of  France,  the  hardy  Arab, 
KMPiEK.  ^£  ^^  original  and  unmixed  race,  had  dwelt*  from  time 
immemorial,  in  a  constant  struggle  with  nature,  and  enjoying  all  the 
wild  freedom  of  the  rudest  patriarchal  state.  The  descendants  of 
Ishmael — the  "  wild  man  of  the  desert" — ^havo  always  been  free,  and 
such  they  will  ever  remain ;  an  effect,  at  once,  of  their  local  position, 
and,  as  many  believe,  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy ;  and  although  a  • 
few  of  the  frontier  cities  of  Arabia  have  been  at  times  temporarily 
subjected  by  the  surrounding  nations,  Arabia,  as  a  country,  is  the  only 
land  in  all  antiquity  that  never  bowed  to  the  yoke  of  a  foreign  conqueror. 

21 .  The  ancient  religion  of  tlie  Arabs  was  Sabaism,  or  star-worship, 
which  assumed  a  great  variety  of  foi^ns,  and  was  corrupted  by  adora> 
tion  of  a  vast  number  of  images,  which  were  supposed  to  have  8om0 

a.  Sismondi,  FaU  of  the  Romao  Empire,  i.  356. 


OuaU]  middle  AGE&  245 

mysterious  aBmtj  to  the^  heavenly  bodies.  The  Arabs  had  seyen 
temples  dedicated  to  the  seyen  planets :  some  tribes  exclusively  re- 
vved the  moon,  others  the  dog  star :  Judaism^  was  embraced  by  a 
few  tribes,  Christianity  by  jsome,  an^  the  Magian  idolatry*  of  Persia 
by  others.  So  completely  free  was  Arabia,  each  sect  or  tribe  being 
independent,  that  absolute  toleration  necessarily  existed ;  and  numer- 
ona  refugee  sects  that  fled  from  the  persecution  of  the  Roman  empe- 
rors, found  in  the  wild  wastes  of  that  country  a  quiet  asylum. 

22.  About  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  Mahom'et  or 
Moham'med,  an  Arabian  impostor,  descended  Irom  the  Sabaean 
priests  of  Mecca,  where  was  the  chief  temple  of  the  Sab»an  idola-, 
try,  began  to  preach  a  new  religion  to  his  coitntrymen.  He  repre- 
sented J»  them  the  incoherence  and  grossness  of  their  religious  rites, 
and  called  upon  them  to  abandon  their  frail  idols,  and  to  acknowl- 
edge and  adore  the  One  true  God, — ^the  invisible,  all  good,  and  all- 
powerful  ruler  of  the  universe.  Acknowledging  i^he  authenticity 
both  of  the  Jewish  scriptures  and  the  Christian  revelation,  he  pro^ 
feeaed  to  restore  the  true  <uid  primitive  faith,  as  it  had  been  in  the 
days  of  the  patriarchs  and  the  prophets,  from  Adam  to  the  Messiah. 

23.  Like  Numa  of  old,  Mahom'  et  sought  to  give, to  the  doctrines 
which  he  laught  the  sanction  of  inspired  origin  and  miraculous  ap- 
proval ;  and  as  the  nymph  Egeria  was  the  ministering  goddess  of  the 
former,  so  the  angel  G-abriel  was  the  declared  medium  of  divine 
eommnnioation  with  the  latter.     During  a  period  of  twenty-three 

L  TIm  MAfimn.  idoU$rf  oomisted  of  the  religiotu  belief  and  worship  presided  over  by  the 
Hftgtan  priesthood,  who  comprised,  originally,  one  of  the  six  tribes  ^nto  which  the  nation  of 
fte  Medes  was  divided.  The  MAg^L,  or  "^  wise  men,''  had  not  only  religion^  bat  the  higher 
Immrlicis  of  all  learning  also,  in  their  charge ;  and  they  practised  different  sorts  of  divination, 
Mtrology,  and  enchantment,  for  the  purpose  of  disclosing  the  (Uture,  influencing  the  present, 
and  caUIng  the  past  to  their  aid.  So  fhrnous  were  they  that  their  name  has  been  applied  to  all 
Oidan  of  magicians  and  enchanters.  Zoroas'  ter,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  the 
aaveotb  century  before  Christ,  reformed  the  Mkgian  religion,  and  reuKxleiled  the  priesthood  ; 
and  by  some  he  Is  considered  the  founder  of  the  order. 

Tbe  Hftgtan  priests  taught  that  the  gods  are  the  spfritoal  essences  of  Are,  earth,  and  water,— 
that  there  are  two  antagonistic  powers  in  nature,  the  one  accomplishing  goo<l  designs,  the  other 
evil;— that  each  of  thew  shall  subdue  and  be  subdued  by  turns,  for  six  thousand  years,  but 
ftaat,  at  last,  through  the  Intervention  of  the  stitt  higher  lynd  Supreme  Being,  the  evil  principle 
jball  perish,  and  men  shall  live  Ln  happiness,  neither  needing  food,  nor  yielding  a  siindow. 

Tbe  great  influence  of  the  Magi  is  well  illustrated  in  the  boolc  of  Daniel,  where  Nebuchad- 
nsazar  Invoked  the  aid  of  the  dlflerent  classes  of  their  order— magicians,  oslroloj^era,  sorcerers, 
ChaJdeaos,  and  soothsaycre.  In  the  time  of  the  Saviour,  the  Mftgian  system  was  not  extinct, 
aa  we  have  evidence  of  in  the  allusion  made  to  Simon  Magus,  who  boasted  himself  to  be 
•'■ome  gprt  one.**    (Acts,  viii.  9— ziii.  6,  &c.) 

a.  By  the  term  Jadaism  la  meant  the  religious  rites  and  doctrines  of  the  Jews,  as  e^jQlnod 
faHtelmrorMoaaiL 


S46  H(H>EBK  HI8T0RT.  [PinU 

yean  oocanonal  revelations,  as  droomBtanoes  reqcured,  are  said  to 
have  been  made  to  the  Prophet,  who  was  eonaequently  never  at  a 
loss  for  authority  to  justify  his  oonduot  to  his  followers,  or  for  authov^ 
itative  counsel  in  any  emergency.  These  revelations,  carefully  treas- 
ured up  in  the  memories  of  the  fiuthful,  or  committed  to  writing  by 
amanuenses,  (for  the  Moslems  boast  that  the  founder  of  their  religion 
could  neither  read  nor  write,)  were  collected  together  two  years  after 
the  death  of  tiie  Prophet,  and  puMtshed  as  the  Koran^  or  Moham'- 
medan  Bible. 

24.  The  materials  of  the  Koran  are  borrowed  chiefly  from  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures,  and  from  the  legends,  traditions, 
and  fables  of  Arabian  and  Persian  mythology.     The   two  great 
points  of  Moslem  faith  are  embraced  in  the  declaration — ^^  There  is 
but  one  Ood,  and  Mahom'  et  is  his  prophet''     The  otber  prominent 
points  of  the  Moslem  creed  are  the  belief  in  absolute  predestina 
tion, — the  existence  and  purity  of  angels, — ^the  resurrection  of  the 
body, — a  general  judgment,  and  the  final  saltation  of  all  the  dis- 
ciples of  the  Prophet,  whatever  be  their  sins.     Wicked  Moslems  are 
to  expiate  their  crimes  during  different  periods  of  suffering,  not  to 
exceed  seven  th|)usand  years ;  but  infidel  contemners  of  the  Koran 
are  to  be  doomed  to  an  eternity  -of  woe.     A  minute  and  appalling 
description  is  given  of  the  place  and  mode  of  torment, — a  vast  re- 
ceptacle, full  of.  smoke  and  darkness,  dragged  forward  with  roaring 
noise  and  fury  by  seventy  thousand  angels,  through  the  opposite  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  while  the  unhappy  objects  of  wrath  are  tor- 
mented by  the  hissing  of  numerous  reptiles,  and  the  scourges  of 
hideous  demons,  whose  pastime  is  cruelty  and  pain.     The  Moslem 
paradise  is  all  that  an  Arab  imagination  can  paint  of  sensual  felioi* 
*y  i-^groves,  rivulets,  flowers,  perfumes,  and  fruits  of  every  variety 
to  charm  the  senses ;  while,  to  every  other  conceivable  delight,  sev- 
enty-two damsels  of  immortalyouth  and  dazzling  beauty  are  assigned 
to  minister  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  humblest  of  the  faithful.    The 
promise  to  every  faith^  follower  of  the  Prophet,  of  an  unlimited 
indulgence  of  the  corporeal  propensities,  constitutes  a  fundamental 
principle  of  the  Moham'  medan  religion.     The  predestinarian  doctrine 
of  Mahom'  et  led  his  followers  towards  fatalism,  and  exercised  a 
marked  influence  upon  their  lives,  and  especially  upon  their  warlike 
chUracter ;  for  as  it  taught  them  that  the  hour  of  death  is  determined 
beforehand,  it  inspired  them  with  an  indifference  to  danger,  and  gave 
a  permanent  security  to  their  bravery.    Mahom'  et  promised  to  thoM 


OBAT.n.]  '     MIDDLE  AGES.  247 

of  his  followers  who  fell  in  battle  an  immediate  admission  to  the  joys 
of  paradise.  The  practical  part  of  the  new  religion  consisted  of 
praj^  five  times  a  day,  and  frequent  ablutions  of  the  whole  body, 
alms,  fostings,  and  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.^  Tradition  asserts  that 
Mahom'  et  confirmed  by  miracles  the  truth  of  his  religion ;  and  a 
mysterious  hint  in  the  Koran- has  been  conyerted,  by  the  traditionists, 
into  a  cireumstantial  legend  of  a  nocturnal  journey  through  the  seyen 
keayens,  in  which  Mahom'  et  oonyersed  familiarly  with  Adam,  Moses, 
and  the  prophets,  and  eyen  with  Deity  himself. 

25.  It  was  in  the  year  609,  when  Mahom'  et  was  already  fort/ 
'  years  old,  that  he  began  to  preach  his  new  doctrine  at  Mecca.     His 

irst  proselytes  were  made  in  his  own  family ;  but  by  the  people  his 
pretensions  were  long  treated  with  ridicule ;  and  at  the  end  of  thir- 
teen years  he  was  obliged  to  fiee  from  Mecca  to  saye  his  life.  (A.  D. 
622.)  This  celebrated  flight,  called  the  Hegira,  is  the  grand  era  of 
the  Moham'  medan  religion.  ^ 

26.  Repairing  to  Yatreb,  the  name  of  which  he  changed  to  Medi- 
na,' (or  Medinet  el  Nobbi,  the  city  of  the  Prophet,)  he  was  there  rQ-  * 
oetyed  by  a  large  band  of  conyerts  with^eyery  demonstration  of  joy ; 
and  soon  the  whole  city  acknowledged  him  as  its  leader  and  prophet 
Mahomet  now  declared  that  the  empire  of  his  religion  was  to  be  es- 
tablished by  the  sword :  eyery  day  added  to  the  number  of  his  prose- 
lytes, who,  formed  into  warlike  and  predatory  bands,  scoured  the 
desert  in  quest  of  plunder ;  and  after  experiencing  many  successes 
and  seyeral  defeats,  Mahom'  et,  in  the  seventh  year  of  the  Hegira, 
with  scarcely  a  shadow  of  opposition,  made'himself  master  of  Mecca, 
whose  inhabitants  swore  allegiance  to  him  as  their  temporal  and 
spiritual  prince.  The  conquest  or  voluntary  submission  pf  the  rest 
of  Arabia  soon  followed,  and  at  the  period  of  Mahom'  et's  IsLtfi  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hegira,  and  the  year  of 
his  death,  a  hundred  and  fourteen  thousand  Mfssulmen'  marched 
under  his  banner.     (A.  D.  632.) 

L  MwM,  the  birth-ptace  of  Bfabom'  et,  an4  the  great  centre  of  ettnedon  to  all  pUgrlma  of 
the  Moham'  medan  fiiith,  ia  in  western  Arabia,  aboat  forty  miles  east  fko'm  the  Red  Sea. 
Formeriy  the  oonconrse  of  pflgrims  to  the  "holy  city"  was  immense;  bnl  the  taste  for  pll- 
grimagea  is  now  rapidly  declining  thronghoot  the  Moham'  medan  world. 

S.  Medina  is  sltaated  in  western  Arabia,  one  hundred  mites  north-eaat  from  Its  port  of  Tembo 
on  the  Bed  Sea,  and  two  hnndred  and  sixty  mil«B  north  from  Mecca.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
iboot  forty  feel  high,  flanked  by  thirty  towers.  It  is  now  chiefly  important  as  being  in  posses- 
sion of  the  tomb  containing  the  remains  of  the  prophet. 

a.  The  word  JlfM«ii/aMis  which  U  naed  to  designate  a  foDower  of  Mahom*  et,slgnUK  In 
Ike  Tkizkish  language^  *^  a  trae  beUeTer." 


248  MODBKEf  HISTORY.  [PjmII 

27.  Mahom'  et  died  without  having  formed  any  organised  govem- 
ment  for  the  empire  which  he  had  so  speedily  established ;  and  al- 
though religious  enthusiasm  supplied,  to  his  immediate  followers,  the 
place  of  legislation,  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  soon  began  to  relapse 
into  their  ancient  idolatries.  The  union  of  the  military  chiefs  of  the 
Prophet  alone  saved  the  tottering  fabric  of  Moslem  faith  from  dis- 
solution. Abubekr,  the  first  believer  in  Mahom'  et's  mission,  was 
declared  lieutenant  oj  caliph;  and  the  victories  of  his  general 
Khaled,  sumamed  *^  the  sword  of  God,"  over  the  apostate  tribes,  in  a 
few  months  restored  religious  unity  to  Arabia. 

28.  But  the  spirit  of  the  Saracens*  needed  employment ;  and  pre- 
parations were  made  to  invade  the  Byzantine  and  Persian  empires, 
both  of  which,  from  the  long  and  desolating  wars  that  had  raged 
between  them,  had  sunk  into  the  most  deplorable  weakness.  Khaled 
advanced  into  Persia  and  conquered  several  cities  near  the  ruins  of 
Babylon,  when  he  ^as  recalled,  and  sent  to  join  Abu  Obeidah,  wHo 
had  marched  upon  Syria.     Palmyra  submitted :  the  governor  of  Bos- 

*  rah^  turned  both  traitor  and  Mussulman,  and  op^aed  the  gatcDs  of  the 
city  to  the  invaders ;  Damascus  was  attacked,  besieged,  and  finally 
one  part  of  the  city  was  carried  by  storm  &t  the  moment  that  an- 
other portion  had^capitulated.'  (Aug.  3d,  634.)  Abubekr  died  the 
very  day  the  city  was  taken,  and  Omar  succeeded  to  the  Caliphate. 

29.  The  fall  of  Emes'sa,*  and  Baalbec'  or  Heliop'olis,  soon  fol- 

1.  The  word  SarneeHf  from  sara^  **  a  desert,"  means  an  Arabian. 

S.  Boirahy  was  fifty  miles  89ath  Us>m  Damascus,  and  eighty  miles  north-east  from  Jerusalem. 
Thoogh  now  almost  deserted,  the  whole  town  and  its  enTirons  are  oorered  with  pillars  and 
other  ruins  of  the  finest  workmanship.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture.^  In  Jeremiah, 
adlx.  13,  we  read,  **For  I  have  sworn  by  myself,  saith  the  Lord,  that  Bbrrah  shall  become  a 
desolation,  a  reproach,  a  waste,  and  a  curse.**    (Map  No.  VI.) 

3.  Ei^*'  so,  now  He^,  a  city  of  Syria,  was  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Oron'  tea,  now  the 
^Aaazy,  eighty-five  mile*  nortb-east  from  Damascus.    It  was  the  birth-plaoe  of  the  jEtoman^m- 

peror  Elagab&las.    (Jfa^  No.  VI.) 

4.  Baaibec,  or  Heliop'  olis,— the  former  a  Syrian  and  the  latter  a  Greek  word^both  meaning 
the  **  city  of  the  sun,**  was  a  large  imd  splendid  city  of  Syria,  forty  miles  north-west  from  D»- 
masena,  and  about  thiny-flye  miles  from  the  Mediterranean.  The  reraahiff  of  ancledt  arcblte*** 
tural  grandeur  in  Baalbec  are  more  extensive  than  in  any  other  city  of  Syria,  Palmyra  excepled. 
It  is  believed  that  Baal-Ath,  built  by  Solomon  in  Lebanon,  (2.  Ciiron.  vlli?  6,)  was  ideoiical  with 
Baal-fiec  While  under  the  Roman  power  it  was  famed  for  its  wealth  and  splendor ;  and  the 
terms  of  its  surrender  to  the  Saracens  Sufficiently  attest  its  great  resources  at  that  period  :^ 
two  thousand  ounces  of  gold,  four  thousand  ounces  of  silver,  two  thousand  siUcen  vests,  and 
one  thousand  jwords,  besides  those  of  tho  garrison,  being  the  price  demanded  and  paid  to  pre- 
serve it  from  plunder.  Although  repeatedly  sacked  and  dismantled,  yet  the  changes  that  bftv« 
taken  place  in  the  channels  of  commerce  are  the  principal  causes  of  its  decay  ;  and,  judging 
from  its  decline  during  the  last  century,— from  five  thousand  inhabitants  to  less  than  two  hun- 
dred,—probably  the  day  Is  not  far  distent  when,  like  many  other  Eastern  dtleSk  it  wiU  oesae  to 
be  inhabited.    (JIfa/ No.  VX.) 


•  Cmv.  h]  middle  ages.  ,  249 

lonned  that  of  Damasons.  Herac'  lius,  the  Byzantine  emperor,  made 
ODft  great  effort  to  save  Syria,  bat  on  the  banks  of  the  Yermouk'  his 
lest  generals  were  defeated  by  Khaled  with  a  loss  of  seventy  thousand 
Boldiers,  who  were  left  dead  on  the  field.  (Nov.  636.)  Jerusalem, 
sfter  a  siege  of  four  months,  capitulated  to  Omar,  who  caused  the 
groond  on  which  had  stood  the  temple  of  Solomon  to  be  cleared  of 
its  rubbish,  and  prepared  for  the  foundation  of  a  mosque,  which  still 
bearff  the  name  of  the  Caliph.  The  reduction  of  Aleppo'  and  An- 
tiooh,  six  years  after  the  first  Saracen  invasion,  completed  the  con- 
qaest  of  Syria.     (A.  D.  638.) 

30.  In  the  meantime  the  conquest  of  Persia  had  been  followed 
jMp  by  other  S^acen  generals.  In  the  same  year  that  witnessed  the 
battie  of  Yermouk,  the  Persians  and  Saracens  fought  on  the  plains 
of  Cadesiah'  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  on  record.  Seven  thousand 
ihse  fanndred  Saracens  and  one  hundred  thousand  Persians  are  said 
to  kaye  &llen.  The  fate  of  Persia  was  determined,  although  the 
PersiaB  monarch  kept  together  some  time  longer  the  wrecks  of  his 
empire,  but  he  was  finally  slain  in  the  year  65  J ,  and  with  him  ex- 
pired the  second  Persian  dynasty,  that  of  the  Sassan'  idae.^ 

31.  Soon  after  the  battle  of  Cadesiah,  Omar  intrusted  to  his  lieu 

L  Ibe  Terwuuk^  the  Hleromax  of  the  Greeks,  la  a  rtrer  that  empties  into  the  Jordan  from 
a»«Mt,  mwvxij-Are  miles  south-west  from  Damascos.    {Map  No.  VI.) 

S.  Aleffo^  In  northern  Syria,  is  one  hnndred  and  ninety-six  miles  north-ea^t  from  Damascus, 
nd  fifty-flve  mOes  east  from  Antlocb.  It  is  sorrowided  by  massive  walls  thirty-feet  high  and 
twenty  broad.  It  was  once  a  place  or  considerable  trade,  commonicaling  with  Pentia  and 
India  by  way  of  Bagdad,  and  with  Arabia  and  Egypt  by  way  of  Daraaacu^l  but  the  discuTery 
of  a  passage  to  India  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  strucic  a  deadly  blow  at  its  greatness, 
and  it  la  now  litUe  more  than  a  shadow  of  its  former  self. 

3.  Caditiah  was  on  the  borders  of  the  Syrian  desert,  south-west  from  Babylon. 

4.  The  overthrow  of  the  last  of  the  great  .Persian  dynasties  is  an  appropriate  point  for  a  brief 
leriew  of  Peraan  history.     * 

It  has  beerf  stated  that,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  monarchy  by  Alexander  the  Croat, 
A^  continued  to  be  a  tlieatre  of  wars  waged  by  his  ambitious  successors,  t^ntll  Selcucus, 
about  the  year  307  before  our  era,  established  himself  securely  in  possession  of  the  countries 
between  the  Euphrates  the  Indu.s,  and  the  Oxili,  and  thu;»  founded  the  empire  of  the  Selriieidte, 
This  empire  continued  undisturbed  tmtil  the.yoar  250  B.  C,  w^hen  the  Pnrthians,  under  Ars&ees^ 
revolted,  and  established  the  Parthian  empire  of  the  Arsac'  itUe.  The  Parthian  empire  at 
tained  its  highest  grandeur  in  the  reis^n  of  its  sixth  monarch,  Mithrid&tes  I.,  who  carried  his 
anv  even  farther  than  Alexander  himnelf.  The  deHcendunts  of  Arsftccs  ruled  until  A.  D.  S^'Q, 
a  period  of  480  years,  when  the  last  prince  of  that  family  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
Ar'deabir  Bab'  igan,  a  revolted  Persian  noblo  of  the  family  of  Sansan,  who  thus  became  the 
Ibander  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Stusan'  ida.  The  period  of  nearly  five  centuries  between  the  ' 
I  of  AJexander  the  Great  and  the  reign  of  Ar'  deshir,  Is  nearly  a  blank  in  Eastern  history ; 
litUe  is  known  of  it  is  obtained  from  the  pages  of  Roman  writers.  No  connected 
B  aeoomt  of  this  period  can  bo  given.  The  dynasty  of  the  Saason'  idte  continued  until 
Ito  ovMtbrow  of  the  Persian  hosts  on  the  plains  of  Cadesiah,  when  the  religion  of  Zoroaster 
I  to  Che  triampb  of  the  Mussulman  fiiitb. 


260  HODEBV  HISTOKT.  [PakH, 

tenant  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  then  forming  a  part  of  tiie  Bjiaatiiie 
or  Greek  empire.  Peleu'siom/  after  a  month's  si^,  opened  to  the 
Suraceiis  the  entrance  to  the  ooontry  (638)  ^  the  Coptic  inhabitants 
of  Upper  Egypt  joined  the  invaders  against  the  Greeks ;  Memjjhis, 
after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  capitulated;  Alexandria  made  a 
longer  and  desperate  resistance,  but  at  length,  at  the  dose  of  the 
year  640,  the  city  was  surrendered,  a  success  which  had  cost  the  be- 
siegers twenty-three  thousand  lives.  When  Amru  asked  Omar  what 
disposition  he  should  make  of  the  famous  Alexandrian  library,  the 
caliph  replied,  *^  If  these  writings  agree  with  the  Koran,  they  are  us^ 
less,  and  need  not  be  preserved ;  if  they  disagree,  they  are  pcmicious, 
and  should  be  destroyed."  The  sentence  was  executed  with  blind 
obedience,  and  this  vast  store  of  ancient  learning  fell  a  sacrifice  to 
the  blind  fanaticism  of  ^n  ignorant  barbarian.^ 

32.  Four  years  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  the  d&gger  of  an  a^ 
sassin  put  an  end  to  the  life  and  reign  of  Omar.  (Nov.  6th,  644.) 
Othman,  the  early  secretary  of  Mahom'  et,  succeeded  to  the  caliphate; 
byt  his  extreme  age  rendered  him  poorly  capable  of  supporting  the 
burden  laid  upon  him.  Various  sects  of  Moslem  believers  b^an  to 
arise  among  the  j^ple :  contentions  broke  out  in  the  armies  ;  and 
Othman,  after  a  reign  of  eleven  years,  was  poniarded  on  his  throne, 
while  he  covered  his  heart  with  the  Koran.     (June  18th,  655.) 

33.  The  conquest  of  Cyprus  and  Rhodes,*  and  the  subjugation  of 
the  African  coast  as  far  westward  as  Tripoli,'  were  the  principal 

1.  Paeiutumy  an  Important  city  of  Egypt,  waa  at  the  entrance  of  the  Peleosiac,  or  moot  east- 
ern branch  of  the  Nile.  It  was  snrrounded  by  marsbee ;  and  the  name  of  the  city  was  derf  red 
from  a  Greek  word  signifying  mmd.  Near  its  rains  stands  a  dilapidated  castle  named  TmA, 
the  Arabic  term  for  mire. 

S.  Rhodes^  a  celebrated  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  is  off  the  south-west  coast  of  Asis 
Minor,  ten  miles  south  fh>m  Gape  Volpe,  the  nearest  point  of  the  main  land.  Its  greater 
length  is  forty-five  miles ;  greatest  breadth  eighteen.  The  city  of  Rhodes,  one  of  the  best  buitt 
and  most  maghiflcent  cities  of  the  ancient  world,  was  at  the  north-easlem  extremity  of  the 
island.  The  celebrated  colossus  of  Rhodes,— a  brazen  sUtue  of  Apollo,  about  one  hundred 
and  five  feet  in  height,  and  of  the  most  admirable  proportions,— has  been  deservedly  reckoned 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world ;  bat  the  ssiertlon  that  it  stood  with  a  fbot  on  each  side 
the  entrance  to  the  port,  and  that  the  largest  vesaelts  under  full  sail,  passed  between  its  iegii  i> 
an  absurd  ilction,  for  which  there  is  not  the  shadow  of  authority  in  any  ancient  writer.  The 
■toiy  originated  with  one  Blaise  de  Vlgenere,  In  the  16th  century.    (Map  No.  IV.) 

3.  Tripolif  a  maritime  city  of  northern  Africa,  Is  west  of*  the  ancient  Barca  and  CyreoAftAt 
and  about  two  hundred  and  seventy  miles  south  fi^om  Sicily. 

a.  Sismondi,  il.  p.  18,  distrusts  the  common  account  of  the  loss  of  the  Alexandrian  lUntfT* 
Gibbon,  voL  Hi.  p.  430,  says,  ''For  my  own  part,  I  am  strongly  tempted  to  deny  both  the  f^ 
and  the  consequences.*'  But  since  Gibbon  wrote,  several  new  Moham'  medan  authorities  baTS 
been  addnoed  to  sipport  the  common  rersion  of  the  story.  See  Note  to  Gibbon,  lU.  S8S  >  *^ 
Crichton's  Arabia,  1.  359. 


Otatf.n.]  MIDDIiE  AGSS.  251 

military  events  tiuit  distingiuBhed  the  reign  of  Othman;  bnt  the 
political  fends  and  civil  wars  that  distracted  the  reign  of  his  sno- 
eeasors,  Ali  and  Moawiyah,  suspended  the  progress  of  the  western 
oonqnests  of  the  Saracens  nearly  twenty  years.^  Gradually,  how- 
ever, the  Saracens  extended  their  dominion  over  all  northern  Africa ; 
and  in  the  year  689  one  of  their  generals  penetrated  to  the  Atlantic 
coast ;  bat  Carthage,  repeatedly  succored  from  Constantinople,  held 
out  nine  years  longer,  when  being  taken  by  storm,  it  was  finally  and 
utterly  destroyed.  From  this  epoch  northern  Africa  became  a  section 
of  the  great  Moham'  medan  empire.  All  the  Moorish  tribes,  resembling 
the  roving  Arabs  in  t%ir  customs,  and  bom  under  a  similar  climate, 
being  ultimately  reduced  to  submission,  adopted  the  language,  name, 
and  religion,  of  their  conquerors ;  and  at  the  present  day  they  can 
with  difficulty  be  distinguished  from  the  Saracens. 

34.  Scarcely  had  the  conquest  of  Africa  been  completed,  when  a 
Yis'  igothic  noble,  irritated  by  the  treatment  which  he  had  received 
from  his  sovereign,  the  tyrant  Boderio,  secretly  despatched,  a  mes^ 
senger-  to  Musa,  the  governor  of  Africa,  and  invited  the  Saracens 
into  Spain.  A  daring  Saracen,  named  Taric,  first  crossed  the  straits 
in  the  month  of  July,  710,  on  a  predatory  incursiop ;  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring  he  passed  over  again  at  the  head  of  seven  thousand 
men  and  took  possession  of  Mount  Calpe,  whose  modem  name  of 
Gibraltar  (Gibel-al-Taric,  or  Hill  of  Taric),  still  preserves  the  name 
of  the  Saracen  hero. 

35.  When  Boderic  was  informed  of  the  descent  of  the  Saracens, 
he  sent  his  lieutenant  against  them,  with  orders  to  bind  ^e  pre- 
sumptuous strangers  and  cast  them  into  the  sea.  But  his  lieutenant 
was  defeated,  and  soon  afterward,  Boderic  himself  also,  who  had 
collected,  on  the  banks  of  the  Guadal6te,'  his  whole  army,  of  a  hun* 
dred  thousand  m^.  Boderic,  a  usurper  and  tyrant,  was  hated  and 
despised  by  numbers  of  his  people ;  and  during  the  battle,  which 
continued  seven  days,  a  portion  of  his  forces,  as  had  been  previously 

:  The  Omadalita  is  s  ftream  thftt  onten  the  harbor  of  Owlli,  about  sixtf  milet  north-west 
ftem  Gibraltar.  The  battle  appears  to  bare  been  fought  on  the  plains  of  the  modem  Xeres  da 
It  Ptontera,  abont  ten  miles  north-west  ftom  Oadis.    {Map  No.  XIII.) 

a.  Mahomet  had  pipmised  IbrgiTeness  of  sina  to  the  ftrst  army  which  should  besiege  the 
Bjiantine  capital ;  and  no  sooner  had  Moawiyah  ddMroyed  his  rivals  and  established  his 
lhiocia»  tiwn  he  sought  to  expiate  the  gallt  of  dvll  blood  by  shedding  that  of  the  failldeis ; 
1m*daili«  erer:  sammer  fbr  seven  years  (0OB-S79)  a  Mossntanan  annylnvain  attacked  the 
wills  of  OoaatanUniTpla,  and  the  tide  of  ooa<iaest  was  toned  aside  to  fsek  another  ehund  tan 
hseBlmeelnio] 


252  MODSBN  mSTORT.  [Pj»a 

MTangedy  deiertod  to  the  SaraoenB.  The  Ooths  were  finally  rooted 
with  immense  slaughter,  knd  Boderio  avoided  a  soldiera  death  only 
to  perish  more  ignobly  in  the  waters  of  the  GuadalquiTer  :*  bat  the 
victory  of  the  Saracens  was  purchased  at  the  expenee  of  sixteen 
thousand  lives. .  Most  of  the  Spanish  towns  now  submitted  without 
opposition ;  Mer'  ida,*  the  capital,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  ea- 
pitufatted  with  honor ;  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  713  the  whole 
of  Spain,  exoept  a  solitary  corner  in  the  northern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula, was  oon<|uered.  The  same  country,  in  a  more  savage  st^te,  had 
resisted,  for  two  hundred  years,  the  arms  of  the  Romans;  and  it  re- 
quired nearly  eight  hundred  years  to  regain  it  from  the  sway  of  the 
Moors  and  Saracens. 

36.  After  the  conquest  of  Spain,  Mussulman  ambition  b^gan  to 
look  beyond  the  Pyrenees  :*  the  disuniW  Gallic  tribes  of  the 
Sputhem  provinces  soon  began  to  negotiate  and  to  submit ;  and  in  a 
few  years  the  south  of  France,  from  the  mouth. of  the  Garonne  to 
that  of  the  Rhone,^  assumed  the  manners  and  religion  of  Arabia* 
But  these  narrow  limits  were  scorned  by  the  spirit  of  Abdelrahmaa, 
the  Saracen  governor  of  Spain,  who,  in  the  year  732,  entered  Gaol 
at  the  head  of  a  host  of  Moors  and  Saracens,  in  the  hope  of  adding 
to  the  faith  of  the  Koran  whatever  yet  remained  unsubdued  of  France 
or  of  Surope.  An  invasion  so  formidable  had  not  been  witnessed 
since  the  days  of  At'  tila ;  and  Abdelrahman  marked  his  route  with 
fire  and  sword ;  for  he  spared  neither  the  country  nor  the  inhabit- 
ants. 

37.  Everything  was  swept  away  by  the  overpowering  torrent,  until 
Abdelrahman  had  penetrated  to  the  very  centre  of  France,  and 

1.  The  river  Chudalquiver  (in  EnRllah  gau-dH-quiv'-er,  {n  Spanish  (fwa**t*^^®*'^  ** 
whleh  stands  the  clUes  SerlUe  and  Cor'  dova,  enters  the  AUanUc  about  flfteen  miles  north  from 
Cadiz.  Its  ancient  name  waa  Bati»  :  its  preeent  appellation,  WadyHU^Mr,  sigDifyinff  ""^ 
great  river,"  is  Arabic.    {Map  No.  XIII.) 

S.  M«r'  idA,  the  Augmsta  Emer'  if  of  the  Romans,  whence  its  modem  name,  was  fomiAtd 
by  AogQstiis  Cffisar  25  B.  G.  It  is  la  the  south-western  part  of  Spain,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Gnadlana,  and  in  the  province  of  Estremadora.  It  is  now  a  decayed  town ;  but  the  arcbit^o- 
toral  remains  of  the  power  and  ma^^niflcence  of  its  Roman  masters  render  it  an  object  of  great 
Interast  It  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  ftx>m  713  to  IS^  when  it  opened  its  gates  to 
Alphonso  IX.,  after  his  signal  victory  over  the  Moors ;  and  ft-om  Uiis  period  downward,  it  bsa 
been  attached  to  the  kingdoms  ef  Castile  and  Leon.    (Jlfap  No.  XUI.) 

3.  The  Pyrenees  mountains,  which  separate  Spain  from  France,  extend  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Mediterrsnean,  a  distance  of  about  two  haodred  and  seventy  miles,  wUb  an  average  breeds 
of  about  thirty-eight  miles.    (Map  No.  Xfll.) 

4.  Pot  the  territory  thus  embraced  under  the  Saracen  sway,  see  Mnp  No.  Xllf;  The  Oaronna, 
rising  near  the  Spanish  border,  runs  a  north-westeriy  course.  From  Its  union  with  the  IXh^ 
dogne,  forty41ve  miles  from  Its  entranoe  Into  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  it  Is  called  the  OfrwM**-*^ 
which  the  noted  **  department  of  the  Gironde'*  tales  iU  name. 


CaM.II]  lODDLB  AGES.  253   \ 

pitched  his  oamp  between  Toura'  and  Poictiers.'  His  progress  had 
not  *boen  unwatdied  by  the  confederacy  of  the  Franks,  Which,  torn 
asund^  by  IntFignes,  aq^  the  revolts  of  discontented  chiefe,  now 
united  to  oppose  the  common  enemy  of  all  Christendom.  At  the 
head  of  the  confederacy  was  Charles  Martel,  who,  collecting  his^ 
forces,  met  Abddrahman  on  the  plains  of  Poictiers,  and,  after  six 
days'  skirmishing,  engaged  on  the  seventh  in  that  fearful  battle  that 
was  to  decide  &e  fate  of  Europe.  In  the  light  skirmishing  tJie 
archers  of  the  East  maintained  the  advantage ;  but  in  the  close 
onset  of  the  deadly  strife,  the  German  auxiliaries  of  Charles,  grasp- 
ing their  ponderous  swords  with  ^^  stout  hearts  and  iron  hands''  stood 
to  the  shock  like  walls  of  stone,  and  beat  down  the  light  armed 
Ar^ibe  with  terrific  slaughter.  Abdelrahman,  and,  as  was  reported 
by  the  monkish  historians  of  the  period,  three  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  thousand  •  of  his  followers,  were  slain.  The  Arabs  never  re^ 
Bumed  the  conquest  of  G-aul,  although  twenty-seven  years  elapsed 
before  they  were  wholly  driven  beyond  the^i^yrenees.  Europe  to  . 
this  day  owes  its  civil  and  religious  freedom  to  the  victory  gained 
over  the  Saracens  before  Poictiers,  by  Charles,  the  Hammer^  which 
shattered  the  Saracen  forces* 

38.  About  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Spain,  the  Saracens  made 
a  second -unsuccessful  attempt  to  reduce  the  Byzantine  capital; 
but  farther  east  they  were  more  successful,  and  extended  their  do- 
minion and  their  religion  into  Hindostan','  and  the  frozen  regions 

1.  Toura  is  ftUoated  between  the  rivers  Cher  and  Loire,  near  the  point  of  their  confluence, 
one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  miles  south-west  from  Paris.  Tours  was  anciently  the  capital 
of  the  TWmm,  oooqnered  by  CiBaar  55  B.  C.  Aner  many  ylctssltudas  il  fell  Into  the  hands 
of  the  PlaDtageoeta,  and  formed  part  of  the  Engliab  domiiiions  till  1904,  when  it  was  annexed 
to  the  Frenrti  crown.    (Jfe^  No.  Xill.) 

S.  Pvkturaj  or  /^«t»fr«,  (andpntly  called  lJm6nwm^  and  aHerwafd  PieUvif)  sixty  miles 
toalh-west  from  Toura,  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  VIenne.  It  is  one  of  the  moat 
andcint  towns  of  Gaul  f  and  the  vestiges  of  a  Soman  palace,  an  aqueduct,  and  an  ampblthe- 
atra,  aro  still'Tisibie.  Besides  the  celebrated  defeat  of  the  Saracens  in  73S,  Poictiers  is  mem- 
orable fior  the  signal  victory  obtained  in  its  victeity  Sept,  19th,  1350,  by  on  English  army 
cctnmaoded  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  over  a  vastly  superior  Frendi  force  commanded  by 
kimrJoha.    <8eepw300.    .«apN6.XIIL> 

3b  HiMJm*UM\  a  vast  triai^lar  country  beyond  the  Indus,  and  south  of  the  Himalaya 
irmmtniiM  tho  eouotfy  of  tbo  Hindoos--has  no  aulhonticeariy  history,  although  there  Is  evi- 
dsDoe  to  show  that  it  was  one  of  the  eariy  seals  of  Esstern  civiUzaUon.  The  incursion  of  Al- 
oander  (325  B.  C.)  first  made  Hindostan'  known  to  the  European  world.  In  the  earty  part  of 
the  11th  centnry  it  was  repeatedly  hivaded  by  the  Moham'  medans  of  AllQihanistan,  who,  is 

a.  This  was  probably  the  whole  number  of  the  afuisulman  force,  not  the  number  slain.  See 
Grtehlon's  Arabia,  i.  MO,  Note. 

b.  Charles  wielded  a  huge  mace ;  and  the  epithet  of  ^le  mar|el,^'  of  ^  the  Hsmner^  is  e» 
praaslve  of  Uie  resistless  force  with  which  he  dealt  his  blows.  ^ 


2M  MO0EBK  HIBIORT.  [PmlL 

of  Tartary.  lint  tlie  ammoflities  of  oontending  sects,  domestic  broOs, 
revolts,  MSSSBiiiations,  and  ciTil  wars,  had  long  been  weakenmg  the 
central  power  which. held  together  the  unwieldy  Saracen  empire; 
and  before  the  close  of  the  eighth  ocntorj,  the  citU  power  of  the 
central  caliphate  had  broken  into  fragments,  although  the  spiritaal 
power  of  the  religion  of  the  Prophet  stiR  maintained  its  asoendancj 
in  all  the  r^ons  that  had  once  adopted  the  Moslem  fidtL 

39.  We  hare  thos  briefly  traced  the  history  of  the  tise  and  es- 
tablishment of  the  civil  power  and  the  religion  of  the  Saracens,  and 
their  progress  ontil  effectually  checked  by  the  arms  of  the  Franks 
and  their  confederates  on  the  plains  of  Poictier&  The  power  which 
thus  obtrudes  i^wn  our  view,  as  the  bulwark  and  defence  of  Christ- 
endom, is  the  one  that  next  prominently  occupies  the  field  of  History, 
while  that  of  the  Saracens,  weakened  and  distracted  by  its  divisions, 
declines  in  historical  interest  and  importance. 

40.  The  origin  of  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks  is  generally  traced 

back  nearlyJ;wo  caitnries  and  a  half  prior  to  the  defeat 
MORABOHT  of  thc  Ssrscens  by  Chjurles  Martel,  about  the  era  of  the 
OP  n»      downftdl  of  the  Western  empire  of  the  Romans.     It  is 
said  that  the  (Germanic  tribes  of  the  Franks  or  Free- 
men, occupied,  at  this  early  period,  four  cities  in  north-eastern  or 
Bdgic  Gaul,  viz. : — Toumai,'  Gambray,'  Terouane,'  and  Cologne,^ 
which  were  governed  by  four  separate  kings,  all  of  whom  ascribed 
their  origin  to  MerovsBus,  a  half  fobulofis  hero,  whose  rule  is  dated 
back  a  century  and  a  half  earlier.     Of  tha  four  kings  of  theJPranks, 

IU9;  made  DdU  llieir  capltaL  In  ISSS  the  eomitry  wu  ooaqoerad  hj  Iteber,  ttie  flith  In  da* 
■oeat  from  **Tlmoiir  ttie  Tartar  ;**  and  with  him  began  a  race  of  Mogul  priaooa.  Anmgiebe) 
who  died  \n  1707,  was  the  greatest  Of  the  Mogul  eovereigns.  The  diaoorery  of  a  passage  to 
India,  by  way  of  the  Gape  of  Good  Hope,  opened  the  oountry  to  a  new  and  mora  fonnidable 
race  of  eonqueron.  The  Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  and  the  French,  obtained  pbaaession  of  por- 
ttoBS  of  the  Indian  tetrttory ;  but  in  the  end  they  were  overpowered  by  the  English,  who  have 
eitabUsbed  beyond  the  Indus  a  great  Asiatic  empire. 

L  TWnu^  a  town  of  Belgium,  on  the  riTer  Scheldt,  (skelt)forty-aT»  miles  aoulb-woatftam 
Broasela,  and^one  hundred  and  ihi^y  north-east  from  Paris,  is  the  Ore'  iimt  JirtrvUrum  taken 
by  Julius  Cnaar.  It  has  since  belonged  to  an  almost  infinite  numbei  of  masten.  ( J/a^  No.  XV.) 

8.  Qtm^af  on  the  Scheldt,  (skelt)  is  thirty-three  mUes  south  from  Tonndy.  It  was  a  dty 
or  considerable  importance  under  th»  Romans,  and  has  been  the  scene  of  many  important 
erenis  in  modem  history.  It  was  long  ftmous  for  its  manufhcture  of  fine  linens  and  lawns; 
whence  aU  shnllar  Csbrlcs  are  caUed,  in  EngUab,  cMm^ries.    {Mf  No.  XV.) 

3.  TertuatU  (ter-oo-anO  appears  lo  have  been  west  from  Brussels,  near  l>unkiTk. 

4.  Cologne  is  in  the  present  Prussia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  one  hundred  and  twelTU 
nllflaeast  from  Bruawls.  A  Roman  colony  was  planted  in  Cologne  by  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of 
Gennan'  if  us,  who  was  bom  pMre.  Hence  it  obtslhod  the  name  of  JigrifpinA  Col&nia :  aftei^ 
waids  U  n  la  called  Col6nU,  or  »the  colony,**  whence  the  t<tm  CaUgMS.    {Map  No.  XVU.) 


Catf.II]  MIDDLE  AQES.  255 

the  aiiil»}tioii8  Olovis,*  who  ruled  oyer  the  Irihe  at  Tonmai  wm  the 
most  powerful.  Being  joined  by  the  tribe  at  Cambray,  he  made 
war  upon  the  last  remains  of  the  Roman  power  in  Oaul ;  enlarged 
his  territory  by  conquest,  and  established  his  capital  at  Soissons.^ 
(A.  D.  484.)  At  a  later  period  he  transferred  the  seat  of  soyereignty 
to  Paris  ;*  (A.  B.  494)  and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  51 1,  nearly 
the  half  of  modem  France,  eml»racing  that  portion  north  of  the  Loire, 
was  comprised  in  the  monarchy  of  which  he  is  the  reputed  founder.^ 

41.^  Gloyis,  like  many  of  the  barbarian  chiefs  of  tiiat  period,  was 
a  nominal  conyert  to  Christianity ;  and  being  the  first  of  his  nation 
who  embraced  the  orthodox  faith,  he  reoeiyed  from  the  Gaulish 
clergy  the  title  of  most  Christian  kingj  which  has  been  retained  by 
his  enooessors  to  the  present  day.  But  his  religion,  a  matter  of  mere 
form,  seems  to  haye  exerted  no  infiuencte  in  restraining  the  natural 
ferocity  and  blood  thirstiness  of  his  disposition,  as  all  the  riyal  mon- 
archs  or  chieftains  whom  he  could  ^nquer  or  entrap  ^ere  sacrificed 
to  his  jealousy  and  ambition.  He  put  to  death  with  his  own  hand 
most  of  his  relations,  and  then,  pretending  to  repent  of  his  barbari- 
ty, he  offered  his  protection  to  all  who  had  escaped  the  massacre, 
hoping  thus  to  disooyer  if  any  suryiyed,  that  he  might  rid  himself 
of  them  also. 

42.  The  descendants  of  Cj^oyis,  who  are  called  Meroyingians,  from 
their  suppose^  founder,  reigned  oyer  the  Franks  for  nearly  two  cen- 
turies  and  a  half;  but  the  repulsiye  annals  of  this  long  and  barba- 
rous period  are  one  tissue  of  perfidy  and  crime.  It  was  usually  the 
first  act  of  a  monarch,  on  ascending  the  throne,  to  put  to  death  his 
brothers,  uncles,  and  nephews ;  and  thus  consanguinity  generally  led 
to  the  most  deadly  and  fatal  enmity.  These.murders  so  thinned  the 
race  of  Cloyis  as  often  to  produce  the  reign  of  kings  under  age ; 

!•  B9i»s0HM^  (aooahtODg)  now  a  fbrtiflod  town  on  the  i1y«r  Altne,  sixty-eight  miles  north- 
eMi  fhmi  Pai1a,~-anclontly  ^rovioditnum,'-'W9B  a  dty  of  the  Suett&net^  In  Belgic  Gaul,  which 
Mbmltted  to  Jallns  deaai*.  Here  Clovls  exUngoUhed  the  last  remains  of  the  Western  empire 
by  Us  Tlelory  over  the  Roman  general  Sytgrtus.  The  town  then  became  the  capital  of  the 
Fnaka^  and,  afterwards,  of  a  kingdom  of  Its  own  name,  In  the  sixth  and  aefventh  centuries. 
{Mmp  No.  XIU.) 

9.  PmriM^  the  metropolis  of  France,  Is  sitoated  on  the  river  Seine,  (sane)  one  hnndrod  and 
teamilss  ftom  Its  mooih,  and  two  hundred  and  ten  miles  soath^east  Itom  London.  When 
6aal  was  Invaded  by  Jullns  Caesar,  Paris,  then  called  Lntitia,  was  the  chief  town  of  the 
Beigle  tribe  of  the  Paru-  tif— whence  the  city  deriyes  its  modem  name.  It  was  at  Lot^lhi 
I  th«  Apostate  was  sainted  emperor  by  liis  soldien.    (Map  No.  XIII.) 


«.  The  Boman  corniption  of  Chlodwig,  or.  In  modera  German,  Lndwig:  In  modem  Franek 
L^mUr-'&Ummmdl,  i.  17S,  Note, 
b.  See  Jftwirioy  Note,  p.  S7S. 


256  HODBRN  HSTOBT.  .         [PamIL 

and  erentiiAUy  the  oastom  was  estaUiahed  of  electhig  r^giats  or 
guardians  for  them,  who,  by  exeroising  the  rojal  functions  during  the 
minority  of  their  wards,  aoquired  a  power  above  that  of  the  monaroh 
himselL  At  the  time  of  the  Sanusen  invasion  of  France,  Charles 
Martel  the  guardian  of  the  nominal  sovereign,  governed  France  With 
the  humble  title  of  mayor  or  duke.  His  son  Pepin  succeeded  him, 
and  during  the  minority  of  his  royal  ward,  the  imbedle  Childerie 
III.,  vrielded  ihe  power,  without  assuming  the  name  and  honots  of 
royalty ;  but  at  length,  in  752,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  obtained  a 
.decree  of  pope  Zachary  in  his  &vor,  detiironed  the  last  of  the  Mero- 
vingian kings,  and  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  in  the  preseocd  of 
the  assembled  nation,  the  first  monarch  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 
'  It  was  upon  this  occasion  that  the  popes  firjst  exercised  the  authority 
of  enUironing  and  dethroning  kings/ 

43.  Of  the  reign  and  the  character  of  Pepin  we  know  little,  ex- 
cept that  he  exhibited  a  profound  deference  for  the  priesthood,  and 
was  engaged  in  a  long  stru^le  Trith  the  former  Grerman  allies  of  the 
Franks ;  and  that  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  768,  there  was  no 
portion  of  Gaul  that  was  not  subject  to  the  French  monarchy.  He 
divided  his  kingdom  between  his  two  sons,  Charles  the  elder,  usually 
called  Charlemagne,  and  Carloman  the  younger ;  to  the  former  of 
whom  he  bequeathed  the  westem  portion  of  the  empire,  and  to  the 
latter,  the  eastern ;  but  as  Carlomaa  died  soon  after,  Cltftfles  stripped 


1.  The  ft«qMBt«UvBioii8  made  in  bUtory  to  papal  auQiorlty  and  papal  i 
neoeasaiy  iome  explanation  of  the  grawth  of  the  papal  power. 

Tile  word  po^  cornea  fh>m  the  Greek  word  pcptL,  and  signiflee  father.  In  the  early  times  of 
Chriatiantty  thia  appellation  waa  gtren  to  all  Christian  priests ;  bnt  during  maAy  oeoturles  past 
it  has  been  appropriated  to  the  Bishop  xft  Rome^  whom  the  HoniBA  CalhoUca  look  upon  as  the 
common  father  of  all  Christians.    ' 

Boman  Catholics  beliere  that  Jesus  Christ  constituted  St.  Peter  the  chief  pastor  to  watch 
oyer  his  whole  flock  here  on  earth— that  he  la  to  have  sacoessors  to  thdiend  of  Ume— and  thai 
the  bishops  of  Borne,  elected  by  the  cardinaU  or  chief  of  the  Bomish  dergy,  are  his  legltlmala 
soccessors,  popes,  or  (atfaers  of  the  cborch,  who  have  power  and  Jurisdiction  over  all  Ohiiatlaaa, 
in  order  to  preserve  unity  and  purity  of  fUth,  doctrine,  and  worship. 

During  a  long  period  aller  the  introduction  of  ChrisUanily  into  Rome,  the  bishops  of  Rotae 
were  merely  fatkera  of  tlu  Ckurtk^  and  possessed  no  temporsl  pOw«r.  It  waa  coslomary, 
however,  to  consult  the  pope  in  temporal  matters ;  and  the  powerf\il  Pepin  fonnd  no  diflteulty 
In  obtaining  a  papal  decision  in  favor  of  dethroning  the  imbOoUe  QtlUeric,  and  indoolng  tba 
pope  to  come  to  Puis  to  ol&ciate  at  his  coronatioii  Soon  after,  in  75&,  Pepin  invested  the 
pope  with  the  exarchate  of  ^ven'  na ;  and  it  is  at  this  point— the  union  of  teesporal  and 
spiritual  jurisdiction—that  tlie  proper  history  of  the  papacy  begins.  Charlemagne  and  ano 
ceeding  princes  added  other  provinces  to  the  papal  government ;  but  a  long  atn^pgle  ftir  su- 
premacy followed,  between  the  popes  and  the  German  emperors ;  and  under  the  pontiflcate 
of  Gregory  VIl^  towards  the  dose  of  the  eleventh  oentmy,  the  claims  of  the  Roman  pontiflfe 
to  supremacy  over  all  the  sovereigns  of  the  earth,  were  boldly  asserted  as  the  baste  of  the  po- 
ntieal  system  of  the  papacy. 


Ob4f.  U]  "^   MIDDLE  AGES.  257 

liis  brother's  widow  and  children  of  their  inheritance,  which  he  added 
to  his  own  dominions. 

44.  The  first  acts  of  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  showed  the  warrior 
eager  for  ccmquest ;  for,  advancing  with  an  arfuj  heyond  the  Loire/ 
he  compelled  the  Aquitanians,  who  had  been  subdued  by  Pepin,  but 
had  since  revolted,  to  submit  to  his  authority.  His  next  enemies 
were  the  Saxons^  who  bounded  his  dominions  on  the  north-east,  and 
whose  territories  extended  along  the  German  ocean  from  the  Elbe* 
to  the  Khine.  While  all  the  other  German  tribes  had  adopted 
Christianity,  the  Saxons  still  sacrificed  to  the  gods  of  their  fathers ; 
and  it  was  both  the  des'ire  of  chastising  theii  repeated  aggressions, 
and  the  merit  to  be  derived  from  their  conversion  to  Christianity, 
that  led  Charlemagne  to  declare  war  against  these  fierce  barbari- 
ans.    (A.  D.  772.) 

45.  His  first  irruption  into  the  Saxon  territory  was  successful ;  for 
lie  destroyed  the  pagan  idols,  received  hostages,  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  Wcser**  concluded  an  advantageous  peace.  But  the  free  spirit  of 
the  Saxons  was  not  quelled  :  again  and  again  they  rose  in  insurreo* 
tion,  headed  by  the  fstmous  Witikind,  a  hero  worthy  of  being  the 
rival  of  Charlemagne ;  and  the  war  continued,  with  occasional  inter- 
ruption, during  a  period  of  thirty-two  years.  At  length,  however, 
peace  was  granted  to  Witikind,  who  received  baptism,  Charlemagne 
himself  acting  as  sponsor ;  and  Saxony  submitted  to  the  Frankish 
institutions,  as  well*  as  to  those  of  Christianity.  A  few  years 
later  the  Saxon  youth,  who  had  taken  no  share  in  ^he  previous  con- 
flicts, arose  in  rebellion,  but  they  were  eventually  subjugated, 
(A.  D.  804,)  when  ten  thousand  of  their  number  were  transported 
into  the  country  of  the  Franks,  where  they  were  gradually  merged 
into  the  nation  of  their  conquerors.  It  was  in  the  midst  of  the 
ravages  of  these  Saxon  wars  that  the  north  of  Germany  passed  from 
barbarism  to  civilization ;  for  monasteries,  churches,  and  bishoprics, 
immediately  sprung  up  in  the  path  of  the  conquerors ;  and  although 

1.  The  Latre^  (looar)  (andently  I^er),  Is  the  princlpAl  river  of  France,  through  the  central 
pert  of  which  it  flows,  in  a  W.  direction  to  the  Atlaniic.  Its  basin  comprises  nearly  one-foorlb 
part  gf  the  kingdom.  Tlie  Loire  was  the  northern  boundary  of  the  country  of  the  ^quitAniatu. 
Hm  eaiiy  seat  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  was  therefore  north  of  the  Loire.  {Map 
K<K  XHL) 

S.  The  El^e,  (anciently  J3f  bity)  rising  in  the  mountains  of  Bohemia,  flows  north-west 
through  central  Europe,  and  enters  the  German  ocean,  or  North  sen,  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  DeunarlL  This  stretfm  was  the  eaatemmoBt  extent  of  the  Germanic  expeditions  of  the  Ro- 
xuuM.    iMmpHo.Xyih) 

X  The  fTesery  (anciently  Vi$ur'gisy)  a  river  of  Germany,  enters  the  north  sea  between  th$ 
Bheoottaeeoataiidtbe&iiioiithftweat.    (Map  Vo.  X\n.) 

17 


258  HODERN.  ^ISTORT.  [FimtTL 

• 

the  religion  which  they  planted  was  snperficial  and  ooirapt,  they  at 
least  diffused  some  respect  for  the  arts  of  civilixed  life. 

46.  Soon  after  the  commencemeDt  of  the  Saxon  wars,  Charle- 
magne found  another,  hut  less  formidahle  enemy,  in  the  Lomhards 
of  Italy.  The  Lombard  king  had  given  protection  to  the  widow  of 
Garloman,  the  deceased  brother  of  Charlemagne,  and  had  required 
pope  Adrian  to  anoint  her  sons  as  kings  of  the  Franks ;  and  upon 
Adrian^s  refusal,  he  threatened  to  carry  war  into  hi«  little  territory 
of  a  few  square  miles  around  Rome.  The  pope  demanded  aid  from 
Charlemagne,  who,  assembling  his  warriors  at  Greneva,'  crossed  the 
Alps  into  Italy  and  eompelled  the  Lotaibard  king,  I>esid6rius,  to 
shut  himself  up  in  his  capital  at  P4via,*  which,  after  a  siege  of  six 
months,  surrendered.  Desid^rius  became  prisoner,  and  was  sent  to 
end  his  days  in  a  monastery,  while  Charlemagne,  placing  the  iron 
crown  of  the  Lombards  up9n  his  head,  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed king  of  Italy.     (774.) 

47.  A  few  years  after  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Lom- 
bards, Charlemagne  carried  his  conquering  arms  into  Spain,  whither 
he  had  been  invited  by  the  viceroy  t>f  Catalonia,*  to  aid  him  against 
the  Moham'  medans.  (677-8.)  Pampeldna^  and  Saragos'  sa*  were 
dismantled,  and  the  Arab  princes  of  that  region  swore. fealty  to  tho 
conqueror,  but  on  the  return  of  Charlemagne  across  the  Pyrenees, 
his  rear  guard  was  at^cked  in  the  famous  pass  of  Roncesvalles,'  and 

1.  0€iuva,  dMCribed  ^j  Oonr  •■  being  "•  the  frontier  town  of  the  AUobrfrglaofl^"  retahM  Ut 
nnefeot  name.  It  Is  on  the  Rhone,  at  the  Bouth-weslem  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva, 
(anciently  Iceman'  nus)^  and  is  the  most  populous  city  of  Swltzertand.  In  the  year  4S6  it  was 
taken  by  the  Burgun'  diana,  and  became  their  capItaL  It  aflerwiirdB  belonged,  saooeaalirely,  to 
the  Os'  trogothfl  and  Franks,  and  also  to  the  second  kingdom  of  Bur'  gundy.  On  the  (Ul  of  the 
latter  H  was  governed  by  ito  own  bishops;  but  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  bikhops 
were  expelled,  and  Geneva  became  a  republic    (M^s  No.  XIV.  and  X VIL) 

2.  PAoto,  (anciently  TYeiaani,)  is  situated  on  the  Ticino  (anciently  Ticinua,)  north  of  the  P<S 
and  twenty  miles  south  from  Milan.  P&via  has*  sustained  many  sieges,  but  is  principally  dis- 
tlnguUhed  for  the  great  batUe  fought  in  its  vicinity  Feb.  S4th,  1S8S.    See  p.  3S7.    (Map  No.  X VH.) 

3.  CataUnia  wss  the  north-western  province  of  Spain.  It  was  successively  subject  to  the 
Romans,  Goths,  and  Moors ;  but  in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries  in  connection  with  the  adjoining 
Frenoh  province  of  Rous'  siUon,  it  became  an  independent  State,  subject  to  the  counts  or  earls 
of  Barcelona.    (JtfopNo.XIIL) 

4.  Pampelitnit,  a  forlided  city  of  Spain,  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Pompey  after  the  de- 
feat of  Serl6rlua,  (see  p.  176,)  Is  a  short  distance  south  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  forty  miles  ftom 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.    It  was  the  capital  oflhe  kingdom,  now  province,  of  Navarre.    (MapHo-XlU.) 

5.  Sarag-ot'  to,  (ancienUy  Cmsor  Augutta)  situated  in  a  flne  plain  on  the  Fbro,  (anciently 
Jbtnu^  is  elghty^eeven  mHes  south-east  from  Pampeluna.  It  is  a  very  ancient  city*  "b^'  ^ 
■aid  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Phasnicians  or  Carthaginians.  Julius  Osssar  greatly  va^arf^ 
it,  and  Augustas  gave  it  the  name  of  Gasaar  Augusta,  with  the  privUeges  of  a  free  colony* 
iJHof  No.  xrii.) 

0.  B^ucesvaUes  (IZm'^o-voO  is  about  twenty  mlloe  north-eaat  from  PampeKma.  {Map  No.  XIH.) 


Giur.II]  MIDDLE  AGES. 

eotireij  oat  to  pieoeet.     Poesy  and  fiible  have  combined  to  render 
memorable  a  defeat  of  which  history  has  preserved  no  details. 

48.  After  Charlemagne  had  extended  his  empire  oyer  Fsanoe, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  minor  conquests  easily  followed ;  and  many  of 
the  other  sorronnding  nations,  or  rather  tribes,  fell  under  his  power, 
or  Bolidted  his  protection.  Thus  the  dominion  of  the  Franks  pene- 
trated into  Hungary,  and  advanced  upon  the  Danube  as  far  as  the 
frontiiers  of  the  Greek  em]iire.  A  conspiracy  in  Rome  having  forced 
the  pope  to  seek  the  protection  of  Charlemagne,  in  the  year  800 
the  latter  visited  Home  in  person  to  punish  the  evil  doers.  While 
he  was  there  attending  services  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  at  the  Christ-. 
mas  festival,  the  gratified  pontiff  plaoed  upon  his  head  a  crown  of 
gold,  and,  in  the  fprmula  observed  for  the  Roman  emperors,  and 
amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people,  saluted  him  by  the  titles  of 
Emperor  and  Augustus.  This  act  was  considered  as  indicating  the 
revival  of  the  Empire  of  the  West,  after  an  interruption  of  about 
three  centuries. 

49.  Charlemagne,  asking  of  the  German  Franks,  was  thus  seated 
on  the  throne  of  the  CsDsars.  Nor  was  the  circumstance  of  his  re 
oetving  the  imperial  crown  unimportant,  as  by  the  act  he  declared 
himself  the  representative  of  the  ancient  Roman  civilization,  and  not 
of  the  barbarism  of  its  destroyers.  In  Italy,  Charlemagne  sought 
teachers  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  public  schools  throughout 
his  dominions:  he  encouraged  literature,  and  attempted  to  revive 
commerce ;  and  his  capital  of  Aix-laChapelle'  he  so  adorned  with 
sumptuous  edifices,  palaces,  churches,  bridges,  and  monuments  of  art, 
as  to  ~give  it  the  appearance  of  a  Roman  city.  By  the  wisdom  of 
his  laws,  and  the  energy  which  he  displayed  in  executing  them,  he 
established  order  and  regularity,  and  gave  protection  to  all  parts  of  " 
hia  empire.  But  with  all  the  greatness  of  Charlemagne,  his  private 
life  was  not  free  from  the  stain  of  licentiousness ;  and  where  his 
ambition  led  him  he  was  unsparing  of  blood.  He  caused  four  thou- 
sand five  hundred  imprisoned  Saxons  to  be  beheaded  in  one  day,  las 
a  terrible  example  to  their  countrymen,  and  as  an  act  of  retribution 
for  an  army  which  he  had  lost ;  and  as  a  right  of  conquest  he  de- 
nounce the  penalty  of  death  against  those  who  refused  baptism,  or 
who  even  eat  flesh  durmg  Lent.     Still  his  long  reign  is  a  brilliant 

I.  Jiipia-Okapdle  (j^ithtkapptf)  the  ftvorite  raaldenoe  of  Chaiiemagiie^  Is  an  old  aod 
vetUniUt  dty  of  Praatlan  Gennaoy,  wett  of  the  Bhine,  and  MTent;jF^h(  mUes  eai4  fton. 
(Jlf^*  No.  ZUL  aail  XVQ.) 


260  MODBRN  HISTORY.  [FabtIL 

period  in  the  history  of  the  middle  ages ; — ^the  more  interestiiig,  from 
the  preceding  ohaos  of  disorder,  nnd  the- disgraces  and  miseries  yr\nxh 
followed  it ; — ^resembling  the  coarse  of  a  meteor  that  leaves  the  dark- 
ness still  more  dreary  as  it  disappears. 

50.  The  posterity  of  Charlemagne  were  unequal  to  the  task  of 
preserving  the  empire  which  he  had  formed,  and  it  speedily  fell 
asunder  by  its  own  weight.  To  the  mutual  antipathies  of  different 
races, — the  German  on  the  one  side,  including  the  Franks,  knit  to- 
gether by  their  old  Teutonic  tongue, — 4md  the  nation  of  mingled 
Gallic,  Roman,  and  Barbarian  origin,  on  the  other,  which  afterwards 
assumed,  the  name  of  Franks,  and  gave  to  their  own  country  the 
appellation  France, — ^was  added  the  rivalry  of  the  CarloviDgian 
princes;  and  about  thirty  years  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne 
(A.  I).  814),  at  the  dose  of  a  period  of  anarchy  and  civil  war,  the 
empire  was  divided  among  his  descendants,  and  out  of  it  were  con- 
stituted the  ^separate  kingdoms, — France,  Germany,  and  Italy. 
(A.  D.  843.)^ 

51.  The  motive  that  led  the  Oarlovingian  princes  to  put  an  end 
to  their  unnatural  wars  with  each  other,  was  the  repeated  invasion 
of  the  coasts  of  France  and  Germany  by  piratical  adventurers  from 
the  north,  called  Northmen  or  Danes,  a  branch  of  the  great  Teutonic  * 
race,  who,  issuing  from  all  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  annually  ravaged 
the  coasts  of  their  more  civilized  neighbors, — and,  by  hasty  incur- 
sions, even  pillaged  the  cities  far  in  the  intorior.  During  more  than 
a  century  these  Northern  pirates  continued  to  devastate  the  shores 
of  Western  Europe,  particularly  infesting  the  coasts  of  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  France. 

52.  In  the  meantime  central  Europe  became  a  prey  to  the  Hun- 
garians, a  warlike  Tartasian  tribe,  whose  untamed  ferocity  recalled 
the  memory  of  At'  tila.  The  Saracens  also,  masters  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, kept  the  coasts  of  Italy  in  constant  alarm,  and  twice  in- 
sulted and  ravaged  the  territory  of  Rome.  Amid  the  tumult  and 
confusion  thiXs  occasioned,  European  society  was  undergoing  a 
change,  frbm  the  absolutism  of  imperial  authority  to  the  establish- 
ment of  numerous  dukedoms,  having  little  more  than  a  nominal  de- 
pendence upon  the  reigning  princes. '  Power  was  transferred^from 
the  palace  of  the  king  to  the  castle  of  the  baron ;  and  for  a'time 
European  history, — that  of  France  in  particular — is  occupied  with 
the  annals  of  an  intriguing,  &ctious,  aspiring  nobility,  rather  than 

a.  By  the  traaty  of  Verdun,  Aug.  llth,  8«8» 


Cstf.IL]  .     MIDDLE  AGES.         '  261 

witii  those  of  moBarehs  and  the  people.  From  the  confosion  inoi- 
dent  to  snoh  a.  state  of  society  we  turn  to  the  neighboring  island  of 
Britain,  where,  a  few  years  after  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne,  the  immortal  Alfred  arose,,  drove  back  the  tide  of  bar- 
barian conquest,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  those  laws  and  institu- 
tions whidh  have  rendered  England  the  most  enlightened  and  most 
powerful  of  the  nations  of  Europe. 

53.  We  have  mentioned  that,  towards  the  elose  of  the  sixth  oen- 
tarj,  the  Saxon  tribes  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  had  made  them* 
Belves  masters  of  the  southern  and  more  fertile  provinces       y^^ 

of  Britain.     After  having  extirpated  the  ancient  British     enouhh 
population,  or  driven  it  into  Cornwall  and  Wales  on  the     ^^*™*^- 
western  side  of  the  island,  the  kindred  tribes  of  ihe  Angles  and  Sax-' 
ons,  under  the  common  name  of  Anglo  Saxons,  established  in  England 
seren  independent  kingdoms,  which  are  known  in  history  as  the  Saxon 
Heptarchy.     The  intricate  details,  so  far  as  we  can  learn  them,  of  the 
history  of  these  kingdoms,  are  uninteresting  and  unimportant ;  and 
from  the  period  of  the  first  inroads  of  the  Saxons  clown  to   the 
time  of  the  coronation  of  Alfred  the  Great  in  872,  the  chronicles  of 
Britain  present  us  with  the  names  of  numerous  kings,  the  dates  of 
many  battles,  and  frequent  revolutions  attended  with  unimportant 
results ; — the  history  of  all  which  is  in  great  part  conjectural,  apd 
gives  us  little  insight  into  individual  or  national  character. 

54.  It  appears  that  about  the  year  597  Christianity  was  first  intro- 
duced into  England  by  the  monk  Augustine,  accompanied  by  forty 
missionaries,  who  had  been  seBt  out  by  pope  Gregory  for  the  con- 
▼ersion  of  the  Britons.  The  new  faith,  such  as  it  pleased  the  church 
(o  promulgate,  being  received  cordially  by  the  kings,  descended  from 
them  to  their  subjects,  and  was  established  without  persecution,  and  ' 
without  the  shedding  of  the  blood  of  a  single  martyr.  The  religious 
seal  of  the  Anglo  Saxons  greatly  exceeded  that  of  the  nations  <5f  the 
continent ;  and  it  is  recorded  that,  during  the  Heptarchy,  ten  kings 
and  eleven  queens  laid  aside  the  crown  to  devote  themselves  to  a 
monastic  life. 

55.  In  the  year  827  the  several  kingdoms  of  the  Saxon  Hep- 
tarchy were  united  in  one  great  State  by  Egl^t,  prince  of  the  West 
Saxons,  an  ambitious  warrior,  who  exhibits  some  points  of  compari- 
son with  his  illustrious  cotemporary  Charlemagne,  at  whose  court  he 
had  spent  twelve  years  of  his  early  life.  The^axon  union,  und^r  the 
firm  administration  of  Egbert,  promised  future  tranquillity  to  the  in* 


982  IfeDKBK  HDTORT.  [?4»IL 

habitantfl  of  BriCMn ;  bnl  wsuMljluid  a  regular  goreniBeni  been  «* 
iabliahed  wbon  the  piratical  SeandinaTiaiia,  known  in  Franoe  under 
the  name  of  Normans,  and  m  Si^land  bj  that  of  Danee,  landed  in 
the  aoathem  part  of  the  ialand,  and  after  a  bloody  battle  irith  Eg- 
hfiiri  at  Cbarmonth  in  Doreetahtre,  made  good  thmr  retreat  to  their 
ships,  carrying  off  all  the  portable  wealth  of  the  district  (A.  B.  833.) 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  rayages  of  the  Northmen- in  Bngland; 
and  they  continued  to  plunder  the  coasts  for  nearly  two  centuries. 

56.  From  the  death  of  Egbert  in  838,  to  the  aooeasion  of  Alfred 
the  Great  in  871,  the  throne  of  England  was  oocopied  by  four  Saxon 
princes;*  and  the  whole  of  this  period,  like  the  corresponding  one 
in  French  history,  is  filled  irith  the  disastet>us  inyasions  of  the  Danes.^ 

'  In  the  course  of  a  single  year  nine  sanguinary  battles  were  fought 
between  the  Saxons  and  their  inyaders ;  and  in  the  last  of  ihese  bat- 
tles king  Bthelred  received  a 'wound  which  caused  his  death 
(87U2.)  His  brother  Alfred,  then  only  twenty-two  years  of  age, 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  had  served  with  distinction  in  the 
numerous  bloody  battles  fought  by  his  brother ;  but  on  his  aoceasiott 
he  found  nearly  half  the  kingdom  in  the  possession  of  the  Danes; 
and  within  six  years  the  almost  innumerable  swarms  of  these  in- 
vaders struck  such  terror  into  the  English,  that  Alfr^,  who  strove  to 
assemble  an  army,  found  himself  suddenly  deserted  by  all  his  war 
riors. 

57.  Obliged  to  relinqmsh  the  ensigns  of  royalty,  and  to  seek 
shelter  firom  the  pursuit  of  his  enemies,  he  disguised  himself  under 
the  habit  of  a  peasant,  and  for  sonw)  time  lived  in  the  cottage  of  a 
goatherd,  known  only  to  his  host,  and  regarded  by  his  hostess  as  an 
inferior,  and  occasionally  intrusted  by  her  with  the  menial  duties  of 
the  household.  It  is  said  that,  as  he  was  one  day  trimmmg  his  ar- 
rows by  the  fire-side,  she  desired  him  to  watch  some  cakes  that  were 
bakltag,  and  that  when,  forgetting  his  trust,  he  suffered  them  to  burn, 
she  severely  upbraided  him  for  his  neglect  Afterwards,  retiring 
with  a  few  fiuthful  followers  to  the  marshes  of  Somersetshire,  he 
built  there  a  fortress,  whence  he  made  occasional  suooessfol  sallies 
upon  the  Danes,  who  knew  not  from  what  quarter  the  blow  eame. 
While  his  very  existence  was  unsuspected  by  the  enemy,  under  the 

a.  ElbelwoU;  Ethelbald,  Ethelbert,  and  Ethelrad.  "^ 

b.  As  the  term  Mtrmmtu  wm  at  a  later  period  exdmlTelj  appropriated  (o  that  tnnch  ofthe 
BeandlnaTiaiw  wklch  aettled  in  Normandy,  we  shaU  foUow  the  English  writers  and  apply  ^ 
term  Danu  to  those  barlMrians of  the  samelkmlly  whoso  long  ranged  ttie  EngUatiW^ 


Oup.H]  MIDDLE  AGEa  263, 

dtsgnise  of  a  barper  he  yisited  tbeir  camp,  where  his  musical  skill 
obtained  for  him  a  welcome  reception,  and  an  introduction  to  the 
tent  of  the  Danish  prince,  Guthrum.  Here  he  spent  three  days,  wit- 
ne^ed  the  supine  security  of  the  enemy,  thoroughly  examined  the 
camp  and  its  i^proaches,  and  then  went  to  meet  his  countrypaen,  for 
whom  he  had  appointed  a  gathering  in  8elwood  forest.^    ^ 

58.  The  Saxons,  inspired  with  new  life  and  courage  at  the  sight 
of  their  beloved  prince,  whom  they  had  supposed  dead,  fell  upon  the 
unsuspecting  Danes,  and  cut  nearly  all  of  them  to  pieces.  (A.  D.  878.) 
Ghithrum,  and  the  small  band  of  followers  who  escaped,  were  soon 
beei^ed  in  a  fortitess,  where  they  accepted  the  terms  of  peace  that 
were  offered  them.  Guthrum  embraced  Christianity;  the  greater 
part  of  the  Danes  settled  peaceably  on  the  lands  that  were  assigned 
Uiem,  where  they  soon  intermingled  with  the  Saxons ;  while  the  more 
turbulent  spirits  went  to  join  new  swarms,  of  their  countrymen  in 
their  ravages  upon  the  French  and  German  coasts.  The  shores  of 
England  were  unvisited,  during  several  years,  by  the  enemy,  and 
Alfred  employed  the  interval  of  ^epose  in  organizing  the  future  de- 
fence  of  his  kingdom.  In  early  life  he  had  visited  Italy,  and  seen 
the  Greek  and  Boman  galleys,  which  were  greatly  superior  to 
the  Danish  unarmed  vessels,  that  were  fitted  only  for  transport. 
Alfred  now  formed  a  navy ;  and  his  vessels  never  met  those  of  the 
Danes  without  the  certain  destruction  of  the  latter. 

59.  The  Danes,  however,  who  had  settled  in  England,  still  occu- 
pied the  greater  part  of  the  country,  so  that  the  acknowMged  sov- 
ereignty of  Alfred  did  not  extend  over  any  of  the  countries  north-' 
ward  of  the  city  of  London, — and  fifteen  years  after  the  defeat  of 
Guthrum,  Hastings,  another  celebrated  Danish  chief,  threatened  to 
deprive  the  English  king  of  the  limited  possessions  which  he  still  re- 
tained. After  having  plundered  all  the  northern  provinces  of  France, 
Hastings  appeared  on  the  coast  of  Kent  with  three  hundred  and 
thirty  sail,  and  spreading  his  forces  over  the  country,  committed  the 
most  dreadful  ravages.  (A.  D.  893.)  The  Danes  in  the  northern 
pa^-ts  of  England  jomed  him ;  but  they  were  everywhere  defeated, 
and  eventually  Hastings  withdrew  to  his  own  country,  taking  back 
with  him  the  most  warlike  portion  of  the  Danish  population,  from  the 
English  channel  to  the  frontiers  of  Scotland,  after  which  the  whole 
of  England  no  longer  hesitated  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  Al- 
fred, although  his  power  over  the  Danish  population  in  the  northern 

«.  AtBrizloiHoaai0boi«lenorttelbnit,taWttWitra.   WaWilnIi6Mfc«rfl 


264  MODSRN  BISTORT.  [BiMU 

port  of  the  kingdom  was  still  little  more  Uian  nominaL  He  died 
ufier  a  reigu  of  twenty- nine  years  aad  a-half^  baying  deKnredly  at- 
tained the  appellation  of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  the  title  of  fouadtt 
of  the  Englisli  monarchy.     (A.  D.  901.) 

-  60.  To  Alfred  the  Englieih  ascribe  the  origin  of  many  of  those  in- 
stitutions which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  their  nation  V  prosperity  and 
renown.  Aa  the  founder  of  the  English  navy,  he  planted  the  seeds 
of  the  maritime  power  of  England :  with  bim  arose  the  grandeer 
and  prosperity  of  London,  the  place  of  the  assembling  of  the  national 
parliament  or  body  of  prelates,  earls,  barons,  «nd  burghers,  or  depu- 
ties from  the  English  burghs,  or  associations  of  freemen  :  he  fuade  a 
collection  of  the  Saxon  laws,  to  which  he  added  others  framed  or 
sanctioned  by  himself;  he  reformed  the  Saxon  division  of  the  coantry 
into  counties  and  slures ;  diyided  the  citiiens  into  oorporatioDS  of 
tens  and  hundreds,  with  a  regular  system  of  inspection  and  police, 
in  which  equals  exercised  a  superyision  over  equals ;  and  in  the  mode 
which  he  adopted  of  settling  controversies,  we  trace  the  first  indica- 
tions of  the  gjory  of  the  English  judiciary — the  trial  by  jury.  The 
ottltivation  of  letters,  which  had  been  interrupted  at  Uie  first  inva- 
sion of  the  then  barbarous  Saxons,  was  revived  by  Alfred,  who  was, 
himself,  the  most  learned  man  in  the  kingdom :  he  founded  schools 
at  Oxford — the  germ  of  the  celebrated  university  of  that  name; 
and  he  set  aside  a  considerable  portion  of  his  revenues  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  salaries  of  teachers.  The  character  of  Alfred  is  almost 
unrivalle(^in  the  annals  of  any  age  or  nation ;  and  in  the  details  of 
his  private  life  we 'cannot  discover  a  vice,  or  even  a  fault,  to  stain  or 
sully  the  spotlessness  of  his  reputation. 


SECTION'II. 

GKNSaAL  HTSTORT  DURINO  THE  TENTH,   VLEVKSTU,  TWELPTB,   AND  TBXB* 

TBKNTH  centuries:   AD..  900  TO  1800  =  400  tbabs. 
I.  COMPLETE  DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  BONDS  OF  SOCIETY. 

ANALYSIS.  1.  Causes  of  the  coiirDsiON  or  Historic  xatkrial*^  al  lhS»  period.— 2.  State 
OF  TiiK  Sarackn  WORLD.  [B>u<da<J.  Cordova.  KhoraMan*.}— 3.  Xhe  Byz*stink  kmfir»» 
Tftrkiah  invaj»iona  and  congests.  ICeonfia.]— 4.  T»ie  divfmons  of  the  CaMovinifian  emplrft 
Condition  or  Italy.  Btrenger  duke  of  FriiiH.  Prince  of  Burgundy. ,  Hugh  count  ofPro- 
vence.  Surrender  of  Ihe  kiii^fdora  lo  Otho.  [J'riuli.  Switzerland.  Provenci\]--5.  Italy  uii4« 
\he  GermaD  etnpcrorB.    GuelA  aud  GblbeUioM.    Dukes,  Burqaiaco 


Cmjof.  n,]  lODDLE  AGES.  265 

FBttjKftHaiiraiNiblies.— «.Coin>moNor6nMAifT.  Itasii  dukedoms.  [Gtaucooy.  lliiirin'gia. 
Tnaobaia.  Bayftria.  Suibta.  J«ornuiie.]  EDcrOAChmeiiU  of  the  dakeflb  Belgn  of  Oonnid. 
Hcoiy  L  of  Saxony.  Powen  of  the  Saxon  nden.~7.  Gorditior  or  Frakoc.  Charles  the 
Simple.  Other  prinoes.  DepoeltioD  of  Charles.  [Tnaiq)urB]ie  Baisnody.  Proveqoe.  Brit. 
ImnyT^—S.  Setltemeat  of  the  Northmen  in  Fruxoe.  [Normandy.]  Importance  of  this  eveot.-^ 
91.  The  eoonts  of  Finis.  Hogh  Capet.  [Rhelms.]  SttmUion  of  France  tor  two  hondrad  and 
ftn7  jeais  aAer  the  ioeesrion  of  Hugh  GapeU 

n.  THE  FEUDAL  SYBTEM;  CHIVALRY ;  AND  THE  CRU8ADBB. 

1.  Europe  In  the  eentrsl  period  of  the  Ifiddle  Agea.  Origin  of  the  Fcvbal  Srmx.  Us 
damiion  and  Impoitanoe.— S.  Partition  of  lands  by  th^  barbarians  who  oyerthiew  the  Bomaa 
edkplrsw  Conditions  of  the  aUotment  gradations  of  the  system^— 3.  Nature  of  the  estates 
thus  obtained.  Crown  lands— how  disposed  of.  The  woid  /nui.— 4.  Tlie  feudal  syatem  in 
ftance.  Charienagne's  efforts  lo  check  its  progreta.  Eflbets  apon  the  nobilf ^.  (3#owth  of 
ihe  power  of  the  nobles  after  the  overthrow  of  royal  aathority.  Thdr  petty  soverelgntiea.— 5. 
Condition  of  the  allodial  proprietors.  They  are  forced  to  become  feudal  tenants.--6b  Legal 
qvalltSes  and  resnlts  tliat  grew  out  of  the  feudal  system.  •  BeUefls  ^^"i^  eaeheats,  aids,  wtrd- 
ahip  and  marriage.— 7.  The  feudal  goTemment  in  lis  best  state.  Its  influence  on  the  character 
or  Boeiety.    General  ignorance  at  this  period.    Sentiments  of  independence  in  the  nobiUty. 

8.  Sin  of  CmvALar.  Our  first  notices  of  iu  Its  origin.— 0.  Its  rapid  spread,  and  its  good 
eflbeta— in.  Its  spirit  based  on  noble  impulses.  Eixtrsct  (h>m  Hallam:  From  James.  Cus- 
toms and  pecttHarities  of  chivalry.  Who  were  members  of  the  institution:— 11.  The  profeaalon 
of  anna  among  the  Germans.  Education  of  a  knight.  The  practice  of  knight-errantry^— IS 
Sxieot  of  chivalry  in  the  11th  century.    Its  spirit  led  to  the  crusades. 

OaioiM  or  THE  CausiJDXB.— 13.  Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem.  General  expectation  of  the  ap- 
pcoaefaing  end  of  the  workl^— 14.  Extortion  and  outrage  practiced  upon  the  pilgrims.  Honror 
and  indignation  excited  theraby  in  Europe.  The  preachiBg  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  [^mlens.]' 
1&.  The  councils  of  Placentia  and  Clermont.  [Placentia  and  Clermont.]  (Sathering  of  the 
eraaaderB  fer  the  Ferbt  CavsAna.- KL  Conduct  and  fete  of  the  feramosi  bands  of  the  cm- 
aadera.  The  genuine  army  of  the  crusade.  [Bouillon.]— 17.  Conduct  of  Alexius,  emperor  of 
Constantinople.  His  proposals  spumed  by  the  crusaders.— 18.  Number  of  the  crusaders  col- 
lected in  Asia  Minor.  First  enooonter  with  the  Turks.  [Nice.  Bithyn'ia.  R6um.]  The 
march  to  Syria.  [Dorila'  um.]— 19.  The  siege  and  capture  of  Antioch.  The  Persian  and 
l^nkiBh  hosts  defeated  before  the  town.— SO.  Civil  wars  among  the  Turks.  The  caliph  of  Egypt 
lakea  Jerusalem.  Proposal  to  unite  his  forces  with  the  Christians  n^ected.- 81.  March  of  the 
crwaders  to  Jerusalem.  [ML  Lib' anus.  Trip'olL  Tyre.  Acre.  Ciesar^a.]  Transports  of 
Ibe  Christians  on  the  fl»st  view  of  the  city.  Attack,  and  repulse.— S2.  Capture  of  Jen^leniv 
Acts  of  veneration  and  worship.  Beoeptlon  given  to  Peter  the  Hermit.  His  ultimate  fete^- 
23.  The  new  govenmient  of  Jerusalem.  Minor  Christian  States.  Defenceless  state  of  Jerusac 
lem  under  Godfrey.  Continued  pilgrimages.  Orders  of  knighthood  established  at  Jerusalem. 
The  noted  valor  of  the  knights. 

94.  OMrtthned  yeariy  emigration  of  pilgrim  warriors  to  the  Holy  Land.  Six  principal  om- 
•adea.  Ilwir  general  clnracter.— 35.  The  Sacoirn  Csosadx.  The  leading  army  under  Conrad. 
The  army  of  Freaeh  and  Germans.— S6.  Jerusalem  taken  by  Saladin.  The  Third  Crubadk, 
fkle  of  the  German  emperor.  Bnooesses  of.  the  French  and  English.  Retnm  of  PhiUp. 
Slebaid  oonclndes  a  truce  with  Saladin.  [Ascalon.]— S7.  The  Fourth  Crvsadb,  led  by  Bonl- 
feee.  Tim  crusaders  take  Zara,  and  conquer  Constantinople.  No  benefit  to  Palestine.  [Mont* 
•arrai.  Zaia.}— sa  The  Fifth  CRosAns.  Partial  aoooeasea,  and  final  min,  of  the  expedition. 
[Damletia.]  Expedition  of  the  German  emperor,  Frederic  IL  Treaty  with  the  sultan,  by 
which  Jcniaalem  is  yielded  to  the  Christians.    Jerusalem  sgain  taken  by  the  sultan,  bat  re- 


n.  ODMmpomry  events  In  JUMlhem  Asia.  Tartar  CotrqirasTs  in  Aala  and  in  Eorope. 
[Oilna.  Rosaia.  Kiev,  kosoow.]  Alarm  of  the  Christian  nations  of  Europe.  Recall  of  the 
eoaqnering  hordes.— 30.  The  Corasmlns.  They  ovemm  Syria  and  take  Jerusalem,  but  sre 
•mUT  expelled  by  the  united  Turks  and  Christians.— 31.  The  Si^th  Cbusadb,  led  by  Louis 
DL,  wkD  attacks  Egypt.  The  second  crusade  of  Louis.  Attack  upon  Carthage.  Result  of  the 
expedition.— 3S.  Acre,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  OhrisUaas  in  Syria,  taken  by  the  Turks,  1991. 
BeanllaoftbeChHadesL 

M  • 


2M  KODSBK  BOmBT.  [fbmVL 

IB.  niGJUBH  BKIOEY. 

1.  OvrlutnilBreawtotheblaloiyof  b^tattl.  The  presMt  oontiAitttlon.--4;  GooditloD  of 
Slr«LAH»  AFTBm  tvB  BBATS  or  Ai.ntK9.  Bigtaul  duliig  lli«  ftlgD  of  EttMlrad  II*  MuMora 
or  the  Dmios.  Eflbelo  of  tbto  inpotMe  iimmoio.  Ouolo.  BoeoU  of  Elhelnd.  Edmund 
KroDfllde.  Cbanto  aolo  nioBBf«h^-4.  Hit  eoDcillotory  pollojr.  His  nst  poMwiotia.  Chaneter 
or  Ub  adndiilBtnllon  oT  tbo  goTonnioaft— 4.  Horold  and  Uaidieainito.  Tbe  ndgn  of  Bdwud 
tlM  OoBtewr.  BtohU.  thai  dlainrbod  bla  ioIsil  Aooewion  of  HaiokL  The  Normm 
OoiiQVBST.  ^onex.  Hintingn  "}—&,  Gradual  coaqaoBi  of  ali  England.  WllUam^i  treatoMot 
of  hit  oonqiwred  subjoeta.— 4L  Tbe  feudal  BTStem  fai  EnglaiMl.  Tbe  Doomadajr  Booi^.  Saxom 
md  NonMBB^T.  BolgnBor  WmiBm  BiiAHi  and  Beoiy  L— &  UauipaUoii  and  reign  of  Stepben. 
Hjbht  n.  CPlBntaganot.]— fti  Beanr'a  oztooilTe  poaaowlona.  Rkpuctioii  op  Ublaho.  [His- 
tory of  Ireland.]  Ibo  trooblea  of  HewyV  relgnv— 10.  Reign  of  RIebaid,  the  Lion  Hearted.— >L 
Baigftof  John,wiiaBa>od  UclUaad.  Lom  of  bla  oonUnental  poaaeaaloBa.  Qoaneli  wlOa  the 
popo :— vltb  Ibe  bafona.  JMyao  CSkarU.  QrU  war,  and  death  of  John.— 13.  Tbe  long  reign 
or  Bonrj  HI.  Hie  diflloqitlea  with  the  barons.  Ftnt  gemaaof  popular  repceseotatloo.  13. 
Hm  reifn  oT  Bdwaid  L  Sub^ooation  or  Walks.  [History  of  Wales.]— 14.  RelaUons  be- 
tir«pn  Bi^land and BooUand.  The  priaosaa  MBigBret--15.  BaUol  and  Bnioe.  Beginolngof 
theSoomsB  WABs.  Submlasloo  of  BalioL  [Dunbar.]— 10.  William  Wallace  reooverv  Scoir 
land,bvt  Is  defeated  atFUkMc  [attrUng.  Fitlklrflc]  Fate. of  WaUjaco.>-17.  Robert  Bnica 
ttmmad  kli«  of  Sootlaod.   Bdward  IL  defeated  by  him.    [Bcoae.    Bannockburo.] 

1&  Northern  natlona  of  Bnropedurii«  this  period.  Wars  between  the  Moors  and  CbriidBBi 
!■  the  flpanlah  panlnaala.   Final  orarthipw  of  the  Baracen  power  In  the  penlnwihu 

1.  OOBPLETE  DISSOLUTION  Or  THE  BONDS  OF  SOCIETY. 1.  The  tenth 

Mntnry  brings  us  to  the  central  period  of  what  has  been  denomi- 
nated the  Middle  Ages.     The  history  of  the  known  world  presents 
L  ooNTuaioy  ^  gf^^f  oonfusion  and  discordance  of  laaterials  at  this 
or  BisToaio  than  at  any  preceding  epoch ;   for  at  this  time  we  have 
1CATSUAL8.  neither  a  great  empire,  like  the  Grecian,  the  Persian,  or 
the  Boman ;  nor  any  great  simultaneoos  movement,  like  the  mighly 
tide  df  the  barbarian  invasions,  to  serve  as  the  starting  and  the  re- 
turning point  for  our  researches,  and  to  give,  by  its  prominence,  a 
sort  of  unity  to  cotemporaneous  history ;  but  on  every  side  we  see 
States  falling  into  dissolution ;  the  masses  breaking  into  fragments ; 
dukes,  counts,  <and  lords,  renouncing  their  allegiance  to  kings  and 
emperors ;  cities,  towns,  and  castles,  declaring  their  independence , 
and,  amid  a  general  dissolution  of  the  bonds  of  society,  we  find 
almost  universal  anarchy  prevailing. 

2.  In  the  East,  the  empire  of  the  caliphs,  the  mighty  colossos  of 
Muflsqlmaa^dominion,  was  broken ;  the  Saracens  were  no  longer  ob- 

n.  ram  i^  ^^  terror  to  all  their  neighbors,  and  the  frequent 
■▲aAOKN  revolutions  of  the  throne  of  Bagdad,'  the  central  seat 
woatD.      Qf  t]jQ  religion  of  the  prophet,  had  geased  |o  have  any 

t  Bagdad^  a  fkfcoua  dty  of  Astatic  Turlcey,— long  tbe  chief  aeat  of  Moslem  power  in  AjJi» 
—the  cupltal  of  the  Eastern  caliphate,  and  of  the  scientific  world  daring  the  '*  Dark  Agea>  » 
dtuated  on  the  river  Tigris,  slxty-eighl  miles  north  of  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  * 

BafldsdiiBsfeaAdcdbf  tlk»«aiphAl.lIao«DanA.D.7ei;aiidls8^      ba?e  b«tt  priA«* 


a]  unmuL  agbs.  M7 


I  on  ilie  roBt  of  tiie  world.  About  the  middle  of  the  oi^tli 
eeninrj,  the  Mo<»r8  of  Spaiii  ht^d  eeparated  themselves  from  their 
Xaston  brethren,  and  made  Cor'  dova'  the  seat  of  their  dominion ; 
aad  little  more  than  two  oentmries  and  a  half  later,  (A.  D.  1031) 
the  diTiflioii  of  the  Western  Oaliphate  into  a  great  number  of  small 
principalities,  which  were  weakened  by  civil  dissensions,  contributed 
to  the  enlargement  of  the  Christian  kingdoms  in  the  northern  pajrt 
of  the  peninsula.  Soon  after  the  defection  of  the  Moors  of  Spain, 
an  indq[>endent  Saracen  monarchy  had  arisoA  in  Africa  proper :  this 
was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  new  dynasties  in  Egypt^ 
Khorasosn','  and  Persia ;  and  eventually,  in  the  tenth  century,  we 
ibd  the  Caliphate  divided  into  a  great  number  of  petty  States,  whose 
annals,  gathered  firom  oriental  writers,  furnish,  amid  a  labyrinth  of 
almost  unknown  names  and  coimtries,  little  more  than  the  chronology 
of  princes,  with  the  civil  wars,  parricides,  and  fratricides  of  each 
reign.  Such  was  the  condition  of  that  vast  population,  comprising 
many  nations  and  languages,  which  sftll  adhered,  although  under  dif; 
ferent  forms,  and  with  many  departures  from  the  originals,  to  the 
general  principles  of  the  moslem  faith. 

3.  The  Bysantine  empire  still  continued  to  exist,  but  in  weakness 
and  ooimption.     ^'  From  the  age  of  Justin'  ian,"  says  Gibbon,  "  it 

paQf  fbmwd  out  of  tbe  rolM  of  Otos'  f pbon.  U  was  greaOj  •nlnrged  aad  adomed  by  the 
graadflOD  of  it*  foander,  the  fiunoos  Haroan-al-Raaehid.  It  continued  to  flourish,  and  to  bo 
tte  principal-seat  of  learning  and  the  arts  tlU  1356,  when  Hoolaku,  grandson  of  Gengis  Khan, 
'•Bdoeed  the  ei^  after  a  alege  of  two  months,  andi^ye  It  up  to  plunder  and  massacre.  It  is 
mM  that  the  norobierof  the  slain  in  the  eity  alone  amounted  to  eight  hundred  thousand.  Since 
that  event  Bagdad  has  witnessed  various  other  sieges  and  revolutions.  It  was  burnt  and 
L  by  the  isroelens  Tlmour  A.  D.  1401,  who  erected  a  pyramid  of  human  heads  on  its 
In  1S37  it  Ineuned  the  vengeance  of  Amunth  IV.,  the  Turkish  sultan,  who  barbarously 
a  large  portion  of  the  Inhabitants.  Since  that  period  the  once  illustrious  city,  now 
BBBberlag  less  than  a  hnttdred  thowsand  Inhabltanta,  has  been  degraded  to  tbe  seat  of  a  Turk- 
ish pashalSc.  The  Jlch  merchants  and  the  beaatifttt  princesses  of  the  Ambian  Tales  have  all 
dlaappeared ;  but  it  retains  the  tomb  of  the  charming  Zobelde,  the  most  beloved  of  the  wives 
of  Harovn-iMlaadild,  and  ean  stilt  boast  of  iU  numerous  gardens  and  well  stocked  bazaars. 

1.  0»r'  rfsee,  a  dty  of  Andalusia  In  Spain,  is  situated  on  the  Guadalqttiver,*one  hundred  and 
ei8ht2,-Sve  miles  south-west  (h>m  Madrid.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Ro- 
nana,  oader  whom  11  attained  to  great  distinction  as  a  rioh  and  populous  dty,  and  a  seat  of 
iMinIng  In  579  It  was  taken  by  the  Goths,  and  in  711  by  the  Moors,  under  whom  it  after* 
wanb  became  the  splendid  capital  of  the  ** Caliphate  of  tbe  West;"*  but  with  the  extinction 
«f  the  Western  caliphate,  A.  D.  1031,  the  power  and  tbe  glory  of  Oor'dova  passed  away. 
OoT'dera  oonthraed  to  be  a  separate  Moorish  kingdom  unttl  the  year  A.  D.  1336,  when  it  was 
taken  and  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the  hnpolitic  zeal  of  Ferdinand  TIF.  of  Castile.  It  haa 
nevwr  sinoe  recovered  Its  prevtons  prosperity ;  and  Its  population  has  diminished  since  the  11th 
eentory,  ftom  five  hundred  thousand  to  less  than  forty  thousand.  (Map  No.  XI  If.) 
a.  Atfrassaa*,  (the  <*  region  of  tBe  sun,**)  Is  a  piprince  of  Modem  Persia,  at  the  soutb-eastertt 
r  of  the  CasgJan  Sea^lnhahHwl  by  Peftjans  proper,  Tgrimiaiii,  and  Koidt.  Thexr 
liitfll 


S68  MODraV  mSTOBT.  [PiwH 

was  sinking  below  its  fonner  level :  the  powers  of  destruction  were 
^  ^^  more  active  than  those  of  improvanent ;  and  the  calam- 
BTSAirmrK  ities  of  War  were  imbittered  bj  the  more  permanent 
^^^'^  evils  of  ci^l  and  eoclesiastical  tyranny.'^  It  was  daily 
becoming  more  and  more  separated  i^bm  Western  Europe;  its^re- 
lations,  both  of  peace  and  war,  being  chiefly  with  the  Saracens,  who, 
in  the  period  of  their  conqnests,  overran  all  Asia  Minor,  and  were 
forming  permanent  establishments  within  si^t  of  Constantinople. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  tenth  oentory,  however,  a  brief  display  of 
vigor  in  the  Byzantine  princes,  Niceph'  oros,  Zimf sns,  and  Basil  II., 
repeUed  the  Saracens,  and  extended  the  Asiatic  boundaries  of  the 
empire  as  fur  south  as  An^ooh,  and  eastward  to  the  eastern  limits 
of  Armenia;  bat  twenty-five  years  after  the  death  of  Basir(1025) 
his  effeminate  successors  were  suddenly  assaulted  by  the  Turks  or 
Turcomans,  a  new  race  of  Tartar  barbarians  of  die  Mussulman  fiiitb, 
whose  original  seats  were  beyond  the  Caspian  Sea,  along  the  northern 
boundaries  of  China.  Durinff%e  first  invasion  of  the  Turks,  under 
their  leader  Togrul,  (1050]^  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand 
Christians  were  sacrificed  to  the  religion  of  the  prophet  His  8ao> 
cesser.  Alp  Arslan,  the  <<  valiant  lion,"  reduced  Georgia*  and  Arme- 
nia, and  cUfeated  and  took  captive  the  Bysantine  emperor  Rom^os 
Diog'  enes ;  and  succeeding  princes  of  the  Turkish  throne  gatiiiered 
the  fhiits  of  a  lasting  conquest  of  all  the  provinces  beyond  the  Bos'* 
porus  and  Hellespont. 

4.  Turning  to  the  West,  to  examine  the  oonditioi^  of-the  three* 

great  divisions  of  the  empire  of  the  Carlovingians — ^Italy,  German j, 

and  Gkiul, — we  find  there  but  the  wrecks  of  former  greatness.     In 

Italy,  the  dukes,  the  governors  of  provinces,  and  the  leaders  of 

IT.  ooNDi-    <^i'D:^i^)  were  possessed  of  far  greater  power  than  the 

TioH  or     reigning  monarch.     Having  for  a  long  period  perpetu- 

"^^'      ated  their  dignities  in  their  families,  they  had  becpme 

in  fact  petty 'tyrants  over  their  limited  domains ;  ever  jealous  of  the 

royal  authority,  and  dreading  Hop  loss  of  their  privileges,  they  con- 

1.  Otorgia  is  between  tbe  Owptan  and  the  Black  Sea,  feftving  Ch-eeasia  on  the  north  and  Ar- 
menia on  the  aouth.  Thia  ooonUy  waa  annexed  to  the  Reman  empire  by  Pom|»ey,  in  the  jeer 
65  B.  C.  During  the  dth  and  7th  oenfeuriea  it  waa  a  theatre  of  conteit  between  the  Greek  ea- 
pttt  and  the  Perriana.  In  the  8th  centory  a  prince  of  the  Jewish  fuallj  of  the  Bagtat'  idea  ea- 
tabltshed  there  a  monarchy  wlUch,  with  few  interruptions,  continued  in  his  line  down  to  the 
eommenoement  of  tbe  19th  century.  In  1801  the  emperor  Paul  of  Busala  declared  himseli^  at 
the  request  of  the  Georgian  prince,  soyereign  of  Georgia.  ^ 

a.  Gibbon,  It.  4. 


IL]  MIDDLE  AOBSL  909 

«|Hr6d  agamst  their  aov^reign  as  often  ti  he  Bhowed  an  inclination  «o 
teaone  the  people  from  the  oppreamye  fizactiona  of  their  masters.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  tenth  centnry  thej  arose  against  Berenger, 
duke  of  Fritili/  who  had  been  proclaimed  king,  and  offered  the 
erown  to  the  prinoe  of  Bar'  gondy,  who  daring  two  years  onited  the 
goyemment  of  Italy  to  that  of  Switzerknd.*  (923-925.)  Soon 
abandoning  him,  the  tarbulent  noblei^  elevated  to  the  throne  Hogh, 
count  of  Proyenoe;*  and  finally  Italy,  exhausted  by  the  animosities 
and  struggles  of  the  aristooracy,  iiade  a  voluntary  surrender  of  the 
kingdom  to  Oiho  the  Great,  the  Sazon  piinoe  of  Germany,  who,  in 
thY  year  ^2,  was  crowned  at  Milan  with  the  iron  crown  of  Lorn'* 
bardy,  and  at  Rome  ifith  the  golden  crown  of  the  empire. 

5.  Daring  several  succeeding  centuries  the  German  emperors  were 
nominally  recognised  as  sovereigns  of  the  greater  part  of  Italy ;  bat 
as  they  seldom  crossed  the  Alps,  their  authority  was  soon  reduoeH 
to  a  mere  shadow*  The  pretensions  of  the  court  of  Rome  were  op- 
posed to  those  of  the  German  princes ;  and  during  the- quarrels  that 
arose  between  the  Guel£s  and  Ghibellines,* — the  former  the  adherents 
of  Rome,  and  the  latter  of  Germany— Italy  was  thrown  into  the 
greatest  confusion.  While  some  portions  were  under  the  immediate 
jurisdiction  of  the  G^erman  emperor,  a  large  number  of  the  dukes, 
marquises,  counts,  and  prelates,  residing  in  iheir  castles  which  they 

I 

1.  JBHUt  to  an  Ilalian  prorinoe  at  tbo  bndof  the  Adriatic,  and  at  the  north-eastern  ex 
tiemitj  of  Italy. 

SL  BmUurUatd^  anefentty  caHed  HelT^Ua,  la  an  Inland  and  monntalnona  country  of  Eoropc, 
having  the  German  StatM  on  the  north  and  east,  Italy  on  the  aoath|  and  France  on  the  west. 
JoUna  Caoar  lednced  the  HelT«tUna  to  snhmlaslon  15  years  B.  a ;  after  which  the  Romana 
flMmdad  in  U  sereral  flowtebing  dtles,  wUeh  were  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  barbarians.  In 
the  b^taming  of  the  5ih  oentory  the  Borgnn'  dlana  OTenan  the  western  part  of  Switzerland, 
and  flzed  their  aeaU  aroond  the  lake  <tf  Geneva,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone  and  theSaone. 
Filly  yean  latd  the  Aleman'ni  orerran  the  eastern  part  of  Switzerland,  and  a  great  part  of 
Gennany,  oTerwhelmimc  the  momimenta  of  Roman  power,  and  blotting  out  the  Christianity 
wUch  Borne  had  planted.  At  the  close  of  the  fifth  centaiy  the  Alenum'  nl  were  oreribrown 
\fj  Clovls;— the  first  Buimn'dlan  empire  feU  A.  I>.  535 ;  and  for  a  long  period  afterward  Hel- 
T^tia  fbrmed  a  {Art  of  tie  French  monarohy.  The  partition  of  the  dominions  of  Charlemagne 
threw  Switzerland  into  the  German  part  of  the  empire.  In  the  year  1307  the  three  fbrest 
cantons^  Url,  Soh^rytz,  and  Vnterwaldeu,  entered  into  a  confederacy  against  the  tyranny  of  the 
Anatrian  booae  oTfi^wboig,  then  at  the  head  of  the  German  empire.  Other  cantons  from 
time  to  time  joined  the  leaguOi  or  were  conquered  fh>m  Aostria ;  but  it  viras  not  till  the  time 
of  Napoleon  that  all  the  prasent  exiatli^  cantons  were  brought  into  the  confederacy.  {Map9 
Ho.XIV.andXVn.) 

3.  PrvvMM,  see  p.  S7I. 

4  These  party  names,  obscure  in  origin,  were  imported  ftom  (Sermany.  In  the  wars  of 
nedeilc  Baibarossa,  (the  BedbeardO  the  Owelfa  were  the  champions  of  liberty :  bi  the 
ooaadea  which  the  popea  dirscted  against  that  princess  unfortunate  descendanU  they  were 
nenly  the  partlaaiM  of  the  Church.  The  name  soon  ceased  to  signify  princlplesi  and  merely 
Mned  the  ame  purpose  as  a  watchword,  or  the  color  of  a  standard. 


29D  MODUS  mSTOET.  t^jmll 

bid  ttvoDi^j  fbrtillei  agahiit'tfae  dapnobtiEg  iMp^ads  of  tiie  VonnMui, 
Baraoeni,  ftad  HunguiMUi,  ezflrdaed  an  alscNrt  ndependnit  Mttkorit^ 
within  their  limited  domaiiiB ;  while  a  nomber  of  pettj  republies,  ihe 
uoBt  important  of  whieh  w«re  Yeniee,  Piaa,  and  Geaoa,  forlHyiBg 
their  oitiei ,  and  electing  their  own  magistrate!,  set  the  aothority  of 
the  pope,  the  nobles,  and  the  emperor,  eqnaUy  at  defiaoea  Such 
was  the  eonliised  state  <^  Italy  in  the  central  period  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  • 

6.  Germany,  at  the  hegiming  •f  the  tenth  oentnry,  imder  the  nde 
of  a  i^mWf  Louis  lY.,  the  last  of  the  CarloTingian  fitmily,  was  har- 
Y  CON-     ^^'"^  ^y  frequent  invasions  of  the  Hnngarians ;   wmle 
Dmoif  or    the  nx  dukedoms  into  which  the  eolimtry  was  diTided, 
awMNT.    ^^ .  g^^ji  Thnrin'  gta,'  Pranc6nia,»  BayAria,*  SnAbia,* 
and  Lorraine,*  appeared  like  so  many  distinct  nations,  ready  to  de* 
olare  war  against  each  other.     The  dnkes,  originally  regarded  as 
ministers  and  representatiTCs  of  their  king,  had  long  been  encroach- 
ing on  t^  royal  prero^tires,  and  by  degrees  had  arrogated  to  them* 
selres  sach  an  increase  of  power,  that  the  dignities  temporarily  eon- 
fisrred  upon  them  became  hereditary  in  their  fiimilies;     Th^ynext 
seised  the  royal  rerennee,  and  made  t^iemselyes  masters  of  the  pe(^e 

1.  8ax9*f,  tba  moit  powerftd  of  the  andest  dudhiet  of  Germaqy,  embraced,  at  the  period 
of  its  greatest  development,  the  whole  extent  of  northern  Germany  between  the  months  of  the 
Bhine  and  the  Oder,    (^ay  No.  XVIL) 

8.  Tkurin'fia  was  In  the  central  part  of  Germany,  west  of  PnoBlan  Saxony.  Ta  the  13th 
century  It  was  sabdirfded  among  many  petty  princes,  and  Incorporated  with  other  States,  after 
which  the  name  fell  gradually  into  disuse,  tl  is  still  preserred,  in  a  Ihntted  sense,  in  the 
Tkurin'frian  forut,  a  hilly  and  woody  tfact  hi  the  hiterior  of  Germany,  on  the  northern  oott> 
floes  of  Bavaria.    (Map  No.  XVII.) 

3.  f^anc&nia  was  situated  on  both  tides  of  the  river  Hafaie,  and  ia  now  taMloded  moaOf 
within  the  limits  of  Bavaria.    (Map  No.  XVn.)      . 

4.  Bavdrto— comprising  most  of  the  Ylndelida  and  Nor*  learn  of  the  Romans,  Is  a  eovalry 
in  the  soulbero  part  of  Germany.  Tt  was  anciently  a  duchy— afterwards  an  electorate— and  has 
now  the  rantc  of  a  kingdom.    {Map  No.  XVII.) 

5.  SuAbia,  of  which  Ulm  was  the  capital,  was  in  the  sonth-westem  part  of  Germany,  weit 
of  BavuriiL,  nnd  north  of  Switzerland.  It  is  now  Included  in  Baden,  Wurtembargi  and  Bavaria. 
(Map  No.  XVII.) 

«.  Lorraine^  (German  l^tharinfia^)  so  called  Prom  Lothalre  II.,  to  whom  this  part  of  the 
country  fell  (n  the  division  of  the  empire  between  him  and  his  brothers  Louis  U.  and  Charles, 
In  the  year  B54,  eleven  years  after  the  treaty  of  Verdan,  (see  p.  880,)  waa  dlTlded  into  Upper 
and  Lower  Lorraine,  and  extended  from  the  confines  of  Swltzeriaod,  westward  of  the  Rhine, 
to  iU  mouths,  and  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt.  (Skelt)  A  part  of  the  Lower  Lorraine  waa  af- 
terwards embraced  in  the  French  province  of  Lorraine,  (see  Map  No.  Xill.,)  and  la  now  oom- 
prised  in  the  departmenU  of  the  Mease,  the  Vosges,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Mearlhe.  I^rratDe 
was  for  centuries  a  subject  of  dispute  between  France  and  Germany. 

The  relative  position  of  the  six  German  dukedoms  was  therefore  as  follows  ^-Saxony  oeeo* 
pied  the  northern  portions  of  Germany ;  Thurin'  gla  and  Fkanc6nla  the  centre ;  Bavaria  the 
south-eastern ;  Suibla  the  south-western ;  and  Lorraioe  the  oorth-westem.  (Jhp»  Ifo,  JUL 
and  XVIL) 


tnd  their  landa  On  the  death  of  Lovis  IV.,  (A.  D.  dll,)  they  set 
mside  the  legitimate  clahnftnt,  snd  elected  for  their  sovereign  one  of 
their  own  number,  Conrad,  duke  of  Frano6ffia.  His  reign  of  seven 
years  was  passed  almost  wholly  in  the  field,  cheeking  the  incursionii 
of  the  Hungarians,  or  quelling  the  insurrections  of  the  other  duke- 
doms against  his  authority.  On  his  death  (A.  B.  918),  Henry  I., 
Bomamed  the  Fowler,  duke  of  Saxony,  was  elected  to  the  throne, 
which  his  family  retailed  little  more  tikan  a  century.  (Until  1024.) 
The  8axon  rulers  of  Germany,  however,  were  not,  Hke  Ohaiiemagne, 
tlie  sovereigns  of  a  vast  empire ;  l^ut  rather  the  ehiefis  of  a  oonfeder* 
84^  of  prinoes,  reckoned  of  superior  authority  in  matters  of  national 
ooncem,  whfle  the  nobles  still  managed  (heir  provincial  administra- 
ii<Mi  mostly  in  their  own  way.  The  history  of  the  little  more  than 
nominal  sovereigns  of  Germany,  therefore,  during  this  period,  con« 
tains  but  little  of  the  history  of  the  Oerman  people. 

7.  In  Fiknce,  the  royal  authority,  at  &e  beginning  of  the  tenth 

eentory,  exercised  an  influence  still  more'  feeble  than  in 

Oermany,  and  was  little  more  than  an  empty  honor.  Dirioir  o» 
Oharles  the  Simple,  whose  name  bec^eaks  his  character,  I'^nob. 
was  the  nominal  sovereign;  but  fbur  otiier  princes  in  Oaul,  bendes 
himself,  bore  the  title  of  king, — ^those  of  Lorraine,  Transjurane- 
Btkrgundy,'  Provence,*  and  Brittany  ;• — ^while  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  powerful  dukes  and  counts  governed  their  dominions  with 
absolute  independence.  At  length,  in  the  year  920,  an  assembly  of. 
nobles  formally  deposed  Oharles,  but  he  continued  his  nominal  reign 
nearly  three  years  longer,  while  the  people  and  the  nobility  were 
•scarcely  cqniBcious  of  his  existence.  ' 

L  Trantjurane-Bur'  gundf,  U  thai  portion  of  Bar'  gundy  that  wu  embraced  in  Switzeiland— 
bcffond  the  Juru,  or  western  Alpa. 

SL  Prwenee  was  in  tbe  ■onth-eastern  part  of  France^  on  the  Mediterranean,  bounded  on  tbm 
eaat  by  Italy,  north  by  Daupbiny,  and  west  by  Langedoc  Greek  cofoniea  were  founded  hers 
at  an  earty  period,  (see  Marseilles,  p.  157,)  and  the  Romans,  havlag'  conquered  the  country, 
(B.  G.  1S4,)  gare  it  the  name  of  JVoviimm,  (the  prorlnce,)  whenee  Its  later  name  was  derived. 
After  the  three-lbld  dirislon  of  the  empire  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  the  son  and  suecessor  of 
Ohariemagne,  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843,  (see  p.  260,)  Provence  fell  to  Lothalre ;  but  It 
■flarvaids  became  a  separate  kingdom,  under  the  name  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries.  In  134((  It 
passed  to  tbe  bouse  of  Ai^ou  by  marriage ;  and  \n  1481  Louis  XL  united  it  to  the  dominions 
of  the  FVench  crown,    (.tfap  No.  XIII.) 

3l  Brittanf^  or  Brelagner  was  one  of  the  largest  provinces  of  France,  occupying  tbe  penln- 
nla  al  tbe  north-western  extremity  of  the  Ungdom,  and  Joined  on  the  east  by  Puitou,  Ai^ou, 
Maine,  and  Normandy.  It  now  forms  tbe  lire  departments,  Flnisterie,  Cotes  du  Nord,  (coat- 
doo-aoO  Mdrtoihvit  lUe  and  VUalne,  and  Lower  Loire.  Brittany  Is  supposed  to  have  derived 
Ito  name  fh>m  the  Briloos,  who,  expelled  ftom  England  by  the  Anglo  Saxona,  took  reftige 
hen  to  the  llflh  century.  It  formed  one  of  the  doefales  of  FhUMe  till  It  vu  united  to  the 
ibyFhmdaLtoiaaL    (V^NaXllL) 


S72  MODSBK  HttrrORT.  [FiarXL 

8.  The  only  really  important  eyeat  of  Fren^  history  during  tiie 
teuth  century  was  the  final  settlement  of  the  Northmen  in  that  part 
of  Nenstria/  which  received  from  them  the  name  of  Normandy.* 
In  the  year  911,  during  the  reign  of  Charles  ^e  Simple,  the  Norman 
chief  RoUo,  who  had  made  hims^  the  terror  of  the  West,  ascended 
the  Seine  with  a  fornudable  fleet,  and  laid  siege  to  Paris.  'After  the 
purchase  of  a  hrief  tmoe,  Charles  made. him  the  tempting  ofier,  to 
cede  to  him  a  vast  prorinoe  of  France,  in  whibh  he  might  estahlish 
himself  on  condition  that  he  would  abstain  from  ravaging  the  rest  of 
ihe  kingdom,  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  the  crown  of  France, 
and,  together  with  his  followers,  make  a  public  profession  of  Christi- 
anity. The  terms  were  a<Aepted  :  a  region  that  had  been  completely 
laid  waste  by  the  ravages  of  the  Normans  was  now  assigned  to  them 
for  an  inheritance ;  and  these  ruthless  warriors,  abandoning  a  life  of 
pillage  and  robbery,  were  soon  converted,  by  the  wise  regulations  of 
their  chiefe,  into  peaceful  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  the  best  and  bravest 
of  the  citizens  of  France.  This  remarkable  event  put  an  ead  to  the 
war  of  Norman  devastation,  which,  during  a  whole  century,  had  de- 
populated western  (Germany,  Gaul,  and  England. 

9.  Of  the  independent  aristocracy  of  JPrasce,  after  the  death  of   « 
Charles  the  Simple,  the  most  powerful  were  tbe  counts  of  Paris,  who, 
during  the  last  few  reigns  of  the  Carlovingian  princes,  exercised 
little  less  than  regal  authorily.     At  length,  in  the  year  987,  on  the 
death  of  Louis  Y.,  the  fifth  monarch  after  Charles  the  Simple,  Hugh 
Capet,  count  of  Paris,  was  proclaimed  king  by  his  assembled  vassab, 
and  anointed  and  crowned  in  the  cathedral  of  Rheims,*  by  the  arch-* 
bishop  of  that  city.     The  rest  of  France  took  no  part  in  this  election;  • 
and  several  provinces  refused  to  acknowledge  the  suocessors  of  Hugh 
Capet,  for  three  or  four  generations.     The  aristocracy  still  monopo- 

1.  JVoMtrio.  On  the  death  of  QotIs  A.  D.  511,  (lee  p.  3550  his  four  aons  dirided  the  llf«r»- 
Tlagian  Ungdom,  embracing  northern  Gaol  and  Germany,  Into  two  parts,  caUing  the  eaitera 
Jtustrasioj  and  the  western  JWMtrta,— the  latter  term  being  derived  from  the  negative  particle 
M  **not,"  and  Austria  :—^ustrasia,  meaning  the  Eastern,  and  JiTeustria  the  Western  monarchy. 
Jfmttria  embraced  that  portion  of  modem  France  north  of  the  Loire  and  west  of  tlie  Meosa. 
(J»fap  No.  XIIL) 

2.  Jformandff  was  an  ancient  province  of  France,  adjoining  Brittany  on  the  north-east. 
(See  Map  No.  XIIL)  It  became  annexed  to  England  through  the  aoeession  of  William,  duke 
ofNormandy,totheEnglishthrone,A.  D.  1066.  (See  p.  290.)  PhlUp  Augustus  wrested  It  ftom 
John,  and  united  it  to  Fnfllce,  in  1303. 

3.  AkeiiMf  a  city  of  France  ninety-five  miles  north-east  fh>m  Paris,  was  a  place  of  consldei^ 
able  importance  under  the  Bomans,  who  called  It  DurocorUrunu  It  become  a  biahoprio 
before  the  iiraption  of  the  Franks,  and  reeelTed  many  piivilages  from  the  MaroTlngi*&  klngs^ 
Jir^  No.  XHL  j 


Gfttf.IL]  mxasfLK  AGSa  '  -278 

Uadd  all  the  prerogatives  of  royalty;  and  the  power  <^  tiie  niblea 
alone,  flourished  or  subsisted  in  the  State.  The  period  of  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  years, — ^from  the  accession  of  Hugh  Capet  to  that  of 
Louis  IX.,  or  Saint  Louis, — ^is  described  by  Sismondi  as  <<  a  long  in- 
i»r^gnam,  during  which  the  authority  of  king  was  eztinot,  although 
tibe  name  contuiued  to  exist" 

IL  The  Fsudai.  Ststeh,  Oht^alry,  and  the  Orusadbs. — 1.  A 
ghiaoe  at  the  state  of  Southern  and  Western  Europe  in  the  central 
period  of  the  Middle  Ages  will  show  tha^  with  the  waning  power, 
and  final  overthrow,  of  the  Oarloyingian  dynasty,  a  new  order  of 
things  had  arisen ;  that  kingdoms  were  broken  into  as  many  separate 
principalities  as  they  contained  powerful  counts  or  barons;  that 
legnkrly-constituted  authority  no  longer  existed ;  and  that  a  numer- 
ouB  class  of  nobles,  superior  to  aH  restraint,  and  inyolved  in  petty 
feuds  witii  each  other,  oppressed  their  fellow  subjects,  and  humbled 
or  insulted  their  sorereigns,  to  whom  they  tendered  au  allegiance 
merely  nominaL  The  rude  beginnings  of  this  state  of  society  may 
be  traced  back  to  the  germinating  of  the  first  seeds  of  order  after 
the  spread  of  barbarism  over  the  Roman  world ;  its  growth  was 
checked  undd^  the  first  Oarloyingians,  who  reduced  the  nobles  to  the 
lowest  degradation;  but  with  the  deolme  of  royal  authority  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  it  started  into  new  life  and  ^irigor,  and, 
towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  became  organized  under  the 
nwne  of  the  FeudeU  System,  It  mamtained  itself  itntil  ,  .^^^ 
about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century ;  and  during  the  fkudal 
period  of  its  existence  is  the  prgminent  object  that  en-  ^^^^'^ 
gages  the  attention  of  the  historian  of  the  Middle^  Ages.  The  unity 
of  this  portion  of  history  will  best  be  preserved  by  a  brief  historical 
outline  of  the  system  itself,  and  of  the  relations  and  events  that 
grew  out  of  it 

2.  The  people  who  overturned  the  empire  of  the  Romans,  made  a 
partition  of  the  conquered  lands  between  themselves  and  the  original 
poasesBors;  but  in- what  manner  or  by  what  principles  the  division 
was  made  cannot  now  be  determined  with  certainty;  nor  can  the 
exaet  condition  in  which  the  Roman  provincials  were  left  be  ascer- 
tained, as  the  records  of  none  of  the  barbarous  nations  of  Europe 
extend  back  to  this  remote  period.  It  is,  however,  evident  that  the 
chiefii,  or  leaders  of  l^e  conquering  invaders,  in  order  to  maintain 
their  acquisitions,  annexed,  to  the  apportionment  of  lan^  among 
M*  18  *      . 


874-  MQBIBV  UnOKSr.  [nkirlL 

their  ibllowf ra,  tiie  condittoii  that  eveiy  freemn  who  noeifed  a  ahaiv 
should  i4)poar  in  arms,  whon  oallod  jxpon,  againai  the  eaevHes  of  th« 
commiinity ;  and  militarj  lerviee  was  probaUy  at  first  the  only  eon- 
dition  of  the  allotment.  The  imikiediate  grantees  of  lands  from  the 
leading  chief,  or  king,  were  prohahly  the  most  noted  warriors  who 
served  under  him ;  and  these  divided  their  ample  estates  among  thehp 
more  immediate  followers  or  dependents,  to  be  held  of  themselvee 
hy  a  similar  tenure ;  so  that  the  system  extended,  throi^h  several 
gradations,  from  the  monarohs  down  tiurough  all  the  sahordinales  la 
authority.  Each  was  bound  to  resort  to  the  standard  of  his  iomie- 
diate  grantor,  and  thenoe  to  .that  of  hk  sovereign,  with  a  band  of 
armed  followers  proportioned,  in  numbers,  to  the  extent  of  the  terri- 
tory which  he  had  reoeived. 

^The  primary  division  of  lands  among  the  oonquierora,  wae 
probabfy  cUlocUal;  that  is,  they  were  todesoend  by  inheritaaoe  from 
father  to  son ;  but  in  addition  to  the  lands  thus  distributed  amoi^ 
the  nation,  others  were  reserved  to -the  crown  &»*  its  support  and  dig- 
nity;  and  the  greiter  portion  of  the  latter,  frequently  extending  to  en- 
tire counties  and  dukedoms,  were  granted  out,  sometimes  as  hereditary 
.  estates,  sometimes  for  life,  sometimes  for  a  term  of  years,  and  on  various 
eonditions,  to  favored  subjects,  and  especially  to  the  provincial  gov- 
enKM-s,  who  made  under-grants  of  them  to  their  vassals  or  t^iants. 
On  the  f&ilu^e  of  the  tenant  to  perform  the  stipulated  conditions, 
whether  of  military  service,  or  of  certain  rents  and  payments,  the 
lands  reverted  to  the  grantors;  and  as  ^e  word fettd  signifies  ^m 
estate  in  trust,^'  hence  the  propriety  of  calling  this  the  Feudal 
System, 

4.  In  a  very  imperfect  state  this  syst^n  edsted  in  Fnaase  in  the 
time  of  Charlemagne ;  but  that  monarch,  jealous  of  the  ascendancy 
which  the  nobles  had  already  acquired,  checked  it  by  every  means  in 
his  power, — ^by  suffering  many  of  the  larger  grants  of  dukedoms^ 
counties,  &c.,  to  expire  without  renewal,-7-by  removing  ihe  adminis 
tration  of  justice  from  the  hands  of  local*  officers  into  liie  hands  of. 
his  own  itinerant  judges, — ^by  elevating  the  ecclesiastical  author!^ 
as  a  counterpoise  to  that  of  the  nobility, — and  by  the  creation  of 
a  standing  army,  which  left  the  monarch  in  a  measure  independent 
of  the  military  support  of  the  great  landholders.  Thus  the  nobles, 
desisting  from  the  use  of  arms,  and  abandoning  the  task  of  defend- 
ing the  kingdom,  soon  became  unable  to  defend  themselves;  but 
when  in  tie  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  the  royal  authority  was  entire- 


Ctaui^IL]     -  ysn&VL  MJSKL  «^ 

Ij  prostraled,  wlten  the  proYiaoea  were  sabjoet  to  frequent  inroadtf 
of  the  Nonaans  and  HnngariaDfl,  and  gOYornmeat  ceased  to  aff($rd 
proteeiioa  to  uiy  class  of  society,  the  proprietors  of  large  estates 
found  in  their  wealth  a  means  of  defence  and  security  not  wi^in  the 
reach  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people.  They  converted  their  j^aces 
of  abode  into  impregaable  castles,  and  covered  their  persons'  with 
knightly  armor,  jointed  so  as  to  allow  a  free  movement  of  every  part 
of  the  body;  and  this  proteotion,  added  to  the  increased  physteal 
strength  aoqoired  by  constant  military  exercises,  gave  l^m  an  im* 
portance  in  war  over  hmvdreds  of  the  plebeiana*  by  whom  they  were 
Borronnded.  In  the  confusion  of  the  times,  the  governors  of  prov- 
inces, nnder  the  varions  titles  of  dukes,  counts,  and  barons,  usurped 
their  governments  as  little  sovereignties,  and  transmitted  them  byin- 
keritance,  subject  only  to  the  feudal  st|>eriority  of  the  king> 

5.  Meanwhile  the  small  allodial  profHrietors,  or  holders  of  lands  in 
their  own  right,  exposed  to  the  depredating  inroads  of  barbarians^ 
oTy  more  frequently,  to  the  rapacity  of  the  petty  feudal  lords,  sunk 
into  a  omdition  much  worse  than  that  of  the  feudal  tenantry.  Bx- 
poaed  to  a  system  of  general  rapine,  without  law  to  redress  their  in- 
juries, and  without  the  royal  power  to  si]^port  their  rights,  they  saw 

'  no  safety  but  in  making  a  con^romise  with  oppression,  and  were  se- 
duced to  the  necessity  of  subjecting  themselves,  in  return  for  pro- 
tection, to  the  feudal  lords  of  the-  country.  During  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  a  large  pn^ortion  of  the  allodial  lands  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  were  surrendered  by  their  owners,  and  recdted 
back  again  upon  feudal  tenures ;  and  it  appears  that  the  few  who  re- 
tained their  lands  in  their  own  right  universally  attached  themselves 
to  some  \<x^  although  ip  these  cases  it  was  the  pftvilege  of  the  free- 
BDMn  to  choose  th«r  own  superiors. 

6.  J^uch  was  the  state  of  the  great  mass  of  European  society  when 
the  feuda'.  system  had  reached  its  maturity,  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries.  Among  the  legal  incidents  and^  results  that  grew  out  of 
the  feudal  relation  of  service  on  the  one  side  acd  proteotion  .on  the 
other,  were  those  of  rdirfs^  or  money  paid  to  the  lord  by  each  vassal 
on  taking  a  fie^  or  feudal  estate,  by  inheritance ;  fineSy  on  a  change 
of  tenancy;  escheat^  or  forSnture  of  the  estate  to- the  lord  on  ac- 
count of  tiie  vassals  delinquency,  or  for  want  of  hnirs ;  ands^  or  sums 
of  money  exacted  by  the  lord  on  various  occasions,  such  as  the 
knitting  of  his  eldest  son,  the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter,  or 
fi>r  the  redemption  of  his  per8<m  from  prison ;  HMrdihipi  or  the 


376  -       IfOlOBir  KIBTOBY.  ^     [PawIL 

piiTiil^  of  gnardhawhip  of  the  tenant  by  the  lord  dnriag  tbe  mi- 
nority of  the  former,  with  the  nae  of  the  profttB  of  his  estate ;  mar- 
riage,  or  the  ri^t  of  a  lord  to  tender  a  husband  to  his  female  wards 
while  under  age,  or  to  demand  the  forfeiture  of  the  value  of  the 
marriage.  These  feudal  serritndes,  whieh  were  unknown  in  the  time 
of  Charlemagne,  distinguish  the  maturity  of  the  system,  and  show 
^  gradual  enoroaehments  of  the  strong  upon  the  weak. 

7.  b?he  feudal  gpyemment,  in  it8l)e6t  state,  was  a  system  of  op- 
pression, w^iieh  destroyed  all  feelings  of  brotherhood  and  equality 
between  man  and  mao :  it  was  admirably  calculated,  when  the  nobles 
were  united,  for  defence  against  the  assaults  of  any  foreign  power ; 
but  it  possessed  the  feebfest  bonds  of  political  union,  and  contained 
innumerable  sources  <^  anarchy,  in  the  interminable  fends  of  rival 
chieftains.  It  exerted  a  fatal  influence  on  the  character  of  society 
in  general ;  while  individual  man,  in  the  person  of  the  lord  or  baton, 
was  doubtless  improved  by  it ;  and  the  great  mass  of  the  population 
of  Europe,  during  the  three  or  four  centuries  in  which  it  was  under 
the  thrald(Mn  of  this  system,  was  sunk  in  the  most  profound  igno- 
lanee.  Literature  and  science,  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  cloister, 
eould  receive  no  fevor  in  the  midst  of  turbulence,  oppression,  and 
]^apine :  judges  and  kings  often  could  not  write  their  own  names : 
many  of  the  idergy  did  not  understand  the  liturgy  which  they  daily 
recited :  the  Ohristianity  of  the  times,  "  a  dim  taper  which  had  need 
of  snuffing,"  degenerated  into  an  illiberal  superstition ;  and  every- 
thing combined  to  fix  upon  this  period  the  distmctive  epithet  of  the 
Dark  Aoes.  Still  the  sentiment  of  independence — ^the  pride  and 
consoiouBness  of  power — and  the  feelings  of  personal  ocmsequence 
and  dignity  with  wAh  the  feudal  state  of  society  inspired  the  nobles, 
contributed  to  let-in  those  first  rays  of  light  and  6rder  which  dis- 
pelled barbarian  and  anarchy,  and  introduced  the  virtues  of  a  J^jdtter 
age. 

6.  In  the  midst  of  ccmfusion  and  crime,  while  property  was  held 
by  the  sword,  and  cruelty  and  injustive  reigned  supreme, 
'  the  spirit  of  chwalry  arose  to  turn  back  the  tide  of  op- 
pression, and  to  plant,  in  the  very  midst  of  barbarism,  the  seeds  of 
the  most  noble  and  the  most  generous  principles.  The  precise  time 
at  which  chivalry  was  recognised  as  a  military  institution,  with  out- 
ward forms  and  ceremonials,  cannot  now  be  ascertained;  but  the 
first  notices  we  have  of  it  trace  it  to  that  age  when  tiie  disorders  in 
the  feudal  system  had  attained  their  utmost  p<Hnt  of  excess,  towards 


Oatf.  H]  MIDDUC  A6SS..  277 

the  dose  of  tibe  tenth  oentnry.  It  was  then  that  some  noble  barons, 
filled  with  charitable  leal  and  religious  enthusiasm,  and  mored  with 
eompasraop  for  the  wretchedness  which  they  saw  around  them,  com- 
bined together,  under  the  solemnity  of  religious  sanctions,  with  t^ 
holy  purpose  of  protecting  .the  weak  from  the  oppression  of  the  pow- 
erful, and  of  defending  the  right  cause  against  the  wrong. 

9.  The  spirit  and  the*  institution  of  chiyalry  spread  rapidly ; 
treachery  and  hypoerisy  became  detestable ;  while  courtesy,  magna- 
nimity, courage,  and  hospitality,  became  the  virtues  of  the  age ;  and 
the  knights,  who  w^e  ever  ready  to  draw  their  swords,  at  whatever 
odds,  in  defence  of  4nnoeence,  received  the  adoration  of  the  populace, 
and,  in  public  opinion,  were  exalted  even  above  kings  themselves.' 
Th^meed  of  praise  and  esteem  gave  fresh  vigor  and  purity  to  the 
cause  of  chivalry ;  and  under  the  influence  of  its  spirit  great  deeds 
were  done  by  the  ti'atemity  of  valiant  kiiigl^ts  who  had  enrolled 
themselves  as  its  champions.  "  The  baron  forsook  his  castle,  and 
the  peasant  his  hut,  to  maintain  the  honor  of  a  family,  or  preserve 
^e  saeredness  of  a  vow :  it  was  this  sentiment  which  made  the  poor 
serf  patient  in  his  toils,  an^  serene  in  his  sorrows :  it  enabled  his 
Blaster  to  brave  all  physical  evils,  and  enjoy  a  sort  of  spiritoal  ro- 
mance :  it  Jxnmd  the  peasant  to  his  master,  and  the  master  to  his 
kii^ ;  jmd  it  was  the  principle  of  chivalry,  above  all  others,  that  was 
needed  to  coimteract  the  miseries  of  an  infant  state  of  civilisation."* 

10.  Though  in  the  practical  exemplifications  of  chivalry  there  was 
oHen  much  of  error,  yet  its  spirit  was  based  upon  the  most  generous 
impulses  of  human  nature.  "  To  speak  the  truth,  to  succor  the 
he^less  and  oppressed,  and  never  to  turn  back  from  an  enemy,"  was 
the  first  vow  of  the  aspirant  to  the  hcmors  of  chivalry.  In  an  age 
ef  darkness  and  degradation,  chivalry  developed  the  character  of 
woman,  and,  causing  her  virtues  to  be  appreciated  and  honored,  made 
her  the'  equal  companion  of  man,  and  the  object  of  his  devotion. 
**  The  love  of  God  and  the  ladies,"  says  ^allam,  *<  was  enjoined  as  a 
nngle  duty.  He  who  was  faithfid  and  true  to  his  mistress,  was  held 
sore  of  salvation  in  the  theology  of  castles,  though  not  of  cloisters.  "^  ^ 
In  the  language  of  another  modem  writer,  <<  chivalry  gave  purity  to 
enihuBiasm,.crushed  barbarous  selfishness,  taught  the  leart  to  ex- 
pand like  a  flower  to  the  sunshine,  beautified  glory  with  generosity, 
and  smoothed  even  the  rugged  brow  of  war."o    ^  description  of  the 

ft.  InlrodiioaoB  to  Froiflnrt's  CbroololM.  b.  Hallam's  Middle  Ago*,  p.  91& 

e.  JttDM'*  GhrlTalry  aad  Um  OrvmOm,  p.  31. 


tT8  KOmEV  mBIOET.  [SMvIi 

luions  eustoms  tad  pecoliarillei  of  ohirBlry,  ma  they  grew  up  by  de- 
grees into  a  regular  inaiitoiioii,  would  bo  requisite  to  a  fall  derelop- 
nefit  of  the  character  of  the  age,  but  we  can  only  glaaoe  at  theee 
lopios  here.  Ab  ehiTalry  waa  a  military  institutbn,  ita  membera 
were  taken  wholly  from  Uie  military  elaas,  whioh  oomprtaed  none  but 
the  deaoendanta  of  the  n<*them  oonquerora  of  the  aoU ;  for,  with  few 
exceptions,  the  original  inhAbitants  of  the  western  Roman  empire 
had  been  reduced  to  the  condition  of  serfr,  or  Tasaals,  of  their  bar- 
barian lorda 

1 1.  The  initiation  of  the  German  youth  to  tfa§  profession  of  arms 
had  been,  from  the  earliest  ages,  an  occasion  of  solemnity ;  and  wheo 
the  spirit  of  chivalry  had  established  the  order  of  knigh^ood,  aa 
the  concentration  of  all  that  was  noble  and  valiant  in  a  warlike^ge; 
it.  became  the  highest  object  of  every  young  man's  ambition  one  day 
to  be  a  knight.  A  long  and  tedious  education,  consisting  of  instnuy 
lion  in  all  manly  and  military  exercises,  and  in  the  first  principfes  of 
religion,  honor  and  courtesy,  was  requisite  as  a  preparation  for  this 
honor.  Next,  the  candidate  for  knighthood,  after  undergoing  his 
pr^aratory  &sts  and  vigils,  passed  through  the  ceremonies  which 
made  him  a  knight  Armed  and  caparisoned  he  then  sallied  forth 
in  quest  of  adventure,  displayed  his  powers  at  tournaments,  and 
often  visited  foreign  countries,  both  for  the  purpose  of  jousting  with 
otiier  knights,  and  for  instruction  in  every  sort  of  chivalrous  knowl- 
edge. It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  thai  the  practice  of  kni^t- 
errantry,  or  that  of  wandering  about  armed,  as  iho  avowed  cham- 
pions of  the  right  cause  against  the  wrong,  gave  to  the  evil-minded 
a  very  convenient  cloak  for  the  basest  purposes,  and  that  every  ad. 
venture,  whether  just  or  not  in  its  purpose,  was  too  liable  to  be  ea- 
teemed  honorable  in  proportion  as  it  was  perilous.  But  these  w^e 
abuses  of  chivabry,  and  perversions  of  its  early  spirits 

12.  During  the  eleventh  century  we  find  that  chivalry,  altJioug^ 
probably  first  appearing  in  jGbul,  had  spread  to  all  the  surrounding 
nations.  In  Spain,  the  wars  between  the  Christians  and  the  Moors 
exhibited  a  chivalric  spirit  unknown  to  former  times:  about  this 
period  the  institution  of  knighthood  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
among  the  Saxons  of  England ;  and  it  was  first  made  known  to  the 
Italians,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  oentury,  by  a  band  of 
knights  from  Normandy,  whos^  religious  seal  prompted  them,  as 
they  were  returning  from  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  to  under 
take  the  relief  of  a  small  town  besieged  by  the  Saracens.     As  the 


fcndal  fljstem  spread  oyer  Btffope,  chivalry  followed  in  ite  path.  Ite 
spirit,  eombined  with  religious  enthastasm,  led  to  the  omsadoe ;  and 
it  was  dmiiig  the  progress  of  those  holy  wars/whidi  we  now  prooeed 
to  describe,  tha^  it  attuned  its  chief  power  and  i&flaence. 

13.  Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  and  other  hallowed  localities  ia 
Palestine,  had  been  common  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church ;  and 
towards  the  dose  of  the  tenth  century  they  had  mcreased   „,  ^  _.^ 

^  ^  HL   ORIGIN 

to  a  perfect  innndation,  in  consequence  of  the  terror  that  or  thk 
arose  from  tiie  almost  universal  expectation  then  enter-  obobadis. 
tained,  of  the  af^roaching  end  of  the  world.*  The  idea  originated 
in  the  interpretation  ^en  to  the  twelfth  chapter  of  the  Apocalypse, 
whese  it  was  annotmced  that,  after  the  lapse  of  a  thousand  years, 
Satan  would  be  let  loose  to  deceive  the  nations,  and  to  gather  them 
togetiier  to  battle  againdt  the  holy  city,  but  that,  alto  a  little  seaami 
the  army  of  the  Deceiver  should  be  destroyed  by  fire  from  heayen. 
Bat  the  dreaded  ^[KHsh,  the  year  1000,  passed  by;  yet  tiie  oorrent 
of  pilgrimage  still  continued  to  flow  towards  the  Sast ;  Ibr  fiuiati- 
cisra  had  taken  too  strong  hold  of  the  minds  of  the  people  to  be 
eaaly  diverted  from  its  course. 

14.  After  Palestine  had  fallmi  into  the  possession  of  the  TuricB, 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  (see  p.  249,)  the  pilgrims 
to  Jerusalem  were  subjected  to  every  species  of  extortion  and  outt 
rage  frvm  this- wild  race  of  Saracen  conquerors ;  and  the  returning 
Ohnstkns  spread  through  all  ^e  countries  of  fiurope  indignation 
and  horror  by  the  pathetic  tales  which  they  related,  of  the  injuriei 
and  insults  which  they  had  suffered  from  the  infidels.  Among^ 
others,  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  native  of  Amiens,^  returning  from  a  pil- 
grimage to  Palestine,  where  he  had  spent  muoh  time  in  conferring 
with  the  Christians  about  the  means  of  their  delivwanoe,  complained 
in  loud  terms  of  these  grievances,  and  began  to  preach,  in  glowing 
language,  the  duty  of  the  Christian  world  to  unite  in  expelling  the 
infidels  from  the  patrimony  of  the  Saviour. 

15.  The  pope.  Urban  II.,  one  of  the  most  eloqtlent  men  of  the 
age,  engaged  aealously  in  the  project,  and  at  two  general  councils, 

L  AmUmt  la  a  fbrOlled  dty  of  FraDoe  In  ttie  aneient  prorlnoe  of  Plcardj,  BeTentj^two  miles 
north  from  Parte.    (.Mc^  No.  Xm.) 

a.  TIm  aiddvai  of  Euopean  oocmtiiM  eoDtalii  a  great  mmiber  of  diarten  ttf  tike  lenUi 
mtsaarf^  beglimtiig  -with  theie  words:  Aypropinquunujbu  imiii^— **  As  the  end  of  the  woiM' 
te  apprMohiiig.*-~8laDioiidl's  Roman  Bmpfre,  ti.  956. 


380  KODSBK  HBIOBT.  [PakH 

held  at  Plaoen'  tut,*  and  Glarmont^'  and  attended  by  a  munemiui 

train  of  bishops  and  ecdesLssticg,  and  bj  thousands  of  the  laity,  the 

mnltitade,  harangued  by  the  lealous  enUinsiasts  of  the  cause,  eanght 

the  spirit  of  those  who  addressed  them,  and  pledged  themselTes,  and 

all  they  possessed,  to  the  orusade  against  the  infidel  possessors  of  the 

Holy  Land.     The  flame  of  enthusiasm  spread  so  rigidly  throughout 

Christian  Europe,  that  although  the.  council  of  Clermont  was  held  in 

November  of  ^e  year  1095,  yet  in  the  following  qxring  large  bands 

IT  THx     of  ^^  crusaders,  gathered  chiefly  from  the  refuse  and 

vnsT       dregs  of  the  people,  and  consisting  of  men,  women,  and 

^^°^^^    children— of  all  ages  and  professicms — ^and  of  many  and 

distinct  languages, — w^e  in  motion  toward  Palestine. 

16.  Walter  the  Peniiiless,  leading  the  way,  was  followed  by  Peter 
the  Hermit  ]  but  the  ignorant  hordes  which*  they  -directed,  marching 
without  order  and  discipline,  and  pillaging  the  countries  which  they 
traversed,  wore  nearly  lil  cut  off  before  they  reached  Constantinople; 
and  the  few  who  passed  over  into  Asia  Minor  fell  an  easy  prey  to 
the  swords  of  the  Turks.  Immense  bands  that  followed  these  hosts, 
mingling  the  motives  of  plunder,  licentiousness  and  vice,  with  a 
foul  spirit  of  fimatical  crudity,' which  prodaimed  the  duty  of  eztor- 
minatmg  all,  whether  Jews  or  Pagans,  who  rejected  the  Saviour, 
were  utterly  destroyed  by  the  enraged  natives  of  southern  Germany 
and  Hungary,  through  Whose  dominions  they  attempted  to  pass.  The 
loss  of  the  crusaders  in  this  first  adventure  is  estimated  at  three 
hundred  thousand  men.*  But  while  these  undisciplined  and  barba- 
rous multitudes  were  hunrying.to  destruction,  the  flower,  of  the  chiv- 
alry of  Europe  was  collecting — ^the  genuine  army  of  the  crusade — 
under  six  as  distinguished  diiefii  as  knighthood  could  boast,  headed 
by  Godfrey  of  BouiUon,*  aae  of  the  most  oelel»ated  generals  of  the 
age.    In  six  separate  bands  they  proceeded  to  Constantinople,  some 

1.  Plaemi'tia,  now  pMxmza,  was  a  dty  of  northern  Italy,  near  the  Joneiioh  of  the  Tk«bla 
vltb  the  Po,  fhirty-fleven  mllee  MtatlneMt  ftom  Milan.  When  eotofiaed  hj  the  Ronuuu,  819 
B^GL,  It  was  a  atroiig  and  Important  eltj;  and  It  aflbidedthem  a  aecnre  retreat  after  the  inifof>- 
tonate  batUet.  of  Tlclnm  and  Treb'  bla.    (Map  No.  XVIL) 

a  Cltrmontf  a  city  of  Fraooe,  In  the  ancient  proyfnce  of  Anretsne,  to  e}fl^t74wo  mllee  wait 
from  L/one,  and  two  hundred  and  eight  aonth  fiom  Faria,   (JIfiy  Mo.  XIIL) 

3b  JBouiUom  waa  a  amall,  woody,  and  moontalnoua  dlatiict,  nine  mUes  wide  and  eighteen 
hmgi  now  included  in  the  dnehy  of  Luxembouzg,  on  the  bordera  of  France  and  Belgium.  Hie 
fMDw  of  Bouillon  la  flftynnilea  north-weat  firom  the  dty  of  Luxembourg.  Bouillon,  wtien  In 
flie  poaaeaalon  of  Godfreji  waa  a  dukedom.  In  order  to  aupply  himaelf  with  Ainda  for  Ua 
avpedltSon  to  the  Holy  Land,  Godfrey,  who  waa  likewise  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine^  Oaota^ 
p.  970^)  mortgaged  Bouillon  to  the  blahop.    (Map  No.  Xin.) 

a.  Gibbon,  tr.  110— ISS.  .    « 


Cbap.IL]  middle  ages.  281  . 

by  way  of  Italy  and  the  Adriat'  io,  and  others  by.way  of  the  Daxmbe; 
but  their  condaot,  unlike  that  of  the  first  crusaders,  was  in  general 
remarkable  for  its  strict  discipline,  order,  and- moderation. 

17.  Alez'ius,  the  Greek  emperor  of  Constantinople,  had  before 
Grayed,  in  abject  terms,  assistance  against  the  infidel  Turks ;  but 
now,  when  the  Turks,  occupied  with  other  interests,  no  longer  men- 
aced his  frontier,  his  conduct  changed,  and  alarmed  b^  the  vast 
Bwarms  of  crusaders  who  crossed  his  dominions,  he  Btrove,  by  treach-r 
eiy  and  dissimulation,  and  eyen  by  hostile  annoyances,  to  diminish 
ilusir  numbers,  and  thwart  their  designs,  and  to  wring  from  their 
chiefs  acts  of  homage  to  his  own  person.  With  some  of  the  chiefs, 
IJie  crafty  Qreek  succeeded ;  but  others  spumed  his  proposals  with 
mdignatioir,  and  at  the  htzard  of  war  resolred  to  mamtain  their  in- 
dependent position  ;  and  when  at  length  the  seyeral  detachments  of 
the  army  of  the  crusaders  passed  into  Aida,  they  left  behind  ^em 
in  their  treacherous  auxiliaries,  the.GhristianB  of  the  Byzantine'  em- 
pire, worse  enemies  than  they  had  to  encounter  in  the  Turks. 

18.  It  is  said  that  after  the  crusaders  had  united  their  forces  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  had  been  joined  by  the  remains  of  the  multitude  that  ' 
bad  followed  PeteAie  Hermit,  the  number  of  their  fighting  men^ 
without  including  those  who  did  not  carry  arms,  was  six  hundred 
thousand,  and  that,  of  these,  the  number  of  knights  alone  was  two 
hundred  thousand.*  At  Nice,'  ^  Bithyn'ia,*  the  capital  of  the 
Sultany  of  Eoum,'  they  first  encountered  the  Turks,  and  after  a  siege 
of  two  months  compelled  the  city  to  smrender,  in  spite  of  the  efibrts 
of  the  Sultan,  Soliman,  for  its  relief.  (A.  B.  1097.)  From  Nice 
they  set  out  for  Syria ;  and  after  having  gained  a  victory  over  Soli- 
man 'near  Dorilsd'  um,^  in  a  march  of  five  hundred  miles  they  trav- 
ersed Lesser  Asia,  through  a  wasted  land  and  deserted  towns,  without 
finding  a  friend  or  an  enemy.        • 

19.  The  siege  of  Antiodb,  unparalleled  for  its  difficulties,  and  the 

L  Altec,  caned  1»7  the  Roman!  A%«' a,  WM  the  oapttal  of  Bithyn' la.    Tbe  Tarklflh  town  of  . 
/ma  oceopies  the  site  of  the  BUhyn'  Ian  dtj.    ( JTap  No.  IV.) 

8L  Biikpi'  ia  wui  a  country  of  Asia  Mtnor,  haying  the  Etudne  on  the  north,  and  the  Propon^ 
ttaandHjriaonthewest    (JTopNo.IV.) 

3l  Rfmm  (meaning  the  kingtbm  of  the  Amimm),  was  the  name  given  by  Soliman,  saltan  of 
the  Torks,  to  the  present  JThtSlia^  (the  western  part  of  Asia  Mhior,)  when  he  tavaded  and 
became  master  of  it  in  the  11th  oentory. 

4  J>9rUm'  Km  was  a  city  of  Phrygia,  on  the  confines  of  Bithyn'  la.  The  plain  of  Dorllas'  ma 
li  often  mentioned  in  history  as  the  place  where  the  armies  of  the  Eastern  empire  assembled 
.in  their  wars  against  the  Turks.    (Jfop  No.  IV.) 

I  Bistoty  of  Ibo  OrnMdMi  p.  UL 


.  389  MOI»BBN  jnsnOBY.  (PivIL 


I  oa  bolli  sides,  wms  the  aezt  obstede  to  the  OBwaird  mardi  of 
te  orasaden,  wjm  rednoed  to  half  the  number  that  had  been  ooUeet- 
ed  at  the  oaptore  of  Nice;  bat  whm  the  enterpriae  ae^med  hopeleai^ 
the  town  was  betrayed  into  their  hands  by  a  Syrian  renegado,  (June 
1098.)  A  few  dajB  later,  the  Tietors  themsdves,  snffering  the  ex- 
tremity of  privatimi  and  fiunine,  were  enoompaased  by  a  splendid 
Tn^ieh  and  Persian  anny  of  three  hondred  thonsand  men;  yei 
the  Christians,  collecting  the  relios  of  their  strength,  and  urged  on 
by  a  belief  of  miraeolons  interposition  in  their  iator,  sallied  from 
the  town,  and  in  a  single  memorable  day  annihilated  or  diflperaed 
the  host  of  their  enemies. 

20.  While  the  siege  of  Antioeh  was  progreasing,  the  Tnfkish  priiiees 
consamed  their  time  and  resooroes  in  civifrwars  beyond  the  Tipns; 
and  the  caliph  of  Bgypt,  embracing  the  opportunity  of  weakness  and 
discord  to  recover»his  ancient  possessions,  besieged  and  took  Jerusa- 
lem. The  Egyptian  monarch  ofiered  to  join  his  arms  to  those  of 
the  Christians,  for  the  purpose  of  sabduing  all  Palestine ;  but  it  was 
evident  that  he  purposed  to  enjoy  the  fruits  <^  victory  without  par- 
tidpation ;  and  the  answer  of  the  crusading  ohiefr  was  firm  and  uni- 
form :  "  the  usurper  of  Jerusalem,  of  whatevlP  nation,  was  their 
enemy,  and  they  would  conquer  the  huAj  dtywith  the  sword  of 
Christ,  and  keep  it  with  the  same." 

"21.  With  an  army  reduced  to  1^  than  fifty  thousand  armed  men, 
the  crusaders,  in  the  month  of  May,  1099,  proceeded  from  Antioeh 
towards  Jerusalem.  Marching  between  Mount  Lib'  anus'  and  the 
seashore,  they  obtained  by  treaty  a  free  passage  through  the  petty 
Turkish  principalities  of  Trip'  oli,*  Sidon,  Tyre,*  Acre/  and  Csesar^a,* 

1.  To  the  four  chains  of  moantaliu  moning  parallel  to  the  sear^oaat  through  northern  ^jrrl* 
or  PateMlnei  the  name  Lih'  anna  has  been  applied.  To  a  chain  ftrther  eaiA  the  Greeks  gave 
ihtnaMBe  Anti-Lib' Mhs,    (JVop  Now  VI.)  « 

2.  Ti-ip'  o/t,  at  this  day  one  of  the  neatest  towns  of  Syria,  is  a  seaport,  seventy-flre  miles 
north-vest  ttom  Damascus.  It  was  one  of  the  most  flonrt|^ing«eeats  of  ancient  Hteratnre,  and 
contained  an  extensive  libruy,  numbering,  it  is  said,  one  hundred  thousand  Tolames,  wUeh 
was  destroyed  by  the  crusaders  in  tbe  year  1 108.  On  this  occasion  the  crusaders  displayed  the 
same  fimalical  zeal  of  which  the  Saracens  have  been  accused,  though  some  think  nqjostly,  in 
the  case  of  Uie  Alexandrian  library.  A  priest,  having  vLsiled  an  apartment  In  the  library  In 
which  were  several  copies  of  the  Koran,  reported  that  It  contained  none  but  impious  works  of 
Mahomet ;  and  the  whole  was  forthwith  committed  to  the  flames.    (Map  No.  VI.) 

3.  Tyrt  and  Sidon^  see  p.  61,  and  Map  No.  VL 

4.  Jicr»  is  a  town  of  Syria  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  al  the  norCi-eastem  Umit  of 
the  bay  of  Acre.  Mount  Osrmal  terminates  on  the  south-western  side  of  the  bay.  This  town  Is 
rendered  fismous  in  modem  history  by  its  determined  and  successful  reslsf^noe  to  the  arms  of 
Napoleon  In  1799.    Seep.)?!.    (Jlfop  No.  VI.) 

5.  Qs«srie  was  an  ancient  Koman  town  on  the  sea-coast  of  Palestine,  thirty  miles  soath-weeC 
fronAcn.    UwwaOovlshlngeity tiU A.D.689, wheattMilaibiaohMdeof ttieSMieiMi 


Ctatf.n>  lUDDIiE  AOXS. '  v  .MS 

wiooh  promiBed  to  remain,  f<»  the  time,  neutral,  and  to  follow  the  * 
oom^^le  of  the  oapitaL  When  at  length  the  hol^  city  broke  npon 
ik»  view  of  the  Christian  host,  a  sodden  enthnsiasm  of  joy  filled 
every  boaom  ]  past  dangers,  fittignes,  and  privations,  were  forgotten ; 
die  name  Jerusalem  was  eohoed  by  every  tongue ;  and  while  some 
riioated  to  the  sky,  some  kneit  and  prayed,  some  wept  aloud,  and 
some  east  themselves  down  and  kissed  the  earth  in  silence.  But  to 
the  excess  of  rejoicing  succeeded  the  extreme  of  wrath  at  seeing  the 
etty  in  the  hands  of  the  infidels ;  and  in  the  first  ebullition  of  rage, 
»  aimultaneons  attack  was  commenced  on  the  town ;  but  a  vigorous 
repulse  tau^t  the  necessity  of  more  judicious  methods  of  assault. 

22.  Passing  over  the  details  of  the  siege  which  followed,  it  is  suf- 
iflient  to  state,  that,  within  forty  days^  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  a 
desperate  assault,  and  that  the  blood  of  seventy  thousand  Moslems 
washed  the  pavements  of  the  captured  city ;  for  the  soldiers  of  the^ 
ehMS  believed  that  they  were  doing  God  good  service  in  exterminat- 
iBg  the  blasphemous  strangers;  and  that  all  mercy  to  the  infidds 
was  an  injury  to  religion.  When  the  bloody  strife  was  over,  the 
loadera  and  soldiers,  washing  the  marks  of  gore  firom  their  persons, 
and  easting  aS  their  armor,  in  the  guise  of  penitents  and  amid  the 
loud  anthans  of  the  dergy,  ascended  the  Hill  of  Calvary^  on  their 
knees,  and  proceeding  to  the  holy  sepulchre,  with  tears  of  joy  kissed  - 
the  stone  which  had  covered  the  Savioilr,  and  then  offered  up  their 
prayers  to  the  mild  Teacher  of  that  beautiful  religion  whose  princi- 
ples are  ^  peace  and  good  will  to  men."  Peter  the  Hermit,  whose 
preaching  had  excited  the  crusade,,  had  followed  the  army  through 
all  its  perils ;  and  when  he  entered  the  city  with  the  conquerors,  the 
Christians  of  Jerusalem  recognized  the  poor  pilgrim  who  had  first 
iq>oken  to  them  words  of  hope,  and  promised  them  delivetance  from 
the  oppresuon  of  their  Turkish  master&  The  reception  which  he 
B0W  met  with  from  the  enthusiastic  multitude,  who  in  the  fervor  of 
their  gratitude  attributed  all  to  him,  and  casting  themselves  at  his 
feet,  invoked  the  blessings  of  heaven  on  their  bene&etor,  more  than 
a  thousand  fold  repaid  the  Hermit  for  all  the  anxiety,  the  toils,  and  ' 
dangers,  which  he  had  endured.  The  ultimate  fiite  of  this  extraor- 
dinary individual  is  unknown.    . 

lallOiftfenintoUMhaiidaortfaecrqiMlei^whAnUiQDkfeDitoenomora.   GBMf««WMtb« 
phce  wb6i«  Pttt«r  cbnTorted  OonMlluB  and  bis  houae,  (Acta,  x.  1,)  and  where  Paal  UMHle  hie 
memorable qMediM  to  Fau  and  Agrippa.    (Aota,  xxir.,  xztr,  xxtI.) 
VMiU^G^hmt^  8eedeaedpdonortaQialeaip.l64,eiidJr9N«.Va) 


284  KODEBK  HSnOBT.  ^i»IL 

23.  Jenualem  was  now  delivered  from  the  hands  of  tbe  bfidelii: 
the  great  objeet  of  ihe  expedition  was  aooomplished ;  and  the  leadal 
institutions  of  Europe  were  introdnoed  into  Palestine  in  all  l^eir 
purity.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  chosen  the  first  soYereign  of  Je- 
rusalem ;  and  the  (^uristian  kingdom  thus  established  oontinued  to 
exist  nearly  a  century.  ScTcral  minor  States  were  established  in 
the  East  by  the  crusaders,  but  as  they  seldom  united  cordially  for 
mutual  defence,  and  were  continually  assailed  by  powerful  eneodea, 
none  of  them  were  of  long  duration.  Even  during  the  soTcreignty 
of  Godfrey,  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  owing  to  the  return  of  many 
of  the  crusaders,  and  their  losses  in  battle,  was  left  for  %  time  to  be 
supported  by  an  army  of  less  than  three  thousand  men.  But  the 
q>irit  of  pilgrimage  was  still  rife ;  and  it  is  estimated  that,  between 
the  first  and  second  crusade,  fiye  hmidred  thousand  people  set  out  from 
Europe  for  Syria,  in  armed  bands  of  several  thousand  men  each ;  and 
although  the  greater  portion  of  them  perished  by  the  way,  the  few  wUo 
reached  their  destination  proYed  exceedin^y  serviceable  in  supporting 
the  Christian  cause,  and  in  re-peopleing  the  devastated  lands  of  Pales- 
tine. The  period  between  the  firat  and  second  crusade  is  remarkable 
for  the  rise,  at  Jerusalem,  of  the  two  most  distmguished  orders  of 
Imighthood — the' Hospitallers,  and  the  Bed-Cross  Knights,  or  Temp- 
lars. The  valor  of  both  orders  became  noted  :  the  Hospitallers  ever 
burned  a  light  during  the  night,  that  they  might  always  be  prepared 
against  the  enemy ;  and  it  is  said  that  any  Templar,  on  hearing  the 
cry  <<  to  arms,"  would  have  been  ashamed  to  ask  the  number  of  the 
enemy.    The  only  question  was,  "  where  are  they  ?" 

24.  During  nearly  two  centuries  after  the  council  of  Clermont, 
each  returning  year  witnessed  a  new  emigration  of  pilgrim  warriors 
for  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Land,  although  but  six  principal  cru- 
sades followed  the  first  great  movement ;  and  all  these  were  excited 
by  some  recent  or  impending  calamity  to  Palestine.  A  detail^  ac- 
count of  these  several  crusades  would  only  exhibit  the  perpetual 
recurrence  of  the  same  causes  and  effects ;  and  would  appear  but  so 
many  faint  and  unsuccessful  copies  of  the  original  Avoiding  detail, 
we  dudl  therefore  speak  of  them  only  in  general  terms. 

25.  Forty-eight  years  after  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  ihe  loss 
v  THB  ^^  *^®  principal  Christian  fortresses  in  Palestine  led  to  a 
sBooifD      second  crusade,  which  was  undertsdcen  by  Conrad  III., 

oauBADx.     ^mpejQj.  ^f  Germany,  and  Louis  VIL,  king  of  France 
(A.  D.  1147.)    The  Pope  Eugenius  abetted  the  design,  and  com- 


OaAtilt}  MIDDLE  ACOSS.  fiBf 

mianoDed  the  eloquent  St.  Bernard  to  preach  the  ooroBS  through 
France  and  Germany.  A  yaet  army  tmder  Conrad  took  the  lead  m 
the  expedition ;  but  not  a  tenth  part  ever  reached  the  Syrian  boun- 
daries. The  army  of  French  and  Gkrmana  was  but  little  more  for- 
tanate ;  and  the  poor  remains  of  tliese  mighty  hosts,  still  led  by  the 
emperors  of  France  and  Germany,  after  reaching  Jerusalem,  joined 
the  Christian  arms  in  a  fruitless  siege  of  Damascus,  which  was  the 
termination  of  the  second  crusade. 

26.  Forty  years  after  the  second  crusade,  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
Saladin,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  whose  authority  was.  acknowledged 
abo  by  the  greater  part  of  Syria  and  Persia.  (A.  D.  1 187.)  The 
loss  of  the  holy  city  filled  all  Europe  with  consternation ;  and  new 
expeditions  were  fitted  out  for  its  recoyery.  France,  y^^  ^^^  ' 
Germany,  and  Enghind,  joined  in  the  crusade ;  and  the  tBiao 
armies  of  each  country  were  headed  by  their  respectiye  o*"*^**- 
soyereigns,  Philip  Augustus,  Frederic  Barbarossa,  and  Richard  I., 
sumamed  the  lion-hearted.  Frederic,  after  defeating  the  Saracens 
in  a  pitched  battle  on  the  plains  of  Asia  Minor,  lost  his  life  by  im- 
prudently bathing  in  the  riyer  Orontes  ;*  and  his  army  was  reduced 
to  a  nnali  body  when  it  reached  Antioch.  The  French  and  English, 
more  successful  than'  the  Germans,  besieged  and  took  Acre,  after  a 
dege  of  twoity-two  months  (July,  A.  D.  1191);  but  as  Richard 
and  Philip  quarrelled,  owing  to  the  latter's  jealousy  of  the  superior 
military  prowess  of  the  former,  Philip  returned  home  in  disgust ; 
and  Richard,  after  defeating  Saladin  in  a  great  battle  nesr  Ascalon,^ 
and  penetrating  within  sight  of  Jerusalem,  oonduded  a  three  years' 
truce  with  his  rival,  and  then  set  sail  for  his  own  dominions.  (A.  D. 
Oct  1192.)  ^ 

27.  The  fourth  crusade  i>  was  undertaken  at  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  (A.  I>.  1202,)  at  the  instigation  of    ^  ^^ 
pope  Innocent  III.     No  great  soyereign  joined  in  the     fourth 
enterprise ;  but  the  most-  powerful  barons  of  France     <^™^*-^ 

1.  Aaeaiony  a  rery  ancient  dty  of  the  Pbllistlnee,  was  a  lea-port  town  of  the  Hedltwiraneeii, 
fbrty-flre  itfles  south-west  (h>m  Jerasalem.  Its  rains  present  a  stnuige  mixtuM  of  Syrian,  Greek, 
Qolhie^  aad  Roman  remains.  There  is  not  a  single  inhabitant  within  (he  old  wsIIb,  whioh  are 
■tin  standing.  The  prophecy  of  Zecbariab,  **  Ascalon  shsU  not  be  inhabited,''  and  that  of 
Zsekiel,  *^U  sbsU  be  a  desolation,'*  are  now  actually  fulfilled.    (Jdap  No.  VI.) 

a.  Some  authorities  say  the  Cydnus.   See  Jaitfes's  Chiralry  and  the  Crusades,  p.  '939. 

bw  Senna  Important  ezpedltloiM  that  were  made  to  the  Holr  Lsnd  a  short  time  preTlous  to 
lUs,  and  that  were  promoted  by  the  exhortations  of  pope  Oelestine  UI.,  are  reprssented  by 
eoBM  writers  as  the  firartherasade.   In  this  way  some  writeneoomeiate  nine  diedftotaraesdea  . 
tNma  BBore^  while  oibsia  deetflba  only  itx. 


xoMRK  snrroftT.  t^mll 

s 

took  the  oroM,  uid  g»^  tho  oommand  to  Bod&oe,  muqulfl  of 
Mootoemt.'  They  hired  the  YeneiiMie  to  transport  them  to  Pales- 
tine, and  agreed  to  reoaptore  for  them  the  oity  of  Zara,'  in  Balmitia ; 
and  this  object  was  aoconplished,  while  the  pope  in  Tain  launched 
the  thunders  of  the  chnreh  at  the  refiractorj  crusaders.  Instead  cf 
sailing  to  Palestine,  the  ejq[>edition  was  thei|  directed  against  the 
Greek  empire,  under  the  pretence  of  dethroning  a  osarper  ;•  and  the 
result  was  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins,  and  the 
founding  of  a  new  Latin  or  Roman  empire  <m  the  ruins  of  the  By- 
lantine.  (A.  D.  April  1204.)  The  new  empire  existod  during  a 
period  of  fifty^seven  years,  whan  the  Greeks  partially  reooyered  their 
authority.  The  fourUi  crusade  ended  without  producing  any  benefit 
to  Palestine.. 

28.  The  fifth  crusade,  undertaken  fourteen  years  after  the  &11  of 
Tm.  THB     ^^  Bysantine  empire,  wa6  at  first  conducted  by  Andrew, 

nrm  monarch  of  Hungary.  The  Ohristtan  army,  after  spend 
0RU8ADB.  ^  g^jQQ  ^^^  '^  ^^  yicmity  of  Acre,  sailed  to  Egypt; 
but  after  some  successes,  among  which  wa&  the  taking  of  Bamietta,' 
ultimate  ruin  was  the  issue  of  the  expedition.  A  few  years  later, 
(A.  P.  1228),  Frederic  IL,  emperor  of  Germany,  then  arrayed  in 
•pen  hostility  with  the  pope,  led  a  formidable  army  to  Palestine,  and 
after  he  had  advanoed  some  distance  from  Acre  towards  Jerusalem, 
eondaded  a  treafy  with  the  sultan  Melek  ELamel,  whereby  the  holy 
city  and  \kt  greater  part  of  Palestine  were  yidded  to  the  Ohristiana.- 
After  the  return  of  Frederic  to  Europe,  new  bands  of  crusaders  pro- 
ceeded to  Palestine :  the  sultan  Kasnd  retook  Jerusalem,  but  the 
Ohristians  agab  obtained  it  by  treaty. 

29.  While  these  events  had  been  passing  in  Palestine  a  new  dy- 
nasty had  arisen  in  the  north  of  Asia,  which  for  a  time  threatened 
a  complete  revolutAn  of  all  the  known  countries  of  the  world.    In 

the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  Gengis  Khan, 
^Smfo^mi  ^^  '^^  ^^  ^  P^^^  Mongol  prince,  had  raised  himself  to 

be  the  lord  of  all  the  pastoral  nations  throughout  the 
Tast  plains  of  Taxtary.     After  desolating  China,*  and  adding  its  fiye 

1.  MonU^rrut  wu  an  RaUan  marqnlaato  in  western  Lombardy,  now  Included  In  Piedmont 
Hie  marqntoea  of  Montaemt,  xlalng  flrom  smaU  begtnnlngs  In  the  conree  of  the  tenth  oentary, 
and  gradnally  exle&dlng  their  territories,  acted,  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  ceotorie^ 
one  of  the  moflft  MUlaiii  ppria  aUoled  to  any  leignlng  honae  In  Enmpei 

a.  Zw^simtlieea|»ttaiornBlna4tKlaaB8aporton  tbaeastflneoaatof  Ite  Adriat' k,  oqa 
kandred  and  Afty  milea  MraflMaat  fWrni  Venioe. 

a.  i>mJfla«laeBllMOamletta,orpriBol|MLaaalainbnMh  allliaim«k  alx  nilaaihiBlla  a^^ 

4.  QtoM, a  iwwt  ooomiy  af  wiitlni  Aiia,  wiy  lit  i^a^-iyd  t»hsi»a»  liKir/^ i 


OaAKH]  HIDDLB  AGSS.  887 

ncrtheni  prorinoefl  to  his  empire,  at  tlie  head  of  seyen  htuidred  thoa- 
sand  warriors  ^  he  invaded  and  oyerran  the  dominions  of  the  saltan 
of  Persia.  His  saooessor  Octal  directed  his  resistless  amis  west- 
ward,  nnder  the  condilbt  of  his  general  Baton,  who,  in  the  course  of 
six  years,  led  his  warricnrs,  in  a  conquering  march,  from  east  to  west, 
oyer  a  fourth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  The  inun-  • 
dating  torrent,  passing  north  of  the  territories  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire, left  them  unharmed ;  but  it  rolled  with  all  its  l^y  upon  the 
more  barbarous  nations  of  Europe.  A  great  part  of  Bussia'  was 
desolated ;  and  both  Kiev'  and  Moscow,'  the  ancient  and  modem 
oapiial,  were  reduced  to  ashes :  the  Tartars  penetrated  into  the  heart 
of  Poland,'  and  as  fiir  as  the  boilers  of  Ge>many,  whence  they 
turned  to  the  south  and  spread  over  the  plains  of  Hungary.  Already 
the  refliote  nations  of  the  Baltic  trembled  at  the  approach  of  these 
barbarian  warriors ;  and  Germany,  France,  England,  and  Italy,  were 
on  the  point  of  arming  in  the  common  defence  of  Christendom,  when 
Baton  and  the  five  hundred  thousand  warriors  who  still  accompanied 
him  were  recalled .  to  Asia  by  the  death  of  their  sovereign.  (A.  D. 
1245.) 

30.  Among  the  many  tribes  and  nations  that  had  been  driven  from 
tiieir  original  seats  by  the  great  Tartar  inundation,  were  the  Coras- 
mins,  embracing  numerous  hordes  of  Tartar  origin,  that  had  attached 
themselves  to  the  fortunes  of  the  sultan  of  Persia.  They  now  pre- 
cipitated themselves  upon  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  massaored  indis- 

tana  to  the  gMWfal  mder,  it  bu  »  few  reTokatloiw  or  polltioal  ohaogM  to  record.  The 
sDlbcntie  htoloiy  of  tlie  Chinese  begins  with  the  compilations  of  OonfUctns,  who  was  bom 
B.  C  550.  From  that  period  the  annals  of  the  mnpire  have  been  carefully  noted  and  preserved 
taa  an  nnbnken  Uoe  to  the  present  da7--lbnnins  a  series  of  more  than  five  hundred  Tolomes 
of  unlntcrsstlng  chronological  details. 

L  Ruttia,  the  largest,  and  one  of  the  most  powerful  empires,  either  of  ancient  or  modem 
tfines,  extends  fhnn  BehriDg*s  straits  and  the  Paoiflc  on  the  east,  to  the  Ooif  of  Bothnia  on  the 
westr-*  distance  of  neariy  six  thousand  miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  about  flOeen  bmw 
drsd  miles.  In  this  immense  empire  about  fortf  distinct  languages  are  in  use,  having  attached 
to  then  a  great  number  of  dlflbreat  dialects.  In  the  year  1535  the  extent  of  the  Ruaslan  do- 
Bilnlnw  wn  eeUmated  ai  thirty-seven  thousand  German  square  mUes;  but  in  the  year  1890  it 
aed  increased  to  ten  times  that  amount    (For  early  history  of  Russia  see  p.  309.) 

%  JSee,  or  ri«B,  the  capital  of  the  modem  Russian  province  of  the  same  nttne,  is  on  the* 
Dnieper,  two  hundred  and  twentr  miles  norih  of  Odea'sa,  Ihe  nearest  port  on  the  Black  Sea. 
Kiev  was  the  fbrmer  residence  of  the  grand  dukes  of  Russia— the  earliest  seat  of  the  Oiristian 
niigion  In  Russia— and  for  a  considerable  period  the  capital  of  the  empire.    (Mtip  No.  XVIl.) 

X  Jifo««»«,  still  one  of  Uie  capitals  of  the  Russian  empire,  and  Oie  grand  entxepM  of  its  te^ 
fvnal  coomerce,  la  sltaated  on  the  navigable  river  Moskwa,  a  branch  of  the  Volgs,  four  hutt* 
drad  miles  south-east  IW>m  St.  Petersburg.    It  was  founded  In  the  year  1147.    (.tfaji  No.  XU.) 

4.  Ps^Md^seep.^11. 

%QiMnn,lT.95L 


288  MOBmr  HISTORY.  [PiarlL 

oriminately  Turks,  Jews,  and  OhriskiaiiB  who  opposed  them.  Jem* 
salem  was  taken ;  and  it  is  said  every  soul  in  it  was  put  to  the  sword ; 
bat  at  length  the  Turks  and  Christians,  uniting  their  fbrcea,  utterly 
defeated  die  Corasmins,  and  thus  delivered  Palestine  from  one  of 
the  most  terrible  scourges  that  had  ever  been  inflioted  on  it. 

31.  The  ravages  of  the  Oorasmins  in  Palestine  called  forth 
X.  THX  ^®  ^^^  crusade,  which  was  led  i>y  Louis  IX.,  king 
mzTH       of  France,  commonly  called  St  Louis.     He  h^an  by  an 

caoEADs.  f^iifyf,^  on  ^gypt ;  but  after  B0i6e  successes  he  wss  de- 
feated, made  prisoner  when  enfeebled  by  disease,  and  forced  to 
purchase  his  liberty  by  the  payment  of  an  immense  ransom.  ( A.  D. 
1250.)  Twenty  years  later  St.  Louis  embarked  on  a  second  cru- 
sade— the  last  of  those  great  movements  for  the  redemption  of  the 
Holy  Land.  The  fleet  of  Louis  being  driven  by  a  storm  into  Sar 
dinia,  here  a  change  of  plans  took  place,  and  it  was  resolved  to  at 
tack  the  Moors  of  Africa.  The  French  landed  near  Carthage,  and 
took  the  city ;  but  a  pestilence  soon  carried  off  Louis  and  the  greater 
portion  of  his  army,  when  the  expedition  was  abandoned. 

32.  From  this  time  the  fate  of  the  Eastern  Christians  grew  daily 
more  certun ;  and  in  the  year  1291  a  Turkish  army  of  two  hundred 
thousand  men  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Acre,  the  last  strong- 
hold of  the  crusaders  in  Palestine.  After  a  tedious  siege  the  dty 
was  taken ;  and  thus  the  last  vestige  of  the  Christian  power  in  Syria 
was  swept  away.  The  crusades  had  occupied  a  period  of  nearly  two 
centuries,  and  had  led  two  millions  of  Europeans  to  find  their  grayes 
in  Eastern  lands ;  and  yet  none  of  the  objects  of  these  expeditionB 
had  been  accomplished ; — a  sad  commentary  upon  the  folly  and  fa- 
naticism of  the  age.  The  effects  of  these  holy  wars  upon  the  state 
of  European  society  will  be  referred  to  in  a  subsequent  chapter.* 

III.  English  History. — 1.  Our  last  reference  to  the  history  of 

England  was  to  that  period  rendered  brilliant  by  the 

AF^a^THB  ^^^gf^  o^  Alfred  the  Great,  the  real  founder  of  the  Eng- 

^    DEATH  OF    lish  monarchy ;  and  we  now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  but 

connected  outline  of  the  continuation  of  English  history 

daring  the  central  period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  has  just  passed 

in  review  before  us. 

2.  After  the  death  of  Alfred,  in  the  first  year  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, (A.  D.  901,)  England,  still  a  prey  to  the  rayages  of  the  Danes^ 

A.  Sm  Pvt  m.  cfa.  Ix.  ofUM  Unlvmitj  Bdiiton. 


CiUP.ILl  KIDDLE  AGEa  289 

and  intestine  disorder,  relapsed  into  confusion  and  barbarism ;  and 
under  a  succession  of  eight  sovereigns,*  from  the  time  of  Alfred,  its 
history  presents  little  that  is  important  to  the  modern  reader. 
Daring  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.,  the  last  of  these  rulers,  the 
Danes  and  Norwegians,  led  by  Sweyn  king  of  Denmark,'  acquired 
possession  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  kingdom ;  and  on  several 
occasions  Ethelred  purchased  a  momentary  respite  from  their  rav- 
ages by  large  bribes,  which  only  increased  their  avidity,  andnnsured 
their  return.  At  length  the  weak  and  cruel  monarch  ordered  the 
massacre  of  all  the  Danes  in  the  Saxon  territories.  (A.  D.  1002.) 
The  execution  of  the  barbarous  mandate  occasioned  the  renewal  of 
hostilities :  the  English  nobles,  in  contempt  of  their  sovereign,  of- 
fered the  crown  to  Sweyn ;  while  Ethelred  fled  for  refuge  to  the 
ooort  of  Richard,  duke  of  Normandy,  whose  wster  he  had  married. 
On  ^e  death  of  Sweyn,  in  the  year  1014,  the  Danish  army  in  Eng- 
land chose  his  son  Canute  to  succeed  him  ;  while  the  Saxon  chiefe, 
with  their  wonted  inconstancy,  recalled  Ethelred.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter,  his  son  Edmund,  surnamed  Ironside,  from  his  hardihood 
and  valor,  was  chosen  king  by  the  English ;  but  by  hid  death,  (A.  D. 
1016,)  after  a  few  months,  Canute,  in  accordance  with  a  previous 
treaty,  was  left  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  whole  of  England. 

3.  Canute,  surnamed"  the  G-reat,  proved  to  be  the  most  powerful 
monarch  of  the  age.  By  marrying  Emma,  the  widow  of  Ethelred, 
he  conciliated  the  vanquished  Britons,  and  disarmed  the  hostility  t>f 
the  duke  of  Normandy ;  while  the  earl  of  Gk)dwin,  the  most  power- 
ful of  the  English  barons,  was  gained  to  his  interests,  by  receiving 
the  hand  of  the  king's  daughter.  In  the  year  1025  he  subdued 
Sweden,  and  Norway*  two  years  later,  and  on  his  death  (Nov.  1036) 
he  left  his  vast  possessions  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Eng- 
land, to  be  divided  among  his  children.  His  administration  of  the 
government  of  England  was  at  first  harsh ;  but  he  gradually  emerged 
from  his  original  barbarism,  embraced  Christianity,  encouraged  liter- 
ature, and  adopted  some  wise  institutions  for  the  benefit  of  his 
Anglo  Saxon  subjects. 

4.  After  the  death  of  Canute,  two  of  his  sons,  Harold  and  Hardi- 
Canute,  reigned  in  succession  over  England;  after  which,  in  1041, 

1.  Denmark^  Sweden^  and  JWioay ;— «ee  p.  308. 
SL  Sweden  and  Xoricaff.    See  Denmar\,  p.  308. 

a.  Edward  I.  tbe  Elder,  90L  Atbelstaa,  925.  Edmund  I.,  941.  Bdrod,  Mfi.  Bdwy,  9S^ 
Edgar,  BSa    Kdn^rd  11.,  tbe  Murtjr,  975.    Ethelred  IT.,  978. 

If 


290  MODKRN  BISTORT.  [PmmtTL 

the  crown  retiumed  to  the  ancient  Saxon  fitmilj,  in  the  person  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  a  jonnger  son  of  Ethek-ed.  The  mild  char^ 
acter  of  Edward  endeared  him  to  h^  Saxon  sahjectSj  Dotwithstand-. 
ing  the  partiality  which  he  showed  to  his  Norman  fekvorites ;  hnt  his 
reign  of  twenty- fiYe  ybars  was  weak  and  inglorioos,  and  it  was  dis^ 
torhed  by  the  rebellion  of  the  earl  of  Godwin,  by  occasional  hostili- 
ties with  the  Welsh  and  Scotch,  and  by  intrigues  for  the  succession. 
On  his  death,  (1066,)  Harold,  son  of  Oodwin,  took  possession  of  the 
throne ;  but  scarcely  had  he  overcome  his  brother  Tostig,  who  dis- 
puted the  supremacy  with  him,  when  he  found  a  more  formidable 
competitor  in  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  to  whom  the  late  king 
had  either  bequeathed  or  purposed  the  succession.  On  the  25th  of 
September,  1066,  Harold  gained  a  great  victory  over  his  brother ; 
but,  three  days  later,  William  landed  in  Sussex,'  at  the  head  of  oixtj 
thousand  men,  and  on  the  fourteenth  of  October  fought 
ooM^v^  ^^^  Harold  the  bloody  batUe  of  Hastings,'  which  ter- 
minated the  Saxon  dynasty,  and  put  William  the  Nor- 
man in  possession  of  the  throne  of  England.  Harold  was  killed  in 
battie ;  the  English  army  was  nearly  destroyed,  and  a  fourth  part  of. 
the  Normans  slain.  The  victory  gave  to  William  the  title  of  th« 
Conqueror ;  and  the  subjugation  of  the  realm  by  him  is  termed,  in 
English  history,  the  Norman  conquest 

5.  This  conquest,  however,  was  gradual,  for  the  immediate  resulta 
of  the  battle  of  Hastings  gave  to  William  less  than  a  fourth  part  of 
the  kingdom ;  and  his  wars  for  the  subjugation  of  the  West,  the 
North,  and  the  East,  were  protracted  during  a  period  of  seven  years. 
William  treated  the  English  as  rebels  for  appearing  in  the  field 
against  him,  and  distributed  their  lands  among  his  Norman  followers. 
To  this  distribution,  the  tides  and  revenues  of  many  of  the  English 
nobility  owe  their  origm.*  The  northern  Saxons  made  a  vigorous 
resistance,  and  William  treated  them  with  a  severity  in  proportion 
to  the  valor  and  pertinacity  of  their  defence— laying  waste  lihe 
country  with  fire  and  sword,  until,  in  some  countries,  the  danger  of 
rebellion  was  removed  by  a  total  dearth  of  inhabitants. 

- '««« li  a  •onthern  ooonty  of  Bnglwid^  on  (he  Busllth  channel,  west  of  Kent 
JL  4a»Ha^aj  new  m  town  of  ten  thonflend  Inbabitanla,  is  flfty-foor  mtlee  soath-eest  ttam  Imo* 
don.  It  la  pleaiently  ritnated  in  a  rale,  tonoanded  on  every  ude,  except  toward  the  tea,  by  hlU 
and  diilk    On  a  hUl  east  of  the  town  are  still  to  be  seen  banks  and  trenches,  supposed  to  hat» 
kMn  the  work  of  tba  Nonnam  at  the  time  of  the  invasion.    (Map  No.  XVI.) 
a.  0BeNoti%  Vansieft,  JUstomd;  lus^  p.  308. 


Obat.JL]  '  MIDDLE  AGBS.  291 

6.  The  foandations  of  the  feudal  system  had  existed  in  England 
before  the  conquest ;  but  the  distribution  of  the  conquered  lands 
among  the  Norman  followers  of  William,  gave  that  prince  the  op- 
portunity of  fully  establishing  the  system  as  it  then  existed,  in  ito 
maturity,  on  the  continent.  Preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  the 
feudal  tenures,  William  caused  a  survey  to  be  made  of  all  the  lands 
in  the  kingdom,  the  particulars  of  which  were  inserted  in  what  is 
called  the  Doomsday  Book,  or  Book  of  Judgment,  which  is  still  in 
being.  Under  the  iron  rule  of  the  conqueror  the  Anglo  Saxons  be- 
came vassals  of  their  Norman  lords ;  the  name  Saocon  was  made  a 
term  of  reproach ;  and  the  Saxon  language  was  regarded  as  barba- 
rous ;  while  the  Norman-French  idiom  was  employed  in  all  the  acts 
of  administration. 

7.  On  the  death  of  William,  in  the  year  1087,  his  second  son, 
William  Rufus,  took  possession  of  the  throne,  to  the  prejudice  of  his 
elder  brother  Robert,  then  absent  in  Normandy.  His  reign,  and 
that  of  his  brother  and  successor,  Henry  I.,  are  distinguished  by  few 
eTents  of  importance  ;  but  both  plundered  the  kingdom  :  an  aifcient 
Saxon  chronicle  says  that  the  former  was  "  loathed  by  nearly  all  his 
people,  and  odious  to  God ;"  and  of  the  latter  it  is  said  that  "justice 
was  in  his  hands  a  source  of  revenue,  and  judicial  murder  a  frequent 
inBtmment  of  extortion." 

8.  Henry  had  married  a  Saxon  princess ;  and  to  his  daughter  Ma- 
tOda,  by  iJiis  marriage,  he  designed  to  leave  the  crown ;  but  his 
nephew  Stephen  defeated  his  intentions  by  immediately  seizing  the 
vacant  throne  on  the  death  of  Henry.  (1135.)  A  long  civil  war 
that  followed  was  terminated  by  a  general  council  of  the  kingdom 
wlach  adopted  Henry  Plantagenet,'  Matilda's  son,  as  the  successor 
of  Stephen.  One  year  later  the  boisterous  life  and  wretched  reign 
of  Stephen  were  brought  to  a  close,  when  Henry  II.,  the  first  of 
the  Plantagenet  dynasty,  ascended  the  throne  of  England.  (A.  D. 
1154.) 

9.  By  inheritance  and  marriage,  Henry  possessed,  in  addition  to 
tbe  duchy  of  Normandy,  the  fairest  provinces   of  north  western 

1.  PlanUgenft  Is  the  surnama  of  the  kings  of  England  from  Henry  II.  to  Richard  III. 
fndulvei  Andqnarlans  are  much  at  a  Iom  to  account  for  the  origin  of  this  name ;  and  the 
best  deriration  they  can  find  for  It  is,  that  Folk,  the  first  earl  of  Anjon  of  that  name,  being 
■tang  with  remorse  for  some  wicked  action,  went  In  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  as  a  work  of 
fttonemeat;  where,  being  soundly  scourged  with  broom  twigs,  which  grew  plenUftilly  on  th« 
ipot,  be  ever  atter  took  the  sumaiae  of  P/aatdymati  or  ^roMMfa/A,  which  was  retained  by  hU 
BtfUa  poMflrity.   (EaoyelopedlA^ 


99a  MODERK  H]6T0BT.  fTAnU 

Frimce;  fund  these,  in  connection  with  his  English  dominiooj,  xen- 
HL  EBDuo-    ^®^^^  ^^™  ^^^  ^  *^®  ™®®^  powerful  monarchs  in  dtriB* 
TioN  OF     tendom.     He  also  reduced  Ireland*  to  a  state  of  subjeo- 
XKBLAKD.     ^j^^^  j^^  formally  annexed  it  to  the  English  crown,  al- 
though the  complete  conquest  of  that  country  was  not  e^ted  until 
nearly  four  centuries  later.     By  a  wise  and  impartial  administration 
of  the  government,  Henry  gained  the  affections  of  his  people ;  but  he 
was  long  engaged  in  a  kind  of  spiritual  warfare  with  the  pope,  aad 
the  close  of  his  life  was  clouded  by  domestic  misfortunes.     His  sons, 
instigated  by  their  mother,  and  aided  by  Louis  VII.,  kuig  of  FraneCi 
repeatedly  rebelled  against  him ;  and  he  finally  died  of  a  broken 
heart,  after  a  long  reign  of  thirty -five  years.     (A.  D.  1 1^9.) 

10.  Henry  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Richard,  sumiuned 
the  Lion-hearted,  who  immediately  on  his  accession,  after  plundering 
his  subjects  of  an  immense  sum  of  money,  embarked  on  a  crusade 
to  the  Holy  Land.  After  filling  the  world  with  his  renown,  being 
wredced  in  his  homeward  voyage,  and  travelling  m  disguise  through 
Germany,  he  was  seized  and  imprisoned,  and  only  obtained  his  lib- 
erty by  an  immense  ransom,  which  was  paid  by  his  subjects.     The 

1.  Ireland  is  a  largo  island  west  of  England,  fh>m  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Irish  Sea  aad 
6l  6eorge*a  Channel.  Its  dirisions,  best  known  in  history,  are  the  four  greal  provinces,  Ulatar 
In  the  north,  Leinster  in  the  east,  Connaught  in  the  west,  and  Munstor  in  the  loath. 

Irish  historians  speak  of  Greek,  Phcenlcian,  Scotch,  Spanish,  and  Gaalic  colonies  in  Iraland« 
before  the  Christian  era ;  for  which,  however,  there  is  no  historical  foondaUon.  The  oMesI 
authentic  Irish  records  were  written  betwe^  the  tenth  and  twelfth  eentofies  ^  bni  eome  ot 
them  go  back,  with  some  consistency,  as  for  as  the  Christian  era.  The  early  inhabitants  of 
IreUnd  were  evidently  more  barbarous  than  even  those  of  Britain.  In  the  flfUi  century  Chriail- 
anlty  was  introduced  among  them  by  St  Patrick,  a  native  of  North  Britain,  who  in  his  youtti 
hHd  been  carried  a  captive  into  Ireland ;  but  the  new  faith  did  not  flourish  until  a  eentniy  ot 
two  later;  and  it  appears  that,  even  then,  the  learning  of  the  Irish  clergy  did  not  extend  ba- 
yond  the  walls  of  the  monasteries.  In  the  ninth  and  tenth  oenturiea  the  DaBes  aiada  tbant- 
seWes  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  the  coasts  of  the  island,  while  the  interior,  divVied  Bmaag 
a  number  of  barbarous  and  hostile  chiefs,  was  agitated  by  internal  wars,  whidi  no  sense  of 
common  dangers  could  Interrupt.  In  the  eariy  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  Brian  Bora,  ktaf 
of.  Munster,  united  the  greater  part  of  the  island  under  his  sceptre,  and  ejcpdUiMl  Use  DaiMa; 
but  soon  afler  his  4eath,  A.  D.  1014,  the  kingdom  was  again  divided  ;  and  sanguinary  w^an 
continued  lo  rage  betwi^n  opposing  princes  until  the  invasion  by  Henry  II.  of  England,  hii  tlie 
year  liflO.  60  early  as  1155  Henry  had  projected  the  oonqoeat  of  Ireland,  and  hiyl  obtained 
fh>m  pope  Adrian  IV.  AUl  permission  to  invade  and  subdue  the  Irish,  for  the  poipoee  of  v^ 
forming  them.  The  grant  was  accompanied  by  a  stipulation  fbr  the  payment  to  St  P<»ter«  of  a 
penny  annually  from  every  house  iu  Ireland,— this  being  the  price  for  which  the  Indepeadeooa 
of  the  Irish  people  was  coolly  bartered  away.  Henry,  however,  oonqoered  only  th»  f^Mir 
counties  Dublin,  Meath,  Louth,  ancf  Kildar^  being  a  part  of  Leinsier,  oa  the  eastern  ooaa^ 
In  1315  Edward  Bruce,  brother  of  Uie  king  of  Scotland,  being  Invited  over  by  the  Irish,  landed 
In  Ireland,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king  ;  but  not  being  well  supported,  he  was 
finally  defeated  and  killed  in  the  battle  of  Dumlalk,  in  the  year  1318,  after  which  the  Scotch 
forces  were  withdrawn.  It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Cromwel^  that  fiagUsh  supranuu^  was 
fhllf  «sitabJahedlnevei7partofthelalaod.    (JVap  No.  XVL) 


Oktf.n]  MIDDLE  AG£3.  9S6    ' 

miga  of  iSkiB  fBmons  knight  is  ehiefiy  signalized  by  his  deeds  in  Pal- 
estcne,  and  is  of  Httle  importance  in  English  history. 

11.  Richard  was  succeeded  by  his  profligate  brother  John,  sor* 
Bainied  La<Aland.     (A.  D.*1199.)     In  a  long  struggle  with  Philip 
Angostos  of  France,  John  lost  most  of  his  dontinental  possessions : 
by  stripping  the  c]pirch  of  its  treasures  he  made  the  pope  his  enemy ; 
snd  after  a  vain  attempt  to  brave  the  storm  of  his  vengeance,  he 
toM^B  'a  cowardly  submission,  swore  allegiance  to  the  pope,  and 
agreed  to  hold  his  kingdom  tributary  to  the  holy  see.     The  barons, 
provoked  by  Ihe  tyranny  and  vices  of  their  sovereign,  next  took  up 
arms  against  him  :  they  received  with  indignation  the  pope^s  decla- 
ration in  &vor  of  Ms  vassal, — took  possession  of  London, — and 
'finftlly  compelled  the  king  to  yield  to  their  demands,  and  to  sign  the 
Magna  Charta^  or  Great  Gharfer  of  rights  and  liberties,  which  laid 
the  flirst  permanent  foundation  of  British  freedom.^     John  attempt-  ^ 
ed  to  annul  the  conditions  imposed,  and,  being  absolved  by  the  pope 
fi^m  the  oath  which  he  had  taken  to  the  barons,  he  collected  an 
afmy  of  mercenary  soldiers  from  Germany,  and  proceeded  to  lay 
Wailte  the  kingdom ;  but  the  barons  proffered  the  crown  to  Louis,  the 
eld^t  son  of  the  French  monarch,  who  came  over  with  a  large  army  to 
enibrce  his  claims,  when  the  sudden  death  of  John  arrested  impending 
dangers,  and  prevented  England  from  becoming  a  province  of  France. 
12.  On  the  death  of  John,  his  eldest  son,  Henry  III.,  then  in 
the  tenth  year  of  his  age,  was  acknowledged  king  by  the  nobility  and 
tlie  people.     Henry  was  a  weak  and  fickle  sovereign ; '  and  during  his . 
long  r^ign  Of  more  than  half  a  century,  the  country  was  agitated  by 
internal  comniotions,  caused  by  the  king's  prodigality,  favoritism,  op- 
pressive exactions,  and  continual  violation  of  the  people^s  rights  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  principles  of  the  Great  Charter.     Again  the  barons 
resisted,  and  called  a  parliament,  when  the  king  was  virtually  de- 
posed.    (A.  D.  1258.)     An  attempt  to  regain  his  authority  led  to 
all  the  horrors  of  civil  war.     In  another  parliament,  called  by  the 
luurons,  (A.  D.   1265,)  and  embracing  -delegates  from  the  counties, 
eities,  and  boroughs,  we  find  the  first  germs  of  popular  representa- 
tion in  England ;  and  although,  eventually,  the  baronial  party,  whoso 
tyranny  was  found  scarcely  less  than  that  of  the  king,  was  over- 
tiirown,  yet  their  incautious  innovation  had  already  laid  the  basis  of 
the  fatare  House  of  Commons. 

a.  The  Graat  Charter  wm  ilgiied  on  the  10th  of  Jnne^  1915>  tfc  Buanymede^  on  the  Thanie^ 
beliren  Sletaiei  and  Wlndaor. 


994  UODBfS  mBTORT.  [FmvH 

13.  Henry  was  saooeeded  by  hb  Bon,  Bdward  L,  who,  ai  the  iime 
of  his  father's  death,  was  absent  on  the  last  onisade  to  the  Holy 
Land.  (A.  D.  1272.)  The  actiYO  and  splendid  reign  of  this  prinoe, 
who  left  behind  him  the  oharacter  of  a  great  statesman  and  com- 
mandei^was  mostly  oooupied  with  the  attempt  to  unite  the  whole  of 
Great  Britain  under  one  soyereignty.     When  Llewellyn,  prinee  of 

XT.  MjBJu-    ^^^/  refused  to  perform  the  customary  homage  to  the 
'     QATioN  or    English  crown,  Edward  declared  war  against  him,  oyer* 
^^■^      ran  the  country,  and  subdued  it,  after  a  brave  resistanoe. 
(1277—1283.) 

14.  The  remainder  o£  Edward's  reign  was  filled  with  attempts  to 
subjugate  Scotland,  to  which  country  the  English  monarch  laid 
claim  as  lord  paramount,  by  the  rights  of  fealty  and  suooeasioa.  A 
Scotch  king,  taken  prisoner  by  Henry  II.,  had  been  compelled,  aa  the 
price  of  his  release,  to  do  homage  for  his  crown ;  and  the  same  bad 
been  demanded  of  later  princes,  in  return  for  lands  which  they  held 
in  England.  By  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  in  the 
year  1283,  the  crown  deyolyed  on  his  grand  daughter  the  princea 
Margaret,  who  was  a  niece  of  Edward  I.  of  England.  This  lady 
was  soon  after  affianced  to  Edward's  only  son,  the  prince  of  Wales; 
and^  thus  the  prospect  of  uniting  the  crowns  of  the  two  kijJgdoins 
seemed  near  at  hand,  when  the  fraU  bond  of  union  was  suddenly 
destroyed^  by  the  untimely  death  of  the  princess. 

15.  The  two  principal  Scotch  competitors  for  the  crown  were  noif  ^ 
John  Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce,  who  agreed  to  submit  their  claims  to 
the  decision  of  Edward.     The  latter  decided  in  favor  of  Baliol,  on 
condition  of  his  becoming  a  vassal  of  the  English  king.     (A.  B- 1^^*) 

1.  Wales,  anolenOy  called  CamMoy  m  prindiMaitgr  in  tho  west  of  Grott^Brltain,  baring  OA 
the  north  and.  west  the  Irish  Sea,  and  on  the  aoath  and  aonth-west  Bristol  Channel,  i»  about  one 
htuidred  and  tUlj  miles  in  length  fh>m  north  to  south,  and  from  Mtj  to  eighty  in  braadtfa.  ^^ 
Welsh  are  descendant*  of  the  ancient  Britons,  who,  being  driven  oat  of  Bi^and  by  the  Anglo 
Saxons,  took  refUge  in  the  monntabi  fiutnesses  of  Wales,  or  fled  to  the  continent  of  Borop^ 
where  they  gave  their  name  to  Brittany.  In  tho  ninth  centozy  Wales  was  divided  Into  tbrss 
aovoreignties,  Morth  Wales,  South  Wales,  and  the  intermediate  dlslriet  called  Powia,-^be 
reigning  princes  of  which  were  held  together  by  some  loose  Ues  of  confederacy.  In  the  yetf 
033  the  English  king  Athelstan  compelled  the  Welsh  prindpaliUes  to  become  his  tiibstaiM; 
and  upon  the  treaty  then  concluded  with  them,  founded  on  the  feudal  relation  of  lord  and  vta- 
sal,  the  Normans  based  their  claim  of  lordship  paramount  over  all  Wales.  Dnring  &« 
elevenlh  and  twelfth  centuries.  South  Wales  waa  the  scene  of  frequent  contests  betvoe°  tbe 
Welsh  and  Normans.  When  Edward  I.  claimed  feudal  homa«p  of  Llewellyn,  the  duty » 
fteliy  was  acknowledged  by  the  latter ;  but  he  was  unwilling,  by  going  to  London,  to  pl«o* 
himself  In  the  power  of  a  monarch  who  had  recently  violated  a  solemn  treaty  vlth  hUn;  *^ 
hence  arose  a  war  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  Llewellyn,  and  the  8iibJi«ntlon  of  bk 
•c«nt*y.    A.D.ia3-S.    (Jlf^^No-XVL) 


Cjur.II]  MIDDLE  AQSa 

The  impatient  tamper  of  Baliol  ooiild  not  brook  the  hmniliating  acta 
of  yaasalage  required  of  hbn ;  and  when  war  broke  out  between 
France  and  England,  he  refoaed  military  aid  to  the  latter,  and  eon- 
d^ded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  French  monarch.     (A..  D.  1292.) 
Warlwtween  England  and  Scotland  followed;  and  Baliol,  after  a 
brief  resistance,  being  defeated  in  the  great  battle  of 
Danbar/  was  forced  to  make  submission  to  Edward  in  ^*  ^^^JJ^" 
terms  of  abject  supplication.     The  victor  returned  to 
London,  carrying  with  him  not  only  the  Scottish  crown  and  sceptre, 
but  also  the  sacred  stone  on  which  the  Scottish  monarchs  were  placed 
wlflb  they  received  the  royal  inauguration.     (A.  D.  1296.) 

16.  Scarcely,  however,  had  Edward  crossed  the  frontiers,  when  the 
Scots  reasserted  their  independence,  and  under  ^e  brave  Sir  Wil- 
liam Wallace,  a  man  of  obscure  birth,  but  worthy  to  be  ranked 
among  the  foremost  of  patriots,  defeated  the  English  at  Stirling,* 
and  recovered  the  whole  of  Scotland  as  rapidly  as  it  had  been  lost 
Again  Edward  advanced,  at  the  head  of  a  gallant  muster  of  all  the 
English  chivalry,  and  the  Scots  were  defeated  at  Falkirk-'  (A.  D. 
15298.)  The  adherents  of  Wallace  mutinied  against  him;  and  a 
few  years  later  the  hero  of  Scotland  was  treacherously  betrayed  into 
the  hands  of  Edward,  and  being  condemned  for  the  pretended  crime 
of  {reason,  was  infamously  executed,'  to  the  lasting  dishonor  of  the  . 
English  king.     (A.  D.  1305.) 

17.  The  cause  of  Scottish  freedom  was  revived  by  Robert  Bruce, 
grandson  of  the  Bruce  who  had  been  competitor  for  the  throne 
against  Baliol.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  1306  he  was  crowned 
king  at  Scone*  by  the  revolted  barons.     In  the  following  year,  Ed- 

L  IhMhar  Is  a  leaport  of  ScoOuid,  fcirenty-aevm  mnes  nortb-«ui  from  EdinbunG^  Tho 
aadent  cntfe  of  Doabar,  the  iceiie  of  many  warlike  exploits)  stood  on  a  lofty  rock,  ihe  base 
ct  wkkh  was  WMhed  by«tbe  sea.  It  was  taken  by  Edward  L  in  1906 ;— four  times  It  reeelved 
within  lis  walls  the  unfortunate  Qoeen  Mary ;— and  it  waa  in  the  Ticinity  of  Dunbar  that  Qpom- 
weD  defeated  the  ScoU  under  GenemI  LesUe,  in  1050.    (^Map  No.  XVI.) 

S.  Uirling  is  a  river  port  and  fortress  of  Scotland,  on  the  Forth,  thirty  miles  nortb-westftom 
Edinburgh.  Its  (taie  old  casUe  is  placed  on  a  basaltic  rock,  rising  abruptly  three  hundred  fset 
from  the  riv«r*s  edge.    {MapVo,X\L) 

a.  Falkirk  is  an  ancient  town  of  Scotland,  twenty-two  mHes  north-west  from  Edinburgh,  and 
three  m>iea  south  of  the  Frith  of  Forth.  In  the  valley,  a  litUe  north  of  the  town,  the  Scotcb, 
onder  Wallace,  were  defeated  on  the  l^d  of  July,  1908.  In  thU  batUe  feU  Sir  John  Stewart, 
the  commander  of  the  ScotUsh  archers,  and  Sir  John  the  Grahame,  the  bosom  friend  of  W'al- 
Ittoe.  The  tomb  of  Orshame,  which  the  gratitude  of  hU  countrymen  has  thrice  renewed,  is 
lo  be  seen  fai  the  churchyard  of  Falkirk.  On  a  moof,  half  a  mile  south-west  from  the  town, 
Charies  Stuart,  the  Pretender,  gained  a  victory  over  ihe  roval  army  in  1746.   {Map  No.  XVX.   r.) 

4.  AcMM,  now  a  msatt  village  of  Scotland,  is  a  UOle  above  Perth,  on  the  river  Xsy,  eighloai 
west  from  Dundee^  and  thirty-five  north-west  from  Edinbui^   It  was  ftmnetty  the  i«ri« 


296  MODERN  HISTOKY.  [Paw  II 

ward,  aaaembling  a  mighty  anny,  to  render  reBistance  hopelefls,  took 
the  field  against  him,  but  he  died  on  his  march,  and  the  expedition 
was  abandoned  by  hia  son  and  successor,  Edward  II.,  in  opposition 
to  the  dying  injunctions  of  his  father.  (A.  D.  1307.)  Still  the  war 
continued,  and  the  Scotch  were  generally  successful  \  but  after  seTen 
years  Edward  himself  marched  against  the  rebels  at  the  bead  of 
more  than  a  hundred  thousand  men ;  but  being  met  by  Bruce  at  the 
head  of  little  more  than  a  third  of  that  number^  he  experienced  a 
total  defeat  in  the  battle  of  Bannockbum,*  wiiich  established  the  in- 
dependence of  Scotland.     (A.  D.  June  24th,  1314.)  • 

18.  The  northern  nations  of  Europe,  during  the  tenth,  eleveDtii, 
twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries,  were  much  less  advanced  in  ciTilization 
than  those  which  sprung  from  the  wrecks  of  the  Boman  empire ;  and 
their  obscure  annals  offer  little  to  our  notice  but  the  germs  of  rude  king- 
doms in  the  early  stages  of  formation.  In  the  south-west  of  Europe, 
the  wars  between  the  Moors  and  Christians  of  the  Spanish  peninsula 
had  already  continued  during  a  period  of  more  than  five  centuries, 
with  ever -varying  results ;  but  the^  overthrow  of  the  Western  cali- 
phate of  Cordova,  in  the  year  1030,  followed  by  the  dismemberment 
of  the  Moham'medan  empire  of  Spain,  into  several  independent 
States,  (A.  D.  1238,)  struck  a  fatal  blow  at  the  Saracen  dominion. 
But,  unfortunately,  the  Christian  provinces  bIso  were  little  united, 
and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  Christian  princes  to  form  alliances 
with  the  Moors  against  one  another.  The  founding  of  the  Moorish 
kingdom  of  Granada,  m  1238,  for  a  time  delayed  the  fall  of  the 
Moslems ;  but  the  Christians  gradually  extended  their  power,  until, 
near  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Granada  yielded  to  the  tor- 
rent that  had  long  been  setting  against  it,  and  with  its  fall  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Christian  faith  and  power  was  acknowledged  through- 
out the  peninsula.* 

dence  of  the  Seottlah  kings-ttw  place  of  Uielr  eoronatlon— and  hm  been  the  scene  of  ib^ 
historical  erents.  The  remains  of  its  ancient  palaee  are  incoiponted  with  Uie  mansioo  of  vb 
earl,  of  Mantfeld.    ^Map  No.  XVI.) 

1.  Sannoekbumj  the  name  of  whlA  is  inseparably  connected  wiUi  one  of  the  most  mem- 
orable erents  in  British  history,  is  three  mUee  eouUi-west  (Vom  SUriix«.  About  one  mHe  ««> 
fK>m  the  TiHage  James  III.  was  defetted  in  1188,  by  his  rebelUoos  subjects  and  his  »oo  ^*^ 
IV.,  and,  aHer  being  wounded  in  Uie  engagement,  was  ■tf«Bff''^n«H  at  a  mill  in  the  vicialw* 
sMap,Vo.  XVI.) 

a.  See  next  SecUon,  pp.  3t7-]6.  and  Notea. 


thur.lLl  MIDDLE  AGES.  »7 

SECTION    III. 

dSBUKAL  BIRO&T  DURIMa  THE  70URTECNTH   AND  FIFTEENTH   OENTURtEB. 

L>  ENGLAND  AND^FRANCE  DURING  THE  FOURTEENTH  AlfD 
'     FIFTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

ANALYSI&  1.  ContlnuaUon  of  the  historiefl  of  France  and  England.— 3.  Defeat  of  Edwuti 
H.  Ill  tlie  battle  of  Bannockbnm.  Edward  offends  the  barons.  [Gascony.]  The  Great  Charter 
^QBOmied,  and  annual. parliaments  ordained.— 3.  Rebellion  of  the  barons,  and  death  of  Ed- 
vanL    Rflign  of  Edward  UI.    Invasion  of  Sooaand.    [Ualidon  Hill.] 

FssvcB  Ann  EiiauaH  waks. — 4.  Edward  disputes  the  succession  to  the  throne  of  France. 
Invwioa  of  Fnmce^  and  batUe  of  Cressy.  [Creasy.]  Defeat  of  the  Scots,  and  capture  of  Calais. 
£l>utem.  Otlaia.]— ^  Renewal  of  the  war  with  France,  and  victory  of  Poictiers.  (1356.) 
Aaarehy  In  n«ncet.  Treaty  of  Bretigny.  The  conquered  territory.  [Bretigny.  Aqultaine. 
Bordeaux.]— (k  Renewal  of  the  war  with  France  in  136a  Relative  oondilion  of  the  two  powers. 
Ibe  n«Dch  recover  their  provinces.  [Bayonne.  Brest,  and  Cherbourg.]— 7.  Death  of  Edward 
m.  of  Knglaad,  and  Charles  V.  of  France.  The  distractions  that  followed  in  both  kingdoms. 
tOftoana.  Lancaster.  Gloucester.]  Wat  Tylei>  insurrection.  [Blacicheath.]— 8.  Character 
of  Rf«ikard  II.  'He  is  deposed,  and  succeeded  by  Henry  IV.  (1389.)  Tlie  legal  claimant. 
Origin  or  Ibe  bontentions  between  the  houses  of  Yoric  and  Lancaster.— 9.  Insurrection  against 
BBBiy.  [Sfarewsbuxy.]— 10.  Accession  of  Heniy  V.,  and  happy  change  in  his  character.  He 
Invades  Frvice,  and  defeats  the  (^ench  in  the  batUe  of  Agtncourt.— 11.  Civil  war  in  France, 
mod  rotam  of  Henry.  The  tiieaiy  with  the  Borgundlan  fiiction.  Opposition  of  the  Orleans 
party.  (The  Stales  General.  The  dauphin.]— 13.  The  infant  king  of  the  English,  Henry  VL, 
and  fba  French  king  Charles  Vn.  Joan  of  Arc  Her  deckired  mission.— 13.  Successes  of  the 
Tianeli,  and  fUe  ot  Joan.— 14.  The  English  gradually  lose  all  their  continental  possessions,  ez- 
eeptOOda.   Tranqolllity  in  France. 

15L  Unpopularity  of  the  reignhig  English  family.  Popular  insurrection.  Beginning  of  tho 
WAxa  or  THK  Two  Rosks.  [Bt.  ATbans.]— 16.  Sanguinary  character  of  the  strife.  First  period 
of  Oieirsr  doeea  with  the  aecesilon  of  Edward  IV.,  of  the  house  of  York.— 17.  The  French 
kfi^.  The  reign  of  Edward  IV.  The  earl  of  Warwick.  Overthrow  of  the  Lancastrians. 
Hi^  Cite  of  Margaret,  her  sop,  and  the  late  king  Henry  IV.  [Warwick.  Tbwkesbury.]— 18. 
Tlie  ooMuporaiy  reign  of  Loois  XI.  of  Prance.  The  relations  of  Edward  and  Louis.— 10. 
Fitfo  of  Bdwaid  V.,  and  accession  of  Richard  IIL  Defeat  and  death  of  Richard,  and  end  of 
the**  Wars  of  the  Two  Roses."    [Richmond.    Bosworth.] 

m.  En«n  or  BtNKT  VIL  Hie  imp<)etorB  Simnel  and  Warbeok.  [Dublin.]— 81.  lYeattes 
wtlh  Vmed  and  H'v^iin'*  The  Scottish  marriage.— 22.  Why  the  reign  of  Henry  VIL  Is  an 
important  epoch  in  English  history. 

JL  OTHER  NATIONS  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

L  IhrtnfAEK,Sw«niNAia>NoEWAT.    Union  of  Oalmar.    [CUmar.]  ^ 

9,  The  RuasuM  sitriaB.  Its  early  history.  [Dnieper.  Novogorod.]  Divisions  of  the 
kii^dom  in  the  eleventh  centttry.— 3.  Tartar  invasions.  The  reign  of  John  ID.  duke  of  Mos- 
cow. Rnvia  at  the  end  of  the  tfAeenth  century.— 4.  Founding  of  the  Ottom  ah  cicriRK,  on  the 
ndaa  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  empire.  [Emir.]  The  Turkish  empire  at  the  close  of  the  four- 
teenth oeotnry.  The  sultan  B^jazet  overthrown  by  Tamerlane.— 5.  The  Tartar  xxriRR  or 
Tajcerlakk.  Defbat  of  the  Turks.  Turks  and  Christians  unite  against  the  Tartars.  Death 
of  ttmOma.  [Somarcand.  AngcoaJ-^).  Taking  of  Conatanthiople  by  the  Turiu,  and 
eodinetlon  of  the  Eastern  empire. 

7.  Poland.  Gommenoement  and  early  history  of  Poland.  Extent  of  the  kingdom  at  the 
does  of  the  flfteenth  cenUuy.  [Poland.  Lithuania.  Teutonic  knights.  Moldavia.]— 8.  The 
Obemae  exkeb  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Elective  monarcha.— 9.  Causes  thai 
tEMlsr  the  hlstoiy  of  Germany  exceedingly  complicated.  The  three  powerful  States  of  Ger- 
flHugraboEt  (be  middle  ofthe  fourteenth  century.  [Luxemburg.  Bohemia.  Moravia.  SICMLa. 


M8  M0DKB9  HiaTOET.  [PamIL 


BollHid.    lyniL    Aoibrte.}-!*.  Av 
|KNUutfdni«nn«tedarii«  ikeralgBorifuiailiaa.    CWonM.>-lL  I 
'  •from  Aotfria.    I^M^-csoiiUaaed  wan.    SvtlaertaMl  hdepwidert  at  tka  ckM  cTlha  f 

eeoiunr.  [RotoU.  William  TdL  Mof^ulcB.  .fleinpacfc  }— 1«>  Itaxiah  BirroftT  dortag  tte 
central  period  of  Ibe  Middte  Agca.  lh$  ItaHaa  rafMbllca.  [Gcwm.]  Dacfty  of  MUaa^lS. 
TL«  PloreaUaei.  Coolnta  between  Ibe  Ceaoeie  and  Vanartai  [LevaaL]  Genoa  at  Ibn 
dow  or  Ibe  Klcenlb  eentvry.-l^.  Blauwy  of  Veniea.  Her  power  m  Ibn  end  eT  tba  lAeenlb 
muJHil.  [Sloffca.]  The  popea,  and  kiagB  of  Naplea.  bMerfmnee  oT  fcralSB  powen^lS. 
Stazh.  Union ^ the nKMlpowcfftdCbritfiaafliaiei.  Oveftbrow ofthe Bmean doaalnioM Im 
Bpain.  [NavarA  Ar^oa.  GbitUe.  Leon.  Gnanda.}— 1&  HiHofyoTPMrnmAL.  [Fkrtber 
neoooBtorPortasaL] 

nL  DnOOVEBIEB. 

1.  If aaisalioa,  and  geopapUcal  knowledge  dortavtbe  DaAAgea.  msfirtl  o€  ctmrntanb, 
[Pfaa.]  DiMovery  of  Ibe  magnelic  needle.  The  art  of  priatln«.  DtoooTenroT  theCMMne. 
Porti«QeM  diwoveriea.  [Caniriea.  Capt  de  Verd  and  Anore  ldaMl«.]~S.  Viewa  and  ofefeeli 
or  Prince  Henry.  Uls  death.  Fkoie  of  Ibe  dtaeoreries  patranlaed  by  htm.  GhrMoplwrCb- 
lamboaw  Hm  bold  project  concelred  by  him.  [Liabon.  IielaBd.  Gvinea.]— 3.  The  trfato  of 
'  Cotombna.    Ula  final  triumph.  In  the  diaooreiy  of  America.    Vano  de  Gama.    Cloibf 


1.  England  akd  France  during  thb  foitrteenth  a^  FiFTEEmna 
CENTURIES. — 1.  France  and  England  occnpj  the  most  prominent 
place  in  the  history  of  European  nations  daring  the  dosing  period 
of  the  Middle  Ages ;  and  as  their  annals,  during  most  of  this  period, 
are  so  intimately  connected  that  the  history  of  one  nation  is  in  great 
part  the  history  of  both,  the  unity  of  the  subject  will  best  be  pre- 
seryed,  and  repetition  avoided,  by  treating  both  in  connection. 

2.  The  reign  of  Edward  II.  of  England,  whose  defeat  by  the 
Scots  in  the  &mous  battle  of  Bannockbum  has  already  been  men- 
tioned, although  inglorious  to  himself,  and  disastrous  to  the  BritijBh 
arms,  was  not,  on  the  irhole,  anfavorable  to  the  progress  of  consGta- 
tional  liberty.  The  unbounded  favoritism  of  Edward  to  Oaveston, 
a  handsome  youth  of  Gasoony,'  whom  the  king  elevated  in  wealth 
and  dignities  above  all  the  nobles  in  England,  roused  the  resentmoit 
of  the  barons ;  and  the  result  was  the  banishment  of  the  favorite, 
and  a  reformation  of  abuses  in  full  parliament.  (A.  D.  1313.)  The 
flfreat  Charter,  so  often  violated,  was  again  confirmed ;  and  the  im 
poitant  provision  was  added,  that  there  should  be  an  annual  aasem 
bling  of  parliament,  for  protection  of  the  people,  when  "  aggrieved 
by  the  king's  ministers  against  right" 

3.  Bat  other  favorities  supplied  the  place  of  Oaveston :  the 
nobles  rebelled  against  their  sovereign :  his  faithless  queen  Isabella, 
•ister  of  the  king  of  France,  took  part  with  the  malcontents,  and 

L  Om«m|f,  before  the  Fnach  Rerolotton,  was  a  provlnee  of  IVanee,  dtnatod  belweM  ihn 
Oaronna,  Uie  lea,  and  the  Pyreneee.  TheGaaoooaareapeopIeofmiiehtplrit;  bntttialrenr 
fontion  In  deMribiaK  their  exyloltahaa  made  the  term  ^MCMMdfproTHbiaL  (JM^Ko.ZBP 


Chap.ILJ  middle  ages.  8B9 

Sdward  was  deposed,  impriaoned,  and  afterwards  murdered.  (A.  D. 
ia27.)  Edward  til,  crowned  at  fourteen  years  of  age,  unable  to 
endure  the  presence  of  a  mother  stained  with  the  foulest  crimes, 
caused  her  to  be  imprisoned  for  life,  and  her  paramour,  Mortimer, 
to  be  executed.  He  then  applied  himself  to  redress  the  grievances 
which- had  proceeded  from  the  late  abuses  of  authority;  siter  which 
he  invaded  Scotland,  and  defeated  the  Scots  at-  Halidon  Hill ;»  but 
on  his  withdrawal  'from  the  country,  the  Scottish  arms  again  tri- 
umphed. 

4.  On  the  death,  in  the  year  1328,  of  Charles  IV.  of  Prance',  the 
last  of  the  male  descendants  of  Philip  the  Fair,  the 
crown  of  that  kingdom  became  the  object  of  contest  be-  aitd  xvoubb 
tween  Edward  III.  of  England,  the  pon  of  Philip's  ^^"• 
daughter  Isabella,  and  Philip  of  Valois,  son  of  the  brother  of  Philip. 
After  war  had  continued  several  years  between  the*two  nations,  with 
only  occasional  intervals  of  truce,  in  the  year  1346  Edward,  in  per- 
flon,  invaded  France,  and,  supported  by  his  hewic  son  Edward,  called 
tbe  Black  Prince,  then  only  fifteen  years  of  age,  gained  a  great  vic- 
tory over  the  French  in  the  famous  battle  of  Cressy* — ^slaying  more 
of  the  enemy  *han  the  total  number  of  his  own  army.  (Aug.  26th. 
1346.)  A  few  weeks  after  the  battle  of  Cressy,  the  Scots,  who  had 
seized  tie  opportunity  of  fidward's  absence  to  invade  England,  were 
defeated  in  the  battle  of  Durham,"  and  their  king  David  Bruce  taken 
pTiJBoner.'  (Oct.  17,  1346.)  To  crown  the  honors  of  the  campaign, 
the  important  seaport  of  Calais,*  in  France,  surrendered  to  Edward, 
after  a  vigorous  siege ;  and  this  important  acquisition  wag  retained 
by  the  English  more  than  two  centuries. 

L  ir^Udcn  ma  is  aiLendnence  north  of  the  river  Tweed,  nol  Ikr  tttatk  Berwick. 

2.  Crtasy^  or  Oeey}  Is  a  small  Tillage,  In  the  former  proyince  of  Plcardj,  ninety-Are  milei 
nortb^weat  from  Paris.  Tt  ia  believed  that  cannon,  bnt  of  very  rude  oonatmotlon,  were  lint 
emplored  by  the  Engliah  In  thla  batUe.    {Mmp  No.  XUI.) 

a.  Durham^  the  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  la  an  important  city  In  the  north  of 
Tingfanrt)  two  hundred  and  thirty  miles  north-weet  from  London.  The  field  on  which  the  bat> 
tto  was  fioaght,  some  distance  north  of  Durham,  on  the  road  to  Newoaatle,  (Oct.  17th,  13«^ 
was  eaned  J^evUle's  Croaa.    (Map  No.  XVI.) 

4.  CalaU  (Bag.  Oal-fs,  Ft.  Kab-la',)  a  seaport  of  France,  on  the  Straits  of  Doveti  fai  the 
tinaer  province  of  Plcardy,  la  flAy  miles  north  of  Cressy.  In  1S58  Calais  waa  retaken  by  snr- 
ptise  by  the  duke  of  Guise.  In  1596  it  was  again  taken  by  the  Engliah  under  the  archduke 
Albert,  but  hi  1508  was  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Nervins. 

The  cbathiate  reeistance  which  Calais  made  to  Edward  IIL  in  1347,  la  said*  to  have  so  mneh 
lotemeif  the  conqueror  that  he  determined  to  put  to  death  aix  principal  burgesses  of  the  town, 
who,  to  save  their  MIow  citizens,  had  magnanimously  placed  themselves  at  his  disposal ;  but 
OmA  he  waa  turned  from  his  poipoae  only  by  the  tears  and  entieaUerof  hia  queen  Philippa.  tt 
to  heUeved,  however,  that  Froiasart  alone,  among  hla  cotemporariea,  reUtes  thU  stoiy ;  ii4 
dooMiavvwrrsMoiMblybeentertdaedorttitruth.    (Jtfiv  No.  XIO.) 


200  liODEBN  HISTOET.  [PajuIL 

5.  After  a  trace  of  eight  jears,  daring  which  ooearrod  the  death 
of  the  French  monarch,  Philip  of  Valoifl,  and  the  acceauon  of  his 
0on  John  to  the  throne  of  France,  war  was  again  renewed,  but  was 
speedily  terminated  bj  a  great  yictorj,  which  the  Black  Prince  ob- 
tained over  king  John  in  the  battle  of  Poictiers.  (Sept.  1356.)  The 
French  monarch,  although  taken  prisoner,  and  conveyed  in  tnunph 
to  London,  was  treated  with  great  moderation  and  kindness ;  but  his 
captivity  produced  in  France  the  most  horrible  anarchy,  which  was 
carried  to  the  utmost  extreme  by  a  revolt  of  peasants,  or  aerb, 
against  their  lords,  in  most  of  the  provinoes  surrounding  the  capital* 
At  length,  while  king  John  was  still  a  prisoner,  the  two  nations  con- 
cluded a  treaty  at  Bretigny,*  (A.  D.  1360,)  which  provided  that  king 
John  should  be  restored  to  liberty,  and  that  the  English  monarch 
should  renounce  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  France,  and  to  the  pos- 
session of  Nornuindy  and  other  provinces  in  the  north  ]  but  that  the 
whole  south-west  of  France,  embracing  more  than  a  third  of  the 

'kingdom,  and  extenoing  from  the  Bhone  nearly  to  the  Loire,  should 
be  guaranteed  to  England.  The  territory  obtained  from  France 
was  erected  into  the  principality  of  Aquitaine,*  the  government  of 
which  was  intrusted  to  the  Black  Prince,  who,  during  several  years, 
kept  his  court  at  Bordeaux.* 

6.  The  treaty  with  France  was  never  fiilly  ratified ;  and  in  the 
year  1368  war  between  the  two  countries  was  commenced  anew,  the 
blame  of  the  rupture  being  thrown  by  each  nation  upon  the  other. 
In  the  interval  since  the  late  treaty  a  great  change  had  taken  plsoe 
in  the  condition  of  the  rival  powers :  king  Edward  was  now  declining 
in  age;  and  his  son  the  Black  Prince  was  enfeebled  by  disease ;  and 
the  ceded  French  provinces  were  eager  to  return  to  their  native  king ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  France  had  recovered  from  her  great  losses, 
and  the  wise  and  popular  Charles  Y.  occupied  the  throne,  in  the 
place  of  the  rash  and  intemperate  John.     France  gradually  recovered 

1.  Bretignf  to  ft  sraftU  baml«t  six  miles  soaUi-«ftat  ftom  GhartTM,  and  (Uty  milM  •oath-««>( 
fhim  P&rtt,  in  ttie  former  proTlnce  of  Orleans. 

2.  AfuUanu  (jtqtuUtnia)  was  the  name  of  Uie  Boman  provinoe  in  Gaul  sonth  of  the  Loll*' 
BInoe  the  time  of  the  Romans  it  has  been  sometimes  a  kingdom  and  sometimes  a  duchy.  Bs> 
tbn  the  rerolution,  what  remained  of  this  andeot  provinoe  passed  under  Ihe  name  of  Ot^ 
enne.    Bordeaoz  was  its  eapitaL    (.Va^  No.  XIII.) 

3.  Bordeaux^  called  by  the  Romans  Bmrdignla^  an  important  commercial  city  and  seaport  of 
fhmoe,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Garonne,  flfly-flTo  miles  fh>m  its  month,  and  three  hondrad 
and  seren  miles  south-west  fhnn  Paris.  Montesquieu  and  Montaigna,  Edward  the  Black  Prino^ 
pope  Clement  V.,  and  RItdiard  H.  of  Snghmd,  were  natlTes  of  this  city.    (Jlfs^  No.  XHI.) 

•.Feb.l3SS.  lUs  NToU  was  oaUed£«Jii«fii«ru»ftomJ^iMa  Bob  BeSBMbt^l**^ 
oCUieieMs. 


Ohap.H]  Mn)DL£  AGES.  301 

most  of  her  provinceis  without  obtainming  a  single  victory,  although 
the  keys  of  the  country — Bordeaux,  Bayonne,*  Calais,  Brest,  and 
Cherbourg* — ^were  still  left  in  the  hands  of  the  English. 

7.  On  the  death  of  Edward  (A.  D.  1377)  the  crown  fell  to  the 
son  of  the  Black  Prince,  Eichard  II.,  then  only  eleven  years  of  age. 
Three  years  later,  Charles  V.,  by  his  death,  left  the  crown  of  France 
to  his  son  Charles  VI.,  a  youth  of  only  twelve  years.  .  Both  kingdoms 
Buffered  from  the  distractions  attending  a  regal  minority  : — in  Frances 
the  people  were  plundered  by  the  exactions  of  the  regents,  and  the 
kingdom  harassed  by  the  factious  struggles  for  power  between  the 
dukes  of  Bur'  gnndy  and  Orleans ;'  and  in  England  similar  results 
attended  the  contests  for  the  regency  between  the  king's  uncles,  the 
dukes  of  Lancaster,*  York,*  and  Gloucester.*  In  the  year  1381  the 
injustice  of  parliamentary  taxation  occasioned  a  &mous  revolt  of 

1.  Bttfonne  is  od  the  eonth  side  of  the  Adoar,  four  miles  fyom  Its  mouth,  near  the  south- 
weeteni  eztremltx  of  France.  Bsyomie  Is  strongly  fortified,  and,  although  often  besieged,  has 
never  been  taken.  T^e  miUtaiy  weapon  called  the  bayoiui  takes  its  n^me  ttota  this  dty,  where 
it  is  said  to  have  been  first  invented,  and  bKught  into  ustf^t  the  siege  of  Bayonne,  during  the 
war  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.    (Map  No.  XIII.) 

2,  Sregt  and  Cherbourg  are  small  bat  ^ngly-fortified  seaport  towni  in  the  nortlnwest  of 
FnuBoe.  ChertKrarg  was  the  last  town  in  Normandy  retained  by  the  English.    (Map  No.  XLIL) 

3L  Bnr' gundy  and  Oriearu,  An  account  of  Bur*  gundy  has  already  been  given.  Orleans^  a 
city  of  France,  and  formerly  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the 
Loire^  sizty^eigiht  miles  sottth>west  flrom  Paris.  Orleans  occupied  the  site  of  the  ancient  G«n4- 
bum,  the  empoiium  of  the  Ck>mute«,  which  was  taken  and  burned  by  Caesar.  (Gojsar  B. 
Vn.  IS.)  It  sabeequently  rose  to  great  eminence,  and  was  unsnccessftally  besieged  by  At'  tlla 
and  Odoteer.  It  became  the  capital'of  the  flret  kingdom  of  Bur'  gundy  under  the  first  race  of 
French  kings.  Philip  of  Vaiois  erected  it  into  a  duoftiy  and  peerage  in  favor  of  his  son ;  and 
Orleans  has  rince  continued  to  give  the  title  of  duke  to  a  prince  of  the  blood  royal.  Charles 
VI.  conferred  the  tiUe  of  **duk6  of  Orleans"  on  his  younger  brother,  who  became  the  fbunder 
of  the  Valois-Orleans  line.  LoHls  XIV.  confetred  it  on  his  younger  brother  Philip,  the  founder 
of  the  Bourbon  dynasty  of  the  house  of  Orieans.  Louis  Philip  was  the  first  and  only  rullug 
prince  of  the  BooriionJOrleans  dynasty.    (^ojrNo.XIIL)    * 

4.  Lamtaster,  which  has'given  its  name  to  the  **  dukes  of  Lancaster,"  is  a  seaport  town  on 
the  coast  of  the  Irish  Sea,  forty-six  miles  firom  Liverpool,  and  two  hundred  and  five  milea 
north-west  from  Ixmdon.  Lancaster  is  supposed,  (h>m  the  nma,  altars,  and  other  antiquities 
IboBd  there,  to  hare  been  a  Roman  station.  The  first  earl  of  Lancaster  was  created  in  1966. 
In  1351  Henry,  earl  of  iWby,  was  made  duke  of  Lancaster:  John  Gaunt,  fourth  son  of  Ed- 
wevd  nL,  mairled  Blanch,  the  dnke^  daughter,  and,  bjTvirtae  of  this  alUanee,  succeeded  to 
the  title.  His  son  Henry  of  Boliagbroke  became  duke  of  Lancaster  on  his  (kther's  death  In 
laH^  and  finally  Benry  IV.,  king  of  England  in  1399,  fh>m  which  time  to  the  present  this 
dwiiy  baa  been  associated  with  the  regal  dignity.   (Mt^  No.  XVL) 

5.  r«rft,   80eNota,p.9O9.    (Jlfap  No.  XVI.) 

,t.  aivmefUr  Is  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Setem,  ninety-three  miles  north-iresft  from  London. 
llwwlbandedbytfaeBemansA.I>.44;  and  Boman  coins  aqd  antiquities  are  frequently  dog 
«p  on  the  soppeeed  site  of  the  ^rid  encampment.  RIchaid  IL  created  his  uneles  dukes  of  York 
and  6k>iieester;  and  since  that  time  the  dncal  title  has  remained  the  highest  tltte  of  SngUsh 
aobUity.  Tlie  duke  of  Lsnesster  was  the  only  one  wko  naUy  possessed  a  duchy  (the  coonty 
of  Lancaster;  sol^ect  to  his  gOTemment,  and  liiat  was  remitad  to  the  crown  In  146L  (Map 
irn.XVL> 


802  MODSBN  HI8T0R7.  [PinlL 

tlie  lower  bbases,  headed  by  tlie  Bladomiitli  Wat  Tyler,  aLmflar  to 
the  insorreotion  of  the  French  peasants  which  raged  in  1358*  In 
both  nations  these  events  mark  the  advance  of  tJie  serfe,  in  thdr 
progress  toward  emancipation,  to  that  stage  in  which  their  hopes  are 
roused,  and  their  wrongs  still  unredressed  The  serfe  of  England 
demanded  equal  laws,  and  the  abolition  of  bondage :  to  the  number 
of  sixty  thousand  they  assembled  at  Blackheath,* — obtained  possess- 
ion of  London^  and  put  to  death  the  chancellor  and  primate,  as  evil 
counsellors  of  the  crown,  and  cruel  oppressors  of  the  people ;  but 
the  fiiJl  of  their  leader  struck  terror  into  the  insurgents,  and  the  re- 
volt was  easily  extinguished,  while  the  honor  of  the  crown  was  sal- 
lied by  a  revocation  of  the  promised  charters  of  enfranchisement 
and  pardon.  More  than  fifteen  hundred  of  the  mutineers  perished 
by  the  hand  of  the  hangman. 

8.  It  was  not  till  the  ugd  of  twenty-three  that  Richard  escaped 
from  the  tutelage  of  his  uncles ;  and  then  his  iudolenoe,  dissipation, 
and  prodigality,  brought  him  into  contempt ;  and  during  his  absence 
in  Ireland  a  sucQessful  revolution  elevated  his  cousin,  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster, surnamed  Bolingbroke,  to  the  throne.  (A..  D.  1399.)  The 
parliament  confirmed  the  deposition  of  Richard,  who  wlw  soon  after 
privately  assassinated  in  prison.*  The  accession  of  Henry  IT.  to 
the  throne  met  with  no  opposition,  although  he  was  not  the  1^1 
claimant,  the  hereditary  right  being  in  Edward  Mortimer,  who  was 
descended  from  the  second  son  of  Edward  III.,  whereas  Henry  was 
descended  from  the  third  son.  The  claim  of  Mortimer  was  at  a 
later  period  vested  by  marriage  in  the  family  of  the  duke  of  York, 
descended  from  the  fourth  son  of  Edward ;  and  hence  b^gan  the 
contentions  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster. 

9.  The  discontented  friends  of  Henry  proved  his  most  dangerous 
enemies ;  for  the  Percys,  who  had  enl^oned  him,  dissatisfied  with 
his  administration,  took  up  arms  and  involved  the  country  in  civil 
war;b  but  in  the  great  battle  of  Shrewsbury*  (July  21,  U03)  A« 

L  Bla€kkeath  to  an  etoyatod  mooiy  tnei  lattie  Ttdnltj  of  tbe  Britlah  matropoUiy  ■oattHNrt 
oCUwdtjr.   The  gretlcr  porlloo  Is  in  the  pariflli  of  Greenwich. 

S.  Skrtwahmrf  ]M  sitnated  on  the  Sevenif4>ne  handrod  and  ttdrty-oight  mUea  nortlhirait  froa 
London.  WlUlam  the  Conqneror  ^ve  the  town  and  aurroundlng  country  to  Roger  dc  Vank 
Spmary,  who  bnilt  here  a  strong  t>aronlal  oaatto ;  bat  la  1108  the  caaUo  and  property  ^**'?^ 
lUted  to  tbe  crown.  Sbrdwtbory,  from  its  lilnation  doae  to  Waiei^  was  the  acene  of  aw 
bontar  frays  between  tbe  Welah  and  Bn^djib.  InthebatUeof  July  1403,  tbe  fldl  of  tbe  Snneai 
Lord  Percy)  somamed  Hotapurj  by  an  unknown  baiMl,  deekM  tbe  Tktoiy  i^tbe  fclni^  ^^'^'' 
<JMvNo.XVL) 

a.  Bead  Sbakipean^  •*  King  BUbard  IL» 

b.  Bawl  Bbakapean^  •*  Flnt  Part  of  KloK  Heoiy  nr 


Qutf.II]  HIDDLS  AOEa  ^  803 

• 
iBBorgenaiB  were  defeated,  although  the  inBurrection  waa  atill  kept  up 

a  niunber  of  years,  chiefly  by  the  successful  valor  of  Owen  Glendower, 

the  Welsh  ally  of  the  Percys. 

10.  Henry  IV.  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  T.  in  the  year 
1413.  The  previous  turbulent  and  dissipated  character  of  the  neir 
aoyereign  had  given  little  promise  of  a  happy  reign;  but  immediate- 
ly after  his  accession  he  dismissed  the  former  companions  of  his 
viceSj — ^took  into  his  confidence  the  wise  ministers  of  his  father', — 
and,  laying  aside  his  youthful  pleasures,  devoted  all  his  energies  to 
t^e  tranquillizing  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  wise  government  of  the 
people.*  Taking  advantage  of  the  disorders  of  France,  and  the  tem- 
porary in^fanity  of  its  sovereign  Charles  YI.,  he  revived  the  English 
elaim  to  the  throne  of  that  kingdom,  and  at  the  head  of  thirty  thou- 
sand men  passed  over  into  Normandy  to  support  his  pretensions. 
After  bis  army  had  been  wasted  by  a  contagious  disease,  which  re- 
duced it  to  eleven  thousand  men,  he  met  and  defeated  the  French 
army  of  fifty  thousand  in  the  battle  of  Agincourt,* — slaying  ten 
thousand  of  the  enemy  and  taking  fourteen  thousand  prisoners,  among 
whom  were  many  of  the  most  eminent  barons  and  princes  of  the 
realm.     (Oct  24,  1415.) 

11.  The  Orleans  and  Burgundian  factions  which  had  temporarily 
laid  aside  their  contentions  to  oppose  the  invader,  renewed  them  on 
the  departure  of  H^nry,  and  soon  involved  the  kingdom  in  the  hor- 
rors of  civil  war.  In  the  midst  of  these  evils  Henry  returned  to 
follow  up  his  victory,  and  fought  his  way  to  Paris,  when  the  Bur- 
gundian faction  tendered  him  the  crown  of  France,  with  the  promise 
of  its  aid  to  support  his  claink  A  treaty  was  soon  concluded  with 
the  queen  of  the  insane  king  and  the  duke  of  Bur'  gundy,  by  which 
it  was  agreed  that  Henry  should  marr]|||Patherine,  the  daughter  of 
Charles^  and  succeed  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  her  father ;  while 
in  the  meantime  he  was  to  govern  the  kingdom  as  regent.  (May, 
1420.)  The  Stateii  General*  of  the  kingdom  assented  to  the  treaty; 
and  the  western  and  northern  provinces  owned  the  sway  of  England ; 
but  the  central  and  south-eastern  districts  adhered  to  the  cause  of 

1.  jagime0mn  to  s  anudl  Tillage  of  Fhmee  in  ttie  Ibrmer  proiinoe  of  Artois,  one  himdied  and 
Ian  nOlee  north  ftmnPtols.    (Jir^  No.  XIU.) 

&  Of  Ike  auu»  Ommrol  ia  meant  the  great  eonneil  or  general  parliament  of  the  nation, 
nnimiimil  ef  itpwaenfativea  ftom  the  noblUtj,  the  deigy,  and  the  monidpalitlaa.  The  country 
JtaKetaastnoraiweaeBtallTea.   (8ee  Unlfcnl^  Edition,  p.  884.) 

a.  Happilj  portnqred  Im  Shak^aara'ft  (*SeooBd  Paa  of  King  Haorj  IV,"  Aet  t.,  8o«ie  0. 
aidT. 


S04  MODSBK  mSTORT.  t^^^  li- 

the datxphiD,'  afterwards  Charles  VII.,  the  only  sarriring  son  of  his 
father,  and  the  head  of  the  Orleans  party.  Henry  Y.  did  not  live  to 
wear  the  crown  of  France ;  and  the  helpless  Charles  survived  \nxa 
only  two  months.     (Died  A.  D.  1422.) 

12.  The  English  king  left  a  son,  Henry  YL,  then  only  nine 
months  old,  to  inherit  his  kingdom.  France,  however,  was  now 
openly  divided  between  the  rival  monarchs — ^its  native  sovereign 
Charles  YII.,  and  the  English  king,  in  the  person  of  the  infant 

*Henry.  In  the  war  which  followed,  the  prospects  of  the  English 
were  gradually  improving,  when  they  received  a  fatal  check  ftom  the 
extraordinary  appearance  of  a  heroine,  the  famous  Joan  of  Arc, 
whom  the  credulity  of  the  age  believed  to  have  been  divinely  com- 
missioned for  the  salvation  of  the  French  nation.  Moved  by  a  sort 
of  religious  phrensy,  this  obscure  country  girl  was  enabled  to  inspire 
her  sovereign,  the  priests,  the  nobjes,  and  the  army,  with  the  truth 
of  her  holy  mission,  which  was,  to  drive  the  English  from  Orleans, 
which  they  were  then  besieging,  and  to  open  the  way  for  the  crown- 
ing of  Charles  at  Kheims,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

13.  Superstition  revived  the  hopes  of  the  French,  and  inspired 
the  English  with  manifold  terrors---the  harbingers  of  certain  defeat^ 
in  a  short  period  all  the  promises  of  the  maiden  were  fulfilled,  and 
in  accordance  with  her  predictions  she  had  the  happiness  to  see 
Charles  YII.  crowned  in  the  cathedral.  Her  mission  ended,  she 
wished  to  retire  to  the  humble  station  from  which  Providence  had 
called  her,  but  being  retained  with  the  army,  she  afterwards  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English,  who  inhumanly  condemned  and  executed 
her  for  the  imaginary  crime  of  sorcery. 

14.  In  the  death  of  Joan  of  Arc  the  English  indeed  destroyed  the 
cause  of  their  late  reveriA ;  but  nothing  could  stay  the  new  impulse 
which  her  wonderful  successes  had  given  to  the  French  nation.  In 
the  year  1437  Charles  gained  possession  of  his  capital,  after  twenty 
years  exclusion  from  it ;  the  Burgundian  faction  had  previously  be- 
come reconciled  to  him,  and  thenceforward  the  war  lost  its  serious 
character,  while  the  struggle  of  the  English  grew  more  and  more 
feeble,  until,  in  1453,  Calais  was  the  only  town  of  the  continent  re- 
maining in  their  hands.     From  this  period  until  the  death  of 

1.  Dnpkin  to  UietlUe  of  (be  eldest  ton  of  Uie  kli«or  Fniioe.  In  1910  H«Bb«t  U.ttmf 
ftmd  hie  estate,  Uie  prorlDoeor  Dampkimf,  to  PhUlp  of  Valois,  on  oondlHoii  that  11m  eUast 
■on of  the  kiagof  Fhmoe ehool^  In  Aitare»  be  eaUed  ttie  Uupkin^uA  gOTarn  this  tanttoiy. 
The  danphto,  however,  rotalne  only  the  tttte,  the  estates  ^Tii«  loiw  b^  vailed  with  the 


CoAF.JL]  '    MIDDLE  AGES.  805 

Charles  VII.,  in' 1461,  France  enjoyed  domestic  tran4uillity,  while 
civil  wars  of  the  fiercest  violence  were  raging  in  England. 

15.  The  hereditary  claim  of  the  house  of  York  to  the  Euglish 
throne  has  already  been  mentioned,  (p.  302.)  Henry  was  a  weak 
prince,  and  subject  to  occasional  fits  of  idiocy ;  but  his  wife,  Marga- 
ret of  Anjon,*  a  woman  of  great  spirit  and  ambition,  possessing  the 
allurements,  but  without  the  virtues,  of  her  ^x,  ruled  in  his  name. 
The  haughtiness  of  the  queen,  the  dishonor  brought  on  the  English 
arms  by  the  'loss  of  France,  and  the  imbecility  and  insignificance  of 
Henry,  when  contrasted  with  the  popular  virtues  of  Biohard  duke 
of  York,  rendered  ^the  reigning  family  unpopular  with  the  nation ; 
and  when  Bichard  advanced  his  pretensions  to  the  crown,  a  powerful 
party  rallied  to  his  support.  A  formidable  rising  of  the  people  in 
the  year  1450,  under  a  leader  who  is  known'  in  history  under  the 
nickname  of  Jack  Cade,  first  manifested  the  gatherbg  ^^  ^^^^  ^ 
diacont0:it.  Five  years  later  civil  war  between  the  York-  of  thb  two 
jstff  and  Lancastrians  broke  out  in  different  parts  of  the  ^<^^™- 
kingdom ;  and  in  the  first  battle,  at  St.  Albans,*  King  Henry  was 
taken  prisoner.  The  Yorkists  wore,  as  the  symbol  of  their  party,  a 
white  rose,  and  the  Lancastrians  a  red  rose ;  and  the  contests  which 
marked  their  struggle  for  power  are  usually  called  the  "  wars  of  the 
two  roses." 

16.  We  have  not  room  to  enter  into  details  of  the  sanguinary 
strife  that  followed.  "  In  my  remembrance,"  says  a  cotemporary 
writer,*  "  eighty  princes  of  the  blood  royal  of  England  perished  ^n 
these  convulsions ;  seven  or  eight  battles  were  fought  in  the  course 
of  thirty  years ;  and  their  own  country  was  desolated  by  the  English 
as  eraelly  as  the  former  generation  had  wasted  France."  After  many 
vicisaitudes  of  fortune,  in  which  Henry  was  twice  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner,  and  Bichard  and  his  second  son  were  slain,  at  the  close  of 
the  first  period  of  the  war  the  white  rose  triumphed,  and  Edward 
lY.,  eldest  son  of  the  late  duke  of  York,  became  king  of  England. 
(A.  D.  1461.) 

17.  Charles  YII.  of  France  died  the  same  year,  and  was  succeed- 

1.  Jtnjau  was  an  ancient  province  of  France,  on  both  sides  of  the  lA)lre,  north  of  ^Itoa. 
In  the  year  1246  Louis  IX.  of  France  bestowed  this  ];m>Ylnce  cu  bis  younger  brother  Charles, 
with  the  tUle  of  count  of  Aq)ou ;  but  in  1338  It  fell  to  the  crown,  at  the  accession  of  Philip  VI. 
BobaaqinenUy  diiferent  princes  of  the  blood  bore  the  title  of  Ai^ou ;  and  Margaret,  who  b«- 
tamb  queen  of  England,  was  the  daughter  of  Ren6  of  Ai^jou.    (Map  No.  XIII.) 

%J^  JOban*  Is  a  small  town  twenty  miles  north-west  Arom  London. 

■•  FUlip  de  Gominea. 

20 


806  MODERN  HISTORT.  [Pi«rIL 

ed  OD  the  tlirone  by  hb  son  Louis  XI.  The  reign  of  Sdward  IV 
of  England  was  a  reign  of  terror.  Once  he  was  deposed,  and  Henry 
reinstated,  by  the  great  power  and  infiuenoe  of  the  earl  of  Warwick/ 
to  whom  the  people  gave  the  name  of  king-maker.  But  Warwick 
afterwards  fell  in  battle ;  and  in  the  year  1471  the  heroic  Margaret 
and  her  son  wer^  defeated  and  taken  prisoners,  and  the  power  of  the 
Lancastrians  was  OTcryirown  in  the  desperate  battle  of  Tewkesbury,' 
which  ooncluded  this  sanguinary  war.  Margaret  was  at  first  im- 
prisoned, but  afterwards  ransomed  by  the  king  of  France  :  her  son 
was  assassinated :  Henry  Y I.  breathed  his  last,  as  a  prisoner,  in  the 
Tower  of  London ;  and  Edward  was  finally  established  on  the  throne. 

18.  The  reign  of  Edward  lY.  was  throughout  ootemporary  with 
that  of  Louis  XI.  of  France,  a  prince  of  a  tyrannical,  superstitious^ 
crafty,  and  cruel  nature,  but  who  possessed  such  a  fund  of  comic 
huinor,  and  such  oddities  of  thoughts  and  manner,  as  to  throw  his 
atrocious  cruelties  into  the  shade.  The  relations  of  these  two  princes 
with  each  other  were  in  a  high  degree  dishonorable  to  both.  Ed- 
ward, by  threatening  war  upon  France,  obtained  from  Louis  *the 
secret  payment  of  exorbitant  pensions  for  himself  and  his  ministers; 
and  the  latter  were  with  much  reason  charged  with  being  the  hired 
agents  of  the  French  king.  Both  these  princes  died  in  1483,  and 
both  were  succeeded  by  minors. 

19.  Edward  Y.,  at  the  age  of  twelve  years,  succeeded  his  fJE^ther 
as  king  of  England ;  but  after  a  nominal  reign  of  little  more  than 
two  months,  the  young  king  and  his  brother  the  duke  of  York  were 
Murdered  in  the  Tower,  at  the  instigation  of  their  uncle  the  duke  of 

Gloucester,  who  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king,  with  the  title 
of  Bichard  III.  But  the  whole  nation  was  alienated  by  the  crimes 
of  Bichard :  the  claims  of  the  Lancastrian  fitmily  were  reviyed  by 
Henry  Tudor,  earl  of  Bichmond  ;*  and  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Bos- 

1.  The  ^teldom  of  VTarwUk  dates  fhrai  the  time  of  WQUam  Uie  Ckmqaeror,  who  beiU>wed 
the  town  and  caatle  of  that  name,  F^th  the  title  of  eari,  on  Henry  de  Newbnis,  one  of  his  fbl> 
lowers.  The  town  of  Warwick,  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  is  on  the  riTcr  Avon, 
«ighty-two  miles  north-west  fh>m  London.    ( Jfop  Na  XVI.) 

S.  ToDkfhury  is  on  the  river  Avon,  near  ita  confluence  with  the  Sevenii  thlrty-three  mllea    . 
ioulh-weM  from  Warwick,  and  ninety  miles  nortb-wett  from  London.    The  field  on  wUch  the 
batUe  was  fought,  in  the  immediate  >icinity  of  the  town,  is  still  called  the  **  Bloody  Meadow.** 

3.  Rickmandy  which  gave  a  liUe  to  the  dukes  of  that  name,  is  in  the  north  of  England,  forty- 
one  miles  north-west  from  York.  Ita  castle  waa  founded  by  the  first  earl  of  Richmond,  who 
redeived  lh>m  William  the  Conqueror  the  forfeited  estates  of  Cbe  earl  of  Merda,  and  built 
Bichmond  caatle  to. protect  his  family  and  property.  The  tiUe  and  property,  after  being  ' 
possessed  by  dUferenl  persona  allied  to  the  blood  royal,  were  at  length  vested  in  the  CRrtrn  by 
the  aeoessioa  of  Beniy,  earl  of  Richmond,  to  the  throi  »,  with  the  tlUeof  Heniy  VIL  (JMBy 
V«.XVI.> 


Ommf.JL]  middle  AGEa  807 

• 
worth  jfield,'  Richard  was  defeated  and  sJain  (1486).  The  erown 
which  Bichard  wore  in  the  action  waa  immediately  placed  on  the  head 
of  the  ear}  of  Richmond,  who  was  proclaimed  king,  with  the  title  of 
liearj  YII.'  His  marriage  soon  after  with  the  princess  Elizabeth, 
heiress  of  the  house  of  York,  united  the  rival  claims  of  York  and 
Lancaster  in  the  Tudor  fiunily,  and  put  an  end  to  the  civil  contests 
which,  for  more  than  half  a  century,  had  deluged  England  with  blood. 

20.  The  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  was  disturbed  by 
two  singular  enterprises, — ^the  attempt  made  in  Ireland, 

by  Lambert  Simnel,  to  counterfeit  the  person  of  the  'i^,^^' 
young  earl  of  Warwick,  nephew  of  Edward  lY.,  and  the 
only  remaining  male  heir  of  the  house  jof  York ;  and  the  similar 
attempt  of  Perkin  Warbeck  to  counterfeit  the  young  duke  of 
York,  one  of  the  princes  who  had  been  murdered  in  the  Tower  at 
the  instigation  of  Richard  III.  Both  impostors,  claiming  the  right 
to  the  throne,  received  their  principal  support  in  Ireland ;  but  the 
former,  after  being  crowned  at  Dublin,*  and  afterwards  defeated  in 
battle,  (1487,)  ended  his  d#ys  as  a  menial  in  the  king's  household, — 
while  the  latter,  after  throwing  himself  up6n  the  king's  mercy,  being 
deteeted  in  subsequent  plots,  expiated  his  crime  on  the  scaffold. 

21.  The  most  important  of  the*  foreign'  relations  of  Henry  were 
a  treaty 'with  France,  which  stipulated  that  no  rebel  subjects  of 
either  power  should  be  harbored  or  aided  by  the  other ;  and  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  Scotland,  by  which  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Hen(y, 
was  given  in  marriage  to  the  Scottish  king,  James  Y.,  a  marriage 
from  which  have  sprung  all  the  sovereigns  who  have  reigned  in  Oreat 
Britain  since  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  The  reply^  of  Henry  to  his 
counsellors  who  objected  to  the  Scottish  marriage,  that  the  kingdom 
of  England  might  by  that  connection  fall  to  the  king  of  Scotland, 
shows  a  great  degree  of  sagacity,  that  has  been  verified  by  the  result 
"  Scotland  would  then,''  said  Henry,  "  become  an  accession  to  Eng- 
land, not  En^and  to  Scotland,  for  the  greater  would  draw  the  less : 
it  is  a  safer  union  for  England  than  one  with  France." 

22.  The  reign  of  Henry  YII.  may  justly  be  considered  an  im- 
portant era  in  English  history.     It  began  in  revolution,  at  the  dose 

• 

1.  Bonnrth  Is  m  smaU  town  nlnsty-llTe  mtlea  nortti-VMt  from  London.  In  the  Iwttto^leld,  In 
the  Yielnfty  of  this  town,  is  an  eminence  called  Crown  HUl,  where  Lord  Stanley  Is  said  to  hare 
placed  Riehard^s  crown  on  the  earl  of  Hiebmond*B  head.    (Map  No.  XVL) 

S.  DtMimj  the  capital  of  Inland,  is  on  the  eastern  searooast  of  the  island,  at  the  month  of 
the  Titer  Ltflhj,  two  hundred  and  ulneiy4wo  miles  north-west  from  London.  It  was  called 
by  the  naaes  Dioeiim,  or  DtMUnif  "the  black  pool,**  from  its  Ticinltyto  the  motdyawampsat 
the  month  of  the  ilTer.  It  has  a  popnlation  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thonaand.  (.Vi^No.XVI.) 


308     ^  MODERN  mSTORT.  [PAMtlL 

of  the  long  ancTbloody  wars  between  the  houses  of  Torlc  and  Lan- 
caster :  it  effected  a  change  in  descents :  it  marks  the  decline  of  the 
feudal  s^tem,  the  waning  power  of  the  baronial  aristocracj,  and  a 
corresponding  increase  of  rojal  prerogatives :  it  was  cotemporary  with 
that  greatest  of  events  in  Modem  Historj,  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica,— ^with  the  advance  in  knowledge  and  civilization  that  dawned 
upon  the  closing  period  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  with  the  consolidation 
of  the  great  European  monarchies  into  nearly  the  shape  and  extent 
which  they  retain  at  the  present  day ;  and  with  the  growth  of  tiie 
'^  balance  of  power"  system^  which  neutralised  the  efforts  of  princes  at 
universal  dominion.  A  general  survey  of  the  condition  of  the  prin- 
cipal States  of  Europe  at  this  period  will  better  enable  us  to  com- 
prehend the  relations  of  their  subsequent  history. 

II.  Other  Nations  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cENnmY.*^ 

1.  Of  the  States  of  Northern  Europe — Denmark/  Sweden,  and  Nor- 

L  DBNMXu.  """^y^ — constituting  the  ancient  Scandinavia,  merit  our 

BiTKDKN,  AND  fifst  attcution.     After  the^^  kingdoms  had  long  been 

HoawAY.  agitated  by  internal  dissensions,  they  were  finally,  by 
the  treaty  of  Cahnar,*  (1397,)  united  into  a  single  monarchy,,  near 

1.  DenwMrk  embraow  the  whole  of  Uie  penitMiila  north  of  Germanj,  etrly  known  m  the 
dmhri*  Chert9n*90j  and  aflerwanU  M  JkI/m^  Ita  earliest  known  inhabitants  were  the  Cimirk  • 
(See  p.  171.)  The  famous  but  myslerioua  Odin,  the  Mara  as  well  as  the  Mohammed  oT  Scan- 
dluarlan  history,  Is  said  to  hare  emigrated,  with  a  band  of  followers,  fW>m  the  banka  ef  tha 
Tan'  aSs  to  ScandlnaTia  abont  the  middle  of  Uie  first  oentuiy  before  the  Chxlstian  era,  and  to 
have  eslabUshed  his  authority,  and  the  Scythian  religion,  orer  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 
Skiold,  son  of  Odin,  Is  said  to  hare  ruled  oyer  Denmark  ;  but  his  history,  and  that  of  his  pea* 
terity  for  many  generations,  are  tnrolTed  in  Ihble.  Henglst  and  Horsa,  the  two  Saxon  chMb 
who  oonquerad  England  in  the  fifth  oentnry,  reckoned  Odin,  (or  Wodin  in  their  dialect,)  as 
their  sncestor.  Gorm  the  Old,  son  of  Hardicanute  I.,  (Horda-knut,)  united  all  the  Danish 
States  under  hfs  soeptre  in  the  year  883.  His  grandson  Bweyn,  subdued  a  part  of  Norway  In 
Oie  year  1000,  and  a  part  of  Knglanrl  in  1014.  His  son  Canute  completed  tte  conquest  of  big- 
land  in  1010,  and  also  subdued  a  part  of  Scotland.  Canute  embraced  the  Christfan  rellgieii, 
and  Introduced  it  Into  Denmark;  upon  which  a  great  ehange  took  plaee  In  tbe  efaaracter  of  dM 
people.  At  his  death,  in  1090,  be  left  the  crowns  of  Denmark  and  England  to  his  son  Hardi- 
canute n.  In  138S,  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  Danish  prince  Waldemar,  and  wifo  of  Haqufai 
king  of  Norway,  styled  tbe  Semlr'  amia  of  the  North,  ascended  the  throne  of  Norway  and 
Denmark.  In  1389  she  was  chosen  by  the  Swedes  as  their  sOTcrelgn ;  and  In  1307  the  trsaty 
of  Calmar  united  the  three  crowns— it  was  supposed  forever.  In  1448,  the  princes  of  tbe 
funily  of  Skiold  having  become  extinct,  the  Danes  promoted  Christian  L,  eounk  of  Oldenbvrg, 
to  the  throne^  He  was  the  founder  of  the  royal  Oanllh  fkmily  which  has  ever  sinoe  kept 
possession  of  the  throne.  In  1SS3  the  Swedes  emancipated  themselves  fh>m  the  erael  and 
tyrannical  yoke  of  Christian  IT.,  king  of  Denmark.  In  their  struggle  for  Independenee  they 
were  led  by  the  fkmous  GustaYus  Vasa,  who  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  by  th«  nnanl- 
mous  suflhiges  of  his  fellow  dtisens.  Norway  remained*  connected  with  Denmark  tlU  1814| 
when  the  allied  powers  gave  it  to  Sweden,  as  indemnity  for  FihlsaML    (Mmp  Now  XIVO 

S.  Co/mar,  rendered  famous  by  the  treaty  of  1397,  is  a  seaport  town  tm  the  smaU  Uaad  of 
Qnamholm,  which  Is  in  the  narrow  strait  that  separates  the  tdwd  of  Olind  freai  the  nalh* 
•astern  coaat  of  Sweden.    (^aj»  No.  XIV.) 


Pmr.  H]  IffPDLE  AGES.  S1Q9 

tl|»  close  of  tbe  fourteenth  centarj,  throngh  tlie  mfluenoo  of  Harga- 
ret  of  Denmark,  whose  extraordinary  talents  and  address  have  ren- 
dered her  name  illu^trioQS  as  the  "  Semir'amis  of  the  North. ''^  But 
the  union  of  Calmar,- although  forming  an  important  epoch  in  Scan- 
dinayian  history,  was  never  firmly  consolidated ;  and  after  haying 
beei:^  renewed  several  times,  was  at  length  irreparably  broken  by 
Sweden,^  which,  in^the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  (1521,) 
mider  the  conduct  of  the  heroic  Gustavus  Yasa,  recovered  its  ancient 
mdependence. 

2.  Eaflt  and  south-east  of  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms  were  the 
numerous  Sclavonic  tribes,  which  were  gradually  gathered  into  the 
empire  of  Russia.     The  original  cradle  of  that  mighty 

empire  which  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Rurick,  a  chief-  ^^^j^lf^ 
tain  cotemporary  with  Alfred  the  Great,  was  a  narrow 
territory  extending  from  Kiev,  along  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,'  north 
to  Novogorod.*  Darkness  for  a  long  time  rested  upon  early  Russian 
history,  but  it  has  been  in  great  part  dispelled/by  ^e  genius  and  re- 
search of  Karamsin,  and  it  is  now  known  that  as  early  as  the  tenth 
century  the  Russian  empire  had  attained  an  extent  and  importance, 
•  as  great,  comparatively,  among  the  powers  of  Europe,  as  it  boasts  at 
the  present  day.  ^About  the  middle  of  the  eleventh,  century  the 
system  of  dividing  the  kingdom  among  the  children  of  successive 
monarchs  began  to  prevail,  and  the  result  was  ruinous  in  the  ex- 
treme, occasioning  innumerable  intestine  wars,  and  a  gradual  decline 
of  the  strength  and  consideration  of  the  empire. 

3.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Tartar  hordes 
of  Northern  Asia,  falling  upon  the  feeble  and  disunited  Russian 
States,  found  them  an  easy  prey ;  and  during  a  period  of  two  hun- 

.  dred  and  fifty  years,  Russia,  under  the  Tartar  yoke,  sufiered  the 
direst  atrocities  of  savage  cruelty  and  despotism.  At  length,  about 
the  year  1480,  John  III.,  duke  of  Moscow,  the  true  restorer  of  his 

L  I>niep§r,  the  Barfstktnes  of  the  aodenta)  still  flreqQMitly  called  by  its  endent  mmei  Is  s 
IWieilfwof  BofopeeA  fiuistft.  U  rises  oear  BoKdeiisko,  nuts  SDUtb,  sod  fUla  iMto  Ike  Bleek 
See,  iiorth-eest  of  (he  mpuths  of  the  Daoabe.    {Map  No.  XVII.) 

9.  Jf0o»fr04t  Off  NoTgorod,  called  also  F§liki,  or  "*  the  Great,",  formerly  the  meet  Important 
etty  la  the  Suseian  empire,  Is  situated  on  the  river  Volkhoi;  near  Its  exit  twm  liake  Ilmsn, 
eoe  himdred  mUee  south-east  from  St.  Petersbwsb,  and  three  hundred  and  five  noith-ireei 
ttim.  Uoeeow.  The  Volkhof  runs  north  te  Lake  Lsdoga.  So  Impregnable  was  Korgovod 
oioo  deemed  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb, 

Qnis  contra  Dto»  U  mafnam  Jfovofordiam  t 
**  Who  can  resist  the  Gods  and  Oreat  Novgorod  1" 

ftam  1l9f«on>d  t»  KieT  ts  a  dHtflMe  of  nearly  MX  MBdrsd  miles. 


SIO  MODXBir  mSTOBT.  [PurH 

oooAtry'i  glorj,  soooeeded  in  abolidiiiig  the  rnrnons  system  bywhidi 
the  regal  power  had  been  frittered  away,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  the  Moguls,  and  repulsed  their  last  inTaaon 
of  his  country.  Under  the  reign  of  this  wise  and  powerful  prince, 
the  many  petty  principalities  which  had  long  divided  the  sovereignty 
were  consolidated^  and,  at  the  end  of  the  century,  Russia,  altbou^ 
scarcely  emerged  from  its'^rimitiye  barbarian  darkness,  was  one  of 
the  great  powers  of  Europe. 

• 

4.  Sooth  of  the  country  inhabited  by  the  Knssians,  we  look  in 
vain,  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  for  the  once 
famed  Greek  empire  of  Justinian,  or,  as  sometimes  called, 
the  Eastern  empire  of  the  Romans.     The  account  which 

we  hare  given  of  the  crusades  represents  the  Turks,  a  race  of  Tartar 
origin,  as  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor.  About  tiie 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  a  Turkish  emir,*  called  Otto- 
man, succeeded  in  uniting  several  of  the  petty  Turkish  States  of  the 
peninsula,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 
About  the  year  1358  the  Ottoman  Turks  first  obtained  a  foothold  in 
Europe ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century  their  empire  ex- 
tended from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Danube,  and  embraced,  or  held  as 
tributary,  aiftsient  Oreece,  Thes'  saly,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace,  while 
the  Roman  world  was  contracted  to  the  city  of  Constantinople,  and 
even  that  was  besieged  by  the  Turks,  and  closely  pressed  by  the  ca- 
lamities of  war  and  famine.  The  city  would  have  yielded  *^  the 
efforts  of  Bajazet,  the  Turkish  sultan ;  but  almost  in  the  moment  of 
victory  the  latter  was  overthrown  by  the  &mous  Timour,  or  Tamer- 
lane, the  new  Tartar  conqueror  of  Asia. 

5.  About  the  year  1370,  Tamerlane,  a  remote  descendant  of  the 
Great  Gengis  Khan,  (p.  286,)  had  fixed  the  capital  of  his  new  do-  ' 
minions  at  Samarcand,'  from  which  central  point  of  bis  power  he 

1.  Smmmnmnd,  andeDUy  ealled  Marrnkmndt,  now  a  dtj  of  IndependMrt  Ttftwy,  In  Bokhtf** 
WW  Um  capital  of  the  Persian  aatrapj  of  SogdlAiia.  (Sm  Afay  No.  IV.)  Atennder  to  tbovK^ 
to  havo  pttlagad  It  U  was  takaa  firom  the  soltaB  Makomet,  bf  6«i«to  Khaa,  fai  1990;  nd 
■Bdarjlmoiv  or'nuneriaM,  It  beoanw  the  capital  of  one  of  the  laigert  empIrM  In  the  woiM, 
«Dd  the  oea^r?  or  Aalatle  learning  and  drllizaUon,  at  the  same  time  Oat  It  roie  to  high  dto* 
ttnoOoDonaoecnuitorilaesteiiiuveoomnieroewlft  aUpartaer  Alia.    Samarcand  to  now  te  * 

a.  Emir^  an  Arable  woid,  OManlog  a  leader,  or  eommaader,  waa  a  title  fliat  siTcn  to  the 
caUphi ;  bat  when  thqr  aaawned  the  Utle  of  mltant  that  of  enir  wai  applied  to  their  chiWitB* 
At  length  it  waa  bertowed  upon  ^whowece  (teraght  to  he  dMowdaata  of  llalM^i^  >»  ^ 
Um  er  hto  daqghttv  niteah. 


Oaat.H)  HIDDIiB  AGES.  311 

made  thirty-fire  victorio  as  campaigns, — conquering  all  Persia,  Nortli- 
crn  Asia,  and  Hindostan, — ^and  before  his  death  ho  had  j^  tamtam 
placed  the  crowns  of  twentj-seyen  kingdoms  on  his  xmpx&b  or . 
head.  In  the  year  1402  he  fought  a  bloody  and  decisive  tamkblakb. 
battle  with  the  Tiarkish  sultan  Bajazet,  on  ^the  plains  of  Angora,^  io 
Asia  Minor,  in  which  the  Turk  sustained  a  total  defeat,  and  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  Tamerlane  would  have  carried  his 
conquests,  mto  Europe ;  but  the  lord  of  myriads  of  Tartar  horsemen 
was  not  master  of  a  single  galley ;  and  the  two  passages  of  the  Bos- 
porus and  the  Hellespont  were  guarded,  the  one  by  the. Christians, 
the  other  by  the  Turks,  who  on  this  occasion  forgot  their  animosities 
to  act  with  union  and  firmness  in  the  common  cause.  Two  years 
later  Tamerlane  died,  at  the  age  of  sizty-niiie,  while  on  his  march 
for  the  invasion  of  China  * 

6.  The  Ottoman  empire  not  only  soon  recovered  from  the  blow 
^  which  Tamerlane  had  inflicted  upon  it,  but  in  the  year  1453,  durinja^ 

the  reign  of  Mahomet  II.,  effected  the  final  conquest  of  Constanti- 
nople. On  the  29th  of  May  of  that  year  the  city  was  carried  by 
aasanlt,  and 'given  up  to  the  unrestrained  pillage  of  the  Turkish 
soldiers :  the  last  of  tne  Ghreek  emperors  fell  in  the  first  onset :  the 
bhabitanta  were  carried  into  slavery ;  and  Constantinople  was  left 
without  a  prince  or  a  people,  until  the  sultan  established  his  own 
residence,  and  that  of  his  successors,  on  the  commanding  spot  which 
had  been  chosen  by  Constantlne.  The  few  remnants  of  the  Greek 
or  Roman  power  were  soon  merged  in  the  Ottoman  dominion ;  and 
at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Turkish  empire  was  firmlj 
established  in  Europe. 

7.  While  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  three  Scandina- 
vian kingdoms  of  the  North,  and  Russia,  formed,  as  it 

Were,  separate  worlds,  having  no  connection  with  the 

rest  of  Europe,  Poland,'  the  ancient  Sarmatia,  supplying  the  connect* 

ttmr9A  eoiidittoo:sHdeiM,fl0idfl,uid  pbtntedoos,  oocopj  Uw  pUwe  of  Ita  nomeraiu  sUmU 
mA  motqna;  and  we  wmth  laTainforito  iiicleDt  imImm*  wboM  bMUty  it  lo  hlgU j  toto- 
ffiatd  hf  Anb  blatoriaitt. 

L  dfiyfro,  a  town  of  NatoUa  In  Asia  Minor,  (see  Note,  XMi«,p.S81,)  is  the  MmeMtbe 
andeniwfiwvra,  which,  in  the  time  of  Nero^waetbe  capital  of  OeUtU.  Here  St.  Paul  preached 
IB  the  flalaittwii 

%,  Tk0  P0U9  wera  a  Sdanmle  tribe  (a  branch  of  the  SamatlaM),  who,  in  the  aerenth  ceo 
iWT.paaBri  ny  the  Dnieper,  and  thaoce  to  the  Nlemen  and  the  ViatuLi.  About  the  middle  of 
Ike  tenth  eanHiiythajeiBbnoadCariallaBilytand  towaid  the  end  of  the  lame  cntory  warn 
PWm,  that  tai  SdeeMieae  e/tte  ^^N.   Thai 


2i%  UODERK  HISTORY.  [PabtU. 

ing  link  between  tlie  ScUvonian  and  Gemaa  tribes,  had  risen  to  a 
considerable  degree  of  eminence  and  power.  The  history  of  Poland 
commences  with  the  tenth  century ;  bat  th^  prosperity  of  the  king- 
dom began  with  the  reign  of  Casimir  the  Great  (133S-1370.)  In 
the  year  1386  Lithuania*  was  added  to  Poland ;  and  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  following  century  the  Polish  sovereign,  Wladislas,  was 
presented  with  the  crown  of  Hungary,  which  he  had  nobly  defended 
against  the  Turks.  But  Hungary  soon  reverted  again  to  the  Oerman 
empire.  After  long  wars  with  the  Teutonic  knights,*  who,  since  the 
crusades,  had  firmly  established  their  order  in  the  Prussian  part  of 
the  GermaAic  empire,  the  knights  were  everywhere  defeated  during 
the  reign  of  Casimir  IV.,  (1444-1492,)  who  added  a  large  part  of 
Prussia  to  the  Polish  territories.  The  Turkish  province  of  Mol- 
davia* also  became  tributary  to  Poland ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  this  kingdom  had  extended  its  power  from  the  Baltic 
to  the  Euxine,  along  th^  whole  frontier  of  European  civilisation, 
thus  forming  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  Western  States  of  Europe • 
against  barbarian  invasion. 

8.  The  German  empire,  at  the  dose  of  th^fifteenth^oentury,  oam*. 
prised  a  great  number  of  States  lying  between  France  and  Polsad, 
extending  even  west  of  the  Rhine,  and  embracing  the  whole  of  oen- 

th«  Poles  were  divided  w«re  first  united  into  one  kingdom  in  1035,  nnder  king  Boleslsns  I.; 
bni  Polnod  wm  altenrardfi  mibdlTld«d  among  ttie  fiunUy  of  (he  PiMts  until  ISOS,  when  Wladlf 
las,  king  of  Cracow,  united  with  bias  overelgnty  the  two  principal  renuuning  divisioDa,  GxttA 
and  Little  Poland.  From  1370  to  1382  Hungary  was  united  with  Poland.  The  union  with 
Lithuania  In  1396s  occasioned  by  the  marriage  of  the  grand  dnke  of  Lltfaoanla  wUh  the  qneM 
or  Poland,  was  more  permanent.  After  the  Uthuania  nobility,  in  1569,  united  ntfth  Great  ai4 
Little  Poland,  In  one  diet,  Poland  became  the  most  powcrf\d  Slate  in  the  North.  Although  Po- 
land has  ceased  to  constitute  an  independent  and  single  State— Its  detached  fhigmeota  hsTinf 
becmne  Austrian,  Prussian,  or  Russian  provinces -still  the  country  ia  distinctly  separated  torn, 
those  wliicb  surround  it,  by  national  character  language,  and  manners.  The  present  Poluxi 
po««e«sing  the  name  without  the  privilege  of  a  kingdom,  and  reduced  to  a  territory  extending 
two  hundred  miles  north  and  south,  and  two  hundred  east  and  weat|  la,  MUMtantiaUyf  a  ptf^  ^ 
the  Russian  empire.    {Map  No.  XVIL) 

].  The  greater  part  of  Lithuania,  once  forming  the  north-eastern  division  of  Poland,  biS 
been  united  to  Russia.  It  is  comprlaed  In  the  preaent  govemmeaU  of  MotaileiR,  Wil^iri^ 
Minsk,  Wllna,  and  Grodno.    (Map  No.  XVII.) 

8.  The  Teutonic  Knigku  composed  a  religious  order  founded  in  1190  by  FVederic,  duke  of 
Boabla,  during  a  crusftde  In  the  Moly  Land,  and  Intended  to  be  oonflned  to  Germans  at  ooMs 
rank.  The  origfud  oliject  of  the  association  was  to  delbnd  the  CfarisUan  religion  against  the 
Infidels,  and  to  take  care  of  Uie  sick  in  the  Holy  Land.  By  degrees  the  order  made  seT«il 
conquests,  and  acquired  great  riches ;  and  at  the  lieginning  of  the  fifteenth  eeotory  it  po9Mtf«i 
a  large  extent  of  territory  extending  from  the  Oder  to  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  The  wsr  irilh 
the  Poles  greatly  abridged  its  power,  and  finally  the  onier  was  abolished  by  Napoleon,  In  the 
war  with  Austria,  April  94tb,  1909. 

3.  Moldaxia^  nominally  a  Turkish  province,  but  In  reality  nnder  the  preteedon  of  I 
•mbraoee  the  north-eatteru  part  of  the  aaoleot  Dieia.    ( Jir4i^  Noa.  IX.  and  XVEL> 


okap.ii]  middle  AOEa  dl3 

tral  Europe.     The  CarloviDgian  soyereigns  of  GermanjNwere  hcrcd* 

itary  monarchs ;  but  as  early  as  the  year  887  the  great 

vassals  of  the  crown  deposed,  tlieir  emperor,  and  elected  ^^  "^bmaw 

another  sovereign,  and  from  that  remote  period  the  em- 

|>erors  of  Germany  have  continued  to  be  elective.         , 

9.  Owing  to  the  great  number  of  the  Germanic  States,  which  were 
of  different  grades,  from  large  principalities  down  to  free  cities  and 
tEe  estates  of  earls  of  county — ^the  frequent  changes  of  territory 
among  them,  by  marriages,  alliances,  and  conquests, — the  weaknesa 
of  the  federal  tie  by  which  they  were  united — and  their  conflicting 
interests,  and  frequent  wars  with  each  other  and  with  the  emperor, — 
the  history  of  Germany  is  exceedingly  complicated,  and  generally 
devoid  of  great  points  of  interest.  Many  of  the  States  had  their 
own  sovereigns,  subordinate  to  their  common  emperor.  About  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  there  were  three  powerful  States  in 
Germany^  which  had  absorbed  nearly  all  the  rest.  These  were  1st, 
LuxenUmrg^  which  possessed  Bohemia,'  Moravia,*  and  part  of  Si- 
lesia,* and  Lusatia  :*  2d,  Bavaria^  which  had  acquired  BrfCudenburg,* 
Holland,^  and  the  Tyrol  :*  and  3d,  Austria^  which,  in  addition  to  a 

1.  Hm  Grand  Dneby  of  Luxemburg  was  divided  In  the  year  1839,  between  Holland  and  Bel- 
ghim.  The  town  of  Loxemburg,  one  han'dred  and  Hghly-flve  miles  norlh.eu8t  from  Pari^ 
cwmftining  ene  of  the  stroogeat  fortreaaes  In  Europe,  belongSf^Ui  a  portion  of  Uie  surround- 
ti«  country,  to  lloUond.    (JIfap  No.  XV.)  \ 

SL  Bohemia,  having  Silesia  and  ^xony  on  the  north,  Moravia  and  the  areh-dnehy  of  Anatria 
«n  the  aootlMUt,  and  Bavaria  on  the  west,  fonna  on  important  portion  of  the  Austrlaa  empire. 
{Map  No.  XVIL) 

3.  MoraoUj  an  Important  province  of  Austria,  lies  east  of  Bohemia.  In  1783  a  portion  of 
OEtafai  was  Ineorporated  with  ik  Moravia  is  the  country  anciently  occupied  by  the  Q^adi  and 
JUarcomanni,  who  waged  fierce  wars  against  the  Romans.    {Map  No.  XVII.) 

4.  Siieoim  is  north-east  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  embracing  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the 
Oder.    (jtfarNoXVlL) 

5.  Lusatia  was  a  tract  of  country  having  Brandenburg  on  the  north,  Silesia  on  the  east,  Bo- 
iMmia  and  Bavaria  on  the  south,  and  Meissen  on  the  west.  It  is  now  embraced  In  the  east- 
cm  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  east  of  Dresden,  the  southern  part  of  Brandenburg,  and 
the  north-western  part  of  Silosia.  It  was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Luaalla,  the  former 
being  the  southern  portion  of  the  territory.    ^Map  No.  XVII.) 

a  Braniemburg,  the  most  Important  of  the  Prussian  States,  lies  between  Mecklenburg  and 
Ponenmia  on  the  north,  and  West  Prussian  Saxony  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  on  the  south. 
It  Includes  Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  Prussian  empire.    iMap  No.  XVII.) 

7.  HoUamd  has  the  Prussian  German  States  on  the  south-east,  Belgium  on  the  soulb>.and 
the  see  on  the  wesL    {Mapo  Nos.  XV.  and  XVU.) 

a  The  Tprol,  (comprising  the  ancient  Rhostla  with  a  port  of  Noricum,  see  Majf  No.  IX.,) 
is  a  province  of  the  Austrian  empire,  eosi  of  Switzerland,  and  having  Bavaria  on  the  norths 
■ml  liombardy  on  the  south.  Tlie  Tyrolese,  although  warmly  attached  to  liberty,  have  alwayi 
beu  ateedliut  adherenu  of  Austria.    {Map  No.  XVII.) 

9.  The  arclKduchy  of  wf  ocCrto,  the  nucleus  and  centre  of  the  Auatrton  empire,  lies  on  both 
Ales  of  the  Deaobei  having  Bohemia  and  Moravl*  on  the  norths  and  Slyrta  and  Garinthia  on 
la  the  time  of  Ohorieauiinei  about  the  yeer  80E^  the  meigrame  of  Aoatria  wee 
O 


SU  MODKBir  HISTOBT.  [PiirJL 

large  number  of  hereditary  Statee,  poMessed  mneh  of  the  Svabiaa 
territory.     (See  Suabia^  p.  270.) 

10.  Id  the  year  1438  the  German  princes  elected  an  emperor  from 
the  hoose  of  Austria;  and,  eyer  since,  an  Austrian  prince,  with 
scarcely  any  intermission,  has  occupied  the  throne  of  Germsny. 
Near  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  German  States,  then 
under  the  reign  of  Maximilian  of  the  house  of  Austria,  made  an  im- 
portant change  in  their  condition,  by  which  the  private  wars  and 
feuds,  which  the  laws  then  authorised,  and  the  right  to  carry  on 
which  against  each  other  the  petty  States  regarded  as  the  bolwark 
of  their  liberty,  were  made  to  give  place  to  regular  courts  of  jostioe 
for  the  settlement  of  national  controversies.  In  the  year'  1495,  at  a 
general  diet  held  at  Worms,^  the  plan  of  a  Perpetual  Public  Peace 
was  subscribed  to  by  the  several  States :  oppression,  rapme,.  and  yio* 
lence,  were  made  to  yield  to  the  authority  of  law,  and  the  publie 
tranquillity  was  thus,  for  the  first  time  in  (Germany,  estabU&ed  on  a 
firm  basis. 

U.  For  a  considerable  period  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  Switserland,  the  Helvetia  of  tiie  Bo- 
mans,  had  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  Germanic  em- 
pire;, but  in  the  year  1307  the  house  of  Austria,  under 
the  usurping  emperor  Albert,  endeavored  to  extend  his  sway  over  the 
rude  mountaineers  of  that  inhospitable  land.  The  tyranny  of  Aus- 
tria provoked  the  league  of  Rutuli ;'  the  &mous  episode  of  the  hero 
William  Tell '  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  cause  of  freedom ;  and  in 

0N11IM1  tonlh  of  ttie  Itairabe,  by  a  body  of  mffltU  which  pioteeted  Uie  soath-eMt  of  0«nnU7 
fh>m  the  Ineoniooa  of  (he  Aalatio  tribeB.  In  1 156  Its  territory  wtt  extended  north  of  the  Du^ 
nba^  and  made  a  ducby.  In  1438  the  raUng  dynasty  of  Austria  obtained  the  eleetonl  ciowa 
or  Uie  German  emperora,  and  in  14S3  Austria  was  raised  to  an  arch-dnehy.  In  1586  it  acqiiiiaA 
Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and  attained  the  rank  of  a  European  monarchy.    {Map  No.  X  VIL) 

1.  W»rmM  ts  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Bhine,  Ibrty-two  miles  south-west  fkom  Rankftrt. 
iMof  No.  XVIL) 

9l  Rvhdi  was  a  meadow  alope  under  the  Salzburg  mountain,  in  the  canton  of  CrI,  and  ^ 
the  west  bank  of  the  Lake  of  Lnoerae,  where  the  oonfBderates  were  wont  to  assemble  at  daad 
of  night,  to  consult  fbr  the  salvation  of  their  ooontry.    {Map  No.  XIV.) 

a.  The  story  of  WOliam  Tdl^  one  of  the  confederates  of  RutuU,  is,  brieSy,  as  IbHowi.  Gsai' 
ler  the  Austrian  governor  had  carried  hia  insolence  so  fhr  as  to  cause  his  hat  to  be  placed 
upon  a  pole,  as  a  symbol  of  the  sovereign  power  of  Austria,  and  to  order  that  all  who  ps«ed 
diould  uncover  tiaeir  heads  and  bow  before  \<L  Tall,  having  passed  the  hat  wlthont  msking 
ob«laanoe,  waa  summoned  before  Geasler,  who,  knowing  that  he  waa  a  good  archer,  commsad- 
•d  him  to  ahoot,  fhym  a  great  diatance,  an  apple  placed  on  the  head  of  hia  own  aon,— promii|' 
tng  him  Ua  llfo  if  he  succeeded.  Tell  hit  the  apple,  but,  aeddentaUy  dropping  a  eoDoaiasd 
arrow,  was  askAl  by  the  tyfant  why  he  had  brought  two  arrows  witt  him?  *'Had  I  shot  of 
tfiUd,*  replied  the  anher,  ^the  aecood  shaft  waa  for  thee  r-Md»  be  iara^  I  should  Ml  kavt 


▼n.  swiT- 

nCELAND. 


I 


/ 


€hvp.II]  MIDDLE  A0B9.  815 

tiie  year  1308  the  linked  cantons  of  Uri,  Schwjtz,  and  Unterwalden,* 
BtrnoK  their  first  blow  for  liberty,  and  expelled  their  oppressors  from 
ihe  oonntry.  In  1315  the  Swiss  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Anstrians  at  Morgarten,'  and  another  at  Sempach'  in  1386 ;  bnt  they 
were  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Germanio  empire  until  about  the 
l^lose  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when,  in  the  famous  Suabian  war,  army 
after  army  of  the  Austrians  was  defeated,  and  the  emperor  Maxi- 
mOian  himsdf  compelled  to  effect  a  disgraceful  retreat.  This  was 
ihe  last  war  of  the  early  Swiss  confederates  in  the  cause  of  freedom ; 
and  tiie  peace  ooncluded  with  Maximilian  in  1499  established  the 
independence  of  Switserland. 

T2.  The  condition  of  Italy  during  the  central  period  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  has  already  been  described.     (Sec  II.)     At  the  close  of     ^ 
that  period  Italy  still  formed,  nominally,  a  part  of  the  \ 

Gkrmanic  empire ;  bpt  the  authority  of  the  German  em-  ^™*  "^"^ 
peFors  had  silently  declined  during  the  preceding  cen- 
turies, until  at  length  it  was  reduced  to  the  mere  ceremony  of  ooro 
^  nation,  and  the  exercise  of  a  few  honorary  and  feudal  rights  over  the 
Lombard  vassals  of  the  crown.     In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  .cen-    ' 
torieS)  numerous  republics  had  sprung  up  in  Italy ;  and,  animated 
by  the  spirit  of  liberty,  they  for  a  time  enjoyed  an  unusual  degree 
of  prosperity ;  but  eventually,  torn  to  pieces  by  contending  factions, 
and  a  prey  to  mutual  and  incessant  hostilities,  they  fell  under  the 
tyranny  of  one  despot  after  another,  until,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  Florence,  Cknoa,^  and  Venice,  were  the  only  im- 

■toed  my  maA  a  aeeond  time."  Qeaeler,  in  a  rage  not  nnmized  with  tarror,  decl^C^ecUtbat 
allhoagh  he  had  promised  Tell  hia  Ufei  he  should  i>am  it  in  a  dungeon ;  and  taking  his  captive 
bound,  started  in  a  boat  to  cross  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  to  his  fortress.  But  a  violent  storm 
aiWiiKy  1^  ^M  Mt  at  liberty,  and  the  helm  committed  to  his  hands.  He  guided  the  boat  suo- 
cesifUly  to  the  shore,  when,  seizing  his  bow,  hy  a  daring  leap  he  sprung  upon  a  rock,  leaving 
th0  barque  to  wrestle  with  the  billows.  Gessler  escaped  the  storm,  but  only  to  foil  by  the  un- 
enlBgaiTOw  oTTelL    The  death  of  Gessier  was  a  signal  for  a  general  rlalng  of  the  Bwlas  cantons. 

1.  C^,  SUbiryez,  Duterwaidem^  see  Map  No.  XIY. 

&  Mtrfarten,  the  narrow  pass  In  which  the  battle  was  fought,  is  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
snan  Lake  of  I^gerl,  in  the  canton  of  Schwyta,  seventeen  miles  east  fh>m  Lucerne.  (Jlfep 
KowXIV.) 

91  SMyoeA  Is  a  smaO  town  on  the  east  bank  of  the  small  lake  of  the  same  name,  seven  miles 
■orfhwest  fh>m  Lucerne.    (Jtfa^  No.  XIV.) 

^  0«aM,a  maritime  elty  of  northern  Italy, la  at  the  bead  of  the  gulf  of  the  same  name; 
liwiti-Jve  miles  soutb-eaal  from  Turin.    After  the  downlUl  of  the  empiro  of  Ghariemagne,  ^ 
Qwiea  eieoled  Itself  Into  a  lepublio.    In  1 174  It  possessed  an  extensive  territory  in  north-west- 
ern Italy,  neariy  all  of  Provence,  and  Ihe  Island  of  Oorsica.    Genoa  carried  on  long  wars  with 
Pfsa  and  Vaalee,--that  with  Oie  latter  beli«  one  of  the  moat  menonble  In  the  Italian  annals  or 


816  MODBKK  ^aMNET.  ffjm:^  O. 

portant  States  that  had  eaeaped  Ihe  general  eataetrojpbe.  Nearly  ^1 
the  numeroae  free  towns  and  repuhlies  of  Lombardj  had  beon  eon* 
quered  bj  the  dnohy  of  MilaD,  whieh  aeknowledged  a  direet  de- 
pendence on  the  (}enBan  emperor. 

13.  The  Florentines,  who  greatly  enriehed  themselTee  hy  their 
oommeree  and  manafaotoreay  maintained  their  repuUioan  form  of 
government,  from  aboat  the  dose  of  the  twelfth  eentary,  during  a 
period  of  nearly  two  hondred  and  fifty  years.  The  Geooeee  and  Ve- 
netians, whose  oommercial  intweets  thwarted  each  other,  both  m  iSbe 
Levant*  a^d  the  Mediterranean,  qnarreled  repeatedly ;  but  eveDia- 
ally  the  Venetians  gained  the  snperioril^,  and  retained  the  eommaad 
of  the  sea  in  their  own  hands.  Of  all  the  Italian  republics,'  Genoa 
was  the  most  agitated  by  internal  diasensions ;  aad  the  Genoese,  vol- 
atile and  inconstant,  underwent  frequent  voluntary  changes  of  mas- 
ters. At  the  close  of  the  fifteeaih  eentury  Genoa  was  a  d^^endwiey 
of  the  duchy  of  Milan,  although  subeequently  it  reoovered  onee  moie 
its  apcicnt  state  of  independence.  * 

i4.  Venice,  to  whose  origin  we  have  idready  alladed,  w«u9  the 
earliest,  and,  for  a  long  time,  the  most  eonsiderable,  oommercial  <Hly 
of  fpodern  Europe.  At  a  very  early  period  the  Venetians  began  to* 
trade  with  Constantinople  and  other  eastern  oities ;  the  crusades,  to 
whieh  their  shipping  contributed,  iuiereased  their  wealthy  and  extend- 
ed their  commerce  and  poaeeasiens ;  aad  toward  the  end  of  the  §i- 
teenth  century,  besides  several  rich  provinces  in  Lombardy,  the  re- 
public was  mistress  of  Crete  and  Cyprus,  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Morea,'  or  Southern  Greece,  and  of  most  of  the  isles  in  the  .Sgoan 
Sea.  The  additional  powers  that  at  this  time  shared  the  dominion 
of  Italy,  were  the  popes,  and  the  kings  of  Naples ;  but  the  temporal 
domains  of  the  former  were  small,  and  those  of  the  latter  soon  passed 
into  other  hands ;  for  the  oontinual  wars  whieh  all  the  Italian  States 
waged  with  each  other  had  already  encouraged  foreign  powers  to 
form  plans  of  conquest  over  them.  In  the  year  1500  Ferdisttid  of 
Spain  deprived  France  of  Naples ;  and  from  this  time  the  Spaniaifds, 
who  were  already  masters  of  Sieily  and  Sardinia,  beeame,  for  ] 
than  a  hundred  years,  the  predominating  power  in  Italy. 

].  The  X.«Mii<  is  a  tenn  appUed  16 dorigMto  the  waKin  ooMteor  the  MeditornMU,  f 
■ooUMrn  Greece  to  Bgypt   In  the  Middle  Ages  tiie  towle  wtth  these  eomtHesvifl  i 
exdostvely  in  the  hands  of  the  ItaUwis,  who  gare  tolhein  Ite  general  s^>peUa>tonef  ZwaniSj 
or  easlem  ooootries.    (Italian,  LewatOt :  Fieneh,  Lmmd.) 

S;  JfcTM, Uw andeot Pirfs^eaatoaa,  oit ewitheni  fliaeo% l»» said  toderiva  tti»«Ddeni.HBn 
» i»  •  malheny  laa£   (Graek,  «m»«B|  a  molbanrr  tiwi) 


r 


15.  Tvarmog  to  Spain,  we  bekold  tbete,  in  Hhe  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  eentuy,  the  three  GhrxBiiMi  Steteaof  NaTarre,' 
Aragon,*  Gaetile?  and  Leon*  united,  and  the  Mooriish 
kin^Bbni  of  Chanado.*  Freqnent  dijBsensions  among  the  Christian 
States  had  long  presented  unity  of  aotion  among  them,  hut  in  the 
year  1474  Ferdinand  Y.  aaoended  the  throne  of  Aragon ;  and,  aa 
he  had  preyiously  married  Isabella,  a  princess  of  Castile,  the  two 
Host.  powerM  Christian  States  were  thfos  nnited.  The  plan  of  ex- 
pelling tbe  Moors  tsna  Spain  had  long  been  agitated ;  and  in  1481 
the  war  for  that  pnrpose  waa  oommeaoed  bj  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
Ten  yearsy  howeyer,  were  spent  in  the  sanguinary  strife,  before  the 

1.  Jfkvarre  is  In  the  northern  part  of  Spain,  haWng  France  and  the  Pyrenees  on  tbe  north, 
An^fotk  en  fb&  east,  Old  Oisdle  on  llie  sontli,  snc^the  Si8<|ue  provfnoes  (Biscay,  Gulpuzcoa^ 
mA  Alava)  oa  t]i»  west  A  portion  of  ancient  NaTarre  extended  north  of  tbe  Pyrenees,  and 
aAenrarda  formed  the  French  prorlnce  of  Beam.  .  (See  Map  No.  Xtll.)  During  many  cenr 
turfCls  Kavwre  waa  an  Independent  kingdom,  buC  In  1S84  It  became  united,  by  Intermarrfoge, 
vWiitat of  Fnnce.  IniaBaitagalBoblainedasoiTenfgnof  lUown.  Although stiU claimed 
Vy  France,  In  151S  Ferdinand  of  Arsgon  nnited  all  the  country  south  of  the  Pyrenees  lo  the 
crown  of  Spain.  In  1590  fienry  IV.,  grandson  of  Henry  king  of  Navarre,  ascended  the  throne 
dTIHaee;  and  ftoaor  that  Ifaae  to  fhe  reign  of  CflMrlee  X«,  the  French  monarehs,  (With  the  ex- 
.  eepllon  of  Napoleon,)  lasamed  the  title  of  **king  of  France  and  Navarre  ;**  but  only  the  smalt 
portion  of  Navarre  north  of  the  Pyrenees  remained  annexed  to  the  French  monarchy.  Span- 
Mi  HvrafTO  to  slilt  governed  bjr  Its  separate  laws^  and  has^  nominally  at  least,  the  same  con- 
■UtailoB  wluek  It  enjoyed  when  U  was  a  separate  monaieby ;  biii  Its  sovereignty  is  yetted  Ia 
the  Spanish  crown.    (.Vaji  No.  XIII.) 

%  Armg&u  was  bounded  on  tbe  north  by  the  Pyrenees,  east  by  Oatalonla,  sonth  by  Valencia, 
and  west  by  Castile  and  Navarre.  While  a  separate  kingdom  It  was  the  most  powerful  of  the 
poiliMntar  Staiea,  and  comprised.  In  1479,  under  the  sovereignty  of ,  Fonttnand,  exeloalTe  of 
ibacm  proper,  NawfcGatakmla,  Valencia,  and  Sardinia.    (Ar«i»  No.  XtU.) 

a.  CkatOe  to  Ow  eentml  and  taigesi  dlTMon  of  modem  Spain.  Tbe  northern  portion  beln^ 
flMt  ai«t  reeorered  ftom  the  Saracens,  Is  called  OW  Oasllle,  and  comprises  tbe  modem  prov- 
IMC9  of  B«fgo^  Sorla,  Sefovia,  and  Avlta  J  the  southern  portion,  ctfled  New  OBstll^  comprtoet 
flie  pvovfnoes  of  Madrid,  Onadaiaxara^  Coenea,  Toledo*  and  La  Mnncha.  After  the  expulsion 
•r  the  SaneenSf  and  varlom  vietorttades,  tbe  sovereignty  of  Osstlle  was  vested  by  marriage  in 
Btodbtt  m.  king  of  Navarre^  wtaoae  son  FOrdlnand  was  made  king  of  GuUle  In  1034.  Three 
y«««  laler  be  wm  erowned  Mag  of  Leon.  The  crowns  of  OasUle  and  I>on  were  repeatedly 
gepMMed  and  miHed,  UU,  by  the  marriage  of  Isabella,  iTbo  held  both  crowns,  with  Ferdinand, 
tiag  of  Aragon,  In  14ir7,  the  three  kingdoms  tfere  consolidated  Into  one.    (Map  No.  X IIL) 

4.  Tbe  kingdom  of  Lm%  was  bounded  north  by  Asturias,  east  by  Old  Outtle,  south  by  Bt- 
Huiiiarinri.  and  west  by  Oaltela  and  Portugal.  During  the  eighth  century,  thto  district,  after 
the  expotoien  of  the  Mooie,  was  formed  Into  a  kingdom,  called  after  Ito  capital,  and  connected 
VMhAstortas.  nwasflntadded  loCasttlelB  1037,  in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  1.  king  of  Gae* 
tile,  who  was  king  of  Leon  In  right  of  hto  wife ;  but  It  continued  In  an  unsettled  sUto  till  129«, 
wlien  It  was  flaally  united,  by  Inheritance,  to  the  domlntons  of  Ferdinand  HI.  khig  of  CasUle. 

&  Srmaia,  conrfsting  of  the  eemtfreaalem  part  of  aaeleal  Andalusia,  (Note  p.  238.)  to  on 
mm  Mediterranean  coast,  in  the  south-eastern  par^of  Spain.  On  the  breaking  up  of  the  AM- 
en  emphe  In  Spain,  In  the  year  1238,  Mohammed  ben  Alhamar  founded  the  Moorish  klng- 
Aditi  of  Granada,  making  the  dly  of  Granada  hto  capital.  Granada  remained  In  the  possession 
er  the  Moot!  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  which  eomprise  the  season  of  Ito  prosperity.  In 
14R  It  smreMderod  to  FerdfauDd  the  Oathoika,  being  fiie  toil  foothoM  of  Saracen  power  la 
ipda.   (JMivK6.XHL) 


S18  UOD^fX  HBmttT.     -  [BwIL 

Chrirtiaiis  were  enabled  to  besiege  Onnada,  ibe  Mooriik  «apitol; 
but  the  capitnUtion  of  that  oity  in  January,  1492,  put  en  end  to  ike 
Saracen  dominion  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  after  it  had  existed  there 
daring  a  period  of  eight  hondred  years.  In  the  year  1512  Ferdi- 
nand mvaded  and  conquered  Navarre ;  and  thus  the  whole  of  Spain- 
nas  united  under  the  same  goyemment. . 

16.  Toward  the  dose  of  the  eleventh  owtury,  the  ^^tier  prevmoe 
of  Portugid,'  whioh  had  been  conquered  by  the  Chris^ 
^!^^    tians  from  the  Moors,  was  formed  into  an  earldom 
tributary  to  Leon  and  Castile ;  but  in  the  twelfth  oen- 
tmy  it  was  erected  into  an  independent  kingdom,  and  in  the  early 
pakt  of  the  thirteenth  it  had  reached  its  present  limits.     The  history 
of  Portugal  is  devoid  of  general  interest,  until  the  period  of  those 
voyages  and  discoveries  of  which  the  Portuguese  were  the  early  pro- 
moters, and  which  have  shed  immortal  lustre  on  the  Portugaeee  name. 

IIL  DiscovEKiES.— 1.  A  brief  aocount  of  the  discoveries  of  the 
fifteenth  century  will  close  the  present  chapter.  Prom  the  eabrer- 
sion  of  the  Roman  empire,  until  the  revival  of  letters  which  succeed- 
ed the  Bark  Ages,  no  advanoe  was  made  in  the  art  of  navigation; 
and  even  the  little  geographical  knowledge  that  had  been  acquired 

1.  FMtiva',  MMlciiUy  cdtod  iMnUaua,  (Note  i».  106,)  was  taken  powwrion  of  bytbe  B<>- 
maiiiabonliwohvttlredyMnbcrora  the  GlifirtUn  «n ;  pi«vk>iulj  to  wliieh  th«  flMan^^ 

oentnry  it  was  ioaiidaled  by  th«  Germanic  tribea,  and  In  71S  was  conqiierod  by  the  ^"'^ 
Soon  after,  the  SpanlaAto  of  OaaUlft  aul  Leon,  aided  by  the  natiTe  faihabikattlB»  wrttUdJiaKf^' 
era  Portugal,  between  Uie  Mlnbo  and  Uie  Douro,  from  Uie  Moon,  and  placed  ooonta  or  «PT*^ 
on  orer  ihU  r««ion.  About  the  dose  of  the  eleventh  century  Heniy,  a  Bugnadian  pria^^ 
came  into  SiMdn  to  aeek  hia  fi>rtane  by  hU  awoid,  in  ttae  wan  against  tiie  Moon.  Alpboiao 
VI.  king  or  OutUe  ahd  Leon,  gave  to  Uie  chlYaliicatnnger.  Uie  hand  of  his  daughter  iaiB^ 
liage,  and  also  the  earldom  of  the  Christian  provinoea  of  PortngaL  In  1139  Uie  Fortiig»Bt» 
eari,  Alphonao  I.,  having  gained  a  brUUant  victory  over  Uie  Moors,  his  sohlien  proelsimed  Un 
Ui«  on  the  fleld  of  battle ;  and  Portugal  became  an  independent  kingdom.  Itspowernow 
npidly  increased :  it  maintained  iu  Independence  agahut  the  claims  of  QMlUe  and  LMn»  ^ 
Alphonso  extended  his  dominions  to  the  borden  of  Algarve,  in  the  south.  In  1349  AlphoDS» 
in.  eonqtiered  Algarre,  and  thus,  In  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Moorish  power  In  Portafsl,  «* 
tended  the  kingdom  to  its  present  limits.  ^^ 

The  language  of  Portugal  is  merely  a  dialect  of  the  Spanish ;  but  the  two  people  regsw 
each  other  with  a  deep-rooled  national  antipathy.  The  character  attributed  to  the  Fortogatf^ 
is  not  very  lattering.  **  Strip  a  Spaniard  of  all  his  virtues,  and  you  make  a  good  Portogo^ 
of  him,"  says  the  Spanish  proverb,  ^l  have  heaid  It  more  truly  said,"  says  Dr.  SouOMf* 
**add  hypocrisy  to  a  Spaniard's  vices,  and  you  have  the  Portuguese  character.  Tbe  t^^°*[ 
ttons  dilfer,  perhaps  puipoeely,  in  many  of  their  habits.  Almost  every  man  in  Spsio  imokss* 
the  Portuguese  never  smoke,  but  most  of  them  take  snofll  None  of  the  SpenUuds  will  p*^ 
wheelbarrow :  none  of  the  Portuguese  will  carry  a  burden :  the  one  says,  Mt  is  only  ^^^^^ 
todraw  oarriages;'  the  other,  that  'it  is  fit  only  for  beasts  to  carry  buidens,* »  (M^  T^^  ^^^ 


mm  nearij  lost  during  that  gloomy  period.  Upon  the  retoniiag 
dawn  of  eivilLEation,  however,  oommeroe  again  reyiyed;  and  the 
Italian  States,  of  which  Yenioe,  Pisa,'  and  Genoa,  took  the  lead, 
floon  became  distingnished  for  their  enterprising  oommercial  spirit. 
The  disooTcrj  of  the  magnetic  needle  gave  a  new  impulse  to  naviga- 
tion, as  it  enabled  tiie  mariner  to  direct  his  bark  with  increased  bold- 
ness and  confidence  farther  from  &e  coast,  out  of  sight  of  whose 
landmarks  he  before  seldom  dared  venture;  while  the  invention  of 
the  art  of  printing  disseminated  more  widely  the  knowledge  of  new 
discoveries  in  geography  and  navigation.  In  the  fourteendi  century 
the  Canary'  islands,  believed  to  be  the  Fbrtunate  islands  of  the 
ancients,  were  accidentally  rediscovered  by  the  crew  of  a  French 
ship  driven  thither  by  a  storm.  But  the  career  of  modem  discovery 
was  prosecuted  with  the  greatest  ardor  by  the  Portuguese.  Under 
the  patronage  of  prince  Henry,  son  of  king  John  the  First,  Gape 
Bojador,  before  considered  an  impassable  limit  on  the  African  coast, 
was  doubled ;  the  Cape  de  Y erd '  and  Asore^  islands  were  discovered ; 
and  the  greatest  part  of  the  African  coast,  from*  Cape  Blanco  to 
Gape  de  Verd,  was  explored.     ( 1419—1 430.) 

2.  The  grand  idea  which  actuated  prince  Henry,  was,  by  circum- 
navigating Africa,  to  open  an  easier  and  less  expensive  route  to  the 
Indies,  and  thus  to  deprive  the  Italians  of  the  commerce  of  those 
fertile  r^ions,  and  turn  it  at  once  upon  his  own  country.  Although 
prince  Henry  died  before  he  had  accomplished  the  great  object  of 
his  ambition,  the  fame  of  the  discoveries  patronized  by  him  had 
rendered  his  name  illustrious,  and  the  learned,  the  curious,  and  the 

1.  P£m,  ttie  eapltal  of  one  of  1h6  moat  eelebnled  rapabllos  of  Rilj,  and  oow  the  eipHal  of 
Ibe  proTlnoe  of  Its  own  Muiie  fn  the  gnad  duchy  of  TuManj,  Is  on  the  rlrer  Anio,  about 
eight  mlies  from  Its  eotranoe  into  the  HediterraneaiH  and  thirteen  miles  north^eesl  from  Le^ 
hon.  In  the  ienth  oeotory  Pisa  took  the  lead  among  the  oommercial  repnUlcs  of  Italy,  and 
in  the  elerenth  oentory  its  fleet  of  gnUesrs  maintained  a  superiority  in  the  Mediterranean.  In 
fbe  tlrirtetath  oentory  a  straggle  with  Genoa  commenced,  which,  alter  many  vlolasitodea)  ended 
In  the  total  ndn  of  the  Pisans.  Pisa  subeeqnently  became  the  prey  of  Tarfoos  petty  tyranti^ 
and  was  flnaily  united  to  Florence  in  1400. 

9L  The  CanArieg  are  a  gronp  of  fourteen  Islands  belonging  to  Spain.  The  peak>>f  Tenerifta^ 
a  balf  eztlnet  TOleano,  on  one  of  flie  more  distant  Islands,  Is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  mOea 
flom  the  nortb^est  coast  of  Africa,  and  eight  hundred  milea  soutb>weat  from  the  straits  of ' 
Gibraltar. 

3.  TbeCs^dff  Fertf  Islands,  belonging  to  Portugal,  are  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  about 
Oiree  hundred  and  twenty  miles  west  from  Cape  de  Vsrd. 

4.  The  ^ttru  (azures')  are 'about  eight  hundred  miles  west  from  PortugaL  The  name  Is 
•aid  to  be  deriTod  from  the  rest  number  of  hawks,  (called  by  the  Portuguese  o^sr,)  by  whkh 
tiMy  «rere  frequented.  At  the  time  of  their  dbeorery  they  were  uninhabited,  and  ooTcred  with 


920      .  llODSRir  BISTORT.  [Pim  II 

td venturous,  repaired  to  Lisbon '  to  increase  their  knowledge  by  the 
discoveries  of  the  Portuguese,  and  to  join  in  their  enterprises.  Among 
them  Christopher  Columbus,  a  native  of  Genoa,  arrived  there  about 
the  jear  1470.  He  had  already  made  himself  familiar  with  the 
navigation  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  had  visited  Iceland  f  and  he 
now  accompanied  the  Portuguese  in  their  expeditions  to  the  coast  of 
Guinea'  and  the  African  islands  But  while  others  were  seeking  a 
passage  to  India  by  the  slow  and  tedious  process  of  sailing  around 
tho  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  the  bold  and  daring  mind  of  Co- 
lumbus conceived  the  project  of  reaching  the  desired  land  by  a  west- 
ern route,  directly  across  the  Atlantic.  The  spherical  figure  of  the 
earth  was  then  known,  and  Columbus  doubted  not  that  our  globe 
might  be  circumnavigated. 

3.  Of  the  gradual  maturing  and  development  of  the  theory  of  Co- 
lumbus,—of  the  poverty  and  toil  which  he  endured,  and  the  ridicule, 
humiliation,  and  disappointments  which  he  encountered,  as  he  wan- 
dered from  court  to  court,  soliciting  the  patronage  which  ignorance, 
bigotry,  prejudice,  and  pedantic  pride,  so  long  denied  him, — and  of  his 
final  triumph,  in  the  discovery  of  a  new  continent,  equal  to  the  old 
world  in  magnitude,  and  separated  by  vast  oceans  from  all  the  earth 
before  known  to  civilized  man,— our  limits  forbid  us  to  enter  into 
details,  and  it  would  likewise  be  superfluous,  as  these  events  have  al- 
ready been  familiarized  to  American  readers  by  the  chaste  and  glow- 
ing narrative  of  their  countryman  Irvbg.  In  the  year  1492,  the 
genius  of  Columbus,  more  than  realizing  the  dreams  of  Plato  s 
famous  Atlantis^*  revealed  to  the  civilized  world  another  hemisphere, 

1.  LM<m^  the  oapltal  and  prindpnl  Mapori  of  Portugal,  is  siuuted  on  the  right  benk,  flixi 
Mtf  the  mouth,  of  the  Tigua.  The  Moors  captiued  the  city  in  the  year  7lti,  and,  with  some 
ritght«icoepklon8,  It  remataied  In  their  power  till,  in  1145,  Aiphonao  L  made  It  the  capital  of 
hla  kingdom.    (jtfa^NaXlU.) 

2.  leeUnd  ia  a  large  island  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  on  the  oonflneo  of  the  polar  drele.  U 
waa  diacoVered  by  a  Norwegian  pirate  in  the  year  861,  and  was  soon  after  setlled  by  Norwe- 
gians. In  the  year  flS8  the  inhabitants  Ibrmed  themselves  into  a  republic,  which  existed  aesriy 
fi>ur  hundred  years ;  after  which  Iceland  again  became  subject  to  Norway.  On  the  HUiexatioa 
«f  that  kingdom  to  Denmark,  Iceland  was  trsnsferred  with  it. 

^.  Ovinta  is  a  name  applied  by  European  geographers  to  designate  that  portion  of  the  AlH* 
eaii  coast  extending  fh>m  about  eleven  degrees  north  of  the  equator,  to  seventeen  degrees 
south. 

4.  ^^UoiUM  was  a  celebrated  island  supposed  to  hare  existed  at  a  very  early  period  in  ^ 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  to  have  been,  eventu&Uy,  sunk  beneath  its  waves.  Plato  is  the  flnl  vbo 
gives  an  account  of  It,  and  he  obtained  bis  inrormatioo  fh>m  tlie  priests  of  £gypt>  The  state* 
ment  which  he  furnishes  is  substantially  as  follows : 

*^  la  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  over  against  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  lay  a  very  Urge  and  1^ 
tsland,  #hose  surfooe  was  variegated  by  mountains  aikl  valleys,  its  coasts  indented  with  maay 
aavlgable  riven,  and  iu  fields  weB  cultivated.   In  iu  vicinity  wen  other  islands  from  wbicb 


f 


6^^  aj  KDfitLE  A0aeL  m 

and  first  opened  a  commimiGation  between  Europe  and  America  that 
will  never  cease  while  the  waters  of  the  ocean  continue  to  roll  be- 
tween them.  Five  years  after  the  discovery  of  America,  Yasco  de 
Grama,  a  Portnguese  admiral,  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
had  the  glory  of  carrying  his  national  flag  as  far  as  India.  These 
were  the  dosing  maritime  enterprises  of  the  fifteenth  century :  they 
opened  to  the  Old  World  new  scenes  of  human  existence :  new  na- 
tions, new  races,  and  new  eontinents,  rapidly  crowded  upon  the 
nnoii  4  aad  imitation  tired  in  oontempUting  the  future  wonders 
ihskl  the  genius  of  discovery  was  about  to  develop. 

fbara  was  a  pimHBB  to  a  lai^e  oontiimt  Ijio^  b^jrood.  Tbe  laland  of  AUantto  was  thickly  ttt- 
Hed  and  very  powerful :  Its  Ungi  eitended  thoir  sway  over  Africa  as  fiir  m  fgjrpt,  and  oyer 
JSiBop*  uatll  tlwj  were  checked  by  the  Athenians,  who,  opposing  themselves  to  the  Invaden, 
hecame  the  conqocron. .  But  at  length  that  Atlantic  island,  by  a  flood  and  eaithqnake,  was 
f'**'*»^^^j  destroyed,  and  Ibr  a  longtime  afterwards  the  sea  thereabouts  was  PaUl  of  rocks  and 


Adiqpittta  aroae  among  the  anetent  phUoiophera  whether  Plato%  atatenent  was  based  npon 
naltty^  or  waa  «  iMre  cmhUod  e€  ftncy.  PoaldoaSaa  fbooght  It  worthy  of  belief:  Pliny  re- 
ualBs  undedded.  AnMMig  modem  wrlteia,  Rndbeok  hihpn  to  prove  that  Sweden  waa  the 
Aflanite  or  fbe  aBd«nta:  Baffly  plaeea  It  in  ttw  Ihrtheet  regions  of  the  north,  beUeving  that  Um 
1  Hyperboreans ;  while  others  eonneet  AmerUa,  with  its  Mexican 
lofaremote  civlllaatton,wlth  tl^  tagendoftheloBtAUanll^  Inoon- 
melloft  with  this  tiew  they  point  to  the  peeiriiar  oonformaition  of  oar  continent  along  the 
f^Kfttm  of  tto  omf  of  Mexico,  wliere  evefythlug  indleatea  the  sinking,  at  a  remote  period,  of  a 
Ingetnctof  famd,  the  place  or  which  la  now  ooonpied  by  the  waters  of  the 'Gnlt  And  may 
sat  Ite  aooMata  tope  of  Mda  aanken  tend  stm  appear  to  view  as  the  Islands  of  the  West  Indian 
group;  and  may  not  the  large  continent  lying  beyond  Atlantla  and  the  adyaeant  I 

)•        21 


CHAPTEB  III. 

XintOPEAN  HISTORT  DITRINO  THE  SIXTEElirTH  OERTUBT 

L  nriBKHIDOIOKT. 

AHALYSOL  LrbmmMj<tfmdkmAhtitary.  How  btokn,  te  Ite  Iditoiy  tf  ft*  MUili 
AgMi  auil  iMt  oalty  la  modem  Uitoiy.  How,  only,  oooAnkm  eu  bo  aToldodL— Sl  Appiwit 
notkm towirdt a knowlodgo of  onlvwHl hWory.  Fotnn  pkui  of  tho work.  WtaatmwtBoC 
bo  OTorlooked,  and  what  otons  wo  con  hopo  to  ooeompttdi.— 3l  fluto  of  BoNpo  at  Uio  begb- 
iiii«  of  tho  aiztoeath  oeotary.   Oondittoa  of  Foraia.    Moffol  omplrs  in  HhidoatMi.    CUaib 

E^Tpt   TboNow  World.    Wbore,  only,  Wo  look  Ibr  hiatoric  onity. 

* 

n.  THE  AGE  OF  HENRT  VOL,  AND  GHAIILBB  V. 

1.  Blao  of  tbo  STATSo-aranM  or  Buaora.  Growing  Intrleaey  of  ttio  ntatioBs  bofcwofln 
Btotco.^?  OaBaeaofthofatdoTOtepinotoftboatafnjiloia>~a.  Tho  Graal  poww  of  Anrtrta 
nBdoraiari«iV.-4.  Ferdinand,  tho  biotlMrorGhartoa.  Phfflp  IL,  aon  of  Chariaa.-^  Boglnlag 
of  rmm  mtruMt  nsTwnnv  Fkavou  L  axo  OmAMhMM  V.  Tho  teror  of  Hixrt  VIIL  or  E»«- 
LAKB  oonrted  by  bodi.-.«.  Fkrorablo  poaltton  of  Honry  at  tho  timo  of  hU  MCOMlon.— 7.  Ef- 
ftwto  of  Chariot  and  Fkaaete  to  win  hia  ikvor.  Tho  reaoU.-^  Eflbrta  of  Ftanda  to  raoorer 
Mavam.  ^  Ilattan  war  that  fbttowod.  FWuda  defcotod,  and  uMdo  priHiMr,  In  (he  battio 
of  Bftvlo.  [Uooao  of  Bmrhtm,}-^  IflftprlaonnMBt,  and  reloaaa,  of  F^naacia^~ia  A  geneial 
toagnoi^ynatChohoaV.— IL  OporathMMOf  thodukoof  Bouiboatailldy.  PIllagoofEon^ 
and  death  of-Boorbon.— 18.  Oi^vl^  of  tho  po|io.  Tho  Frenofa  amy  la  Ita^.  Tho  paaoa  of 
Ounbray^lX  Tho  domeaUc  relations  of  Haoiy  VIIL>-14.  The  riae,  power,  and  IhU,  of  Woiaay. 
fW<daqr*a*olUoqiv.] 

15.  Tan  EsroEHAiioif.  Tho  maxim  of  roUgknu  ft«edom.  Papal  power  and  pralenalona  at 
this  period.  Fecioeatlon  of  reAmnenb  [WkkUflb.  OovncU  ct  Oonitanoo.  The  AIbigeii8es.J 
Eflbct  of  advancing  dTlIiaatloa  on  papal  power.  Avartee  of  pope  Leo.  X.  Inrlnlynoea. 
Martin  Lather.  [WIttemberB.]— 10.  Lothor^  that  oppoeltton  to  the  Ghorefa  of  Boma.  Hit 
gradoalprogreeainrqlectlivthodootrlaeaaBdrlleaorpopeiy.  His  wiitinga  declared  horellcaL 
Ho  boms  the  papal  boll  of  oondomnalton.— 17.  Deolaratton  of  tho  Soibonno.  [Boi^Nma.] 
the  diet  of  Worms.  Henry  VUI.  joins  In  opposing  Lather.— 1&  araometaaoes  in  Luther^ 
IhTor.  Decrees  oftho  diet  of  Spkos.  Protest  of  tho  BeAHrmen.  [8plrBS.>-l9.  Thodletof  Aagi- 
borg,  1530.  CAogabarg.J— HOianolhon.  Reaolt  of  the  diet.  Leagoo  of  the  Protestants  Honry 
vm.  md  Fhmds  L  (hvor  tho  Protestant  eanso.— M.  InToslon  of  Hongary  by  tho  'Quka.  Gh»- 
sade  of  CBiarieeV.sgBlnit  the  Moors.  [Algiers]  Renewal  of  tho  war  by  tho  FMidi  monanh. 
[8aToy.]  Invasion  of  Fhmee  by  Ohsrlea.— 81.  Brief  frooe,  and  renewal  of  tho  war.  [Znoe.] 
The  Parties  to  this  war,  and  Its  results.  [Oerlaolea.  Boulcgne.]— 8S.  War  carried  on  by  Chariaa 
against  his  Protestant  German  safefeots.  Bovolt  of  Maarioe  of  Saxony^-SS.  Btfrprlae  and  mor 
tlfleatioh  of  Charles,  and  flnal  treaty  of  Aogsbnrg.    [Passaa.] 

94.  Ctroomstances  which  led  to  tho  Abpicatioh  ako  RsnaaHairr  or  OaAaLas  y.  [BL  JasL>- 
8S.  llioemperor  la  his  retbomenL— S6.  The  ProtestaatStateaof  Earopow  Character  of  tho  Belbr* 
maUoB  In  Rngland.  Betigloos  Intoloranoe  of  Honiy.  Character  of  flenry^s  govommeBftr-87. 
Brief  reign  of  Edward  VI.  Reign  of  Mary.  Character  of  her  rdgn.  War  with  France.  {BL 
Qoentln.]    Death  of  Mary,  and  accession  of  Elixabeth,  1588. 

IQ.  THE  AGE  OF  ELIZABETH. 
1.  Tlio  claims  of  Elizabeth  not  reeognlaed  by  the  Catholic  SCatea.    Mabt  or  BooTLAan.— ff. 
Ftagrew  of  Protectant  principles  In  England.   PhlUpU.   Eflbct  of  tho  rivalry  between  Ftaaoa 
and  8pala^-3.  Death  of  Henry  a  of  Franca.   Fraads  U.  and  Oharies  IX.    Mary  preseads  to 


r 


Obaf.  laj  SDLTSEKTH  OENTUBY. 

aooflaad.  PriM^0f«iitionMrreigii.  She  ttmm*  hvwlf  <m  tb«  pnHeeUon  of  EUailwIlu-- 
4.  The  attflmpte  to  eatebltoh  the  InqnJaitlaii  on  the  eontineikt.  Clramutances  wM^  led  to  th* 
cirn.  Aim  asuaiove  wam,  m  Fkamcs.  [Hwre'de^moeO— 9>  Ghanetar  of  this  irar.  Atrodp 
tScB  committed  on  both  sides.  [Gnienne.  DaQphiny.>-6.  Battle  of  Dreiu.  Oftpture  of  the 
opposing  genenls,  and  condosIoD  of  the  war  hj  the  trea^  of  Amboiae.  [ Amboise.]— 7.  Be-  / 
nsival  of  the  WW.  The** Lame  Peace.*'  IVeachecy  of  the  CathoUos.  Peaoe  of  St  Germain 
£Bt.  nennain.}— 8.  Deslgna  of  the  French  oourU  Preparations  for  the  destracUon  of  the  Prot- 
estants.—0.  VUmbacwlz  or  St.  Baktholokbw.— 10.  General  massacre  thronghoat  the  king- 
dML  N<Me  eondoot  of  some  oOoerB.  The  princes  of  Navanre  aad  OoadA.  The  Joy  excited 
bj  the  maasaere.— 11.  Elbcta  produced.  Benewal  of  the  civU  war.  The  foeliags  of  G3iaile»' 
Us  al4^ness,  and  death.  ' 

12.  Thedukeof  AUra^aadmtailsttmttoaofnuNBTRSRLAjnM.  The  **PaelfloattOB  of  Ghent,* 
nd  opiilaiaii  of  the  Bpaniaids.  CGhent.}— 13.  Gaoses  thai  led  to  thlb  **miioa  of  Utreehl.'' 
[Uti«cbt]  The  Statee^neral  of  1580.  [Antwerp.]  Ck>ntinuanoe  of  the  war  by  Philip.— 14. 
The  r«mainiiv  history  and  flite  of  Maiy  of  Sootland.— IS.  Resentment  of  the  Catholics.  Oook* 
pUntSi  and  pn^eota  of  Philip^— Id.  Vast  prepanitiona  of  Philip  against  Knglanri,  and  sailing  of 
TBS  Spakisb  AaXADA.'  PraparaUons  for  resistance.— 17.  Disasters,  and  final  deatmotion  of 
the  fleeC  Important  leaolta.  Decline  of  the  Spanish  power.— 18-  Hlstoiy  of  France  during 
the  ramalBdsr  of  the  sixteenth  centniy.  Gbaries  UL,  Heniy  lit,  and  Hflnry  lY.  TBnainattOB 
of  tbe  religious  wars  by  the  Edict  or  NAirrxsv— 10.  History  of  England  after  (he  defoal  of  the 
i^^iiA  Armada.    Irish  insnrreotion  of  1506.— 90.  Oha.ea.otbr  or  ELtzABCTR. 

IV.  OOTEMPORARY  HISrrORY. 
t.  Prominent  erents  of  tbe  sixteenth  oeiltury  not  included  in  European  history.  The  Por 
vvaVBSB  coLOKUL  XMYiRB.  Unlon  of  Portugal  with  Spain.  Tbe  HoUanders.  [OrauM. 
Go«.>-Sl  SrAmaa  ooi.oirxA.L  BicriRB.  Services  of  Cortei,  and  the  treatment  which  he  r»- 
oelTed.— a.  The  conquests  of  Pi^arro.  The  Spanish  empire  fai  America  at  the  dose  of  the  slx- 
leeoih  esotniy.  Inflnenee  of  the  precious  metals  upoa  Spain.— 4.  Thb  Moaxn.  ^rwa  ui 
IioiA^-5.  ToB  pRssxAif  BHPiRB.  Tho  rslgn  of  lsmaeL-4.  The  reign  of  Tluna^k.  Hla  three 
''aonaL  The  youtbfol  Abbas  becomes  ruler  of  the  empire.— 7.  General  character  of  hla  reign. 
His  character  as  a  parent  and  rplatlTe.  How  he  ia  regarded  by  the  Fenlana.-a  Bemaining 
hiiftoiy  of  Peniaa 

I.  iNTRopiTCTORY. — 1.  In  the  history  of  ancient  Europe,  two  pre- 
dominating nations, — ^first  the  Greeks,  and  afterwards  the  Romans, 
occnpy  the  field ;  preserving,  in  the  mind  of  the  reador,  a  general 
miity  of  action  and  of  interest.  '  In  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages 
this  nnity  is  hroken  by  the  forcible  dismemberment  of  the  Roman 
empire,  by  the  confusion  that  followed  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians, 
and  that  attended  their  first  attempt  at  social  organization,  a^  by 
the  introduction  of  a  broader  field  of  inquiry,  embracing  countries 
and  nations  previously  unknown.  In  Modem  History,  subsequent 
to  the  fifteenth  century,  there  is  still  less  apparent  unity,  if  we  con- 
sider the  increased  extent  of  the  field  to  be  explored,  and  the  stM 
greater  variety  of  nations,  governments,  and  institutions,  submitted 
to  our  view ;  and  to  avoid  inextricable  confusion,  and  dry  summaries 
of  unintelligible  events,  we  are  under  the  necessity,  in  a  brief  oom- 
pend  like  the  present,  of  selecting  and  developing  the  principal  ^ 
paints  of  historic  interest,  and  of  rendering  all  other  matters  subor- 
dinate to  the  main  design.     ^ 


M4  ^  MODERH  mSTORT.  [PaitU 

2.  Bat  while  it  would  be  in  yain  to  attempt,  witliin  the  limits  of  a 
work  like  the  present,  to  give  a  separate  history  of  OTerj  nation,  the 
reader  should  not  lose  sight  of  any, — that,  as  op|>ortunitie8  occur, 
he  may  have  a  plaoe  in  the  general  framework  of  history  for  the  stores 
which  subsequent  reading  may  aocumulate.  It  was  in  accordance 
with  these  views,  that,  near  the  close  of  the  preceding  chapter, Hre 
took  a  general  survey  of  the  nations  of  Europe ;  and  although  a  few 
of  the  European  kingdoms  will  still  continue  to  claim  our  chief  at- 
tention in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  history,  we  most  not  shut  our 
eyes  to  the  (act  that  they  embraced,  daring  this  period,  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  population  of  the  globe ;  and  that  a  Histoiy,  strictly 
universal^  woul4  comprise  the  cotemporary  annals  of  more  than  a 
hundred  different  nations.  The  extent  of  the  field  of  modem  his- 
tory is  indeed  vast ;  m  it  we  can  select  only  a  few  verdant  spots,  with 
which  alone  we  can  hope  to  make  the  reader  familiar;  while  the 
riches  of  many  an  unexplored  region  must  be  left  to  repay  the  labcff 
of  future  researches. 

3.  At  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Great  Britain,  Scot* 
land,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Oermany,  Poland,  Prussia,  and 
Turkey,  were  distinct  and  independent  nations ;  Hungary  and  Bo-, 
hernia  were  temporarily  united  under  one  sovereignty;  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Norway,  still  feebly  united  by  the  union  of  Galmsft 
were  soon  to  be  divided  again ;  the  Netherlands,  known  as  the  do- 
minions of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  had  become  a  dependence  of  the 
Austrian  division  of  the  Germanic  empire ;  and  Italy,  comprising 
the  Papal  States,  and  a  number  of  petty  republics  and  dukedoms, 
was  fast  becoming  the  prey  of  surrounding  sovereigns.  In  the  Eastf 
Persia,  after  having  been  for  centuries  the  theatre  of  perpetual  civil 
wars,  revolutions,  and  changes  of  no  interest  to  foreigners,  again 
emerged  from  obscurity  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and,  toward  the  end  of  that  period,  under  the  Shah  Abbas,  somamed 
the  Great,  established  an  empire  embracing  Persia  Proper,  Medisi 
Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Farther  Armenia.  About  the  same  time  a 
Tartar  or  Mogul  empire  was  established  in  Hindostin  by  a  descend- 
ant of  the  great  conqueror  Tamerlane.  China  was  at  this  time,  as 
it  had  long  been,  a  great  empire,  although  but  little  known.  EgTP^ 
under  the  successors  of  the  victorious  Saracens,  still  preserved  the 
semblance  of  sovereignty,  until,  in  1517,  the  Turks  reduced  it  to  the 
oondition  of  a  province  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Such  were  the 
prinoipal  States,  kingdoms,  and  oations,  of  the  Old  World,  wkofli 


Coir.m]  SIXTEENTH  CENTURT.  825 

lumah  find  a  place  on  the  page  of  universal  history ;  and,  turning 
to  tiie  West,  beyond  the  wide  ocean  whose  mysteries  had  been  so  re- 
cently nnyeiled  by  the  Genoese  navigator,  we  find  the  germs  of  civil- 
ized nations  already  starting  into  being ; — and  History  must  enlarge 
its  volume  to  take  in  a  mere  abstract  of  the  annals  that  now  begin 
to  press  forward  for  admission  to  its  pages.  Amidst  this  perplexing 
profiuion  of  the  materials  of  history,  we  turn  back  to  the  localities 
already  familiar  to  the  reader,  and  seek  for  historic  unity  where  only 
it  can  be  found, — ^in  those  principles,  and  events,  that  have  exerted 
a  world-wide  influence  on  the  progress  of  civilization,  and  the  des- 
tinies of  the  human  race. 

II.  The  Age  of  Henrt  VIII.  and  Charles  V.*— 1.  About  the 
period  of  the  beginning  of  thd  sixteenth  century  a  new  era  opens  in 
European  history,  in  the  rise  of  what  has  sometimes  been  called  *'  the 
Btaies^stem  of  Burope ;"  for  it  was  now  that  the  re-  ^  ^^  otatb3.  • 
«iprocal  mfluenoes  of  the  European  States  on  each  other    btbtem  o? 
began  to  be  exerted  on  a  large  scale,  and  that  the  weaker     *^»<>^^=- 
States  first  conceived  the  idea  of  a  balanceofpower  sy^m  that 
should  protect  them  against  their  more  powerful  neighbor^.     Hence 
the  increasing  extent  and  intricacy  of  the  relations  that  began  to 
grow  up  between  States,  by  treaties  of  alliance,  embassies,  negotia- 
tions, and  guarantees ;  and  the  more  general  combination  of  powers 
in  the  wajrs  that  arose  out  of  the  ambition  of  some  princes,  and  th^ 
attempts  of  others  to  preserve  the  political  equilibrium. 

2.  The  inorditiate  growth  of  the  power  of  the  houi^  of  Austria, 
m  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  firsti^  developed  the  de- 
fensive and  conservative  system  to  which  we  have  alluded ;  and  for 
a  long  time  the  principal  object  of  all  the  wars  and  alliances  of 
Europe  was  to  humble  the  ambition  of  some  one  nation,  whbse  pre- 
ponderance seemed  to  threaten  the  liberty  and  independence  of  the 
rest. 

3.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  marriage  of  Maximilian  of  Austria, 
with  Mary  of  Bur'  gundy,  secured  to  the  house  of  Austria  the  whole 
of  Bur' gundy,  and  the  "Low  Countries,"  corresponding  to  the 
modem  Nedierlands.  In  the  year  1506,  Charles,  known  in  history 
Aa  Charles  Y.,  a  grandson  of  Maximilian  and  Mary  of  Austria,  and 
also  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  inherited  the  Low  Countries: 
on  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  in  1516,  he  became  heir  to  the  whole 
Spanish  succession,  which  comprehended  Spain,  Naples^  Sicily,  and 


196  MODSEH  KBTOBT.  [PamIL 

Ghidiiuft,  together  with  SpMiiah  Amerioa.  To  theeevaflt  poMeanoba 
were  added  his  patrimonial  dominicma  in  Anslria;  and  in  1519  the 
imperial  dignity  of  the  Germanic  empire  was  oonlisrred  upon  him  hj 
the  choice  of  the  elebton,  when  he  wa^  only  in  hia  nineteenth  year. 

4.  Charles  soon  resigned  to  his  brother  Ferdinand  his  hereditary 
Austrian  States  \  but  the  two  brothers,  acting  in  concert  for  the  ad^ 
TUioement  of  their  reciprocal  interests,  were  regarded  bat  as  oim 
power  by  the  alarmed  aoyereigns  of  Borope,  who  b^gaa  to  sospeei 
that  the  Austrian  princes  aimed  at  anirersal  monarchy ;  and  their 
jealousy  was  increased  when  Ferdinand,  by  marriage,  seoored  the  ad- 
dition of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  to  his  dominions ;  and,  at  a  later 
period,  Charles,  in  a  similar  manner,  obtained  for  his  son,  afterwards 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  fatore  sovereignty  of  PortngaL 

5.  When  the  imperial  throne  of  (Germany  became  yaeant  by  the 

death  of  Maximilian,  Francis  I.  of  France  and  Charles 

TAui?B»    ^*  ^'^^'^  competitors  for  the  crown ;  and  on  tiie  suoceai 

TWBBirBAN-of  the  latter,  the  mutual  claims  of  the  two  princes 

^^J^^   on  each  other's  dominions,  especially  in  Italy  and  the 

Low  Countries,  soon    made    them  deolired  enemies. 

France  then  took  the  lead  in  attempting  to  regulate  the  balance  of 

m.  BaimT  po^^  against  the  house  of  Austria  {  and  the  &yor  of 


no.  ow     Henry  YIIL  of  England  was  courted  by  the  rival  mon- 
sNOLAHa    m.^^  1^  ^^  prince  most  likdy  to  secure  the  victoty  to 
whomsoever  he  should  give  the  weight  of  hi^  influence. 

6.  In  year  1509  Henry  YIIL,  then  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  had 
sndoeeded  his  father  Henry  YII.  on  the  throne  of  England, — re- 
ceiving at  the  same  time  a  rich  treasury  and  a  flourishing  kingdom, 
and  uniting  in  his  person  the  opposing  claims  of  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster.  The  real  power  oi  the  English  monarch  was  at  this 
time  greater  than  at  any  previous  period ;  and  Henry  YIII.  might 
have  been  the  arbiter  of  Europe,  in  the  rivalries  and  wars  between 
Francis  I.  and  Charles  Y.,  had  not  his  actions  been  the  result  of 
passion,  vanity,  caprice,  or  resentment,  rather  than  of  enlightened 
policy. 

7.  Each  of  the  rival  princes  sedulously  endeavored  to  enlist  the 
English  monarch  in  his  favor :  both  gave  a  pension  to  his  prime 
minister,  cardinal  Wolsey;  and  each  had  an  interview  with  the 
king — ^Francis  meeting  him  at  Calais,  and  Charles  visiting  him  in 
Bn^and, — ^but  the  latter  won  Henry  through  the  influence  of  Wd- 
sey,  who^  ^gregrious  vanity  he  duped  by  encoura^ng  his  boj^ea  of 


ChMi^m.]  8IXT£SNTH  OBHTURT. 

praootum  to  ihe  pspal  erown.  Moreover,  Henry  was,  at  the  begiii- 
ning)  ill-diflposed  towards  the  king  of  Franoe,  who  virtoallj  geyemed 
Sootland  through  the  influence  of  the  regent  Albany ;  and,  by  an 
alliance  with  Charles,  he  hoped  to  reoover  a  part  of  those  domains 
which  his  ancestors  had  formerly  possessed  in  France.  Charles  also 
gained  the  aid  of  the  pope,  Leo  X. ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Francis 
was  sapported  by  the  Swiss,  the  Genoese,  and  the  Venetians. 

8.  In  the  year  1520  Francis  seized  the  opportonity  of  an  insor- 
reetion  in  Spain  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  Navarre,  which  had  been 
united  to  tfa^  Frcmch  crown  by  marriage  alliance  in  1490,  and  con* 
qnered  by  Ferdinand  of  Spain  in  1512.  Navarre  was  won  and  lost 
in  the  course  of  a  few  months,  and  the  war  was  then  transferred  to 
Italy.  In  two  successive  years  ike  French  governor  of  Milan  was 
driven  from  Lombardy :  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,'  ocmstable  of  France, 
thr  best  g^eral  of  Francis,  who  had  received  repeated  affronts  from 
the  king,  his  master,  deserted  to  Charles,  and  was  by  him  invested 
with  the  chief  command  of  his  forces ;  and  in  the  year  1525  Francis 
himself  was  defeated  by  his  rebellious  subject  in  the  battle  of  Pavia, 
and  taken  prisoner,  but  not  until  his  horse  had  been  killed  under 
him,  and  his  armor,  which  is  still  preserved,  had  been  indented  by 
numerous  bullets  and  lance&  Li  the  battle  of  Pavia  the  French 
army  was  abnost  totally  destroyed.  In  a  sin^e  line  Francis  con- , 
veyed  the  sad  intelligence  to  his  mother.  "  Madam  all  is  lost  but 
honor." 

9.  Francis  was  conveyed  a  prisoner  to  Madrid ;  and  it  was  only 
at  the  expiration  of  a  year  that  he  obtained  his  release,  when  a  fever, 
ocoasioned  by  despondency,  had  already  threatened  to  put  an  end, 
at  once,  to  his  life,  and  tiie  advantages  which  Charles  hoped  to  de* 
rive  from  his  captivity.  Francis  had  already  prepared  to  abdioate 
the  throne  in  &vor  of  his  son  the  dauphin,  when  Charles  decided  to 

3.  Tba  bODM  of  Bvmrbon  derives  ita  uune  ftom  tb^tman  TiUaga  of  Bourbon  In  the  Ibnner 
provlnoe  of  BoiurbonnalB,  now  in  Che  departmeDt  of  AUIer,  Chirteen  mllee  west  flx>ni  Monlinii 
•nd one bondred and rixtjr-SvemUeeMMiUi ftom  Fkirlt.  iMapJXo.Xai.)  fai  earty timee  thle 
lawn  bad  lords  of  ita  own,  wbo  bore  the  tllto  of  barooa.  Aimer,  wbo  lived  in  the  early  part 
jT  the  tenth  century,  is  the  first  of  these  barons  of  whom  history  gires  any  aoooUht  The  male 
pffteeas  of  thie  ttne  baTlng  become  exUnet,  Beatrix,  dnehess  of  Bonrbon,  married  Robert, 
seeondaonorstljools;  andtheirsonLoaia»dukeofBowbon,  who  died  in  1141,  became  the 
fooader  of  the  boose  of  Bourbon.  Two  branches  of  this  honse  took  their  origin  from  the  two 
SODS  of  Louis.  The  elder  line  became  extinct  at  the  death  of  the  oonsUble  of  Bourbon,  who 
ditaled  FMMis  at  Fatla,  and  was  himself  killed  in  1»7,  In  the  asaauU  of  the  city  of  Roma, 
ftom  the  other  line  hare  8prui«  scTeral  branches,— Arat,  the  royal  branch,  and  that  of  Oond«  | 
tfnee  wMeh  the  fbrmer  haa  undergone  seTeral  subdlTlslona,  gtrlng  sorereigns  to  ftao'sa,  to. 


MS  MODSRH  WSftOBfY*  [Fnf  & 

release  the  eaplm  nKmardi,  alter  exaotbg  from  him  a  atapolatien  ta 
sarrender  Bnr^gundj,  to  renounoe  hie  pretensions  to  Milan  and  Na- 
ples, and  to  ally  ^imse^f,  bj  marriage,  with  the  &milj  of  his  enemy. 
But  Franeis,  before  his  release,  had  seeretly  protested,  in  the  pres- 
enee  of  hie  ehanoellor,  against  the  Taliditj  of  a  trenty  extorted  from 
him  while  a  prisoner ;  and,  once  at  liberty,  it  was  not  difficnlt  for 
him  to  elode  it  His  joy  at  his  release  was  nnbonnded.  Being  es- 
eorted  to  the  frontiers  of  Franee,  and  haying  passed  a  small  stream 
that  diyides  the  two  khigdoms,  he  mounted  a  Tnridsh  hone,  and 
putting  him  at  full  speed,  and  waving  hie  hand  oyer  his  head,  ex- 
ehumed  alond,  sever^  times, "  I  am  yet  a  king  I"    (March  18, 1526.) 

10.  The  liberation  of  Francis  was  the  signal-  for  a  general  league 
against  Charles  T .  The  Italian  States,  which,  since  the  battle  of 
Payia,  had  been  in  the  power  of  the  Spanish  and  German  armies, 
now  regarded  iht  French  as  liberators ;  the  pope  put  himself  at'tbe 
head  of  the  leagae ;  the  Swiss  jomed  it ;  and  Henry  YIIL,  altfmed 
at  the  increasing  power  of  Charles,  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Franois, 
so  that  the  very  reyerses  of  the  French  monarch,  by  ezciting  the 
jealousy  of  other  States  against  his  riyal,  rendered  him  much  stroqgtf 
in  alliances  than  before. 

U.  During  these  eyents,  the  rebel  Duke  of  Bourbon  rem^ed  in 
Italy,  quartering  his  mercenary  troops  on  the  unfortonate  inhawt- 
ants  of  Milan ;  but  when  the  Italians  declared  against  ^e  emperor, 
all  Italy  was  delivered  up  to  piUage.  To  obtain  the  greater  plunder, 
Bourbcm  marched  upon  Rome,  followed  not  only  by  his  own  soldiers, 
but  by  an  additional  force  of  fourteen  thousand  brigands  from  G^ 
many.  Pope  Clement,  terrified  by  the  greatness  of  the  danger  whieh 
menaced  the  States  of  the  Holy  See,  discharged  his  best  troops,  and 
ishut  himself  up  in  the  castle  of  St  Angelo.  Rome  was  attacked, 
and  carried  by  storm,  although  BourbiMi  fell  in  the  assault;  ihe  ^' 
lage  was  uniyersal,  neither  convents  nor  churches  being  spared; 
from  seven  to  eight  thousand  Romans  were -massacred  the  first  day; 
and  not  all  the  ravages  of  the  Goths  and  Huns  surpassed  these  of 
the  army  of  the  first  prince  in  Christendom. 

1^  The  pillage  of  Rome,  and  the  captivity  of  the  pope,  excited 
great  indignation  throughout  Europe ;  and  the  hypocritical  OharleSr 
instead  of  sending  orders  for  his  liberation,  ordered  prayers  for  his 
deliverance  to  be  offered  in  all  the  Spanish  churches.  At  this  fa- 
vorable moment  Francis  sent  an  army  into  Italy,  which  penetrated 
*to  the  very  waUa  of  Naples ;  but  hese  his  prosperity  ended ;  and  tk* 


Obmi  m]  SIXTEENTH  CENTUHT.       ^  82d 

fanpolicj  of  the  iVencli  king,  in  disgusting  and  alienating  his  most  ' 
&itlifal  allies,  lost  for  him  all  the  advantages  which  he  had  gained. 
Both  the  rival  monarchs  now  desired  peace,  but  both  strove  to  dis* 
semble  their  real  sentiments  :  although  Charles  had  been  generally 
fortunate  in  ^he  contest,  yet  all  his  revenues  were  expended ;  and 
he  desired  a  respite  from  the  cares  of  ^war  to  enable  him  to  crush 
the  Reformation,  which  had  abeadj  made  considerable  progress  in 
his  German  dominions.  A  peace  was  therefore  concluded  at  Gam- 
bray,  in  August  1529,  which  was  as  glorious  to  Charles  as  it  was  dis- 
graceful to  France  and  her  monarch.  The  former  remained  supreme 
master  of  Italy ;  the  pope  submitted ;  the  Venetians  were  shorn  of 
their  conquests ;  and  Henry  VIII.  reaped  nothing  but  the  emperor's 
enmity  for  his  interference. 

13.  The  conduct  of  Henry  VIII.  in  his  domestic  relationrreflects 
disgrace  upon  his  name,  and  is  a  dark  stain  upon  his  character.  He 
was  first  married  to  Catherine  of  Aragon,  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Spain,  and  aunt  of  Charles  V.  of  Germany,  a  woman 
much  older  than  himself,  but  who  acquired  and  retained  an  ascend^ 
aney  over  his  affections  for  nearly  twenty  years.  For  divorcing  her, 
ttdd  marrying  Anne  Boleyn,  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope, — ^a 
measure  which  induced  him.  to  break  of  all  allegiance  to  the  Holy 
See,  and  declare  himself  supreme  head  of  the  English  church.  Three 
years  after  his  second  marriage,  a  new  passion  for  Jane  Seymour,  one 
of  the  queen's  maids  of  honor,  effaced  from  his  memory  all  the  vir- 
tues and  graces  of  Anne  Boleyn ;  and  seventeen  days  saw  the  latter 
pass  from,  the  throne  to  the  scaffold.  The  marriage  ceremony  with 
the  lady  Jane,  was  performed  on  the  d«y  following  the  execution. 
Her  death  followed,  in  little  more  than  a  year.  In  1540  Henry 
married  Anne  of  Cleves,  on  the  recommefidation  of  his  minister 
Cromwell ;  but  his  dislike  to  his  new  wife  hastened  the  fall  of  that 
minister,  who  was  unjustly  condemned  and  executed  on  a  charge  of 
treason.  Soon  after,  Henry  procured  a  divorce  from  Anne,  and 
married  Catherine  Howard,  niece  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk ;  but  on  a 
charge  of  dissolute  ^conduct  Catherine  was  brought  to  the  scaffold. 
In  1543  the  king  married  Catherine  Parr,  who  aJone,  of  all  his  wives, 
survived  him ;  and  even  she,  before  the  king's  death,  came  near  being 
brought  to  the  block  on  a  charge  of  heresy. 

14.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry,  the  celebrated  Wolsey  ap- 
peared on  the  theatre  of  English  pDlities.     Successfully  ^urting  the  • 
&yor  of  the  monarch,  he  aeon  obtained  the  first  place  in  the  royal 


ISO  MODKUr^  mBIOBT.  [PiMS  n 

fcvor,  and  became  imoontrolled  nuniater.  Nomeroos  eooksiartical 
dignities  were  conferred  upon  him :  in  1518,  the  pope,  to  ingratiate 
himBelf  with  Henry,  created  Wobej  cardinal  Courted  by  the  em- 
perors of  France  and  Germany,  he  received  pensionB  firom  both; 
and  ere  long  his  revenues  nearly  equalled  those  of  the  crown,  part 
of  which  he  expended  in  pomp  and  ostentation,  and  part  in  laudable 
munificence  for  the  advancement  of  learning  When  Henry,  seized 
with  a  passion  for  Anne  Boleyn,  one  of  the  queen's  maids  of  honori 
formed  the  design  of  getting  rid  of  Catherine,  and  of  making  l^e 
new  favorite  his  wife,  Wolsey  was  suspected  of  abetting  the  delays 
of  the  court  of  Rome,  which  had  been  appealed  to  by  Henry  for  a 
divorce.  The  displeasure  of  the  king  was  excited  against  his  minis- 
ter ;  and,  in  the  course  of  three  years,  Wolsey,  repeatedly  acoised 
of  treason,  and  gradually  stripped  of  all  his  possessions,  died  of  a 
broken  heart  (1530.)  In  his  last  moments  he  is  said  to  have  ex- 
claimed, in  the  bitterness  of  humiliation  and  remorse, ''  Had  I  bat 
served  my  <jU>d  as  diligently  as  I  have  served  my  king,  he  would  not 
have  given  me  over  in  my  gray  hairs.  "^ 

•.  TlMfoUowliig  tolUoquj  It  put  by  ShakspMra  Into  the  mooth  of  tiie  humbled  fliTortto  « 
tbenooMloii  of  hia  fumodarii^  to  Henry  the  gieet  wat^-'^ai  also  hto  drying  mMcb  to  hbilp 
tOomweU: 

<*  Firewell,  e  long  Ikrewell  to  eU  1117  greetaeai  I 
Thia li the atote of  maa;  T<Mfaij he puU iMih 
The  tender  letTes  of  bope»  t<Miiorrow  bloMonu 
And  bean  his  blufhiog  boDors  thick  upon  bim: 
The  third  daj  cornea  a  froet,  a  kJmi«  ftxMt ; 
And,— when  he  thinkti  good  ea^  man,  tuii  tuynif 
Hla  greatness  la  a  ripening,— nlpa  bla  root, 
And  then  he  (Ula,  aa  I  do.    I  hare  TentnrM 
Uke  Uttle  wanton  boya  that  awlm  on  bladden, 
Thla  many  aummers  In  a  aea  of  gloiy ; 
Bat  tu  beyond  my  depth ;  my  high-blown  pride 
At  length  broke  nader  me;  and  now  baa  left  me^ 
Weary,  and  old  with  aerrice,  to  the  mercy 
Of  a  rode  stream,  that  moat  forerer  hide  me. 
Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  thla  worid,  I  hate  ya ; 
I  Ibel  my  heart  new  openM :  O,  how  wretched 
la  that  poor  man,  that  hanga  on  prlnoea  Ikrora  I 
There  la,  betwixt  that  amUe  we  would  aqrfra  le^ 
That  sweet  aspect  of  prineea,  and  their  min,  . 
More  pAnga  and  fean  than  wara  or  women  bare ; 
And  when  be  flOla,  he  fldla  Uke  LnoUte, 
Nfiver  to  hope  again.'* 

**  Oromwell,  I  charge  thee,  fling  away  ambition ; 
By  that  afn  ftll  the  aagela ;  how  can  man  then, 
Tlie  image  of  hla  Bfaker,  hope  to  win  byH  Y 
Love  thyaelf  last ;  oherlah  those  bearta  that  hate  theei 


Qbap-IQ.]  BSSiTJSBSTE  OKNTOKT.  881 

15.  During  tiie  stirring  and  efrentfiil  period  of  die  eariy  rivalriM 
of  Francis  I.  and  Charles  Y. — a  period  fall  of  great 
events,  of  oonqnests  and  reverses,  all  arising  oat  of  the  ^bi^onT 
selfish  YiewB  of  indiyidual  monarchs,  bat  none  of  them  ' 
oaosiDg  any- lasting  enange  or  progress  in  human  affairs,  the  great 
principle  of  Ireligioos  freedom  began  to  agitate  all  classes,  and  to 
gi?e  fresh  life  to  the  pnblio  mind  ih  Earope.  At  this  time  the 
pope,  as  the  head  of  the  Oatiiolio  religion,  assamed  io  himself  bol^ 
flpiritoal  and  temporal  power  over  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world : 
often,  amidst  the  blackest  crimes,  and  immersed  in  the  grossest  sensa* 
alities,  he  avowed,  and  his  adherents  proclaimed,  t^he  doctrine  of  his 
vtfalhbiiitif,  OT  '< entire  eztoption  from  liability  to  err;"  and  al- 
though bold  men  in  every  age  had  protested  against  papal  pretensions, 
yet  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  the  clergy,  the  nobility,  and  the 
m(Miarchs,  still  regarded  the  pope  as  sapreme  and  infallible  authority 
over  the  thoughts  and  the  actions  of  men. '  The  memory  and  opin* 
ions  of  Wickliffe'  the  reformer  had  been  solemnly  condemned  by  the 
eoundl  ofiDonstance'  thirty  years  after  .his  death :  John  Hues,  and 

L  WieUif0,  bom  In  Eoi^aiMl  «boat  the  year  1384-caUed  tbe  *«  morning  itar  oT  the  B«fonn»- 
ttOB^— was  an  emimeni  divine  and  eoclealaatical  reformer.  He  ylgoronaly  attacked  papal 
■snrpadon,  and  tbe  abuaes  of  the  church.  The  pope  inaiated  on  hU  being  brought  to  trial  aa  a 
heretic;  but  he  waaeflbetoaliy  protected  by  his  patron,  the  duke  of  Lancaster.  He  died  in  1384. 

8.  GnMtaxM,  a  dty  highfy  interesting  flrom  its  historical  aasociationa,  is  situated  on  the  rirer 
RhlBei  at  the  point  where  the  river  onites  the  upper  part  of  the  Lake  of  Constance  with  the 
lover.  Tboogh  moaUy  within  the  natural  limita  of  Swltieriand,  the  dty  belonga  to  the  grand 
dnehy  of  Baden.    (JW4»«  Noa.  XTV.  and  XYU.) 

The  great  oli^ect  of  the  oelebrated  Cautica  of  ContUnet^  which  continued  In  eesalon  from 
1414  to  141fl^  was  to  remove  the  divisions  in  the  churoa,  setde  controveraiesi  and  vindicate  the 
anflmri^  of  general  oooncUa,  to  which  the  Roman  peQtiff  was  declared  to  be  amenable. 
When,  in  1411,  Slgismnnd  aacended  the  throne  of  Gennany,  there  were  three  popes,  each  of 
whom  had  •wttimMriMrf  the  two  others.  To  put  an  end  to  theae  disorders,  and  stop  the  In- 
flaence  of  John  Hues,  a  native  of  Bohemia,  who  had  adopted  and  zealously  propagated  the 
doctrines  of  WIckllflb,  Slglamund  summoned  a  general  eoundl.  The  pretended  heresies  of 
WioUtflb  and  Hnas  were  condemned ;  and  the  latter,  notwithstanding  the  asaorances  of  safety 
given  him  by  the  German  emperor,  was  burnt  at  the  stake,  July  6th,  1415.  His  friend  snd 
eompenion,  Jerome  of  Prsgue,  met  with  the  same  ihte,  Hay  30th,  1416L  AAer  the  ecdeslastlF 
eri  digBllarlea  supposed  they  >uMi  suffldently  checked  the  progreas  of  hereaiea  by  these  exeai- 


smi  in  thy  right  hand  eairy  gentle  peace, 
'  To  silence  envloas  tongves.    Be  Just  and  foar  not: 
Let  all  the  enda  thbu  almat  at,  be  thy  country^ 
Thy  GodV,  and  trath*a ;  then  if  then  fUl'st,  O  Orornwell 
Thoa  faH'st  a  bteesed  martyr."  ■  - 

^  O  Cromwell,  CromweU, 
Had  I  bat  8erv*d  my  God  with  half  the  seal 
I  servM  my  king,  he  would  not  tn  mine  age 
Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies.*' 

Shflkspeutt^  Henry  vnL,  Aot  nL| 


882     '  MODSBK  HIBTOBT.  (n»a 

Jerome  of  Prtgoe,  wiih  a  lioet  of  leas  oelefanied  martjn,  loMi  been 
publicly  burned  for  professing  heretical  opimons ;  and  the  oreed  of 
the  unfortunate  Albigenses'  had  been  eztingviflhed  in  blood.  Yet 
as  civilisation  advanced,  the  moral  power  and  authority  of,  the  popes 
deolined ;  and  the  spirit  of  rdigions  inquiry  daily  grew  more  rife ;  the 
pope  was  less  popular  in  his  own  dominions  than  at  a  distance;  and 
while  the  imperial  city  was  saoked  by  the  hau^ty  Bourbon,  and  the 
pope  himself  was  held  a  prisoner  by  a  tumultuoua  soldiery,  his  earn 
saries  were  oollecting  tribute  in  the  German  dominions,  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  avarice  of  the  pope,  Leo  X.,  was 
equal  to  the  credulity  of  the  G^mans ;  and  billets  of  salvation,  or 
indulgencies  professing  to  remit  the  punishment  due  to  sins,  even 
before  the  commission  of  the  contemplated  crime,  were  sold  by  thoor 
sands  among  tiie  German  peasantry.  Martin  Luther,  a  man  of  hi^ 
reputation  for  sanctity  and  learning,  and  then  professor  of  thedo^ 
at  Wittemberg*  on  the  Elbe,  £rst  called  in  questicm  the  efficacy  of 

ttoM,  tkqr  proceeded  to  depOM  ttie  three  p«p«,  «rintl-pop«a,  /obaJUOn.,  Gi^^iy^n^*^ 
Benedict  Xm.  Tliey  next  elected  Martin  V^  and  thus  put  an  end  to  a  echism  that  had  tealed 
forty  yean. 

TVavellen  are  elUI  ihown  the  hall  when  the  eovnell  aeeerabled ;  ttie  ehaln  on  whMfa  set  the 
emperor  and  the  pope ;  the  house  in  which  Haas  was  apprehended ;  his  dungeon  hi  tbe  1)^ 
Inlcon  monastery ;  and,  in  the  nave  of  the  ealhednl,  s  braxen  plate  let  into  the  floor  on  0» 
fpot  where  the  venerable  martyr  listened  to  his  sentence  of  death ;  also  the  plaoe,  in  a  gardO) 
where  be  was  bomU 

The  decrees  and  exoommnnlcatlons  of  the  council  were  despised  la  Bohemia ;  and  in  * 
bloody  war  of  seventeen  years*  duration  the  Bohemian  adherents  of  Rasa  took  tenrible  ve» 
geanoe  i^on  the  emperor,  the  empire,  and  the  clergy,  for  his  death— «  nv^nge  which  the  gentle 
and  pious  mind  of  Hnas  would  never  have  approved.  After  the  dose  of  this  war,  tb^  reHgfous 
freedom  of  the  Huirites  continually  suAred  more  and  more;  and  the  atrleter  ftct  of  the  dh 
mlnlshod  band  was  thially  merged  iu  the  fraternity  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian  brethren,  whIA 
arose  in  1457,  and,  under  the  most  violent  persecutions,  exhibited  as  honorable  steadfaatne* 
of  fiUth,  and  the  most  exemplary  purity.  __, 

1.  ^thifenset  is  a  name  given  to  several  heretical  sects  In  the  south  of  FYanee^  who  agreed 
in  opposing  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  hierarchy,  and  In  endeavoring  to  restore  the  sim- 
plicity 4f  primitive  Christianity.  In  1200  they  were  first  attacked,  in  a  eraH  and  dsfoUHnf 
war,  by  the  array  of  the  cross,  called  t<«ether  by  pope  Innocent  IIL— the  first  war  which  thj 
church  waged  against  heretics  within  her  own  dominions.  In  1939  Louis  VIII.  of  France  m 
In  a  campaign  against  the  heretics.  It  is  laid  that  hundrads  of  thousands  Ml,  on  both  ildei. 
In  this  war;  bat  the  Albigenaea  were  subdued,  and  the  inquisition  was  called  tn  to  ^^^^^ 
tny  remaining  germs  of  heresy.  The  name  of  the  Albigenaea  diaappeared  about  the  midiUe 
of  the  thirteenth  century ;  hot  (hgitlves  of  their  party  .formed,  in  the  mountains  of  Pledmoni 
.and  Lombordy,  #hat  is  caUed  the  French  Church,  which  was  oonlianed  to  the  thaes  of  the 
Hussites  and  the  Balbmatlon. 

9.  WitUmberf^  a  town  of  PTossiaa  Saxony,  on  the  Elbe,  la  fifty  miles  south-west  from  Berim. 
(Maji  No.  XVII.)  It  derives  its  chief  biterest  from  iU  having  been  the  cradle  of  the  Befbrma- 
Hon,— Luther  and  Melancthon  having  both  been  profeaeon  in  its  ttnivbnity,  and  Uieir  ^^^^ 
being  deposited  in  its  cathedraL  A  noble  bronfee  statue  of  the  great  reformer  wss  erected  w 
the  nuurket-pfauM  In  ISil.  -  **Xt  represents,  hi  cOkMsal  proportions,  th«  AilHength  figure  « 
ig  lA  hb  Ml  hMMl  tht  Bibl%  kept  open  by  Che  right,  polnlittg  to  a  P*"*^  ** 


Qatf.'!!!]  SIXTBVffTH  OBNTUBT.  MS 

iliese  iodnlgenees ;  and  his  word,  like  a  talisman,  broke  tlie  spell  of 
Bomifih  supremaej. 

16.  In  1517  Lather  first  read  in  public  his  famous  theses,  or 
propositions,  in  which  he  bitterly  inveighed  against  the  traffic  in  in- 
dalgenoes,  and  challenged  ail  the  learned  men  of  the  day  to  contest 
them  with  him  in  a  public  disputation.  Luther  did  not  at  once  form 
tiie  resolution  to  separate  from  the  Romish  Church ;  but  the  pressure 
of  circnmstances,  and  the  warmth  of  controyersy  with  his  adversa- 
nes,  impelled  him  from  one  step  to  another ;  and  as  he  enlarged  his 
obserratioQ  and  reading,  and  disooTored  new  abuses  and  errors,  he 
began  to  entertain  doubts  of  the  pope^s  divine  authority — ^rejected 
the  doctrine  of  his  infallibility — gradually  abolished  the  practice  of 
mass,  auricular  confession,  and  the  worship  of  images — denied  the 
doctrine  of  purgatory,  and  opposed  the  fSastings-  of  the  Bomish 
Ohurch,  monastic  vows,  and  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  In  1520  the 
pope  declared  the  writings  of  Luther  heretical ;  and  Luther  in  re- 
turn solemnly  burned,  on  the  public  square  pf  Wittemberg,  the  pa- 
pal bull  of  condemnation,  and  the  volumes  of  the  canon  law  of  the 
Bomish  Church. 

17.  In  1521  the  council  of  the  Sorbonne,'  in  Paris,  under  the-  in- 
inanoe  of  the  French  monarch,  declared,  ^^  that  flames,  and  not  reason- 
ing, ought  to  be  employed  against  the  arrogance  of  Luther ;"  and 
in  the  same  jew  the  diet  of  Worms,  at  which  Charles  V.  himself 
presided^  pronounced  the  imperial  ban  of  excommunication  against 
Luther,  his  adherents,  and  protectors,  condemned  his  writings  to  be 
burned,  and  commanded  him  to  be  seized  and  brought  to  punish- 
ment. The  king  of  England,  Henry  YIIL,  who  made  pretensions 
.to  theological  learning,  wrote  a  volume  against  Luther;  and  the 
p<^  was  so  pleased  with  this  token  of  Henry^s  religious  zeal,  that 
he  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  <*  drfipnder  of  thefaithy^  an  i^- 
pellation  still  retained  by  the  sovereigns  of  England. 

the  tatptred  Tolnme.   The  p«dMtal  on  which  the  itatiie  iUimU  isfonned  of  «  eolld  bto^  of 
,l■dpoliiilMlglMlit^twettlJibMtnbfllih^teBliMitnwi<IU^«ldeltbkf^  OBfleeh 

of  its  tides  te  e  eeotnl  tablet  beeriog  a  poeUeal  Inaeriptioo,  the  Import  of  the  prlndpel  beins 
ilHt 'tf  the  A0A>iiMitioa  be  God'k  wori^  U  li  impeitohable ;  if  the  work  of  lD«l^  it  wm  (kl^ 

1.  The  StfrfrM««^  originally  a  college  for  the  education  of  aeeolar  deigyinea  at  the  unl  vereU/ 
«f  Pwla,  iMiDded  about  the  year  ISSO,  became  ao  Ikmoua  that  Ita  name  was  extended  to  tb* 
whole  theologfcal  fhcolty  of  the  univenlly.  Ihy^ioga  addom  took  any  atepa  affsctiog  religion 
,  or  the  chnrch  wllhont  baring  aaked  the  oplnioffm  the  Sorbonnc^  which,  inimical  both  to  the 
^•■nlto  \ad  the  Beformatton,  ateadfiMtly  maintained  the  l^Mrttca  of  the  Gallioan  church.  Bat 
•  tlw8orbonaeoaUivedlUliMne:iUapirltoaBn  degenerated  into  bUndxeal  and  pedanUc  ohitt- 
.  MCj:  its  WMirtMnnatton  of  the  writings  of  Heivetiua,  RoosNau,  aMlM«miontal,  roljjoeied  iM» 
1 ;  and  the  n«?olotioB  of  lim  pat  an  end  V>lt»eii<enea^ 


SS4  '  M0D8RK  HBaTORT.  [PibtH 

18  Bat  notwithstanding  this  opposition  from  high  qnirtars,  the 
age  was  rife  for  changes :  the  art  of  printing  rapidly  spread  the 
tenets  of  the  reformers ;  and  many  of  the  German  princes  esponsed 
the  oanse  of  Lnther,  and  gave  him  protection.  Bat  Charles  T., 
afler  the  peace  of  Camhray,  had  determined  to  arrest  the  fiurther 
progress  of  the  Reformation ;  and  for  this  porpose  he  proceeded  to 
Germany,  where  he  assembled  a  diet  of  the  empire  at  Spires,^  March 
1529;  and  here  the  majority  of  the  States,  which  were  Catholic, 
decreed  that  the  edicte  of  the  diet  of  Worms  should  be  retained, 
and  that  all  those  who  had  been  gaiAed  over  to  the  new  doctrine 
should  abstain  from  further  innovations.  The  reformers,  indnding' 
nearly  half  the  German  princes,  entered  a  violent  pretest  agidnst 
these  proceedings,  on  which  account  they  were  distinguished  as 
PnoTBSTAirrSj — an  appellation  since  applied  mdiaoriminately  to  sU 
'the  secto,  of  whatoyer  denommation,  that  haTC  withdrawn  from  the 
Bomish  church. 

19.  In  the  year  1530  Charles  assembled  ano^er  diet  of  the  em- 
pire at  Ausburg,'  to  try  the  great  cause  of  the  Reformation,  hoping 
to  be  able  to  effect  a  reconoilation  between  the  opposing  parties,  al- 
though he  was  urged  by  the  pope  to  have  recourse  at  once  to  the  most 
rigorous  measures  against  the  stubborn  enemies  of  the  Catholic  &itb* 
The  learned  and  peaceable  Melancthon  presented  to  the  diet  the  ar- 
ticles of  the  Lutheran  creed,  since  known  by  the  name  of  the  con- 
fession of  Augsburg ;  but  no  reconciliation  of  opposing  opini<'itf 
could  be  effected;  and  the  Protestants  were  commanded  to renoimee 
their  errors,  upon  pain  of  being  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire 
Charles  was  preparing  to  employ  yiolence,  when  the  Protestant 
princes  of  Gkrmany  ooncluded  a  defensive  league,  (Dec.  1530),  and 
having  obtained  promises  of  aid  from  the  kings  of  France;  Jln^^^' 
and  Denmark,  held  themselves  ready  for  combat  At  this  time 
Henry  VIII.,  although  abhorring  all  connection  with  the  Lutherans, 
was  fiust  approaching  a  rupture  ^ith  the  pope,  who  stood  in  the  iray 
of  the  king's  contemplated  divorce  from  his  first  wife  Catherine,  and 

1.  Sfiruy  OM  of  the  BMMt  andaiit  cities  of  Gemanjr,  fa  In  Rbentth  Ba?«ilA,  oB  ^  ^ 
bank  of  Vb»  RhlM,  ttrenty-tiro  milet  tonth  of  Wormi.  Hmto  maj  itlll  b«  iMn  at  Splre*^ 
outer  walla  of  an  old  palace  In  which  no  fewer  Uian  Ibrtjr-nioe  diets  have  been  held,  the  n<i» 
oelebraied)rwhM»wasthatori5».    In  ||p  celebrated  eathedral  of  Sphea  nine  Germas  em- 

perofB,  and  manj  other  edebrated  permiages,  hare  been  bniled.  {Map  No.  XVII.)  ^^^^ 
S.  Augthurg  la  a  olty  of  BaTarIa,  between,  and  near  the  oonflnenoe  oi;  the  rlf«ra  v^«^ 
aM  Lech,  brancihea  of  tbe  Danube,  Ihlrty-Sre  miles  northwest  from  Munich.  ^^^ !! 
y%ty  andent,  Augnatoa  having  aettted  a  oolony  In  It  about  twelre  yean  B.  G,  and  i>«>'^  ^ 
Jhiguttm  r4mdM€4rw»     <JV^  No.  ZVIL) 


Oa».IIl]  SIXTEENTH  CENTORT.  335 

IkUvmarriage  with  the  afterwards  *  nnfortanate  Anne  Boleyn;  and 
Francis,  although  he  homed  heretics  in  France,  did  not  hesitate  to 
laagoe  himself  with  the  reformers  of  (Germany,  in  order  to  weaken 
the  power  of  hismvaL 

20.  In  addition  to  thq^e  ohstacles  to  the  purpose  of  Cfa&rles,  at 
this  moment  the  Turkish  sultan,  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  invaded 
Hungary,  4it  the  head  of  three  hundred  thousand  men;  and  Charles, 
fearing  the  consequences  of  a  religious  war  at  this  juncture,  hastened 
to  offer  to  the  Protestants  all  the  toleration  they  demanded,  until 
the  next  diet  After  the  Turks  had  been  defeated,  and  driven  back 
iqK>n  their  own  territories,  Charles  thought  it  his  duty,  as  the  great-  * 
est  monarch,  and  the  protector  of  entire  Christendom,  to  make  a 
crusade  against  the  piratical  Moors  of  Northern  Africa,  who,  under 
their  leader  Barbarossa,  held  Tunis  and  Algiers,^  and  were  in  close 
allianoe  with  the  Turkish  sultan.  In  the  summer  of  1535  he  landed 
at  Tunis  at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men,  defeated  the  Moors  in 
battle,  and,  to  his  inexpressible  joy,  was  enabled  to  set  at  liberty 
twenty-two  thousand  Christian  captives,  whom  the  Moors  had  re- 
duced to  slavery.  On  his  return  from  this  expedition  he  found  the 
king  of  France  preparing  for  war  against  him ;  and  the  hostilities 
which  immediately  broke  out  between  the  rival  monarchs  delayed  the 
decisive  rupture  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  of  Germany 
for  a  periocT  of  twelve  years.  In  the  summer  of  1535  Francis  in- 
vaded Savoy,*  and  threatened  Milan;    and  in  the  following  year 

L  jaigiar»y  or  Algeria,  a  ooontjry  of  northern  Africa,  haylzig  the  city  Algiers  for  its  capita], 
ecNnprlses  the  ^wmidia  proper  of  the  ancients.  It  formed  pari  of  the  Roman  empire ;  but 
daring  the  reign  of  Valentlnian  III.,  count  BonUhce^  the  govemor  of  Africa,  rcToIted,  and 
celled  in  the  Vandato  to  his  assistance.  Thelatterharing  taken  possession  of  the  country,  held 
a  tin  they  were  expelled  by  Belisarius,  A.  D.  534,  who  restored  Africa  to  the  Eastern  empire. 
n  was  OTsrrsn  and  conquered  by  the  Saracens  in  the  serenth  century :  in  the  early  part  of  the 
darteenth  century  Ferdinand  of  Spain  wrested  scTeral  provinces  flrom  theitf^;  but  ere  long  the 
Sftinish  yoke  was  thrown  off  ^y  the  fiunous  Corsairs  known  in  history  as  Barbarossa  L  and 
IL  Algters  then  became  the  centre  of  the  new  empire  founded  by  the  Barbarossas,  and  for  a 
long  period  carried  on  almost  incessant  hootUitiee  against  the  powers  of  Christendom,  capturing 
their  shipsi  and  redndng  their  subjects  to  slarery.  Attempts  were  made  at  different  times  to 
abate  this  nuisance:  In  1541,  Charles  V^  six  years  after  his  expedition  agah^  Tunis,  attacked 
Algien;  but  Ua  fleet  having  been  nearly  destroyed  by  a  storm,  he  was  compelled  to  return, 
with  great  loes.  Both  Fkance  and  England  repeatedly  chastised  the  insolence  of  the  Algerines, 
by  bomhanUng  their  dty ;  but  in  general  the  European  powers  purchased  exemption  fkom  the 
attacks  of  Algerine  cruisers  by  paying  tribnte  to  the  dey.  In  1815  the  Americans  compelled 
thedey  to  lenonnoe  sll  tribute  flrom  them,  and  pay  sixty  thousand  dollars  as  indemnlilcatioift 
for  their  loesea;.  and  in  the  foUowhig  year  the  English  bombarded  Algiers,  destroyed  the  Al- 
Verine  fledt,  1^  the  harbor,  and  oompeOed  the  dey  to  set  all  bis  Christian  slares  at  liberty,  and 
engine  to  cease  his  plrscles.  Flnaliy,  in  1S30,  a  war  arose  between  France  and  Algiers,  which 
haa  wiealteri  In  the  redaction  of  the  latter  to  a  prorinee  of  the  French  empire. 

Sl  «B««f ,  now  Indoded  in  Uie  kingdom  ef  Sardinia,  Is  hi  aorth^eMeiB  Itaty,  iooth  of  tfe« 


886  MODERN  HISTORT.  \?AnIL 

Charles  Y.  entered  the  south  of  f  ranee  with  a  Urge  force ;  bnt^the 
French  marshal,  Montmorencj,  who  commanded  there,  acting  the 
part  of  the  Roman  Fabius,  avoided  a  general  battle,  laid  waste  the 
countr}',  and  finally  compelled  the  emperor  to  retreat  in  diegraoe, 
with  the  wreck  of  a  ruined  army. 

21.  In  1538  the  rival  monarchs,  having*  ezhaosted  all  their  pecu- 
niary resources,  concluded,  at  Nice,*  a  truce  of  ten  years,  through 
the  mediation  o£  the  pope ;  but  in  1542  war  was  again  renewed,— 
the  king  of  Scotland  and  the  sultan  of  Turkey,  together  with  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  uniting  with 

^  France,  and  the  king  of.  England  taking  part  with  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  In  vain  Francis  and.Solyman,  uniting  their  fleets,  bom- 
barded the  castle  of  Nice ;  and  the  odious  spectacle  of  the  crescent 
and  the  cross  united,  alienated  all  the  Christian  world  from  the  king 
of  France.  (1543.)  The  French,  however,  gained  the  brilliant  vic- 
tory of  Cerifioles*  against  the  allies,  (April  1544,)  but  Henry  YIIL} 
crossing  over  to  France,.captured  Boulogne.*  (Sept.  1544.)  Already 
Charles  had  penetrated  within  thirteen  leagues  of  Paris,  when  he 
formed  a  separate  treaty  with  Francis,  at  Cressy.  A  short  time  later 
a  peace  was  proclaimed  between  Francis  and  Henry,  both  of  whom 
died  in  the  same  year,  1547. 

22.  At  the  time  of  the  death  of  the  king  of  France  and  the  king 
of  England,  Charles  Y.  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  his  Protestant 
German  subjects,  having  now  determined,  in  concert  with  the  pope, 
to  adopt  decisive  measures  for  putting  down  the  Reformation  in  his 
dominions.  At  the  commencement  of  the  war,  the  Protestant  6er- 
man  States,  although  abandoned  by  France,  Denmark,  and  England, 
leagued  together  for  the  common  defence ;  but  Maurice  of  Saxony, 
one  of  the  leading  Protestant  princes,  deserted  to  the  emperor,  and 
the  isolated  members  of  the  league  were  soon  overthrown.  The  rule 
of  Charles  now  became  highly  tyrannical;  and  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants equally  declaimed  against  him.  At  length  Maurice,  to  whom 
Charles  was  chiefly  indebted  for  his  recent  victories,  being  secredy 

Ltk«  of  GeneTM,  ml  bordering  on  France  and  Switseriaad.  {Mttp  No.  XIIL)  8aTi^«*i 
under  the  Roman  dominion  till  tbe  7«ar  400 :  It  belonged  to  Bur'  gundy  till  Sao^  to  IVanoe  tfU 
t!9,  to  Artea  till  1000,  when  It  had  Its  own  oouata,  and,  tn  Hie^  waa  erected  into  a  dneby. 
In  1799  U  became  a  part  of  France,  and  in  1814  and  1815  waa  eeded  to  Sardinia.  (Mff 
Koa.  XIV.  and  XVII.) 

1.  A*M«  la  a  aeaport  of  nortb-weatem  Italy,  nlnetj^llTe  mllea  somli-weat  from  Genoa.  {J^ 
No.  XIII.) 

SL  CerUct$g  la  a  amall  Tillage  of  Piedmont,  near  Oarlgnan,  in  oorflHveatem  Italy. 

8.  B«ultgtt0  la  tt  seaport  town  of  France  on  tbe  Engliab  Ghannal,  near  tbe  8tfatti«f  Do*^ 
twenijrmUeaikMtthirealfroinaalala.    (Jfaji  No.  Xm.) 


Cjup.  mj  SIXTEENTH  CENTTTRY.  357 

dissatisfied  with  tlie  eondact  of  the  emperor,,  formed  a  bold  plan  for 
establishing  religions  freedom,  and  German  liberties,  bnt  concealed 
his  projects  nntil  the  most  fia.vofable  moment  for  patting  ^em  into 
execution.  Having  concluded  a  secret  treaty  with  Henry  II.  of 
Prance,  the  son  and  successor  of  Francis,  in  1552  he  suddenly  pro- 
claimed war  against  the  emperor,  issuing  at  the  same  time  a  mani- 
festo of  grievances. 

23.  Charles,  taken  completely  by  surprise,  narrowly  escaped  bemg 
made  prisoner ;  and  after  having  had  the  mortification  of  seemg  all 
his  projects  overthrown  by  the  man  whom  he  had  most  trusted,  h« 
was  compelled  to  sign  the  convention  of  Passau'  with  the  Protest- 
ants. Three  years  later,  the  bad  success  of  the  war  which  he  car- 
ried on  against  France  changed  this  conv^ition  into  the  definite 
peace  of  Augsburg,  (Sept.  1555,)  by  which  the  free  exercise  of  re- 
ligion was  secured  to  the  Protestants  throughout  Oermany,  ilthough 
neither  party  was  allowed  to  seek  proselytes  at  the  expense  of  the 
other.  Such  was  the  first  victory  of  religious  liberty  under  the 
banner  of  the  Beformation.  The  spirit  that  had  been  awakened, 
pursued,  from  this  time,  a  determined  course,  and  all  the  efibrts  of 
princes  were  not  able  to  arresiits  progress. 

24.  The  treaty  of  Augsburg  was  to  Charles  ▼.  the  hand-writing 
on  the  wall  which  showed  him  that  the  end  of  the  mi^ty  power 
which  he  had  wielded  was  fast  approaching.     So  o&nded  was  the 
pope  at-  the  sanction  which  Charles  had»  given  to  the  principles  of 
religious  toleration,  that  he  became  the  avowed  enemy  of  the  house 
of  Austria,  and  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  the 
young  king  of  France.     Charles  saw,  from  afar,  the  tionandkb- 
storm  that  was  approaching,  and,  abandoned  as  he  was  tsb,emsst  or 
by  fortune,  afflicted  by  disease,  and  opposed  in  his  de- 
dining  years  by  a  rival  in  the  full  vigor  of  life,  he  wisely  resolved 
not  to  forfeit  his  fame  by  vainly  struggling  to  retain  a  power  which 
he  was  no  longer  able  to  wield ;  and,  in  imitation  of  Diocletian,  to 
the  surprise  of  the  world  he  abdicated  his  throne,  and  hsvmg  re- 
signed his  German  empire  to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  and  his  king* 
doms  of  Spam,  the  Ne^erlands,  and  Italy,  to  his  son  Philip,  he  re- 
tired to  end  his  days  in  the  solitude  of  the  monastery  of  St  Just' 

L  Passam  It  a  fortifled  fh>nUer  city  of  eastern  BayarU,  on  Uie  tonUiern  bank  of  the  Daonb^ 
li  derlTes  11a  chief  hlalorical  Importance  ftvm  the  treaty  ooncloded  there  In  1558.  (Jlftp  K^ 
XVII.) 

SL  The  monaatery  of  SL  Jtut  h  in  the  province  of  Estromadura  in  Spain,  near  the  town  of 
lahontOMhimdrBd and tweoijiiiUeaiOttUMraitlhini  Madrid.    (,MapHo,XllL) 

»         22 


888  MODEKir  BISTORT.  [ParIL 

25.  The  ez-emperor  divided  the  hours  of  his  retirement  between 
pioos  meditation  and  mechanical  mventions,  taking  little  interest  in 
the  afl^drs  of  the  world  around  him.'  It  is  related  of  him  that,  for 
amusement,  he  once  endeavored  to  make  two  watches  go  exactly 
alike.  Several  times  he  thought  he  had  succeeded ;.  but  all  in  vain-* 
the  one  went  too  fiut,  the  other  too  slow.  At  length  he  exclaimed  t 
"  Behold,  not  even  two  watches  can  I  bring  to  agree  with  each  other; 
and  jet,  fool  that  I  was,  I  thought  that  I  should  be  able  to  govern, 
like  the  works  of  a  watch,  so  many  nations  all  living  under  different 
skies,  in  different  climes,  and  q>eaking  different  languages.''  FinaHj, 
shortly  before  his  death,  he  caused  a  solemn  rehearsal  to  be  made 
of  his  own  funeral  obsequies — a  too  faithful  picture  of  that  eclipsed 
glory  which  he  had  survived.  He  died  in  the  year  1558,  being  at 
the  time  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age. 

26.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  Y.,  England,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark, had  followed  the  example  of  (Germany  in  separating  from  the 
church  of  Bome.  The  Beformation  in  England,  however,  was,  at 
this  early  period,  a  political  rather  than  a  moral  and  religious  change, 
accomplished  by  the  king  and  the  aristocracy  with  little  regard  to  the 
dictates  of  conscience  or  the  convictions  of  reason,  and  retaining  in 
part  the  Catholic  hterarohy.  By  a  decree  of  parliament  (1534)  the 
king  was  acknowledged  as  ^e  protector  and  supreme  head  of  the 
Church  of  England;  the  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  their 
property,  amounting  to  moie  than  a  million  of  dollars,  was  given  to 
th)»  crown.  Nothing  would  induce  the  kihg  to  renounce  the  title, 
which  he  had  received  from  the  pope,  of  "  defender  of  the  faith  ;'* 
and,  with  equal  intolerance,  he  persecuted  both  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants,— ^the  former  for  having  denied  his  supremacy,  aad  the  latter 
as  heretics.  But  while  Henry  VIII.  merely  withdrew  his  kingdom 
firom  the  autiiority  of  the  pope,  the  true  principles  of  the  Reformar 
tion  were  spreading  among  the  people.  The  government  of  Henry 
was  administered  with  numerous  violations,  both  of  the  chartered 
privileges  of  Englishmen,  and  of  those  still  more  sacred  rights 
which  national  law  has  established ;  and  yet  we  meet,  in  cotemporary 
antiiorities,  with  no  expressions  of  abhorrence  at  his  tjranny ;  but 
the  monarch  is  often  mentioned,  after  his  death,  in  language  of  eulogy. 
Although  he  had  few  qualities  that  deserve  esteem,  he  had  many 
which  a  nation  is  pleased  to  behold  in  a  sovereign!  i 

27.  On  the  death  of  Henry  YIII.,  m  1547,  and  the  acceasioa 


Qsakhx]  sixteenth  CEKTURT.         «  S39 

of  his  son  Edward'  YI.,  then  in  ihe  tenth  year  of  his  age,  the 
C^otestant  religion  prevailed  in  England ;  but  this  amiable  prince 
died  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen ;  and  after  a  rash  attempt  of  a 
few  of  the  nobility  to  seat  Lady  Jane  Grey,  niece  to  Henry  VIIL, 
on  the  throne,  the  sceptre  passed  to  the  hands  of  Edward's  sister 
Mary,i»  (1553)  called  the  "<  Bloody  Mary,"  an  intolerant  Catholio 
md  cruel  persecntor  of  the  IProtestants.  In  her  reign,  of  only  five 
years'  duration,  more  than  eight  hundred  miserable  victims  itere 
burnt  at  the  stake, — ^martyrs  to  their  religious  opinions.  Mary  mar- 
lied  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  son  and  successor  of  Charles  ^.,  who 
induoed  her  in  1557  to  unite  with  him  in  the  war  against  Fr^oe. 
Among  the  events  of  this  war,  the  most  remarkable  are  the  victory 
of  Si  Qnentin,'  gained  by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  conquest  of  Calais 
by  the  French,  under  the  duke  of  Guise,  the  last  possession  of  the 
English  in  France.  (1558.)  In  the  same  year  occurred  the  death 
of  Mary,  about  a  month  later  than  the  death  of  Charles  Y.  Mary 
was  succeeded  by  her  sister  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn, 
under  whose  reign  the  Protestant  religion  became  firmly  established 
in  England. 

{II.    The  Age  of  Elizabeth. — 1.  As  the  marriage  of  Henry 
YIII.  with  Anne  Boleyn  had  not  be^  sanctioned  hf  the  Romidi 
Church,  the  claims  of  Elizabeth  were  not  recognized  by  the  Catholio 
States  of  Europe;-  and,  the  youthful  Mary,  queen  of 
Scotland,  the 'niece  of  Henry  YIIL,  who  was  the  next  \^^l' 
heir  to  the  crown  if  the  illegitimacy  of  Elizabeth  could 
be  establiahed,  was  regarded  by  them  as  the  rightful  claimant  of  the 
throne.     Mary,  who  had  been  educated  in  France,  in  the  Catholio 
fkith,  and  had  been  married  when  very  young  to  the  dauphin,  was 
persuaded  by  the  king  of  France,  and  her  maternal  uncles,  the 
Guises,  *to  assume  the  arms  and  title  of  queen  of  England ;  a  false 
step  which  laid  the  foundation  of  all  her  subsequent  misfortunes. 

2.  Elizabeth  endeavored  to  promote  Protestant  principles,  as  the 

1.  SK.  QuMUiny  formerly  a  place  of  great  itreiigth,  is  a  town  of  France,  in  the  former  prorinoe 
or  Pkaidy,  elglify  nllea  north-eaei  from  Paris.  On  ttie  10th  of  August,  15S7,  Uie  army  of 
PMlip  IL,  eommanded  hy  the  duke  of  Savoy,  engaged  the  French,  commanded  hy  the  constat 
hte  Montmorancl,  near  this  town,  when  the  French  were  totally  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  all 
flMir  artillery  and  haggage,  and  ahoui  seven  thousand  max  klUed  and  prlsonen.  The  town, 
deftnded  hy  the  fiunooa  ndmlnl  Oollgni,  soon  afterwaida  foil  into  the  hands  of  the  Spanioidsb 

n.  Son  of  Henry  Vm.  end  Jane  Seymour. 
K  llM|l^«r  BtaryS  im  #lfoOallMilW. 


S4a  _  MODXBir  BsnoBT.  [FwH 

best  nfegnard  a(  h«r  throne ;  and  in  iht  year  1559  the  psrliaaoak 
fonnall J  abolished  the  papal  sapremacy,  and  eetabliahed  the  Chueh . 
of  England  in  its  present  Ibna.  On  the  other  side  Philip  IL  wm 
the  champion  of  the  Oatholioe ;  and  benoe  England  new  beoame  the 
oonnterpoiee  to  Spain,  as  France  had  been  daring  the  reign  of 
Charles  Y.,  while  the  ancient  riyalrj  between  Fnnot  and  Spain  pre  ^ 
Tented  these  Catholic  powers  ftom  oorStiallj  vniting  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  Beformation. 

3.  On  the  death  of  Henry  II.  of  France,  by  a  mortal  Woond  re- 
e«yed  at  a  tottmament,  (1559)  tiie  feeble  Francis  XL,  the  hlubsnd 
of  A(ary  of  Scotland,  ascended  the  throne,  bat  died  the  following 
year,  (Dea  1560,)  and  was  sooceeded  by  his  brother  Charles  IX, 
then  at  the  fge  of  only  ten  years.  Mary  then  left  Vrwaice  for  hflr 
native  dominions;  bat  she  foond  there  the  Komish  church  OTsr- 
thrown,  and  ProtestantiBm  erected  in  its  stead.  The  marrisge  of 
the  queen  to  the  yoong  Henry  Stoart,  Lord  Daraley,  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrances  of  Elisabeth,  led  to  the  first  open  breaoh  between 
Mary  and  her  Protestant  sabjeets.  Damley,  jealous  of  the  ascend- 
ancy which  an  Italian,  David  Rizzio,  Mary's  private  secretary,  had 
acquired  over  her,  headed  a  band  of  conspirators  wbo  murdered  the 
fkvorite  before  the  eyes  of  l^e  queen.  Soon  after,  the  house  which 
Damley  tnhal^ited  was  blown  up  by  powder ;  Damley  was  buried  un- 
der its  rains ;  and  three  months  later  Maty  married  the  earl  of  Both- 
well,  the  principal  author  of  the  crime.  An  insurreotion  of  the  Pro- 
testant lords  followed  these  proceedings ;  Mary  was  forced  to  dismifls 
Bothwell,  and  resign  the  crown  to  her  in&nt  son  James  YI.,  hat 
subsequently  endeavoring  to  resmne  her  authority,  and  being  defeat- 
ed by  the  regent  Murray,  her  own  brother,  she  fled  into  England, 
and  threw  herself  upon  the  protection  of  Elisabeth,  her  deadly  enemy. 
(1568.)  Elisabeth  retained  the  unfortunate  Mary  a  prisoner,  gave 
the  guardianship  of  her  young  son  to  whom  she  pleased,  and,  through 
her  influence  over  the  Protestant  nobility  of  Scotland,  was  enabled 
to  govern  that  country  mostly  at  her  will. 

4.  Daring  these  events  m  Scotland  Elisabeth  was  carryutg.QD  * 
secret  war  against  tha  attempts  of  Philip  II.  to  establish  the  inqui- 
sition in  the  Netherlands,  and  also  against  a  similar  design  of  the 
Catholic  party  in  Frsnee^  which  ruled  that  country  during  the  mk 
■ority  of  the  sovereign.  In  both  these  countries  the  attempts  of  the 
Catholic  rulers  provoked  a  desperate  resistance.  In  Franoe,baai8h- 
ment  or  death  had  become  the  penaUgr  of  hereyi  wbt»t  H^  JiVM^T 


i9&2y  aa  edioi  mm  iatmtd  by  the  gotvfnmeiit,  through  the  inftienee 
of  tlie  ({aeen  regent,  grantii^  tolerance  to  Uie  Hugae- 
nots,  as  the  Freneh  Proteetante  were  oalled^aad  tllowing  "EmGious^ 
them  to  aoRmble  for  worship  outside  the  walls  of  towns.      ^^^  ^ 
The    powerM  hxulj  of  Guises  were    indignanl  at     "^^^ 
the  eoanteaaawe  thus  ghren  to  heresy ;  and  as  the'  duke  of  Chiise 
traa  passing  through  a  small  Tillage,  his  followers  fell  npon  the  Pro- 
testants who  were  assembled  outside  the  walls  in  prayer,  and  killed 
sixty  of  thehr  number.     This  atroeity  wato  the  signal  for  a  general 
rising ;  the  prince  of  Cond6,  the  leader  of  the  Protestant  party,  took 
possession  of  Orleans,  and  made  that  town  the  head-quarters  of  <Iie 
Huguenots,  as  the  capital  was  of  die  Oatholics,  while  at  the,  same 
time  the  aid  of  Philip  of  Spain  was  openly  proffered  to  the  Guises, 
and  Cond^  oondiided  a  treaty  with  Elizabeth,  to  ^om  he  delirered 
Havre-de-Graee*  in  retom  for  a  corps  of  sis  thousand  men. 

5.  At  tiie  opening  of  this  civil  and  religious  war,  the  greatest  en 
tlranasm  prevailed  on  both  sides, — ^in  the  opposing  armies  prayen 
trere  heard  in  common,  moming  and  evening,— there  was  no  gam- 
"Uing,  no  profone  language,  nor  dissipation ;  but,  under  an  exterior 
of  sanctity,  feelings  of  the  most  vindictive  hate  were  nourished,  and 
the  direst  cruelties  were  openly  perpetrated  in  the  name  of  religion. 
The  Oatholic  governor  of  Guienne*  went  through  his  province  with 
liangmen,  merking  his  route  by  the  victims  whom  he  hung  on  the 
trees  by  the  road-ride.  On  the  other  hand,  a  Protestant  baron  in 
Pai^hiny*  precipitated  his  prisoners  from  the  top  of  a  tower  on 
pikes ; — ^both  parties  made  retaliatory  reprisals,  each  spilling  blood 
upon  scaffolds  of  its  own  erection. 

(5.  The  first  great  battle  was  fought  at  Dreux,*  the  prince  of  Oond6 
'eommanding  the  army  of  the  Protestants,  and  the  constable  Mont- 
morency that  of  the  Oatholics ;  but  while  the  latter  won  the  field,  each 
of  the  two  generals  became  prisoner  to  the  opposite  party.     The 
dake  of  Guise,  who  was  next  in  command  to  Montmorency,  treated 

L  jyaorarf>#rta,  now  called  flkw^  to  fclbrUfled  town,  and  the  prindpal  eommereial  »»> 
port,  on  the  westerQ  cout  of  Franoe,  at  tbe  moath  of  tho  rlter  Seine,  one  bondred  and  nine 
bOm  nortb-west  fkom  Paria.    (JTap  No.  XIIL) 

9.Theprovlnoeof  OM'mjMwaaintheaoatb-weifcpttrtorthe  kingdom,  on  both  aldea  of  the 
Garonne.    (JIfer  No.  XIII.) 

SL  The  province  of  Daupkiny,  of  which  Grenoble  wa4  the  capital,  was  In  the  ioath-eastem 
part  of  France^  havii«  Bar*  gundy  oo  the  north,  Italy  on  the  eaat,  ProTeoce  on  the  tooth,  and 
fheBhineontheweiL    (Jtfaf  No.  XIII.) 

4>i)MMa,lheanoiantaeato#thecoviUorDraax,laa«e«&efrMnoa^fiMrty-Sf<e  nU«  a 
BlIlBionthorwealftomParia.   (Xi^NcXlU.) 


94&  ]IODSB]Sr  HBTOBT.  {Piva 

luB  oaptive  rital  with  the  utmost  generodty:  thaj  ahfffed  the  suna 
tent--the  mme  bed ;  and  while  Cond^,  from  the  etntngeiieBs  of  hie 
position,  remained  wakeful,  Ghodae,  he  declared,  enjoyed  the  most  pro- 
found sleep.  The  admiral  Goligni  soooeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
defeated  Huguenots ;  and  Orleans,  their  prineipal  post,  was  only  * 
saved  by  the  assasiBination  of  the  duke  of  Quise,  whom  a  Protestant^ 
£rom  behind,  wounded  by  the  discharge  of  a  pistol.  The  capture  or 
death  of  the  chiefs  on  both  sides,  Goligni  excepted,  brought  about 
an  accommodation ;  and  in  March,  1563,  the  treaty  of  AmbcMse'  was 
declared,  grantmg  to  the  Protestants  full  liberty  of  worship  within  tho 
towns  of  which  they  then  were  in  possession. 

7.  The  treaty  of  Amboise  was  scarcely  concluded  when  its  terms 
b^gan  to  be  modified  by  the  court,  so  that,  as  |  cotemporary  writar 
observes,  "  edicts  took  more. from  the  Protestants  in  peace  than  force 
could  take  from  them  in  war."  The  Protestant  leaders,  Gond6  and 
Goligni,  tried  in  vain  to  get  possession  of  the  young  king ;  and  a  battle 
was  fought  in  the  very  suburbs  of  Paris,  in  which  the  aged  Mont- 
morency was  slain.  (1567.)  A  ''  Lame  Peace,"*  concluded  in  the 
following  year,  confirmed  that  of  Amboise ;  but  the  wary  Protestant 
leaders  saw  ^  it  only  a  trap  to  ensnare  them  as  soon  as  their  army 
should  be  disbanded.  The  mask  was  soon  thrown  off  by  an  attempt 
of  the  court  to  seize  the  two  chiefs :  the  Huguenots  were  defeated 
in  four  battles;  Gond6  was  slain,  and  Goligni  severely  wounded; 
but  in^  1570  the  peace  of  St.  Germain*  was  concluded ;  and  amnesty 
and  liberty  of  worship  were  again  granted  to  the  Protestants. 

8.  The  object  of  the  court,  however,  was  not  peace,  but  vengeance ; 
and  Gharles  IX.,  now  in  his  twentieth  year,  engaged  lealoualy  in  the 
project  of  his  mother  Gatherine,  ta  entice  the  Protestant  leaders  to 
the  capital,  and  there  massacre  them,  and  afterwards  carry  on  a  war 
of  extermination  against  the  Huguenots  throu^ont  the  kingdom. 
For  the  purpose  of  enticing  the  Huguenots  to  the  capital,  and  lulling 
them  into  security,  it  was  proposed  that  young  Henry  of  Navarre,  s 
Protestant,  should  espouse  the  king's  sister  Margaret, — a  marriage 

1.  Jimhoiie  Is  a  town  and^  easUe  on  the  Loire,  In  the  fonner  province  of  TonialDC^  flfteen 
miles  east  of  Tours.  Tbe  caatle  oocapiee  the  summit  of  a  rock  about  ninety  fbet  In  hdght. 
{Map  No.  XIII.)  « 

2.  St.  Oermain  Is  a  town  of  France,  on  a  hill  near  the  south  bank  of  the  Seine,  six  mDea 
north  of  Versailles,  and  nine  miles  north-west  Qrom  Paris.  It  Is  chiefly  noted  fbr  Its  palace^ 
originiiny  buili  by  Charles  V^  and  often  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  France.  Jamea  IL  of 
England,  with  most  of  his  CimUy,  passed  their  exUe,  and  died,  in  iu    (Map  No.  XIIL) 

a.  So  called  as  well  &t>m  Its  laSnn  and  vBoaitain  natare,  as  flron  the  acoldental  '^"*^ii*n  of 
lis  two  negotiators. 


Ostf.m.]  [SIXTEENTH  OEimTRT.  848     , 

wbicli  ifonldy  in  itaelf,  be  a  bond  of  nnion  between  tbe  two  parties. 
Tlie  nnptiab  were  celebrated  with  the  greatest  magnificenoe;  and 
mmid  the  festivities  which  followed,  the  plan  of  the.  massacre  was 
matured.  When  the  decree  of  extermination  was  placed  before 
Charles  for  his  signature,  he  at  first  hesitated,  appalled  bj  the  enor- 
mity of  the  deed,  but  at  length  agned  it,  exclaiming,  <<  let  none  es- 
cape to  reproach  me." 

9.  About  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  St.  Bartholomew's  day, 
the  24th  of  August,  1572,  the  youne  duke  of  Guise  and  his  band  of 
eat-throats  commenced  the  bloody  work  by  breaking  into 
the  apartment  of  the  aged  Coligni,  and  slaying  him  while    oai  or  si: 
oigaged  in  prayer;    the  tocsin  was  sounded,  and  the    barthol- 
Catholics  of  Paris,  with  the  sign  of  th^  cross  in  their 
caps  to  distinguish  them,  rushed  forth  to  the  massadte  of  their 
brethren.    What  is  surprising,  the  victims  made  no  resistance  1    They 
woulS  not  derogate,  at  such  a  moment,  from  their  character  of  mar- 
tyrs.    The  massacre  lasted,  in  Paris,  eight  days  and  nights,  without 
any  i^pparent  diminution  of  the  fury  of  the  murderers. 

10.  Charles  commanded  the  same  scene  to  be  renewed  in  every 
town  throughout  the  kbgdom ;  and  fifty  thousand  Protestants  are 
believed  to  have  fallen  victims  to  the  monarch's  order.  A  few  com- 
manders, however,  refused  to  obey  the  edict :  4>ne  wrote  back  to  the 
court,  '*  that  he  commanded  soldiers,  not  assassins ;"  and  even  the 
public  executioner  of  a  certain  town,  when  a  dagger  was  put  into  his 
hands,  threw  it  from  him,  and  declared  himself  above  the  crime. 
The  prince  of  Navarre,  who  had  espoused  the  king's  sister,  and  his 
companion  the  young  prince  of  Oond^^  were  spared  Only  on  the  con- 
dition of  becoming  Catholics ;  but  both  yielded  in  appearance  only. 
A  circumstance  as  horrible  as  the  massacre  itself^  was  the  joy  it  ex- 
cited. Philip  II.,  thinking  Protestantism  subdued,  sent' to  congratu- 
late the  court  of  France :  medals  to  commemorate  the  event  were 
etruck  at  Rome;  and  the  pope  went  in  state  to  his  cathedral,  and 
returned  public  thanks  to  Heaven  for  this  signal  mercy, 

1 1.  But  the  crime  from  which  so  much  was  expected,  produced 
neither  peace  nor  advantage ;  and  the  civil  war  was  renewed  with 
greater  force  than  ever :  mere  abhorrence  of  the  massacre  caused 
many  Catholids  to  turn  Huguenots ;  and  although  the  latter  were  at 
first  paralyzed  by  the  blow,  the  former  were  stung  by  remorse  and  • 
shame.  Charles  himself  seemed  stricken  already  by  avenging  fate. 
As  the  accounts  of  the  murders  of  old  men,  women,  and  childreni  were 


844  MODERN  HIBTORT.  [Pau  DL 

iaooessirelj  brought  to  him,  while  the  musMre  ooQtinaed,  he  dreir 
aside  M.  Ambroiac,  his  first  surgeon,  to  whom  he  was  much  attached, 
although  he  was  a  Protestant,  and  said  to  him,  "  Ambroise,  I  know 
not  what  has  oome  over  me  these  two  or  three  days,  but  I  find  my 
mind  and  body  in  disorder;  I  see  everything  as  if  I  had  a  fever ; 
every  moment,  as'  well  waking  as  sleeping,  the  hideons  and  bloody 
&ces  of  the  killed  appear  before  me ;  I  wish  the  weak  and  innocent 
had  not  been  included."  From  that  time  a  continued  fever  preyed 
upon  him,  and,  eighteen  months  later,  carried  him  to  the  grave, 
(May  1574,)  but  not  until  he  i!iad  been  compelled  to  grant  the  Hu- 
guenots a  peace,  after  seeing  that  his  grand  and  sweeping  crime  had 
but  enfeebled  the  Catholic  party,  instead  of  insuring  its  triumph. 

12.  At  the  time  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  civil  war 
IV  m  ^'^  vi^S^S  ^  ^®  Netherlands.  During  the  six  years 
iQRRBa-     of  the  administration  of  the  duke  of  Alva,  Philip's  gov- 

''^'^  emor  in  that  country,  the  land  was  desolated  by  Hie  in- 
satiate cruelty  of  one  of  the  greatest  monsters  of  wickedness  the 
world  has  ever  seen ;  and  it  is  the  recorded  boast  of  Alva  himself 
that,  during  his  brief  administration,  he  caused  eighteen  thousand  of 
the  inhabitants  to  perish  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner.  At  length, 
in  1572,  a  general  rising  against  the  Spanish  power  was  organised, 
the  prince  of  OrangQ  being  at  the  head  of  the  revolters.  After  a 
war  of  varied  fortunes  on  both  sides,  in  1576  the  States-general,  or 
oongtees,  of  most  of  the  Batavian  and  Belgic  provinces,  met,  and  as- 
sumed the  reins  of  government  in  the  name  of  the  king,  and  soon 
after  concluded  a  union  between  the  States,  which  is  known  as  the 
JPiic^Seation  of  GketU^  The  expulsion,  from  the  country,  of  Spanish 
soldiers  and  other  foreigners  was  decreed;  Alva's  sanguinary  de- 
erees  and  edicts  against  heresy,  were  repealed,  and  religious  tolera- 
tion guaranteed. 

13.  Ere  long,  howevw,  the  confederacy  thus  formed  fell  to  pieces, 
owing  to  jealousies  between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  States ; 
and  it  became  evident  that  freedom  could  be  attained  only  by  a  closer 
union  of  the  provinces,  resting  on  an  entire  separation  from  Spain. 
Acting  on  this  belief,  isi  January  1579  the  prince  of  Orange  con- 
voked an  assembly  of  deputies  at  Utrecht,'  where  was  signed  the 

1.  OUmt  ii  ft  dtj  of  Belgiiim,  thirty  mllM  norUi-wMl  from  BraiMla.  It  beioogoA^tmoMt^ 
ItqIj,  to  tbe  ooonU  of  FUmden  and  the  dukes  of  Bur'  gundy ;  bat  ihe  eUliens  oi^oyed  a  great 
degrae  of  independenoe.    It  was  the  blrth-plaoe  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.    (^Map  No.  XV.) 

&  C^trMyutoaefttyof  HoUMid»oBtbeoUmihM^tw«a^mttBaaoattMaatllPomAflaa^^       la 


OttP.  XH]  SIXTSIESTTEr  CSlfttniT.  S45' 

&mmu  act  oftBed  the  Vhion  tf  Virechtj  the  real  btmi  or  ftrndamental 
oompwsfc  of  the  Republic  of  the  United  proyincefl.  Early  in  the 
Mlowing  year,  1580,  the  States-general  assembled  at  Antwerp,^  and, 
in  spite  of  all  the  opposition  of  i^e  Catholic  depnties,  the  authority 
of  Spain  was  renounced  forever,  and  the  "  United  Provinces"  de- 
clared a  free  and  independent  State.  Philip,  however,  still  waged' 
a  vindictive  war  against  tiiem,  while  they  received  important  aid 
from  Elizabeth  of  England,  a  dreomstance  which  led  Philip  to  de- 
alare  war  against  the  latter  country. 

14.  The  destinies  of  the  nnhi^py  queen  of  Scotland  had  long 
been  implicated  with  the  designs  of  tiie  Catholics  of  Europe  against 
ihe^poWer  and  throne  of  Elizabeth.  About  the  time  of  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew,  tiie  in&moos  duke  of  Alva,  the  Spanish  gov* 
cmor  of  the  Netherlands,  had  formed  a  project  of  uniting  with  the 
English  Gathdios  and  Mary  in  a  confederacy  against  Elizabeth;  and 
Mary  was  charged  with  eountenancing  the  design ;  bnt  although  par- 
liament applied  for  her  immediate  trial,  Elisabeth  was  satisfied  with 
increasing  tfie  rigor  and  strictness  of  her  confinement.  Maiy  was 
subsequently,  and  repeatedly,  chaiged  with  being  oognizant  of  simi- 
kr' plans ;  but  her  participation  in  any  of  them  is  exceedingly  doubt- 
fid.  At  length,  however,  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed  authoriz- 
ing her  trial ;  and  after  an  investigation,  in  which  law  and  justice 
were  little  regarded,^  die  was  condemned  to  death.  Elizabeth,  after 
some  delay  and  hesitation,  signed  the  warrant  for  her  execution, 
which,  she  said,  she  designed  to  keep  by  her,  to  be  used  only  in  case 
of  the  attempt  of  Majry  to  escape ;  but  her  council,  having  obtained 
posaessioii  of  it  from  her  private  secretary;  hastily  despatched  it  to 
those  who  had  charge  of  the  prisoner/^d  the  unhappy  Mary  was 
beheaded,  after  having  been  in  captivity  nineteen  years.     (1587.) 

15.  The  execution  of  the  queen  of  Soots  inflamed  the  resentment 
of  the  Catholics  throughout  Europe,  and  gave  additional  vigor  to 
tike  preparations  of  Philip  II.  for  an  invasion  of  England,  a  project 
which  he  had  long  had  in  eontemplatioii,  and  by  which  he  hoped  to 
deatroy  the  power  of  the  great  supporter  of  the  Prostestaat  cause. 
With  jnttioe,  perhaps,  Philip  complained  of  the  depredations  which 

aailittDBtoaMliuaoWMioalladtiM*'Uiri4HiofUtiiMhV'*iig^  hem  on  tha  SQOi  of  J«ittai7« 
1578^  the  treatlw  of  Utrecht  which  termlnaled  the  war  of  the  Spanbh  laooenloii,  and  gsTS 
Si«Melotefope^(Mep.40S,wareoow9lade4hsielttl7lt«MiJ7i4.    (.Migr  He.  XV.) 

L  Amtmmrf*  »  iMiltiMt  iMjef  Bdghni,  on  Uw  north  huk  ef  SM  Sebektt,  trnmlf^tm 
miim  north  from  BrMieto.  In  the  aUleeath  oenturj  Aatwerp  ti^ojed  %  more  ezttnaiTe  IbniKn 
Inrie  Hub  iagroUMrettf  ill  Europe.    (JWqrNo.  XV.> 

P* 


346  MODEBir  HISTORT.  {TjattL 

the  Eogliflh,  nnder  iheir  great  admiral  Sir  Francis  Drake,  had  for 
many  years  commiited  on  the  Spanish  possessions  in  South  Ajneriea^ 
and  more  than  once  on  the  coasts  of  Spain  itself;  and  now  a  vut 
armameqt  was  prepared  to  sweep  the  English  from  the  seas,  ravage 
their  coasts,  hum  their  towns,  and  dethrone  their  Protestant  queen. 

16.  In  May,  1588,  the  Spanish  fleet  of  one  hundred  and  thirty 
ahips,  some  the  largest  that  had  ever  plowed  the  deep,  carrying,  ex- 

y  THi  c^uBiye  of  eight  thousand  sailors,  no  less  than  twenty 
8PANI8S  thousand  of  the  brayest  troops  in  the  Spanish  armies,  a 
ARMADA,  ij^j-ge  inyading  force  in  those  days,  sailed  from  the  har- 
bor, of  Lisbon  for  the  English  coast.  The  pope  had  blessed  the  ex- 
pedition, and  offered  the  soyereignty  of  England  as  the  con<(ueror'a 
prize ;  and  the  Catholics  throughout  Europe  were  so  confident  of 
success  that  they  had  named  the  armament  '^  The  Inyincible  Ar- 
mada." The  queen  of  England  beheld  the  preparations,  and  heard 
the  yauntings  of  her  enemies,  with  a  resolution  worthy  of  the  ocoa* 
sion  and  the  cause.  She  visited  the  seaports  in  person,  superintend- 
ed the  preparations  for  defence,  and  on  horseback  addressed  the 
troops ;  and  such  was  the  enthusiasm  which  she  everywhere  inspired, 
that  even  her  Catholic  subjects  joined  their  countrymen,  heart  ai^ 
hand,  against  foreign  domination.  Lord  Howard  of  -Effingham  was 
appointed  admiral  of  the  fleet;  Drake,  Hawkins,  and  .^robisher,  the 
most  renowned  seamen  m  Europe,  served  under  him ;  while  an  army 
of  forty-five  thousand  men  was  organized  for  the  defence  of  the 
ooast  and  the  capital. 

17.  After  the  Armada  had  sailed  from  Lisbon  it  suffered  consider- 
ably from  a  st«irm  off  die  French  coast :  in  passing  through'the  Eng- 
lish Channel  it  was  seriously  harassed,  during  several  days,  by  the 
lighter  English  vessels ;  and  while  at  anchor  off  Calais,  the  English 
sent  a  number  of  fire-ships  into  the  midst  of  the  fleet,  destroyed 
several  vessels,  and  threw  the  others  into  such  confusiou  that  the 
Spanish  admiral  no  longer  thought  of  victory,  but  only  of  escape 
As  the  south  wind  blew,  he  was  unable  to  retrace  his  course,  and 
therefore  resolved  to  return  by  coasting  the  nortiiem  shores  of  Soo^ 
land  and  Ireland.  But  his  disasters  were  not  ended :  many  of  his 
vessels  were  driven,  by  a  storm,  on  the  coasts  of  Norway  and  Scot- 
land :  off  the  Irish  coast  a  second  storm  was  experienced,  with  al- 
most equal  loss ;  and  only  a  few  shattered  vessels  of  this  mighty  ar- 
mament returned  to  Spain,  to  bring  intelligenoe  of  the  calamities  that 
had  overwhelmed  the  rest     The  defeat  of  the  armada  was  regarded 


Ctau^m]  SDtTBENTH  OENTtTRT.  84T 

as -the  trimnpb  of  the  Protestant  cause;  it  exerted  a  fkrorable  in- 
flaenoe  on  the  welfiure  of  the  United  Provinoes,  and  virtaallj  secured 
their  independence ;  and  it  raised  the  courage  of  the  Hngaenots  in 
France,  and  completely  destroyed  the  decisive  inflnence  which  Spain 
had  long  maintained  in  the  affairs  of  Europe.  Henceforth  the  naval 
power  and-  the  commerce  of  Spain  declined ;  and  the  king,  at  his 
death  in  1598,  bequeathed  a  vast  debt  to  a  nation  whose  resources, 
notwithstanding  her  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  New  World, 
were  already  exhausted.  ^ 

18.  The  internal  history  of  France,  since  the  massacre  of  8t  Bar- 
tholon^ew,  and  the  death  of  Charles  IX.,  is  filled  with  deplorable 
eivil  wars  during  most  of  the  remaining  portion  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Charles  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry  III.,  who 
endeavpred  to  play  the  opposing  Catholic  and  Protestant  parties 
against  each  other  \  but  being  obliged,  at  length,  by  the  violence 
of  the  Catholic  leagzie,  to  throw  himself  on  the  protection  of  the 
Protestants,  he  was  assassinated  by  James  Clement,  a  fanatic 
monk,  just  as  he  was  on  the  point  of  driving  his  enemies  from 
Paris.  (Aug.  1589.)  In  the  death  of  Henry  III.,  the  house  of 
Yalois  became  extinct,  and  the  throne  passed  by  right  of  inherit- 
ance to  the  house  of  Bourbon,  in  the  person  of  the  Protestant  Henry 
of  Navarre,  who  now  became  king  of  France,  with  the  title  of  Henry 
lY.  He  was%  first  opposed  by  the  Catholic  league ;  but  after  a 
struggle  of  four  years,  in  which  he  received  some  aid  from  Elisa- 
beth of  England,  he  abjured  the  Protestant  fiiith,  and  thus  became 
king  of  a  united  people.  (i593--4.)  To  the  Huguenots,  however, 
he  atoned  for  his  compulsory  desertion,  by  issuing,  in  yi.  „■ 
1598,  the  celebrated  Edict  of  Nantes,'  which  terminated  sdiot  or 
the  religious  wars  that  had  distracted  France  durbg  ^^'^"^ 
thirty-six  years.  The  Edict  of  Nantes  secured  to  the  Protestants 
the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and  an  equal  claim  with  the  Catho- 
lics to  all  offices  and  dignities.  The  parliament  made  considerable 
opposition  to  the  reg^ring  of  this  edict,  and  the  king  was  obliged 
to  use  menaces,  as  well  as  persuasion,  to  overcome  theif  obstmacy.. 

19.  The  history  of  England,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada, offers  few  events  of  interest  during  the  remainder  of  the  reign 

L  ^mmUa  to  a  eelebntod  eomaerelal  city  and  lesport  of  Franoa,  abool  ttilrtjr-fonr  miles 
Imii  Um  moQlhor  the  Loire,  aad  two  bondred  aad  ten  aoolli^eit  from  Paria.  Before  the 
oooq^oeet  oT  Genl  by  the  Eomene  It  wet  already  a  eoneldereble  dty,  and  the  oepltal  of  th» 
JCamM4ts$^  who  dielliiyiUhed  thcmeelTee  by  their  oppoeitlon  to  JoUna  CMar.  {Mtf  Mo.  JLOl} 


•40  MOIOBir  HBQO&T.  [P^na 

of  SiUbeUi.  A  gmenl  mffureotioii,  liowever,  brdce  oal  id  In- 
kad  in  1598,  the  design  oi  which  was  to  effect  the  entire  expnleion 
9i  the  KngJifth  from  the  island ;  bat  .althou^  the  inanrgeDtB  were 
iopplied  with  troops  and  ammanition  by  the  Spanish  monaroh,  and 
the  pope  held  out  ample  indnlgenoes  in  fayor  of  those  who  should 
enlist  to  combat  the  English  heretics,  jet  the  rebels  ultimately  failed 
in  their  enterprise,  after  a  sanguinary  war  which  lasted  six  years. 

20.  The  splendor  of  Elisabeth's  reign  is  a  theme  on  which  Eng* 
lish  historians  loye  to  dwell     At  this  time  England  held  the  balance 
m  cBAjiAo-  ^  power  in  Christendom,  a  position  that  was  owing,  in 
na  OP     no  small  degree,  to  the  personal  character  of  the  sover* 
^^^^'^^^'^^   eign.     No  monarch  of  England  ever  surpassed  Eliiabeth 
in  firmness,  penetration,  and  address ;  and  none  ever  conducted  the 
goyemment  widi  more  uniform  success.     Yet  her  political  maxims 
w«re  arbitrary  in  the  extreme ;  and  she  had  little  regard  for  the  lib- 
erties of  her  people,  or  the  priyileges  of  parliament — ^belieying  that 
her  subjects  were  entitled  to  no  other  ri^ts  than  their  ancestors  had 
enjoyed.     The  principles  of  the  English  constitution  were  not  yet 
developed.     Elisabeth  died  in  the  year  1603,  being  then  in  the  sev- 
entieth year  of  her  age,  and  the  forty-fifth  of  her  reign, 

lY.  GoTBHPORABY  HiSTO&T. — 1.  If  WO  psfis  from  EuTopeau  his- 
tory to  that  of  other  portions  of  the  world  in  the  sijfeenth  century, 
the  most  prominent  events  that  attract  our  notice  are  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Portuguese  in  Southern  Asia,  and  of  the  Spaniards  in 
Mexico  and  South  America, — the  rise  of  a  Mogul  empire  in  India, 
and  of  a  new  dynasty  in  Persia.     After  the  fleet  of  De  Gama  had 
doubled  the  Cape  of  Qoad  Hope,  the  enterprises  of  the  Portuguese 
were  directed  to  the  securing  of  the  commerce  of  the  Indian  seas ;  but, 
soon  after,  under  the  viceroyalty  of  the  illustrious  Albuquerque, 
they  formed  numerous  settlements  and  established  forts  and  trading 
houses  throughout  all  the  coasts.     In  the  year  1507  Al- 
luea^i     buqucrque  took  possession  of  Ormus,*  then  the  most 
ooLONiAx.    splendid  and  polished  city  of  Asjfi,  situated  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Persian  Gulf;  and  when  the  king  of  Persia^ 

1.  Omttf,  aMtaBdr  odM  Ot^rUj  Is  a  roAy  Wmd  st  the  wmtb  nt  the  PnvUn  GiUC  ft 
would  Kvoely  be  worth  notice  wero  it  not  fv  lu  former  celebrity  and  importance.  Before  th* 
•ppeanmce  of  the  Portogoete  In  the  East  it  was  a  great  emporium,  betag  the  centre  of  the 
tnde  of  the  Persiaa  OaU;  end  of  the  oonttgnoos  ooimliies,  and  poanaslng  great  wealth. '  The 
rortogneee  hdd  it  tin  MSS,  when  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  Shah  Abbas,  assisted  by  an 
ftigUshfieet.  The  booty  acquired  by  ttiecaptora  on  this  occssion  Is  said  to  have  amounted  to  two 
mediiig.   lUfoaeeikh  tad  floorishiag  emporium  It  now  In  a  stale  oflrrspanUe  decay. 


Olur.ni]  fllZXE^RTH  OESfftSKY,  ^         848 

ta  wliam  it  iimd  long  belonged,  demanded  tribute  frem  the  Porta, 
gnese,  the  lioeroy,  pointing  io  his  eannons  and  balls,  replied :  "  There* 
k  Hate  coin  with  whioh  the  king  of  Portugal  paja  tribute."  The  at- 
tempts of  the  Yenetiana  and  Mohammedans  to  expel  the  intruders 
were  ineffectual,  and  in  1510,  Goa,^  the  chief  of  the  Portuguese  e8> 
tablishments,  was  made  the  ej^pital  of  the  Portuguese  empire  i^ 
India.  The  Portuguese  introduced  themselves  into  China  also ;  and 
when  their  colonial  empire  was  at  its  greatest  extent,  it  embraced 
^e  coasts  of  Africa  from  Guinea  to  the  Bed  Sea,  and  extended 
over  all  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia ;  although  throughout  this  vast 
cfttent  of  country,  they  had  little  more  than  a  chain  of  factories  and 
forts.  On  the  union  of  Portugal  with  Spain  (1580),. the  Portuguese 
East  India  possessions  followed  the  fata  of  the  mother  country,  and 
passed  into  Ihe  unskilful  hands  of  the  Spaniards  (1582) ;  but  when 
the  intolerable  cruelty  of  ihe  Spanish  goyenmient  had  driven  the 
Butch  to  retplt,  the  latter  ext^ded  their  commerce  to  the  Indies, 
and,  at  ^e  close  of  th^  century,  had  possession  of  nearly  all  that  had 
formed  the  colonial  empire  of  the  Portuguese. 

2.  The  Spaniards  were  more  successful  in  making  and  retaining 
cmiquests  in  the  New  World.     Soon  after  the  discovery  j^  gp^OTsa 
of  America  they  extended  their  settlements  over  the    colonial 
islands  of  the  West  Indies,  which  were  depopulated  by     ■^'"• 
the  excessive  and  unhealthy  labor  imposed  by  them  upon  the  na- 
tives.    In  1519  the  adventurer  Cortes  landed  with  a  small  force  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico ;  and  in  the  course  of  two  years  the 
wealthy  and  populous  kingdom  of  the  Montezumas  was  reduced  to  a 
province  of  Spain.     Yet,  after  all  his  services  to  his  country,  Cortei, 
like  Columbus,  was  persecuted  at  home.     It  was  with  difficulty  thftt 
he  could  gain  an  audience  from  the  emperor,  Charles  Y.    When  one 
day  he  pushed  through  the  crowd  which  ^nirrounded  the  coa<^  of  the 
emperor,  and  placed  his  fbot  on  the  step  of  the  door,  Charles  asked 
who  this  man  was.     <*  It  is  he,"  replied  Cortes,  "who  has  given  you 
more  kingdcHus  than  your  ancestors  left  you  cities."  * 

3.  Af^r  Mexico,  &e  Spaniards  sought  other  countries  to  eon^uet 
and  depopulate.  In  1532  Pizarro,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  taking  with 
kim  a  force  of  only  two  hundred  and  ifty  foet  soldiers,  sixty  horse- 

L  Oio,  (tfaeold  town,)  ta  oo  an  tahuid  of  Um  aom  anna  on  the  MwUi.wafMm  ooMt  «r  Uim» 
SMUn,  twVhaiHtred  and SAy  miles  toittti-aMt  flmn  Bombay.  The  old  city,  now  almoak de> 
•aited  flODDept  by  priM<a,4t  **a  iHy  of  ehnnlMa;  and  tbe  wealth  of  proTfaoaa  aeemi  to  hat* 
feMA  aocpiodod  In  their  erection.**  New  Goe,  bvUt  on  the  ie»«bora  about  Itn  mfka  ftom  the 
old  town,  to  a  weD-baUt  city,  with  a  popalation  of  about  twenty  thomanrl. 


eSO  M0DKB5  HBipBY.    -  [PAirIt 

rneny  and  twelve  snudl  oannoD,  invaded  Pern,  the  greatest,  the  best 
governed,  and  most  civilised  nation  of  the  New  World.  Piiarro 
and  his  companions  marked  their  route  with  blood ;  but  wherever 
they  directed  their  oourse  they  conquered  in  the  name  of  Charles 
v.;  and  before  t&e  close  of  the  century  the  Spanish  empire  in 
America  embraced  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  all  Mexico  and 
Peru,  and  the  coasts  of  nearly  all  South  America.  The  enormous 
quantity  of  the  precious  metals  which  Spain  drew  from  her  American 
possessions  contributed  to  make  her,  for  awhile,  the  preponderating 
power  in  Europe ;  but  an  inordinate  thirst  for  the  gold  and  silver  of 
America  led^  the  Spaniards  to  neglect  agriculture  and  manufactures. 
The  Spanish  colonies  increased  but  slowly  in  population ;  the  capital 
itself  was  ruined ;  and  before  the  dose  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
best  days  of  Spain  were  over. 

4.  During  the  three  hundred  yesrs  previous  to  1525,  India,  or 
Hindostan,  was  governed  by  Affghan  princes,  whose  seat 
HOQVL  iM-  of  government  v^is  Delhi.     In  1525,  Baber,  the  fifth  in 
piRi  IN     descent  from  Tamerlane,  and  sovereign  of  a  little  princi- 
pality between  Kashg^r^  and  Samarcand,  entered  Hin- 
dostan at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  defeated  and  killed  the  last 
Affghan  sovereign,  and  seated  himself  on  the  throne  of  Delhi'    With 
him  began  the  race  of  Mogul  princes,  as  they  are  called  by  Eu- 
ropeans, although  their  native  tongue  was  Turkic.     In  the  next  cen- 
tury the  Mogul  empire  was  consolidated  under  Aurungzebe,  who,  by 
murdering  his  relatives,  and  shutting  his  &ther  up  in  his  hareln,  was 
enabled  to  ascend  the  throne  of  Hindostan  in  1659.    But  notwithstand- 
ing the  means  by  which  he  had  obtained  sovereign  authority,  he  gov- 
erned with  much  wisdom,  consulted  the  welfare  of  his  people,  watched 
over  the  preservation  of  justice,  and  the  purity  of  manners,  and,  by 
a  wise  administration,  sought  to  confirm  his  own  power.     After  his 
death,  in  1707,  the  Mogul  empire  began  to  decline;  and  evoi  under 


h  Kaakgvr^  the  most  irestern  town  of  any  importuioe  In  tbe  ChiiMM  empire,  ii  aboul  flMir 
hundred  ADd  Sfty  milet  «Mt  from  Suurcand.  tt  wm  a  oelebratad  oomnMrelil  dty  before  tiM 
Cbrlstlan  era,  and,  under  several  dynasties,  St  long  fbrmed  an  independent  kingdom.  IIm 
OUnese  oMalned  poaMtaion  of  It  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  oentnry. 

8.  DMi  it  a  city  of  northemBlodoetan,  ahooi  eight  hundred  and  thirty  mllea  aorlb-weit  Oon^ 
Oalcatta.  It  appears  that  no  less  than  seven  suoeeeslTe  oitiep  hare  stood  on  tbe  ground  ooeni^ed 
by  Delhi  and  iu  ruins.  Delhi  was  the  Ksidenee  ofthe  Hindoo  n^abi  befhra  1103,  when  it  was 
eonqnered  by  the  Afl^hans.  In  1308  Delhi  waa  taken  and  plundered  by  Tameriifll;  in  1S9S 
by  Baber;  in  1730  the  Mahrattaa  burned  the  suburba,  abd  in«730  Delhi  was  oatered  and  pU- 
iaged  by  Nadir  Shah.  Sluee  1809  it  hai»  tofsther  idth  Ita  tenrttocy,  vfartnaDy  behM«ad  to  Um 
British. 


ChuRin]  SIXTEraTH  CnSNT0ET.  851 

AnnmgBebe  ijt  was  muoh  inferior,  in  extent  and  resources,  to  the  em- 
fnre  now  held^by  Britain  in  the  same  country. 

5.  We  have  already  alladed  to  the  revival  of  the  Persian  empire 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.     At  that  period  w^  find 
the  youthful  Ismael,  who  traced  his  descent  to  the  Sheik     ^  ^^ 
Suffee,  a  holy  person  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Tamer-     pkrsian 
lane,  heading  a  l^d  of  adherents  against  a  neighbormg     ^'"^'^^ 
prince,  and,  in  the  course  of  four  years,  reducing  all  Persia  to  his 
sway.  .  For  fifteen  years  fortune  smiled  on  his  arms ;  but  he  was  at 
length  defeated  by  Selim,  the  sultan  of  Constantinople.     The  latter, 
however,  reaped  no  real  a'dvantage  from  his  dearly-bought  victory ; 
and  when  Ismael  died  he  left  a  name  on  which  the  Persians  dwell  ^ 
with  enthusiasm,  as  the  restorer  of  their  country,  and  the  foimder 
of  one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  the  Mohammedan  dynasties— called 
the  Suffeean^  or  Suffa/vearij  from  the  holy  sheik  Suffee. 

6  Tamasp  succeeded  his  father  Ismael,  when  ^nly  ten  years  of 
age.  Hia  reign  was  long  and  prosperous.  Anthony  Jenkinson,  ono 
of  the  earliest  adventurers  to  Persia,  visited  the  court  of  Tamasp  as 
an  envoy  from  queen  Elizabeth ;  but  the'  intolerance  of  the  Moham- 
medan soon  drove  the  Christian  away.  The  three  sons  of  Tamasp 
in  succession  made  an  efibrt  for  the  crown ;  but  their  short  reigns 
merit  little  notice.  At  length,  ia  1582,  the  youthful  Abbas,  a 
grandson  of  Tamasp,  was  proclaimed  king  by  some  of  the  discontent- 
ed nobles,  and  forced  to  appear  in  arms  against  his  father  Moham- 
mod,  who  was  deserted  by  his  army,  and  is  not  mentioned  again  in 
history.  But  Abbas  did  not  long  remain  a  tool  in  the  hands  of 
others,  for,  seizing  the  reigns  of  power,  he  soon  rose  to  distinction, 
defeated  the  Turks  in  many  battles,  in  1622  took  Ormuz  from  the 
Portuguese,  and  became  supreme  ruler  of  a  mighty  empire.  During 
nis  reign  commenced  an  amicable  intercourse  between  the  English 
and  Persian  nations,  which  continued  for  many  years. 

7.  Abbas  was,  in  many'respects,  an  enlightened  prince :  his  foreign 
policy  was  generally  liberal,  and  he  extended  toleration  to  othm*  re- 
ligions :  he  spent  his  revenues  in  improvements :  oaravanseras, 
bridges,  aqueducts,  bazaars,  mosques,  and  colleges,  arose  in  every 
quarter ;  and  Ispahan*  the  capital  was  splendidly  embellished.     But 

L  Tafokmny  ftrnneriytbe  ei|yltal  of  Persia,  to  altiiAtad  between  theOuplui  Sea  and  the  Penlaa 
Gnii;  two  hundred  end  eleven  miles  sonth  of  Teheran,  the  modem  eapltaL  AlOioagh  Ispahan 
baa  now  a  population  of  over  one  hondrerl  thousand,  yet  It  presents  to  the  traveller.  In  Its 
hoUdii^  at  least,  little  beyond  the  magnifltent  ruins  of  iu  former  greatness.  Under  the  reign 
of  iMh.  AbbM,  IspahaB  wtt  tho  esiparfam  of  the  AaUtle  woild.   The  etly  waa  at  UhI  tfana 


ftS2  MODSBN  HIBTQRY.  [I'iMlL 

as  »  pftrent,  and  relatiTe,  ike  eharaoter  of  Abbas  ftppean  in  a  nuMt 
revolting  light.  He  had  four  aoiiB,  on  whom  he  doated  as  long  as 
thej  were  children,  bat  when  they  grew  np  toward  manhood  they 
beoaftie  objects  of  jelJoosy,  if  not  of  hatred :  their  friends  ^ere  con* 
sidered  as  his  enemies ;  and  praises  of  them  were  as  a  knell  to  Us 
souL  The  eldest  was  assassinated,  and  the  eyes  of  ^e  reBt4)at  ent, 
by  order  of  their  inhuman  parent  Horrid  tragedies  were, of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  harem  of  this  Eastern  tyrant.  Yet  gaek  is 
tiie  king  whom  the  Peredans  most  admire ;  and  so  jHreoarious  is  the 
nature  of  despotic  power  in  Persia,  that  monarehs  of  a  similar  char- 
acter alone  have  successfully  ruled  the  nation.  When  tius  monarek 
ceased  to  reign,  Persia  ceased  to  prosper. 

8.  Abbas  was  succeeded  by  a  series  of  imbeeile  tyrants,  and  in 
1722  the  country  was  oyerrun  by  the  Affgkans,  who,  during  seven 
wretched  years,  converted  the  &irest  provinces  of  Persia  into  deeeris, 
ker  cities  into  chamel  houses,  and  destroyed  the*lives  of  a  million 
of  her  people.  At  length  the  fiunous  Kouli  Khan,  a  brigand  chie^ 
was  raised  to  the  throne  with  the  title  of  Nadir  Sluih.  He  distin- 
guished himself  alike  by  his  victories  and  his  feroeity ;  but  being 
assassinated  in  1743,  his  death  was  followed  by  a  long^»ntinued 
civil  war.'  The  most  noted  of  the  Persian  monardis  since  the  death 
of  Nadir  Shah  have  been  the  .eunuch  Mehemet  Khan,  Futteh  Ali 
Shak,  and  Abbas  Miria,  the  latter  of  whom  ascended  the  throne  in 
1835. 

twenly-fonr  miles  in  circuit,  and  contained  a  million  of  people.  Ita  bazaan  were  filled  with 
merclMndiie  fton  oTery  quarter  of  the  globe^  mingled  with  rtch  bales  of  Ha  own  ceMnratad 
winnlkctiiras;  and  the  8hah*a  oooit  wm  tkt  leaoii  of  ambawadow  from  the  piOT*ait  i 
of  the  East,  and  ftom  Europe  also. 


(ta*r.IV.J  SBTBNTraCtrTH  aBRTlTBT.  8S8 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE   SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

I.  THE  THIRTY  YEARS*  WAR. 

ANALYSI&  1.  Gerniflii  hlstoiy  fh>m  1558  to  1618.  The  evonts  tliat  led  to  the  <*Thlitf 
Y«n?  War."  Exteat  of  that  irfur.—l£  Ferdinand  sQooeeds  Matthias  as  emperor  of  GeraiaDy, 
bm  Is  deposed  in  Bohemia.  Frederic  the  eleetor>|>aIatlne.  Tna  PALATtii a  Pbriod  op  tbb 
WAK.  [Prague.}-^  MaoslUdt  Is  miable  to  cope  with  the  Imperial  generals.  Protestant  altt> 
•nee  with  the  Danes,  snd  opening  of  the  DaitxAi  Pbbiod  op  tbb  was.  Deftat  of  the  Danldi 
king  byTUly.  [Lvtter.  Gdttiogen.  Bmnswick.]— 4.  The  Danes  are  driven  from.Hongaiy, 
and  most  of  Denmark  is  oonqoered.  Ambitions  views  of  Ferdinand.  Siege  of  StnUannd. 
Trmij  of  Lnbec  [Stralsond.  Liibee.]~5.  The  hopes  of  a  geoersl  peace.  Tysaniix  of  Ferdi- 
nand, and  reT<^t  of  the  Protestants.  Interposition  of  Gnstavus  Adolpbusi  and  opening  of  the 
Bwssisu  PaaioD  op  thb  wab  —4.  Intrigues  of  RicbeUeo,— leading  to  the  inyaalon  of  Gennangr 
by  the  Swedes  In  1630.  C^MdwIle.]— 7.  Ormtempt  in  which  the  Swedes  were  held  1^  the  Ger- 
mam.  [Pomeranla.]  Character  of  the  opposing  ftnces.  The  militaiy  qrstem  of  GosIbtiis.— & 
Eartj  sacoeases  of  the  Swedes,  ^flagdeboig  phindered  and  bomed  by  the  impeiiallsts.  [Ma** 
deborg.]— 0.  Gompeniation  Ibr  the  loss  of  Magdebefg.  [Leipsic.]  GustaTos  ovemms  Ger> 
many.  Death  of  TUIy.~10.  SoooesNs  of  Wallenstein.  [Nuremb«g.  Dresden.]  Death  of 
GuatoTua.  [Ltttxeo.]— IL  Gk>se  of  the  Swedish  period  of  the  war,  and  death  of  Wailensteisb 
The  Fbbmcb  Paaion  op  tbb  wab.~12.  arcnmstanoes  of  the  leaguing  of  the  French  with  the 
Protestants.  The  Rhine  becomes  the  chief  seat  of  the  war.— 13.  The  remainder  of  the  Thirty 
Tears*  War.  Death  of  Ferdinand.  Death  of  Louis  XUI.  and  Richelieu.  Treaty  of  Westphalia. 
[Westphalia.]    OondidoD  of  Germany.— M.  Chief  articles  of  the  treaty  of  WestphaUa. 

IL  ENGLISH  HISTORY  >~THE  BN6LIBH  REVOLUTION. 

irEi^^and  dnrii«  the  period  of  the  Thirty  Years*  War.  UnoB  op  Eholaud  and  Sootlabb^ 
16Q3w— 2.  The  rf»«imi»jAf  of  Jambs  I.,  and  the  chacscter  of  his  reign.— 3.  His  successor  Chablbs 
I.  Bis  misfortunes.— 4.  Difllculties  that  immediately  followed  his  secession.  The  second  and 
tMid  periis!fv*qf-  Dissolution  of  the  latter.— &  Tbe  intenral  until  the  assembling  of  another 
pariiament.  Conduct  of  the  English  clergy,  snd  persecution  of  the  puritans.  Scotch  bbsbl- 
I40M.  Mareh  of  the  Covenanters  Into  England.  Fourth  and  fifth  pariiamenL— 6.  Opening  acts 
of  Tbm  Lob«  Pabliambbt.  Impeachment  of  Straftrd  and  Laud.  Remarks.— 7>  Continued 
ffW'X>achTPentf  of  Pariiament.  Irish  rebellion.  Impeachment  of  five  members  of  the  Com- 
mooa.— a  The  king  eiecU  his  staulard  at  Nottingham,  and  opens  the  civil  wab— 1642.  [Not- 
tingham.} Strength  of  the  opposing  parties.— 9.  Tbe  batUes  of  Edghill  and  Newbery.  [Edg- 
kilL  Newbeiy.]— lOi  Tbb  Scotch  Lbaoub.— 11.  Campaigns  of  1644  and  164&  [MarBton- 
Moor.  Naseby.]  Tbe  king  a  prisoner.- 13:  Civil  and  religious  dissensions.  Olivbb  Cbom- 
WBLU— 13.  Tbe  reaction  in  tevor  of  the  king  airested  by  CromweU.  Tbial  ams  azBcunoB 
OP  Chablbs  L  1640.— 14.  Remarks  upon  this  measure.  Chsracter  of  Charies.— 15.  Abolitiob 
^  MoBABOHT.  Cromwell's  military  successes.  [Worcester.!— 16.  Wab  with  Hollabbl. 
N«rlgBtion  act  Naval  battle.— 17.  Continuance  of  the  war,  and  defeat  of  tbe  British.  [Good 
win  flanda.]  Biavado  of  Tiomp.— IS.  Defeat  of  the  Dutch  in  the  English  Channel,  fhe  final 
conflict,  and  death  of  Tromp.  Peace  with  Holland.— 19.  Controversy  between  Cromwell  and 
PBritameot.  Thb  Pbotbctobatb.— SO.  Coallnned  dissensions  snd  parilamentavy  opposition 
to  Cromwell.  The  army.  War  with  Spain.— 31.  Character  of  CromweU*s  admlnlstnuion.  Al> 
leopi  to  invest  htaa  with  tbe  dignity  of  kii«.— 422.  ReAaidder  of  Cromwell's  life.  His  d^atlw— 
S3b  Rlefaaid.  His  abdication.  Anarehy.  Rbstobatiob  op  hobaboht,  1660.— S4.  First  ias* 
psBsrioHpniduoedbyGbariesn.   HIaoharBOter.   The  parllameht of  tOIL-tf.  J 

23 


854  MODEBK  HIBTORT.  [F^ulL 

nonto  or  the  iia!l<Mi.--«i.  IneiMtliig  dlMOBlent.  War  with  Holtend.  Hm  eaplUil  threia«iMd. 
[Dunkirk.  Chifl»aiii.>-«7.  The  plague  of  H»5.  Tb%  great  lire  of  1666.-88.  Treaty  of  Brada. 
[Breda.  New  Ketberlanda.  Acadia  and  NoTa  8coUa.J  Another  war  with  Holland.  Treaty 
of  NImeguen.  [Orange.  Nlmeg iieD.}--S9.  The  profeariona  and  the  secret  deatgna  of  GhariM. 
Blalntrlgueswlth  the  French  monarch.  Hia  growing  unpopalarily.  Popish  plou  Ruasell  and 
Sidney.  Absolute  power  of  the  king.  Hh  death.— 30.  Ja-kks  II.  HIa  general  policy.  The 
approaching  cri8{a.~31.  Arbitrary  and  unpopular  meaaaiea  of  the  king.  [Wludaor.]— 98; 
lloomoutVs  rebeUlon.  The  Inhunaa  Jeftrles.— 33.  Erenta  of  the  Rbvolutiox  op  1688.— 34. 
Settlement  of  the  crown  on  William'  and  Mary.  Decburatlon  of  rlghta.— 35.  Scotch  and  Irlah 
rabelUon.  [KUIfecrankie.]  ETents  that  led  to  a  general  £i4^»ean  war.  Fraoeh  history  towanU 
thedoaeoftheoemary.    Death  of  WUliam,  1703. 

in.  FRENCtI%l8T0RT:-WABS  OF  LOUIS  XIV. 

1.  The  ADHimsTKATiOR  or  CAaniicAL  RicHSLnn,  1684— 42.— «.  MAtABiM'a  ABXtinanA- 
Tioif,  16«9-«] .  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  and  war  of  the  Fronde.— 3.  Oonthmanoe  of  the  war  be- 
tween France  and  Spain.  Oond«  and  Turenne.  England  joins  Firance  hi  the  war.  [ArAs. 
Valenciennes.  Fbuiderk]— 4.  Both  France  and  Spain  desirous  of  peace.  Treaty  of  the  Pyren- 
e^  1650.  [Bldasaoa.  GrareliBes.  RouasUlon.  Fnnche-Oomti.]— 5.  Lovxs  aasames  the 
administration  of  government.  [LouTre.  Invalidea.  Venallles.  Langoedoc]— 6.  Ambitiooa 
pvoJteU  ot  Louis.  His  inTaaioB  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  [Brabant.}— 7.  Capture  of 
Franche^>>mte.  Triple  alliance  against  Louis.  Treaty  of  Aix-UhCbapelle.  [AIx-l»<^pelle.] 
— &  Deslgna  of  Louis  against  Holland.— 9.  The  bayonet.  Oomparallve  strength  of  the  fVench 
and  Dutch  forces^— 16.  Invasion  of  HolUnd.  [Amsterdam.]  The  tnhahltanta  think  of  aban- 
doning their  ^untiy.  Prince  William  of  Orange  effeeU  a  general  league  against  the  French 
monarch.  (1674.)— II.  The  war  In  the  Spanish  Netheriands.  ^^arenne  and  Gond«.  Duqueana. 
—IS.  Peace  of  NImeguen,  1678.  Remarks  of  VolUire.— 13.  Great  prosperity  and  Inereaslog 
ascendancy  of  France.  The  greatest  glories  of  the  reign  of  Louis.— 14.  Madame  de  Malntenon. 
BevocaUoa  of  the  Edict  of  Nanlea.^15.  General  league,  and  war,  against  Louis,  1686~S.  Hia 
activity  in  meeting  his  eiemles.— 16.  Successes  of  the  Freadi  commanders.  Battle  of  La 
Hogue.  [Beachy  Head.  Namnr.  La  Hogue.]— 17.  Campaign  of  1603.  Peace  of  Rytwick, 
1687.  State  of  Ftanee  at  the  doae  of  the  serenteeoth  eentory.  [Nerwinden.  Ryswick. 
Straabuig.] 

IV.  COTEHPORARY  HISTORY. 

1.  Increastng  extent  of  the  field  of  history.- %.  Dkkmabk,  SwaoBir,  akd  Nobwat.  GostaTOi 
AdOlphus,  and  his  successors.— 3.  Poland,  during  the  seventeenth  century.  The  reign  of  John 
Sobleskl,  1674— g7.  His  victories  over  the  Turks.  [Kotzim].— 4.  Siege  of  Vienna  by  the 
Turks  and  Hungarians.  [Vienna.]— 5.  It*  dellveraboe^  by  Sobleski,  1683.— 6.  Complete  die*  . 
comfiture  of  the  Turks.  Ingratitude  of  Austria,  and  dedlne  of  Poland.— 7.  Rossia,  at  the 
oommenoement  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Peter  the  Great.  His  eflbrts  for  improving  the 
condition  of  his  people  and  country.  [Azof.  Dwimu  Volga.  StPetenbotg.]-^-  His  travels, 
dEC  Political  acta  of  his  reign.— 0.  Tubkkt  IVom  Ibe  eariy  part  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Decline  of  her  power  at  the  close  of  the  century.  [Zenta. 
Oftriowiti.  Transylvania.  Sclavonia.  Podolia.  Ukraine.]— lOi  Italy  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  Effects  of  the  Reformation.  Of  the  Spanish  rule  in  Italy.— 11.  The  low  state  of 
morals.  General  suffering  and  degradation.— 12.  The  SrANiau  paMNiirLA  during  the  seTon* 
teenth  century^  Expulsion  of  the  Moors,  16*10.-13.  Revolt  of  Portugal,  1^.  Independenoft 
of  Holland,  1646.  T^-eaty  of  Westphalia,  1648.— 14.  Thb  Asiatic  batioiis  during  the  aevea- 
teenth  century.  Persia.  China.- 15.  The  great  Mogul  6mpire  of  Asia.  Aurungzebe.— 16.  Oo- 
i^RiAL  EsTABLisHMKNTt.  Dulch  colo&les.  [Soflnam.  Moluccas.  Ceylon.]  Colonial  polfey 
of.  the  Dutch.—!?.  Spanish  colonial  empire.— 18.  Materials  and  ohameter  of  Spanish  colonial 
history.- 10.  French  colonization  in  the  New  Worid.  In  the  Old.  [Madagascar.  POndleherry.3 
—SO.  English  colonial  possessions.  The  London  East  India  Company.  [Java.  Madraa.  Bom- 
bay. CaieutB.]— 91.  English  oolonlzatlon  in  America.  History  of  the  British  American  col»^ 
«lea  during  Jie  seventeenth  century.  The  esrly  colonists  of  New  Engtaad.— 82.  InatrofllivB 
^Dd  intereatliig  character  of  early  American  history-  Omlasion  of  a  separate  oompond  of 
4a>arioaa  history  la  this  work. 


a 


Our.  IV.]  SETBNTEENTH  CENTURY.  065 

1.  The  Thiett  Fears'  War. — 1.  From  the  death  of  CharleB  V., 
in  the  year  1558,  to  the  year  1618,  there  were  no  events  in  German' 
history  that  exercised  any  important  influence  on  the  politics  of 
Europe.  At  the  latter  period,  however,  the  German  emperor, 
Matthias,  succeeded  in  procuring  the  subordinate  crown  of  Bohemia 
for  his  cousin  Ferdinand,  a  bigoted  Catholic ;  a  circumstance  which 
increased  the  hostile  feelings  that  had  long  existed  between  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  and  Protestant  parties  in  Bohemia ;  but  when  Ferdi- 
nand' banished  the  new  faith  from  his  dominion,  and  destroyed  the 
Protestant  churches,  his  impolitic  conduct  led  to  an  open  revolt  of 
his  Protestant  subjects.  (1618.)  This  was  the  commencement  of  a 
thirty  years'  war — the  last  conflict  sustained  by  the  Reformation — a 
war  indeterminate. in  its  objects,  but  one  which,  before  its. close,  in- 
volved, in  its  complicated  relations,  nearly  all  the  states  of  continental 
Europe. 

2.  While  this  petty  war  was  raging  on  the  narrow  theatre  of  the 
Bohemian  territory,  Matthias  died;  and  Ferdinand,  to  the  great 
alarm  of  the  Protestant  party  throughout  Germany,  was  elected  em- 
peror of  all  the  German  States,  under  the  title  of  Ferdinand  II. 
(1619) ;  but  at  the  very  moment  of  his  election  he  received  the  in- 
telligence of  his  deposition  in  Bohemia,  which  had  just  been  made 
public  among  the  people.  The  Bohemians  now  chose  Frederic,  the 
elector-palatine,  sonin-law  of  the  British  monarch  James  I.,  for  their 
sovereign ;  but  Frederic  was  unequal  to  the  crisis,  and  j^  palatini 
being  besieged  in  his  own  capital,  he  lost  the  battle  of  rsmoD  of 
Prague*  by  his  negligence  or  cowardice.  Ferdinand,  as-  ™*  ^*"' 
sisted  by  a  Spanish  force  under  Spinola,  and  by  the  Catholic  league 
of  Germany,  now  overran  Bohemia,  and  compelled  Frederic  to  seek 
refuge  in  Holland,  where  he  dwelt  without  a  kingdom,  and  without 
courage  to  reconquer  it, — ^maintained  at  the  expense  of  his  father- 
in-law,  the  king  of  England.  The  punishment  inflicted  upom  Bohe- 
mia was  severe  in  the  extreme  :  twenty-seven  of  the  Protestant  lead- 
ers were  condemned  to  death ; — ^by  degrees  all  Protestant  clergyman 
were  banished  from  the  country ; — and,  finally,  it  was  declared  that 
no  subject  who  did  not  adhere  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  would 
be  tolerated.     Thirty  thousand  families,  driven  away  by  this  cruel 

I.  Prague^  tha  capital  0U3-  of  Bohemia,  is  litualad  on  both  tldaa  of  the  Moldao,  a  branch  of 
fte  J^yMi  one  hundred  and  Hfty-two  miles  nortli-west  of  Vienna,  and  seventy-two  miles  soallw 
east  firom  Dresden.  Jerome,  the  friend  of  the  great  Bohemian  reformer  John  Husib  v**  *  nattYt 
orthiseit7,aiidwatthenoesi»aamed,**ofPragua-''    <Jlfv  No.  XVU^ 


850  UGUmS  BISTORT.  ^    [P10I& 

edict,  took  rofiige  in  the  Protestant  States  of  Saxoiiy  and  Branden- 
burg.    Thus  closed  the  Palatine  period  of  the  thirty  jears*  war. 

3.  After  the  flight  of  Frederic,  his  general  Mansfeldt  still  deter« 
mined  to  maintain  the  Protestant  cause  against  the  emperor  Ferdi- 
nand ;  but  he  found  himself  unable  to  cope  with  the  imperial  gen- 
erals, Tilly  and  Wallenstein.  The  Protestant  towns  of  Lower  Saxon  j, 
foreseeing  the  fate  to  which  they  might  be  subjected,  next  took  u^ 
arnfli,  and  having  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Christian  IV.  of  Den- 
mark, made  him  captain  general  of  the  confederated 

TI.  DAKISH  *  ^? 

nuoD  or  army.  (1625.)  Thus  opened  the  Danish  period  of  the 
raa  WAR.  ^n,^  With  a  bofly  of  twenty-five  thousand  men,  consist- 
ing of  Danes,  Germans,  Scotch,  and  English,  the  Danish  king  crossed 
the  Elbe,  where  he  was  joined  by  seven  thousand  Saxons  y  but,  aftei^ 
some  Sttcoesses,  he  was  defeated  by  Tilly  near  the  castle  of  Lutter,* 
on  the  road  from  Oottingen*  to  Brunswick,"  with  the  loss- of  fovr 
thousand  men,  besides  a  vast  number  of  prisoners.  (Aug.  26th,  1 626. ) 
4L  In  the  following  year,  1627,  ike  Danes  were  driven  firom  Oer* 
many  by  Wallenstein,  the  imperial  commander,  who  had  now  in- 
creased his  forces  to  one  hundred  thousand  men.  )^ot  content  with 
driving  Christian  from  Oermany,  Wallenstein  pursued  him  into 
Denmark ;  and  soon  the  whole  of  the  peninsula,  with  the  exception 
of  one  fortress,  was  conquered,  and  the  king  was  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  his  islands.  The  ambitious  views  of  Ferdinand  now  aimed 
at  the  extirpation  of  the  Lutheran  heresy  throughout  his  own  empire, 
and  the  reestablishment  of  the  Catholic  faith  throughout  the  entire 
north,  by  the  subjugation  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  in  addition  to 
Denmark.  As  a  preliminary  step  towards  the  accomplishment 
of  this  gigantic  undertaking,  Wallenstein  was  first  to  secure  the 
dominion  of  the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea.  Assisted  by  a  Spanish 
fleet,  he  took  possession  of  several  ports  on  the  Baltic ;  but  the  oiti- 
sens  of  Stralsund,^  aided  by  five  thousand  Swedish  and  Scottish 
troops,  defended  thehr  walls  with  such  detorfiaiined  courage  and  per- 
severance,  that  Wallenstein  was  forced  to  abandon  the  siege,  after  a 

1.  LutUTy  <*iiew  Bunhwg,  In  HanoTtr,"  Mwth-weft  fkom  Braniwiok.  Thto  battle  mw 
aMght  Aug.  9GU1, 1096. 

SL  Gittinfen^  In  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  Is  flf^-tlx  miles  soatli-WQSt  ttom  Branswlck.  R  H 
espedelly  noted  for  its  imivenUy,  whleb,  down  to  1831,  was  ftilty  enUfled  to  Ks  wpptnaHcak 
*^Uie  qneen  of  German  miiyetalUes."    (Map  No.  XVTL) 

a.  Bruiuwick^  the  early  seat  of  the  dukes  of  that  name,  is  a  city  of  Germany,  situated  on  the 
Oeker,  a  bitneh  of  the  Weser,  tUrty-eeren  miles  a  little  south  of  east  troax  Hanorer.  (JU^ 
No.  XVIL)  ♦ 

4.  airaiammi  Is  a  strangly4bttlfled  Prasslan  town,  on  the  nairow  aintt  of  fbs  Baldo  which 
■efMOBtsathelaUuidorBivenihNiitheooDtiaeiit.    (JMbp  No.  XVIL) 


Qbat.  IT.]  SBVICIIITBENTH  QSNTITRY.  857  ' 

km  of  twolre  thovsaQd  men.  Thia  ngtwl  disoomfitare  indnc^d  tba 
emperor  to  oonsent  to  treat  for  peace  with  Denmark;  and  bj  the 
treaty  of  Labec,'  Christian  was  restored  to  ills  dommions,  on  the 
oondiiion  of  abandoning  his  German  allies.  (May,  1629.)  Thus 
terminated  the  Danish  period  of  the  thirty  years'  war. 

5.  It  had  been  hoped  that  the  treaty  of  Lnbee  would  prove  the 
forenmner  of  a  general  pacification ;  and  the  subjects,  the  allies,  and 
the  enemies  of  Ferdinand,  now  united  in  imploring  him  to  put  an 
end  to  a  civil  war  which  had  been  waged  ^th  a  ferocity  hitherto  un- 
known since  the  ages  of  Gothic  barbarism.  But,  the  Protestants 
being  subdued,  and  no  enemy  left  to  oppose  the'  emperor,  the  Bomaa 

^Catholics  thought  the  moment  too  &vorable  lo  be  neglected,  and 
Ferdinand  was  urged  on  by  them  to  exercise  the  most  intolerable 
tyramiy  over  his  Protestant  subjects.     The  last  beam  of  hope  from 
the-  emperor's  clemency  was  extinguished,  and  the  Protestants  only 
awaited  the  arrival  of  a  leader  to  throw  off  a  yoke  whicH  ^^  gwamn 
had  become  insupportable.     A  deliverer  was  found  in    friod  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  Protestant  king  of  Sweden.     The    ^™  ^^ 
cirmunstanoes  that  led  to  his  interposition, — ^the  opening  of  the 
Swedish  period  of  thenar — ^show  how  tangled  has  often  been  the 
web  of  European  politics. 

6.  Cardimd  Bidielieu,  the  able  minister  of  Louis  XIII.  of 
France,  after  having  humbled  the  Huguenots  by  the  capture  of  Ro« 
chelle,*  their  last  stronghold,  directed  his  great  powers  to  the  abase* 
ment  of  the  house  of  Austria.  With  this  view  he  was  instrumental 
in  depriving  Ferdinand  of  his  ablest  general,  Wallenstein,  whose 
dismissal  &om  power  was  successfully  urged  «by  an  assexAUy  of  the 
German  States  in  the  summer  of  1680.     Riohelien  had  previously 

I.  Lmhe,  Um  otpitel  of  ihe «« nmwwitle  towna."  to  titiMtod  oa  the  ifver  TlrsT«,  «boat  twehre 
mSH  ftrom  Ita  entrance  Into  the  Baltic,  and  thirty-ds  Mllea  nortb-eaat  ttcm  Hamhoff .  The 
sarromidlng  tenrltonr  subject  to  Lubec  oonstots  of  a  dlatrlct  of  about  eighty  square  miles.    (Map 

iii>.xvn.) 

a  tUtMU  to  a  tovn  and  sanport  of  Franoe  on  the  Attontic  oeaaC»  In  the  fonaer  pioTfaiee  of 
SainUmge,  serentj-siz  mllea  south-east  fhorn  Names.  Diprlng  the  religioas  wars,  and  eapeclally 
■Her  the  m—Mcre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Bochelle  waa  a  stronghold  of  the  Proteslanto.  Inresled 
1ijtheOBltaolfelbn9estalS7a,ttwWbaloodnlDasriege,taniilnatedh7»trae^  Themuneroua 
InihictkMia  of  tha^treaty,  hi  the  reign  of  Louto  XUI^  and  under  the  mlnlatiy  of  RleheUeu,  led 
to  a  seoond  ale^  which  comnenoed  hi  Aoguat,  1897,  and  waa  as  rlolcnt  aa  the  foriMiv  and 
loager  and  more  deetoiye.  After  aix  montha  of  herole  rastotanoe,  the  ikasoua  ei^neer*  lfeCl»* 
■cna,  wM  directed  to  her  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  by  an  tomeiwe  df  ke,  Mtendlag  neailr 
fire  thousand  Ihet  Into  ttie  sea,  the  remains  of  which  are  stltt  risible  at  low  water.  The  raanll 
vaa  mtm  SOally  appasent.  Famine  quicUy  dedmated  the  nakaef  the  besiegsd ;  and  after  a 
■Mtofanca  of  Ibuftean  aotha  and  i^jhteen  days,  nechella  mm  eonipeBed  to  capltahUfc  Blob** 
Qan  n*tdb  a  trianphaiK  cBti7  Into  theetty;  thaftMttetileaawera4nMltol^4Ni**»lh*r 


95S  M OI«ItK  HISTORT.  [Pjm  B. 

offered  his  saooessfiil  mediation  in  n^tisting  a  six  years'  armistioe 
between  the  hostile  States  of  Sweden  and  Poland,  .with  the  yiew  of 
leaving  Oostayos  AdAphns,  the  Swedish  king,  at  liberty  to  tnm  his- 
arms  against  the  Gkrman  emperor.  All  the  indnoements  that  an 
artful  diplomatist  could  urge  were  brought  to  bear  upon  Gustayus,  a 
prince  ard3nt  in  the  Protestant  faith,  and  already  a  sufferer  from 
thejnsolence  and  rapacity  of  Wallenstein ;  and  the  result  was  a  dec- 
laration of  war  against  the  German  emperor,  and  an  invasion  of  his 
territory  by  the  Swedes,  in  the  summer  of  1630. 

7.  When  Ferdinand  was  informed  that  the  Swedish  monarch  had 
landed  in  Pomerania'  at  the  head  of  only  fifteen  thousand  men,  he 
treated  the  affisdr  with  much  indifference;  and  the  Roman  Catholic « 
party  throughout  the  empire  styled  Gustavus,  in  contempt,  the  petty 
snow  kingf  who,  they  said,  would  speedily  melt  beneath  the  rays  of 
the  imperial  sun.  But  while  the  German  armies  were  a  motley  of 
all  creeds  and  nations,  bound  together  only  by  the  ties  of  a  common 
warfare  and  pillage,  the  Swedes  formed  a  phalanx  of  hardy  and  well- 
disciplined  warriors,  strengthened  by  the  confidence  that  God-was  on 
their  side ;  and  to  Him  they  offered  up  their  prayers  twioe  a  day, 
each  regiment  having-  its  own  chaplain.  Besides  this,  Gustavus  had 
introduced  a  new  system  of  military  tactics  into  his  army ;  anci  by 
the  novelty  and  boldness  of  his  positions,  and  the  impetuosity  of  his 
movements,  he  completely  disconcerted  the  adherents  of  the  old  Ger- 
man routine. 

8.  Although  some  of  the  Protestant  prmces  of  Germany,  througk 
h^x  of  their  emperor,  or  from  jealousy  of  foreign  dominion,  hesi- 
tated about  joining  the  new  ally  of  their  cause,  yet  the  onset  of  the 
Swedes  was  irresistible :  they  rapidly  made  themselves  masters  of  all 
Pomerania,  and  took  Frankfort  under  the  eye  of  the  imperial  gen- 
eral Tilly ;  but  they  were  unable  to  relieve  Magdeburg,*  which  Tilly 
plundered  and  burned,  amid  scenes  of  the  most  revolting  atrocity--^ 
an  act  which  rendered  his  name  infiunous  among  all  classes  of  the 
German  population. 

9.  The  unfortunate  loss  of  Magdeburg  was  speedily  compensated 

1.  Powuramia  If  ft  large  proTlnoe  of  PraHta,  esctendlng  Murt  ttom  Mecklenbtfg  •^»oot  tw» 
hondrad  miles  elong  the  aontliern  ooeet  of  the  Baltic  Guataviu  landed  on  the  Islands  Wollen 
iBd  Uaedom,  amith-eaat  of  fltralsand.  The  flnt  towns  reduced  by  htm  were  Wolgast  and 
SMtiB.    (JirA^No.XVII.) 

S.  Magdtbwf\»m  8traiig1y.«irtilled  dty,  and  the  capital  of  Pniaslan  Saxony,  situated  o^  fh9> 
Bibo»  seveoiyoftiar  mUes  sovtb-west  from  BeHtu.   Mafdehnii;  has  sufftred  nnmerons  siesea,  bill 
MtKimmnm  aTi'«»wae>ftsiiilf  tliatit  is  saldUivwild  leqnfraSflgrtlioiiaaiidasatoli^ 
im^VL  ftwaspliBdai«d«idtarMibynil|^liiqr1M»U»l.   CJU^Wb^XVIL) 


OtaAT.IV.]     •  V  SEVENTEENTH  OENTimT.  86© 

by  fonnidable  aoQ^ssions  of  strength  recehcd  from  France  and  Eng- 
land, and  by  a  great  victory  gaimsd  by  Gnatavus  over  Tilly  in  the 
vicinity  of  Leipsic'  (Sept.  7th,  1631.)  •  Gnstavus  now  rapidly 
traversed  Qermanv  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Rhine,  pnrsatng  his  victa 
rions  career  to  the  borders  of  Switzerland  :  all  northern  and  western 
Germany,  together  with  Bohemia,  were  in^the  hands  of  the  Protest- 
ants ;  and  early  in  the  following  year  Tilly  himself  was  slain  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Lech,  a  soathem  tributary  of  the  Danube,  in  Ba- 
varia. 

%  10.  Ferdinand  now  saw  no  alternative,  in  his  sinking  fortunes,  but 
to  call  the  great  and  proud  Wallenstein  from  retirement  His  res- 
toration at  once  gave  a  new  direction  to  th^  war.  He  quickly  seized 
Prague,  and  restored  Bohemia  to  his  sovereign ;  and  Gnstavus  was 
now  obliged  to  retire' within  the  walls  of  Nuremberg*  until  he  could 
rally  his  troops,  which  were  scattered  over  Germany.  After  a  tedious 
blockade  of  Nuremberg,  in  which  both  parties  lost  thirty  thotisand 
soldiers  by  famines  and  the  sword,  Wallenstein  made  a  sudden  move- 
ment towards  Dresden ;'  but  the  advance  of  Gustavus  thwarted  hiff 
plans  and  brought  on  that  fatal  action  in  which  the  Swedish  hero  lost 
his  life.  On  the  16th  of  November,  1632,  the  two  armies  met  at 
Lutzen;^  but  scarcely  had  the  battle  commenced  when  Gustavus, 
throwing  himself  before  the  enemy's  ranks,  fell  pierced  by  two  balls. 
After  a  desperate  engagement  the  Protestants  triumphed ;  but  the 
glory  of  theur  victory  was  dearly  bought  by  the  death  of  their  leader.  * 

1.  Leipne  ii  a  celebrated  oonmierdal  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  sizly  mttee  northFivesl 
ftom  Dreiden.  It  is  a  manuitoturing  town  of  considerable  importance,  and  is  the  greatest 
book  emporium  in  the  world.  Ih  Oct.  1813^  Lelpslc  was  the  scene  oir  a  moat  tremendous  ton- 
flict  between  Napoleon  and  the  allies,  in  which  the  French,  grsatly  inferior  in  nnnben,  w«v» 

TIaed  with  a  heavy  loss.    (JITap  No.  XVII.) 
JfmreiHkerg-  is  a  dty  of  Bararta,  ninety-three  mllea  north-west  tfom  Munich.    It  is  sor- 
rowided  by  fbodal  waito  and  turrets,  and  these  are  inclosed  by  a  ditch  one  hundred  feet  wid* 
and  fifty  feci  deep,  lined  throughout  with  masonry.    Nuremberg  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of 
the  EefermaUon,  harhig  early  embraced  its  doctrines.    {Map  No.  XVn.) 

Sl  Dre940n^  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxooy,  i«  situated  on  the  Elbe,  one  hundred 
miles  south-east  fh>m  Berlbi,  and  two  hundred  and  thirty  nortb-west  (h>m  Vienna.  Population 
'  mostly  Protestant.  It  has  a  great  number  of  literary  and  scientific  Institutions,  and  establish- 
nmH  doToted  to  edoeatlon.  Dresden  and  Its  euTirons  have  been  the  scene  of  some  of  the 
most  important  cenflicts  In  modem  warfare,  particularly  oa  the  96th  and  S7th  of  August,  J8i% 
when  Napoleon  defeated  the  allies  under  Its  walls.    (Maf  No.  XVII.) 

4.  Lutun  is  a  small  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  twelve  nlllea  south-west  from  Lelpale.  II 
would  be  unwortlv  of  notice  were  it  not  that.  Its  eoTlrons  have  been  the  scene  of  two  of  the 
most  m^mondde  oonfllcls  of  modem  times.-~the  firrt,  which  oeeurred  Nor.  Mth,  1638,  and  Ia 
^hlch  the  Swedish  moaaich  Gustavw  Adolphua  fell ;  and  the  second,  which  took  pbuie  on 
nmly  the  seme  ground,  Ifay  ad,  1813,  and  la  wbloh  the  Frneh,  under  Napotaen,  defeated  th» 
dlies»whowei«eiiooiM^^thepniMM»flfilM«P«prAkaBBd«midlfeektai«Cr     ' 


.S60  MODSRN  HIBTORT.  .  -      [Pam  a 

11.  Thus  termiiMited  ih«  Swedish  period  of  tl^f  «  Thirty  years' 
war ;"  for  although  the  Swedes  still  determined  to  si»p{)ort  the  Pro- 
testant oause  in  Germany,  the  animating  spirit  of  the  war  had  fled, 
and  they  were  unahle,  alone,  to  aooomplish  anything  effeetaal.  A 
little  more  than  a  year  after  the  fall  of  Gustavas,  Wallenstein,  heing 

IT  nKNCH  *^^^^^^  ^^  treason  to  his  master  and  the  Gat^olio  oanse, 
nuoD  or    was  assassinated  hy  the  cbmmand  of  the  emperor  Fer- 
tuK  WAM.    dinand.     (Feb.  1634.)    We  oome  now.to  what  has  been 
called  the  French  period,  embracing  the  closing  scenes  of  this  war. 

12.  The  French  minister,  Richelieu,  had  long  observed,  with  se-# 
cret  satisfaction,  the  misfortunes  of  the  house  of  Austria,  and  o^the 
German  empire  generally ;  and  now  he  offered  the  aid  of  France  to 
the  Swedes  and  the  German  Protestants,  with  Holland  and  the  duke- 
of  Savoy  as  allies,  on  the  condition  of  extending  the  French  frontier 
over  a  portion  of  the  German  territory ;  and  thus  the  persecutor  of 
the  Huguenots  was  leagued  with  the  Protestant  powers  of  Europe 
against  its  Roman  Catholic  princes ; — "  a  clear  pr^f,"  says  a  writer 
of  French  history,  "  that  his  principles  were  politic,  not  bigoted.'' 
In  a  ^ort  time  French  armies  were  sent  into  Italy,  Germany,  and 
the  Netherluids;  and  from  this  moment  the  provinces  along  the 
Rhine  became  the  chief  seat  of  the  war,  being  pillaged  and  devas- 
tated as  those  Mong  the  Oder,  Elbe,  and  Weeer,  had  been  previonsly. 

13.  From  the  moment  of  the  active  interference  of  France,  the 
)>ower  of  the  German  imperialists  declined ;  and  the  reminder  of 
this  "  Thirty  years^  war,"  which  was  marked  by  an  unusuak  degree 
of  ferocity  on  botii  sides,  presents  a  continuation  of  gloomy  and  dis- 
heartening scenes,  in  which  Richelieu  had  the  advantsge,  not  from 
military  but  diplomatic  superiority.  Ferdinand  died  in  the  year 
1637,  without  living  to  witness  the  termination  of  the  civil  and  do- 
mestic war  in  which  he  had  been  engaged  from  the  commencement 
of  his  reign.  The  French  monarch  Louis  XIII.,  and  his  minister 
Richelieu,  the  great  fomentors  and  leaders  of  the  war,  died  in  1642, 
after  which  the  negotiations  for  peace,  which  had  been  begun  as  early 
as  1636,  were  the  more  easily  concluded ;  and  in  October  1648,  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia'  closed  the  sad  scene  of  the  long  and  sanguinary 

1.  frtttpkalU  it  a  prevtaee-MDbfMlBg  all  ttie  northarn  portion  of  Mie  PnufllflB  dontolow 
WMt  of  tho  WoMT  The  *^  poaoo  of  WMiphalis^  wm  oondnded  In  IMS,  «t  MnnttlJh  uid  Onn- 
borsi— both  then  in  Weatpfaalia,  but  the  liUter  now  In  Binover.  bf  1641  prellnitawries  w«9m^ 
agned  apoa  al  Bambmg :  In  1044  actual  negotiations  wave  oommenoed  at  Otnabiii«»  betwoM 
tka  ■■til iiwiiH  of  Am^M^  th^Cewaa  i—piw^  and  aiinltn %  aM at  IkwiMr  batween  iteM 
onae«nperar,FiaiMak  Spate,  and  olharpowwai  bot  tha  tiUdM  adopted  la  buthimMlM* 


Chap.  IV.]  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  861 

"  Thirty  years*  war."  Peace  found  the  German  States  in  a  sadly- 
depressed  condition ;  the  scene  that  was  everywhere  presented  was  a 
wide  waste  of  ruin ;  and  two-thirds  of  the  population  had  perished, 
although  not  so  much  by  the  sword  as  by  contagion,  plague,  famine, 
and  the  other  attendant  horrors  that  fallow  in  the  tx'ain  of  war. 

14.  The  chief  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  were,  1st,  the 
confirmation  of  the  religious  peace  of  Passau,  and  the  consequent 
establishment  of  the  independence  of  the  Protestant  German  powers : 
2d,  the  dismemberment  of  many  of  the  German  States  for  the  purpose 
of  indemnifying  others  for  their  losses ;  and  the  sanction  of  the  com- 
plete sovereignty  of  each  of  the  German  States  within  its  own  terri- 
tory :  3d,  the  extension  of  the  eastern  limits  of  France :  ^^h,  the 
grant,  to  Sweden,  of  a  considerable  territory  on  the  Baltic  coast,  to- 
gether with  a  subsidy  of  five  millions  of  dollars ;  and  5  th,  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  independence  of  the  N^erlands  by  Spain,  and 
of  the  Swiss  cantons  by  the  German  empire. 

II.  English  History  : — The  English  Kevolution. — Whila  the 
*<  Thirty  years'  war"  was  progressing  on  the  continent,  leading  tathe 
final  triumph  of  religious  liberty  there,  England  was  convulsed  by 
donoestic  dissensions,  which  eventually  led  to  a  civil  war>  and  the . 
temporary  overthrow  of  the  monarchy.     On  the  death  of 
Elizabeth  in  1603,  James  YI.  of  Scotland,  the  son  of  the     xnolahd 
unfortunate  Mary,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,        ^^^ 
with  the  title  of  James  I.     England  and  Scotland  were 
thus  united  under  one  sovereign ;  and  henceforth  the  two  countries 
received  the  common  designation  of  ^*  Great  Britain." 

2.  The  character  of  James,  the  first  English  monarch  of  the  Stuart 
&mily,  was  not  calculated  to  win  the  affections  of  his         n. 
subjects.     He  was  as  arbitrary  as  his  predecessors  of  the     '^^  ^ 
Tudor  race ;  and,  although  excelling  in  the  learning  of  the  times,  he 
was  signally  deficient  in  all  those  noble  qualities  of  a  sovereign  which 
command  respect  and  enforce  obedience.     His  imprudence  in  sur- 
rounding himself  with  Scotch  favorites  irritated  the  English :  the 
Scotch  saw  with  no  greater  satisfaction  his  attempts  to  subject  thent 
to  the  worship  of  the  English  church :  some  disappomted  Boman 
Catholics  formed  a  conspiracy,  which  was  fortunately  detected,  to  , 
destroy  by  gunpowder  the  king  and  assembled  parliaipent ;  and  the  , 

tnat7.    Aner  imu  had  boen  aottled  between  the  poriles  at  Oanaborg,  the  mtniaten  n»paiiid  ' 
to  MiuNier,  wbm  Um  fla«I  tmdj  was  ooooiuded.  Got.  S4t2i,  UWfi.   {Map  No.  XVIL) 

U 


862  MODSBK  HISTOBT.  I^amTL 

poritails,  aiming  at  farther  reforms  in  tke  oharoh  and  in  the  state, 
were  committed  to  prison  for  even  petitioning  for  some  changes,  not 
in  the  least  inconsistent  with  the  established  hierarchy.  James 
strennonsly  maintained  the  '*  Divine  right  of  kings ;"  and  his  entire 
reign  was  a  oontinned  straggle  of  the  house  of  commons  to  restore, 
and  to  fortify,  their  own  liberties,  and  those  of  the  people. 

3.  In  1625  James  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  his  son  Oharles 
UL         I.,  then  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  age.     Had  Charles 

CBAftLBs  L  lived  a  hundred  years  earlier,  or  had  not  the  reformatory 
spirit  of  the  age  introduced  great  and  important  changes  in  the 
minds  of  men  on  the  subject  of  the  royal  prerogative  and  the  liber- 
ties of  the  people,  he  might  have  reigned  with  great  popularity;  for 
his  stem  and  serious  deportment,  his  disinclination  to  all  licentious- 
ness, and  a  deep  regard  for  religion,  were  highly  suitable  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  English  people  at  this  period ;  but  it  was  the  misfortune 
of  Charles  to  be  destiHite  of  that  political  prudence  which  should 
have  taught  him  to  yield  to  the  necessities  of  the  times. 

4.  The  accession  of  Charles  was  immediately  followed  by  difficul- 
ties with  his  parliament,  which  had  no  confidence  in  the  king,  and 
wfuch  he  suddenly  dissolved,  because  it  refused  to  vote  the"  supplies 
demanded  by  him,  and  showed  an  inclination  to  impeach  his  favorite 
minister  Buckingham.  The  second  parliament  proceeded  with  the 
impeachment  of  the  minister,  (1626,)  and  the  king  retaliated  by  im- 
prisoning two  members  of  the  house  on  the  charge  of  "  words  spoken 
by  them  in  derogation  ofliis  majesty's  honor  ]^  but  the  exasperation 
of  the  Commons  soon  obtained  their  release.  The  third  parliament, 
called  in  1628,  waiving  all  minor  contests,  demanded  the  king's  sanc- 
tion to  a  "  Petition  of  Right,"  which  set  forth  the  tights  of  the  Eng- 
lish people  as  guaranteed  to  them  by  the  Great  Charter,  and  by 
various  laws  and  statutes  of  the  realm.  Charles,  after  many  evasions, 
reluctantly  signed  the  Petition  ^  but  in  a  few  months  he  flagrantly 
violated  the  obligations  it  had  imposed  upon  him,  and  in  a  fit  of  in- 
dignation dissolved  parliament,  resolving  never  again  to  call  another. 
(1629—39.) 

5.  During  an  interval  of  about  ten  years,  and  until  the  assembling 
of  another  parliament,  no  opposition,  except  such  as  public  opinion 
interposed,  was  made  to  the  fiill  enjoyment  of  the  unrestrained  pre- 
rogatives of  the  king.  Monopolies  were  now  revived  to  a  ruinous 
extent,  and  the  benefits  of  them  were  sold  to  the  highest  bidder ;  ille- 
gal duties  were  sustained  by  servile  judges;  unl.eard-of  fines  were 


CtoA?.  IV.J  SBVEHTEBNTH  OBaSTTUET.  363 

Impoaed ;  and  no  expedieot  waci  omitted  that  might  tend  to  bring 
money  into  the  royal  treasury,  and  thus  enable  the  king  to  rale 
^thout  the  aid  of  parliament.  The  English  clergy,  at  the  head  of 
whom  was  arohbiahop  Laud,  otie  of  the  chief  advisers  of  the  king, 
nsurped,  hy  degrees,  the  civil  powers  of  government ;  and  the  puri- 
tans were  so  rigorously  persecuted  that  great  numbers  of  them  sought 
an  asylum  in  America.  In  1637  the  attempts  of  Charles  to  intro- 
duce the  Episcopal  form  of  wq;rship  into  Scotland,  drove  the  Scotch 
presbyterians  to  open  rebellion ;  and  a  covenant  to  defend  the  re- 
ligion, the  laws,  and  the  liberties  of  their  country  against 
every  danger,  was  immediately  framed  and  subscribed  ^ggg^^ 
by  them.  The  covenanters,  having  received  arms  and 
money  from  the  Erench  minister  Hichelieu,  marched  into  England ; 
but  the  English  army  refusecK  to  fight  against  their  brethren,  when 
the  king,  finding  himself  beset  with  di&culties  on  every  side,  was 
obliged  to  place  himself  at  the  discretion  of  a  fourth  parliament. 
(April  1640.)  This  parliament,  not  fully  complying  with  the  king^s 
'  wishes,  was  abruptly  dissolved  after  a  month's  session ;  but  public 
opinion  soon  compelled  the  king  to  summon  another,  which  assembled 
in  November  of  the  same  year. 

6.  The  new  parliament,  called  the  Long  Parliament,  from  the  ex- 
traordinary length  of  its  session,  first  applied  itself  dili-  ^  ^, 
gently  to  the  correction  of  abuses  and  a  redress  of  griev-  ix)no  fae- 
ance&  Future  parliaments  were  declared  to  be  triennial ;  ^tIambnt. 
many  of  the  recent  acts  for  taxing  the  people  were  declared  illegal , 
and  monopolies  of  every  kind  were  abolished — the  king  yielding  to 
all  the  demands  that  were  made  upon  him.  Not  satisfied  wilh  these 
concessions,  the  conunons  impeached  the  earl  of  Strafibrd,  the  king's 
first  minister,  and  favorite  general,  accusing  him  of  exercising  pow- 
ers beyond  what  the  crown  had  ever  lawfully  enjoyed,  and  of  a  sys- 
tematic hostility  to  the  fundamental  laws  and  constitution  of  the 
realm.  By  the  unconstitutional  expedient  of  a  bill  of  attainder, 
Strafford  was  declared  guilty ;  and  the  king  had  the  weakness  to  sign 
his  condemnation.  (1641.)  Archbishop  Laud  was  brought  to  trial 
and  executed  four  years  later.  The  severity  of  the  punishment  of 
Str^ord,  and  the  magnanimity  displayed  by  him  on  his  trial,  have 
half  redeemed  his  forfoit^amo,  and  misled  a  generous  posterity ;  but 
he  died  justly,  although  the  means  taken  to  accomplish  his  condem- 
nation, By  a  departure  from  the  ordiuai'y  course  of  judicial  proceed* 
iagB,  ettablielhed  a  precedent  dangerous  to  civil  liberty. 


864  MOD£EN  BISTORT.  t^isrlL 

7.  With  a  strong  Land  parliament  now  virtually  took  poflseflaioii 
of  the  government ;  it  declared  itself  indissoluble  without  its  own 
consent,  and  continued  to  encroach  on  the  prerogatives  of  the  king  * 
until  scarcely  the  shadow  of  his  former  power  was  left  him.  A  re- 
bellion which  broke  out  in  Ireknd  was  maliciously  charged  upon  the 
king  as  its  author ;  and  Charles,  to  refute  the  unworthy  suspicion, 
intrusted  the  management  of  Irish  affairs  to  parliament,  which  the 
litter  interpreted  into  a  transference  to  them  of  the  whole  military 
power  of  the  kingdom.  At  length  Charles,  irritated  by  a  threatening 
remonstrance  on  the  state  of  the  kingdorn>  caused  five  members  of 
the  Commons  to  be  impeached ;  and  went  in  person  to  the  House  to 
seize  them, — a  fatal  act  of  indiscretion  which  was  declared  a  breach 
of  privilege  of  parliament,  for  which  Charles  found  it  necessary  to 
atone  by  a  humiliating  message.  * 

8.  The  difficulties  between  the  king  and  parliament,  and  their  re- 
spective supporters,  at  length  reached  such  a  crisis,  that  in  January 

1642  the  king  left  London,  attended  by  most  of  his  no- 
^WAR^  bility,  and,  repairing  to  Nottingham,*  erected  there  the 
royal  standard,  resolving  to  stake  his  claims  on  the  has- 
ards  of  war.  The  adherents  of  parliament  were  not  unprepared  for 
the  contest.  On  the  side  of  the  king  were  ranged  most  of  the  no- 
bility of  the  kingdom,  together  with  the  Roman  Catholics — all  form- 
ing the  high  church  and  monarchy  party ;  while  parliament  had  on 
its  side  the  numerous  presbyterian  dissenters,  and  all  ultra  religious 
and  political  reformers ; — ^parliament  held  the  seaports,  the  fleet,  the 
great  cities,  the  capital,  and  the  eastern,  middle,  and  southern 
counties ;  while  the  royalists  had  the  ascendancy  in  the  north  and  west. 

9.  From  1642  until  1647  the  war  was  carried  on  with  various  suo- 
sess.  In  the  battle  of  Edghill,*  fought  in  October  1642,  nothmg 
was  decided,  although  five  thousand  men  were  left  dead  on  the 
field.     The  battle  of  Newbury,'  fought  in  the  following  year,  (Sept 

t.  JTotUngham  Is  ft  city  one  huadred  and  eifl^t  miles  nortb-wesl  tnm  London.  It  was  the 
ebiof  plaoe  of  reudezvom  for  the  troops  of  EdvM^  IV.  and  Richard  III.  during  the  wan  of 
the  Ro^s.  Soon  after  Charles  I.  raised  his  standard  here  In  1643,  the  bihabilants,  who  wera 
attached  to  the  repnUiean  caose,  oompetted  him  to  abandon  the  town  and  castle  to  the  paiUi^ 
mentar}-  forces.    {Map  No.  XVI.) 

"2,  Edghill  is  a  small  town  in  the  county  of  Warwick,  seyenty-tiA  miles  north-west  flK>m 
London.    (Map  TXo.XVL) 

3.  J^nobury  is  a  town  in  Berks  countj,  England,  on  the  Kennett,  a  toutheni  brauoh  of  th* 
THames,  flfty-three  miles  south-west  from  London.  The  vicinity  of  this  town  is  oembrated  ft>r 
two  baUles  fooght  durtng  the  cItII  wars  between  the  royalist  and  pi^rliameBtary  IbroeSi— Obtitot 
L  oommandlng  his  army  in  person  on  both  oooailoni.  Th«  flnt  wis  flMigbl  eapt  dbhi  KIO  { 
thesemndiOQtgTttmMiibiitBeltlMrhadaqydMBldMinmlt    (M^ff6.XVJ4 


obapiv.]  bbvbntjbbnth  century.  ^U5 

20th,  1643,)  was  equally  indeciaiTei  but  it  was  attended  with  soeh 
loss  on  both  sidea  that  it  put  an  end  to  the  campaign,  by  obliging « 
both  parties  to  retire  into  winter  quarters. 

10.  Both  king  and  parliament  now  began  to  look  for  assistance  to 
other  nations;  and  while  some  Irish  Roman  Catholics     ^^^  ^^^ 
joined  the  royal  army,  the  parliament  entered  into  a     bootoh 

«  Solemn  League  and  Covenant"  with  the  Scotch  people,  ^■'^®^«- 
by  which  the  parties  to  it  bound  themselves  to  aid  in  the  extirpation 
of  popery  and  prelacy,  and  to  promote  the  establishment>of  a  church 
government  conformed  to  that  of  Scotland.  The  Scots,  rejoicing  at 
the  prospect  thus  held  out  of  extending  their  mode*of  religion  over 
England,  sent  an  army  of  twenty  thousand  men,  at  the  beginning  of 

1644,  to  cooperate  with  the  forces  of  parliament. 

1 1.  The  campaign  of  1644  was  unfortunate  to  the  royal  cause,  the 
Irish  forces  being  dispersed  by  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  and  the  royal- 
ists experiencing  a  severe  defeat  at  Marston  Moor,*  (2d  July,)  on 
which  occasion  fifty  thousand  British  combatants  engaged  in  mutual 
slaughter.  In  Scotland  the  royal  cause  was  for  a  time  sustained  by 
the  marquis  of  Montrose ;  but  the  gallant  Scot  was  at  length  over- 
whelmed by  superior  numbers ;  and  in  the  following  year,  June  14th, 

1645,  the  battle  of  Naseby,*  gained  by  the  parliamentary  forces,  de- 
cided the  contest  against  the  king,  although  the  useless  obstinacy  of 
the  royalists  protracted  the  war  till  the  beginning  of  1647.^  After 
the  defeat  at  Naseby,  the  king,  relying  on  the  faith  of  uncertain 
promises,  threicjiimself  into  the  hands  of  his  Scotch  subjects ;  but  the 
latter,  treating  him  as  a  prisoner,  delivered  him  up  to  the  commission* 
ers  of  parliament. 

12.  The  war  was  now  at  an  ^nd,  but  eivil  and  religious  dissensions 
r%ged  with  greater  fury  than  ever.  The  late  enemies  of  the  king 
were  divided«into  two  factions,  the  Presbyterians  and  the  Independents, 
the  former  having  a  majority  in  the  parliament,  and  the  latter  form- 
ing a  majority  of  the  army.  At  the  head  of  the  Inde- 
pendent party  was  Oliver  Cromwell,  a  general  of  the  ^^^^^ 
army,  and  a  man  of  talent  and  address,  who  appears  al« 

1.  Mmrtion  Jbor  to  a  anaU  TlUage  of  TorluUre,  Englaiid,  levwi  miles  wesi  of  the  city  of 
Tofk.    (Jlfo|»  No.  XVI.) 

8.  ^Iwedy  M  a  decayed  mariiet  town  of  England,  eleyen  and  Orbalf  miles  nortb-west  ttom 
London.  It  to  tw«nty-aln«  miles  nortb-east  of  the  locality  of  the  battto  of  EdghiU.  The  baUto 
or  Naseby  wss  fought  north  of  the  town,  In  the  plain  that  separated  Naseby  from  Uarborough* 
(JKs^No.lCVL) 

a.  •"Someof  the  casttos  of  North  Wales,  the  last  that  somnderad,  held  oat  UU  April  16«7.*»- 
lOoMtHtot.   Moto  p.a5l0 


866  MODERN  HISTOBY.  fPAtrlL 

ready  to  hare  formed  the  design  of  obtaining  supreme  |xy«r6t.  fty 
his  orders  the  king  was  taken  from  the  eommissioners  of  parliament, 
and  placed  in  the  custody  of  the  army.  A  proposition  of  parliament 
to  disband  the  army  gave  Cromwell  an  opportunity  to  heighten  the 
disaffection  of  the  soldiers ;  and,  placing  himself  at  thehr  head,  he 
entered  London,  purged  parliament  of  the  .members  obnoxious  to 
him,  and  imprisoned  all  who  disputed  his  authority. 

13.  While  parliament  was  suffering  under  the  military  domination 
of  Cromwell,  a  general  reaction  began  to  take  place  in  fiivor  of  the 
king.  The  Scots,  ashamed  of  the  reproach  of  having  sold  thfeir  sover- 
eign, now  took  up  arms  in  his  favor ;  but  Cromwell  marched  against 
them  at  the  head  of  an  inferior  force,  and  after  defeating  them, 
entered  Scotland,  the  government  of  which  he  settled  entirely  to  his 
aatisfaotion.  Parliament  also  entered  into  a  negotiation  with  the 
king,  with  the  view  of  restoring  him  to  pow^ ;  but  Cromwell  sur- 
rounded the  House  of  Commons  with  his  soldiers,  and  excluding  all 
but  his  own  partisans,  caused  a  vote  to  be  passed  declaring  it  treasoii 
in  a  king  to  levy  war  against  his  parliament.  UndeJr  the  influence 
of  Cromwell,  proposals  were  now  made  for  bringing  the  king  to  trial ; 

and  when  the  few  remaining  members  of  the  House  of 

IX.    TKIAL       T-ij.li'.  .  1  iM 

AND  KXKcu-  -Lioras  refused  their  sanction  to  the  measure,  the  Com- 
noN  or  mons  voted  that  the  concurrence  of  the  Lords  waA  un- 
necessary, and  that  the  people  were  the  origin  of  all  just 
power.  The  Commons  then  named  a  court  of  justice,  composed 
mostly  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  army,  t/o  try  the  kiug ;  and 
on  the  charge  of  having  been  the  cause  of  all  the  bloodshed  during 
the  continuance  of  the  war,  he  was  condemned  to  death?  He  was 
allowed  only  three  days  to  prepare  for  execution ;  and  on  the  30th 
of  January,  1649,  the  misguided  and  unhappy  monarch  was  behead- 
ed, being,  at  the  time,  in  the  forty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
twenty  fourth  of  his  reign. 

14.  *^  The  execution  of  Charles  the  First,''  says  Hallam,  <<  has  becat 
mentioned  in  later  ages  by  a  few  with  unlimited  praise^  by  some, 
with  faint  and  ambiguous  censure,  by  most  with  vehement  reproba- 
tion." Viewing  the  case  in  all  its  aspects,  we  con  find  no  justifica- 
tion for  the  deed ;  for  no  considerations  of  public  necessity  required 
it ;  and  it  wa^,  moreover,  the  act  of  a  small  minority  of  parliament, 
that  had  usurped,  under  the  protection  of  a  military  force,  a  power 
which  all  England  declared  illegal.  Lingard  asserts  that  "  the  men 
who  hurried  Charles  to  the  scaffold  were  a  small  faction  of  bold  and 


Chap.  rV.]  SEVENTEENTH  OENTURT.  367 

ambitioiifl  spirits,  who  had  the  address  to  guide  the  passions  and  fwati- 
cism  of  thi.'ir  followers,  and  were  eAbled,  through  them,  to  control  the 
real  sentiments  of  the  nation."  The  arbitrary  principles  of  Charles, 
which  he  had  imbibed  in  the  lessons  of  early  youth, — his  passionate 
temper,  and  want  of  sincerity,  indeed  rendered  him  unfit  for  the 
difficult  station  of  a  constitutional  king ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
was  deserving  of  esteem  for  the  correctness  of  his  moral  principles ; 
and  in  private  life  he  would  not  have  been  an  unamiable  man. 

15.  A  few  days  after  the  death  of  Oharles,  the  monarchical  form 
of  government  wa&  formally  abolished ;  the  House  of  ^  abou- 
Lords  fell  by  a  vote  of  the  Commons  at  the  same  time  j  xiom  or 
the  mere  shadow  of  a  parliament,  known  by  the  appella-  "'^''^■*^^- 
tion  of  the  Rump^  and  supported  by  an  army  of  fifty  thousand  me^ 
under  the  controlling  influence  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  took  into  its 
hands  all  the  powers  of  government ;  and  the  former  title  of  the 
'^  English  Monarchy  gave  place  to  that  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
JEngland.  The  royalists  being  still  in  considerable  force  in  Ireland, 
Cromwell  repaired  thither  with  an  army,  and  speedily  reduced  the 
countzy  to  submission ;  after  which  he  marched  into  Scotland  at  the 
head  of  sixteen  thousand  men,  and,  in  the  battle  of  Dunbar,  (Sept 
13th,  1650,)  defeated  the  royal  covenanters,  who  had  proclaimed 
Charles  II.,  son  of  the  late  king,  as  their  sovereign.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  pursued  the  Scotch  army  into  England,  and  completely 
annihilated  it  in  the  desperate  battle  of  Worcester.'  (Sept.  13th, 
1651.) 

16.  Cromwell  had  formed  the  project  of  a  coalition  with  Holland, 
which  was  to  make  the  two  republics  one  and  indivisible ;     ^  ^^ 
but  national  antipathies  could  not  be  overcome ;  and  in-       wrra 
stead  of  the  proposed  coalition  there  ensued  a  fierce  and     Holland. 
bloody  war.    Under  pretence  of  providing  for  the  interests  of  commerce, 
the  British  parliament  passed  the  celebrated  navigation  act,  which 
prohibited  all  nations  from  importing  int;o  England,  in  their  ships, 
any  commodity  which  was  not  the  growth  and  manufacture  of  their 
own  country ; — a  blow  aimed  directly  at  the  Dutch,  who  were  the 
general  factors  and  carriers  of  Europe.     Ships  were  seized  and  re- 
prijsals  mad^  j  and  in  the  month  of  May,  1652,  the  war  broke  out  by 

L  JToreester^  the  capital  of  Worcester  ooanty,  England,  is  on  fhe  eastern  bank  of  the  rirer 
Serem,  one  hundred  miles  north-west  fW>m  London.  Worcester  is  of  great,  but  nncertaln, 
actlquity,  and  Is  one  of  the  best  built  towns  in  the  kingdom.  It  Is  prlncfpally  oelebrated  in 
history  for  its  giving  name  to  the  dedsire  rkHorj  obtained  there  bj  Cromwell  oo  the  13th 
SepClSSL    (JHcyMObXVL) 


868  HODEBK  HISTORY.  [PamU 

a  casual  enoonnter  of  the  hostile  fleets  of  the  two  nations,  in  the 
straits  of  Dover, — the  Datch  admiral  Van  Tromp  commanding  the 
one  squadron,  and  the  heroic  ]^ke  the  other.  After  five  hours* 
fighting,  the  Dutch^^irere  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  one  ship  sunk  and 
another  taken.  ^ 

17.  The  States-general  of  Holland  were  seriously  alarmed  at  the 
prospect  of  a  naval  war  with  England,  but  the  English  parliament 
would  listen  to  neither  reason  nor  remonstrance ;  and  in  a  short  time 
the  fleets  of  the  two  nations  were  at  sea  again.  Several  actions  took 
place  with  various  success,  but  on  the  29th  of  November  a  deter- 
mined battle  was  fought  off  the  Goodwin  sands,'  between  the  Dutch 
fleet  commanded  by  Van  Tromp  and  De  Rnyter,  and  the  English 
squadron  under  Blake.  Blake  was  wounded  and  defeated ;  &ye  Eng< 
lish  ships  were  taken,  or  destroyed ;  and  night  saved  the  fleet  from 
destruction.  After  this  victory,  Tromp,  in  bravado,  placed  a  broom 
at  his  mast  head,  to  intimate  that  he  would  sweep  the  English  ships 
from  the  seas. 

18.  Great  preparations  were  made  in  England  to  remove  this  dis- 
grace ;  and  in  the  month  of  February  following  (1653)  eighty  sail, 
under  Blake„assisted  by  Dean  and  Monk,  met,  in  the  English  Chan* 
nel,  the  Dutch  fleet  of  seventy-six  vessels,  commanded  by  Van  Tromp, 
who  was  seconded  by  De  Ruyter.  Three  days  of  desperate  fighting 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Dutch,  although  Tromp  acquired  little 
less  honor  than  his  rival,  by  the  masterly  retreat  which  he  con- 
ducted. In  June  several  battles  were  fought ;  and  in  July  occurred 
the  last  of  these  bloody  and  obstinate  conflicts  for  naval  superiority. 
Tromp  issued  forth  once  more,  determined  to  conquer  or  die,  and 
Boon  mat  the  enemy  commanded  by  Monk ;  but  as  he  was  animat- 
ing his  sailors,  with  his  sword  drawn,  he  was  shot  through  the  heart 
with  a  musket  ball.  This  event  alone  decided  the  action,  and 
the  defeat  which  the  Dutch  sustained  was  the  most  decisive  of  the 
whole  war.  Peace  was  soon  concluded  on  terms  advantageous  to 
England ;  and  Cromwell,  as  protector,  signed  the  treaty  of  pacifica- 
tion, (April  1654,)  after  having  vainly  endeavored  to  establish  a  union 
of  government,  privileges,  and  interests,  between  the  two  republics. 

19.  While  the  war  with  Holland  was  progressing,  a  controversy 

1.  The  Ooodwin  sands  are  famooB  and  very  dangerous  aand  banks,  about  four  mllies  ttom 
the  eastern  coast  of  Kent,  a  few  miles  north-east  from  Dover.  They  are  believed  to  have  ouoe 
formed  part  of  the  Kentish  land,  and  to  have  been  submerged  about  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
William  Rufua.  The  chaonei  between  tbem  and  the  main  laud  is  called  **■  the  Downs,**  a  cel^ 
Imoed  roadstead  for  ships,  which  aflbrds  excelleai  anchorage.    {Map  No.  XVI.) 


Ohas.  IV.]        '  SBVENTBENTH  OENTTJRY.  869 

had  arisen  between  Cromwell  and  the  army  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  Long  Parliament  on  the  other.  Each  wished  to  rule  supreme, 
hut  eyentuallj  Cromwell  forcibly  dissolved  the  parliament,  (April 
1653,)  and  soon  after  summoned  another,  composed  wholly  of  mem- 
bers of  his  own  selection.  The  latter,  however,  commonly  called 
Barehon^s  parliament,  from  the  name  of  one  of  its  leading  members, 
at  once  commenced  such  a  thorough  reformation  in  every  department 
of  the  state,  as  to  alarm  Cromwell  and  his  associates ;  and  it  was  re- 
solved that  these  troublesome  legislators  should  be  sent  back  to  their 
respective  parishes.  A  majority  of  the  members  voluntarily  sur- 
rendered their  power  into  the  hands  of  Cromwell,  who  put  an  end 
to  the  opposition  of  the  rest  by  turning  them  out  of  doors.  ^(Dec. 
12th,  1653.)  Four  days  later  a  new  scheme  of  govern-  ^^  ^^ 
ment,  called  "  The  Protectorate,"  was  adopted,  by  which  pRorBcrro- 
the  supreme  powers  of  state  were  vested  in  a  lord  pro-  ^^"^^ 
tector,  a  council,  and  a  parliament ;  and  Cromwell  was  solemnly  in- 
stalled for  life  in  the  office  of  "  Lord  Protector  of  the  commonwealth 
of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland." 

20.  The  parliament  summoned  by  Cromwell  to  meet  in  September 
of  the  following  year,  suspecting  that  the  Protector  aimed  at  kingly 
authority,  comme\iced  its  session  (1654)  by  an  inqiiry  into,  the  right 
by  which  he  held  his  power ;  upon  which  Cromwell  plainly  informed 
the  members  that  he  would  send  them  to  their  homes  if  they  did^not 
acknowledge  the  authority  by  which  they  had  been  assembled.  About 
three  hundred  members  signed  a  paper  recognfzing  Cromwell's  scheme 
of  government ;  while  the  remainder,  amounting  to  a  hundred  and 
sixty,  resolutely  refused  compliance,  and  were  excluded  from  their 
seats ;  but  although  parliament  was  in  some  degree  purged  by  the 
operation,  i(  did  not  exhibit  the  isubserviency  which  Cromwell  had 
hoped  to  find  in  it.  On  the  introduction  of  a  bill  declaring  the  I^ro- 
teotorate  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Cromwell,  a  very  large  majority 
voted  against  it.  The  spirit  which  characterized  the  remainder  of 
tVe  session  showed  Cromwell  that  he  had  not  gained  the  confidence 
of  the  nation ;  and  an  angry  dissolution,  early  in  the  following  year, 
(Feb.  1655,)  increased  the  general  discontent.  Soon  after,  a  conspiracy 
of  the  royalists  broke  out,  but  was  easily  suppressed ;  and  even  in 
the  army,  among  the  republicans  themselves,  several  officers  allowed 
their  fidelity  to  be  corrupted,  and  took  a  share  in  counsels  that  were 
intended  to  restore  the  commonwealth  to  its  original  vigor  and  puri- 
ty.    During  the  same  year  (1655),  a  war  with  Spain  broke  out;  the 

R*      24 


870  MODERK  HISTORT.  [Piwlt 

island  of  Jamaica,  in  the  West  Indies,  was  conquered ;  the  treasure- 
ships  C'f  the  Spaniards  were  captured  on  their  passage  to  Europe ; 
and  some  naval  victories  were  obtained. 

21.  In  his  civil  and  domestic  administration,  which  was  conducted 
with  ability,  but  without  any  regular  plan,  Cromwell  displayed'  a 
general  regard  for  justice  and  clemency;  and  irregularities  were 
never  sanctioned,  unless  the  necessity  of  thus  sustaining  his  usurped 
authority  seemed  to  require  it.  Such  indeed  were  the  order  and 
tranquillity  which  he  preserved — ^such  his  skilful  management  of  per- 
sons and  parties,  and  such,  moreover,  the  change  in  the  feelings  of 
many  of  the  Independents  themselves,  since  the  death  of  the  late 
raonaieh,  that  in  the  parliament  of  1G56  a  motion  was  made,  and 
carried  by  a  considerable  majority,  for  investing  the  Protector  with 
the  dignity  of  king.  Although  exceedingly  desirous  to  accept  the 
proffered  honor,  he  saw  that  the  army,  composed  mostly  of  stem  and 
inflexible  republicans,  could  never  be  reconciled  to  a  measure  that 
implied  an  open  contradiction  of  all  their  past  professions,  and  an 
abandonment  of  their  principles ;  and  he  was  at  last  obliged  to  re- 
fuse that  crown  which  had  been  solemnly  proffered  to  him  by  the 
representatives  of  the  nation. 

22.-  After  this  event,  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  country  kept 
Cromwell  in  perpetual  uneasiness.  The  royalists  renewed  their  con- 
spiracies against  him  ;  and  a  majority  in  parliament  now  opposed  all 
his  favorite  measures ;  a  mutiny  of  the  army  was  apprehended  ;  and 
even  the  daughters  of  the  Protector  became  estranged  from  him.  Over- 
whelmed with  difficulties,  possessing  the  confidence  of  no  party,  hav- 
ing lost  all  composure  of  mind,  and  in  constant  dread  of  assassina- 
tion, his  health  gradually  declined,  and  he  expired  on  the  13th  of 
September,  1653,  the  anniversary  of  his  great  victories,  and  a  day 
which  he  had  always  considered  the  most  fortunate  for  him. 

23.  On  the  death  of  Cromwell,  his  eldest  son,  Richard,  succeeded 
him  in  the  protectorate,  in  accordance,  as  was  supposed,  with  the 
dying  wish  of  his  father,  and  with  the  approbation  of  the  council. 
But  Eiohard,  being  of  a  quiet,  unambitious  temper,  and  alarmed  at 
the  dangers  by  which  he  was  surrounded,  soon  signed  his  own  abdica- 
tion, and  retired  to  private  life.  A  state  of  anarchy  followed,  and 
XIII.  REOTo-  <5ontending  factions,  in  the  army  ^nd  the  parliament,  for 
hation  of  a  time  filled  the  country  with  bloody  dissensions,  when 
MONAHOUY.  general  Monk,  who  commanded  the  army  in  Scotland, 
marched  iyto  England  and  declared  in  favor  of  the  Testoration  of 


Chap.  IV.]  SEVENTEENTH  OENTURT.  371 

royalty.  Tb  Is  declaration,  freeing  the  nation  from  the  state  of  tm^enae 
in  whicE  it  had  long  been  held,  was  reoeived  with  almost  nniveraal 
joy :  the  House  of  Lords  hastened  to  reinstate  itself  in  its  ancient 
authority;  and  on  the  18th  of  May,  1660,  Charles  the  Second,  son 
of  the  late  king,  was  proclaimed  sovereign  of  England,  by  the  united 
acclamations  of  the  army,  the  people,  and  the  two  houses  of  par- 
liament 

24.  The  accession  of  Charles  II.  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors 
was  at  first  hailed  as  the  harbinger  of  real  liberty,  and  the  promise 
of  a  firm  and  tranquil  government,  although  no  terms  were  required 
of  him  for  the  security  of  the  people  against  his  abuse  of  their  con- 
fidence. As  he  possessed  a  handsome  person,  and  was  open  and 
affable  in  his  manners,  i^nd  engaging  in  conversation,  the  first  im- 
pressions pro4sced  by  him  were  favorable ;  but  he  was  soon  found 
to  be  excessively  indolent,  profligate,  and  worthless,  and  to  entertain 
notions  as  arbitrary  as  those  which  had  distinguished  the  reign  of  his 
fikther.  The  parliament,  called  in  1661,  composed  mostly  of  men 
who  had  fought  for  royalty  and  the  church,  gave  back  to  the  crown 
its  ancient  prerogatives,  of  which  the  Long  Parliament  had  despoiled 
it— endeavored  to  enfoicpc  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience,  by  com- 
pelling all  officers  of  trust  to  swear  that  they  held  resistance  to  the 
king's  authority  to  be  in  all  cases  unlawful, — and  passed  an  act  of 
religious  uniformity,  by  which  two  thousand  Presbyterian  ministers 
were  deprived  of  their  livings,  and  the  gaols  filled  with  a  crowd  of 
dissenters.  Episcopacy  was  established  by  law;  and  the  church, 
grateful  for  the  protection  which  she  received  from  the  government, 
made  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance  her  fitvorite  theme,  which  she 
taught  without  any  qualification,  and  followed  out  to  all  its  extreme 
consequences. 

25.  While  these  changes  were  in  progress,  the  manners  and  morals 
of  the  nation  were  sinking  into  an  excess  of  profligacy,  encouraged 
by  the  dissolute  conduct  of  the  king  in  private  life.  Under  the 
austere  rule  of  the  puritans,  vice  and  immorality  were  sternly  re- 
pressed ;  but  when  the  check  was  withdrawn,  they  broke  forth  with 
ungovernable  violence.  The  cavaliers,  as  the  partisans  of  the  late 
king  were  called,  in  general  affected  a  profligacy  of  manners,  as  their 
distinction  from  the  fanatical  and  canting  party,  as  they  denominated 
the  puritans ;  the  prevailing  immorality  pervaded  all  ranks  and  pro- 
fessions ;  the  philosophy  and  poetry  of  the  times  pandered  to  the 
general  licentiousness ;  and  the  public  revenues  were  wasted  on  the 


372  JiODERV  mSTTORT.  [PabtiL 

Tflest  associates  of  the  king's  debaachery.  The  court  of  Charles 
was  a  school  of  yice,  in  which  the  restraints  of  decency  were  langhed 
to  scorn ;  and  at  no  other  period  of  Engltdi  history  were  the  immo- 
ralities of  lioentioosness  practiced  with  more  ostenation,  or  with  less 
iiagrace. 

526.  While  Charles  was  losing  the  &Tor  of  all  parties  and  classes 
bj  his  Delect  of  public  business,  and  his  wastefol  profligacy,  the 
general  discontent  was  heightened  by  his  marriage  with  CaUierine,  a 
Portuguese  princess,  and  by  the  sale  of  Donkirk*  to  France ;  but  still 
greater  clam<M«  arose,  when,  in  1 664,  the  king  provoked  a  war  with  Hol- 
land, by  sending  ovit  a  squadron  which  seised  the  Dutch  settlements 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Cape  Y erde  Islands.  The  House  of 
Commons  readily  TOted  supplies  to  carry  on  the  war  with  vigor ;  but 
such  was  the  extravagance,  dishonesty,  and  incapacity  of  those  to 
whom  Charles  had  intrusted  its  management,  that,  after  a  few  inde- 
dsive  naval  battles,  it  was  found  necessary  to  abandon  all  thoughts 
of  offensive  war ;  and  even  then  the  sailors  mutinied  in  the  ports  from 
actual  hunger,  and  a  Dutch  fleet,  sailing  up  the  Thames,  burned  the 
ships  at  Chatham,'  on  the  very  day  when  the  king  was  feasting  with 
the  ladies  of  his  seraglio.  The  capital  was  threatened  with  the 
miseries  of  a  blockade,  and  for  the  firet  time  the  roar  of  foreign  guns 
was  heard  by  ihe  citiiens  of  London. 

27.  In  the  summer  of  1665,  while  the  ignominious  war  with  Hol- 
land was  raging,  the  plague  visited  England,  but  was  confined  prin- 
cipally to  London,  where  its  frightful  ravages  surpassed  in  horror 
anything  that  had  ever  been  known  in  the  island.  But  few  recovered 
from  the  disease,  and  death  followed  within  two  or  three  days,  and 
sometimes  within  a  few  hours,  from  the  first  symptoms.  During  one 
week  in  September  more  than  ten  thousand  died ;  and  the  whole 
number  of  victims  was  more  than  a  hundred  thousand.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  fire,  such  as  had  not  been  known  in  Europe  since  ihe 

1.  Jhmkirk,  the  mool  northeni  waport  of  Frmot,  to  flHoatod  od  Um  atnita  of  Dorer,  la  'Jm 
Ibrmer  prorince  of  Freneh  Flanderi)  opposite,  aad  fort/'ceTeii  milet  east  fh)m,  the  EogUah 
town  of  DoTCr.  Dtuktrk  to  Mid  to  have  been  fbonded  by  Bektwln,  conot  of  Flenden,  ia 
«eO:  in  ia88U  WM  burned  hj  the  Ei«ltah  ;  Bad  in  (be  tUieentb  sod  seventeentb  oeotiaiee  tt 
•llernately  belonged  to  them  and  to  the  Spaniards  and  French.  C3karleB  II.  sold  it  to  Looto 
XIV.  for  two  hundred  thousand  poonde  sterling.  Louis,  aware  of  Its  Importance,  IbrtlSed  tt  at 
paai  eapease,  but  was  eonpeUed,  by  the  treaty  ot  Utrecht,  in  iTiS,  tc  conaeiit  to  the  dMaoli* 
tlon  of  Its  fortifications,  and  eren  to  the  shutting  up  of  its  port.    (Map  No.  XIII.) 

fi.  Cktttkum  is  a  celebrated  naval  and  military  depdt,  on  the  rivet  Medway,  twenty-eight 
Btlos  south  eatt  from  Londoa._^  It  was  aadentty  called  Oelchan,  or  the  vSlhifo  of  oottagei. 
Man^r  Roman  remains  have  been  fbund  la  Us  vicinity.  It  to  thto  town  which  gives  the  title  of 
enl  to  the  Pitt  temlly,    (.V^  No.  XVI. 


Chap.  IV.]  SEVWTKESTR  CENTURY.  873 

oonfla^ation  of  Rome  nnder  Nero,  laid  in  rains  two-thirds  of  the 
metropolis, — consuming  more  than  thirteen  thousand  dwellings,  and 
leaving  destitute  two  hundred  thousand  people. 

28.  After  the  war  with  Holland  had  continued  two  years,  Charles 
was  forced,  by  the  voice  of  parliament  and  the  bad  success  of  his 
arms,  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Breda,*  (July  1667,)  by  which  the 
Dutch  possessions  of  New  Netherlands,*  in  America,  were  confirmed 
to  England,  while  the  latter  surrendered  to  France  Acadia  and  Nova 
Scotia.'  In  1672,  however,  Charles  was  induced  by  the  French 
monarch,  Louis  XIY.,  to  join  him  in  another  war  against  the  Dutch. 
The  combbed  armies  of  the  two  kingdoms  soon  reduced  the  republic 
to  the  brink  of  destruction ;  but  the  prince  of  Orange,^  being  pro- 
moted to  the  chief  command  of  the  Dutch  forces,  soon  reused  the 
courage  of  his  dismayed  countrymen  :  the  dykes  were  opened,  laying 
the  whole  country,  except  the  cities,  under  water ;  and  the  invaders 
were  forced  to  save  themselves  from  destruction  by  a  precipitate  re- 
treat At  length,  in  1674,  Charles  was  compelled,  by  the  discon- 
tents of  his  people  and  parliament,  who  were  opposed  to  the  war,  to 
oonclnde  %  separate  treaty  of  peace  with  Holland.  France  continued 
the  war,  but  Holland  was  now  aided  by  Spain  and  Sweden,  while  in  1676 
the  marriage  of  the  prince  of  Orange  with  the  Lady  Mary,  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  Tork,  the  brother  of  Charles,  induced  England  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  the  republic,  and  led  to  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen* 

1.  Br9d»  is  a  HKQgly-fortified  town  of  Holbuid— prortnoft  of  North  Brabant,  on  tlio  Htbt 
tferk,  thirty  mile*  northeast  (h>m  Antwerp.  Breda  Is  a  weU-buIU  town,  enUrely  rarronnded 
bj  •  iaafab»lhat  maj  be  laid  under  water.  It  was  taken  fh>m  the  Spantarda  by  prince  Maurice 
In  ISM,  by  meana  of  a  stratagem  suggested  by  Uie  master  of  a  boat  who  aometlmas  supplied 
the  garrison  with  ftieL  With  singular  address  he  contrived  to  Introduce  into  the  town,  nnder 
•  cargo  of  tnri;  seventy  chosen  sokUers,  who^  having  attacked  the  garrison  In  the  night,  opened 
the  gates  to  their  comrades.  It  was  retaken  by  the  Spaniards  under  the  marquis  Splnola  in 
lOaS,  but  wss  flnally  ceded  to  Holland  by  the  treaty  of  V^estpfaalla  in  i64&    (Map  No.  XV.) 

9L  Jftw  AVtAcWaiub,  the  present  New  York,  had  been  conquered  by  the  English  in  ie64» 
while  Ei^land  and  HoUand  were  at  peace;  and  the  treaty  of  Breda  oonflrmed  England  in  the 
possession  of  the  country.  ^ 

3.  The  French  posiessions  in  Ameries,  embracing  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  ad- 
jacent idaads,  were  at  first  called  Jteadim,  A  fleet  sent  out  by  Gkomwell  In  lOM  soon  reduced 
Acadia,  but  it  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Breda  in  16Q7. 

4.  The  Ihmily  of  Orang*  derive  their  tiUe  from  the  little  prindpalfty  of  Orsnee,  twelve  miles 
la  length  and  nine  in  breadth,  of  which  the  dty  of  Orange,  a  town  of  south-eastern  Frsnce,  was 
the  capital.  Onnge,  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of  .fraauis,  is  situated  on  the  small 
river  Bfeyne,  five  mllse  east  of  the  Rhone,  and  twelve  miles  north  of  Avignon.  From  the 
eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  century  Orange  had  its  own  princes.  In  1531  it  passed,  by  maniagn» 
to  the  comt  of  Nasssn.  It  continued  in  thto  flimily  UU  the  death.  In  170S,  of  William  Henry  of 
Nasmn-Orange  (William  UI.  of  England),  when  the  succession  became  the  subject  of  a  long 
contest;  and  it  was  not  tiH  the  peace  of  ITlrecht  In  1715  that  this  little  territory  was  flnally 
ceded  to  France.    (.ir«^  No.  XIII.) 

5.  J^fimegusn,  or  JVVmir|'#n,  !■  a  town  of  HoDand,  province  of  Guelderland,  on  the  souUi  sU* 


374  MODERN  mSTOET.  [PastIL 

in  1678,  by  which  the  Batch  provinces  obtained  honorable  and  ad- 
vantageous terms. 

29.  Although  Charles  professed  adherence  to  the  principles  of  the 
Bcformation,  jet  his  great  and  secret  designs  were  the  establishment 
of  papacy,  and  arbitrary  power,  in  England.  To  enable  him  to  ac- 
complish these  objects,  he  actually  received,  from  the  king  of  France, 
a  secret  pension  of  two  hundred  thousand  pounds  per  annum,  for 
which  he  stipulated,  in  return,  to  employ  the  whole  strength  of  Eng- 
land, by  land  and  sea,  in  support  of  the  claims  of  Louis  to  the  vast 
monarchy  of  Spain.  *  But  the  popularity  with  which  Charles  had 
commenced  his  reign  had  long  been  expended ;  there  was  a  prevail- 
ing discontent  among  the  people, — an  anxiety  for  public  liberty, 
which  was  thought  to  be  endangered, — ^and  a  general  hatred  of  the 
Boman  Catholic  Religion,  which  was  increased  by  the  circumstance 
that  the  king's  brother,  and  heir  presumptive,  was  known  to  be  a 
bigoted  Roman  Catholic.  Parliament  became  intractable,  and  suc- 
cessfully opposed  many  of  the  favorite  measures  of  the  king ;  and  at 
length  in  1678  a  pretended  Popish  Plot  for  the  massacre  o^he  Pro- 
testants threw  the  whole  nation  into  a  blaze.  One  Titus  Oate»,  an 
infamous  impostor,  was  the  discoverer  of  this  pretended  plot ;  and 
in  the  midst  of  the  ferment  which  it  occasioned,  many  innocent 
Catholics  lost  their  lives.  At  a  later  period,  however,  a  regular  pro- 
ject for  raising  the  nation  in  arms  against  the  government  was  de- 
tected; and  the  leaders,  among  whom  were  Lord  Russell  and  Alger- 
non Sidney,  being  unjustly  accused  of  participation  in  the  Rye  House 
plot  for  the  assassination  of  the  king,  were  beheaded,  in  defiance  of 
law  and  justice.  (1683.)  From  this  time  until  his  death  Charles 
ruled  with  almost  absolute  power,  without  the  aid  of  a  parliament. 
He  died  suddenly  in  1685.  His  brother,  the  duke  of  York,  imme- 
diately succeeded  to  the  throne,  with  the  title  of  James  II. 

30.  The  reign  of  James  was  siort  and  inglorious,  distinguished 
XIV.        by  nothing  but  a  aeries  of  absurd  efforts  .to  render  him- 

jAMEs  n,  gelf  independent  of  parliament,  and  to  establish  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  in  England,  although  he  at  first  made  the 
strongest  professions  of  a  resolution  to  maintain  the  established  gov- 
ernment, both  in  church  and  state.  It  soon  became  evident  that  a 
crisis  was  approaching,  and  that  the  great  confiict  between  the  pre- 

fit  the  Waal,  Afly-three  mllefl  south-east  fh>in  Amsterdam.  It  is  known  in  history  from  th«, 
treaty  concluded  there  Aiigust  lOlh,  1678,  and  ttom  its  capture  by  the  Fronch  on  the  Sth  of 
Sept.  1794,  after  a  serere  action  in  which  the  allies  were  deOsated.    {Map  No.  XV.) 


Chap.it.]  SBVKNTKfiNTH  CENTURY.  375 

{ogatires  of  the  crown  and  tlie  privileges  of  parliament  waa  about 
to  be  brought  to  a  final  issue. 

31.  In  the  first  exercise  of  his  authority  James  showed  thejnsin- 
cerity  of  his  professions  by  levying  taxes  without  the  authority  of 
parliament :  in  violation  of  the  laws,  and  in  contempt  of  the  national 
feeling,  he  went  openly  to  mass  :  he  established  a  court  of  ecclesias- 
tical commission  with  unlimited  power  over  the  Episcopal  church  : 
jie  suspended  the  penal  laws,  by  which  a  conformity  had  been  re- 
quired to  the  established  church ;  and  although  any  communication 
with  the  pope  had  been  declared  treason,  he  sent  an  embassy  to 
Bome,  and  in  return  received  a  nuncio  from  his  Holiness,  and  with 
much  ceremony  gave  him  a  public  and  solemn  reception  at  Windsor.' 
In  this  open  manner  the  king  attacked  the  principles  and  prejudices 
of  his  Protestant  subjects,  foolishly  confident  of  his  ability  to  rees- 
tablish the  Boman  Catholic  religion,  although  the  Boman  Catholics 
in  England  did  not  comprise,  at  this  time,  the  one-hundredth  part 
of  the  nation. 

32.  An  important  event  of  this  reign  was  the  rebellion  of  the  duke 
o%Monmonth,  a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.,  who  hoped,  through  the 
growing  discontents  of  the  people  at  the  tyranny  of  James,  to  gain 
possession  of  the  throne ;  but  after  some  partial  successes  he  was  de- 
feated, made  prisoner,  and  beheaded.  After  the  rebellion  had  been 
suppressed,  many  of  the  unfortimate  prisoners  were  hung  by  the 
king^s  officers,  without  any  form  of  trial ;  and  when,  after  some  in- 
terval, the  inhuman  Jeffries  was  sent  to  preside  in  the  courts  before 
which  the  prisoners  were  arraigned,  the  rigors  of  law  were  made  to 
equal,  if  not  to  exceed,  the  ravages  of  military  tyranny.  The  juries 
were  so  awed  by  the  menaces  of  the  judge  that  they  gave  their  ver- 
dict as  he  dictated,  with  precipitation  :  neither  age,  sex,  nor  station, 
was  spared ;  the  innooent^ere  often  involved  with  the  guilty ;  and 
the  king  himself  applauded  the  conduct  of  Je£fries,  whom  he  after 
ward&  rewarded  for  his  services  with  a  peerage,  and  invested  with  the 
dignity  of  chancelloir. 

I.  ITiftMiMrtoft  sman  lownoQtb«aoattk  ildeof  tlieTlismM,tw«iitymy^ 
LoDdoD.  Ik  It  edebnted  ftir  Windsor  casUe,  tbe  prlndpal  oountiy  seat  of  tbe  aorereigns  of 
»iflt«Mi^  and  oM  of  (he  moat  maigiiUloenl  royal  reaidenoes  In  Europe.  The  castle,  placed  on 
the  aommU  of  a  lofty  eminenee  riatng  abruptly  from  tbe  river,  appears  to  bare  been  founded 
by  WflDam  the  Gbnqneror,  and  it  has  been  enlarfnl  or  embellished  by  most  of  Ws  siicoeaaors. 
On  tbe  north  and  east  sides  of  the  castle  is  the  Little  Park,  a  fine  expanse  of  lawn,  comprislDg 
utarty  Urt  hundred  acres :  on  the  south  side  is  the  Great  Park,  comprl»ing  three  thousand 
eCtht  huMtied  aeraa ;  while  near  by  is  Windsor  forest,  a  tract  flAy-alx  miles  in  eircumfflranr% 
laid  out  bf  William  ttaoOowiaevor  for  tbe  puipoee  of  banting.    (.MyMo.Xyi.) 


876  HODEBK  HISTOBT.  IPaktII 

33.  As  the  king  eyinoed,  in  all  his  measares,  a  settled  paipoae  of 
invading  every  branch  of  the  constitution,  many  of  the  nobility  anl 
great  men  of  the  kingdom,  foreseeing  no  peaceable  redress  of  their 
grievAces,  finally  sent  an  invitation  to  William,  prince  of  Orange, 
tiie  stadtholder  of  the  United  Dutch  Provinces,  who  had  married  the 
king^s  eldest  daughter,  and  requested  him  to  come  over  and  aid  them 

by  his  arms,  in  the  recovery  of  their  laws  and  liberties. 
TICK  OF  About  the  middle  of  November,  1688,  William  landed 
1688.  ^  England  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  fourteen  thousand 
men,  and  was  everywhere  received  with  the  highest  fiavor.  James 
was  abandoned  by  the  army  and  the  people,  and  even  by  his  own 
children ;  and  in  a  moment  of  despair  he  formed  the  resolution  of 
leaving  the  kingdom,  and  soon  after  found  means  to  escape  privately 
to  France.  These  events  are  usually  denominated  "  the  Revolution 
of  1688." 

34.  In  a  convention-parliament  which  met  soon  after  the  flight  of 
James,  it  was  declared  that  the  king^s  withdrawal  was  an  abdication 

,  of  the  government,  and  that  the  throne  was  thereby  vacant ;  and  af- 
ter a  variety  of  propositions,  a  bill  was  passed,  settling  the  crown  on 
*  William  and  Mary,  the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange ;  the  sucoda- 
ion  to  the  princess  Anne,  the  next  eldest  daughter  of  the  late  king, 
and  to  her  posterity  after  that  of  the  princess  of  Orange.  To  this 
settlement  of  the  crown  a  declaration  of  rights  was  annexed,  by 
which  the  subjects  of  controversy  that  had  existed  for  many  years, 
and  particularly  during  the  last  four  reigns,  between  the  king  and 
the  people,  were  finally  determined  \  and  the  royal  prerogative  was 
more  narrowly  circumscribed,  and  more  exactly  defined,  than  in  any 
former  period  of  English  history. 

35.  While  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  was  peaceably  ac- 
quiesced in  by  the  English  people,  some  of  the  Highland  clans  of 
Scotland,  and  the  Catholics  of  Ireland,  testified  their  adherenoe  to 
the  late  king  by  taking  up  arms  in  his  favor.  The  former  gained  the  ^ 
battle  q{  Eilliecrankie*  in  the  summer  of  1689;  but  the  death  of 
their  leader,  the  viscount  Dundee,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory, 
ended  all  the  hopes  of  James  in  Scotland.  In  the  meantime  Louis 
XIV.  of  France  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  fallen  monarch,  and 

1.  KiOisertinkU  Is  a  eelebraled  p«as,  b«lf  a  mile  In  length,  tbrougb  the  Grampian  biib  la 

SeoUand,  in  the  county  of  Perth,  Axiy  miles  northwest  ih>m  Edinburgh.    In  the  l>attle  of  1668^ 

fovgbt  at  the  northern  eztremitj  of  this  pass,  Mackay  commanded  the  rerolutionaiy  l6roea» 

*  and  the  (kmous  Graham  of  Clayerbouse,  VIsooant  Dundee,  the  troops  of  James  IL    (JV^ 

Vo.  XVIO 


Chap.  IV.]  SEVENTEENTH  CENTXJRT.  377 

famished  him  ^th  a  fleet,  with  which,  in  the  spring  of  1689,  James 
landed  in  Ireland,  where  a  Woody  war  raged  until  the  autumn  of 
1691,  when  the  whole  country  was  again  suhjected  to  the  power  of 
England.  The  course  taken  by  the  French  monarch  led  to  a  decla- 
ration of  war  against  France  in  May  1689.  The  war  thus  com- 
menced involved,  in  its  progress,  most  of  the  continental  powers, 
nearly  all  of  which  were  united  in  a  confederacy  with  William  for 
the  purpose  of  putting  a  stop  to  the  encroachments  of  Louis.  An 
accounlhof  this  war  will  be  more  properly  given  in  connection  with 
the  history  of  France,  which  country,  under  the  influence  of  the 
genius  and  ambition  of  Louis  XTV.,  acquires,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  a  commanding  importance  in  the  history  of 
Europe.  King  William  died  in  the  spring  of  1702,  having  retained, 
until  his  death,  the  chief  direction  of  the  afiairs  of  Holland,  under 
the  title  of  stadtholder ;  thus  presenting  the  singular  spectacle  of  a  mon 
ftrchy  and  a  republic  at  the  same  time  governed  by  the  same  individuaL 

ITL  French  History: — Wars  of  Louis  XIV. — 1.  During  the 
administration  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  (1624 — 42,)  the 
able  minister  of  the  feeble  Louis  XIII.,  France  was  TaAnoN  ot 
ruled  with  a  rod  of  iron.     "  He  made,"  says  Montes-    cardinal 
queu,  "  his  sovereign  play  the  second  part  in  the  mon- 
archy, and  the  first  in  Europe ;  he  degraded  the  king,  but  he  rendered 
the  reign  illustrious."     He  humbled  the  nobility,  the  Huguenots,  and 
the  house  of  Austria ;  but  he  also  encouraged  literature  and  the  arts, 
and  promoted  commerce,  which  had  been  ruined  by  two  centuries  of 
domestic  war.     He  freed  France  from  a  state  of  anarchy,  but  he  es- 
tablished in  its  place  a  pure  despotism.     No  minister  was  ever  more 
mooessful  in  carrying  out  his  plans  than  Richelieu ;  but  his  successes 
were  bought  at  the  expense  of  every  virtue  ;  and  as  a  man  he  merits 
execration.     He  died  in  December  1642,  and  Louis  survived  him  but 
a  few  months,  leaving,  as  his  successor,  his  son  Louis,  then  a  child 
of  only  six  years  of  age. 

2.  During  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  Cardinal  Mazarin,  an 
ItaliaYi,  ruled  the  kingdom  as  prime  minister,  under  the  ^^  ^^zAanr'a 
regency  of  the  queen  mother,  Anne  of  Austria.     Under     adminis- 
Mazarin  was  concluded  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  which     ^*^^^- 
terminated  the  thirty  years'  war ;  and  during  the  early  part  of  his 
administration  occurred  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde,^  in  which  the 
8.  **  War  of  tiM  PVmuI^'— to  oaUed  beoame  ttie  fi4t  onttkroak  In  Paris  was  oommeiioed  by 


378  MODERN  HISTORY.  [PamtTL 

magistracy  of  Paris,  sapported  bj  the  citisens,  rose  Igainst  the  arbi- 
trary powers  of  the  goTeminait,  ao4  promulgated  a  plan  for  the  ref- 
ormation of  abuses ;  but  when  the  young  nobility  affected  to  abet 
and  adopt  its  principles,  they  perverted  the  canse  of  freedom  to  their 
own  selfish  interests  \  and  the  vain  straggle  fi>r  oonstitational  liberty 
degenerated  into  the  most  ridiculous  of  rebellion& 

3.  Though  the  treaty  of  Wd<tphalia  (1648)  had  terminated  Uie 
**  Thirty  gears'  war"  among  the  parties  originally  engaged  in  it,* 
yet  France  and  Spain  still  continued  the  cofltest  in  which  they  had 
at  first  only  a  secondary  share.  The  eiril  disturbances  of  the  Frandcy 
occurring  at  this  time,  greatly  favored  the  Spaniards,  who  reooTered, 
principally  on  the  borders  of  the  Low  Countries,  many  places  which 
they  had  previously  lost  to  the  French ;  and  by  means  of  ihe  great 
military  talents  of  Conde,  a  French  general  who  had  been  exiled 
during  the  late  troubles,  aqd  who  now  fought  on  the  side  of  the 
Spaniards,  the  latter  hoped  to  bring  the  war  to  a  triumphant  issna 
The  French,  however,  found  in  marshal  Turenne  a  general  who  was 
more  than  a  rival  for  Cond^  :  he  defeated  the  latter  in  the  siege  of 
Arras,*  and  compelled  the  Spaniards  to  retreat,  but  was  himself 
compelled  to  abandon  Valenciennes.*  At  this  time  Mazarin,  by 
flattering  the  passions  of  Cromwell,  induced  England  to  take  part  in 
the  contest :  six  thousand  English  joined  the  French  army  in  Flan- 
ders;' and  Dunkirk,  taken  from  the  Spaniards,  was  given  to  England, 
according  to  treaty,  as  a  reward  for  her  assistance. 

4.  But  France,  though  victorious,  was  anxious  for  peace,  as  the 
finances  of  the  kingdom  were  in  disorder,  and  the  death  of  Cromwell 
had  rendered  the  alliance  with  England  of  little  benefit;   whQe 

troops  or  archini  with  their  tling»~-fnm4t  belnff  ttie  Tnatitt  word  for  **  a  aUn?.'*  In  derWon 
the  iosar^ots  were  first  called  fronituvy  or  "  slmgen,'*>-an  Inrinnatton  that  their  foroe  was 
trifling,  and  their  aim  merely  miachiet 

L  ^rra*  is  a  eity  of  northern  Fnuioe,  lo  the  Ihnner  i>rorince  of  Artois,  thlrtf4hree  wSkm 
aoQtli'eaat  fh>ni  Afarineourt.  Robespierre,  of  infiuaoua  memory,  and  Damiens,  the  mbmiIii  of 
Louis  XV.,  were  natives  of  Arras. 

52.  VtUeneienne*  is  a  town  of  northeastern  Franee^  on  ttie  Scheldt,  (slcelt),  near  the  BelgUun  * 
frontier.    (Jifaj^  No.  XV.) 

3.  [n  H63  Charles  the  Bold  established  the  county  of  Flanders^  which  extended  (Vom  tha 
Btrsits  of  Dorer  neariy  to  the  months  of  the  Scheldt.  At  dilTorent  times  Handera  WBL  nnder 
the  dominion  of  Bur'gimdy,  Spain,  Ice  Towards  the  bogtmdng  of  the  eighteenth  oaatmj  U 
was  divided  into  French,  Austrian,  and  Dutch  Flandera.  French  Flanders  comprised  the  Frendi 
province  of  that  name.  (See  Map  No.  XIII.)  Adjoining  this  territory,  on  the  east,  was  An»- 
irlao  FlanderB ;  and  adjoining  the  latter,  on  the  east,  was  Dutch  Flanders.  Dutch  and  AnatriaB 
Flanders  are  now  comprised  in  F^ist  and  VVesl  Flanders,  the  two  north-western  proVinces  of 
Belgium  (see  Map  No.  XV.,)  although  the  Dutch  porUon  embraoad  only  a  small  part  of  Bail 
Flanders,  « 

a.  See  p.  314. 


XShi^/iV.]  BJfiVJJtjTK'E^Tk  CEKTURT.  379 

iSpain,  engaged  in  war  witli  the  Netherlands  and  Portugal,  gladly 
acceded  to  the  offers  of  reconciliation  with  her  most  powerful  enemy. 
On  the  banks  of  the  Bidassoa*  the  treaty,  usually  known  as  the  treaty 
of  the  Pyrenees,  was  concluded,  (Nov.  1659,)  and  the  infatuated 
Maria  Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  Philip  of  Spain,  was  given  in 
marriage  to  the  French  monarch ;  although,  to  prevent  the  possible 
union  of  two  such  powerful  kingdoms,  Louis  was  com^^Ued  to  re- 
nounce all  claim  to  the  Spanish  crown,  either  for  himself  or  his  suc- 
cessors. By  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Conde  was  pardoned  and 
again  received  into  fiivor ;  the  limits  of  France  were  extended  on  the 
English  Channel  to  Gravelines  ;*  while  on  the  south-west  the  Pyrenees 
became  its  boundary,  by  the  acquisition  of  RouBsillon/  Thus  Prance 
assumed  almost  its  present  form  ;  its  subsequent  acquisitions  being 
Franche-Comt^*  and  French  Flanders. 

5.  About  a  year  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees, 
Mazarin  died,  (March  1661^)  and  Louis,  summoning  his  council,  and  ez 
pressing  his  determination  to  take  the  government  wholly 
into  his  own  hands,  strictly  commanded  the  chancellor,    j^^J^^y 
and  secretaries  of  state,  to  sign  no  paper  but  at  his  ex- 
press bidding.     To  the  stem,  economical,  and  orderly  Colbert,  he  in- 
trusted the  management  of  the  treasury ;  and  in  a  brief  period  the 
purchase  of  Dunkirk  from  England,  the  establishment  of  numerous 
manufactures,  the  buildmg  of  th€*  Louvre,*  the  Invalides,*  and  the 

1.  the  6ids99oa,  which  rises  in  the  Spanish  territonr,  and  falls  Into  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  fomtf, 
in  aie  ktler  put  of  Its  eonrae,  the  boundary  between  Pfttnee  and  Spain.  A  short  distant 
from  ita  iboath  it  forma  the  tfnall  Isle  of  (be  PfaeasantSi  where  the  peace  of  the  I>yiBneeB  was 
ooneluded  In  1659.  The  Bldaasoa  was  the  scene  of  important  operations  in  the  peninsular  Var 
of  1813. 

fL  OroMlinM  laanaU  town  twelve  miles  east  from  aOala.    (Map  No.  XIII.) 

3.  MmuHUam^  a  province  of  Flranoe  before  the  French  Revolution,  waa  bounded  on  the  south 
and  east  by  the  Pyreneea  and  the  MediteenuMon.  The  counts  of  Ronssillon  governed  this  dis* 
tttot  for  •  loag  period.  The  last  count  bequeathed  it  to  Alphonso  of  Aragon  in  117&  In  1403 
U  was  ceded  to  Louis  XI.  of  FVance^  but  in  1403  It  was  restored  to  the  kings  of  Aragon,  and  in 
]65i  was  finally  surrendered  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees.    {Map  No.  XIIL) 

4.  FroMeko'CamU^  called  also  tfppar  BjK/r' gundif^  had  Bur*  gundy  Proper,  or  Lower  Bur*- 
gnndy,  on  the  south  and  west.  Besanoon  was  Its  capital.  In  the  division  of  the  States  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian,  Fnmohe<k>mt«  fell  to  Spain ;  but  Louis  XIV.  conquered  it  In  1074,  and 
ft  was  ceded  to  Frtnoe  by  the  peace  of  Nlmegoen,  in  1678.    (Map  No.  XUL) 

5.  The  palace  of  the  Lawura^  one  of  the  flnest  regal  structures  In  £urope^  has  not  been  the 
rasideiiee  of  a  neneh  monarch  since  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.,  and  Is  now  converted  into  a 
■atiomi  museum  and  picture  gaOevy.  The  pictures  are  deposited  on  the  Orat  floor  of  a  splendid 
i«a0B  of  rooms  above  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  Ihdng  the  river. 

e.  The  Haul  daa  Invalid  (l»'-v«^Md)  Is  a  hospital  intended  for  the  support  of  disabled 
aJteeiB  and  sokders  who  have  been  In  active  serrioe  vpwards  of  thirty  yeaia.  ft  eoven  • 
apace  of  aeariy  seven  aerta,  and  is  one  of  the  grandest  ratfoaal  lastlftatlons  of  Burope. 


MO  MODQUr  HISIOBT.  [FakH 

palaM  of  Yenuflcs,'  and  the  oommeDoeiM&t  of  the  oftnal  of  LtagiM- 
doc,*  attested  the  miracles  that  mere  eoooomj  can  work  in  finance. 

6.  Arousing  himself  from  the  thraldom  of  love  intrigoea,  Loms 
now  hegan  to  awake  to  projects  of  amhition.  The  splendor  of  his 
oonrt  dazzled  the  nohilitj :  his  personal  qnalities  woo  him  the  affecti<m 
of  his  people :  he  breathed  a  new  spirit  into  the  administration ;  and 
foreign  potentates,  like  the  prood  nobles  of  his  court,  seemed  to 
quail  before  his  power.  He  repudiated  the  stipulations  of  the 
treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  ground  that  the  dower  which  he  was 
to  receive  with  his  wife  had  not  been  paid;  and  on  the  death  of  his 
father-in-law,  Philip  IT.  of  Spain,  by  which  event  the  crown  devolved 
upon  a  sickly  infant,  by  a  second  marriage,  he  laid  Immediate  claim 
to  the  Spanish  Netherlands  in  right  of  his  wife, — alleging,  in  sup- 
port of  the  claim,  an  ancient  custom  of  the  province  of  Brabant,*  by 
which  females  of  a  first  marriage  were  to  inherit  in  preference  to  sons 
of  a  second.  The  French  monarch,  after  securing  the  neutrality  of 
Austria,  poured  his  legions  over  the  Belgian  frontier,  and  with  great 
rapidity  reduced  most  of  the  fortresses  as  fiir  as  the  Scheldt  The 
captured  towns  were  immediately  fortified  by  the  celebrated  engineer 
Yauban,  and  garrisoned  by  the  best  troops  of  France.     (1667-8.) 

7.  These  successes  encouraged  Louis  to  turn  his  arms  towards 
another  quarter ;  and  Franche-Oomte,  a  part  of  the  old  Bur' gundy, 
but  still  retained  by  the  Spaniards,  was  conquered  before  Spain  was 
aware  of  the  danger.  (Feb.  1668.)  The  Hollanders,  alarmed  at 
the  approach  of  the  French,  became  reconciled  to  Spain ;  and  a 
Triple  Alliance  was  formed  between  Holland,  Sweden,  and  England, 
three  Protestant  powers,  for  the  purpose  of  defending  Gatholio 

I.  r«r«««aM  ti  nfne  miles  aouth-west  from  Parii.  TIm  pataM  of  Ttiwine*,  of  prodlsioai 
itee  and  magnllloeiiee,  has  not  bean  oocapled  by  Uie  court  slnee  1780.  It  was  moeh  out  of  re 
pair,  wben  Loals  PhUlppe  transliarmed  It  into  wbat  may  be  edled  analloiial  moseam,  iMeadad 
lo  iOastnte  the  histoiy  of  Franoe,  and  to  exhibit  the  progress  of  tbe  oonatfy  la  arts,  anas,  aad 
dTillaaUoii.    (Map  Vo,Xm.} 

S.  The  oanal  of  Ltngwedac,  oommeDdng  at  Oette,  foarteen  miles  somh-west  of  tfoatpeller, 
and  extending  to  Tlmiloase  on  the  Garonne,  a  dlslanoe  of  one  handred  and  fcfty^ght  mUe^ 
thns  eonneets  the  Mediterr^neaB  and  the  Atlantic    (M^p  No.  XIII.) 

a.  Brahmtt,  flnt  encted  into  a  dnchy  In  the  seventh  eentnry,  Indnded  (be  Daleh  prottoea  of 
North  Brabant,  and  the  Belgle  proTluees  of  South  Brabanl  and  Antwerp.  Having  passed,  by 
marriage,  Into  the  poesenlon  of  the  house  of  Bur'  gandy.  It  allarwanis  desesoded  to  Charies  V. 
In  the  serenteenth  oentwy  the  repnblie  of  Holland  took  possession  of  the  northern  part,  (now 
North  Brabant,)  which  was  thenoe  called  DMitk  Brabant,  while  the  remainder  was  known  aa 
^•atrioM  Brabant  Both  repeatedly  Ml  Into  the  hands  of  the  French,  but  In  18IS  were  l»> 
duded  In  Che  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  Since  the  ravolnlkHi  of  1830  North  Bimbaal  baa 
been  Indnded  la  HoDaad,aad  the  other pmriaaoa, or Aadrtaa  Bnbant, faa Mgiom.  (Jl^p 
Wo.  XV.) 


Ohi«;  rV.]  SEVSNTEENTH  CENTtTBT.  881 

Spain  against  Catholic  France.  Louis  receded  before  this  menacing 
league,  and  by  restoring  Franche-Comt6,  which  he  knew  could  at  any 
time  easily  be  regained,  while  he  retained  most  of  his  Flemish  con- 
quests, concluded  the  treaty  of  Aix-laChapelle,*  (1668,)  which  mere- 
ly suspended  the  war  until  the  French  king  was  better  prepared  to 
carry  it  on  with  success. 

8.  The  great  object  of  Louis  was  now  revenge  against  Holland, 
the  originator- of  the  triple  alliance.  Knowing  the  profligate  habits 
of  Charles  II.,  he  purchased  with  ready  money  the  alliance  of 
England ;  he  also  bought  the  neutrality  of  Sweden,  and  the  neigh- 
boring princes  of  Germany,  while  in  the  meantime  he  created  a  navy 
of  a  hundred  vessels,  built  five  naval  arsenals,  and  increased  his  army 
to  a  hundred  thousand  men. 

9.  For  the  first  time  the  bayonet,  so  terrible  a  weapon  in  French 
bands,  was  affixed  to  the  end  of  the  musket ;  and  the  hundred  thou- 
sand soldiers  who  composed  the  French  army,  armed  as  the  French 
were^  might  well  strike  terror  into  the  rulers  of  Holland,  who  could 
raise,  at  most,  an  army  of  only  thirty  thousand  men. 

10.  In  the  spring  of  1672  the  French  armies,  avoiding  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  passed  through  the  country  betwixt  the  Meuse  and  the  , 
Bhine,*  crossed  the  latter  river  in  June,  and  rapidly  advanced  to 
within  a  few  leagues  of  Amsterdam,*  when  the  Dutch,  by  opening  the 
dykes,  let  in  the  sea  and  saved  the  metropolis.  But  even  Amster- 
dam meditated  submission ;  one  project  of  the  inhabitants  being  to 
embark,  like  the  Athenians,  on  board  their  fleet,  sail  for  their  East 
India  settlements,  and  abandon  their  country  to  the  modem  Xerxes 
who  had  come  to  destroy  their  liberties.  While  Amsterdam  was 
Becure  for  the  present  behind  its  rampart  of  waters,  and  the  French 
armies  were  wintering  triumphantly  in  the  conquered  provinces,  the 
envoys  of  the  I>utch  roused  Europe  against  the  ambition  of  Louis. 

h  Ait)4m-ChapMe  (a-Iah-shahpel)  Ib  an  old  and  well-bailt  city  of  the  Pruastao  Statee,  n«ar 
tlM  BMHriA  wmiAhm  of  BelgliniH  el^ty  milea  east  of  Bnuaolfl.  It  was  th«  fliyorite  residenoo 
of  ClwileauigiM,  and  for  loaie  time  the  capital  of  ble  empire.  Two  celebmted  trBalles  have 
been  concluded  in  this  cUy;  the  first,  Mhjt  9d,  1608,  between  France  and  Spain;  aof  the 
eeeond,  OeL  I8tb«  n4By  between  the  dillbreni  powers  engaged  in  the  wars  of  the  Austrian  sue- 
oesalon.  Heie  also  was  held  the  eelebrated  congress  of  the  allied  powan  in  1818.  {Map  No. 
XVII.) 

S.  The  Mem9e  and  the  Khine  /—see  Map  No.  XT. 

ai  AmtUriLtm^  a  Aui¥>os  mtritiiiM}  andb  comm«rcfal  citj  of  Holland,  is  on  the  sooth  bank  of  the 
T^  an  inlet  or  arm  of  the  TJr^et  Zee.  Being  situated  fai  a  marsh,  its  buildings  are  aU  founded 
OB  pflea,  driren  fH>m  forty  lo  flfly  fbet  fn  a  soil  conststing  of  alluvial  deposits,  peat,  clay,  and 
■and.  Tbo  Stete-House^  a  mi^gtfAocnt  buttdlng  of  freestooa,  Is  erected  oa  a  firandttloD  of 
Ihtrteta  thonsand  six  hundred  and  flfty-nine  pilea.  Numsroiis  ottals  dlvldo  ttM  dlgr  into 
ateu  a  bondred  IsUnds.    (M^KcXV,) 


382  MODJBBN  HISIOaY.  [PmIL 

PriDoe  William  of  Oraoge,  a  general  of  onlj  tvenly-two  yean  of 

age,  being  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Bepablio,  aoon  Miooeeded  ia  de- 
taching England  from  the  onnataral  allianoe  which  she  had  formed 
with  her  ancient  enemy :  Spaiu  and  Anataria,  awaking  to  their  inftereskfl^ 
prepared  to  send  troops  to  aid  the  Dutch ;  and  by  1674  nearly  all 
Europe  was  leagued  against  the  French  monarcL 

1 1.  Louis  was  now  obliged  to  abandon  Holland ;  but,  in  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands,  his  great  generals,  Cond6  and  Turenne,  taming 
upon  the  allied  armies,  for  a  while  kept  all  Europe  at  bay.  In  the 
following  year,  (1675,)  Turenne  was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball  as  he 
was  about  to  enter  Germany ;  and  although  Louis  ereated  six  new 
marshals,  the  whole  were  not  equal  to  the  one  he  had  lost  Soon 
after,  Conde  retired,  disabled  by  age  and  infinnity ;  and  with  the 
loss  of  her  great  generals  the  valor  of  France,  on  the  land,  for  a 
while  slumbered.  But  at  this  time  there  appeared  a  seaman  of 
talent  and  heroism,  named  Duquesne,  who,  being  sent  to  suocor 
Messina,  which  had  revolted  against  Spain^  defeated  the  fleet  o^  Da 
Buy  ter  in  a  terrible  naval  battle  wiU^  sij^t  of  Mount  iBtna.  The 
Dutch  admiral  himself  was  among  the  slain.  In  the  seooid  battle, 
in   1677,  Duquesne  almost  annihilated  the  Dutoh  fleet     Under  a 

""grateful  monarch  this  man  might  have  become  high  admiral  of 
France ;  but  Louis  was  growing  bigoted  with  his  years,  and  his  fiuth- 
ful  servant  was  reproached  for  bemg  a  Protestant  '^  When  I  fou^t 
for  your  majesty,"  replied  the  blunt  sailor,  '^I  never  thought  of 
what  might  be  your  religion."  His  son,  driven  into  exile  for  ad- 
hering to  the  reformed  faith,  carried  away  with  him  the  bones  of  his 
&ther,  determined  not  to  leave  them  in  an  ungrateful  country. 

12.  In  the  meantime  conferences  took  place  at  Nim<^guen:  the 
allies  wished  peace ;  and  France  and  Holland,  the  original  parties  in 
the  war,  were  equally  exhausted.  At  length,  in  August  1678,  the 
treaty  was  signed,  Louis  retaining  most  of  his  conquests  in  the  Spanish 
Netherlands, — all  Freni^h  Flanders  in  fiu^t,  as  well  as  Franehe-Oorate. 
Spain,  from  whom  these  possessions  were  obtained,  assented  to  the 
treaty ;  for  the  imbecile  monarch  of  that  country  knew  not  what 
towns  belonged  to  him,  nor  where  was  the  frontier  line  of  what  he 
stiU  retained  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  "Here  may  be  seen,^' 
says  Voltaire,  "  how  little  do  events  correspond  to  projects.  Hol- 
land, against  which  the  war  had  been  undertaMn,  and  whidi  had 
nearly  perished,  lost  nothing,  nay,  even  gained  a  iMurrier ;  whUe  the 


OoiP.IV.l  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.  383 

other  powers,  that  had  armed  to  defend  and  guarantee  her  indepen- 
dence, all  lost  something." 

13.  The  years  which  followed  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  were  the 
most  prosperous  for  France ;  an4  formed  the  zenith  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XI y.  AH  Europe  had  been  armed  against  him,  and  success 
had  more  or  less  crowned  all  his  enterprises.  He  assumed  to  hi{^- 
self  the  title  of  Great ;  and  one  of  his  dukes  even  kept  a  burning 
lamp  before  the  statue  of  the  monarch,  as  before  an  altar ;  4he  least 
insult  offered  bj  foreign  courts  to  his  representatives,  or  neglect  of  . 
etiquette,  was  sure  to  bring  down  signal  vengeance.  In  the  years 
1682  and  1683  Algiers  was  bombarded,  then  a  new  mode  of  war&re : 
in  1684  Genoa  experienced  the  same  fate  because  it  refused  to  allow 
the  French  monarch  to  establish  a  depot  within  its  territory.  Even 
the  pope  was  humbled  before  the  ^'  Grand  Monarch ;"  some  of  the 
German  princes  Wjere  expelled  from  their  territories ;  and  in  time 
of  peace  French  maurauding  parties  devastated  the  Spanish  provinces. 
Louis  increased  his  navy  to  two  hundred  and  thirty  vessels ;  and 
toward  the  ^nd  of  his  reign  his  armies  amounted  to  four  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  men.  But  the  greatest  glories  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  were  those  connected  with  literature  and  the  arts.  Men  of 
letters  now,  for  the  first  time,  began  to  exert  a  great  influence  on  the 
mind  of  the  French  nation  \  and  the  familiar  names  of  Moli^re,  Ba- 
cine,  Boileau,  La  Fontaine,  Bossuet,  Massillon,  and  Fenelon,  adorned 
the  age  of  Louis,  and  shed  on  the  land  the  brightness  of  their  fame. 
In  the  next  century  the  writings  of  these  men,  and  of  their  success- 
ors, determined  the  fate  of  the  great  monarchy  which  Louis  had  built 
up. 

14.  The  queen  of  France  being  dead,  towards  the  year  1685  Louis 
secretly  married  Madame  Scarron,  the  widow  of  the  celebrated 
oomic  writer,  on  whom  he  conferred  the  title  of  Madame  De  Main- 
tanon.  This  woman,  who  had  been  educated  a  Calvinist,  and  had 
abjured  her  religion,  would  have  made  alL  Protestants  do  the  same  ; 
and  it  was  chiefly  through  her  influence,  and  that  of  the  royal  con- 
fessor La  Chaise,  that  t^e  king,  naturally  bigoted,  became  a  bitter 
persecutor  of  his  Protestant  subjects.  In  1685  he  revoked  the  edict 
of  Nantes,  which  had  given  tolerance  to  all  religions,  forbade, all  ex- 
ercise of  the  Protestant  worship,  and  banished  from  the  kingdom, 
within  fifteen  days,  all  Protestant  ecclesiastics  who  would  not  recant. 
Afterwards  he  closed  the  ports  against  the  fugitives,  sent  to  the  ^• 
leys  those  who  attempted  to  escape,  and  confiscated  their  property. 


884  MODERN  HISTORY.  [Paw  IL 

France  lost  by  these  cruel  meaflnres  two  hundred  tiouaand— eome 
say  five  hundred  thousand— of  her  best  subjecto ;  and  the  bigutry 
of  Louis  gave  a  greater  blow  to  the  industry  and  wealth  of  his  king- 
dom than  the  unlimited  expenses  of  his  pride  and  ambition. 

15.  The  cruelties  of  Louis  to  the  Protestants  roused  the  hearts 
of  4he  Germans,  Dutch,  and  English,  against  him,  and  accelerated  a 
general  war.  In  IGvSG  a  league  was  formed  at  Augsbui^  by  all  the 
German  frinces  to  restrain  the  encroachments  of  Louis:  Holland 
joined  it, — Spain  also,  excited  by  jealousy  of  a  domineering  neighbor; 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Savoy,  were  afterwards  gained;  and  the 
revolution  of  1688,  by  which  William  of  Holland  ascended  the 
throne  of  England,  placed  the  latter  country  at  the  head  of  the 
confederacy.  But  Louis  was  not  daunted  by  the  power  of  the 
league  :  anticipating  his  enemies,  he  was  first  in  the  field,  sending  an 
army  against  Germany  in  1688,  which  ravaged  the  Palatinate*  with 
fire  and  sword.  He  also  sent  an  army  into  Flanders,  one  into  Italy, 
and  a  third  to  check  the  Spaniards  in  Catalonia ;  while  at  the  same 
time  he  sent  a  fleet  and  an  army  to  Ireland,  to  aid  James  II.  in  re- 
cocrering  the  throne  of  England. 

16.  After  the  first  campaign,  in  which  Louis  profited  little,  he 
gave  the  command  of  his  armies  to  new  generals  of  approved  talent, 
and  instantly  the  fortune  of  the  war  changed.  In  1690  Savoy  waa 
overrun  by  the  French  marshal  Catinat,  and  Flanders  by  marshal 
Luxembourg:  the  combined  squadrons  of  England  and  Holland 
were  defeated  by  the  French  admiral  Tourville,  off  Beachy  Head  ;* 
and  a  descent  was  made  on  the  coast  of  England.  In  1692  the  for- 
tress of  Namur'  was  taken  by  the  French,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts 
of  William  and  the  allies  to  relieve  it ;  but  during  the  progress  of  the 
siege  the  French  were  defeated  in  a  terrible  naval  battle  off  Cape 
La  Hogue  ]*  a  battle  that  decided  the  fate  of  the  Stuarts,  and  marks 
the  era  of  England's  dominion  over  the  seas. 

1.  The  PalatinaUt  by  wbich  to  g«Mi«Il7  uodwitood  tbe  I,mM-  P*lstin4U,  or  P«l«UBat«  of 
the  Rhine,  was  a  country  of  Gerniany,  on  both  skies  of  Uie  Rhine,  embracing  about  slxteMt 
hondred  square  niilee,  and  now  dhrided  among  Pratsia,  %Tar{a,  Baden,  Hesse  Darmstadt 
Mftisao,  «cc  That  jwrt  of  It  west  of  the  Rhln«|  and'  belonging  to  Banola,  to  stiU  called  <*  The 
Palatinate.^  Vhe  Upper  Palatinate,  embracing  a  somewhat  larger  territory,  was  In  Bavaria, 
and  bordered  on  Bohemia.    Amberg  was  its  capital.    (Map  No.  XVII.) 

8.  BMckf  Huid  Is  a  told  promontory  on  ttie  soothem  eoait  of  Eugtond,  eighteen  mOei 
south-west  flrom  Hastings.    {Map  No.  XVI.) 

3.  ?ramur\9  a  strongly-fortified  town  of  Belgium,  at  the  Junction  of  the  Sambre  and  1 
U>frty«ve  miles  sooth-east  ftom  Bruaseta.    {Map  No.  XV.) 

4.  Otpe  La  Hog%0  to  a  prominent  headtond  of  Franotk  o«  Om  JBi^ltoh  ObMamA^  i 
OiUesnoftb^weator<JberbmiTg.    (.M^No.XIU^ 


ChBUF.IV.]  SKVEVTESKTH  QESTTURY.  B89 

17.  The  ^sampaigQ  of  1693  ma  fortunate  for  the  Fre&eb,  wk) 
gained  the  bloody  battle  of  Nerwinden'  over  king  William — de£eat<ed 
the  duke  of  Savoy  in  a  general  action  at  Marseilles — ^made  progress 
against  the  Spaniards  in  Catalonia — and  gained  some  advantages 
at  sea.  But  after  this  year  Louis  no  longer  visited  his  armies  in 
person ;  and  succeeding  campaigns  became  less  fruitful  of  important 
and  decisive  results.  France  had  been  exhausted  by  the  enormous 
exertions  of  her  monarch j  and  all  parties  were^aoxious  to  terminate 
a  war  in  which  much  blood  had  been  shed,  much  treasure  expended, 
and  no  permanent  acquisitions  made.  Conferences  for  peace  com- 
menoed  in  1696 ;  and  in  the  beginning  of  1697  the  plenipotentiaries 
of  the  several  powers  assembled  at  Byswick,'  a  small  town  in  Hol- 
land. In  the  treaty,  which  was  signed  in  September,  England  gained 
only  the  recognition  of  the  monarch  of  her  choice ;  while  the  French 
king'}  renunciation  of  the  Spanish  succession,  which  had  been  one 
important  object  of  the  war,  was  not  even  mentioned.  Although 
in  the  treaty  Louis  appeared  to  make  concessions^  yet  he  kept  the 
new  frontier  that  he  had  chosen  in  Flanders,  whilst  the  possession  of 
Strasburg*  extended  the  French  limits  to  the  Rhine.  Louis  had 
baffled  the  most  powerful  European  league  ;  and  although  the  com- 
merce of  the  kingdom  was  destroyed,  and  the  country  exhausted  of 
men  and  money,  while  a  dreadful  famine  was  ravaging  what  war  had 
q>ared,  yet  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  France  still  pre« 
sarved,  over  surrounding  nations,  the  ascendency  that  Bichelieu  had 
planned,  and  that  Louis  XIV.  had  proudly  won. 

IV.  CoTBMFORART  HisTORT. — 1.  Bcsidcs  Francc,  England,  Ger- 
many, and  the  countries  connected  with  them  in  wars  and  alliances, 
the  strietly  umveVsal  history  of  this  period  embraces  a  range  more 
extended  than  that  of  any  previous  century.  On  the  continesnt  the 
histories  of  the  leading  powers  become  more  and  more  intermingled 

J.  Jferwinden  is  a  sinall  viUageof  Belgian),  about  thirljr-three  miles  soulh-enst  fh>m  Braaaela, 
S.  Rfswick  Is  a  small  tovn  In  the  west  or  Holland,  two  miles  80u(h-«aat  fh)m  Hague,  ami 
thlity^Te  sonlh-west  from  Amsterdam.  The  peace  of  Ryawlck  tenninated  what  Is  known  in 
Aoierican  history  ns  ^  King  William^s  War,t*— a  war  between  the  French  and  the  Gugliab 
American  colonics,  attended  with  numerous  inroads  of  the  Indians,  who  were  in  alliance  witb 
the  Fretich.'  (M*p  No.  XV.) 

3.  StrasbuTg  is  an  ancient  fortified  city  on  the  west  bonk  of  the  Rhine,  in  the  former  pror- 
inee  of  Alaaoe.  It  is  principally  noted  for  Ita  cathedral,  mid  to  have  been  originally  founded 
hy  CaoTla,  In  504.  The  modem  building,  however,  was  begun  In  1015,  bat  not  Sniahed  till  the 
fifleentb  century.  Its  spire  reaches  to  the  extraordinary  height  of  four  hundred  and  sixty<«hl 
fctt  oboot  leYeii  feet  higher  than  St.  Petei«s  in  Rome, and  aboutflveibel  higtaBrttaan  Hie 
■IMtifnMMQrGhMpa.   CM«wS«i^  XiU.aaiZVj20 

B       25 


186  MODXBX'  HmOBT.  [PmlL 

« 
Ike  Nortben  SUtoi  are  smd  growing  in  importmee,  md  b^gnuing 
totakepnrtinEoropeaapolitMt;  wbile,  abtoeil,  eoloniet  »re  plaaled, 
that  are  aoon  to  ■iwnnie  the  rank  of  independent  and  powerfol  nationa. 

2.  It  was  not  until  after  the  Reformation  that  the  three  Seandi- 

^^     naTian  Statea,  Denmai^,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  came  into 

wwron,     eontaot  with  the  Soatheni  nations  of  Christendom,  nor 

*^       vntil  'the  eommenoement  of  the  <'  Thirty  Years'  War,** 

HOftWAT* 

in  tlie  earlj  part  of  the  serenteenth  oentorj,  that  they 
took  any  aetire  part  in  the  conoeras  of  their  sonthem  neigfabon, 
when,  nnder  the  condnet  of  the  heroio  OnstaTus  Adolphns,  Sweden 
and  her  allies  warred  so  manfoUy  in  the  caose  of  religions  freedom 
Under  OnstaTOS,  the  glory  and  power  of  Sweden  attained  their 
greatest  height ;  and  although  the  sucecapes  of  the  Swedish  arms 
eontinued  under  Christina,  Charles  X.,  and  Charles  XI.,  Swedish 
history  offars  little  fiouiher  that  is  interesting  to  the  general  s&dent 
until  the  aooession  of  Charles  XII.  in  1697,  the  extraordinary 
erents  of  whose  career  belong  to  the  next  century. 

3.  The  history  of  Poland,  during  most  of  the  seventeenth  oen* 

tnry,  is  of  less  interest  to  the  general  reader  than  that  of 
Sweden,  being  filled  with  accounts  of  unimportant  do- 
mestic contentions  among  the  nobility,  aund  of  foreign  wars  with 
Sweden,  Bussia,  and  Turkey,  while  the  maae  of  the  people,  in  the 
lowest  state  of  degradation,  were  slaves,  in  the  fullest  extent  of  the 
term,  and  not  supposed  to  hare  any  legal  existence.  The  greatest 
of  the  monarchs  of  Poland  was  John  Sobieski,  elected  to  the  throne 
in  1674,  the  fame  of  whose  victories  over  the  Turks  threw  a  transient 
splendid  on  the  waning  destinies  of  his  ill-fated  country.  His  first 
great  achievement  was  the  victory  of  Kotsim,^  gained,  with  a  com* 
paratively  small  force,  over  an  army  of  eighty  thotband  Mussnlmen, 
stron^y  intrenched  on  the  banks  of  the  Dniester,  leaving  forty  thoa- 
sand  of  the  enemy  dead  in  the  precincts  of  the  camp.  (Nov.  1673.) 
All  Europe  was  electrified  with  this  extraordinary  triumph,  the  great- 
est that  had  been  won  for  three  centuries  over  the  infidels. 

4.  Other  victories  of  the  Polish  hero,  scarcely  less  important,  are 
recorded  in  the  annals  of  Poland ;  but  what  has  immortalized  the 
name  of  John  Sobieski  is  the  deliverance  of  Vienna*  in  1683.     A 

1.  JOlxim  to  DOW  Ml  Importaat  ftelrMi  of  wotlHirMleni  Ruaala,  situated  on  the  rigbt  bank 
of  t^  DotoHflP,  In  the  proTlnoe  ot  BaiMfmbla.  The  Tuilcs  ■tronglHbrtllled  It  In  1718^  but  tt 
WW tnaoHilvtljtekMilqrtboBMlaiM In  1730, 1700, and  1788.    (MapViKXyiL) 

%  Hmm,  tb«  Mfiltal  of  Ite  Anarln  maplMt  to  on  tto  aoottern  bank  of  tte  Danobni  thrae 
MtflttitrwsUki  tottUMMiflna  Btfll%tod  ilSttI  haadMd  nUti  ] 


Ttfvolt  of  the  Hungarians  from  the  dominion  of  Austria,  and  an  alii- 
a&ee  formed  between  them  and  the  Turks,  had  brought  an  army  of 
nearly  three  hundred  thousand  men  against  the  Austrian  capital, 
whieh  was  defended  by  its  citizens,  and  a  garrison  of  little  more 
than  eleven  thousand  men.  After  an  active  siege  of  more  than  two 
months,  Vienna  was  reduced  to  the  last  extremity.  In  the  mean- 
time the  Austrian  emperor,  who  had  left  his  capital  to  make  what 
defence  it  could  against  the  immense  hosts  of  Turks  that  poured 
down  upon  it,  had  solicited  the  aid  of  the  Polish  king ;  and  Sobieski 
waa  not  long  in  making  his  appearance  at  the  head  of  a  small,  but 
reeolute  army  of  eighteen  thousand  yet^ans.  The  combined  Polish 
and  Austrian  forces,  when  all  assembled,  amounted  to  only  seventy 
thousand  men,  whom  the  Turks  outnumbered  more  than  three  to 
one ;  but  Sobieski,  whose  name  alone  was  a  terror  to  the  infidels, 
was  at  once  the  Agamemnon  and  Achilles  of  the  Christian  host. 

5.  Sunday  the  12th  of  September,  1683,^as  the  important  day 
that  was  to  decide  whetbir  the  Turkish  crescent  or  the  cross,  was  to 
wave  on  the  turrets  of  Vienna.  At  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
Sobieski  had  drawn  up  his  forces  in  the  plain  fronting  the  Mussul- 
meQ  camp,  and  ordering  the  advance,  he  exclaimed  aloud,  "  Not  to. 
lie,  O  Loird,  but  to  thee  be  the  glory."  Whole  bands  of  Tartar 
troops  broke  and  fied  when  they  heard  the  name  of  the  Polish  hero 
repeated  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  Ottoman  lines.  At  jbhe 
■ame  moment  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  added  to  the  consternation  of 
the  sap^rstitioiifl  Moslems,  who  beheld  with  dread  the  crescent 
waning  in  the  heavens.  With  a  furious  charge  the  Polish  infantry 
0mfled  an  eminence  that  commanded  the  grand  Vizier's  position, 
when  Kara  Mustapha,  taken  by  surprise  at  this  unexpected  attack, 
feM  at  once  from  the  heights  of  confidence  to  the  depths  of  despair. 
Charge  upon  clukrge  was  rapidly  hurled  upon  the  already  wavering 
Moslems,  whose  rout  soon  became  general.  In  vain  the  vizier  tried 
to  raUy  the  broken  hosts.     <^  Can  you  not  aid  me  I"  said  he  to  the 

OoaaCauUiiople.  PopafaUioil  abonl  tlirae  tmiidred  and  wrentj  thouaand.  In  Roman  hlatory 
Vknna  Is  known  as  FiMteAmo,  (see  Map  No.  VI 11.,)  and  la  remarfcable  as  being  Oie  place 
where  Marens  AuraUns  died.  After  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  margraves  or  dukes  held  Vienna 
tlO  the  nrfddto  ef  tb»  thirteenth  oeotnrjr,  soon  after  which  it  came  Into  the  possession  of  the 
hoose  of  Hapshnig.  In  1484  it  was  taken  by  the  Hungarians,  whose  king,  Matthias,  made  it 
fbe  teat  of  his  court  Bhioe  the  time  of  Maziratllan  It  has  been  the  usual  residence  of  the 
creb-dnkes  of  Auatria,  and  the  emperors  of  Germany.  About  two  miles  fh>m  the  city  Is 
flBbSnfroiiB,  the  ikvoilte  sommer  residence  of  the  emperor.  It  was  twice  occupied  by  Nape- 
Imb:  fbe  tiwty  of  achdnbnum  was  signed  la  U  tai  ISOi^  lad  here  the  duke  of  Beiehrtadt,  ioa 
•m^otooiHdiidiiiMaa.   (JMyVaYVU) 


1  of  the  Tartan,  who  |M«ed]iia«MagA»ih«itifm  •Ilam 
the  kiog  of  PoUod/wafl  the  reply;  «<  and  Ilell  jpoo,  that  vilh  nek 
an  eneoiy  we  hare  no  tafetj  bat  in  iighl^  Look  at  the  aky ;  >m  if 
God  18  not  against  as.*' 

6.  So  sudden- and  general  waa  the  panio  aaio^g  the  Toi^  thaia* 
six  o'clock  Sobieski  entered  the  camp  where  a  lundred  aad  tweaty 
thoasand  tenU  were  still  foond  standiitg ;  the  innameraUe  moltitade 
of  the  Orientals  had  disappeared;  bat  their  spoils,  their  honea^ 
their  camels,  their  splendor,  loaded  the  ffwand.  The  oavse  of  Chrk- 
tianitj — of  eivilisatioa — had  prewled;  the  wa^  of  MamilaHii 
power  had  retired,  never  ^  return.  Bat  Sobiaeki  reaaired  little 
thanks  from  a  jealoos  monarch  for  reacaing  him  and  hia  ooantrj 
from  irretrievable  rain ;  and  Poland — onhappj  Poland  1  had  aaved 
a  serpent  from  death,  which  afterward  torned  and  atang  her  for  the 
kindness.  Sobieski  died  in  1696)  in  the  midst  of  the  nun  tlmt  waa 
fist  overwhelming  bis  country  throagh  the  disaenBiOBS  and  i^amora 
of  a  turbulent  nobility,  and  just  in  time  to  save  his  withered  kis^ 
from  being  torn  from  bis  brow  by  the  rude  hand  of  rebeUkm.  With 
him  the  greatness  of  his  native  land  may  be  said  to  have  ended. 

7.  Russiay  at  the  .commencement  of  the  aevenieenth  cetttwy,  HM 

immersed  in  extreme  ignoranoe  and  barbarian :  and  air 

ni.  EUS8IA.      ,         ,  ,.  .        ^  ,.   .      ,  ,  ,        ,     . 

tbough  a  glimmermg  of  light  dawned  i^n  her  awi^g 
the  reign  of  Alexis,  who  died  in  1677,  yet  the  great  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Russia  is  the  rcign  of  Peter  the  Great,  whoae  geaias  feat 
opened  to  its  people  Uie  advantages  of  civilisation.  In  1689,  this 
prince,  then  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  became  sole  monarch  of 
Eussia.  The  vigorous  development  of  his  mind  was  a  sabjeet  of 
universal  wonder  and  admiration.  Full  of  energy  and  activity,  he 
found  notlnng  too  arduous  to  be  attempted,  and  he  oommeneed  at 
once  the  vast  project  of  changing  the  whole  syfltem  of  the  gereRfc- 
ment,  and  of  reforming  the  manners  of  the  people.  Hia  firat  e«r> 
tions  were  directed  to  the  remodelling  and  disciplining  of  the  armj, 
and  the  improvement  of  his  resources ;  and  from  the  model  of  a  small 
yacht  on  the  river  which  rons  through  Moscow,  he  eonstfoeted  tha 
first  Russian  navy.  In  1694  he  took  from  the  Turks  the  advan- 
tageous port  of  Azof,'  which  opened  to  his  salijects  the  eoBuaeree  of 

1.  The  «M  of  Atof^  the  Po/iw  MoqUm  of  Uie  anctenta,  oommoDicatM  by  Ibe  narvov  itatt  oC 
Yeolcale,  ^n.  CimmMria.n  Bospmnu;^  wilh  the  nortii-veiteni  ai^  of  Um  BlMk  8ta.  The 
port  of  Axof  to  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  at  th*  wrilhiiattprn  cstiwnUgr  of  tte  ma  of  Aaol 
The  lowB^anctoPtly  called  71«itai>,Ml,to  UiamWmBi^O%Ilw»flpB>b^MJgUp<ii»taJib 
bm  to  BOW  fhit  auiag  Into  deoay. 


0k«  fr.]  SSTBSTEBaFSB  CaraTUBT.  889 

tiM  VMk  80ft.  Tkis  adquintion  enluged  kis  views,  and  he  com* 
laeiioed  n  eyvlem  of  ioternel  improvementB,  iv^ich  had  for  its  ob- 
jeet,  by  eonnocting  the  waters  of  the  Bwina,-  the  Volga,'  and  the 
Dob,  to  open  a  water  oommiiniiKttioii  between  the  Baltio,  Blaok,  and 
Oaspian  8ea&  A  few  years  later  he  laid,  near  the  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  Finknd,  tiie  fbnndations  of  St.  Petersbarg,'  a  city  whieh  ho 
designed  to  be  the  emporium  of  Northern  commerce  and  the  capital 
of  his  dominon& 

8.  Being  convinced  of  the  saperiority  of  the  natives  of  Western 
Bnrope  over  his  own  borbaroas  subjects,  in  1697  ie  sent  out  to  Italy, 
Holland,  and  Gomany,  two  or  three  hundred  young  men,  to  learn 
the  arts  of  those  countries,  particularly  ship-building  and  navigation ; 
and  in  the  following  year  he  himself  left  hi»  dominions,  as  a  privato 
iniividQai,  to  proeture  knowledge  by  his  own  observation  and  experi- 
ence. He  visited  Amsterdam,  where  he  entered  himself  as  a  com* 
moQ  carpenter  in  one  of  the  principal  dockyards,  laboring  and  liv 
Ittg  like  the  other  workmen,  and  demanding  the  same  pay;  he  also 
went  to  Bof^Mul,  where  he  examined'  the  principal  naval  arsenak ;  and 
after  a  year's  absence  retaraed  home,  greatly  improved  in  mechanical 
soienee,  and  accompanied  by  Bumerous  artisans  whom  he  had  engaged 
to  aid  him  in  the  great  defirign  of  instructing  his  subjects  in  the  arts 
of  mors  civilised  nations.  The  chief  politicjd  acts  of  the  reign  of 
this  truly  great  man  belong  ip  the  history  of  the  next  century. 

9k  In  the  sixteenth  eontvfy  Turkeif,  during  the  reign  of  Solyman 
the  Magnificent,  the  eotemporary  of  the  emperor  Charles 
v.,  had  become  the  most  powerftd  empire  in  the  world,  *  ™""^' 
reaching  from  the  confines  of  Austria  on  the  west,  to  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates  on  the  east,  and  extending  over  Egypt  on  the 
south.  Other  able  princes,  who  succeeded  Solyman,  with  Mussul- 
man pride  held  all  the  rest  of  the  world  in  scorn,  and  the  Ottoman 
arms  oontiBued  to  maintain  their  aseendeney  over  those  of  Christen- 
dom until  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when,  in  1683, 
tlie  famous  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  totally  defeated  the  army  em- 

L  The  DwhtM  here  mentioned  lieei  near  tiie  ■oaroes  of  the  Volga,  and  empties  Into  the  Golf 
ef  Biga,  fa  the  Bailie,  irine  mfles  below  Blga.  Another  rirer  of  the  tamo  name  fiUlB  hito  the 
White  Sea,  thlrt^aTe  milea  betow  Anhai«el. 

2.  The  FW/o,  or  H^«fgth  tbe  Uugeti  river  of  Europe,  has  Its  sources  fn  central  Russia,  and 
lbs  moofh  iB  the  Cks|rtan  Sea.  ft  Is  the  greatvrtery  of  Russia,  and  the  graiid  route  of  the  fn- 
tflTBal  Iraflle  of  thai  empire ;  but  It  Is  said  that  Its  waters  are  deereasiog  hi  depth,  and  (hat 
•  taadbanks  are  beeomh«aerioQa  obstacles  to  its  navigation. 

SL  SLPetsrstefy,  the  modem  capital  of  Bussla^and  ene  of  Uie  Uiseat  and  ttaest  dUesor 
Baropa^lt  •UoaiadaLth^aMt^oCthiiiTer  Neva»m&iu  antnnw  Into  tho  Gulf  of  FIbImmL 


ployed  in  the  siege  of  YmiiUL  Thb  eweai  marks  «^  era  of  the 
decline  of  the  Ottoman  power.  A  powerful  leagoe  formed  between 
Austria,  RosBia,  Poland,  and  Yenioe,  followed  upon  the  defeat  of 
,ihe  Ottoman  foroes  at  Vienna,  and  in  1687  the  Turks  were  finally 
driven  out  of  Hungary,  and  dispossessed  of  the  greater  portion  of 
Southern  Greeoe.  In  1G97,  while  this  war  continued,  they  sustained 
a  total  defeat  by  the  famous  Prinoe  Eugene,  in  the  battle  of  Zenfta,' 
in  which  they  lost  thirty  thousand  men.  The  treaty  of  Carlowits" 
in  1699,  completed  the  humiliation  of  the  Porte ;»  Transylyania,* 
Sdavonia,*  ami  Htiigary,  being  preserved  to  the  emperor  of  Austria; 
Podolia,*  with  other  porticms  of  the  Ukrune,*  remaining  in  the  pos- 
session of  Poland,  while  Russia  retained  her -conquest  on  the  Black 
Sea.     Morea,  or  Southern  Greece,  was  oeded  to  Yenioe. 

10.  The  political  history  of  Itcily,  during  the  sevoite^th  cenlorj, 
is  of  trifling  importance,  but  the  social  condi^m  of  its 
people  merits  a  passing  notice.  The  Reforma^on  had 
destroyed  the  politicalr  bfluence  of  the  pope,  who  was  reduced  to  the 
rank  of  a  petty  sovereign  over  the  small  territory  emlnraoed  in  the 
^*  States  of  the  Church ;"  while  Spam,  mistress  of  the  fairest  proir- 
inces  of  the  peninsula,  as  well  as  of  its  two  large  and  beantifid 
islands,  inflicted  upon  the  country  numerous  evils  which  made  the 
people  at  once  poor  and  miserable.  The  effects  of  Spanish-  rule  are 
faithfully  characterized  by  a  Milanese  wriler,  who  forcibly  dqnots 
the  wretchedness  of  the  fertile  and  once  populous  valley  of  Lorn- 
bardy.  "  The  Spaniards,^'  he  remarks,  "  possessed  central  Lombardy 
for  a  hundred  and  seventy-two  years.     They  found  in  its  diief  city 

1.  Zenta  Is  a  small  town  of  Soathern  Hungary,  on  the  Theiss,  a  northern  branch  of  the  Den- 
abe,  two  hundred  and  forty  miles  south-east  fVom  Vienna.  (In  history  the  nune  of  ttile  tovm 
is  variously  spelled  Zenta,  Zeutha,  Zeuta,  an^  Zeutha.)    (Mmp  No.  XVIL) 

Sl  Carlowiti  is  a  town  of  Austrian  Sdavonla,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Dannbe^  abool 
any  miles  south  of  Zcnia.    {Map  No,  XVIL) 

3.  7V«M«ftfeantc  Is  the  most  emtem  proTinoe  of  the  Anstriaa  emptie,  lytns  eaat  of  Baagvy, 
and  north  of  the  Turliish  prorince  of  Wallachia.  It  is  divided  principally  amoi^  Uiree  dis- 
tinet  racQS,— the  Magyar,  the  Szekler  or  SicuU,  and  the  Saxon.    {Map  No.  XVIL) 

4.  SriceoMM,  a  proTioce  of  the  Austrian  empire,  nsually  rogaided  as  forming  a  part  of  Hob- 
gary,  has  Hungary  on  the  north,  and  the  Turldsh  proTlnces  of  Bosnia  and  Serrla  on  the  aoodb 
{Map  No.  XVU.) 

5.  Podolia^  now  a  province  of  aouth-weatem  Roasla,  lies  along  the  eastern  bank  of  tht 
Dniester.  It  was  long  governed  by  Its  own  princes;  but,  in  1560,  It  was  united  to  Poland.  A 
has  belonged  to  Russia  since  179X    (Jlfa|>  No.  XVU.) 

6.  The  Urkaine^  (a  word  signifying  '^  tlu  fr«mtitr^^  was  an  extensive  country  In  the  aooUi 
ensleni  part  of  Russian  Poland,  now  forming  the  Russian  provlnoei  of  Podolla,  Kiev,  Chaikow« 
and  Poltava.    Kiev,  on  the  Dui^>er,  was  the  chief  town.    (JIfay  No.  XVU.) 

.  Port»— the  Ottoman  court,  so  called  fhmi  the  gate  of  the  sultan's  palace  where  Joalles  ll 
'"'"'""  ►  w  «»  Sublime  P^rU,    L.  jwrta,  Fir.  fru,  ••  adoor  or  W^m.^ 


OgU9  IV.]  SEVENTEENTH  XJENTUET.  »! 

three  hundred  thooBand  sotdB :  they  left  in  it  Boaroelj  a  third  of  thai 
number.  They  found  in  it  aeventy  woollen  mannikotories :  they -left 
in  it  no  more  than  five.  They  found  agriculture  akilfal  and  flour- 
ifihxng :  before  the  province  was  wrested  from  them  they  had  passed 
laws  which  made  emigration  a  capital  crime."  !the  Spanish  gov- 
emors  of  the  provinces  looked  upon  the  conquered  countries  as  es- 
tates calculated  to  fill  their  own  and  the  royal  coffers ;  and  not  only 
was  the  nation  drained  of  its  treasure,  but  of  its  blood  also.  The 
flower  of  the  people,  draughted  by  thousands  into  the  Spanish 
armies,  perished  in  the  wars  of  France,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands.' 

1 1.  But  numerous  as  were  the  evils  which  flowed  from  the  admin- 
istrative oppression  of  the  Spaniards,  they  were  light  when 'compared 
with  *he  fearful  corruption  in  morals  that  pervaded  the  whole  sjrstem 
of  society.  An  insidious  licentiousness,  under  the  garb  of  gallantry, 
had  been  introduced  by  the  Spaniards,  while  the  spirit  of  the  people, 
kindled  into  frensy  by  Castilian  fancies  about  knightly  honor,  but  no 
longer  ennobled  by  personal  courage,  or  manly  self-respect,  made 
Italy,  for  many  generations,  in&mous  as  the  scene  of  poisonings  and 
assassinations.  Risings  and  revolutions  of  the  people  were  frequent ; 
during  nearly  the  whole  period  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  coasts 
were  continually  infested  by  Turkish  and  Algerine  corsairs;  the 
fields  were  ravaged ;  houses,  villages,  and  whole  towns  were  burned ; 
and  thousands  were  carried  away  into  slavery ;  while,  in  the  interior, 
robbers  were  scarcely  less  destructive,  large  troops  of  whom  plun- 
dered, or  exacted  ransoms,  and  more  than  once  resisted  successfully 
battalions  of  regular  soldiers.  Such  is  the  mournful  picture  pre- 
sented by  Italy,  the  land  of  Roman  greatness  and  renown,  durinf 
the  seventeenth  century. 

12.  The  principal  events,  to  whidi  we  have  not  already  al- 
luded, that  mark   the  history  of  the  Spanish  penin-        ^ 
Bula  during  the  seventeenth  century,  are  the  expulsion     spAMna 
of  the   Moors,   the  revolt  of  Portugal,   and  the   ac-   "»»»«''^ 
knowledgment  of  the  independence  of   Holland.     Twice  during 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  Moors,  or  Moriseos,  had  risen  against 
their  Christian  masters ;   they  had  been  dispersed,  from  Granada, 
among  the  other  Spanish  provinces,  and  oompelled,  against  their 
will,   to  receive   Christian  baptism.     Tranquillity  could  scarcely 
be  hoped  from  so  arbitrary  a  measure ;  and  the  Moriseos,  thirsting 
for  revenge,  entered  into  a  correspondence  with  the  African  princes, 
whom  they  ur^psd  to  invade  the  peninsula,  promising  to  rise  on  tbf 


MDDBRH  JOanOBY.  {Einli. 


Jfett  nginL  Tut  oranttteocs  b60(Nuui|f  kiiowii|  wbtB  expohMni  of  ttt6 
whole  body  wu  decreed,  and  tiie  eniei  nmdale  was  earned  into 
eseentioB,  altiKm^  not  wHlioiil  open  rcwialaiice  in  aeveral  of  the 
proTiDoes.  (1610.)  In  all,  no  fewer  than  sax  hundred  thousand  of 
the  moel  ingeniona  and  indnalrioaa  portion  of  the  eoaunnnity  were 
Ibreibly  driven  firon  their  honea,  whik  large  numbers^  by  nuking  n 
pTofeaaion  of  Ghriatianity,  were  permitted  to  remain.  Thia  waa  n 
Uow  no  lees  &tal  to  the  prosperity  of  Spain,  than  the  relocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantea  was  to  a  sifter  kingdom. 

13.  Pdrtogal  had  been  waited  to  Spain  in  1580,  partiy  by  eon- 
qneat,  ukd  partly  in  aeeordanoe  with  the  wishes  of  a  portion  of  its 
n<^»lity ;  bat  the  onion  fiukd  to  give  satisfiMtion  to  the  people  of  the 
former  country.  Finding  themaelTea  ground  to  the  dust  by  intoler- 
able taxes  and  f<Mroed  loans,  their  complaints  disr^arded,  their  per* 
sona  insulted,  and  their  prosperity  at  an  end,  in  1640  they  <»ganized  a 
general  revolt,  and  the  sway  of  Spain  over  Portugal  waa  forever  bndcen, 
by  the  election,  to  the  throne,  of  the  duke  of  Braganaa,"  with  the  title 
of  John  lY.  To  complete  the  hnmiiiation  of  Spain,  eight  years  later, 
m  the  treaty  of  Munsier,*  she  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  in- 
dependence of  Holland,  after  having  maintained  against  her  a  warfare 
of  ei^ty  years'  duration,  only  interrupted  by  a  brief  truce  of  twelve 
years  fit>m  1609  to  1621 ;  and  even  during  this  period,  hoetiiities 
did  not  cease  in  the  Indies.  The  disasters  that  were  befolling  Ro- 
man Catholic  Spain  were  &st  overwhelming  that  proud  monarchy 
with  disgrace  and  ruin,  while  the  new  Bepublie  of  Holland  was 
taking  its  place,  as  a  free  and  independent  State,  among  the  most 
powerful  nations  of  Europe.  The  treaty  of  Westphalia,  signed  the 
same  year,  1648,  secured  to  Holland  internal  tranquillity,  by  reooa- 
mliog  the  c<mfiicting  interests  of  her  own  people,  and  guaranteeing 
the  enjoyment  of  civil  and  religioua  liberty, — one  of  the  noble  aims 
and  results  of  Christian  civilization. 

14.  The  history  of  the  Asiatic  nations  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
^^        merits  but  little  notice.     During  this  period  a  series  of 

joiATio     imbecile  tyrants  ruled  over  Persia.     Their  r^gns  were 
H ATxoifs.     generally  peaceful,  but  the  higher  classes  were  enervated 

].  Bragmm  ft  a  toirn  tf  fbe  oorth^aMem  aactremlty  of  Pormgal.  In  1443  H  was  Mvetod 
tnto  a  ducby,  and  In  1040,  John,  eighth  duke  of  Bragaiua,  aweoded  the  Portogueea  UiraM, 
under  the  title  of  John  IV.  His  descendants  coDtlnne  to  enjoy  the  cr^wn  of  Portugal,  and 
kare  alao  aoqotred  thai  of  Braall.  Tba  town  and  aummndlng  dtotHct  of  Bngania  •ttU  beioag 
to  the  king  of  Portngal  at  the  dnke  of  Braganxa.    {Map  No.  XIIL) 

5t  .AfsMter,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  !s  niDety>flTe  miles  north-east  flrom  Alx-la^faapeQat.  Iha 
a^aty  of  MnMtM waa n pasiof  that af  Wa^phaUa.  8aa  WaHphalia, p.  aOQL  <JliwKo.XViM 


C&UblIV.]  SEVJfiNTKSHTH  QE2mJBT.  39S 

fcj  hamtjy  md  tbe  martud  ipirit  of  the  people  suffered  so  madi 
from  iiiftctioD,  that  early  in  the  following  century  the  Affghans,  a 
warlike  people  on  the  confines  of  India,  invaded .  the  kingdom,  and 
plaoed  the  royal  diadem  on  the  head  of  their  chief  Mahmoud.  In 
1644  an  important  revolution  was  terminated  in  China,  hy  which  the 
Manchoos,  a  race  sprung  from  the  expelled  Mongols  and  the  eastern 
Tartars,  established  themselves  firmly  in  the  empire,  after  a  war  of 
twenty-seven  years^  duration.  Happily  for  the  country,  Shunchy, 
the  first  «nperor  of  the  Manchoo-Ti^rtar  dynasty,  showed  himself  a 
gOBjerons  and  -enlightened  monarch ;  and  his  son  and  successor 
Kang-hy,  who  had  the  singular  fortune  to  reign  sixty  years,  was  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  sovereigns  that  ever  ruled  the  oountry, — ^tho 
Chinese  historians  ascribing  to  him  almost  every  virtue  that  can 
adorn  a  throne. 

15.  In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  great  Mogul 
cmt^ire  <^  Asia,  having  northern  Hindostan  for  the  seat  of  its  central 
power,  and  the  Persian  dominions  for  its  western  limits,  gradually 
declined  in  greatness  until,  in  1659,  the  famous  Aurungzebe  succeed- 
ed to  the  tiirone,  by  the  imprisonment  of  his  father.  Under  this 
prinoe,  who  ruled  with  the  most  tyrannical  cruelty,  establishing  Mo- 
hammedanism throughout  his  dominions  by  a  rigorous  persecution 
of  the  Hindoos,  and  the  destruction  of  their  temples,  the  Mogul  em- 
pire was  extended  and  con8olidatedj^M>ut  on  his  death,  in  1707,  it 
experienced  a  rapid  decline,  and  was  soon  broken  into  fragments. 

16.  The  seventeenth  century  marks  the  era  of  the  establishment 
of  tlie  principal  Ihiteh,  Spanish,  French,  and  English   ^^^  ^^ 
oolMkies  in  the  New  World,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  mial  estab- 
and  Africa.     Near  the  close  of  the  preceding  century  the  ""™''™' 
Dutch  had  munded  the  colony  of  Surinam^  in  South  America,  and 
m>  1607  tiiey  gained  a  footing  in  the  East  Indies  by  capturing,  from 
tbe  Portuguese,  the  Moluccas^  or  Spice  Islands,  whieh  they  continued 
to  bold  against  all  competitors.     A  few  years  later  they  founded 
New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York.     In  1619  they  founded  Batavia, 


1,  «iir<Mi»,orl>«ldi6iilMMHteo»theaortb«Mlmioo«*orSoiitt 
Gatena  on  th«  eut,  mod  Engliah  OnUma  OD  ttio  WMt  • 

8.  Ite  JMriMMt,  or  irhiflli  AmboyM  It  IIm  priadiMd,  an  a  danier  of  ■audi  tthndi  north 
of  AnlnliE  or  New  HoUand,  and  boiwoen  Ooleboa  and  Now  Gviaea.  Tliey  aro  diatlogotohod 
«Mi«rlDrt]Miindiietl0DOf  4iieoa,1MrUealar|yB«tB0sa  andolovea.  Wbea  In  1511  the  For. 
tiign»iidlaoPti>adtlMwiiiaoda»thoAiabianawwB  already  aotttedtiwt^  Tbo  Portngooie  had 
■aaiattha  otttico  aonopoly  of  the  aploe  towle  tiU  the  bcglnniiiff  at  the  teveoiMath  0*11017, 
whM the Doloh  tMk  tfaa  UawUfton  thorn.  Staoo  1796  the Moloeoaa  have  hoon  twtae  oov 
f1piabrlliili<IMI^Jirth»thfcp<MaofJiriHa|gtfMiiy>iiiMiil»< 


394  IfOHERM'  HIBTOS7.  [PamK 

la  tlie  island  of  Java ; — about  the  same  time  they  wrested  tiie  Jg^ 
ancse  trade  from  the  Portogneee.  In  1650  thej  seised  sod  eolonised 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  had  previoualj  been  clamed  by  the 
English,  and  six  years  later  they  expelled  the  Portognese  from  the 
island  of  Ceylon.'  The  Dutch  adopted,  in  their  colonial  regoltUoiu, 
a  more  exclasivo  system  of  policy  than  other  nations ;  sod  this,  to- 
gether with  their  harsh  treatment  of  the  natiTea,  was  the  prindpsl 
cause  of  the  final  ruin  of  their  empire  in  the  Indies. 

17.  The  numerous  colonies  founded  by  Spain  in  the  New  WOrU 
during  the  previous  century  had  now  become  consolidated  into  one 
vast  empire,  embracmg  most  of  the  idands  of  the  West  Indies,  to* 
gether  with  the  extensive  realms  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  over  iriuoh 
the  Spanish  monarch  ruled  with  the  most  absolute  despotism.  The 
immense  wealth  derived  from  these  possessions  excited  the  envy  tnd 
cupidity  of  all  Europe ;  and  fi*equently,  during  the  wars  of  the  ser* 
enteenth  century,  the  Spaniah  fleets,  laden  with  the  gold  end  silver 
of  the  New  World,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  French,  or 
English  cruisers ;  while  bands  of  pirates,  or  Buccaneers,  who  hid 
their  coverts  among  the  small  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  oftm 
plundered  the  coasts,  and  roamed  at  ?dll,  the  terror  of  the  Speoiih 


18.  The  materials  for  a  history  of  the  Qpiu^ish  possessions  in  the 
New  World,  during  nearly  UA  centuries,  are  exceedingly  meagie 
and  uninteresting,  treating  of  little  but  the  same  unvarying  role  of 
arbitrary  and  avaricious  viceroys  or  governors,  of  commeroiil  re* 
strictions  the  most  odious  and  oppressive,  and  of  the  miseries  of  la 
aboriginal  population,  the  most  abject  that  could  possibly  be  ooneeifei 

19.  The  French  colohiiation,  in  the  New  World,  during  the  ier* 
enteenth  century,  embraces  only  the  founding  of  Quebeof  and  a  fev 
other  feeble  settlements  in  the  Canadas ;  and,  at  the  very  dose  of 
the  century,  the  landing  of  two  hundred  emigranta,  and  the  ereetuA 
of  a  rude  fort,  in  Lower  Louisiana.  Nor  was  anything  imporln 
accomplished  by  the  French,  during  this  period,  in  the  newly  disoov- 
ered  regions  of  the  Old  World.  About  the  middle  of  the  oentoiy 
liiey  attempted  to  make  Madagascar*  one  of  their  colonies,  a  scheme 


1.  C0flM»toal«i«etalaiMlMloi«liiVto  Great  BrttelB,iMtf  tiie  ■ootkflra  «di«Btt]r«f  H^ 
dofltan.  Tbe  oUmamon  tnt,  whMi  wu  ftHad  onty  in  Oefloo  and  Oodtin^Ma^  it  ftt  ■«* 
*  Talaable  produeUon.  ExtmilTe  ndns  of  eltiaa,  eaiiala,  aqoadiMli,  bHdgw,  tanplM,  ac^ite^ 
ttiai  Cairlon  waa,  at  a  rwnota  period,  a  rtcb,  popoloua,  and  oompanKliniy  dTlttsad  waany. 
Altar  HoUaad  had  baen  aractad  iato  the  BatCTiaa  rapobUe  in  17M,  tbe  b^iih  look  po«^^ 
oroeylootaiidattbapaaoeor  AmiaD^io  ISOS^It  waalbnBaUraadadtothaB.  ' 

*.  UBitgmfm  U  a  laifa  twd  ag  <ba  mtiwi  coaii  of  ioia  ykimjlnm  ^mm  %  Ifm^ 


CBtf.IV.]  SKVlSHTKJKN'rH  OKHTUBY.  aOS 

wbioh  proved  ftitile  on  aooonnt  of  the  extreme  unhealtlunese  of  the 
island.  In  1672  tlie  French  pnrchased  the  town  of  Pondieherrj,' 
in  Hindostan,  from  its  native  sovereign,  and  established  there  % 
oolonj  with  every  reascmable  prospect  of  success ;  but  the  place  was 
several  times  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch  and  th^  English,  until, 
finally,  it  was  restored  at  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1815,  and  is  now  the 
principal  French,  settlement  on  the  Asiatic  continent 
»  20.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  the*  English  began  to 
torir  their  attention  to  the  commerce  of  the  East  Indies ;  and  ip.  the  year 
1 600  a  company  of  London  merchants,  known  as  the  London  East  India 
Company,  obtained  a  charter  from  queen  Elisabeth,  giving  to  them  the 
exclusive  right  of  trading  with  those  distant  countries.  During  the 
seventeenth  century  the  London  company  made  little  progress  in  ef- 
fecting settlements  in  the  Indies ;  and  at  the  close  of  that  period,  a 
small  part  of  the  island  of  Java,*  Fort  St  George  at  Madras,'  the 
island  of  Bombay,^  and  Fort  William  erected  at  Calcutta*  in  4699, 

nted  by  Mosambiqne  Channel.  Soon  after  the  peace  of  1815  the  French  formed  aevepal  small 
cotonlea  on  the  eaatorh  coast  of  the  island ;  and  fh>m  1818  to  1885  the  English  missionaries  had 
•ome  sneeess  in  converUng  the  naUyes ;  bat  ainoe  the  latter  period  the  mlsaioimrlea  hare  been 
forbidden  to  approach  thclslam^  and  Madagascar  may  now  be  reckoned  among  the  barbaityoa 
eoonMes  of  eastern  Attica, 

1.  PonMekerrf  is  a  town  of  Hindostan,  on  the  soath-easten  ooast,  eighty  mllea  sonlb-waifc 
from  Madras.  Population  about  flAy-Sve  thousand.  The  French  possessions  in  India,  com- 
prising Pondicherry,  Chandemagore,  Karical  in  the  CamaUc,  Mah«  In  Mallbar,  and  Vanaon  in 
Qriasa,  with  the  territory  attached  to  each,  hare  a  total  popuhOion  of  about  one  hundred  and 
sixty-six  thousand,  of  whom  one  thousand  are  whites. 

8.  Java  is  a  laige  island  of  the  Asiatic  anshipelago,  south  of  BomeO|  belonging  principally  to 
the  nutch,  and  the  centre,  as  well  as  the  most  valuable,  of  their  possearions  in  the  East.  ArBa, 
a  little  less  than  that  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Population  betireen  fire  and  six  mniions. 
The  Portuguese  reached  Java  in  1511,  and  the  Dutch  in  1505.  The  laUer  founded  Batavia  in 
1610.  In  1811  Java  was  taken  by  a  British  force,  and  held  till  1818,  when,  in  pursuance  of  the 
tfieaty  of  Paris,  It  was  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

3.  Madras  is  a  laige  city  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  Hindostan,  eight  hundred  and  sevwily 
miles  south-west  from  Calcutta.  Population  upwards  of  four  hundred  thousand.  Madras  ia 
badly  situated,  has  no  harbor,  and  is  almost  wholly  unapproachable  by  sea.  It  was  the  first 
acquisition  made  in  India  by  the  British,  who  obtained  It  by  grant  ttotA  the  n^ah  of  Bijnagur, 
In  1630,  with  permission  to  erect  a  fort  there.  The  fort  was  besieged  in  1703  by  one  of  Aurung* 
lobe's  geoenUs ;  and  In  1744  by  the  French,  to  whom  it  surrendered  after  a  bombardfnent  of 
thraedaya.  It  .was  restored  to  the  English  at  the  peace  of  Aix^a^Chapette,  and  sneceaiftiHy  eo»> 
tained  a  memorable  siege  by  the  French  under  Lolly  in  1758-0;  since  which  it  has  experienced  no 
bostDeattack.  Madraslstbecapitalof  the  British  presidency  of  the  same  name,  which  embraoea 
tha  irbole  of  Sooth  Htndoelan,  extending  aboot  Sva  hundred  mllea  north  from  Gape  Comorln. 

4.  Bambajf  is  built  on  an  island  of  the  same  nam^  on  the  western  coast  of  Bindostan,  tea 
hmidred  and  flfty  miles  south-west  from  Calcutta.  Population  about  two  hundred  and  Ibrtf 
flioiaaand.  In  1530  Bombay  waa  obtahied  by  the  Portuguese  from  a  Hindoo  chief:  by  them  It 
waa  ceded  to  Charles  11.,  in  lOBI,  as  part  of  queen  Oalherine^s  dowry ;  and  io  1666  it  woa 
tfanstared,  by  the  king,  to  the  East  India  Company,  at  an  annual  rent  of  ten  pounds  sterting. 
Soon  after  It  reallxed  to  the  company  a  revenue  of  three  thousand  poandi  a  year.  Bombay  la 
fha  capital  of  the  presidency  of  ttie  same  name.  * 

Jw  <atoatfa,  the  oapltal  of  fta  British  dwalitonafa  thaaMl,IOittMrtod  m  <h>  iKiw  dSo 


■MNMIT.  p^vlt 


the  wlM^e  inhabited  bj  ml  j  a  few  hondred  JBuropeaaB,  Ibnaed  tie 
extent  of  their  Eaat  India  poasemiona.  8Qch  waa  the  feeble  be- 
ginning, and  alow  progress,  of  an  aaaociatioQ  of  merohanta  that "  now 
tales  oTor  an  empire  eontaining  a  hundred  millions  of  sobjeeta,  raisea 
a  tribute  of  more  than  three  millions  annuallj,  possesses  an  army 
of  more  than  two  hondred  thousand  men,  has  princes  for  its  senranta^ 
and  emperors  pensioners  on  its  bounty/' 

21.  The  first  suooessfnl  attempt  at  Amerioan  oolonixation  by  the  • 
English  was  the  settlement  of  Jamestown,  in  Virginia,  m  the  year 
1607.  This  was  followed  by  the  settlement  of  Plymouth  in  New 
England,  in  1620,-  by  a  band  of  Puritans,  who  had  resolved  to  seek, 
in  the  wilderness  of  Ameriea,  that  freedom  of  worship  which  their 
native  country  denied  them.  During  the  same  century  the  English 
formed  settlements  in  all  the  Atlantic  States  from  Maine  to  Georgia, 
the  latter  only  excepted,  which  was  not  colonized  until  the  year 
1733f  the  Dutch,  who  had  settled  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York, 
were  conquered  by  the  English  in  1644 ;  and  at  the  same  time  the 
Swedes,  who  had  settled  Delaware,  and  had  subsequently  been  re- 
duced by  the  Dutch,  shared  the  fate  of  their  masters.  The  history 
of  the  British  American  colonies,  during  the  seventeenth  century,  is 
marked  no  less  by  the  struggles  of  the  colonists  against  the  natural 
difficulties  of  their  situation,  and  by  the  Indian  wars  in  which  they 
were  often  involved,  than  by  their  noble  resistance  to  the  arbitrary 
and  oppressive  rule  of  the  mother  country.  The  early  colonists, 
those  of  New  England  especially,  had  left  their  homes  on  the  other 
ride  of  the  Atlantic,  to  seek,  in  the  wilds  of  America,  an  asylum 
where  they  might  enjoy  unmolested  their  religious  faith  and  worship; 
and  they  brought  with  them  to  the  land  of  tiieir  adoption,  that  ^irit 
of  independence,  and  those  principles  of  freedom,  which  laid  the 
foundation  of  American  liberty. 

22.  The  early  history  of  these  colonies  is  full  of  instruction  to  all, — 
in  its  lessons  of  patient  endurance,  and  unyielding  perseverance,  ex- 
alted heroinn,  individual  piety,  and  public  virtue ;  but  to.  American 
citizens  it  possesses  a  peculiar  interest,  as  the  history  of  the  dev^op- 
ment  and  growth  of  those  priamples  of  free  government  whioh  su^ 

of  tbe  riT«r  Hoogly,  Um  most  veiteni  «rm  of  the  Gangeii  about  one  hundred  bUm  flrom  ili 
•ntnnoe  Into  Um  Bi^  of  BeDgaL  Reddmit  popaUUon  about  two  hundred  and  thirtj  tbouaand. 
Th«  £agUih  flnt  made  a  MtUeDaeut  here  in  1690^  when  Cakcutta  waa  but  a  aauil  rlVtt^b,  Ifr- 
^abited  ehiefly  by  huabandmea.  In  1756  a  Bengal  chief  diapoaieMed  Um  Eogliah  of  Uielr  eetite- 
meol,  but  It  wm  retaken  by  Colonel  Cllve  In  Uke  foUowing  year,ainee  which  U  haa  baaa  ^oieiU 
iliMpad  hf  tU  Btltiihft  and  riavi  to  lla  j^iwant  d«grea  ef  ImportaMa. 


OliffrlT.]  BSYBHTiaGNTH  CKNTUKY.  W7 

^seeding  time  has  perfected  to  the  happiness  and  glory  of  our  country, 
and  the  advancement  of  the  cause  ^of  freedom  throughout  the  worlds 
In  a  work  of  general  history  like  the  present  we  cannot  hope  to  do 
such  a  subject  justice ;  and  instead  of  attempting  here  a  brief  and 
separate  compend  of  our  early  annals,  it  will  be  more  satisfactory 
and  useful  to  refer  the  student  to  some  of  the  numerous  standard 
works  on  Amefcan  history  which  are  at  all  times  accessible  to  him, 
and  with  some  one  of  which  it  is  presumable  every  Afnerican  youth 
will  early  make  himself  familiar,  before  be  enters  upon  the  study  of 
the  general  history  of  nations. 


Nt  MODSBK  HlSrrOBT.  [PamIL^ 

CHAPTER   y. 

THE   EIGHTEENTH  OENTURT. 

L  WAR  OF  THE  SPANISH  SUOCESSIOK,  AND  CLOSE  OF  THE 

REIGN  OF  LOUIS  XIV.  * 

ANALYSia  L  Pride  and  amMUoA  or  Loi^i  XIV.  Erents  that  tod  to  the  «  wu- of  (te 
flpaolih  SoeoeitloD.**  Emoland,  GaaiiAiiT,  and  Hollanvi  dbclarb  wam  AOAMrr  FaAMci, 
170S.— S.  Ouiaea  that  taidQead  England  to  engafe  In  tho  war.  The  oppottng  powen.  Death 
Of  ^Ing  William.  Qaeen  Anoe.— &  Opening  of  the  campaign  by  Anattia  and  England.  The 
Freneh  generala.^4.  The  cAMrAion  or  1702.  Naval  erenta.  [Cadiz.  Vigo  Baj.]  Ersirra 
or  17Q&— 5.  ETBNTa  or  17M.  [Blenhefm.  Gibraltar.}^-!!.  ETSim  or  1705  amo  iTOtt.  French 
loeiea.  [RamlUiea.  Moni^  Barcelona.  Madrid.]— 7.  Orertnrea  of  peace.  Campaioii  or 
1707.  [Almanza.  Toulon.]  Evcntb  or  1708.  [Oudenardie.  Brumels.]— 6.  Sofferinga  of  the 
Freneh  in  the  year  1700.  HaoghtlneaB  of  the  monareh.-0.  Loula  In  Tain  aedts  peaoe  irith 
*  Honaad.  Battte  of  Malplaqnet.  [Malplaquet.]  Sngceaiea  of  Loola  hi  Spain.  His  domratie 
mlafortonea.— la  Death  of  the  Austrian  emperor.  Importance  of  that  erent.  Decline  of  the 
war.— IL  TacATT  or  UTaacHT,  April  Uth,  1713.  [Minorca.  Newfoundland.  Hndaon'iB  Bay 
territory.  St.  Christopher.  RadAkU.  Lisle.  Abaoe.]~tS.  DaathofLouUXIV.  CB^aAcnn 
OP  TBB  aaioM  or  Louu  XIV. 

n.  PETER  THE  GREAT  OP  RUSSIA,  AND  CHARLES  XIL  OP  SWEDEN. 

L  Tbb  noRTH  AMD  BAST  OT  EvKOM  dwing  tho  war  of  ihe  SpenUh  aoeoessloa.  Deglnnlag 
of  the  nign  of  the  Roaslan  monarch.— 3.  Leading  ol^eet  with  the  Ckar.  He  Is  induced  to  en- 
gage in  a  war  with  Sweden.  His  allies.  [Livonia.  Riga.}— 3.  Sweden.  Reported  charaeler 
of  Oharies  XIL  The  Swedish  eonnell,  and  dedaratlons  of  Chariea.  Cliange  in  the  klng4 
character.— 4.  BBoiifinHa  or  hobtilitibb  aoaikst  Swbbbm,  hi  the  year  1700.  [Sleswiok. 
Bflstetn.  Narva.]  Chartes  hurablea  Denmark.  [Copenhagen.]— 5.  The  Polish  king.  Charlsa 
mavehes  againat  Narva.— <i.  Signal  DsmAT  or  thb  Robsiars  at  Nakva.  Reraaiic  of  the 
Ciar.  Sopersti'tion  of  the  Russians.— 7.  The  course  porsned  by  Peter.  Resolution  of  Chartet. 
—8.  VtGTORiBB  or  CBAaLBS  IN  THK  TBAR  170S.  [Ooorlaod.  Warsaw.  Craoow.]  The  Polish 
king  deposed.  [Pultusk.]  Chariea  declines  the  soverolgnty  of  Poland.— 9.  Increase  of  hia  power 
and  infloenoe.  [Borysthenea.]  Hia  viewa,  and  plana,  for  the  fliture.— 10.  Policy,  and  gradual 
aoecessea,  of  the  Czar.  [Neva.  Ingria.]— 11.  Maboh  or  Chablbb  into  Russia,  1707-6. 
[Sm^rfenako.]— 18.  Pasaage  of  the  Desna.  [Desna.]  Misfortunes  of  Chariea.— 13.  SItoation  of 
the  Swediah  army  hi  the  winter  of  1706-0.  Advance  of  Chafes  in  the  Spring.  [Poltowa.]— 14. 
Siege  and  BattLb  or  Pultow a.  Escape  of  Chariea.  [Bender.  Oampbeirs  description  of  the 
catastrophe  at  Pultowa.}— IS.  Important  cObcta  of  the  battle  of  Pultowa.— 10.  Wartike  Tiewi 
iUn  entertaiiied  by  Chariea.  He  enlists  tbb  Tctbks  in  his  Ikvor.  IVeaty  between  the  Biwslana 
and  Turica.  [Pmth.]— 17.  Lengthened  stay  of  CharteB  in  Turkey.  Rbtubb  or  OBAK€ks.— 1& 
flituatkm  of  Sweden  on  his  return.  Warlike  prefects  of  Chariea.  Epsirra  or  1715.  [Stoefc- 
holm.]  Siege  of  Stralsund;  Irruption  faito  Norway.  Pro|eQt  of  a  union  with  Rnasla.  Dbatw 
OP  CnABLBB,  1718.  [FrederiekahalL]— 19.  Change  te  Swedtoh  aflUra.  Paaoe  with  Rnasla. 
[Nyalad.]— 90.  Chabactbb  or  Chablbb  thb  TwBLrrH.    [Dr.  Johnaon*k  deaoriptlon  of  him.] 

-4L  DBATH  AMD  CBABACTKB  OP  PBTBB  THB  GbBAT. 


m.  SPANISH  WARS,  AND  WARS  OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION. 

Iheu  Of  the  trsaty  of  Utraeht    Sobopbah  Aluahob  for  guarantealBg  the  lUftanaut  of 
My    BpaJa  OnnUy  •wnpnlled  t0  aondi  to  ft^-4L  Wab  ssTWHaa  B«»kUD  an  S^aia 


OMift.V.]'  BIOHTEBNTH  OWTTUBY.  899 

1T98L  Ito  eaoii.-^  G&vibi  of  thb  wae  or  rum  AvmuH  tvooBieto*.  [PlagnuAe 
Hiiction.T— 4b  Clalmi,  and  dMigna,  upon  the  Anatrian  dominions.  The  poalUon  of  Eiigland.~S. 
Plan  of  T8K  coALiTiOK  AOAiMBT  AoiTRiA.  Invafelon  of  Austria,  1741.  The  diet  of  Ftanfc* 
foru  [Frankfort.]  Maria  Theresa  and  the  Hungarians.  Evbnts  or  1743  amd  1743.  [Munich. 
Dettlngen.>-4I.  Sncoessea  and  reverses  of  Frederic  of  Pmssta,  1744.  T%e  Austrian  general.— 7. 
Death  of  Charies  Albert,  1745.  Successes  of  Marshal  Saxe*  [Fontenoy.]  Treaty  between 
Fnssia  and  Austria.  Fiands  L-^  Events  in  Italy  in  174S. '  [Piedmont.]  Evento  of  the  iir- 
TASioir  or  Eholaivd,  174IHL  [Edinburgh.  Preston-pans.  Gnlloden.]  Cruelties  of  the  Eng> 
]lsh.~0.  EvBMTS  iir  Ammlioa,  1743-6.  [Gape  Breton.]— 10.  Evints  or  1746-7.  TasiiTT  or 
Axz-la<Chapsllb,  Oct.  1748.   In  what  respea  the  result  was  favorable  to  all  parties. 

IV.  THE  SEVEN  YEARS'  W  AR  :-1756-63. 

1.  The  noBT  tbars  op  pkacs  that  followed  the  treaty  of  Alx-la-Chapelle.  Causes  that 
TVBKATKHKD  ANOTHKE  WAR.— S.  East-Iudla  coIonlal  difflcuUies  between  France  and  England. 
--3L  North  American  diflloulties.  Bkoinrino  ^^ostilitiks  xh  1754.  Braddoclc's  defeat, 
1755.— 4.  The  connected  interests  of  all  the  EuropSn  States.  Ttie  relations  between  Prussia 
and  Austria.  Europkan  Alliarcrs  growing  out  of  them.— ^  The  threatened  danger  to 
Prussia.— 6.  First  Campaxon  or  Frrdrric,  1756.— 7.  Declarations  of  war  by  France  and 
Aigland,  1756.  The  first  campaign.— 8.  The  opposing  forces,  1757.  Victory  of  Frederic  at 
Prague,  and  defeat  at  Kolin.  [Kolin.]  General  invasion  of  Prussia.  Defoat  of  the  English  in 
Germany.— 9.  Dangerous  situation  of  Fredtric.  [Berlin.]  Recall  of  the  Russian  army. 
Frederic  advances  into  Saxony.- 10.  Great  victory  of  Frederic  at  Rossback.  [Rossback.]— 11. 
Results  of  the  battle.  Frederic's  treatment  of  the  wounded  and  prisoners.- IS.  The  English 
and  Hanoverians  resume  their  arms.  Aflhirs  in  Silesia.  Vlctoiy  of  Frederic  at  Lissa.  [Lissa.] 
Anecdote  of  Frederic— 13.  Results  of  the  campaign  of  1757.— 14.  Successes  of  the  duke  of 
Brunswick,  1756.  Frederic  in  Sllesiar-eseapes  flnom  the  Austrians  at  Olmutz,  and  marehea 
against  the  Ruasians.  [Olmnts.]— 15.  BatUe  of  Zomdorf.  [Zomdorf.]  Anecdotes.  Action 
of  Hochkirchen.  [Hochklreben.]  ResulU  of  the  campaign.— 16.  Losses  of  the  French  in  India 
and  America.— 17.  Opening  of  the  campaign  of  1759.  Defeat  of  Frederic  at  Kuncrsdorf. 
[Kunevsdorf.]  His  loss  in  Bohemia.  Result,  to  the  Austrians.— 1&  The  campaign  of  the  duke 
or  Brunswick.  The  results  on  the  ocean  and  in  the  colonies.- 10.  Losses  of  Frederic  in  the 
eampaign  of  1700.  He  defoats  the  enemy  at  Liegnitz  and  Torgau.  [Llegnitz.  TOrgau.]— SOi 
The  campaign  in  Germany.— SI.  Alliance  between  France  and  Spain.  Losses  of  Spain  and 
IVance.  [Cuba.  Manilla.  Bellelsle.  Guadaloupe.]— S2.  -The  campaign  of  1781.  Coldness 
or  England,  and  change  In  the  Russian  councils.— 83.  General  pbacr  or  1763b  The  results,  to 
Bnglaad- to  France— to  Prussia.    [Honduras.]    The  military  cnARAOTBR  or  Frbpbric 

V.  STATE  OF  EUROPE.    THE  AMERICAN  REVOLtmON. 

1.  Gbrbral  pbacb  in  EuRors.  Results  of  the  «*  Seven  Teare*  War."  Eflbrta  of  Frsderls 
for  the  good  of  his  people.— S.  Frarcb  during  the  closing  years  of  the  reign  of  Loola  XV* 
ADOSesion  of  Louis  XVJ.— 3.  Condition  of  Russia.  Her  war  with  Turkey  and  Poland.  [Mol* 
dnrla  and  Wallachia.]  Diskbmbbrmbnt  or  Polano,  1773.— 1  State  or  rARTias  in  Eh««i.aei». 
TualSon.   Resignation  of  the  eari  of  Bute.— 5.  The  Qrenville  minlstiy.   The  case  of  Mr. 

*Wi]keSi— 6.  The  snbjectof  Ambrican  tazahon.  The  Stamp  Act— 7.  Misfortunes  of  England 
In  her  attempts  to  coerce  the  Americana.— 6.  Opbnino  or  the  war  vitith  the  oolonibs.-^. 
Bveopbar  relations  op  EKOLANn.  Afcl  ejoendod  to  the  Americans^— 10.  Oaplnre  of  Bniw 
foyne,  1777,  and  alliance  betwbbn  Franor  and  thr  American  8TATBS.r>ll.  ^egto* 
nlng^or  the  was  betwbbm  France  and  Enolahe.— 13.  WRr  in  the  West  Indies.  [Do* 
mlnica.  St.  Luela.]— 13.  Hostilities  in  the  East  Indies,  and  overthrow  of  the  French  power 
Ibsrs/— M.  War  between  Spain  an»  Enolanik  Eventaof  1770.  [St.  VSnoents.  Grsiisda.] 
—IS.  Soooesses  of  Admiral  Rodney,  1786.  English  merchant  fleet  captured  by  the  Spaaiarda. 
—16.  The  English  claim  of  the  right  of  search.  Arm  an  nbotralitt  aoainbt  EHOLANn. 
fWEClples  of  the  Neutrality.    General  ooncurreoee  in  them.— 17.  Rdptorb  betwbbn  Ena  lae» 

,  AND  HOLLANn^IS.  Gsptore  of  St.  Bustatia  by  the  Sogliah.    [SL  Enstatia.]— 10.  The  Spaniards 
eonqner  Wssi  Florids.   The  Fyench  sad  English  In  the  West  Indlss.    [TobsgQ.]  Hawaii 
4€fhs  iSMi  or  HoIIsmL  [DsgfM'  BsBk.]-8a  RMdfs  «r  tl»  war  Utmma 


400  XODSBA  mSTOBT.  IPiBlf 

kvAMfteueotoalML  OanttamnM  oT  tke  trv  In  Ewoim.  SI«f»or€:»nllv,nM;cBtfd^ 
iCraoiiM  or  the  8|waM  woika.-4il.  Mteorai  takM  by  Spain,  1«L  Lomm  «niM  &«IMi  In 
the  Wm  IndtoiL  [BahUDM.]  Naval  Tietorx  of  the  EagHih.  {Oairibee  WaDda.h42.  Ob» 
tloved  riege  of  Gibraltar.  Prepaiations  (br  an  wmuHr-^  The  ananlt-M.  6«aerauwnftntt 
of  the  Brtttih  MameD.    Besalti  oT  ttw  anaoH.-:^  The  wae  w  tsb  East  laotic.   Aceoaal 

«r  Hydar  AIL  .  (Mjraora.   Berii^patam.]    «    frie of  Hyder  All  and  hie  aon  llppoo 

■alls  In  1780.  Erenta  of  1781-fi.~tf7.  TIppoo  coaQladea  a  traaly  with  the  Eaf^WH  17B3.  Be* 
nniral  of  the  war,  1790.  Dcftnt  and  death  of  TIppoo.,  17W.-9BL  ThaATT  or  17«;  OsiiaajA 
vaBATT  or  1783»  hotwoHi  a«landt  Frane%  and  flpaln.  Ita  tennib~4».  Bemaikaapenthevir 
ortheReToliittoQ. 

VL  THB  FBENOH  REVOLUTION. 

1.  The  Dbmoceatio  anarr  of  the  American  EoToIotlon  :~Ua  Infliwinrie  opon  Fnaah  wutUlj, 

-a.8tateorFkanoeatthettmeorthedeathorirf>alaXVw-aLoou  XVL  Hla  chancleiv^ 
TauLMcuh  ntrncuLTiBf.  EflbrU  of  Ton^and  Neekar,  and  the  eppoeltlon  which  tb«f  m- 
eovnteied.— &  The  qntem  of  Oaloone,  and Vieaidta.— 0.  Biienne  calls Tbb  STATaa^aasRAL 
—7.  Bemoral  of  Brienne,  and  realoraUon  of  Neckar.  The  polk^  of  the  ooiul.--e.  The  g«n«nl 
agUaUon  throoghoot  fiance.  Ibe  otUi  to  be  campialned  ot  The  cinrgy  and  tha  aobUity* 
The  phikMophie  party.  The  calling  of  the  State^geneial— a  ravotoUonaiy  neaaura.  Deauadi 
Qt  the  OommoM.  Bendti  of  the  elecaona.— 0.  New  dlflcolty  at  the  opnntaiff  of  the  8tat«- 
gencraL  lu  final  ■ettlement.—ia  Bflbct  of  the  (ginmph  of  the  tk^  ttuu,  R«voLUTioa*aT 
aTATB  or  PAaia.  Attack  upon  the  Baatile,  1780.— 1 1.  Loula  throws  hlmanli;  for  sttpporti  vpon 
the  popular  party.— ISL  The  eflbcL  BeTOlotionary  movementa  thiongboal  France.  Gabat 
PouTiCAL  c:HANeaaw--13.  Two  months  of  qoleL  FAMiiva,  Aan  noaa,  in  Paria.  The  mob  at 
VcnaiUea,  and  retnni  of  the  Assembly  and  royal  flunlly  to  Paris.— 14.  Formalion  of  a  Kaw 
CoRSTinmoH.  MAasHALuae  or  pARTtts.  The  Jaeobln  dnb.— 15.  Its  character.  lit 
landers.  Mlnibean.  Ilia  character,  and  death.— 16.  Tna  EmeaAirr  Nonijbrrr.  [OobtaaH.] 
ATTBMPrxD  asGAPB  or  TBB  BOTAL  r  AMiLT,  1791.  Tbo  king  sweers  to  anpport  the  new  con> 
•Ututlon.  DiasolttUon  of  the  ^OoDsttloeat  Assembly."- 17.  The  *"  Legldatire  Assend)!!." 
Gbief  pertfes  in  It  Growing  iofloenoe  of  the  Jnooblna.— J8.  Fhai  acts  of  the  l^lslBtiTe  smb- 
bly.  Ol^eci  of  the  Girondists^  Demands  of  the  Austrian  emperor.  Wab  nncLABBn  AeAiaar 
AvsTBiA,  1708.  Real  causes  of  the  war^— 19.  Gollection  of  foroae,  and  inTasion  of  Fnnen 
The  eflbcta  produced  In  France.— 90.  Massaobb  or  tbb  lOra  or  AveuaT.  Acts  of  the  As> 
aembly.  FUght  of  La  Fayette.  Dumourieb— SL  lUasACBBa  or  Sbptsmbbb.— JB.  Vlaloclii 
of  the  French.  [Jemappea.  Marseilles  Uyma.}— S3.  Ueorae  of  the  NaOonal  GonTentta* 
Tbial  abs  BXBcvnoM  or  Lons  XVL 

[1793.]  Si.  Fall  or  tbb  Gibokdists.- S5.  Rule  of  the  Jacobins.— 86^  Tbb  Rbmr  or 
TBBBOB.  Ezeeution  of  the  queen.  Taxcxra  or  lansauTT.— S7.  Divisions  among  the  Jsoobia 
leaders.  Fali.  or  tbb  DAMTomsTS.— S8.  Wab  aoaikst  EuaorB.— S9.  DefectioB  of  Do* 
»oarieB^-30L  Piteof Ccntlne.— 31.  Waron  the  Spanish Ihmller.  In  other  qoaiten^-^K  b- 
aVB&ncnoN  or  La  Vbhobb.  Victory  of  the  Vendeana  at  Baumur,  and  defbafi  at  Naatea 
pBaunur.]  Repented  deHDota  of  the  Repnbllcana.  {Tsrfou.]— 33.  Ghieiaes  of  the  RepabHfffla. 
The  Vendeens  eroes  into  Brittany.  [Cholet.  Ghatean  Gonthler.]-34.  Qorf^  aoeneaef  the 
Vendaan  war.  COnmTille.  Mane.  Savenay.  The  Vendean  Ieader8.>^-S5w  InaoBBBonoiis  m  ^ 
nu  BOom  OF  Fbabob.  IfarseiUea  and  Lyon8.«-3flL  Siege  of  Tonlon.  Napoleon  Bona|ierte. 
<-^.  Reaolts  of  the  campaign  of  1703. 

C17M.}  as.  PtogNM  er  the  Revelation  after  the  fhD  of  DBnten.-30i  Fau  or  SoBBaRBBBB, 
jjm  BBn  or  rmm  Rbiob  or  TBBBoa^-40L  Mllitaiy  oendition  of  Franoa.— 41.  Tnn  Eirousn  tte» 
veaiona  at  bba,  abb  tbb  'FaBKcn  on  tbb  lamb.   [Blaoay.]— 48l  SBOonn  rABrmoN  or  Po* 

&AB1l^->-4S»  TtonO  PABTTTIOB  Or  POLABD. 

[1701]  44.  DieaoitunoM  or  tbb  rusT  coa&itiob  AeAiver  Fbabob.  Aastria,  Haglaadt 
and  RnBBhL-«l5.  Intemal  eondillon  of  Franoew  Tarn  Nbw  OMfSTnirnoB«*4d.  InaintBBGTfOB 
»  Pabss,  sBppwased  by  Napo1eon.--47.  Military  erents  of  1799. 

[1700.]  48.  iBTAamBorGBBiiABTbyJocdanandMoreatt.— 40wTbb  AuKTorlTAiiT.  Vlal^ 
llaa  of  Napoleon.  [Hontenotte.  MUieoslnM.  LodL  Arcole.  llantaa.]--50.  DnTvnaAXS* 
atBanLAMnk'  Spain.   English  anprania^  at  sea.   neaeh  Inrasion  oTIraland. 

CinB»]   M.  Niffwm'B  AnBCuaii  <uwfai—    TBrnan  er  Oavm  Pbbbio,    {fimtfi^^^ 


CBfliY.]  SIOHTJGneNTH  OBNTirRY.  401 

■rfa]   I-oaieioflialy.  M.8ftUbofpeitK«dK«ABL»HMWiTOFMiuTACTDwPOTirtBt 
Fkanck. 

r>798.]  53L  Pkcpakations  fob  thb  iiiTAtioif  OF  Emolans.  ExPBDiTioii  TO  Earrr— 54. 
^«paralloM  for  the  expeditlon--«.  Surrender  of  Malttu  [M«lta.J  Storming  of  Atexaudrfa.— 
56.  Policy  of  Napoleon.  [The  Arab  popalatfoi%  Cairo.]  Battle  or  the  Ptramido.-^7. 
Battlk  or  THE  NiLB.~58.  Remarkable  energy  of^  Napoleon.  Conquest  of  Upper  EgypU 
CI7!».]  Strxak  EzFmiTioi«.-.50.  8uoc  or  Acre?  [Mount  Tabor.]  Battle  of  Moomt 
Tabor.  [Nazareth.J—fiO.  Reiam  of  Napoleon  to  EgypU  Battlr  of  Aroukir.— 61.  State  of 
■flWre  in  Europe.-«2.  Napoleon's  return  to  France.  Overthrow  or  the  Dirrctort.  [8U 
aoad.]    Napolbom  FkttsT  CoRsuL.    Changes  of  the  Bavolodon. 

I.  War  of  .the  Spanish  succession,  and  close  of  the  reion  of 
Loms  XIV.— 1.  The  war  which  ended  in  the  treaty  of  Byswiok  had 
not  humbled  the  pride  of  Louis  XIV.,  whose  ambition  soon  involved 
Europe  in  another  war,  known  in  history  as  the  ".War  of  the  SpanL^ 
succession."  The  immediate  events  that  led  to  the  war  were  the 
following.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Second  of  Spain,  m  the 
year  1 700,  the  two  claimants  of  the  Spanish  throne  were  the  areh> 
duke  Charles  of  Austria,  and  Philip  of  Anjou,  nephew  of  the  French 
monarch.  Both  these  princes  endeavored,  by  their  emissaries,  to 
obtain  fipom  Charles,  then  on  a  sick  bed,  a  declaration  in  &vor  of  their 
respective  pretensions ;  but  although  the  Spanish  monarch  was  strong- 
V  *^  u7^'  ^^  ^  claims  of  the  archduke  his  kinsman, 

\  the  promises  of  Louis  prevailed  with  the  '^E^i^t^' 
to  induce  their  sovereign  to  assign  by     and  hui^ 
'^Qi  Anjou,  the  undivided  sovereignty  of  ^^|[^  ^ 
|^2^j^^n&     The  arch-duke  resolved  to  sup-      against 
*rword,  while  the  possible  and  not     ^fi^^* 
'  crowns  of  France  and  Spain  in 
.fter  the  death  of  Louis,  was  looked  upon  by 
1  Holland,  as  an  event  highly  dangerous  to  the 
and  on  the  15th  of  May,  1702,  tiiese  three 
Wnst  France,  in  support  of  the  claims  of  the 
^^^h  succession. 
w<^of  very  little  importance  to  Englanj,  whether 
^^^nch  prince  became  monarch  of  Spain;   but 
^^)f  the*  exiled  James  II.,  his  son  was  acknowl- 
^and  by  the  French  court,  the  act  was  regarded 
iefiance  to  Great  Britain ;  the  national  animosity 
ing  William  engaged  strenuously  in  the  work  of 
1%.  >inst  the  ambition  of  France.    England,  Holland, 

ana  he  leading  powers  of  the  coalition,  while  France 

vas   a^  aria  alone.    Already  William  was  preparmg  to 

26 


MS  UODSBN  HISTOBT.  [PakIL 

taka  the  field  m  person  at  the  head  of  the  allies,  when  a  ML  from 
his  horse  occasioned  a  fOver,  which  terminated  his  life  in  May  1702. 
Queen  Anne,  who  next  ascended  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  de- 
clared her  resolution  to  adhere  iff  the  policy  of  her  predecessor. 

3.  The  emperor  of  Austria*began  the  war  hy  pouring  into  Italy  a 
large  army  under  the  command  of  Prioce  Eugene,  a  Frenchman  by 
birth,  who  had  early  entered  the  Austrian  servioe,  where  he  had 
gained  distinction  in  the  wars  of  the  Turks.  At  the  same  time  the 
English  duke  of  Marlborough,  intrusted  with  the  chief  command  of 
the  Dutch  and  English  forces,  entered  on  the  campaign  in  Flanders. 
To  these  generals  was  at  first  opposed  marshal  Yillars;  but  the 
complaints  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria  against  him  induced  that  able 
general  to  resign  his  command.  Marsin,  Tallard,  and  Yilleroy,  suc- 
ceeded him  ;  but  the  French  generals,  brought  up  under  the  despotlo 
authority  of  Louis,  who  required  in  his  officers  the  quality  of  sub- 
mission as  well  as  the  talent  for  command,  were  unable  to  cope  with 
Marlborough  and  Eugene,  who  had  been  bred  in  a  school  that  en- 
couraged the  development  of  talent,  by  allowing  a  greater  indepen- 
dence of  character. 

4.  The  campaign  of  1702  passed  without  any  remarkable  results : 
n.  rn     Marlborough  took  a  few  towns  in  Flanders,  and  Eugene 

oAicPAiGir    in  northern  Italy,  but  on  the  Rhine  the  French  gained 
oir  1702.     ^^^  successes :  at  sea  a  combined  Dutch  and  English 
fleet  failed  in  an  attack  on  Cadiz,*  but  succeeded  in  capturing  and 
destroying,  in  Vigo  Bay,*  a  French  and  Spanish  fleet  that  had  taken 
shelter  there,  laden  with  the  treasures  of  Spanish  America.  ' 
OF  1708.     I^  ^^®  spring  of  1703  the  French  succeeded  in  breaking 
through  the  lines  of  the  allies  on  the  Rhine,  thus  trans- 
ferring the  seat  of  the  #ar  to  the  Danube,  and  making  a  threatening 
demonstration  against  Vienna  itself 

5.  In  the  spring  of  1704  Marlborough,  abandoning  Flanders, 

*    marched  to  the  relief  of  the  Austrian  emperor,  and  having 

'of ^704*  J^^°®^  prince  Eugene,  on  the  13th  of  August,  ndtf  the 

small  village  of  Blenheim,'  he  won  a  decisive  victory  over 

the  French  and  Bavarians.     Each  army  numbered  about  eighty 

1  Cadit  is  an  Important  city  and  waport  of  Andalofia,  to  aoaUiern  Spain,  sixty  miles  north- 
WMt  from  Gibraltar.    It  is  a  very  aaclont  city,  having  been  founded  by  the  GarihaglnJans. 
iMap  No.  XIIL) 
S.  Figa  ftfy  is  on  the  western  oosit  of  Spain,  a  Uttle  north  of  PortngaL 
3.  Bltnheim  is  a  small  village  of  western  Bavaria,  on  the  nanube^  thirty4hrae  milM  nortb- 
CMtfromUIm.    (i«<9  No.  XVU.) 


ObaY.}  SiaHTEENTH  OENTintY.  40ft 

thoiuaiid  men,  and  tlie  yanqiiished  lost  thirtj  tbonsand  in  killed^ 
wounded,  and  taken,  while  all  their  camp  equipage,  baggage,  and  ar* 
tillerj,  became  the  prize  of  the  oonqnerors.  The  loss  of  the  latter 
was  about  five  thousand  killed  and  eight  thousand  wounded.  The 
results  of  this  battle  obliged  the  French  to  eva^mate  Germany  al- 
together, abandon  Bavaria,  and  retire  behind  the  Bhine.  In  the 
meantime  the  war  continued  in  northern  Italy ;  Portugal  joined  the 
ooalition ;  the  archduke  Charles  of  Austria,  aided  by  an  English 
force,  landed  in  the  Spanish  peninsula ;  and  an  English  and  Butch 
fleet,  commanded  by  Sir  Gkorge  Rooke,  stormed  the  important  fortress 
of  Gibraltar,'  of  which  England  has  ever  smce  retained  the  possession. 
6.  The  year  1705  passed  away  with  varied  success,  the  French 
obtaining  many  advantages  in  Italy,  while  the  allies  were  ^  xyzmib 
generally  victorious  in  Spain  and  on  the  ocean.  In  1706  of 
a  French  force  again  penetrated  into  Germany ;  but  the  * '"^"*'' 
main  army,  of  about  eighty  thousand  men,  commanded  by  marshal 
Yilleroy,  advancing  into  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  was  met  by  an 
inferior  force  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  and  utterly  routed  in 
the  decisive  battle  of  Ramillies.*  (May  23d,  1706.)  The  conse- 
quences of  the  battle  were  the  loss,  to  France,  of  all  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  except  the  fortified  towns  of  Mons*  and  Namur.     In 

1.  OOraltar,  the  Gnlpe  of  the  Greekt,  formed,  wfth  Abylft  on  the  African  coast,  the  *<  Pillars 
«r  UerealM.''  The  fbrtren  standa  on  the  west  aide  of  a  monntabiotta  promontory  or  rock,  pro- 
jecting aoath  Into  the  tea  about  three  miles,  and  being  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
In  breadth.  The  southern  extremity  of  the  rock  Is  called  Boropa  Point.  The  north  side  of  the 
promontory,  fronUng  the  long  narrow  Isthmus  which  conneeta  It  with  the  main  land,  Is  per- 
pendicular, and  wholly  inaccessible.  The  east  and  south  sides  are  steep  and  rugged,  and  ex- 
tfemely  difflcutt  of  access,  so  as  to  render  any  attack  upon  them,  eiren  If  they  were  not^  for* 
tifled,  next  to  litposslble,  fo  that  it  Is  only  on  the  west  side^  fronting  the  bay,  where  tha 
roek  declines  to  the  sea,  and  the  town  is  built,  that  it  can  be  attacked  with  the  thtntest  pros- 
pect of  success.  Here  the  fortiflcations  are  of  extraordinary  extent  and  strength.  The  princi- 
pal batteries  ar«  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  any  mischief  from  the  explosion  of  shells.  Vast 
galleries  have  been  exca\'ated  In  the  solid  rock,  and  mounted  with  heavy  cannon ;  and  com- 
munications have  been  established  between  the  dlibrent  batteries  by  passages  cut  in  the  rock 
to  protect  the  truops  from  the  enemy's  Are. 

At  Gibraltar,  the  Arabians  first  landed  in  Spain,  in  the  year  711.  It  was  taken  from  them  In 
1303:  in  1333  they  retook  It,  but  were  finally  deprived  of  It  in  1403  by  Henry  IV.  of  Spain. 
Angort  4th  1701  the  British  captured  it,  since  which  time  it  has  been  repeatedly  besieged  and 
assaulted,  but  without  success  In  17^  Spain  ofBwed  two  millions  sterilng  for  the  place,  but 
In  vain.  The  last  attempt  made  for  its  reooTory  was  by  France  and  Spain  combined.  In  1770, 
dovlng  the  war  with  England  which  grew  out  of  the  Airjerican  Revolution.  Eighty  thousand 
barrels  of  gunpowder  were  provided  for  the  occasion,  and  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
men  wore  employed,  by  land  and  sea,  against  the  fortress.    (Mttp  Ko.  XIII.) 

SL  -  RamiUiea  Is  a  small  village  of  Belgium,  twenty-eight  miles  soutb-east  from  Brussels^  {Map 
Ko.  XV.) 

S.  Mmu  Is  a  fortlAed  (own  of  Belgium,  thirtj-two  mUes  sooth-weit  from  BrosaeU.  {Mt^ 
lib.  XV.) 


4M  MODBBN  HSIOBT.  (KaflrS 


olbar  qoftrters  ibt  MB|Muga  wia  eqmllj  diMwtroos  to  Looia  Btr- 
oelonft'  snrreikdered  to  the  Bnglish ;  tren  Madrid'  rabmitted  to  tlie 
diliefl ;  and  prinoe  Engene,  breaking  throng  the  Fre&di  linea  at 
TariD,  droye  the  enemy  from  Italy. 

7.  Looia  now  made  OTertures  of  peaee ;  but  the  allies,  hoping  to 

rednoe  him  lower,  would  not  listen  to  them.     The  earn- 

PAioitov    paign  of  1707  in  a  meaanre  reTiyed  his  sinking  fbrtmesL 

^''^7-       On  the  plain  of  Almansa'  the  French  won  a  Tictory  over 

the  allies,  as  eomplete  as  any  that  had  been  obtained  daring  the  war. 

(April  1707.)     This  Tiotory  established  Philip  of  Anjoa  on  tiitt 

throne  of  Spain.     In  the  same  year  prinoe  Eugene  was  foiled  in  a& 

attempt  on  the  port  of  Teulon.*     In  the  foUowing  year,  however, 

(1708,)  Marlborough  and  Eugene  defeated  a  powerful 

^r^08*  ^"^^"^^  *"°y  ^***''  *^®  village  of  Oudenarde,^  in  Flanders, 

and  reooTered  (jhent  and  Bruges,*  which,  a  short  time 

before,  had  been  surprised  by  the  Frenoh.     Again  the  frontier  of 

France  lay  completely  open. 

a  The  year   1709  commenced  with  one  of  the  most  rigorous 
winters  erer  known.     Olives  and  vines,  and  many  fruit 
trees  perished ;  the  sown  grain  was  destroyed,  and  every- 
thing portended  a  general  famine.     The  French  populace  began  ta 

1.  Botrcd&KM,  Um  ca^tal  of  Gt^alonia,  Is  a  ofty  and  teapoii  of  Spala,  on  the  MedBtetwiMm, 
three  hundred  and  (Uleen  miles  north-east  from  Madrid.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  fbnaded 
by  the  Gsrthsglnians  about  two  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  tx>  have  beea 
named  lh>m  Its  founder  Hamiicar  Baretne,    [M*p  No.  XIII.) 

8.  Madrid^  tlie  modem  capital  of  Spain,  is  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  and  ooeoplea  th* 
site  of  the  ancient  Mantua  CarpeUnorum,  a  fortified  town  belonging  to  the  Carpetanl.  It  was  a^ 
terwards  called  JU^oritum^  and  was  talcen  and  sadced  by  the  Moors,  Who  gave  it  He  preeeaft 
name.    (JTaji  No.  XIII.)  *  • 

X  MtMrnza  is  a  town  of  Spain  in  the  northern  pan  of  the  proTinoe  of  Mureia,  ninety4hi«a 
miles  north-west  fh»m  Carthageoa.  In  the  baUle  fought  in  the  neighborhood  of  tbla  town 
ApHl  SSth,  1707,  the  French  were  commanded  by  the  dulce  of  Berwick.  The  jkUies,  In  the  te- 
terest  of  the  arch-duke  Charles,  lost  five  thousand  men  killed  on  the  flehl,  and  nearly  ten  IhMr 
sand  taken  prisoners.    (Jlfa|>  No.  XIII.) 

4.  Tndon,  the  first  naval  port  In  France,  la  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  thtaiy^^wo  miles 
■onth-eaat  flrom  Marseilles.  The  town  is  strongly  forUfied,  and  has  an  exceUent  harbor.  U  Is 
wholly  indebted  for  lu  importance  as  a  great  naval  port,  and  strong  military  position,  to  Loufa 
XI  v.,  who  expended  vast  sums  on  its  fortifications,  and  on  the  arsenal  and  harbor.    (M^  No. 

xm.) 

5.  Ouimardt  is  a  town  of  Belgium  thirty-three  mUes  west  trom  Brussels.  In  the  battle  of 
July  nth,  1706,  the  dukes  of  Brunswick  and  Vendome  commanded  the  French  amy.  {Map 
No.  XV.) 

0.  Brvif€s  is  a  town  of  B^giura«  seven  miles  flrom  the  sea,  and  sixty  milea  north-wesl  from 
Brussels.  At  a  very  early  period  Bruges  was  a  prosperous  seat  of  mannfscturlng  and  com* 
merolal  Industry.  Throughout  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  it  was  the  central  enporfc- 
Hm  of  the  whole  commercial  worid,  and,  as  the  leading  cUy  of  the  Banaeatle  «  ' 
Msldent  consuls  and  ministers  from  every  kingdom  in  Europe.    (Jtfop  No.  XV.) 


«kmor  from  present  sufferiogs,  uid  ibe  dismal  prospect  before  tbem; 
•but  wben  the  French  parUament  proposed  to  appoint  deputies  to 
-raeit  the  provinces,  bnj  eom,  and  watch  over  the  public  peace,  the 
haughty  monarch  reprimanded  them,  and  told  them  thej  had  as 
little  to  do  vrith  com  as  with  taxation.  The  magistrates  were  silent, 
and  Resisted  from  &rther  interference  with  the  claims  of  the  royal 
prerogative. 

9.  With  the  finances  in  disorder,  oommeroe  ruined,  and  agricul- 
ture at  a  stand,  Louis  sought  peace  with  Holland ;  but  the  States, 
slighting  his  envoys  and  his  ofiers,  repaid  him  all  his  past  iosults  and 
pride,  and  he- was  compelled  to  resume  the  war,  or  submit  to  oonoes- 
eions  degrading  to  himself  lind  the  nation.  Again  the  chief  command 
of  the  French  armies  was  given  to  marshal  Yillars,  who  fought  with 
the  allies  the  battle  of  Malplaquet'  (Sept  1  Ith,  1709) ;  but  although 
the  latter  lost  the  greatest  number  of  men,  the  French  lost  the 
Jionor  of  the  day  by  being  driven  from  the  position  which  they  had 
diosen.  The  situation  of  Louis  became  desperate,  when  again  the 
Sttooesses  of  his  arms  in  Spain  restored  him  to  secimty  and  confi- 
dence; but  domestic  misfortune  fell  upon  him,  and  humbled  his 
pride  more  than  all  his  milttaj'y  reverses  had^done.  Most  of  the 
near  relatives  of  the  king  were  cut  off  by  sudden  death, — since  at- 
tributed to  the  small  pox,  but  then  ascribed  to  the  agency  of  poison. 

10.  While  these  clouds  were  lowering  upon  Franoe  and  her  mon- 
arch, an  unexpected  event  changed  the  situations  and  views  of  all 
parties.  Early  in  1 7 1 1 ,  the  death  of  the  emperor  of  Austria  without 
issue,  and  the  succession  of  the  arch-duke  Charles,  the  claimant  of 
the  Spanish  crown,  to  the  sovereignty  of  Austria,  threatened  a  union 
of  the  crowns  of  Spain  and  Austria  in  the  person  of  one  individual,-— 
an  event  looked  upon  with  as  much  dread  as  the  union  of  France  and 
Spain  in  the  person  of  Philip  of  Anjou.  From  this  period  the  war 
languished  ;  and  when,  by  a  change  in  English  politics,  Marlborough, 
who  had  supported,  so  nobly,  the  glory  of  England,  was  disgraced, 
and  deprived  of  his  command,  the  influence  and  support  which  Eng- . 
land  had  given  to  the  war  were  taken  away. 

1 1.  Oonferences  opened  at  Utrecht  in  the  early  part  of  1712,  and 
on  the  1 1th  of  April,  1713,  the  terms  of  a  general  peace  were  assented 

L  MMlfJatut  (lul-plak'-ks)  U  «  wnaU  town  of  Fraaoe,  new  tiie  bonier  of  Belgiam,  for^- 
tlMO  mSlas  eoiiUi-weat  flft>iD  BniMela.  In  tbe  battle  fought  here  Sept.  llib,  ITQa— the  bloodieit 
Jb  flM<*War«r  tke  SpmiA  rocotwloa*^— tt>o  alllM  ««•  comwawlad  bjr  Martborough  vid 
Mmmm»  Hm/im*  «pav  miwhwirl  wvMr  UioQaAnd;  tto  aUIe«  «lghigr  Uiou«ui<L  lbs 
alllet lot! ««Mtyttio«iHkl  la  killed,  and  tbe Franobaboot ten  tbooMiid.   (JUpVo,XV^ 


406  MOllBBir  HBOOBT.  [PittlL 

to  bj  all  tlie  beUsgerantB  ezoept  AnttraL    Bngfauid  nw  gmtiftad 
by  the  demolition  of  the  port  of  Donkirk,  in  the 


o,  of  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,*  together  with  Newfoondland,* 
anMon,  Hudson's  Bay  Territory,*  and  .the  island  of  St  Christo- 
pher/ Spain  remained  to  Philip  Y.  of  Anjon,  on  hii 
renooncmg  forerer  all  right  of  snooesriim  to  the  erown  of  Fnaoe. 
The  treaty  of  Radstadt,*  condaded  in  1714  between  Franoe  and 
Austria,  completed  that  of  Utrecht,  and  terminated  the  war,  the 
Austrian  omperor  receiving  Naples,  Milan,  and  Sardmia,  together 
with  Spaaish  Flanders,  in  lieu  of  Spain, — the  Spani^  monarchy 
thus  losing  its  possessions  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands.  Louis  re- 
tained the  fortress  of  Lisle*  and  French  Flanders,  while  the  Rhine  was 
acknowledged  the  frontier  on  the  side  of  Alsace:^ 

12.  The  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Radstadt  were  the  closing  politi- 
cal acts  of  the  reisn  of  Louis  XIY.,  who  breathed  his  last 
RB  or  THE  in  September  1715,  after  a  reign  of  seventy-seven  yearSi 
anoir  of    or  fifty  four  from  the  expiration  of  the  regency.     Louis 
uxju  xiT.    ^^  ^^  ^^^  despotic  monarch  that  oyer  reigned  over  a 
civilised  people.     In  the  condition  of  France  at  the  time  of  his  ao- 
oession,  despotism  was  perhaps  the  only  remedy  against  anarchy, 
and  it  marks  an  overmastering  spirit  that  the  will  of  the  monarch 
alone  was  able  to  bend  all  minds  to  his  purposes.     The  nobility 
stood  submissive  Before  the  throne, — ^ihe  people,  in  silence  and  suf- 
fering, hr  beneath  it.     But  the  reign  of  Louis  has  shown  that  des- 
potism is  not  compatible  with  modem  civilization,  for  everything 
was  frozen  under  its  chilling  touch ;  and  although  letters  flouririied 

UMimfrtm   ^  Bitatfle  Uet,  p.  15S. 

9l  Aln^Mwtfm^  A  large  iatoiid  of  North  Aiaerias  off  the  Golf  of  St.  Lawranoe,  iteeielinMl 
IM*  tu  flaberiat.    Siooa  the  p^uoe  of  Utreehi,  In  1713|  it  has  remaliied  in  the  poaaearioo  of 


a.  UudsmK^s  Bm9  TVricary  ambraoad  a  largo  bttt  IndeSnite  extanl  of  eomitry,  moatly  on  tlM 
Weat  aide  of  Hudaon's  Bay.  The  Hadaon^s  Bay  Company  has  long  monopolised  nearly  all  thtt 
Air  trad*  of  BriUth  North  America. 

4.  St,  CkriMtopUr>»  la  an  island  of  the  West  Indiea,  nearly  two  hundred  miles  sonih-east  flrom 
POrto  Rioo.  It  was  dlsoorered  and  named  by  Golombus,  but  was  flnt  setaed  by  the  EngUali 
in  1083. 

5.  JUdU^  la  a  aaall  Austrian  town  one  hundfed  and  for^-flre  milaa  sonth-weet  ftom 
Vienna.    (JViy  No.  XVII.)  • 

&  LUU  is  a  atnmgty^rtlfled  dly  of  Ftaooe,  near  the  Belgian  flroatier,  one  hundred  aad 
twen^4bur  milca  north-eaat  flrom  Psaris.  Lisle  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  In  640.  II 
•ucceeslTely  belonged  to  the  counts  of  Flanders^  the  klngB  of  VnaMt  and  the  dokea  of  Bar 
gundy.    (Jlft«»No.Zm.) 

7.  jfisase  wm  an  eaUera  provtnoe  of  nuaee^  on  the  BUne.  In  snelMit  ttmss  U  wea  n  Urn* 
teMdwhDtadiaslBtaihltMMMaipMkaMttML  ttmriMiB  liflM*M«l«r«  CMa^aa, 
znid 


OBtfiT.]        •  EIOHTEESTR  OBNTTTET.  40T 

ftmoDg  ihe  &Tored  few,  there  was  no  prosperity,  no  ktming,  no  life, 
unoog  tbe  people ;  and  had  the  progress  of  sdence,  and  the  derel- 
opment  of  intelleot,  been  checked  by  the  strong  arm  of  authoritji 
France  woold  hare  needed  nothing  more  to  reduce  her  to  Estate  of 
oriental  simplicitj  and  degradation. 

11.  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.—* 

1.  Whae  the  ^*war  of  the  Spanish  succession"  engaged  ,  ,,^„^ 

4he  attention  of  the  south  and  west  of  Europe,  castmg  a  av  iast 
shadow  of  gloom  on  the  declining  years  of  Louis  XIV.,  ^  «o»onL 
the  northern  and  eastern  divisions  of  Ohristendom  were  occupied 
with  the  rivalry  of  two  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  that  the 
world  has  ever  known — Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden.  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  noticed  the  auspicious 
events  which  marked  the  beginning  of  the  reign  oi  the  Russian 
monarch,  just  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  which 
promised  to  his  kingdom  a  rapid  augmentation  of^power,  and  the 
opening  of  a  new  era  in  civilisation.  The  results  remain  to  be  de- 
veloped in  the  present  chapter. 

2.  It  was  a  leading  object  of  the  Czar,^  to  make  Russia  a  great 
commercial  nation ;  and  for  the  success  of  his  plans  a  free  and  unin- 
terrupted communication  with  the  ocean,  by  way  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
was'  deemed  of  the  greatest  importance  ;  but  Sweden  possessed  the 
entire  eastern  coast  of  the  Baltic,  together  with  the  gulfs  of  Finland 
and  Livonia,^  thus  hemming  in  the  Czar  in  the  only  quarter  %here 
his  ardent  wishes  might,  otherwise,  be  accomplished.  Durmg  his 
travels  he  had  been  rudely  refused  admission  into  the  citadel  of 
Riga,*  which  had  once  belonged  to  Russia ;  and  this  circumstance 
aff[)rded  him  a  sufficient  pretext  for  engaging  in  a  war  with  Sweden 
fat  the  recovery  of  that  valuable  seaport  The  kings  of  Denmark 
and  Poland,  both  of  whom  had  suffered  from  the  Swedish  arms,  were 
easily  induced  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  Csar  for  dividing  between 
themselves  the  possessions  wi*ested  from  their  predecessors. 

3.  Sweden  was  at  this  time  (1700)  governed  by  Charles  XII.,  a 
prince  only  eighteen  years  of  age  who  was  reported  by  the  ministers 

L  nul*nd  and  /«t0Mui  are  the  two  eaatwn  galb  of  the  Baltic.  St.  Petmbaif,  at  the  Mitem 
aUvmlty  of  the  Ibnner,  and  Riga,  near  the  head  of  the  latter,  are  now  the  two  moat  imporlant 
cities  and  ports  In  the  Roaslan  domlnlona. 

9l  Riga  li  a  8tr>aglrA>rtUled  city  of  Ruasla,  sttoated  on  the  rlrer  Dwlaa,  lint  mOm  from  II* 
eBtnoeelmo  the  Gulf  of  Uvoolat  Fopolalloo,  ■evtntgr  ttaoni^od. 


a.  IHftVito  ghta  tf  th«  BiMlMi  to  itafllr  ktaib  Md  praaovMM  na»w 


408  M<mSRK  mSTORT.  .        fBivlli 

of  foreign  ooQftp  to  be  of  a  hui^ty  and  inMeai  4i8po«tioii>  Mid 
who  bad  thus  far  diown  do  inclination  for  pubUo  busineaa,  nor  erinoed 
any  ar^or  for  military  pursuits.  Bat  Charles  was  neither  known  to 
others  vm  did  be  know  bimself  until  tiie  storm  that  suddenly  aioee 
in  the  Dorth  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  displaying  his  oonoealed 
talents.  While  the  Swedish  council,  alarmed  by  the  dangers  whiob 
threatened  the  oountry,  were  debating  in  his  presence  the  terms  ot 
au  accommodation  with  their  enemies,  the  young  prince  suddenly 
arose,  and  with  a  grave  and  determined  air  dodared  that  his  resolo* 
tion  was  fixed ;'— "  that  he  would  oever  enter  upon  an  unjust  war,  but 
that  he  would  attack  any  power  that  e?inoed  hostile  intentions,  and 
that,  in  the  present  instance,  he  hoped  to  conquer  the  first  enemy  and 
to  strike  terror  into  the  rest."  From  that  moment  Charles  renounced 
his  former  indolent  babits  and  frivolous  amusements,  and,  placing, 
before  himself  the  characters  of  Alexander  and  Csosar,  resolved  to 
imitate  those  heroes  in  everything  but  their  vices.  The  vain  and 
trifling  boy  su^jjenly  became  the  stem,  vigilant,  and  ambitious  soldier 
of  fortune. 

4.  Almost  simultaneously,  early  in  the  year  1700,  the  Caar  and 

n.  Bwiv-    his  allies  began  hostilities  by  invading  the  Swedish  tarri- 

HiNQ  OF     tories.     The  Danes  fell  upon  Sleswick,'  a  city  of  Hoi- 

AQAiNOT     Btein,  friendly  to  Sweden ;  the  king  of  Poland  invested 

swKi>sN.     itiga ;  while  the  Caar,  with  eighty  thousand  men,  laid 

siege  to  Narva.'    Attacked  by  so  many  foes  at  once,  Charles  placed 

himself  at  the  head  of  his  armies,  and  directed  his  first  efforts  against 

the  Danes,  wholn  he  compelled  to  purchase  the  safety  of  Copenhagen,' 

their  oapital,  by  the  payment  of  four  hundred  thousand  dollars,  and 

aoon  afb^  to  sign  a  peace,  by  which  Charles  was  indemnified  for  a& 

the  expenses  of  the  war.     Thus  the  youthful  Swede,  by  his  vigorous 

oondttct,  humbled  a  powerful  adversary  in  a  oampai^  of  six  weekoi 

1.  SUsmick^  now  iDGliiid«d  in  Um  diuhy  of  Um  aMiie  name,  U  a  ciljnnd  seaport  lown  of  Den 
mark,  seventy  miles  north-west  ftom  Hamburg.  Holstelu  Is  the  southern  duchy  or  proTino^ 
of  Denmark,  extending  to  the  Elbe,  and  baring  the  dnehy  of  Sleswick  on  the  north.  At  the 
period  above-meaUoned  the  oUy  of  Sleswick  was  included  In  the  territories  of  Uae  duloe  of 
Boliteioi  who,  liavlng  married  a  sister  of  Charles  XII^  snd  lieing  oppressed  by  the  klqg  of 
Denmark  hfs  msster,  had  fled  to  Stockholm  to  implore  assistance.    {Map  No.  XVIL) 

3.  J^arva  is  a  sinail  town  of  Russia  on  the  river  Narova,  eight  mile^  ftom  its  entrance  Into 
the  Gulf  of  Livonia,  and  elghty-ono  miles  south-wesl  (him  St.  Petersburg^ 

%  Copenka/pen^  the  capital  of  Denmark,  Is  a  well-fortlfled  city,  built  prlndpany  on  the  eastern 
eoast  of  the  island  of  Zealand,  and  partly  also  on  the  oontlguous  small  island  of  Amak,  the 
diannel  between  them  forming  the  poru  It  was  founded  la  Ilea  Ita  oaTlrons  an  oelehn^ad 
lbrth«irb«mty.    (MapKcXlV,} 


and  rsndered  his  own  name,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  the  terror  of  the 

North,  and  the  admiration  of  Europe. 

5.  In  the  meantime  the  king  of  Poland,  who  had  laid  siege  to 
Biga,  heing  thwarted  by  the  aotirity  of  its  veteran  commander,  the 
same  who  had  refused  the  Ciar  permission  to  enter  the  citadel, 
availed  himself  of  a  plausible  pretext  for  withdrawing  his  -  forces. 
Charles  was  now  left  at  liberty  to  torn  his  attention  to  the  most  pow* 
erfol  of  the  confederates,  the  Russian  monarch,  who,  at  the  head  of 
eighty  thousand  metf  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon,  had 
been  engaged  ten  weeks  in  besieging  the  town  of  Narva,  which  was 
defended  by  a  garrison  of  scarcely  one  thousand  soldiers. 

6.  In  the  month  of  November  Charles  landed  on  the  coast  with 
only  twenty  thousand  men,  and  proceeded  rapidly  towards 

file  town,  at  the  head  of  less  than  one-half  of  his  actual  q,  ,bb 
force,  driving  before  him  more  than  thirty  thousand  kubsianb 
Russians  who  had  been  sent  out  to  impede  his  march. 
Scarcely  allowbg  his  weary  troops  a  moment's  repose,  and  without 
waiting  for  the  remainder  of  his  little  army,  Charles  resolved  to 
attack  the  enemy  in  their  intrenchments :  in  tbre^  hours  the  camp 
was  forced  on  all  sides :  eighteen  thousand  Russians  were  killed,  be- 
sides a  great  number  drowned  in  attempting  to  cross  the  river ;  and 
on  the  next  day  thirty  thousand  who  had  surrendered  were  dismissed 
to  their  homes.  (Nov.  30th.  Dec.  1st,  1700.)  This  extraordinary 
victory  did  not  cost  the  Swedes  over  six  hundred  men.  When  the 
Czar,  who  was  absent  from  Narva  at  the  time,  heard  of  this  disaster, 
he  was  not  disheartened,  but  attributing  the  result  to  the  right  cause, 
the  ignorance  and  barbarism  of  his  subjects,  he  said : — "  I  know  very 
well  that  the  Swedes  will  have  the  advantage  of  us  for  a  considerable 
time ;  but  they  will  at  length  teach  us  to  become  conquerors."  The 
ignorant  Russians,  unable  to  account  for  a  victory  gamed  by  human 
means,  over  such  disparity  of  numbers,  imagined  the  Swedes  to  be 
magicians  and  sorcerers ;  and  a  form  of  prayer,  composed  by  a  RuB^ 
muD  bishop,  was  read  in  their  churches,  imploring  St.  Nicholas,  the- 
patron  of  Muscovy,  to  be  their  champion  in  future,  and  to  drive  the 
Ivoop  of  Northern  wisards  away  from  their  frontiers. 

7.  But  Peter,  disregarding  both  St.  Nicholas  and  the  priests,  pur: 
mod  steadily  the  course  which  he  had  marked  out,  and,  withdrawing 
to  his  own  dominions,  occupied  hia  time  in  equipping  a  fleet,  in  re- 
emiting  and  disciplining  a  new  army,  in  carryiug  out  his  project  of 
suiting  the  Baltic,  Oaspisn,  and  Buidne  seas,  and  in  introdttdng  tiOr 


410  MODERN  HI3T0ST.  [PiMlL 

aMorooB  ibproTemeDts  for  eiTiliting  hu  iMurbftroos  salijecis.  Oharlefly 
on  the  oontr&rj,  neglectful  of  the  wel&re  of  his  own  ooantrj,  and  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  Cssar,  had  resolred  never  to  return  home  until 
be  had  driven  from  the  throne  of  t'oland  the  newly-elected  sovereign, 
and  ally  of  Peter,  Augustus  of  Saxony. 

8.  Having  wintered  at  Narva,  Charles  next  drove  the  Poles  and 
Saxons  from  Higa,  defeated  his  enemies  on  the  western  bank  of  the 

Bwina,  overran  Courland'  and  Lithuania,  entered  War- 
OFOBAELM  '^^'  without  oppositiou,  and  at  length,  in  July  1702, 
IV  m  TBAm  defeated  Augustus  in  a  bloody  battle  fought  on  a  vast 

plain  between  Warsaw  and  Cracow.*  A  second  victory 
gained  by  Charles  at  Pultusk*  in  the  following  year  (May  1st,  1703) 
completed  the  humiliation  of  Augustus,  who  was  formally  depose^ 
by  the  Polish  diet,  while  the  crown  was  soon  after  given  to  Stanislaus 
Lecsinski,  who  had  been  nominated  by  the  king  of  Sweden.  (January 
1704.)  Charles,  at  the  head  of  a  victorious  army,  might  easily  have 
assumed  the  sovereignty  of  Poland,  to  which  he  was  advised  by  his 
ministers,  but  he  declared  that  he  felt  more  pleasure  in  bestowing 
thrones  upon  others  than  in  winning  them  for  himself. 

9.  Charles  soon  reduced  the  Saxon  States,  the  hereditaiy  domin- 
ions of  the  unfortunate  Augustus ;  his  ships  were  masters  of  the 
Baltic ;  Denmark,  restrained  by  the  late  treaty,  was  prevented  fr^m 
offering  any  active  interference  with  his  plans ;  the  German  emperor, 
engaged  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  succession,  was  afraid  of  offend* 
ing  him ;  and  a  detachment  of  thirty  thousand  Swedes  kept  the 
Russians  in  check  towards  the  east :  so  that  the  whole  region  frt>m 

L  ComrUnd  U  a  provliioe  of  Riuvia,  on  the  Baltic  coast,  oorOi  of  the  ancient  Lithnanla. 
(Pee  Uihaaaia,  p.  319.) 

%  ITerMw,  the  capital  of  Polaaid,  it  on  the  west  bank  of  Uie  Vlstala,  aix  hundred^  and  Utf 
miles  soathweat  Ikwn  Bt.  Petenbnrg,  and  three  hnndred  and  thirty-thrae  miles  east  ih>m  Berlin 
the  Pnuiian  capital  Popniatton,  about  one  hondred  and  forty  thousand.  In  17*5,  In  the  thlid 
partition  of  Poland,  Wanaw  was  aarigned  to  Pniasla:  In  1806  it  was  nnde  the  capital  of  the 
grand<laehy  of  Poland ;  and  in  1815  it  became  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Poland,  thai 
^vaa  vniled  to  the  crown  of  ftuasla,  bnt  with  a  separate  eonstitntion  and  adminiatcatiQik 
Wanaw  was  the  principal  aeat  of  the  ilHhted  Polish  reTolotton  of  1831.  See  p.  587.  (JM^ 
Ho.  XVII.) 

&  Ormc&w  is  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Vlatala,  one  hondred  and  sixty  milea  sootb-^esl  fHnn 
Wanaw,  and  two  hondred  north-east  ttom  Vienna.  Preriooaly  lo  the  seventeenth  eentoiy 
Daeow  was  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland.  Most  of  the  PoUA  kings,  and  maniy 
nther  Ulnstrtoos  men,  hSTc  been  boried  in  the  cathedral  of  Cracow.  Among  others  it  oontnim 
fhntoabsof  Osiimir  the  Great,  or  John  Soblaski  the  deltTerer  of  Poland,  and  of  the  •«  last  of 
(he  Poles,**  Kosetosko  and  Ponlatowskl.  Abont  a  mile  west  of  the  cityjs  an  artllicia]  mound 
^  earth,  one  bondnd  and  flfty  ibet  In  height,  erected  to  the  memory  of  KoacinslEO.    {Map  No. 

4.  Pnfiiw*lsflMrtaradieanorthor  WanKw«fl«  thewesiwnbnBknf  nouiltribaiHyer  tte 

^"  '     (Jii^iroxvno 


QttiiYO  'sroHTBSIfTa  OEtmrBY.  411 

llie  Ctermftn  Ooeaa  almost  to  the  moath  of  the  Borjrsthenea,'  and 
«ven  to  the  gates  of  Moscow,  was  held  in  awe  by  the  sword  of  the 
conqueror.  All  Europe  was  fiHed  with  astonishment  at  the  arbithurj' 
manner  in  which  ho  had  deposed  the  king  of  Poland;  while  in  the 
meantime  Charles  himself  was  indulging  in  the  most  extravagant 
Tiews  of  future  oonquests  and  glory.  One  year  he  thought  sufficient 
for  the  conquest  of  Russia :  the  pope  of  Rome  was  next  to  feel  his 
yengeance,  for  haying  dared  to  oppose  the  concession  of  religious  lib* 
erty  to  the  German  Protestants,  m  whose  behalf  Charles  had  inter 
eeted  himself;  and  the  youthful  hero  had  even  despatched  officers 
priTately  into  Egypt  and  Asia,  to  take  plans  of  the  towns,  and  ex- 
amine into  the  resources,  of  those  countries.  \ 

10.  The  Csar,  in  the  meantime,  had  not  been  an  idle  spectator  of 
tiie  progress  of  the  Swedish  conqueror.  By  keeping  large  bodies  of 
his  troops  actively  engaged  on  the  Swedish  frontiers,  he  gradually 
aooustomed  them  to  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  over  whom  he  gained 
several  little  advantages ;  and  having  driven  the  Swedes  from  both 
banks  of  the  Neva,*  in  the  year  1701  he  laid  the  foundations  of  St. 
Petersburg,  in  the  heart  of  his  new  oonquests,  and  by  his  judicious 
measures  protected  the  rising  city  from  the  attacks  of  the  Swedish 
generals.  During  the  year  1704  he  gained  possession  of  all  Ingria  ;*  * 
the  next  year  he  entered  Poland  at  the  head  of  sixty  thousand  men ; 
bat  the  advance  of  Charles  from  Saxony  soon  obliged  him  to  retire 
again  towards  the  Russian  territories. 

11.  In  the  autumn  of  1707,  Charles  began  his  march  eastward, 
with  the  avowed  object  of  the  conquest  of  Russia,  driving 

the  Russians  back  to  the  eastern  banks  of  fte  Dnieper,    'oaAaLcs 
Ihen  the  dividing  line  between  Russia  and  Poland.    The        ^'^^ 
Csar,  seeing  his  own  dominions  threatened  with  war, 
which  must  put  a  stop  to  the  vast  plans  which  he  had  formed  for  the 
improvement  of  his  people,  now  offiBred  terms  of  peace,  but  Charles, 
intoxioated  with  success,  only  replied,  "  I  will  treat  at  Moscow." 
Peter,  resolving  not  to  act  the  part  of  another  Darius,  wisely  deter- 
mined to  Aeok  the  career  of  the  invaders  by  breaking  up  the  roads 

1.  Bprjfttkemsg,  SM  Dnieper,  p.  309. 
.    &1lMjr«e«tottie0lraMnbywiilahl4ilD»UKlogAdlaQliar9Mltoii^ 
«r  Flalaiid.   St.  Petenburg  is  built  at  its  eatmnee  Into  tbe  Onlf. 

3.  Jmgria  wu  «  provinee  extending  about  one  hundred  and  tbirty  milaa  along  the  •outhem 
bMk  or  the  Neva  and  the  fouthern  ahon  of  the  Oolf  of  FlnUnd.  In  ISI7  the  Swedea  took  It 
ftqatheBi»ria«^,b«tiaI1MtbeJatlarPweaqaeiedapaftef  tt,aiidtel1WbnataLPalei» 
tamvtthliillillKllk 


4ii^  MasmBS  aneroftT.  {PjwH 


ftad  deaalatisg  tlie  tXMintry;  and  Okarlea,  after  oromog  Ike  Bftiepar^ 
Mid  penetrating  almost  to  Smolendco/  fimad  it  impraetieaUe  to  eoo> 
tinoe  his  maA)h  in  the  direotion  of  tbe  BnMian  eapitiL  ( 1 706.)  Hs 
army,  expoaed  to  the  riak  of  famine,  and  the  inoeasant  altacka  of  ihm 
enemy,  was  alowiy  traating  away ;  yet,  instead  of  falliog  baek  upon 
Poland,  he  adopted  the  extraordinary  reedntion  of  paaeiAg  into  the 
Ukraine,  whither  he  had  been  invited  by  Maseppa,  a  Pole  by  Inrlii, 
md  chi)^  of  the  CoesackB,  bat  who  had  reaolTed  to  throw  off  his  al* 
legianee  to  the  Czar,  his  maater. 

12.  A  march  of  twelve  days,  amid  almost  inoredible  and  xaxpU' 
alleled  hardships,  brought  the  Swedes  to  the  river  Desna,'  wfaoe 
Charles  expected  to  m^t  his  new  ally  with  a  body  of  thirty  thoosaad 
men ;  bat,  instead  of  this,  be  was  oompelled  to  force  Ihe  passage  of 
the  stream  against  a  Bossiaa  army.  The  Cxar,  hsving  been  in* 
formed  of  the  treason  of  Maseppa,  had  disconeerted  his  schemes  by 
the  punishment  of  his  associates ;  and  the  unfortunate  diief  appeared 
in  the  Swedish  anny  rather  as  a  fugitive  than  as  a  powerfol  parinoe 
bringmg  succors  to  his  ally.  Charles  soon  after  learned  of  a  still 
greater  misfortune  that  had  befallen  him,  the  loss  of  a  laxge  eonvoy 
and  reenforcement  expected  from  Poland. 

13.  In  the  midst  of  one  of  the  severest  winters  ever  known  in 
Europe,  (1708-9)  the  small  Swedish  army,  now  reduced  to  less  than 
twenty  thousand  men,  found  itself^in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  and  al- 
most desolate  country,  cut  off  from  all  resources,  and  threatened 
with  an  attack  from  nearly  a  hundred  thousand  Enssians,  who  were 
gradually  concentrating  upon  their  victims.  Yet  the  iron  heart  of 
the  Swede  did  not  a  nfbmeut  relent  at  the  sufferings  of  his  soldiers, 
although  in  one  day  he  beheld  two  thousand  of  them  drop  dead  be- 
fore him,  from  the  effiscts  of  cold  and  hanger ;  nor  had  he  relinquiAhed 
the  design  of  penetrating  to  Moscow.  On  the  opening  of  spring  lie 
advanced  to  the  town  and  fortress  of  Pultowa,'  in  the  hope  of  seis- 
ing the  magasinee  of  the  Czar,  and  opening  a  passage  into  the  heart 
of  the  Bussian  territory. 

14:  Toward  the  end  of  May  Charles  invested  Pultowa,  but  while 

L  Swulnuk^  If  R  Enaataa  town  on  ttia  Mitem  bank  of  Um  Dnieper,  two  bnodiwl  and  thfitjr 
ntlM  soallk-wert  fh>m  Moaeow.    {Map  No.  XVII.) 

&  TUB  Dtttm  la  an  eaUera  trtbntaiy  of  Ilia  SMapm,  arU*  aaian  thai  if  var  a  Itttla  nbeve 
Kiev,    (^op  No.  XVII.) 

a.  Pulttmtt  la  a  fetUSad  lown«r  BaMia,on  Um  itaer  Wonkla,  an  uirttin  trflMCHy4»r  Um 
DaAapcr,  two  hundnS  mUes  loaitMaai  Dram  KlaT,andawrhnndin4«ndiaflyaauilnnt»eei 
r.  to nmmimiKnMM^ Qmyle»arroifmnmlimmmiimhm9 MmtSaoBi—Ha 
,  and  an  oMlak  on  Um  Said  of  baltla. 


IJiiur.  T.]  EIOHTBSHTH  OSSW1LY.  4tt 

&e  WM  prawning  the  siege  wiik  grml  vigor,  on  the  i5lli  of  June  ike 
Osaor  sppearecl  before  the  plaee  wilii  an  snny  seTenty 
tiurammd  stroug,  and,  in  spite- of  tke  exerli(ms  of  the  oF^prawL 
Swedes,  saeoeeded  in  throwing  a  strong  rednforeement 
into  the  plaee.  When  Charles  disoorered  the  manosnvre  by  whidi 
this  had  been  elfeoted,  he  oonld  not  forbear  saying,  '<  I  see  well  that 
we  have  tanght  the  Mnsoorites  the  art  of  war."  On  the  eighth  of 
July  a  general  action  was  bron^t  on  between  the  two  armies>  the 
Ciar  commanding  his  troops  in  person,  while  Charles,  unable  to  walk, 
owing  to  a  ssTcre  wound  he  had  some  days  belbre  reeeired  in  the 
keel,  was  carried  about  the  field  in  a  litter,  with  a  pistol  in  one  kand 
and  his  drawn  sword  in  the  other.  The  desperate  eharge  of  the 
Swedes  broke  the  Russian  cavalry,  but  the  Russian  infantry  acted 
with  great  steadiness,  and  restored  the  honor  of  the  day.  The  Ozar 
receiTod  a  musket  ball  through  his  hat ;  his  favorite  general,  Mensi- 
kofiP,  had  three  horses  killed  under  him ;  and  the  litter  ki  wkieh 
Oharles  was  carried  was  shattered  in  pieces  by  a  cannon  bidl.  But 
neither  the  courage  nor  the  discipline  of  the  Swedes  oould  avail  against 
the  overwhelming  numbers  of  their  antagonists ;  and  after  a  dread*, 
fnl  battle  of  two  hours'  duration  the  Swedish  army  was  irretrievably 
mined.  Charles  escaped  with  about  thiee  hundred  horsemen  to  the 
Turfddi  town  of  Bender,'  abandoning  all  his  treasures  to  his  rivals 
including  the  ridi  spoils  of  Poland  and  Saxony.* 

15.  Thus  in  one  day  the  king  of  Sweden  lost  the  fruits  of  nearly 
a  hundred  victories,  and  nine  years  of  successful  warftre.     Nearly 


L  BMir  U  Mir  A  BMMte  ftow%  «A  Om  IMfliltft  In  tte  piovlnoe  of  BcMtmbta, 
dghft  milM  bom  tbe  Blftck  Sea.    In  1770  the  RiushuM  took  this  town  by  itonn,  and  rednoed  tt 
tft  aAea.    Foor  yean  later  tt  was  reetored  to  Turkey,  but  waa  reeonqnered  \jj  the  RoMlaoa  In 
Mm,  Mid  waa  SuOHr  oaded  to  then,  vMb  the  iiioflim  ef  BaowaMa,  by  Uw  tMity  tf  1 
iva^lBlSU.  (ac^No.zyu.) 

lu  IbB  oalattiDpbe  of  Pultowa  iatboi  powerfUly  deacribed  by  Owipbell: 
<*  Oh !  learn  the  (kte  thai  bleeding  thooaanda  bora, 
Led  by  tkehr  Ohailee  lo  Dalepcr»i  laady  ehora. 
fUm  ftwa  hia  woondi,  and  iblTarlng  In  the  Uatt» 
The  Swedish  loldier  sank  and  groaned  hit  laat ; 
Vne  after  fRe  the  stormy  riiowen  bennmb, 
neaM  evuy  standard  sbeel,  and  hnah  the  dn»; 
Horseman  and  horse  eonfessed  the  bitter  pang. 
And  arms  and  warrior  Ml  with  hollow  clang : 
Vel,  era  he  sank  m  Nature's  last  repoae, 
Ere  life's  warm  current  to  the  foontain  fh»e^ 
ne  dying  man  to  Sweden  turned  his  eye^ 
Thought  of  his  home,  and  doeed  it  with  a  sligk. 
Imperial  pride  looked  sullen  on  hia  pllghl« 
And  Charles  beheld,  nor  shuddered  at  the  sight 


414  UODIRF  HISTORY.  IHmJL 

all  Bwope  ftlt  the  eftots  of  Ae  baftde  of  Poliows:  the  Sevooe 
called  for  rerenge  on  a  prinoe  who  had  pillaged  and  plundered  their 
country :  Augolitns  relumed  to  Poland  at  the  head  of  a  Saxon  anny, 
while  Stanislaus,  knowing  it  was  yain  to  resist,  was  unwilling  to  shed 
blood  in  a  useless  struggle  :  Denmark,  Russia,  and  Poland,  entered 
into  a  league  against  Sweden,  and  but  for  the  interference  of  the  Ger- 
man emperor  and  the  maritime  powers,  the  Swedish  monarchy  would 
have  been  rent  in  pieces. 

Uy,  Although  Charles  was  now  an  exile  from  his  country,  relying, 
for  his  support,  upon  the  generosity  of  Uie  Turkish  sultan,  yet  he  still  en- 
tertained the  romantic  project  of  dethroning  the  Csar,  and  marching 
back  to  Sweden  at  the  head  of  a  yictorious  army.  He  endeavored  to  raise 
the  Turks  against  his  enemies;  and  his  ^roq>eots  grew 
bright  or  dark  according  as  the  wavering  policy  of  the 
Turkish  divan  was  swayed  by  his  intrigues,  or  by  the 
gold  of  Russia.  At  one  time  the  viner  promised  to  conduct  him  to 
Moscow  at  the  head  of  two  hundred  thousand  men :  war  was  declared 
against  Russia;  and  the  forces  of  the  two  nations  were  assembled  on 
the  banks  of  the  Pruth.*  (July  1711.)  Here  the  Russian  armj, 
surrounded  by  a  greatly  superior  Turkish  force,  lost,  in  four  days* 
fitting,  more  Uian  sixteen  thousand  men,  when  by  the  resolute  sa- 
gacity of  the  empress  Catherine,  who  accompanied  her  husband 
during  the  campaign,  a  secret  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  Turkish 
commander,  and  Peter  was  rescued  from  the  same  fiite  that  had  be- 
foUen  his  antagonist  at  Pultowa. 

17.  The  Swedish  monarch  continued  to  linger  in  Turkey  until 
1714,  still  flattering  himself  that  he  should  yet  lead  an  O^maa 
army  into  Russia.  Being  aii  length  dismissed  by  the  sultan,  and 
ordered  to  depart,  he  still  resolved  to  remain ;  and  arming  his  secre- 
taries, valets,  cooks,  and  grooms,  in  addition  to  his  three  hundred 
guards,  he  bade  defiance  to  a  Turkish  army  of  twenty-six  thousand 
men.  After  a  fierce  resistance,  in  which  many  of  his  attendants 
were  slain,  he  was  captured,  the  Turks  being  careful  not  to  endanger 
his  life.  Another  revolution  in  the  Turkish  divan  revived  the  hopes 
of  Charles,  and  prolonged  his  stay ;  but  when  he  learned  Uiat  the 
Swedish  senate  intended   to  create  a  regent  in  his  absence,  and 

L  Tht  PnttA,  rMng  in  GtUlela,  forms  the  boundary  between  BeeMrabU  and  Motdarta,  and 
enleri  the  nanabeabool  any  laileaftom  the  Black  Sea.  By  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  tn  189% 
tt  was  itliMiIated  that  the  Praih  should  eontinne  to  form  the  booodary  between  the  1 
■MlTiirkuhtctrttoriea.    (JMvNo.XVno 


Ou#T.}  EiaHTEraTH  OBITnTRT.  415 

make  pesoe  ifith  Dsnmark  and  Bnaais,  his  mdignaUon  at  moh  pro- 

oeedingB  induoed  him  to  return  home.    He  was  honorably 

escorted  to  the  Turkish  frontiers ;  but  although  orders  l^^^J^^ 

had  been  giyen  that  he  should  be  treated  in  the  Austrian 

and  Oerman  dominions^th  all  due  honor,  he  ohose  to  travel  in  the 

disguise  of  a  courier,  and  toward  the  dose  of  Noyember  1714  reached 

Stralsund,  the  capital  of  Swedish  Pomerania. 

18.  At  the  timo  of  the  return  of  Gharles,  Sweden  was  in  a  trulj 
deplorable  condition, — surrounded  by  enemies — ^without  money,  trade, 
or  credit — ^her  foreign  provinces  lost,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  thoa- 
sand  of  her  best  soldiers  slaves  in  Turkey  and  Siberia,  or  looked  up  in  the 
fortresses  of  Denmark  and  Poland.  Yet  Charles,  instead  of  seekii^ 
that  peace  which  his  kingdom  so  much  needed,  immediately  issued 
erdersfor  renewing  the  war  with  redoubled  vigor.  During 
ihe  year  1715,  the  Danish  and  Russian  fleets  swept  the  ^,^^^ 
Baltic,  and  threaCbned  Stockholm;'  and  Stralsund, 
though  defended  by  Charles  with  his  aoouatomed  bravery,  was  com* 
polled  to  surrender  after  a  siege  of  two  months.  On  the  ni^ht  be- 
fore the  surrender  Charles  made  his  escape  in  a  small  boat,  safely 
passing  the  batteries  and  fleets  of  the  allies.  In  the  following  year 
he  made  an  irruption  into  Norway,  but  his  army  was  driven  back 
greatly  diminished  in  numbers.  His  attention  was  next  occupied 
with  the  scheme  of  his  favorite  minister.  Baron  Gortz,  for  uniting 
the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Russia  in  strict  amity,  and  then  dictating 
the  law  to  Europe.  The  plot  embraced  the  restoration  of  Stanislaus 
to  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  Charles  was  to  have  the  command  of  a 
eombined  Swedish  and  Russian  army  of  invasion,  for  establishing  the* 
Pretender  (son  of  James  II.)  on  the  throne  of  England.  The  Csar 
seemed  not  averse  to  the  prejeot,  and  a  conference  of  the  ministers 
of  the  two  nations  had  already  been  appointed  for  making  the  final 
arrangements,  when  the  death  of  the  king  of  Sweden  rendered  abor- 
tive a  revolution  that  might  have  thrown  all  Europe  into  a  state  of 
political  combustion.  In  the  autumn  of  1718  Charles 
had  invaded  Norway  a  second  time,  and  laid  si^ge  to 
Frederickshall  ;*  but  while  engaged  in  viewing  the  works 

I.  SUdtholMy  tiM  eapltal  dtj,  and  priiiclp«l  oomiMrdal  empoilam  of  Swaiteii,  la  b«iU  parQf 
on  a  Dumber  of  IsUimU  and  partly  on  the  main  land,  at  the  Junction  of  tbo  Lako  M»lar  wllh 
tbe  Battle,  fbor  hundred  and  forty  mllea  a  little  aoafh  of  weei  flrom  St.  Pol6rd>uiy.  It  waa 
fomded  In  Uie  thirteenth  eentnry,  but  waa  not  raeognlxed  aa  the  eapltal  tUl  the  Mrenteenth, 
piVTloualy  to  whien  Upaala  had  been  the  aeat  of  the  court.    (Map  No.  XIV.) 

9,  Fndtriek9h§U  la  a  mariUme  town  of  Norway,  near  the  nortb«ast  angle  of  tbe  Skasget^ 
iMk^SAy-aefen  mllea  aoutkeaaiamnCbilitiana.   lbs  town  ^pnada  imgularty  arooad  a  pciw 


X  DEATH 

or 


416  MODBBV  JDnom  ffintft 


dead  bj  a  bdl  Itm  liie  ])iiikh  iMtteriHL    (Bml  17I&) 

19.  Thedeatli  of  Cbtfles  prodoeed  an  entire  change  in  tbe  ] 
of  Sweden.     The  late  king's  sieler  was  declared  qneen  bj  the  Tohm* 
tey  choice  of  the  Slates  of  the  kmgdowi ;  JmI  the  last  reign  had 
ianqght  them  a  severe  lesson,  and  they  eompdled  their  new  sovereign 
to  take  a  solemn  oath  that  she  wonU  never  attenpt  the  eslaUish* 
ment  of  arbitrary  power.     The  projeet  of  a  anion  with  RoaBia  was 
at  once  abandoned,  and  the  new goveraaMnt  wnited  ita  foroestothoee 
of  Engla&d  agaimt  the  Car.     For  a  iMe  the  Bnasiaa  ieet  desolsit> 
ed  the  coasts  of  Sweden,  bat  in  1721  peace  was  cstsblwhtd  between 
Uie  two  powers  by  the  treaty  of  Nystad.'    BiMsia  gained  thereby  a 
large  aooession  of  territory  on  the  diorea  of  the  Baltic,  and  dominioii 
over  the  Golf  t»f  Finland,  which  Peter  had  pnrehaaed  as  a  hi^^waj 
of  commerce  to  the  ocean,  with  the  tenia  and  perils  of  tweo^  years  cC 
warfare. 
20.  Claries  the  Twelfth,  at  the  tone  of  hia  death,  waa  littie  mora 
than  ihirty-six  years  of  age,  one4alf  of  vdneh  had  been 
im^A^SL    ^P^^  ^^^^  ^«  tormoil  of  arrns^  or  wasted  in  foreq^n 
exile.     War  was  hia  ruling  passion ;  bat  the  onl^  ob* 
ject  df  his  conqnests  seemed  to  be  tiie  satisfiM^tion  of  bestowing  their 
frnits  upon  others,  without  any  i^parent  wish  to  enlarge  his  own  do- 
minions.    After  all  his  achievements,  noogfat  but  the  memory  of  his 
renown  sorviyes  him ;  for  all  the  acts  of  his  reign  i^rong  from  a 
misdirected  ambition,  and  not  one  of  them  was  oondncive  to  the  per- 
manent wdfare  of  his  coontry.     <<  He  was  rather  an  extraordinary 
than  a  great  man,^'  says  Voltaire,  "  and  more  worthy  to  be  admired 
ihan  imitated.     His  life  oogfat  to  be  a  lesson  to  kings,  how  much  a 
pacific  and  happy  government  is  prefenfble  to  so  mmek  glory. "« 


pttdleolarrockftwrtaaiiilradftetfailwlgli^oawhlohto        i 
it  the  •!«§•  or  wfaicli  CharlM  Zn.  WM  UUed. 

Jt  WM  doubted  for  awhUe  wbelher  the  king  met  hia  death  by  a  ball  from  the  fortraiBt  or  ftom 
■aaiBamiiihttheiwr;  bat  there  seem  to  be  no  good  grooods  for  aappori^  that  trMeheiy  hat 
anytbiiig  to  do  with  the  matter.  Dr.  Johaaoa  has  availed  hioHelf  of  the  Mi^iolQB  io  hit  ad* 
mirable  description  of  the  character  of  the  Swedish  warrior.  The  liat,  dotbaa,  baffbelt,  boot^ 
kc^  which  Chariea  wore  when  be  was  shot,  are  sUII  preserred  in  the  aneoal  of  StocUiolm. 

1.  Ayti«rf  ia  a  town  of  naland,  on  the  eaatom  ooasi  of  the  BaUk^one  hmArad  aal  flfly 
■itai  BortlMast  ftom  Stockhobn. 

c  The  Mlowlng  Is  Dr.  Johnson^k  description  of  the  eharaalar  oT  Ghartta  XJDL 
•*On  what  Ibnndatioa  stands  the  warrior's  pridi^ 
How  Just  his  hopes,  let  Swedish  Charles  deoidew 
A  ftmrae  of  adamant,  a  tool  of  tre^ 
no  daagaft  IH^  hiuH  and  no  labora  am ; 


2L  TiM  Oiar  Peter,  or,  as  he  is  jmuiBj  qiiHed  in  kistmry,  Peler 
ft*  Chreat,  died  in  1725,  mrfea  jeuri  after  the  death  of  zn.  dcatb 
bis  great  nral  the  king  of  Sweden.     Through  a  life  of       ^^^ 
Mrtleae  activity  he  lAhored  for  the  improToment  and    orrmtvi 
proepenty  of  hie  eonntiy ;  and  while  Charles  left  behind  *"  okkat. 
him  hofiiing  but  mina,  Peter  the  Great  may  tndy  be  regarded  as  the 
foimder  of  an  empire.     The  mler  of  a  barbarons  people,  he  early 
saw  the  advantages  of  civilizi^tion,  and  by  the  measares  he  adopi* 
ed  for  relbrmiag  his  empice  he  truly  mmied  the  epithet  of  Gaeat* 
Tet  it  has  been  tmly  said  of  him  that  although  he  oiviliied  his  sab- 
jeetB,  he  himself  remained  a  barbarian ;  fbr  the  aternnesB,  or  rathet 
the  feroeity,  of  his  diqwaitiott,  spared  neither  age  nor  sex,  nor  his  deur* 
est  oopnenons.     So  eonscions  was  he  of  his  frailties  that  he  was  aeens- 
tomed  to  say,  <<  I  can  reform  my  people,  bat  I  oannot  reform  myself 
fie  never  learned  the  lessons  <rf  hmnaaity ;  and  his  snblime  but  mn* 
onltivated  genius  eontimially  wandered  without  a  gnide.     It  is  s  high 
and  jnBt  enloginm  of  his  character  to  say  that  ^  his  virtnes  were  his 
,  and  his  defects  those  of  edaeation  and  ooontry." 


0*6r  l»rt,  o'er  fear,  czteods  his  wide  donatn,     . 

Unconqiuered  lord  of  pleaaore  and  of  pain ; 

So  Joys  to  Um  pM41lo  aoeplm  yMd, 

War  aoanda  the  tramp,  he  niabea  tp  the  flaUl; 

Behold  aarroonded  ktaiga  their  powers  oombiue. 

And  OM  eapkiAale,  attd  one  realgn ; 

naaee  ^sarta  hla  haad,  hat  apaeada  her  ehaona  In  vate; 

*  Think  nothing  gained,'  he  oiea  *  tiU  neoght  r«nain ; 

On  Moecow^a  walls  till  Gothic  atandarda  flj, 

A«leabei»iaebcaeathlhepo|«raky*> 

The  march  begina  in  milltaiy  atat^ 

And  nationa  on  his  eje  soapended  wait ; 

Slani«MiBe  gwuda  the  aoUteiv  eoeati 

And  winter  benkadea  the  raeliBa  of  Ikeat: 

He  comes ;  nor  want,  nor  eoid,  his  odurae  delay  j 

liSAe,  Moahleg  QtoiT,  hide  Pidtowate  d^. 

The  Tanqoished  heeo  leavea  hla  broken  baadib 

And  ahows  hia  mlseriea  in  distant  lands ; 

CoAdanned  a  needy  sappHeaat  to  watt 

WhUe  ladies  Interpose,  and  alarea  debatau 

But  did  not  chance  at  length  her  eiror  mend  T 

nid  no  edbferted  empire  mark  hla  end? 

DM  rifial  monsKha  gWe  the  Sdal  weoad  f 

Or  boatile  minions  press  him  la  the  ground  f 

Bla  Ihll  was  destined  to  a  barren  strand, 

A  petty  forlreaa,  and  a  dmtimts  hand : 

He  Ml  the  name,  at  which  the  world  grew  pm^ 

Ta  pnmt  a  moral,  or  adorn  a  tale." 


27 


418  «    *       MDHSItK  HBTORT  [Pi»tL 

III.  Sfanisb  Wa&s,  and  Wak8  or  the  AwmtAn  SuccEssioif.— 
1.  The  treaty  of  Utreeht  in  1713,  which  eloeed  the  war  of  the  Spaoiak 
euooesaioD,  had  given  pacification  to  aontheni  and  west* 
^mA^^  em  Europe,  by  defining  the  territorial  limits  of  the 
belligerents  in  sach  a  manner  as  to  preserve  that  bal- 
aaee  of  power  on  which  the  peace  of  Europe  depended.     The  in- 
trigoing  efforts  of  Spain  in  contravention  of  that  portion  of  the 
treaty  by  which  Philip  V.  renoonoed  forever  all  right  of  saeeeflsion 
to  the  crown  of  France,  indnced  England  and  Holland,  in  1717,  to 
unite  with  France  in  fofmbg  a  Triple  Alliance  guaranteeing  the  fal- 
filment  of  the  treaty ;  but  during  the  same  year  a  Spanish  ieet, 
entering  the  Mediterranean,  quickly  reduced  the  island  of  Sardinia, 
whidi  had  been  assigned  to  Austria ;  and  in  the  following  year  an- 
other fleet  and  army  captured  Sicily,  which  had  been  adjudged  to 
the  duke  of  Savoy.     These  acts  of  aggression  roused  tiie  resentment 
of  Austria ;  and  by  her  accession  to  the  terms  of  the  Triple  Alliance, 
the  Quadruple  Alliance  was  formed,  for  the  purpose  of  putting  a 
check  to  the  ambition  of  Spain.     A  British  squadron,  under  adnural 
3yDg,  sailed  into  the  Mediterranean  and  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet, 
whilst  an  Austrian  force  passed  into  Sicily  to  contest  with  the  Spaoidi 
army  the  sovereignty  of  that  island.    The  successes  of  the  allies  soon 
compelled  even  Spain  to  accede  to  the  terms  of  the  Alliance  for  pre- 
serving the  peace  of  Europe. 
2.  In  1739,  however,  the  general  peace  was  interrupted  by  a  war 
between  England  and  Spain,  growing  out  of  the  com- 
mercial and  colonial  difficulties  of  the  two  nations.     For 


KfOLAKD  •  a  long  time  Spain,  claiming  the  right  of  sovereignty  over 
AMD  SPAIN.  ^^^  ^^^  adjacent  to  her  American  possessions,  which  bad 
been  confirmed  by  successive  treaties,  had  distressed  and  insulted 
the  commerce  of  Great  Britain  -by  illegal  seizures  made  under  the 
pretext  of  the  right  of  search  for  contraband  goods ;  while  Britain, 
on  the  other  hand,  secretly  encouraged  s  contraband. traffic,  little  to 
her  honor,  and  deeply  injurious  to  Spain.  War  was  first  declared 
by  England :  the  vessels  of  each  nation  in  the  ports  of  the  other 
were  confiscated ;  and  powerful  armaments  were  fitted  out  by  the  one 
to  seise,  and  by  the  other  to  defend,  the  Spanish  American  possess- 
ions, while  pirates  from  Biscay  harassed  the  home  trade  of  England. 
3.  While  this  war  oontinudd  with  various  success,  a  general  Euro- 
pean war  broke  out,  called  the  "  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,'' 
presenting  a  scene  of  the  greatest  confusion,  and  eclipung,  by  its  im< 


Clus.y.]  EKffiTSSNTH  OEEmTRT.  419 

portaaoe,  the  petty  ocmfliots  on  the  American  aeas.    Oharles  VI.,  en* 


peror  of  Austria,  the  &monB  competitor  of  Philip  for  the  throne  of 
Spain,  died  in  the  autumn  of  1 740 ;  and  as  he  had  no  male 
issue  he  left  his  dominions  to  his  eldest  daughter,  Maria  <^xu^iA 
Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary,  in  accordance  with  a  solemn     or  tsb 
ordinance  called  the  Prairmatio  Sanction,'  which  had    ^^^^^^^ 

^  8U00EBBIOV. 

been  confirmed  by  all  the  leading  States  of  Europe.  This 
sanction,  howeyer,  did  not  secure  his  daughter,  after  his  death,  from 
the  attacks  of  a  host  of  enemies,  who  hoped  to  make  good  their 
pretensions,  by  force  of  arms,  to  different  portions  of  her  estates. 

4.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  declared  himself,  by  Tirtne  of  his  descent 
from  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ferdinai^d  I.,  the  proper  heir  of  the 
hereditary  Austrian  provinces :  the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  also 
Au|;ustttS  III.,  king  of  Poland,  mad^  the  same  claims  by  virtue  of  a 
preceding  marriage  with  the  house  of  Saxony :  Spam  was  anxious 
to  appropriate  to  herself  some  of  the  Italian  principalities,  and  vir* 
tually  laid  claim  to  the  whole  Austrian  succession,  while  Frederick 
II.,  the  youn^  king  of  Prussia,  marched  suddenly  into  Silesia,  and  took 
possession  of  that  country.  France,  swayed  by  hereditary  hatred  of 
Austria,  sought  a  dismemberment  of  that  empire ;  while  England 
offered  her  aid  to  Maria  Theresa,  the  dau^^ter  of  her  ancient  ally, 
to  preserve  the  int^ity  of  the  Austrian  dominions. 

5.  The  plan  of  the  coalition  against  the  Austrian  queen  embraced 
the  elevation  of  Charles  Albert,  the  Sectoral  prince  of        ^ 
Bavaria,  to  the  sovereignty  of  all  the  German  States ;    coAunmr 
and  accordingly,  in  the  summer  of  1741,  two  French     ^Aimr 
armies  crossed  the  Bhine,  and  being  joined  by  the  Ba- 
varian forces,  seised  Prague,  made  several  othei^mportant  conquestS| 
threatened  Vienna,  and  compelled  Maria  Theresa  to  flee  from  bet 
capital.    In  a  diet  held  at  Frankfort,'  in  Frebruary  1742,  the  impe* 
rial  crown,  through  the  influence  of  France  and  Ptusaia,  mm  given 
to  Charles  Albert     In  the  meantime  Maria  Theresa,  erushed  ia 

1.  Fr0gmatie  Sanction  Th«rc  v  four  ordliuuDOM  wlOi  this  titte  nMntkmed  in  bialocy :  lfl| 
tiat  or  CliwIflB  VIL  of  Fnnoa,  In  1438^  on  whioh  rert  Um  Hbortleo  of  the  Galllou  ehnrch :  9dl, 
Ita  dMVM  of  the  German  dtok  In  143^  MBcyoidng  UMfonner:  3d,  ttie  oidlBUM  oTtbe  Oornua 
emperor  Oierlet  VL  In  1740,  hj  which  be  endenvored  to  woore  the  fooceMlon  to  hto  female 
deefwnitintn,  anl  whfeh  led  to  the  war  of  the  Aoatrlan  ancoeaaion :  and  4th,  the  ordtnenoe  bf 
whieh  ChartaaIILor4Min,in  ITSn^eaded  thefhroneoTNaplea  to  hiathlfd  aon  and  hlapoeterity, 

SL  #V««V«>^  or  F^*m]tf9rU4mrtM»-Mafm^  ia  a  celebrated  commeroial  city  of  Germany,  on  ttie 
north  bank  of  Um  Mayn,  eighteen  mllea  north-eaat  ftt>m  Its  confluence  with  the  Rhine  at 
M^miee.  TbaM  la  alao  a  JVaaV^re-M-aa-Odcr,  ninetT^ve  mllea  nortli-eaat  ftom  Drewlen. 
(Jtr^No-XVIL) 


4t0  HODBOr  HBflUKT.  [Fa0IK 

meryiUng  but  eamgy  of  ipirit  hj  tlie  tm*  wmj  tgiiati  ker,  pre^ 
Mated  Wfidi;  #iA  her  infimt  son,  in  the  diet  of  tiw  Hvgaruoi 
nobles,  and  hftviag  irai  iwoni  to  protect  their  indepeodeDoe,  de- 
Bonded  their  md  in  tones  that  her  beauty  and  her  tears  rendered 
9Mn»  peivaafliTfc  The  swords  of  Hm  HimgariaBS  flashed  m  the  air 
as  their  aoclaaations  replied,  **•  We  will  die  for  onr^soTere^  Maria 
Theresa !"  On  the  very  day  that  Gharies  Albert  was  erowned  at 
Innkfort,  Monidi,'  his  own  capital,  foO  into  the  hands  of  the  Aos- 
trian  gcnenl ;  and  while  Bavaria  was  plundered,  Ae  new  empercr 
was  eoMpeUed  to  lire  in  retii«nii«[it  hr  from  his  own  dominion&    In 

another  quarter  fortune  was  not  equally  fiiYOrable  to 
w  mM    Austria ;  and  Maria  Theresa  was  oampelled  to  pordiase 

peaoe  of  the  Pmssians  by  the  sortender  iji  Silesia. 
(Jone  1741.)  This  loss  was  compensated,  howerer,  by  a  saooeqpfol 
Moctade  of  Pm|[;ne,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  Freneh,  who  were  at 
length  forced  to  a  disastrous  retreat,  while  England  began  to  take  a 
more  actire  part  in  the  war  against  France.  The  losses  of  France  were 
great  on  the  ocean ;  and  in  1 743  George  11.  of  England,  a4^^>^cn>g  ^^ 
Germany  at  the  head  of  a  powerfol  army,  defeated  the  French  at  Dettin- 
gen,*  and  compelled  them  to  retreat  across  the  Rhine.    (June  1743.) 

6.  The  year  1744  is  distinguished  by  the  renewal  of  hostilities  on 

the  part  of  Frederick,  who,  having  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  France,  entered  Bohemia  at  the  head 
of  seventy  thousand  soldiers,  and  in  the  banning  of  September  sat 
down  before  Prague,  which  soon  surrendered,  and  with  it  a  garrison 
of  eighteen  thonsand  men.  But  misfortunes  rapidly  succeeded  dtis 
brilliant  beginning  of  the  campaign ;  the  illness  of  Louis  XT.,  king 
of  France,  prevented \he  promised  diversion  on  the  side  of  the  Rhine ; 
and  Frederick  was  eventually  compelled  to  retreat  to  his  own  do- 
mbiotis,  with  the  loss  of  twenty  thousand  men.  The  king  of  Pmsna 
saknowledged,  in  his  own  memoirs,  that  no  general  committed  greater 
fimlts  during  the  campaign  than  he  did  himself:  and  that  the  conduct 
of  his  opponent,  the  Austrian  general,  marshal  Traun,  was  a  model 
of  perfection,  which  every  military  man  would  do  well  to  study. 

7.  The  death  of  Charles  Albert,  eariy  in  January  1745,  removed 
^^  ^        all  reasonable  grounds  for  continuing  the  war ;  but  the 

national  animosity  between  England  and  France  prevent* 

1.  MutUch  to  A  laige  Gennan  city,  the  capital  of  Bararla,  on  the  laar,  a  aoutiieni  branofa  o( 
Om  DMube,  two  hundred  and  twenty  mUes  west  from  Vienna.  It  it  oaUed  the  **>  Athena  oi 
eoath  Geimany.**    (.Wa^  No.  XVII.) 

S.  BHHn^tm  to  a  Mnall  rUtogeof  BaTaria,  on  Uie  Mayn,  rizteen  mllei  Mmth^eet  ef  Fhttktoi 


M  ibe  raflterlttkm  «f  peaoow  Danng  Ae  ssme  ]rdAr,  t^'eelehnteA 
Wr&kdk  g0Dma,  Hiarshikl  Saie,  obtained  %hb  jfbUnj  of  Vonfenoj'  OT«r 
tbo  Anstmtis,  and  their  Datok  and  En^i^  allies  oommanded  by  the 
d«ke  of  Oumberland^  and  oonqnered  the  Austrian  Netherlands  and 
Btttdi  Flanders.  The  king  of  Prussia  conducted  a  suooeesftil  cam- 
paign in  Silesia  and  Saxony,  and  in  December  concluded  with  Austria 
Ihe  treaty  of  Dresden,  whi^  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  Bi* 
lesia.  lui^he  meantime  the  German  States  had  elected  for  theit 
emperor  fVancis  I.,  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa^  and  in  ^e  treaty 
of  Dresden  he  was  ibrmally  admowiedged  by  Frederick. 

8.  In  Italy  tiie  oombined  fuiniee  of  Frande^  Spain,  and  Naples, 
obtained  important  advantages  oter  the  Austrians  and  Sardiaians ; 
ftnd  at  the  dose  of  the  campaign  they  held  possession  of  all  Lom- 
bardy  and  Piedmont.'    During  the  same  year,  while  the  king  of 
Bngland  was  warring  with  the  French  in  the  Netherlaifds,  his  own 
dominions  were  inyaded.    The  loss  of  the  English  at  Fon- 
tenoy  seemed  to  present  to  Charles  Edward,  grandson     giox  of* 
of  James  II.,  commonly  called  the  Young  Pretender,    wotAKD, 
h  fit  opportunity  for  attempting  the  restoration  of  his     *^*^"*' 
family  to  the  throne  of  Bngland.     Being  furnished  by  the  French 
monarch  with  a  supply  of  money  and  arms,  at  the  head  of  a  small 
fbrce  he  landed,  in  Jcily,  on  the  coast  of  Scotland,  and  being  joined 
by  many  of  the  Highland  clans,  on  the  16th  of  September  he  was 
enabled  to  take  possession  of  Edinburgh,*  and  a  few  days  later  de- 
feated the  royal  forces  at  Preston  Pans.^     In  November  he  entered 

1.  Rnteuof  Is  a  Tillage  of  Belgiam,  In  the  province  of  Uainanlt  (i-D6>,  fbrty^hree  milea 
wmtlMreBt  from  BroiaelB.  ;Tbe  battle  tnis  fought  April  30Ui,  1745.  VoItalre*li  aoeount  of  It,  In 
te*'AgeorLoiiiaZV.,*'ia«KireBidytot4re8ttag.   (.M9N0.ZV.) 

fi.  Piedmont,  (pied-de-numle^  ^  foot  of  the  mountain,*^  the  principal  prorinoe  of  the  SarllDlaii 
tnonarchy,  has  the  Swiss  canton  of  Valals  and  the  Sardinian  prorlnoe  of  Saroy,  on  the  north, 
tai  flBTOf  «Dd  Fhnde  on  the  weeL  Olq>lta],  Tnrta.  In  ISQS  Kapeiaon  laeokpeiMleit  U  trtk 
FraoM^  bat  it  was  restored  In  1814. 

3.  Edmburgk,  the  metropolis  of  Scotland,  oonnty  of  Mid  Lothian,  Is  two  miles  south  of  the 
nilh  of  Forth,  and  three  hundred  and  thirty-seven  miles  aortb-wesi  from  the  city  of  Londeo. 
ft  Ik  prf&dptily  biiUt  OB  fhree  parallel  ridges  running  east  and  west  At  Ihe  western  exiremltf 
bt  the  central  iMge,  whieh  to  temlnated  by  a  predpltoas  rock  four  hundred  and  thlitjMbtt 
llMlrt>ove1!heMf«terthesea,tothecaitle;  and  a  Mfle  dlilttrt,  at  the  eastern  exiiemlty  of  ttM 
ildge,  Is  the  palace  of  Holyrood,  one  hundred  and  eight  feet  above  the  same  level.  Hie  ptfaoe 
has  a  peooHar  Interest  from  the  circumstance  that  the  apartments  occupied  by  the  mifortunate  ' 
Qneen-Mary  bate  been  csreAdly  presenred  In  the  stale  In  wtateh  she  left  them.  Cdnaeeted 
wtth  the  palace,  on  the  north,  are  the  ndns  ot  Ihe  abbey  of  Holyiood.  Sdhibuigh  is  Mghl^ 
•eiebrated  for  its  Hterary  and  educattonal  insUtaHons.    (Mt^  Ko.  XVI.) 

4.  IVmIm  ffsns  Is  a  small  seaport  town  of  SeeOind,  OB  the  BontbAore  of  the  FrMief  Forth, 
W^ffbikHbd  aJiair  nrtles  east  of  Bdfaburgh.  ndertves  its  nameftxwi  ifii  havlBg,  for  a  leiigth* 
Mid  parted,  hfld  a  nmBber  oT  salt  voita  or  pcic#  for  Hie  prodBoUoB  of  Mil  by  Iheevapoimtloii 
afssa-water.    (Jtf'v  No.  XVI.) 


4»  moBur  Emtomry  [Pakil 

y^ffl^^^j  and  advanoed  to  within  a  hundred  mileB  of  LondiMiy  but 
iraa  tiion  oompelled  to  retreat  into  Scotland,  where,  aft^  haying  de- 
faated  the  royal  foreea  a  seoond  time,  his  eaoae  was  utterly  mined  by 
the  decisixe  battle  of  Culioden.'  (April  1746.)  To  the  diagraee  of 
the  English,  the  aorronnding  oonntry  was  giTen  up  to  pillage  and  de- 
vastation. After  a  variety  of  adventures  Charles  reached  France  in 
safety;  but  numbers  of  hb  unfortunate  adherents  perished  on  the 
scaffold,  or  by  military  execution,  while  multitudes  were  |panq»orted 
to  the  American  plantations.    . 

9.  During  the  year  1745*  the  important  French  fortress  of  Louis- 

burg,  on  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,'  was  captured  by 
w^AMnjo/L  ^^  British  and  their  colonial  allies,  an  event  whidi  re- 
vived the  spirits  pf  the  Englidi,  and  roused  France  to  a 
great  vmdictive  effort  for  the  recovery  of  Louisburg,  and  the  devas- 
tation of  the  whole  American  coast  firom  Nova  Scotia  to  &eorgift. 
Accordingly  a  powerful  naval  armament  watf  sent  out  to  America  ii 
1746 ;  but  it  was  so  enfeebled  by  storms  and  shipwrecks,  and  4i^>irit- 
ed  by  the  loss  of  its  commander,  that  nothing  was  accomplished  by  ii 

10.  During  the  years  1746  and  1747  hostilities  frere  carried  on 
1746-7    ^^^  various  success  by  the  French  and  the  Spaniards  <m 

one  side,  and  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Austrians,  on  the 
other.  By  sea  the  French  lost  almost  their  last  ship ;  but  no  im^ 
portant  naval  battles  were  fought,  as  the  English  na^y  had  scarcely 
a  rival.  On  the  contment,  northern  Italy  and  the  Netherlands  were 
the  chief  seats  of  the  war.     The  French  frere  driven  from  the  former, 

and   the  Austrians  and  their  allies  from  the  lattor. 

XL  TEBATT 

or  Aiz-LA-  France  made  frequent  overtures  of  peace,  and  in  Octo- 

^17^''  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  Aix-UChapelle  was  concluded 

between  all  the  belligerents,  on  the  basis  of  a  restitution 

of  all  conquests  made  during  the  war,  and  a  mutual  release  of  prison* 

ers  without  ransom.     The  treaty  left  unsettled  the  conflicting  claims 

L  OmlUdMt  or  (MUdtn  M00r^  b  a  heatti  in  Soottand,  four  mUet  eutof  laTeneM,  and  ow 
kondred  and  Oftew  mllai  norUi-wMi  trom  fidinlrargh.  The  battle  ofCoUodeo,  foi^  Apifl 
STlh,  1740^  tarmioaled  the  attampts  of  the  Stuart  fkmily  to  reeoTor  the  throM  of  IT^aail 
(JV^No-XVL) 

8.  Hm  ialand  of  Cups  Brsttn^  oaUed  by  the  French  I»ls  RtfcU^  U  on  the  aontbeaatwn 
bonier  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  I.#iiu*s»yv  OBce  called  the  *"  Gibreltar  of  America,'' wai 
a  stroogly-fortifled  Iowa,  harint  one  of  the  beet  harbor*  in  the  world.  After  Its  captare  bf 
Seneral  Wolfe  In  17S8,  (eee  p.  430,)  lu  walla  wace  demolUhed,  and  the  materiala  of  lu  bnOdl^ 
ware  cairied  awaj  for  the  oonetmotion  of  HalUkx,  and  other  towae  on  the  aoaet  Oalj  a  mm 
flihemen*e  hate  are  now  fMUMi  within  the  enTinmt  of  the  citj,  and  so  wmpletft  la  the  nrin 
that  tt  U  wiUi  dlgealfy  the  onUlnee  of  the  fbrtlflcetloM,  and  of  the  prtodpal  boUdl^^easba 


ObakT.]  EldHTSaSNTH  OBNT0BT.  42B 

«»f  the  Eng^uh  and  Spaniards  to  the  trade  of  l^e  AmerioiD  eeaa; 
bat  Fraaoe  reoogniied  the  HanoTerian  saooesnon  to  the  Sngliah 
throne,  and  henoeforth  abandoned  the  eaofle  of  the  Pretender.  Neither 
Franoe  nor  England  obtained  any  reoompenae  for  the  enormouB  ex- 
penditure of  blood  and  treasure  which  the  war  oocasioned ;  bat  in 
one  aspect  the  result  was  fiiTorable  to  all  parties,  as,  by  preserving 
the  unity  of  the  Austrian  dominion,  it  maintained  the  due  balaneo 
of  power  in  continental  Europe. 

IV.  The  Sbvbn  Yeaks'  War  ;— 1756-63.*— 1.  The  treaty  of 
Aixla-Chapelle  proved  to  be  little  better  than  a  sos-     ^  ^^^ 
pension  of  arms.     A  period  of  eight  years  of  nominal    txabs  of 
peace  that  followed  did  not^roduoe,  in  the  different      ^'^'- 
Slates  of  Europe,  the  desired  feeling  of  united  finnness  and  security; 
but  all  seemed  unsettled,  and  in  dread  of  new  commotions.     Two 
causes,  of  a  nature  entirely  distinct,  united  to  involve  all    ^  oatois 
Clffistendom  m  a  general  war.     The  first  was  the  long  or  ANocsBa 
•landing  colomal  rivalry  .between  France  and  England;       ^^*' 
and  the  second,  the  ambition  of  the  Great  Frederick  of  Prussia,  and 
the  jealousy  wiUi  which  the  court  of  Austria  regarded  the  increase 
of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 

2.  Immediately  after  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  diffionltiea 
arose  between  France  and  England  req[>ecting  their  colonial  possess* 
ions  in  India.  Several  years  previous  to  Ihe  breaJcing  out  of  the 
European  war,  the  forces  of  the  English  and  French  East  India 
companies,  having  taken  part,  as  auxiliaries,  in  the  wars  between  the 
native  princes  of  the  country,  had  been  engaged  in  a  course  of  hos- 
tilities at  a  time  when  no  war  existed  between  the  two  nations. 

3.  More  serious  causes  of  quarrel  arose  in  North  America.  The 
French  possessed  Canada  and  Louisiana,  one  commanding  the  mouth 
of  the  St  Lawrence,  the  other  that  of  the  Mississippi ;  while  the  in- 
tervening territory  was  occupied  by  the  English  colonistSb  The 
limits  of  the  American  colonial  possessions  of  the  two  nations  had 
been  left  undefined  at  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Ghapelle,  and  hence  di^ 
pates  arose  among  the  colonisis,  who  did  not  always  arrange  their 
controversies  by  peaceful  discussion.  The  French  made  settlements 
at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  in  Nova  Scotia,  claiming  the  ter* 

a  That  part  of  tba  war  waged  In  America  betweea  Ftanoe  and  England  Is  better  known  la 
AaerieanhistoiT  as  the  **FrenGii  and  Indian  war.*>  AUboogh  hostUUIes  began,  In  the  eolonie% 
in  VtHf  no  Ibpmsl  declaiattonof  war  was  nude  by  either  France  or  Sngland  ontU  thebreaklDC 
aal  af  Iha  fMNttf  Bnopean  war  In  nil. 


4M  .Monmr  mntnnr.  [Fma 


riloffy  M  m  ptrt  of  New  Branairielt ;  iHule,  faj  < 
line  of  pooto  along  the  Oliio  rirer,  they  aiaed  m* 

Britiah  ooloniee  to   the  AiUatio   eoesi,    aad 
irmo  or     them  off  from  the  rest  of  the  oontiiMnt     In  1754  the 
■•eiamm  Bnglieh  Colonial  anthoriliee  began  hoetilitiQa  en  the 
Ohio,  without  waiting  for  the  fcfnuHtj  of  a  dedaraiiOB 
of  war :  in  the  following  jear  the  French  forte  at  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy  were  rednoed  by  colonel  Monokton ;  but  the  B^iliih 
general)  Braddook,  who  was  sent  against.  Fort  Da  Qnene,  on  the 
Ohio,  wu  defeated  with  a  heavy  lots,  and  hie  army  was  eared  finom 
total  destruction  only  by  the  eonrage  and  condnot  of  major  Wash- 
ington, who  oommanded  the  proTinoial  troope. 

4.  These  eolonial  dilSoalties  were  the  prominent  eaoaes  of  enmi^ 
between  France  and  Enidand :  bat  saoh  were  now  the  bonds  of  in- 


terest aad  alisance  that  united  the  diffnrent  Bnropeea  States,  that 
the  quarrel  betwixt  any  two  led  almost  inevitably  to  a  general  war. 
A  canes  of  war  entirely  distinct  from  the  foregoing  i^fs  found  in  the 
relations  existing  between  Prussia  and  Austria.  Maria  Theresa  was 
etili  dissatisfied  with  the  loss  of  Silesia,  and  Frederick,  too  cleap> 
sifted  .not  to  see  that  a  third  struggle  with  her  was  inevitable, 
abandoned  the  lukewarm  aid  of  France,  and  formed  an  alliance  with 
Bnglaad,  (Jan.  175S,)  an  event  which  altogether  changed  the  exist- 
ing relations  between  the  cbfferent  States  of  Europe.  Prussia  wM 
ly  thus  separated  from  her  old  ally  France,  and  England 
■oaopmAN  from  Austria,  while  France  and  Austria,  nations,  that 
^"^"*'*'  had  been  enemies  for  three  hundred  years,  fomid  them- 
selves placed  in  so  dose  political  proximity  that  an  alliance  between 
them  became  indiiq^ensable  to  the  safety  of  each.  Augustus  III., 
kmg  of  Poland  and  also  elector  of  Saxony,  allied  himself  with  Aus- 
tria for  the  purpose  of  ruining  Prussia ;  the  empress  Elizabeth  of 
Bussia,  entertaiining  a  personal  hatred  of  Frederick,  who  had  made 
her  the  object  of  his  political  satires,  joined  the  coalition  against 
Urn,  while  the  latter  could  regard  Sweden  in  no  ot&er  light  than 
that  of  an  enemy  in  the  event  of  a  general  war. 
'  5.  Thus  Austria,  Russia,  France,  Sweden,  and  Poland,  had  dl 
united  against  One  of  the  smaller  kingdams,  which  was  deprived  of 
all  foreign  resources,  with  ihe  exception  of  England ;  and  the  latter, 
u  a  eonttaentai  war,  could  give  her  aHy  but  little  effective  aid. 
Austria  looked  with  confidence  upon  the  recovery  of  Silesia ;  the 
partition  of  Prussia  was  ahready  planned,  and  the  daya  of  the  PMS^ 


ObikV.]  ElG^HTSfiNTH  CBNTITBT.  ^^ 

fliaib  monard&y  sppeiu>dd  to  bd  already  niimbered ;  bat  iq  Mm  most 
uneqiial  contest  the  snperioritj  of  Frederick  as  a  general,  and  the 
Aiseil^line  of  his  troops,  enabled  Prussia  to  come  out  of  the  war  with 
increased  power  and  glory. 

6.  Freddriok,  without  waiting  for  the  storm  l^at  was  abont  to* 
btmt  npon  him,  marched  forth  to  meet  it,  to  the  sarprise  ' 

-of  his  enemies,  who  were  scarcely  aware  that  he  was  campaign  ov 
arming.     In  the  montii  of  Angnst,  1756,  he  entered  »a»D»MK, 
Saxony  at  the  head  of  seventy  thousand  men,  blockaded 
the  Saxon  army,  and  cat  off  its  supplies,  defeated  an  army  of  Aus* 
trians  that  advanced  to  the  relief  of  their  allies,  and  finally  com- 
peUed  the  Saxon  forces,  now  reduced  to  fourteen  thousand  men,  to 
surrender  themselyes  prisoners,  (Oct.  1756,)  ipany  of  whom  he  forced 
to  enter  the  Prussian  service.     Thus  the  result  of  the  first  campaign 
of  Frederick  was  the  conquest  of  all  Saxony. 

7.  It  was  not  till  1^  month  of  May  and  June  1756,  that  Englan<} 
and  Fraz^e  issued  thmr  declarations  of  war  against  each  other,  al* 
though  hostilities  had  for  some  time  previously  been  carried  on  be- 
tfween  their  colonies.  France  commenced  the  war  by  an  expedition 
against  the  island  of  Hmorca,  then  in  possession  of  thts  English ; 
and  that  important  fortress  surrendered,  although  admiral  Byng  had 
been  sent  out  with  a  squadron  for  the  relief  of  the  place.  In 
America  the  English  had  planned,  early  in  the  season,  the  reduction 
of  Crown  Point,  Niagara,  and  Fort  Du  Quesne,  but  not  a  single  ob- 
ject qf  the  campaign  was  either  accomplished  or  attempted. 

8.  At  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  of  1757  itVas  estimated 
fliat  the  armies  of  the  enemies  of  Frederick,  on  foot,  and 
preparing  to  march  against  him,  exceeded  seven  hundred 
thousand^men,  while  the  force  which  he  and  his  English  allies  could 
bring  into  the  field  amounted  to  but  little  more  than  one  third  of 
that  number.  Frederick,  having  succeeded  in  deceiving  the  Aus- 
trians  as  to  his  real  intentions,  began  the  campaign  by  invading  Bo^ 
hemia,  where,  at  the  head  of  sixty-eight  thousand  men,  he  fought  and 
won  the  celebrated  and  sanguinary  battle  of  Prague,  (Msy  6,) 
against  an  army  of  seventy-five  thousand  Austrians.  I>early,  how* 
ever,  was  the  victory  purchased,  as  twelve  thousand  five  hundred 
Prussians  lay  dead  or  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle.  Seeking  ta 
follow  up  his  advantage,  in  the  following  month  Frederick  experi* 
enoed  a  severe  dieck,  being  defeated  by  the  greatly  si]^erior  fare« 


426  HODXBK  HI8T0RT.  (PamO. 

•r  manhal  Dann  at  EolSn,'  in  oonaeqndnoe  of  whioli  tlie  PrasriaoA 
tmre  foroed  to  raiae  the  siege  of  Pragae,  and  evaeoate  Bohemia. 
The  Austrians  and  their  allies,  afl^r  this  luezpeoted  victor j,  resanaed 
operations  with  increased  activity :  a  Russian  army  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  men  invaded  Prossia  on  the  east ;  seventeen 
thousand  Swedes  entered  Pomerania ;  and  two  powerful  French  armies 
crossed  the  Bhine  to  attack  the  English  and  Hanoverian  allies  of 
Pnusia  commanded  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland.  The  latter,  being 
defeated,  was  compelled  to  sign  a  disgraceful  convention  by  which 
his  army  of  thirty-eight  thousand  men  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  in- 
activity. 

9.  The  loss  of  his  English  allies  at  this  juncture  was  a  meet  griev- 
ous blow  to  'the  king  of  Prussia.  While  he  held  the  Austriaas  at 
bay  in  Lusatia,  Saxony,  whence  the  Prussians  drew  their  supplies, 
was  opened  to  the  French ;  the  Russians  were  advancii^  from  the 
east,  and  already  the  Swedes  were  near  the  gates  of  Berlin,*  when 
thp  sudden  recall  of  the  Russian  army,  owing  to  the  serious  illness 
of  the  Russian  empress,  illumined  the  troubled  path  of  Frederick 
with  a  glimmering  of  hope,  which  promised  to  lead  him  on  to  better 
fortune.  After  having  in  vain  tried  to  give  battle  to  the  Austrians, 
he  suddenly  broke  up  his  camp,  and  by  rapid  marches  advanced  into 
Saxony,  to  drive  the  French  out  of  that  country. 

10.  Early  in  November,  Frederick,  -a^  the  head  of  only  twenty 
thousand  men,  came  up  with  the  enemy,  whose  united  forces  amount- 
ed to  seventy  thousand.  After  some  manoeuvring  he  threw  His  little 
army  into  the  low  village  of  Rossback,"  the  heights  around  which, 
covered  with  batteries,  served  at  once  to  defend  his  position,  and 
conceal  his  movements.  Here  the  French  and  their  allies^  antici- 
pating a  certain  victory,  determined  to  surround  him,  and  thus,  by 
making  him  prisoner,  at  once  put  an  end  to  the  war.  To  accomplish 
this  object  they  advanced  by  forced  marches,  with  sound  of  trumpet ; 
anxious  to  see  if  Frederick  would  have  the  courage  to  make  a  stand 

1.  £Wim  to  a  nDall  town  of  Bohemia,  thhty'MTen  miles  a  UtUe  aooUi  of  eut  fh>m  Pragae. 
the  tattle  of  Kolln,  fotight  Jane  18th,  1757,  was  the  first  whleh  Frederick  lost  In  the  Seven 
YeanPWar.    (Jtfcp  No.  XVIL)  . 

2.  JB«Ha«,  the  capital  of  the  Pmstlan  States,  and  the  ordinaiy  reeldenoe  of  the  monarah.  Is 
on  the  rlTer  Spree,  a  branch  of  the  Elbe,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  one  hundred  and 
flixty  miles  sovth-east  Arom  ifamburg.  Berlin  la  one  of  the  finest  dues  in  Europe,  and  Is  eaOed 
the  Athens  of  the  north  of  Germaiqr.    (Jigp  No.  XVII.) 

3.  Rottbaek  Is  near  the  western  bank  of  the  river  Saale,  In  Pnisslan  Saxony,  about  twen^ 
mUea  south-west  ftom  lieipsle,  and  oonsequenUy  near  the  battlefields  of  Lei psie,  Jena,  and 
lAtaeo.   The  banks  of  the  Saale  are  fiilljimmonaUaed  by  oania«6b    (JK9N0.XVIIO 


OBiF.VJ  EiaHTSSNTH  OENTtTRT.  487 

•gaiBflt  them.  The  morning  of  the  5th  of  November  Frederick 
spent  in  reoonnoitering  the  enemj,  and  learned  their  plans  fbr  enyel- 
oping  him ;  bat  he  k^t  his  forces  perfectly  quiet  nntfl  the  afternoon, 
without  allowing  a  single  gim  to  be^fired,  when,  giving  his  orders, 
and  saddenlj  concentrating  the  greater  part  of  his  troops  to  one 
point,  he  hurled  them,  column  after  column,  in  one  irresistible  tor* 
rent  upon  the  foe.  Never  before  had  the  French  encountered  such 
rapidity  of  action :  they  were  completely  overwhelmed  and  routed 
before  they  could  even  form  into  line ;  and  in  less  than  half  an  hour 
the  action  was  decided.  <<  It  was  the  most  inconceivable  and  com* 
plete  route  and  discomfiture,"  says  Yoltaire,  <<  of  which  history  makes 
any  mention.  The  defeats  of  Agincourt,  Gressy,  and  Poitiers,  were 
not  so  humiliating." 

/ll.  The  French  fled  precipitately  from  the  field  of  battle,  and 
never  stopped  untQ  they  had  reached  the  middle  States  of  Germany 
while  many  only  paused  when  they  had  placed  the  Bhine  between 
themselves  and  the  victors.  Seven  thousand  prisoners,  and  three 
hundred  and  twenty  officers  of  every  rank,  including  eleven  generals, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  king,  while  the  loss  of  the  Prussiane 
amounted  to  only  five  hundred  in  killed  and  wounded!  Frederick 
eaosed  the  wounded  among  the  prisoners  to  be  treated  with  the 
greatest  humanity  and  attention.  The  officers  of  distinction,  who 
were  taken  prisoners,  he  invited  to  sup  with  him.  He  told  them  he 
regretted  he  could  not  offer  them  a  more  splendid  entertainment, 
M  but  gontiemen,"  said  he,  ^<  I  did  not  expect  you  so  soon,  nor  in  so 
large  numbers." 

12.  The  victory  of  Bossback  had  recovered  Saxony,  and,  what 
was  equally  important,  it  gave  an  opportunity  to  the  Bnglidi  and 
Hanoverian  troops  to  resume  their  arms,  which  they  did  on  the 
ground  of  the  alleged  infraction  of  the  convention  by  the  French 
general.  StiU  the  a&irs  of  Prussia  were  gloomy  in  the  extreme, 
fior  daring  the  absence  of  Frederick  from  Silesia,  that  province  had 
been  overrun  by  the  Austrians,  and  the  Prussians  had  been  defeated 
in  several  battles.  Frederick  returned  thither  in  December  with 
thirty  thousand  men,  and  on  the  5th  of  that  month  was  met,  on  the 
Tast  plain  of  Lissa,^  by  the  Austrian  force  of  ninety  thousand  men, 


1.  TiM  JUfM  bora  neatioiMd  is  •  snail  town  of  SOttiia,  IbwtMB  mOeft  w«rt  of  Bk^ 
capital  of  tbe  provinee,  and  about  one  hundred  and  aevaoty-flve  miles  south  sast  ftom  Berlin. 
Ae  bnltle  wasfoi^t  In  the  plain  between  Uaia  and  Braslaa.   There  la  anotlMr  ■ 
l«VBOfUwilBFMea»atty-STemUaenafftto^weillh«Bnelan.   (JH^NotXYlL) 


4tS  MODIBH  BBROBT.  har  A 


ocMdy  one  BUontli  tfUr  ihe  htMe  of  Sooihtok  Hoe 
had  reoovne  to  Ikote  bmmm  by  whidi  lie  had  oftea  batn  aoaUed  ta 
doaUa  hi«  power  by  the  celerity  of  his  xnanorarrM*  HaTing  saoeeed- 
ed  in  maaking  the  moTementa  oi  hit  toiMpa,  by  taking  poaBeaam  of 
aome  heighta  near  the  field  of  battle,  and  oanmag  a  faiae  atfeadc  to 
be  made  oa  the  Avatriaa  right,  he  fell  snddeoly  Qpen  their  left  aad 
looted  it  before  the  right  could  be  brought  to  ita  aapport  ThaeaB« 
aeqMBt  diaorder  was  oommonicated  to  the  whole  Anatrian  amy,  aad 
in  the  coarse  of  three  hoara  Frederick  gained  a  noat  eomplete  vie- 
tory.  The  Auatriana  lost  acTen  thonaaad  four  hundred  men  ip  killed 
a&d  woanded,  tweaty-one  thousand  prisonera,  aad  one  hundred  aad 
seventeen  cannon,  whils  the  total  Prussian  loss  was  less  than  fiva 
thousand  men.  In  this  extraordinary  battle  superior  geaioa  tri- 
aai|>hed  orer  superior  numberC  When  Frederick  was  told  of  the 
many  iaaulting  things  that  the  AuBtriana  had  said  of  him  and  his 
Kttle  army,  <<  I  pardon  liiem  readily/'  said  he,  <«  thfe  follies  they  mxf 
haye  uttered,  in  oonsideratton  of  those  they  have*  just  eommitted." 

18.  The  campaign  of  1757  was  the  most  eventAil  of  all  thoes 
waged  by  Frederick ;  but  althougb  be  had  been  forced  to  risk  his 
fkie  in  eight  battles,  and  more  than  a  hundred  partial  aettona,  his 
immeroua  enemies  ftiiled  m  their  object  The  battles  of  R^ssbadc 
and  Lissa  inspired  the  Bnglish  people  with  the  greatest  enthusiaam 
lor  the  Prussian  army,  and  the  result  was  a  £re^  subsidiary  treaty 
entersd  into  with  Frederick,  by  which  England  agreed  to  furnish  him 
aa  annual  subsidy  of  six  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  pounds,  aad 
to  send  an  army  into  Germany.  Mr.  Pitt,  recently  appointed  prime 
minister,  entered  fully  into  the  views  of  supporting  Frederidc,  de- 
daring  that ''  the  American  colonies  of  the  French  were  to  be  cqb> 
qoered  through  Germany." 

14.  The  campaign  of  1758  was  opened  by  Ferdinand,  duke  ef 
Brunswick,  who,  by  the  influence  of  the  king  of  Pniasia, 
had  been  appointed  oomaaander  of  the  Bng^irii  and 
Eanoveriaa  troops  in  Germany.  At  the  head  of  thirty  thouauid 
men  he  drove  a  French  army  of  eighty  thousand  beyond  the  Rlune^ 
and  in  a  brief  campaign  of  three  months,  from  January  to  April, 
took  eleven  thousand  prisoners.  Frederick  oommenced  the  campaign 
in  March,  by  reducing  the  last  remaining  fortress  in  Silesia :  then 
he  penetrated  to  Olmuta,'  in  Moravia,  but  failed  in  the  siege  of  tiiat 

L  OIflMrts««a«lbrB6rMpiuaorifonTla,uidoiworth6ilM«[wtfortiMMftort^ 
•mplffv,  U  on  ttM  «uU  rlTW  Manb  or  MomTa,  om  hndped  and  fti«  aUm  i 


.  Out.  T.]  Jtiawaaurm  obhtubt.  4» 

tAMei  Here  the  JkwArimB  oomipletely  Barroended  him  m  the  tbtj 
lleart.of  their  country,  bat  hh  effected  a  retreat  as  honorahle  aa  a 
Tiet<nry,  and  suddenly  directed  hia  march  against  the  RiueiaDa,  who 
were  comniitting  ^e  most  shocking  ravages  in  the  provinee  of  Bran- 
denbnrg,  sparing  neither  age  nor  sex. 

15.  At  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men  Frederick  met  the  eQemy» 
numbering  fifty  thousand^  on  the  24th  of  August,  near  the  taudl 

•  Tillage  of  Zomdorf,^  where  one  of  the  most  sangmnary  battles  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War  was  fought,  continumg  from  nine  o'clock  in  the 
morning  until  ten  at  night.  On  the  evening  of  this  sanguinary  day 
nineteen  thousand  Russians  and  eleven  thousand  PrussianB  lay  dead  and 
wounded  on  the^ld  of  battle ;  but  the  victory  was  claimed  tat  the  latlec. 
The  Prussian  king  in  person  led  the  last  attacks,  and  so  muoh  was 
he  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  Bossians  that  all  his  aids,  and  the  pages 
ifrho  attended  him,  were  either  killed,  wounded,  or  taken  prisoners. 
The  able  Austnaa  general,  count  Daun,  who  had  of^  fiou^t  Fred- 
erick, and  sometimes  with  success,  had  written  to  the  general  of  the 
Bossians,  <<  not  to  risk  a  battle  with  a  wily  enemy,  whose  onmiing 
and  resources  he  was  not  yet  acquainted  with ;"  bat  as  the  courier 
who  carried  this  dispatch  lioll  into  the  hands  of  the  Prussians^  Fredr 
erick  himself  answered  the  letter  in  the  following  worda^ — '^  You 
had  reason  to  advise  the  Russian  general  to  be  on  his  guard  against 
a  crafty  and  designing  enemy,  whom  you  were  better  acquainted  with  ^ 
than  he  was ;  lor  he  has  given  battle,  and  has  been  beaten."  At  a 
later  period  in  this  campaign  eount  Daun  surprised  and  routed  the 
right  wing  of  Frederick's  troops  at  Hoohkirohen,'  in  Saxony,  when 
noihing  but  the  admirable  perfeotion  of  the  PrussiBn  discipline  saved 
the  army  from  utter  destruction.  But  this  reverse  could  not  damf) 
the  spirits  of  Frederick :  he  drove  the  Austrians  a  seoond  time  from 
Silesia ;  sod  then  compelled  Daun  to  abandon  the  sieges  of  Dresden 
and  Leipsic,  and  retreat  into  Bohemia.  At  the  end  of  the  campaign 
Frederick  found  himself  in  possession  of  the  same  coontries  as  in  the 
preeeding  year,  while,  in  addition,  northern  and  csBtial  Qemany 
-had  been  reoovoed  frmn  the  Frendi. 

16.  In  the  meantime  the  war  had  beok  carried  on  in  other  qnartetn 

VtoaiM.   It  WM  tafcen  by  the  Swde>  In  ttie  thirtj  ywtf  mr,  ww  ^irtifii  iiiwuriiiwftiaj  hj 
nedwtekOieGiwilnnse^widLiUkTettdWMOoafliMdttMrainl^    ( Jr«y  No.  XVIL) 

L  2Ssmd0r/h  %  imaU  vUlice of  Bnodeabitfv,  about  Ureoty  miles  nortb-aaat  from  Fnnkr 
a)rtoattie  Oder,  and  aboiUtliftaaB«aiataiiMaoaUk^flitlh>mCQitrtm.    (JM^p  Mo.  XYIL) 

a.  HMkkinkm  Is  a  imaU  TlUago  la  tbe  preaent  kingdom  of  Sazoaj^  (foraiariy  i*  lumaOt^ 
tMilj  saiaii  miles  east  from  Drssrtan.    It  Is  a  short  dlalaooa  south  salt  ftma  I 
wm^im^t^UmmtAVw^UmiAa.  <J|^No,XVU.) 


MOMBBir  BmOKT.  [FakIL' 

batwemi  the  Freneh  and  the  Bn^ialL  In  India  the  Vtesktix  ««re 
generally  saoeessfbl,  as  they  not  only  preserved  their  po8seflido9B,biit 
wrested  several  fortresses  from  their  rivals,  but  they  were  deprived 
.of  all  their  settlements  on  the  ooast  of  Africa,  while  in  North 
Amerioa  they  abandoned  Fort  da  Qaene  to  the  English,  and  were 
obliged  to  soirender  the  important  fortress  of  Lonisbnrg,  after  a  vig- 
orons  siege  eondnoted  by  generals  Amherst  and  Wolfe. 

17.  The  campaign  of  1759  commenced  nnder  &vorable  anspicQB . 

for  the  Prussians,  as  they  sncoeeded  early  in  the  season 
in  destroying  the  Russian  magaiines  in  Poland,  and 
broke  up  the  Austrian  armies  in  Bohemia ;  but  in  August  Frederidc 
himself  suffered  a  greater  loss,  in  the  battle  of  Kunersdorf;^  than 
any  he  had  yet  experienced.  At  the  head  of  only  forty-eight  thou- 
sand men  he  attacked  the  combined  Russian  and  Austrian  foroe  of 
ninety-six  thousand,  defended  by  strong  intrenchments,  but  he  was 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  more  than  eighteen  thousand  men  in  killed 
and  wounded.  The  Russian  and  Austrian  loss  was  nearly  sixteen 
thousand ;  in  allusion  to  which,  the  Russian  general,  writing  to  the 
empress  an  account  of  the  J>attle,  said :  <<  Your  majesty  must  not  be 
surprised  at  the  greatness  of  our  loss.  It  is  the  custom  of  the  king 
of  Prussia  to  sell  his  defeats  very  dear."  At  a  later  period  of  the 
campaign  Frederick  rashly  e;cpo8ed  fourteen  thousand  of  his  troops 
in  the  defiles  of  Bohemia,  where  they  were  surrounded  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  and,  after  a  valiant  resistance,  compelled  to  surrender,  when 
only  three  thousand  of  the  number  remained  unwounded.  Yet,  after 
all  the  reverses  which  the  Prussians  sustained,  the  only  permanent 
acquisition  made  by  the  Austrians  was  Dresden,  for  Frederick's  vigor 
and  rapidity  of  movement  rendered  even  their  victories  firuitless. 

18.  The  campaign  of  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  against  the  French, 
during  this  year,  was  more  successful  than  that  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 
On  the  1st  of  August  he  attacked  the  French  army  of  seventy  thou- 
sand men  near  Mind^,'  and  obtained  a  complete  victory,  which 
alone  prevented  the  French  from  gaining  possession  of  the  king  of 
England's  Hanoverian  dominions.  On  the  ocean  and  in  the  colonies 
the  results  of  the  year  1759  were  highly  favorable  to  the  English. 
The  French  fleets  were  destroyed;  the  English  gained  a  decided 

'  1.  Kuiurti^fh  A  nnan  Tflliwe  of  the  proTlnoe  of  Brandenborer,  a  abort  dtatenoa  foutti  of 
FhuiM)r^<»4b»Od«r,  and  <m  tbe  eutflrn  b«ak  of  ttio  rlT«,  flfty-llve  inllet  Kmtb-eMt  fkoa 
eertfn.    Tb»  battle  (bqght  near  this  town  ia  ionelliiMa  oaUed  the  batUe  of  Franklbrt. 

t.  Mtmdm  fa  a  Pmaafan  town  In  Weatptaalta,  on  tbe  weat  bank  of  tbe  Wee«^  nav  the  Btm 
eiFartanftqatiar>thlrtHlyemaeaapatb<witSqaHiaem^    < Jik#  Hew  ZVO) 


Chur.TJ  ^         KHJBTKENTH  OBKTORT.  4M 

preponderanoe  in  India ;  while  the  oonqnest  of  Canada  waiB  aoltiered 
hj  the  gallant  "Wolfe,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of  vicfory  before  the 
walls  of  Quebec. 

19.  Alier  a  winter  spent  in  futile  attempts  at  negotiation,  the 
most  vigorous  preparations  were  made  by  all  parties  fbr 

the  campaign  of  1760.  It  opened  with  a  continuation  ^ 
of  misfortunes  to  Prussia, — ^with  the  loss  of  nearly  nine  thousand  men 
surrounded  and  taked  prisoners  by  the  Austrians, — ^with  an  unsuo* 
ecWul  attempt  on  Dresden  by  Frederick  himself,  and  the  surrender 
of  an  important  fortress  in  Silesia.  For  the  space  of  a  year  Fred- 
erick had  met  with  almost  continual  reyerses,  but,  still  undaunted 
and  undismayed,  his  transcendent  talents  nerer  shone  to  greater  ad- 
yantage  than  when  brought  into  action  by  the  rigors  of  fortune.  At 
the  very  moment  when  he  was  surrounded  with  overwhelming  forces 
of  Bussians  and  Austrians,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  thousand  men,  and  his  ruin  seemed  inevitable,  his  genius  saved 
him,  and  converted  what  appeared  the  certainty  of  defeat  into  a  series 
of  brilliant  victories.  While  his  enemies  were  preparing  to  attack 
him  in  his  camp,  he  suddenly  fell  upon  one  of  their  divisions  at 
Li^nits'  and  almost  annihilated  it  before  the  others  were  aware  that 
he  had  changed  his  position.  (Aug.  16th.)  In  November  he  at< 
tacked  the  intrenched  camp  of  marshal  Daun  at  Torgou,'  having 
previously  declared  to  his  generals  his  determination  to  finish  the 
war  by  a  decided  victory,  or  perish,  with  his  whole  army,  in  the  at- 
tempt The  battle  was  perhaps  the  bloodiest  fought  during  the  whole 
war,  but  the  impetuosity  of  the  Prussians  was  irresistible,  and  the  result 
recovered  to  Frederick  all  Sazony,-ezcept  Dresden,  and  compelled  the 
Austrians,  Russians,  and  Swedes,  to  evacuate  the  Prussian  dominions. 

20.  The  campaign  of  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  against  the  French 
in  northern  and  western  Gkrmany  was  marked  by  a  great  number 
of  skirmishes  which  fatted  both  parties,  and  in  which  towns  and 
villages  were  taken  and  retaken ;  but  iq^hen  it  b  considered  that  the 
hostile  armies  numbered  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  men,  we  are 
surprised  to  find  that  no  memorable  events  occurred. 

21.  During  the  year  1760  France  and  Spain  formed  an  mtimate 
alliaDce,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Fhmify  Compact^  by  which  the 
enemy  of  either  was  to  be  considered  the  enemy  of  both,  and  neither  was 

L  £.iiyiiittl*aU»WBor8llMl%«ittMKatabKefa,il>rtj'«lzmUti  a  llttto  aorlh  of  w««  frofli 
Brwlau.    (Jir«fi  No.  XVII.) 
%  7V|w»toAtownorPraarita8ttB»j,oiiaMwaatlMBkQf  th6Slb«,rixl|^iliflllta 
(JliyH<i.XTID 


MOMBBir  BBTCttT.  IfmJL 

Ab  ttmA  waA  ih»  ISa^Ud.    In  Iiidk  the  Fimhwe 

gtntnhj  meoeiwfal,  as  Ihey  not  only  preserred  their  ponenioips,  Voi 

urtrtsd  wreral  foitrewM  from  their  rirals,  bat  they  were  depriiei 

«r  ell  their  settleatenta  on  the  coeet  of  Afrioe,  iriiile  in  North 

Ameriee  they  ebendoned  Fort  da  Qaeene  to  the  Eogliflh,  and  mn 

obliged  to  earnDder  the  important  fbrtren  of  Lonialmig,  afteraTiC- 

eiow  mege  eondoeted  by  generals  Amherst  and  Wolfe. 

17.  Theeompaign  of  1759  eommenoed  under  &ToraUe  aai|nflei 

fat  the  ProBsians,  as  they  sneoeeded  early  in  the  »«» 

"^  ^^  '    in  destroying  the  Rnasion  magaaines  in  Poland,  ud 

hrokn  op  the  Austrian  armies  in  Bohemia;  but  in  Augost  Fredoick 

hiaunlf  suiered  a  greater  loss,  in  the  battle  of  Kuoeradorf/  tto 

any  he  hod  yet  eiqperienoed.    At  the  head  of  only  forty^hi  iitfw- 

oawi  men  he  attuned  the  oombined  Russian  and  Austrias  f<M«0ff 

ninety-six  thousand,  defended  by  strong  intrenchments,  but  he  w 

defeated  with  the  loss  of  more  than  eighteen  thousand  meo  in  kilM 

and  wounded.     The  Russian  and  Austrian  loss  was  nearly  «ztMB 

thousand ;  in  allusion  to  whidi,  the  Rusaian  general,  writing  to  »| 

empress  an  aeoount  of  the  batUe,  said :  «  Your  majesty  must  not  be 

surprised  at  the  greatness  of  our  loss.    It  is  the  custom  of  the  kog 

of  Pruttia  to  sell  his  defeats  rery  dear."     At  a  later  period  of  tha 

eampaign  Frederiek  rashly  e^cposed  fourteen  thousood  of  bis  troojps 

in  the  d^Ies  of  Bohemia,  where  ihey  were  surrounded  by  ^^ 

trians,  and,  after  a  valiant  resistance,  compelled  ^to  sorrender,  «^ 

only  three  thousand  of  the  number  remained  unwounded.    Yet>  vt^ 

all  the  rererses  which  the  Prussians  sustained,  the  only  permaneDt 

acquisition  made  by  the  Austrians  was  Dresden,  for  Frederick  fl  ^w' 

and  rapidity  of  movement  rendered  even  their  victories  ^^^^^  i^ 
la  The  campaign  of  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  against  the  From    . 

during  this  year,  was  more  suocessfal  than  that  of  the  kii«  of  P'^ 
On  the  1st  of  August  he  attooked  the  French  army  of  sefcnty  ^ 
sand  men  near  Minden,"  snd  obtained  a  complete  viotoij)^  ^ 

olene  prevented  the  French  from  gaining  possession  of  ^^^-^     I 
England^s  Hanoverian  d<»nmions.    On  the  ocean  and  in  ^^     ji\^ 
the  results  of  the  year  1759  were  higUy  favorable  to  the  EoS^ 
The  Frenoh  fleets  were  destroyed ;  the  Bnglish  gained  a  dedo 

1,  Xwmr94^f)»  A  nun  Tm«g«  of  tbe  pvoTlnM  of  BniKtoiibaig,  a  abort  dlittfi^  '^^ 


TnaMniUmAlb^KMm,  and  o«  tbe  Mat«n  bank  of  the  rivar,  fifty4lYe  mlM  < 
StftlB.    nabattla  foafbt  naar  thta  town  la  ■omaUmai  ealtod  Uae  batUa  of  FnokftH. 
a.  JMiMHitoa  ProMiaii  tow]ilaWaMptaalia,oiitbawM(baokoftbaW<Mr|Bi<ria* 

•^•TtoSwiiiw^adrtHfaMUaiBPaAeailSqaiHiamr.   < Jik#  ir«.  ITIU 


Chap,  r.1  KIOHTEENTH  QENTtTRT.  433 

in  the  bay  of  Honduras/  and  by  a  renunciation  of  all  claim  to  the 
Newfoundland  fisheries.     But  important  a^  these- results  were  to 
England,  they  were  so  much  less  advantageous  than  her  position 
might  have  commanded,  that  it  was  said  of  her,  "she  made  war  like 
a  lion,  and  peace  like  a  Iamb."     Of  France  it  was  said  by  Voltaire, 
that  "  by  her  alliance  with  Austria  she  had  lost  in  six  years  more 
men  and  money  than  all  the  wars  she  had  ever  sustained  against  that 
power  had  cost  her."     By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  between  Prussia 
and  Austria,  prisoners  were  exchanged,  and  a  restitution  of  all  con- 
quests was  made ;  but  Frederick  stiil  held  the  much- contested  Silesia, 
a  small  territory,  which  had  cost  the  contending  parties  more  than  a  ' 
jiillion  of  men.     The  glory  of  the  war  remained  chiefly 
with  Frederick,  who,  at  the  head  of  his  veteran  phalanx,  ^cuM^^^t^ 
moving  among  the  masses  of  Austria,  France,  and  Russia,         of 
and  confronting  all.  still  preserved,  through  an  unex-    "■"■*'o*- 
%mpled  series  of  victories  and  reverses,  the  character  of  Great.     No 
'  general  ever  surpassed  him  in  regularity  and  rapidity  of  manoeuvres, 
in  well  ordered  marches,  and  in  the  facility  of  concentrating  masses 
on  the  weak  side  of  an  enemy.     "  Bonaparte  effected  wonders  with 
ample  means;  but  when  reduced  to  play  the  forlorn  game  of  Fred 
erick  against  united  Europe,  the  great  French  captain  fell, — the 
Prussian  lived  and  died  a  king." 

V.  State  of  Ecrope.     The  American  Revolution.-^  1.    The 
peace  of  1763  gave  general  tranquillity  to  Europe,  which  ^ 

•onfcinued  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  between  peaob  is 
England  and  her  American  colonies,  called  Jthe  "  War  of  *  ■<'^^■• 
Jie  American  Revolution."  The  result  of  the  "  Seven  Tears'  War" 
fas  that  Prussia  and  Austria  became  the  principal  continental 
'  joweTB ;  France,  by  her  subserviency  to  Austria,  her  ancient  enemy, 
Aost  the  political  ascendency  which  she  had  previously  sustained; 
and  Britain,  although  abandoning  her  influence  in  the  European 
system,  and  maintaining  intimate  relations  with  Portugal  and  Hol- 
land only,  had  obtained  complete  maritime  supremacy.  Frederick 
of  Prussia  exerted  himself  successfully  to  repair  the  desolation  made 
in  his  dominions  by  the  ravages  of  war ;  he  gave  corn,  for  planting, 
to  the  destitute,  procured  laborers  from  other  countries,  remitted 
the  taxes  for  a  season,  and  during  the  four  and  twenty  years  of  his 

1.  ffonduriu  is  a  fletOemant  ftdjolning  the  bay  of  the  same  Dame,  on  the  Malam  oomi  of 
'vdbtan.    In  1798  it  wm  tfangAHTed  vo  Eaglaod,  in  aooordaJBce  with  a  prBvloiu  ti«o^. 

o        28  , 


484  MODKRH  mSTOBT.  (Fi»Ii 

reign  after  the  peeee,  he  appropriated  for  the  eDOonragenentof  agri; 
onltttre,  commerce,  and  manufiAotares,  no  lees  than  twentj-foor  millione 
of  dollars ;  and  this  sum  he  had  saved,  -foj  his  simple  and  frugal  life, 
from  the  amount  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of  his  court 

2.  In  the  meantime  France,  during  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of 
the  dissolute  Louis  XV.,  was  declining  in  power,  and 
sinking  into  disgrace.     While  the  finances  were  in  a  state 

of  utter  confusion,  and  universal  misery  pervaded  the  land,  there 
was  the  same  splendor  in  the  oourt,  and  the  same  profusion  m  ci- 
penditure,  that  marked  the  conclusion  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
Both  monarchs  were  doomed  to  see  their  children  perish  hy  an  un- 
1^  accountable  depay;  and  on  the  death  of  Louis  XY.  in  1774,  it  ma 

I  his  youthful  grandson,  already  married  to  an  Austrian  princess,  who 

.  was  elevated  to  the  throne.     As  evidence  of  the  heartlessneas  that 

often  surrounds  a  court,  it  is  related  that  no  sooner  had  Lonis  XT. 
breathed  his  last,  than  the  array  of  sedulous  courtiers  deserted  the 
apartments  of  the  deceased  monarch,  and  rushed  forth  in  a  tumult- 
uous crowd  to  do  homage  to  the  rising  power  of  Lcuis  XYL  The 
first  act  of  this  pious  prince  and  of  his  queen  was.  to  fall  on  their 
knees  and  exclaim,  "Our  Ood !  guide  ^md  protect  us :  we  are  too 
young  to  reign." 

3.  While  the  power  and  greatness  of  France  were  declining, 

Russia  was  gradually  acquiring  a  preponderatmg  influ- 
ence in  Eastern  Europe.     In  1768  a  war  broke  ont  be- 
tween h4r  and  Turkey,  which  resulted  in  a  series  of  defeats  and 
losses  to  the  latter.     During  this  war  Russia  had  taken  possession 
of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,*  which  she  was  extremely  desirous  of 
retaining;  but  Austria  opposed  it,  lest  Russia  should  become  too 
powerful ;  and  as  the  latter  was  at  the  same  time  engaged  in  a  con-' 
tost  with  a  confederacy  of  Polish  patriots  under  the  pretence  of  at^  • 
tempting  to  restore  tranquillity  to  Poland,  it  was  thought  best  that 
she  should  retein  a  portion  of  the  Polish  territory  instead  of  the 
conquered  Turkish  provinces.     But  even  this  would  destroy  the  bal- 
IV  oisicnc-  *^^®  between  the  thf  ee  great  eastern  powers  of  Christen- 
anifiNT  OF  dom ;  and,  to  restore  the  equilibrium,  Prussia  and  Aus- 
roLAWDs    ^^  mxLBt  have  a  shar^  also  \  and  thus  was  accomplished 

h  M$Ua9ia  tnd  WaJUaekU  are  two  contigaoin  proylncos  of  Tarlcey,  embracing  tbe  aodeol 
SmUu  {Map  No.  DC.)  Tbej  are  in  -reality  under  tlie  protection  of  Roaala.  Wanaebta  IM 
flloiV  tlM  norttaemUaokor  tlie  Oaaabe»  and  MoUUTia  innMdlaiely  wett  of  Uie  liver  Prvlk. 


09A».y.]  EIGHTESITTH  CENTITRT.  435 

thd  ioiqnitoiis  ndeasore  of  a  dismemberment  of  Poland,  and  the  di- 
Tision  of  a  large  portion  of  her  territory  between  Russia,  Prossiai 
and  Austria.     (1773.) 

4.  At  the  time  of  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  1 763  a  strong  feel- 
ing of  animosity  existed  between  the  two  great  parties  in^  ^.  ^^^^  ^^ 
England, — the  whigs  and  the  tories, — the  latter  of  whom   parties  m 
had  beei^  taken  into  favor  and  rewarded  with  the  chief    ^"^land. 
offices  of  government  soon  after  the  accession  of  George  the  Third. 
A  Ipng  and  expensive  war  had  increased  the  national  debt,  and  ren* 
dered  additional  taxes  necessary,  while  the  bulk  of  the  nation  very 
naturally  thinking  that  conquests  i&d  riches  ought  to  go  hand  in 
hand,  were  induced  to  believe  that  administration  arbitrary  and  op- 
jiressive  which  loaded  them  with  new  taxes  immediately  after  the 
great  successes  which  had  attended  the  British  arms.     The  indiscre- 
tion of  the  ministry,  in  levying  the  taxes  upon  certain  important  ar-^ 
tides  of  domestic  manufacture,  threw  the  kingdom  into  an  almost 
universal  fermenJt,  and  compelled  the  resignation  of  the  earl  of  Bute, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  the  tory  administration. 

5.  The  earl  of  Sute  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Grenville,  and  as  he  also 
was  a  tory,  and  was  considered  but  the  passive  instrument  of  the  late 
minister,  he  inherited  all  the  unpopularity  of  his  predecessor.  One 
of  his  first  acts  was  the  arrest  and  prosecution  of  Mr.  Wilkes,  a 
member  of  parliament,  who,  in  a  paper  called  the  North  Briton,  had 
asserted  that  the  king's  speech  at  the  opening  of  parliament,  which 
lie  affected  to  consider  as  the  minister's,  contained  a  falsehood.  On 
a  hearing  before  the  judges  of  the  common  pleas,  it  was  decided 
that  the  commitment  of  Mr.  Wilkes  was  illegal,  and  that  his  privi 
leges,  as  member  of  parliament,  had  been  infringed  by  the  ministry. 
Mr.  Wilkes  was  subsequently  outlawed  by  the  Commons,  on  his  fail- 
ing to  appear  to  answer  the  charges  agamst  him  ;  but  this  extreme 
severity  only  increased  the  agitation,  and  imbittered  the  feelings  of 
the  opposing  parties.  At  a  later  period,  on  a  legal  trial,  the  out- 
lawry  of  Mr.  Wilkes  was  reversed,  and  he  was  repeatedly  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Commons,  although  the  house  as  often  rejected  him. 

6.  The  augmentation  of  the  revenue  being  at  this  time  the  chief 
object  o/  the  administration,* in  1764  Mr.  Grenville  in- 
troduced into  parliament  a  project  for  taxing  the  Ameri- 
can colonies;  and  early  in  1675  the  "  Stamp  Act"  was 
paaaed — an  act  ordering  that  all  legal  writings,  together  with  pam« 
phleta,  uewqMtperB,  fta,  in  the  oolonies,  should  be  ioxoouftcd  on 


VI.  AMERICAN 
TAXATIOK. 


486  MODKaif  HIBTOBT.  [FaotU 

stamped  paper;  for  which  a  duty  sbonld  be  paid  to  Hie  erawiL  Tkm 
colonies  resisted  every  project  for  taking  them,  on  Ihe  gnnoid  tha* 
they  were  pot  represented  in*  the  British  parliament,  and  tkaik 
taxation  and  representation  were  niaeparable ;  and  a  large  party  in 
England,  consisting  mostly  of  whigs,  united  with  them  in  maiatno* 
iug  this  doctrine.  The  stamp  aet  was  soon  repealed,  bat  the  minia- 
try  still  avowed  the  right  of  the  mother  country  to  tax  fae^  colonial 
possessions,  and  this  doctrine,  still  persisted  in,  laid  the  foundstioa 
for  that  contest  which  at  length  terminated  in  the  independence  of 
the  American  colonies. 

7.  Misfortunes  seemed  to  attend  almost  every  scheme  midertatei 
by  England  for  coercing  the  Americans  into  obedience.  A  hill  wai 
passed  for  depriving  the  people  of  New  Riglaad  of  the  beneftte  of 
the  Newfoundland  fisheries  ;  and  it  was  thought  that  this  aet  would 
throw  into  the  hands  of  British  merchants  the  profits  which  wertf 
formerly  divided  with  the  colonies ;  but  the  Americani^  refused  to 
supply  the  British  fishermen  with  provisions,  and  many  of  the  shipf 
were  obliged  to  abandon,  for  a  time,  the  business  on  which  they 
came,  and  return  in  quest  of  supplies.  Added  to  this,  a  most  So- 
lent and  unprecedented  storm  swept  over  the  fiiritbg  banks ;  the  mm 
arose  thirty  feet  above  its  ordinary  level,  and  upwards  of  seven  hun- 
dred English  fishing  boats  were  lost,  with  all  the  people  in  them, 
and  many  ships  foundered  with  their  whole  crews.  When,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  war,  an  immense  quantity  of  provisions  wne 
prepared  in  England  for  the  use  of  the  British  army  in  America,  the 
transports  remained  for  a  long  time  wind-bound ;  then  eonftrai^  winds 
detained  them  so  long  near  the  English  coasts  that  neivrfy  twAi^ 
thousand  head  of  live  stock  perished;  a  storm  afterwards  drove 
many  of  the  ships  to  the  West  Indies,  and  others  were  captoredby 
American  privateers,  so  that  only  a  few  reached  the  harbor  of  Boeton, 
with  their  cargoes  greatly  damaged.  The  universal  distress  produced 
tiiroughout  the  British  nation  by  the  refusal  of  the  Americans  to' 
purchase  British  goods,  completed,  the  catalogue  of  evils  which  M- 
lowed  in  the  train  of  ministerial  measures,  and,  by  ex<Hting  the  mesl 
violent  altercations  between,  opposing  parties,  seemed  te  threaten 
England  herself  with  the  horrors  of  civil  war.  ^ 

8.*  Passing  by  the  arguments  that  were  used  for  and  against  tax- 
ation— the  acts  exhibiting  the  rash  oonfidcQce  and  perseverance  of 
the  ministers  and  the  crown — the  determined  opposition  of  the  oc^ 
nies-^e  changes  in  the  English  ministry,  and  Hw  dMMrfonH  be 


CtaM^y.]  SLOBTEENTH  0£NTURT  *  437 

tmemt  c^posaig  partids  in  Bnglaiid — we  come  to  th'e  deaaixe  open- 
ing  oi  the  war  with  tke  British  American  colonies  by  the 

VII.  OPKNINO 

akirmish  at  ^[ieziQgton,  on  the  19th  of  April,  1775.     A  orTss  wak 
revplntionary  war  of  aeven  years'   duration  followed,    with  the 
on  the  Amerioan  soil,— ^  war  of  the  weak  against  the 
Strong— of  the  few  in  nambecs  against  the  many — ^but  a  war  snocessfdl, 
in  its  results,  to  the  cause  of  freedom.     Fortunately  for  the  colonies 
the  war*was  not  confined  to  them  alone ;  and  as  tiie  history  of  the 
American  portion  pf  it  is  doubtless  already  familiar  to  most  of  our 
readers,  we  proceed  to  consider  the  new  relations,  between  England 
and  the  other  powers  of  Europe,  arising  out  of  the  war  of  the  An^eri- 
can  RcTolution. 

9   The  continental  powers,  jealous  of  the  maritime  and  commercial 
prosperity  of  En^and,  and  ardently  desiring  her  humili- 
ation in  the  contest  which  she  had  unwisely  provoked  pban  rbla 
with  her  colonies,  rejoiced  at  every  misfortune  that  befel     ^'^^*>  ^' 
her.     The  French  and  Spanish  courts,  from  the  first, 
gave  the  Americans  the  aid  of  their  sympathy,  and  opened  their 
ports  freely  to  American  oruiaers,  who  found  there  ready  purchasers 
for  their  prizes ;  and  although,  when  England  complained  of  the  aid 
thus  giyen  to  her  enemies,  it  was  publicly  disavowed,  yet  it  was  evi- 
dent that  both  France  and  Spain  secretly  favored' the  cause  of  the 
AmerioansL 

10.  The  capture  of  the  entire  British  army  of  general  Burgoyne 
at  Saratoga,  in  Octobef  1777,  induced  France  to  throw 

aside  the  nttsk  with  which  she  had  hitherto  endeavored  ^^^^^ 

^b  BETWKKN 

to  conceal  her  intentions ;  and  in  the  month  of  March  francs  and 
1778,  she  gave  a  formal  notification  to  the  British  gov-  ^^^^ 
tnunent  that  idie  had  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance, 
ftiendahip,  and  commerce,  with  the  American  States.     France  and 
England  now  made  the  most  vigorous  preparations  for  the  anticipated 
contest  between  them ;  the  English  marine  force  was  increased,  bvt 
ike  French  navy  now  equalled,  if  it  did  not  exceed,  that  of  England, 
nor  was  France  disposed  to  keq>  it  idle  in  her  ports. 

11.  Although  war  had  not  yet  been  deqlared  between  the  two  na- 
tions, in  the  month  of  April,  1 778,  a  French  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Count  D'Estaing,  sailed  from  Toulon  for     betwbkn 
Amerifla ;  and  soon  after «a  much  larger  naval  force  was  r&ANca  anj>  • 
assembled  at  Brest,  with  the  avowed  object  of  invading 
England.     In  June,  the  Eoglish  admiral  Keppel  fell  in  with  and  at- 


438  •  MODERN  HISTORY.  p>AMrII 

tacked  three  French  frigates  on  the  western  coast  of  France,  two  of 
which  he  captured.  The  French  goyemment  then  ordered  reprisals 
against  the  ships  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  English  went  through  the 
same  formal itict^^  so  that  both'  nations  Were  now  in  a  state  of  actual  war. 

12.  During  the  autpmn  and  winter  of  1778  the  West  Indies  were 
the  principal  theatre  of  the  naval  operations  of  France  and  England. 
In  September,  the  governor  of  the  French  island  of  Martinique  at- 
tacked, and  easily  reduced,  the  English  island  of  Dominica^'  where 
he  obtained  a  large  quantity  of  military  stores ;  hut  in^e  December 
following  the  French  island  of  St  Lucia*  was  compelled  to  submit 
to  the  English  admiral  Barrington,  after  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
relieve  it  by  the  fleet  of  D'Estaing. 

13.  While  these  naval  events  were  occurring  on  the  American 
coasts^  the  French  and  English  settlements  in  the  East  Indies  had 
also  become  involved  in  hostilities.  Soon  after  the  acknowledgment 
of  American  independence  by  the  oourt  of  France,  the  British  East 
India  company,  convinced  that  a  quarrd  would  now  ensue  between 
t£e  two  kingdoms,  despatched  orders  to  its  officers  at  Madras  to 
attack  the  neighboring  post  of  Pondicherry,  the  capital  of  the  French 
East  India  possessions.  That  place  was  accordingly '  besi^d  in 
August,  by  a  force  of  ten  thousand  men,  natives  and  Englishmen, 
and  after  a  vigorous  resistance  was  compelled  to  surrender  in  Octo- 
ber following.  Other  losses  in  that  quarter  of  the  globe  followed, 
and  during  one  campaign  the  French  power  in  India  was  nearly  anni- 
hilated. 

14.  In  the  year  1779  another  power  was  added  to  the  enemies  of 
England.     Spain,  under  the  pretext  that  her  mediation, — (whiSi  she 

had  proposed  merely  as  the  forerunner  of  a  rupture)— 
BKTWEK.V    had  been  slighted  by  England,  declared  war,  and  with 
SPAIN  AND    the  cooperation  of  a  French  fleet  laid  si^e  to  Gib- 
raltar, both  by  sea  and  land,  in  the  hope  of  recovering 
that  important  fortress.     Early  iirthis  year  a  French  fleet  attacked 
and  captured  the  Briflish  forts  and  settlements  on  the  rivers  Senegal 
and  Gambia,  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa ;  and  later  in  the  season 
the  French  conquered  the  English  islands  of  St   Vincents*  and 

1.  Dominica  is  one  of  the  Windward  Islaiida,  Id  the  Weit  Indies  betwetn  MaiCiiilqQe  uH 
ttie  Gtindnloupe.    It  was  restored  to  England  at  the  peace  of  1783. 

'  9.  !st.  Lueiu  Ib  alao  one  of  the  Windwaid  groap.  At  Ike  peaoe.of  Parte  It  waa  d«Siilti?c|y 
Mikpied  to  England. 

3.  St.  ViHceuu  Is  the  central  ialand  of  the  Windward  group.    B7  the  peace  of  1783  it  raTertad 
to  Great  BrllalD. 


Chip,  y.]  EI0HTEENTH  OENTURT.  439 

Grenada'  in  the  West  Indies ;  but  the  count  D'Estaing,  acting  in 
concert  with  an  American  force,  was  repulsed  in  the  siege  of  SavannaL 

15.  Early  in  January  1780,  the  British  admiral  Rodney  being 
despatched  with  a  powerful  fleet  to  the  relief  of  Gibraltar,  fell  in 
with  and  captured  a  Spanish  squadron  of  seven  ships  of  war  and  u 
number  of  transports ;  and  a  few  days  later  he  engaged  a  larger 
squadron  off  Gape  St.  Vincent,  and  captured  six  of  the  heayiest  ves- 
sels and  dispersed  the  remainder.  These  victories  enabled  him  to 
afford  complete  relief  to  the-  garrisons  of  Gibraltar  and  Minorca, 
after  which  he  proceeded  to  America,  and  thrice  encountered  tho 
French  fleet,  but  without  obtaining  any  decisive  success.  ^  In  August 
the  English  suffered  a  very  heavy  loss  in  the  capture  of  the  outward 
bdupd  East  and  West  India  fleets  of  merchant  vessels,  by  the  Span- 
iards, off  the  western  coast  of  France. 

16.  The  position  which  England  had  taken  in  claiming  the  right 
of  searching  neutral  ships  for  contraband  goods,  together  with  her 

'  occasional  seizure  of  vessels  not  laden  with  exceptionable 
cargoes,  were  the  cause  of  a  formidable  opposition  to  her  niutealitt 
at  this  time,  by  most  of  the  European  powers,  who  united  aoainst 
in  forming  what  was  called  the  "  Armed  Neutrality" 
for  the  protection  of  the  commerce  of  neutral  nations.  In  these  pro- 
ceedings, Catherine,  Empress  of  Russia,  took  the  lead,  asserting,  in  her 
manifesto  to  the  courts  of  London,  Versailles,  and  Madrid,  that  she 
had  adopted  the  following  principles,  which  she  would  defend  and 
maintain  with  all  her  naval  power: — 1st,  that  neutral  ships  should 
enjoy  a  free  navigation  from  one  port  to  another,  even  upon  the 
coasts  of  belligerent  powers,  except  to  ports  actually  blockaded  :  2d, 
that  all  effects  conveyed  by  such  ships,  excepting  only  warlike  stores, 
should  be  free  :  3d,  that  whenever  any  vessel  should  h^e  shown,  by 
its  papers,  that  it  was  not  the  carrier  of  any  contraband  article,  it 
should  not  be  liable  to  seizure  or  detention ;  and  4th — it  was  de- 
clared that  such  ports  only  should  be  deemed  blockaded,  before  which 
there  should  be  stationed  a  sufficient  force  to  render  the  entrance 
perilous.  Denmark,  Sweden,  Holland,  Prussia,  Portugal,  and  Qer 
many,  readily  acceded  to  the  terms  of  the  *' armed  neutrality;" 
France  and  Spain  expressed  their  approval  of  them,  while  nothing 
but  fear  of  the  consequences  which  must  have  resulted  from  the  re* 

1.  Ortnada  !•  one  of  the  most  loatlierly  of  the  Windwtftd  group.  About  the  year  1650  It 
WM  flnt  eoloiit>^  by  the  French,  from  whom  It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1762.  In  1779  tt 
wu  letaken  by  tbe  Fnench,  but  was  reatored  to  Great  BritaLa  at  tbe  peaoe  of  1783L 


440  MODKBN  HI8TQBT.  fPiax  II 

fiual,  indaced  EngUod  to  sabmii  to  thia  txpo0iti<m  of  the  iam  of 

satioDs,  and  the  righta  of  neatral  powers. 

17.  Since  the  alliance  between  France  and  Uie  United  States^ 

mutual  recnminationB  had  been  almost  constantlj  paaa- 

''^^Z^  ing  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch  gOTemment,  the 

siGLAKD    former  accusing  the  latter  of  supplying  the  enemies  of 

^>^        England  with  naval  and  military  stores,  contrary  to 

treaty  stipulations,  and  the  latter  complaining  that  great 
numbers  of  Dutch  vessels,  not  laden  with  contraband  goods,  had  been 
seized  and  carried  into  the  ports  of  England.  A  partial  collision 
between  a  Dutch  and  an  English  fleet,  early  in  the  year  1780,  had 
increased  the  hostile  feelings  of  the  two  nations ;  and  in  December 
of  the  same  year  Great  Britain  declared,  and  immediately  com- 
menced, war  against  Holland,  induced  by  the  discovery  that  a  com- 
mercial treaty  was  already  in  process  of  negotiation  between  that 
country  and  the  United  States.  The  Dutch  shipping  was  detained 
in  the  ports  of  Great  Britain,  and  instructions  were  despatched  to 
the  commanders  of  the  British  forces  in  the  West  Indies,  to  pro- 
ceed to  immediate  hostilities  against  the  Dutch  settlements  in  that 
quarter. 

18.  Thd  most  important  of  these  was  the  island  of  St.  Eustatia,' 
.a  free  port,  abounding  with  riches,  owing  to  the  vast  conflux  of  trade 
from  every  other  island  in  those  seas.  The  inhabitants  of  the  island 
were  wholly  unaware  of  the  danger  to  which  they  were  exposed, 
when,  on  the  3d  of  February,  1781,  Admiral  Rodney  suddenly  ap- 
peared, and  sent  a  peremptory  order  to  the  governor  to  surrender 
the  island  and  its  dependeDcies  within  an  hour.  Utterly  inoapablo 
of  making  any  defence,  the  island  was  surrendered  without  any  stipu- 
lations. The  amount  of  property  that  thereby  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  captors  was  estimated  at  four  millions  sterling.  The  settle- 
ments of  the  Dutch  situated  on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  South 
America  soon  after  shared  the  same  fate  as  Eustatia. 

19.  In  the  month  of  May  the  Spanish  governor  of  Louisiana 
completed  the  conquest  of  West  Florida  from  the  English,' by  the 
capture  of  Pensaoola.  Id  the  West  Indies  the  fleets  of  France  and 
England  had  several  partial  engagements  during  the  month  of  April, 
May,  and  June,  but  without  any  decisive  results.     In  the  latter  part 

1.  St,  EMtatia  Is  ono  of  the  group  of  the  Leeward  islauds,  a  range  exteotlin^  norih-wett  of 
the  Windward  isles.  This  island  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Dutch  early  in  the  sevaoteenUi 
•entury.  II  has,  since  then,  several  times  changed  hands  betweeu  Iheuis  U^o  Fi^ncb,  and  tt* 
logllab,  but  was  floaUy  given  up  to  HoUaod  in  1814. 


%SmT.]  EIGOTEa»TH  OBNTURY.  441 

«f  May  %  large  haiy  of  Trenoh  troops  landed  m  ike  island  of  To- 
bago,' whiok  flanreiid«re<j[  to  them  on  the  3d  of  June.  In  the  month 
of  Angnst  a  severe  engagement  took  place  on  the  Dogger  Bank,' 
wuslk  of  Holland,  between  a  British  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral 
Parker,  and  a  I>atoh  squadron,  commanded  by  Admiral  Zoutman. 
Botb  fleeta  wero  rendered  nearly  unmanageable,  and  with  difficulty 
Mgained  their  respactiYO  coasts. 

20.  la  the  meantime  the  war  had  been  carried  on,  during  a  period 
gf  more  than  six  years,  between  England  and  her  rebellious  Ameri- 
ean  oolojnies ;  but  the  liitter,  guided  by  the  counsels  of  the  immortal 
WaflftdDgtoii,  had  nobly  withstood  all  the  efforts  of  the  most  powerful 
aatioa  in  the  wo|ld  to  reduce  them  to  submission,  and  had  finally 
eenpellfid  the  surrender,  at  Yorktown,  of  the  finest  army  England^ 
had  eirer  sent  to  America.  After  the  defeat  and  surrender  of  Corn- 
vallis,  at)  Yorktown,  in  October,  1781,  the  war  with  the  United  States  ^ 
was  eonsideved,  virtually,  at  an  end ;  but  between  England  and  her  Eu- 
wpean  enemies  hostilities  were  carried  on  more  vigorously  than  ever. 
The  siege  ei  Gibraltar  was  ardently  prosecuted  by  the  Spaniards ; 
a&d  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison,  oommanded  by  governor  Elliot,  were 
greatly  ineommoded  by  the  want  of  fuel  and  provisions.  They  were 
ako  ezposed  to  an  almost  incessant  cannonade  from  the  Spanish  bat- 
teriee,  situated  on  the  peninsula  which  connects  the  fortress  with  the 
main  land  ]>aring  three  weeks,  in  the  month  of  May,  1781,  nearly 
one  hundred  thousand  shot  or  shells  were  thrown  into  tHe  town.  But 
wbile  the  eyes  of  Europe  were  torned,  in  suspense,  upon  this  im- 
portsat  ftirtress,  and  all  regarded  a  much  longer  defence  impossible, 
■nddonly,  on  Ite  night  of  the  27th  of  November,  a  chosen  body  of 
tvo  thooaand  men  from  the  garrison  sallied  forth,  and,  in  less  than 
an  hmir,  stormed  and  utterly  demolished  the  enemy^s  works.  The 
damage  done  on  this  occasion  was  estimated  at  two  millions  sterling. 

21.  In  the  month  of  February  following,  the  island  of  Minorca, 
afier  a  long  si^,  almost  as  memorable  as  that  of  Gibraltar,  sur- 
xendeiad  to  the  Spaniak  Ibroes,  after  having*  been  in  the  possession* 
ci  Englsjsd  since  the  year  1 708.  During  the  same  month  the  former 
Biiteli  aettleiaento  on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  South  America  were 

L  7VMf»  is  A  laofft  aiittiioo  iioith<««(  of  Trlnklft^,  near  Ibe  northern  ooaat  of  Sooth 
AflMiiM.  tt  ms  eided  to  Qroai  BrUain  by  Franco  in  1763,  bat  In  1781  wa«)  retaken  bj  Utm 
JPtaich,  who  retained  pofleeaslon  of  it  till  17S3,  since  which  it  baa  l>elonged  lo  England. 

8L  JSm  DfgtT  B§mk  la  a  long  myrow  land  bank  in  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean,  estendp 
Inf  tnoL  l«tl«Dd,  «a  th*  weat  coast  of  DaBinark,  nearijr  to  the  mouth  of  the  Uumber,  on  th« 
aartirn  ooas!  of  England. 


442  MODERir  HTSTORT.  tPjmfC 

recaptured  by  the  French.  St.  Eustatia  had  been  reoaptnred  in  ttio 
preceding  November.  Other  islands  in  the  Weet  Indies  sorrendered 
to  the  French,  and  the  loss  of  the  Bahamas'  soon  followed.  For  these 
losi^en,  however,  the  British  were  fally  compensated  by  an  important 
naval  victory  gained  by  Admiral  Rodney  over  the  fleet  of  the  Oomit 
de  Grasse,  on  the  12th  of  April,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Carribee 
islands.*  In  this  obstinate  engagement  most  of  the  ships  of  the 
French  fleet  were  captured,  that  of  Oonnt  de  Grasse  among  the 
number,  and  the  loss  of  the  French,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners, 
was  estimated  at  eleven  thousand  men.  The  loss  of  the  English,  in- 
eluding  both  killed  and  wounded,  amounted  to  about  eleven  hundred. 

22.  During  the  year  1782  the  fortress  of  Gibral^u',  which  had  so 
long  bid  defiance  to  the  power  of  Spain,  withstood  one  of  the  moet 
memorable  sieges  ever  known.  The  Spaniards  had  oonstruoted  a 
number  of  immense  floating  batteries  in  the  bay  of  Gibraltar ;  and 
one  thousand  two  hundred  pieces  of  heavy  ordnance  had  been  broo^t 
to  the  spot,  to  be  employed  in  the  various  modes  of  assault.  Besidea 
these  floating  batteries,  there  were  eighty  large  boats,  mounted  wi^ 
heavy  guns  and  mortars,  together  with  a  vast  multitude  of  frigates, 
sloops,  and  schooners,  while  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain, 
numbering  fifty  sail  of  the  line,  were  to  cover  and  support  the  attack. 
Eighty  thousand  barrels  of  gunpowder  were  provided  for  the  occasion, 
and  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  men  were  employed,  by  land 
and  sea,  against  the  fortress.  "^ 

23.  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  13th  of  September  the  floating 
batteries  came  forward,  and  at  ten  o'clock  took  their  stations  about 
a  thousand  yards  distant  from  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  began  a 
heavy  cannonade,  which  was  seconded  by  all  the  cannon  and  mor> 
tars  in  the  Spanish  lines  and  approaches.  At  the  same  time  the 
garrison  opened  all  their  batteries,  both  with  hot  and  eold  shot,  and 
during  several  hours  a  tremendous  cannonade  and  bombardment  was 
kept  up  on  both  sides,  without  the  least  intermission.  About  two 
o'clock  the  largest  Spanish  floating  battery  was  discovered  to  emit 
smoke,  and  towards  midnight  it  was  plainly  seen  to  be  on  Are.  Other 
batteries  began  to  kindle ;  signals  of  distress  were  made.;  and  boats 

1.  Tbe  Bahamat  are  an  extensWe  groap  of  tslandt  lying  east  and  aottth  eait  from  H^rida. 
Itiey  have  been  estiicated  at  about  six  hundred  in  nnmber,  most  of  tbMi  wera  dUb  and 
rocks,  only  roorteea  of  them  bei&g  of  any  considerable  size. 

2.  What  are  sometimes  csslted  the  Carribee  Mandt  comprise  the  wh<^  of  tbe  Windirsvd 
and  the  southern  portion  of  the  Leeward  islandJ^  from  Anguffat  on  tha  north  to  Trinidad  as 
the  south. 


Chaf.VJ  eighteenth  OENTURT.  443 

were  aent  to  take  the  men  from  the  burning  vesseljB,  but  thej  were 
interrupted  by  the  English  gun  boats,  which  now  advanced  to  the 
attack,  and,  raking  the  whole  line  of  batteries  with  their  fire,  com- 
pleted the  confusion.  The  batteries  were  soon  abandoned  to  the 
flames,  or  to  the  mercy  of  the  English. 

24.  At  the  awful  spectacle  of  several  hundred  of  their  fellow 
soldiers  exposed  to  almost  inevitable  destruction,  the  Spanftrds  ceased 
firing,  when  the  British  seamen,  with  characteristic  humanity,  rushed 
forward,  and  exerted  themselves  to  the  utmost  to  save  those  who  were 
perishing  in  the  flames  and  the  waters.  About  four  hundred  Span- 
iards were  thus  saved, — ^but  all  the  floating  batteries  were  consumed, 
and  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  forces  were  left  incapable  of 
making  any  farther  effectual  attack.  Soon  after,  Gibraltar  was  re- 
lieved with  supplies  of  provisions,  military  stores,  and  additional 
troops,  by  a  squadron  sent  from  England,  when  the  farther  siege  of 
the  place  was  abandoned.  ^ 

25.  The  siege  of  Gibraltar  was  the  last  act  of  importance  during 
the  continuance  of  the  war  in  Europe.     In  the  East 

XIV.   ^VTAK  IH 

Indies  the  British  settlements  had  been  engaged,  during  thk  babt 
several  years,  in  hostilities  with  the  native  inhabitants,  iifDiss. 
who  were  conducted  by  the  famous  Hyder  Ali,  and  his  son  Tippoo 
Saib,  often  assisted  by  the  fleets  and  land  forces  of  France  and  Hol- 
land. Hyder  Ali,  from  the  rank  of  a  common  sepoy,  had  raised 
Eimself,  by  his  abilities,  to  the  throne  of  Mysore,^  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  kingdoms  of  Hindostan.  His  territories,  of  which 
Seringapatam*  was  the  capital,  bordered  on  those  of  the  English,  which 
lined  the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula ;  and  as  he  saw  the  possess- 
ions of  the  Europeans  gradually  encroaching  upon  the  domains  of 
the  native  princes,  he  resolved  to  unite  the  latter  in  a  powerful  con- 
federacy for  the  expulsion  of  the  intruders.  After  detaching  one  of 
the  powerful  northern  princes  from  an  alliance  with  the  English,  and 

1.  Jfytargf  A  town  of  aoath«rn  Hlndofltan,  and  capital  of  tha  State  of  the  tame  name,  la  fbite 
tamndrail  milea  north  of  Gape  Comorin,  and  nine  miles  Mmth-weat  ftom  Serlogapatam.  The 
fltale  of  MjBore,  comprialng  a  territory  of  aboat  thirty,  thousand  square  miles,  is  almost  eotirslf 
aorroanded  by  the  territory  of  the  Madras  piesidency ;  and  alihongh  the  gOTomment  la  nomt- 
naUy  la  the  hands  of  a  natlre  prlnee^  tt  la  anhakliikiy  to  the  government  of  Madiaa.  Fton 
1760  to  1790  Mysore  was  governed  by  Hyder  All  and  Tlpooo  Saib. 

8,  Seringapatam  Is  a  decayed  town  and  fortress  of  HmdosUm,  f  n  the  State  of  Mysore,  two 
httadred  and  fifty  miles  sooth  of  Madraa.  It  was  besieged  by  the  English  on  three  dtfltavnt 
oeeaaions:  the  flrat  two  sieges  took  place  in  1791  and  1792,  and  the  third  in  1799,  on  the  4th  of 
Hay  of  which  year  it  was  stormed  by  the  British  and  tbeir  allies,  on  which  oecasicm  llppoo 
waa  knied,  with  the  greater  part  of  his  garrison,  amoontlng  to  eight  Ihooaand  men.  On  a& 
B  in  the  auburbs  of  Seringapatam  is  the  mausoleum  of  Hyder  Alt  and  TIppoo;  Saih. 


444  MODERN  HISTOBY.  [Vamx  H  • 

bftying  introdaoed  the  European  dtseipliDe  among  his  nomeroiu  troopiT, 
as.  early  as  1767  he  began  the  war,  which  was  continued  with  scarcely 
any  intermission,  but  with  little  permanent  success  on  the  part  of  the 
natives,  down  to  the  period  of  the  American  war,  when  the  French 
united  with  him,  and  the  war  n^as  carried  on  with  increased  rigor. 

26.  In  the  year  1780  Hyder  Ali  and  his  son  Tippoo  Saib,  at  the 
head  of  aq^rmy  of  one  hundred  thousand  natives,  and  aided  by  a 
body  of  French  troops,  fell  upon  the  English  forces  in  the  presidency 
of  Madras,  -and  killed  or  captured  the  whole  of  them, — Madras,  the 
capital,  alone  being  saved  from  falling  into  their  hands.  In  the 
following  year  the  English*  were  strongly  reeuforced,  and  Hyder  Ali, 
at  the  head  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  was  defeated  in  three 
obstinate  battles ;  but  these  successes  were  interrupted  by  the  loss 
of  an  English  force  of  thr^  thousand  men,  which  was  entirely  cut 
to  pieces  by  Tippoo  Saib  in  the  year  1782. 

27.  On  the  death  of  Hyder  Ali,  in  the  same  year,  Tippoo  Saib 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  in  the  following  year,  after  the  restora- 
tion of  peace  between  France  and  England,  he  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Sngl'ish,  in  which  the  latter  made  concessions  that  greatly 
detracted  from  the  respect  hitherto  paid  to  their  name  in  Asia.  But 
this  native  prince  never  ceased,  for  a  moment,  to  cherish  the  hope  of 
expelling  the  British  from  Hindostan.  In  1790  he  began  the  war 
again,  but  was  eventually  compelled  to  purchase  peace  at  the  price 
of  one  half  of  his  dominions.  His  last  war  with  the  Engli^  ter-^ 
minated  in  IZ^,  by  the  storming  of  Seringapatam,  his  capital,  and 
the  death  of  Tippoo,  who  fell  in  the  assault. 

28.  On  the  30tl^of  November  1782,  preliminary  articles  of  peace 

were  signed  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
^  n827  ^^^^^  ^®r®  ^  ^  definitive  as  soon  as  a  treaty  between 
France  and  Great  Britain  should  be  concluded.     When 
the  session  of  parliament  opened,  on  the  5th  of  December,  consid- 
erable altercation  took  place  in  respect  to  the  terms  of  the  provis- 
ional treaty,  but  a  large  majority  was  fo^md  to  be  in  favor  of  the 
peace  thus  obtained.     The  independence  of  the  United  States  being 
now  recognized  by  England,  the  original  purpose  of  France  was  ao- 
oompliihed ;  and  all  the  powers  at  war  being  exceedingly  desirous  of 
xn.  omx-  P®*^>  preliminary  articles  were  signed  by  Great  Britain, 
EALTEKATT  Frauoc,  and  Spain,  on  the  20th  of  January,  1783.     By 
o»  1788.  .  i)^^  treaty  France  restored  to  Great  Britain  all  French 
acquisitions  in  the  West  Indies  during  the  war,  excepting  Tobago, 


Ppap.VJ  EIGHTEBNTH  QWrCRY.  44* 

while  Englaaid  sarrendered  to  France  tke  iippartsnt  atetion  of  St 
Luqia.  OjQ  the  coa^  of  Africa  the  settlemente  in  the  yicinity  of  the 
river  Senegal  were  ceded  to  France, — those  on  the  Gaoibia  to  ^ng* 
land.  In  the  East  Indies  France  recovered  all  the  places  she  had 
lost  daring  the  war,  to  which  were  added  others  of  considerable  im- 
portance. Spain  retained  Minorca  and  West  Florida,  while  East 
Florida  was  ceded  to  her  in  return  for  the  Bahamas.  It  was  not  till 
September,  1783,  thi^t  Holland  came  to  a  preliminary  settlemeni 
with  Great  Britain,  although  a  suspension  of  arms  had  taken  place 
between  the  two  powers  in  the  January  preceding. 

29.  Thus  closed  the  most  important  war  in  which  England  had 
ever  been  engaged, — a  war  which  originated  in  her  ungenerous  treat- 
ment of  the  American  colonies.  The  expense  of  blood  and  treasure 
which  this  war  cost  England  was  enormous ;  nor  did  her  European 
antagonists  suffer  much  less  severely.  The  United  States  was  the 
only  country  that  could  claim  any  beneficial  results  from  the  war, 
and  these  were  .obtained  by  a  strange  union  of  opposing  motives  and 
principles  on  the  part  of  European  powers.  France  and  Spain,  ar- 
bitrary despots  of  the  Old  World,  had  stood  forth  as  the  proteotora 
of  an  infant  republic,  and  had  combined^  contrary  to  all  the  princi- 
ples of  their  political  faith,  to  establish  the  rising  liberties  of  America. 
They  seemed  but  as  blind  instruments  in  the  bands  of  Providence, 
employed  to  aid  in  the  dissemination  of  those  republican  virtues  that 
are  destined  to  overthrow  every  system  of  political  oppression  through- 
oat  the  world. 

VI.  The  F&ench  Rbvolution. — 1.  The  democratic  spirit  wfaiok 
had  called  &rth  the  war  between  England  and  her  American  colonies^ 
and  which  the  princes  of  continental  Europe  had  to- 
couraged  and  fostered,  through  jealousy  of  the  power  of  dbmoohatio 
Englajid,  to  the  final  result  of  American  independence,      «^^^^- 
was  destined  to  exert  aanuoh  wider  influence  than  the  royal  allieB  of 
ihe  infant  Ilepublic  had  ever  dreamed  of.    Borne  back  to  France  by 
those  of  her  chivalrous  sons  who,  in  aiding  an  oppressed  people,  had 
imbibed  their  principles,  it  entered  into  the  causes  which  were  al- 
ready at  work  there  in  breaking  up  the  foundations  of  the  rotten 
frame-work  of  French  s6ciety,  and  oontoibuted  greatiiy  to  hurry  for* 
ward  the  tremendous  crisis  c^  the  Fr^ch  Revolution. 

2.  At  the  time  of  the  death  of  Louis  XV.,  in  1774,  the  lower 
orders  of  the  Freneh  pepple  had  been  brought  to  a  state  of  a:trems 


446  MODERN  H1ST0R7.  fP^IL 

indigenoe  aod  sofering,  bj  the  luxuries  of  a  diasolate  and  despotic 
ooori,  during  a  long  period  of  misrule,  in  which  agriculture  was  sadlj 
negl^ted,  and  trade,  commerce,  and  manufactures,  existed  but  in  an 
in&nt  and  undeveloped  state.  The  nobilitj  had  been,  for  a  long 
po'iod,  losing  their  power  and  their  wealth,  hj  the  gradual  elevation 
of  the  middling  classes ;  and  the  clergy  had  lost  much  of  their  influ- 
flDoe  by  the  rise  of  philosophical  investigation,  which  was  not  only 
attended  by  an  extraordinary  degree  of  freedom  of  thought,  but  was 
ftroQ^y  tinctured  also  with  infidelity. 

8.  Louis  XYI.,  who  eame  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  twenty  years, 
was  poorly  calculated  to  administer  the  government  at  a 
uocnxTi    ^i*'^  period,  when  resolute  and  energetic  measures 
were  requisite.     He  was  a  pious  prince,  and  sincerely 
loved  the  welfare  of  his  subjects ;  but  the  exclusively  religious  educa- 
tion which  he  had  received  had  made  him  little  acquainted  with  the 
world,  and  he  was  exceedingly  ignorant  of  all  polite  learning-— even  of 
history  an^d  the  science  of  government.     Ignorance  of  politics,  weak- 
ness, vacillatioD,  and  irresolution,  were  the  fatal  defects  in  the  king's 
character. 

4.  To  find  a  remedy  for  the  disordered  state  of  the  French  finances, 
m  FiNAH-  "^^  *^®  deol^ie  of  public  credit,  was  the  first  difficulty 
ciAL  Dim-  which  Louis  had  to  encounter ;  nor  did  he  surmount  it 
cohTUB.  jg^^ii  |jg  fjund  himself  involved  in  the  vortex  of  a  Revo- 
lution. Minister  fifter  minister  attempted  it,  sometimes  with  partial 
success,  but  oftener  with  an  increase  of  evil.  Turgot  would  have 
introduced  radical  and  wise  reforms  by  an  equality  of  taxation,  and 
by  the  suppression  of  every  species  of  exclusive  privilege ;  but  the 
nobility,  ilie  courtiers,  and  the  clergy,  who  were  interested  in  main- 
taining all  kinds  of  abuses,  protested  against  any  sacrifices  on  their 
part ;  and  the  able  minister  fell  before  their  combined  opposition. 
Turgot  was  succeeded  by  Neckar,  a  native  of  Geneva,  an  economical 
financier,  who  had  amassed  immense  wealth* as  a  banker;  but  his 
projects  of.  economy  and  reform  alarmed  the  privileged  orders,  and 
their  opposition  soon  compelled  him  to  retire  also. 
.  5.  The  brilliant,  vain,  and  plausible  Calonne,  the  next  minister  of 
finance,  promulgated  the  theory  that  profusion  forms  the  wealth  of 
a  State;  a  paradox  that  was  highly  applauded  by  the  courtiers. 
His  system  was  to  encourage  industry  by  expenditure,  and  to  stifle 
discontent  by  prodigality;  he  liquidated  old  debts  by  contracting 
new  ones, — ^paid  exorbitant  pensirns,  and  gave  splendid  entertain* 


Oba».  Vi]  MOHTBENTH  CENTITRT.  44T 

inontB ;  and  while  the  credit  of  the  minister  lasted,  his  resoorcee 
appeared  inexhaastible.  Galonne  continaed  the  system  of  loans  after 
the  oonclosion  of  the  American  war,  and  until  the  credit  of  the  gor- 
emment  was  utterly  exhausted,  when  it  was  found  that  the  annual 
deficit  of  the  reTenue,  below  the  expenditure,  was  nearly  thirty  mih 
lions  of  dollars !  General  taxation  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  as 
well  as  the  commons,  was  now  proposed,  and  in  order  to  obtain  a 
sanction  to  the  measure,%n  assembly  of  the  Notables, — ^the  chiefs 
of  ike  privileged  orders, — ^was  called ;  but  although  the  assembly  at 
first  absented  to  a  general  tax,  the  national  parliament  defeated  the 
project. 

6.  Brienne,  who  succeeded  Oalonne,  bec'omfng  involyed  in  a  contest 
with  the  parliament,  which  was  anxious  to  maintain  the     ^^  ^^^ 
immunities  of  the  privileged  orders,  and  being  unable  to      btatbs- 
obtain  a  loan  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  government,  was     o"****^ 
reduced  to  the  necessity  of  a  convocation  of  the  States- General,  a 
great  National  Legislature,  composed  of  representatives  chosen  from 
the  three  orders,  the  nobility,  the  clergy,  and  the  people,  but  which 
had  not  been  lUMembled  during  a  period  of  nearly  two  hundred  years. 

7.  When  the  day  came  for  the  pajrment  of  the  dividends  to  the 
public  creditors,  the  treasury  was  destitute  of  funds ;  much  distress 
was  occasioned,  and  an  insurrection  was  feared ;  but  the  removal  of 
Brienne,  and  the  restoration  of  Neckar  to  office,  created  confidence, 
while  the  most  urgent  difficulties  were  removed  by  temporary  expe- 
dients, in  anticipation  of  some  great  change  that  was  to  follow  the 
meetmg  of  the  States-General, — the  remedy  that  wi^s  now  universally 
oftUed  for.  The  court  had  at  first  dreaded  the  convocation  of  the 
States-General,  but  finding  itself  involved  in  a  contest  with  the  priv- 
ileged classes,  who  assumed  all  legal  and  judicial  authority,  it  took 
the  bold  resolution  of  throwing  itself  upon  the  representatives  of  the 
whole  people,  in  the  hope  that  the  commons  would  defend  the  throne 
against  the  nobility  and  clergy,  as  they  had  done,  in  fbrmer  times, 
against  the  feudal  aristocracy. 

8.  When  it  was  known  that  the  great  assembly  of  the  nation  was 
to  be  convened,  a  universal  ferment  seised  the  public  mind.  Social 
reforms,  extending  to  a  complete  reorganisation  of  society,  became 
ihe  order  of  the  day^  political  pamphlets  inundated  the  country; 
politics  were  discussed  in  every  society ;  theories  accumtdated  upon 
tiieories ;  and,  in  the  ardor  wiUi  which  they  Vere  combated  and  de* 
CBBMlad,  were  already  to  be  seen  the  seeds  of  those  dissennons  Hrhich 


448  MODSRK  HBTOBT.  [PauH. 

Afterwards  delivged  the  oouniry  wiftt  blood.  Theie  hm  abimdaQa^ 
of  evil  to  1)6  complained  of,  and  it  was  oTident  tliat  exdume  privi* 
leges,  and  the  marked  division  of  Glasses,  moat  be  broken  down.  The 
clergy  held  one-third  of  the  lancb  of  the  kingdom,  the  nobility  aik 
other  third ;  yet  the  remaining  third  was  burdened  with  all  the  ex* 
penaes  of  government  This  was  more  than  could  be  boriM ;  yet  the 
clergy,  the  nobility,  and  the  magistracy,  obstinately  refused  the  ^u* 
render  of  their  exdusiTe  privileges,  white,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
philosophic  party,  considering  the  federal  repnblie  of  America  as  a 
model  of  government,  desired  to  break  up  the  entire  firame-work  ot 
French  society,  and  constmct  the  edifice  anew.  Such  was  the  §Mb 
of  France  when  the  Assembly  of  the  States-Oeneral  was  called,  a 
measure  that  was,  m  itself,  a  revolution^  as  it  virtually  gave  back  tike 
powers  of  government  to  the  people.  The  Third-Estate — the  Com- 
moi)8,  comprising  nearly  the  whole  nation,  demanded  that  its  repicoeftt- 
atives  should  equal  those  of  the  other  two  classes — the  deigy  aad  the 
nobility.  Public  opinion  called  for  the  concession,  and  obtained  it.  The 
result  of  the  elections  conformed  to  the  sentiments  of  the  three  classes 
in  the  kingdom  :  the  nobility  chose  those  who  were  finnly  attaohed  to 
the  interests  and  privileges  of  their  order ;  the  bishops,  or  clergy, 
chose  those  who  would  uphold  the  Soman  Catholic  hiwardiy,  and 
who  were  more  inclined  to  political  freedom  than  the  former ;  while 
the  commons,  or  Third-Sstate,  chose  a  nuok^ous  body  of  represent- 
atives, firm  in  their  attachment  to  liberty,  and  arden%  deeirous  of 
extending  the  power  and  influence  of  the  people, 

9.  At  the  opmiiug  of  the  States-General,  on  the  4th  of  May,  178d,* 
a  difficulty  arose  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  three  orders  shedd 
vote ;  the  clergy  and  nobility  insisting  that  there  should  be  three 
assiemblies,  each  possessing  a  veto  on  the  acts  of  the  others,  while  tiie 
commons  insisted  that  all  should  be  united  in  one  general  sasemUy, 
without  any  distinction  of  orders.  The  eommons  managed  wiih 
gireat  tact  and  adroitness,  waiting  pstiently,  day  after  day,  fiir  tiie 
clergy  and*  nobility  to  join  them,  but  after  more  then  a  montii  had 
thus  passed  away,  they  declared  themselves  the  ^'  National  Assembly," 
being,  as  they  asserted,  the  representatives  of  mnety-aix  hBDdreddi% 
at  least,  of  the  nation,  and  therefore  the  true  interpreters  of  tike 
national  will.  The  nobles,  alarmed  by  this  sudden  boldness  of  the 
Assembly,  implored  the  monarch  to  support  their  rights ;  a  coalition 
wa4  formed  between  them  and  the  court,  but  the  puUio  mind  was 
afsinst  them,  and  towards  the  last  of  June»  the  oiergy  and  the  w> 


bility,  constraiiied  by  an  order  of  the  sovereign  himself)  took  iheii 
peats  in  the  hall  of  the  Assembly,  where  they  were  soon  lost  in  an 
overwhelming  majority.  <<  The  family  was  united,  bat  it  gave  few 
hopes  of  domestic  union  or  tranquillity." 

10.  The  triumph  of  the  third-estcUe  had  destroyed  the  moral  power 
and  influence  of  the  government :  a  spirit  of  insubordination  began 
to  appear  in  Paris,  caused,  in  some  degree,  by  the  pressure  of  fam- 
ine; journals  and  clubs  multiplied ;  declaimers  harangued  in  every 
street,  and  directed  the  popular  indignation  against  the 

king  and  his  family ;  and  the  very  rabble  imbibed  <he     tiomaet 
intoxicating  spirit  of  politics.     When  a  regiment  of    mate  of 
French  troops  mutinied,  and  their  leaders  were  thrown 
into  prison,  a  mob  of  six  thousand  men  liberated  them ;  oallisions 
took  place  betwe^i  the  populaoe  and  the  royal  guards;  and  the 
former,  obtaining  a  supply  of  muskets  and  artillery,  attacked  the  Bas-  ' 
tile,  or  state  prison  Of  Paris,  tore  the  governor  in  pieces,  and  inhu- 
manly massacred  the  guards  who  had  attempted  to  defend  the  place. 
(July  14th,  1789.) 

1 1.  Louis,  greatly  alarmed,  now  abandoned  the  oounsels  of  the 
party  of  the  nobles,  who  had  advised  him  to  suppress  the  threatened 
revolution  at  the  head  of  his  army,  and  hurrying  to  the  National 
Assembly,  craved  its  support  and  interference  to  restore  order  to  the 
capital.  At  the  same  time  he  caused  the  regular  troops  to  be  with* 
di^wn  from  Paris,  while  the  defence  of  the  place  was  intrusted  to  a 
body  of  civic  militia,  called  the  National  Guards,  and  placed  under 
the  command  of  La  Fayette,  whose  liberal  sentiments,  and  generous 
devotion  to  the  cause  of  American  liberty,  had  made  him  the  idol  of 
the  populace. 

12.  The  union  between  the  king  and  the  National  Assembly  was 
hailed  with  transports  of  joy  by  the  Parisians,  and  for  a  few  days  it 
seemed  that  the  revolution  had  closed  its  list  of  horrors ;  but  there 
were  agents  at  work  who  excited  and  bribed  the  people  to  frei^  sedi- 
tion. The  consequences  of  the  insurrection  of  the  14th  July  extend- 
ed-throu^out  France ;  the  peasantry  of  the  provinces,  imitating  the 
lowef  orders  of  the  capital  in  a  crusade  against  the  privileged  classes, 
everywhere  possessed  themselves  of  arms ;  the  regiments  of  the  line 
declared  for  the  popular  side ;  many  of  the  chateaux  of  the  nobles 
were  burned,  and  their  possessors  massacred  or  expelled,  and  in  a 
fortnight  there  was  no  authority  in  France  but  what  emanated  from 
the  people.     These  things  produced  their  effect  upon  the  National 

29      • 


450  MODKRN  HISTORT.  [Pinll 

AnemUj.     The  deputies  of  the  privileged  olasses,  seeing  no  escape 

*.  ^...*    ^m  rnin  bat  in  the  abandonment  of  those  immunities 

poLinoAL    which  had  rendered  them  odioas,  consented  to  sacrifice 

oHAMOBs.    ^jj^  whole ;  the  clergy  followed  the  example,  and  in  one 

erenbg's  session  the  aristooracj  and  the  eharoh  descended  to  the 

level  of  the  peasantry ;  the  privileged  classes  were  swept  away,  and 

the  political  condition  of  France  was  changed.     (Aug.  4th,  1789.) 

13.  An  interval,  of  two  months  now  passed  over  without  any 
flagrant  scene  of  popular  violence,  the  Assembly  being  engaged  at 
Versailles  in  fixing  the  basis  of  a  national  constitution,  and  the  mu- 
nicipality of  Paris  in  procuring  bread  for  the  Itfwer  orders  of  the 
Parisians,  while  the  latter,  imagining  that  the  Revolution  was  to 
liberate  them  from  almost  every  species  of  restraint,  were  rioting  in 

the  exercise  of  their  newly-acquired  freedom.  Towards 
^Std'hom*  *^  latter  part  of  August  the  famine  had  become  so 
severe  in  Paris,  (a  natural  consequence  of  the  publio 
oonvulsions,  and  the  suspension  of  credit,)  that  mobs  were  frequent 
in  the  streets,  and  the  baker's  shops  were  surrounded  by  multitudes 
clamoring  for  food,  while  the  most  extravagant  reports  were  circu- 
lated, charging  the  scarcity  upon  ihe  court  and  the  aristocrats.  The 
leaders  of  the  populace,  artfully  fomenting  the  discontent,  bstigated 
the  mob  to  demand  that  the  king  and  the  Assembly  should  be  re- 
moved from  Versailles  to  the  capital ;  and  on  the  5th  of  October  a 
crowd  of  the  lowest  rabble,  armed  with  pikes,  forks,  and  clubs,  and 
accompanied  by  some  of  the  national  guards,  marched  to  Versailles. 
They  penetrated  into  the  Assembly,  vociferously  demanding  ^ead, — 
a  slight  oollision  occurred  between  them  and  some  of  the  king's  body 
guards,  and  during  the  ensuing  night  they  broke  into  the  palace, 
massacred  the  guards  who  opposed  them,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the 
opportune  arrival  of  La  Fayette  and  his  grenadiers,  the  king  him- 
self and  the  whole  royal  fiimily  would  have  fallen  victims.  After 
tranquillity  had  been  partially  restored,  the  king  was  compelled  to 
set  out  for  Paris,  accompanied  by  the  tumultuous  rabble  which  had 
sought  his  life.  The  National  Assembly  voted  to  transfer  its  sittings 
to  the  capital  The  royal  family,  on  reaching  Paris,  repaired  to  the 
Tuilleries,  which  hencefortli  became  their  palace  and  their  prison. 

14.  Several  months  of  comparative  tranquillity  followed  this  out- 
rage, during  which  time  the  formation  of  the  constitution  was  prose- 
cuted with  activity  by  the.  Assembly.  The  feudal  system,  feudal 
vervioes,  and  all  titles  of  honor,  had  been  abolished.     One  genial 


OnAP.  v.]  EIGHTEENTH  OENTtTRT.  ^  451 

legislative  Assembly  bad  b^en  decreed :   tbe  absolute  Veto  of  the 
king  bad  been  taken  away ;  and  now  tbe  immense  prop-    .^^^  ^^^ 
erty  of  the  churoh  was  appropriated  to  the  State,  a  meas--   oonstitu- 
lire  that  secured  the  great  financial  resources  which  so        "°^* 
long  upheld  the  Revolution.     In  the  meantime  the  training,  dividing, 
forming,  and  marshalling  of  parties  went  on.    At  first,  I^«^  j-  „       ^. 
Fayette,  and  those  who  aided  him — ^the  moderate  friends     lino  op 
of  liberty — prevailed  in  tbe  Assembly,  satisfied  with     '**"»• 
constitutional  reforms,  without  desiring  to  overthrow  the  monarchy. 
But  there  was  another  class — the  ultra  revolutionists — composed 
of  the  factious  spirits  of  the  Assembly,  who  afterwards  obtained  the 
control  of  that  body.     Having  organized  themselves  into  a  club,  called 
the  club  of  the  Jacobins,  from  the  name  of  the  convent  in  which 
tbay  assembled,  and  galhering  members  from  all  classes  of  society, 
they  held  nightly  sittings,  where,  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  the  popu- 
lace, they  canvassed  the  acts  of  the  Assembly  and  formed  public  opinion. 

15.  At  one  time  this  club  contained  more  than  two  thousand  five 
hundred  members,  and  corresponded  with  more  than  four  hundred 
affiliated  societies  throughout  France.  It  was  the  hotbed  of  sedition, 
and  the  centralization  of  anarchy,  and  it  eventually  overturned  the 
government,  and  sent  forth  the  sangubary  despots  who  established 
the  Reign  of  Terror.  Bamave,  the  Lameths,  Danton,  Marat,  and 
Robespierre,  were  the  leaders  of  the  Jacobin  faction.  Mirabeau, 
tbe  first  master-spirit  which  arose  amid  the  troubles  of  the  times, — ^a 
man  of  extraordinary  eloquence  and  talent,  but  of  loose  principles — 
who  bad  at  first  united  with  the  Jacobins,  foreseeing  the  sanguinary 
excess  that  already  began  to  tinge  the  career  of  the  Revolution,  at 
length  entered  into  a  treaty  with  the  court  to  use  his  great  influence 
in  aiding  to  establish  monarchy  on  a  constitutional  basis ;  but  his 
death,  early  in  1791,  up  to  which  period  he  had  maintained  his 
ascendancy  in  the  Assembly,  deprived  the  king  of  his  only  hope  of 
being  able  to  withstand  the  Jacobin  influence  in  the, National  Legis- ' 
lature.  Mirabeau  had  a  clear  presentiment  of  the  coming  disasters 
"  Soon,"  said  he,  **  neither  the  king  nor  the  Assembly  will  rule  the 
country,  but  a  vile  faption  will  overspread  it  with  horrors." 

16.  While  the  machinations  of  the  Jacobins  were  convulsing 
France,  the  repose  of  Europe  was  threatened  by  the  in-      ^  ^^^ 
judicious  movements  of  the  emigrant  nobility,  large    bmiorant 
numbers  of  whom,  estimated  at  seventy  thousand,  dis-     '*<>""'^- 
giurted  with  the  Revolution,  had  alxuidoned  their  ooontry,  resolved  to 


4SSI  MODSRN  HIBTORT.  [PwB- 

06ek  the  riMtoration  of  the  old  goTeroment  by  the  istervwiiQa  of 
foreign  powers.  Collecting  first  at  Turin,  and  afterwards  at  Co- 
blentz/  thej  endeavored  to  stir  up  rebellion  in  the  proyinoes,  and 

solicited  Louis  to  sanction  their  plans,  and  join  their 

^u^ttUApir  °^^<^^^  armaments.     Louis,  accompanied  by  his  queen 

or  THE      and  children,  attempted  to  escape  secretly  to  the  &(»tierfl, 

TJMiLY      ^^^  ^^  stopped  and  brought  back  a  prisoner  to  hit 

capital.  (June  1791.)  The-  Jacobins  now  argued  that 
the  king^s  flight  was  abdication ;  and  the  National  Assembly,  to  ap- 
pease the  popular  outcry,  provisionally  suspended  him  firom  his 
functions,  until  the  constitution,  now  nearly  completed,  was  presented 
to  him  for  acceptance.  On  the  14th  of  September,  1791,  he  took 
the  oath  to  maintain  it  against  civil  discord  and  foreign  aggression, 
and  to  enforce  its  execution  to  the  utmost  of  his  power.  The  Coi^ 
stituent  Assembly,  as  that  which  framed  the  oonstitution  is  often 
called,  after  having  passed  a  self-denying  ordinance  that  none  of  ita 
members  should  be  elected  to  the  next  Assembly,  declared  itself  dis 
solved  on  the  30th  of  September,  1791. 

17.  But  the  constitution,  thus  establishe4,  could  not  be  permaneBt, 
for  the  minds  of  the  French  people  were  still  agitated  by  the  passion 
.  for  change,  and  the  members  of  the  new  JJ^isUuive  Assembly  soon 
displayed  opinions  more  radical,  and  divisions  more  numerous,  than 
their  predecessors.  The  court  and  the  nobility  had  exercised  no  in- 
fluence in  the  late  elections ;  the  upholders  of  even  a  mitigated  aris* 
tocracy  had  disappeared ;  the  assembly  was  thoroughly  democratic ; 
and  the  only  question  that  seemed  to  remain  for  it  was  the  main- 
tenance or  the  overthrow  of  the  constitutional  throne.  The  chief 
parties  in  the  assembly,  at  its  opening,  were  the  constitutionalists  and 
the  republicans, — ^the  latter  were  more  usually  called  Girondists,  as 
their  most  celebrated  leaders,  Brissot,  Petion,  and  Condoroet,  were 
members  from  the  department  of  the  Gironde.  The  constitutional- 
ists would  have  preserved  the  throne,  while  they  stripped  it  of  its 
power ;  but  the  Girondists,  enthusiastic  admirers  of  the  Americans, 
despising  the  vain  shadow  of  royalty,  longed  for  republican  institu- 
tions on  the  model  of  antiquity.  The  Jacobins,  who  were  anarchists, 
men  without  principles,  and  attached  to  no  particular  form  of  gov- 

1.  CMenit^  (the  Co^JluenttM  of  the  Romuu,)  i>  a  PruMian  town  in  the  proTinee  of  the  Rht»%* 
at  ibe  coufluence  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle.  Since  the  wan  of  Napoleon  it  has  been  strongly 
fortiiled,  and  is  now  deemed  one  of  the  principal  ba  waifca  of  Germaay  on  the  ildo  of  Fnade* 
(.tf49No.xyiI.;  V 


6rnment,  poasessed  at  first  little  mflaeoee  in  the  assemblj,  bat  direot* 
ing  the  paasions  of  the  populace,  and  possessing  the  means  of  ronsiirg 
itt  pleasure  the  strength  of  th#  capital,  they  soon  acquired  a  prepon* 
derating  influence  that  bore  down  all  opposition,  and  crushed  the  more 
moderate  reYolutionarj  party  of  the  Q-irondists. 

18.  The  legislative  assembly  commenced  its  sittings  by  confiscating 
the  property  of  the  emigrants,  and  denouncing  the  penalties  of  treason 
against  those  refractory  priests  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  to  sup« 
port  the  constitution ;  but  the  king  refused  to  sanction  the  decrees. 
It  was  the  great  object  of  the  Girondists  to  involve  the  kin^om  in 
foreign  war ;  and  the  warlike  preparations  of  the  Austrian  emperor 
and  th^  German  princes,  evidently  designed  to  support  the  emigrants, 
rendered  it  an  easy  matter  to  carry  out  their  designs.  When  an 
open  declaration  of  his  objects  was  demanded  of  the  Austrian  em- 
peror, he  required  as  a  condition  on  which  he  would  discontinue  his 
preparations,  that  France  should  return  to  the  form  and  principles 
of  government  which  existed  at  the  time  of  the  commencement  of 
the  constituent  assembly.  Against  his  own  judgment  the  king  yieU 
ed  to  the  force  of  public  opinion,  and  on  the  20th  of 
April,  1792,  war  was  declared  against  the  court  of  dbclaeid 
Vienna.     It  must  be  admitted  that  the  war  which  arose     aoainot 

AUSTRIA. 

from  so  feeble  beginnings,  but  which  at  length  involved 
the  world  in  its  conflagration.  Was  not  provoked  by  France,  but  by 
the  foreign  powers  which  unjustly  interposed  to  regulate  the  laws 
and  government  of  the  French  people. 

19.  ^hile  the  strife  of  parties  continued  in  Paris,  producing  eon 
^ion  in  the  councils  of  the  assembly,  and  increasing  anxiety  and 
fthrm  in  the  mind  of  the  king,  a  formidable  foroe  was  assembling  on 
the  German  frontier  with  the  avowed  object  of  putting  down  the 
Revolution,  and  restoring  to  the  king  the  rights  of  which  he  had 
been  deprived.  The  king  of  Prussia  and  the  emperor  of  Austria 
engaged  to  cooperate  for  this  purpose ;  and  their  united  forces  were 
placed  under  the  command  of  the  Puke  of  Brunswick,  who,  towards 
the  end  of  July,  entered  the  French  territories  at  the  head  of  a  hun- 
dred and  forty  thousand  men.  The  threatening  manifesto  which  he 
issued  roused  at  once  the  spirit  of  resistance  throughout  e^ery  part 
of  France ;  the  demagogues  seised  the  occasion  to  direct  the  popular 
*fory  against  the  court,  which  was  aconsed  of  leagijing  with  the  enemy; 
and  the  two  prominent  factions,  ike  Girondists  and  Jacobins,  eom« 


484  MODKHir  HISTQttT.  [PrnE 

binad  to  OTerturn  tbe  monarohy,  eaoh  with  tira  new  of  ftdviiioiqg  ilf 
own  separate  ambitious  designs. 

20.  Tbe  dethronement  of  the  king  was  now  vehemently  disctosed 
in  all  the  popular  assemblies ;  preparations  were  made  in  Paris  for 
a  general  revolt ;  and  soon  afler  midnight  on  the  morning  of  the  10th 

of  August,  an  infuriate  mob  attacked  and  pillaged  the 

MAMAcu.    P<^>^<)®>  massacred  the  Swiss  guards,  and  forced  the 

or  Tas      king  and  rojal  family  to  seek  shelter  in  the  hall  of 

^Qvw      ^^  National  Assembly.     The  assembly  protected  the 

person  of  the  king,  but,  yielding  to  the  demands  of  the 

conquering  populace,'  passed  a  decree  suspending  the  royal  functions, 

dismissed  the  ministers,  and  directed  the  immediate  convocation  of  a 

National  Convention.     La  Fayette,  then  in  command  of  the  army 

on  the  eastern  frontier,  having  in  vain  endeavored  to  keep  his  troops 

firm  in  their  allegiance,  and  being  outlawed  by  the  assembly,  fled 

into  the  Netherlands,  but  was  seised  and  imprisoned  by  the  Aus- 

trians.     Dumouriex,  who  had  adhered  to  the  assembly,  succeeded  to 

th$  command,  and  made  energetic  prep^utttions  to  resist  the  coming 

invasion. 

21.  The  massacre  of  the  10th  of  August  was  soon  followed  by 
nv  ujLMAr  *"^*^®'  ^^  ^**^  more  frightful  atrocity.     The  prisons  of 

o&B  OP  Paris  had  become  filled  with  suspected  persons ;  and  the 
sxPTBMBCE.  leaders  of  the  Jacobins,  now  occupying  the  chief  places 
in  the  magistracy,  in  order  to  diminish  the  number  of  their  internal 
enemies  planned  the  massacre  of  the  prisoners.  Accordingly,  at 
three  o'clook  on  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  September,  a  band  of 
three  hundred  hired  assassins,  aocompanied  by  a  frantic  mob,  entered 
the  prisons,  and  began  the  work  of  death*  In  the  court  yard  of  the 
first  prison  four  and  twenty  priests  were  hewn. in  pieces  because  they 
refused  to  take  the  revolutionary  oath.  In  some  instances  the 
assassinfl,  stained  with  gore,  established  tribunals  to  try  their  victims, 
and  a  few  minutes,  often  a  few  seconds,  disposed  of  the  fate  of  each 
individual.  The  massacres  contbued  from  the  2d  to  the  6th  of 
September,  and  during  this  period  more  than  five  thousand  persons 
perished  in  the  difierent  prisons  of  Paris.  A  committe  of  the'mu* 
nicipality  of  Paris,  declaring-that  a  plot  had  been  formed  by  the  pris- 
oners throughout  France  to  murder  all  the  patriots  of  the  empire,  in* 
vited  the  other  cities  to  imitate  the  massacres  of  the  capital,  but^* 
fortunately,  none  obeyed  the  summons. 

22.  While  thefeto  shocking  excesses  were  perpetrated  in  the  capital) 


OBtf.Y.]  SIOfiTSBICTH  CSNTURT. 

tbe  anaies  of  Prussia  and  Aui^ia,  which  had  inTaded  the  French 
t^itories,  met  with  a  signal  repulse.  Pamooriez,  pnrsaing  his  suo- 
cessesf  crossed  the  Belgian  frontier j  and  on  the  6th  of  November 
gamed  tbe  battle  of  Jemappes,^  which  gave  him  possession  of  all  the 
Austrian  Netherlands.  With  so  much  rapidity  and  decision  did 
Pumouriez  execute  the  skilful  movements  of  the  army,  that  the  allies 
soon  found  there  was  no  want  of  able  generals  among  the  French. 
At  the  battle  of  Jemappes,  the  enthusiasm  and  martiid  spirit  of  the 
French,  displaying  themselves  in  all  their  brilliancy,  bore  down  all 
obstacles,  and  redoubt  after  redoubt  was.  stormed  and  taken,  to  the 
chant  of  thcf  Marseilles  Hymn.^ 

23.  The  National  Conventioui  which  had  succeeded  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  inflamed  by  this  first  great  victory  of  the  Revolution,  pub* 
lished  a  decree  offering  the  alliance  of  the  Fr^eh  to  every  nation 
that  desired  to  recover  its  liberties, — a  decree  which  was  equivalent 
to  a  declaration  of  war  agai^t  all  the  monarchies  of  Europe.  One  step 
further  was  necessary  to  complete  the  Bevolution,  and  -» 

XV.    TRIAL 

that  was  the  death  of  the  kind-hearted  and  unfortunate  ahd  sxaou- 
mdliarch.     On  the  ridiculous  charge  of  having  engaged     "on  or 
in  a  jsonspiraoy  for  the  subversion  of  freedom,  on  the    ^^^^  ^^ 
26th  of  December  Louis  XVI.  was  brought  before  the  Convention, 
and,  a|ter  a  trial  which  lasted  twenty  days,  was  declared  guilty,  an^ 
4iondemned  to  death  by  a  majority  of  twenty-six  votes  out  of  seven 
hundred  and  twenty-one.     Nearly  all  of  those  who  had  voted  for  his 
death  subsequently  perished  on  the  scaffold,  during  the  sanguinary 
^*  reign  of  Terror,"  which  soon  followed.     On  the  21st  of  January, 
1793,  Louis  was  led  out  to  execution.     He  met  death  with  magna- 
nimity and  firmness,  amid  the  insults  of  his  cruel  executioners.    Hia 
jkte  will  be  commiserated,  and  his  murderers  execrated,  so  long  aa 
justice  or  mercy  shall  prevail  on  the  earth. 

1.  jimappM  (sbaiiHiup)  to  a  small  village  of  Belgfam,  nwr  Mom^  forty-foor  miOm  aootlk 
weit  from  BnuMto.  The  Dake  de  Cburtres,  afterwards^  Lo«h  PhUlppe  king  of  tbe  French* 
actsd  as  the  lieutenant  of  Diimoortez  during  tbe  battle  of  Jemappes,  and  by  bis  intrepidity  at 
the  bead  of  a  column  aided  essentlaUy  )n  winning  the  day. 

IV  The  famous  MarttiUes  HfUin^  the  national  song  of  the  FYeneh  pairioto  and  warriors,  was 
composed  by  Joseph  Bouget  de  l*Ue,  crooihl  de  leel,0  a  yoang  engineer  oOeer,  early  la  the 
French  Revolalion.  It  was  at  first  odled  tbe  »  Offering  to  Liberty,"  but  received  lu  present 
name  because  it  was  first  publicly  song  by  the  MarseHles  confederates  hi  l7i^  Both  the  words 
MMl  the  mnslo  are  peculiarly  inspiriting.  So  great  was  the  influence  of  this  song  over  the  ex* 
cJlaMe  Ftencb,  that  it  was  supprcseed  nnder  the  emplfe  and  the  Bourbons ;  but  the  Revotatioii 
or  1830  called  it  up  anew,  and  it  has  since  become  again  the  nattooal  song  oT  the  Fnock 


4B6  MODSRSr  HiarrORT.  [Par  K 

24.  Tha  G-irondutfl,  who  had  be^  the  first  to  !kn  tiie  flame  ifi 

rerolation,  were  the  first  to  snffar  bj  its  yiole&oe.    Arden| 

xTi.  rALt    republioans  in  principle,  but  humane  and  benevolent  in 

or  THB      their  sentiments,  they  had  not  desired  the  death  of  the 

01R0.VDI8T8.  j^.^g^  1^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  restrain  the  mad  fiiry  of  tbe 

Jaoobins.  The  latter,  a  base  faction  in  the  eonvention,  tannted  the 
former  with  having  endeavored  to  save  the  tyrant :  their  partisans, 
throoghoat  Paris,  roused  the  feelings  of  the  populace  against  tbe 
Girondists :  a  powerful  insurrection  *  deprived  the  eonyention  of  its 
liberty :  thirty  of  the  leading  members  of  the  Girondist  party  were 
given  up  and  imprisoned ;  and  those  who  had  not  the  fortune  to  es- 
cape from  Paris  were  brought  to  trial,  condemned,  without  heiDg 
heard  in  their  defence,  and  speedily  executed,**  and  all  for  no  other 
crime  than  having  tried  to  prevent  the  execution  of  the  king,  to 
avenge 'the  massacres  of  September,  and  to  allay  the  desolating  storm 
of  violence  and  crime  that  was  spreadi^  terror  and  dismay  over 
their  country. 

25.  After  the  fall  of  the  Girondists,  the  victorious  Jaoobros,  at 
the  head  of  whonn  were  Danton,  Marat,  Robespierre,  and  their  asso- 
ciates, obtained  control  of  the  "  Committee  of  Public  Safety,"  a  for- 
midable Revolutionary  tribunal,  in  which  was  rested  the  whole  powor 
of  the  convention  and  of  the  government.  Some  opposition  was 
indeed  made,  by  the  magistracies  of  the  cities  and  towns  throngfaont 
a  great  part  of  France,  to  this  central  power,  and  at  one  time  seventy 
departments  were  in  a  state  of  insurrection  against  the  convention ; 

■  but  the  vigorous  measures  of  the  Parisian  Revolutionists  soon  broke 
this  formidable  league.  Revolutionary  committees,  radiating  ^m 
the  central  Jacol^jn  power  in  Paris,  extended  their  network  over  the 
whole  kingdom ;  and  these  committees,  having  the  power  of  arre8^ 
ing  the  obnoxious  and  the  suspected,  and  numbering  more  than  five 
hundred  thousand  individuals,  often  drawn  flPom  the  very  dregs  of 
society,  held  the  fortunes  and  lives  of  every  man  in  France  at  their 
disposal. 

26.  The  prisons  throughout  France  were  speedily  filled  with  vio- 

xvTi.  THTB    ^*™^ '  forced  loans  were  exacted  with  rigor ;  Tereor  was 

RKTOK  or    made  the  order  of  the  day ;  and  the  guillotine*  was  put 

TzaaoB.     jjj^  requisition  to  do  its  work  of  death.     The  queen  was 

*  OuiU«*in»-^  called  flron  Uw  nuMof  the  iiiT«iiior-H«  aa  engine  or  nacbbia  ftw  li» 
heeding  penons  at  a  stroke, 
e.  May  3M.  b.  Oct.  31st. 


CsAT^V.]  EIOHTI^SSTTH  CSNTITBT.  4^7 

brought  to  the  6eaffi)ld,*  and  i^  dauphin,  thrown  into  prison,  ere 
long  fell  a  victim  to  the  harbarons  neglect  of  hie  keepers.     Irreligion 
and  impiety  raised  their  heads  above  the  mass  of  pollution  and  crime: 
the  Sabbath  was  abolished  bj  law :  the  sepulchres  of  the    ^ym  Tiff- 
kings  of  France  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed,  that  every    umpu  of 
memorial  of  royalty  might  be  blotted  out;    and  the  'n'*^*'-"'^- 
leaders  of  the  municipality  of  Paris,  in  the  madness  of  atheism,  pub- 
licly expressed  their  determination  ^'  to  dethrone  the  king  of  Heaven 
as  well  40  the  monarchs  of  the  earth.''     As  the  crowning  act  of  this 
drama  of  wickedness,  the  Groddesd  of  Reason,  personified  by  a  beauti- 
ful female,  was  introduced  into  the  convention,  and  declared  to  be 
the  only  divinity  worthy  of  adoration : — the  churches  were  closed-^ 
religion  everywhere  abandoned — and  on  all  the  public  cemeteries  vras 
placed  the  inscription,  ^^  Death  is  an  Eternal  Sleep." 

27.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Girondists  and  the  party  attached  to 
a  constitutional  monarchy,  divisions  ai*ose  among  the  Jacobin  leaders. 
The  sanguinary  Marat  had  already  fallen  by  the  da^er  of  the  devoted 
heroine,  Charlotte  Corday,  who  voluntarily  sacrificed  her  j,^  ^^^^ 
own  life  in  the  hope  of  saving  her  country.  The  more  or  tuk 
moderate  portion  of  the  Revolutionary  leaders,  Danton,  ^^^'^^^^^ 
Gamille  Pesmoulins,  and  their  supporters,  who  had  so  recently  roused 
the  populace  against  the  Gironde,  were  ere  long  charged  with  show- 
ing too  much  clemency,  and  brought  to  the  scaffold.^  The  Repub- 
lican Girondists  had  sought  to  pr^c^nt  tlie  Reign  of  Terror — the 
Pantonists  to  arrest  it ;  and  both  perished  in  the  attempt.  There- 
after there  seemed  not  a  hope  left  for  France.  The  revolutionary 
excesses  everywhere  increased :  those  who  kept  aloof  from  tliem  were 
suspected,  and  condemned ;  and  the  power  of  Death  was  relentlessly 
wielded  by  such  a  combination  of  monsters  of  wickedness  as  the 
world  had  never  before  seen. 

28.  Having  pursued  the  internal  history  of  the  Revolution  down 
to  the  fall  of  the  Dantonists  in  March  1794,  we  resume  the  narra- 
tive of  aflFairs  at  the  beginning  of  1793.     The  death  of    ^^  ^^^ 
Loiiis  XVI.,  which  derives  its  chief  importance  from     against 
the  principle  which  the  revolutionists  thereby  proclaimed,     ^^^o^*- 
excited  profound  terror  in  France,  and  feelings  of  astonishment  and 
indignation  throughout  Europe.     France  thereby  placed  herself  in 
avowed  and  unrelenting  hostility  io  the  established  governments  of  the 
neighboring  States;  and  it  was  universally  felt  that  the  period  biul 


458  MODBRV  HIBTOBT.  [PaitIL 

now  arriTed  when  she  must  conquer  die  coalition  of  tbrones,  or  perish 
nnder  its  blows.  The  convention  did  not  wait  to  be  attacked,  but 
forthwith,  on  various  pretexts,  declared  war  against  England,  Spain, 
an8  Holland,  and  ordered  the  increase  of  the  armies  of  the  repnblie 
to  more  than  five  hnndred  thousand  men. 

29.  Early  in  1793  the  English  and  Prussians  combined  to  check 
the  progress  of  the  French  in  Holland,  and  on  the  18th  of  March 
Dnmouries  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Neerwinde.  Soon  aflier 
this  repulse,  the  French  general,  disgusted  with  the  excesses  of  the 
revolutionists  in  Paris,  and  finding  himself  suspected  by  both  Giron- 
dists and  Jacobins,  entered  into  a  negotiation  with'  the  allied  generals 
for  a  coalition  of  forces  to  aid  in  the  establishment  of  a  constitntionsl 
monarchy  in  France ;  but  his  army  did  not  share  his  feelings,  and 
being  denounced  by  the  convention,  and  a  price  set  upon  his  head, 
he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  Austrian  lines. 

30.  After  the  defeetion^  of  Dumouriez,  Custine  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  north,  then  severely  pressed  by  the  allies  near 
Valenciennes ;  but  being  unable  to  check  the  progress  of  the  enemj, 
he  was  deprived  of  his  command,  ordered  to  Paris,  and,  soon  after, 
condemned  and  executed  on  the  charge  Of  misconduct  The  revoln* 
iionary  government,  seebg  no  merit  but  in  success,  placed  its  gen- 
erals in  the  alternative  of  victory  or  death,  and  employed  the  terrors 
of  the  guillotine  as  an  incentive  to  patriotism.  The  fall  of  Yalen- 
oiennes  seemed  to  open  to  the  allies  a  way  to  Paris,  but,  pursuing  in- 
dependent plans  of  aggrandizement,  they  injudiciously  divided  their 
forces,  and  before  the  close  of  the  year,  were  driven  back  across  the 
frontier. 

31.  Early  in  the  same  year  Spain  had  despatchec^an  army  of  fiffy- 
flve  thousand  men  for  the  invasion  of  France  by  the  way  of  ther 
Pyrenees ;  but  although  the  French,  who  advanced  to  meet  them, 
were  driven  back,  the  campaign  in  that  quarter  was  characterized  by 
no  event  of  importance.  In  the  meantime,  in  the  west  of  France, 
the  insurrectionary  war  of  La  Vendee  was  occupying  the  troops  of 
the  convention ;  and  on  the  nde  of  Italy  the  allies  were  amed  by 
the  revolt  of  Marseilles,  Lyons,  and  Toulon. 

.  32.  In  La  Vendee,  a  larse  district  bordered  on  the  north  by  the 
joa  iMBua-  ^^^^^y  *^^  ^°  *^®  ^6*^  ^7  *^®  ocean,  containing  eight 
axonoN  OF  hundred  thousand  souls,  the  Royalists,  embracipg  nearly^ 
L4  TSNva.  ^jjg  entire  population,  had  early  taken  up  arms  in  the 
cause  of  their  ohoreh  and  their  king.     This  distriot  soon  became  the 


OaiftV.]  EIGHTEENTH  OENTtJRY.  46^ 

• 
theatre  of  iimtiineraUe  conflicts,  in  which  the  nndisciplined  peasantry 
of  La  Vendee  at  first  had  the  advantage,  firom  their  peculiar  mode 
of  fitting,  and  the  nature  of  their  country.  On  the  1 0th  of  June, 
1793,  they  ohtained  a  great  victory  at  Saumur,'  where  their  trophies 
amounted  to  eighty  pieces  of  cannon, -ten  thousand  muskets,  and 
eleven  thousand  prisoners ;  but  on  the  29th  of  the  same  month  they- 
were  defeated  in  their  attempt  on  Nantes,  where  their  brave  leader 
Cathelineau  was  mortally  wounded.  During  the  summer  two  inva- 
nons  of  the  country  of  the  Yendeans  was  made  by  large  bodies  of 
the  republican  troops  under  skilful  generals,  who  were  defeated  and 
driven  back  with  severe  loss.  The  convention,  at  length  aroused  to  a 
foil  sense  of  the  danger  of  this  war,  surrounded  La  Vendee  with  an  army 
of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  who,  by  a  simultaneous  advance,  threat- 
ened a  speedy  extinction  of  the  revolt.  But  the  republican  troops 
who  had  penetrated  the  country  were  cut  off  in  detail — the  veterans 
of  Kleber  were  defeated  near  Torfou,'  and  before  the  clpse  of  Sep- 
tember the  Vendean  territory  was  freed  from  its  invaders. 

33.  Again  the  convention  made  the.  m6st  vigorous  efforts  to  sup- 
press the  insurrection.  Their  forces  penetrated  the  country  in  every 
direction,  and,  with  unrelenting  and  ilncalledfor  cruelty,  burned  the 
towns  and  villages  that  fell  into  their  hands,  and  put  the  inhabitants, 
of  every  age  and  sex,  to  the  sword.  Defeated  *  in  the  battle  of 
Cholet,'  and  their  country  in  the  possession  of  their  enemies,  a 
large  portion  of  the  anrviving  Vendeans,  with  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren, crossed  the  Loire  into  Brittany,  with  the  hope  of  obtaining 
anistanoe  firom  their  countrymen  in  that  quarter.  In  the  battle  of 
Ohateau  Gknthier,*  fighting  with  the  courage  of  despair,  they  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Republican  forces,  whose  loss  amounted  to 
twelve  thousand  men  and  nineteen  pieces  of  cannon.  This  victory 
was  gained  on  the  very  day  wUln  the  orator  Barr^re  announced  in  ' 
the  convention,  '^  the  war  is  ended,  and  La  Vendee  is  no  more." 
Qreat  then  was  the  consternation  in  Paris  when  it  was  known  that 
the*  Bepublican  army  was  dispersed,  and  that  nothing  remained  to 
prevent  the  advance  of  the  Royalists  to  the  capital. 

1.  aMiM«rlioMttewaaMmb«iikorttieLQto«,lntlielbniierproTiiieeorAi4^ 
awl  flft|-Mv«n  miles  aouth>w«etfh>m  Puis.    (JWv  No.  XUI.) 

8.  TVi/on  was  a  bisaII  Tillage  in  the  northern  part  of  !«  Vendee,  a  short  dlstanoo  aouth-€Mt 
ftomNaatM.    {Map  Vo.  XUL) 

3.  OkslM  (aho^l)  to  nearly  forty 'mUea  KMith-«aa(  from  Nantea.    (JU^  No.  XUL) 

4.  CkaUoM,  OMrttor  to  ilz^  nkUea  north-east  from  Nantes.    ^Mof  No.  XUL) 

a  06tl7lh,t7n. 


460  |iO0S|tir  BIBT0R7.  1^49 » 

84.  But  tbe  Yeodeans  were  diTided  in  their  eoaacib.  Imdoetd  bf 
the  hope  of  euocora  from  England,  they  directed  their  march  U>  the 
ooafit,  and,  after  laying  siege  to  Oranrille,'  where  thej  expected  the 
cooperation  of  the  Engliah,  were  at  length  compelled  to  retreat,  with 
heavy  losa.  Defeated^  at  Mana,*  and  having  esperienced  a  final 
overthrow^  at  Savenay,'  they  alowly  melted  away  in  the  midst  of  their 
enemies,  fighting  with  unyielding  oourage  to  the  last  Out  of  nearly 
a  hundred  thousand  who  bad  crossed  the  Loire,  scarcely  three  thou- 
sand returned  to  La  Vendee,  and  most  of  these  fell  by  the  hands  of 
their  pursuers,  or,  brought  to  a  hasty  trial,  perished  on  the  scaffold.* 

85.  The  discontents  in  the  south  of  Franoe  against  the  measores 

of  the  convention  first  broke  out  in  open  insurrection  at 
KBcTioN  IN  Marseilles,  which  was  soon  reduoed  to  Bubmiasion,  while 
TBS  Bourn   a  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  fled  to  Toulon.    Ln 

the  meantime  Lyons  had  revolted.  During  four  monihs 
it  was  in  a  state  of  vigorous  siege ;  and  sixty  thousand  men  were 
employed  before  the  place  at  the  time  of  its  surrender  in  October, 
1793.  All  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  were  demolished,  and  nearly 
the  entire  city  destroyed.  In  the  course  of  five  months  after  the 
surrender  of  the  place,  more  than  six  thousand  of  the  citiaens  snftred 
death  by  the  hands  of  the  executioners,  and  more  than  twelve  thou- 
sand were  driven  into  exile. 

36.  On  the  (all  of  Lyons  the  Republican  troops  immediately 
marched  to  the  investment  of  Toulon,  whose  defisnoe  was  assisted  l^ 
an  Englidli  and  Spanish  squadron.  The  artillery  of  the  besi^ers 
was  commanded  by  a  young  Gorsican,  Napoleon  Bona.parte,  who  re- 
mained fiiithful  to  France,  in  whidi  he  had  been  educated    By  hiB 

L  OranvilU  la  a  forttSed  aaaport  town  ^  Fnooe,  on  Um  wottern  ooaat  of  ironnnndy,  oM 
bandred  and  eighty  mllM  we«  ftom  Paria.  GnuiTllIn  was  bombarded  and  iMmod  by  tba  Bit* 
liahlaiees^aodwiaiMarttjdwtiojedbrtlinVairteantrooiMinlTnL    (JW^  No.  XIIL.} 

S.  Man»  Is  •liuatod  on  iha  left  bank  of  ttie  river  SwUmi  a  northern  tributary  of  Uie  Loll% 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  tooth-west  ftom  Pnris.    (JMStp  No.  Xill.) 

&  ^aemaf  It  a  town  on  Uie  northern  bank  of  tbe  Loivt,  (wenty4we  mUtt  norlb^irtit  tm 
Kaniea.  Here  the  Vcndeans  fought  with  the  oourage  of  despair,  and  their  guard,  pro^etlnf  • 
crowd  of  hapless  ftigtilTes— the  aged,  the  wouoded,  women  and  children— continued  to  ^viM, 
with  their  swords  and  bayonets,  long  after  aU  their  ammunltioa  bad  bnHi  eipnMtod,  and  iMfl 
Uiey  all  Ml  under  tbe  Ore  of  tbe  R^obUoaiM.    ( JIT^  No.  JUIL) 

a.  Dec  lOtb,  17D3.  b.  Dee.  fM,  1791 

e.  The  most  prominent 'of  the  Tendean  leeders  were  Laroch^aeqoeHn,  Bondiampa,  Odb^ 
Ilneau,  Leacnre,  D'Blbe,  Slofflet,  and  Charette.  Nearl)-  all  of  Oiese,  and  most  of  thtAr  flunUis^ 
perished  in  this  shnguinary  strife,  or  on  the  soaflbld.  AoKMig  tbote  who  wert  tared  by  the 
courageous  hotpttallty  of  tbe  peaaantry  were  the  wtvet  of  Laroeb^aoquella  lind  Bonebaiop^ 
who,  afW  eacaptag  naporaUeled  dangan,  iired  to  ftsdaaiB  Ito  vQrid  ^Ite  q^Bodld  tlDiy  oC 
«Mr  bnatawV  Tinuea  and  tbeir  own  mlaawtaaaa. 


ak4RT«]  snuujBBTH  osirnrRT.  461 

eKertions  a  fori  noflanumdiog  die  hAiW  wts  takdn,  tnd  tii^  plaed, 
beiDg  thus  rendcnred  antenable,  was  speedily  evacuated  »  by  tbe  allies, 
who  earried  away  with  them  more  tluui  fourteen,  thoosand  of  the 
wretohed  inhabitaiita — ^being  so  many  saved  from  the  vengeance  of 
the  Revolutionary  tribnnals. 

37.  Thus  tenninated  the  memorable  campaign  of  1793.  In  the 
midst  of  internal  dissensions  and  civil  war,  while  France  was  drenched 
with  the  olood  of  her  own  ddsens,  and  the  world  stood  aghast  at  the 
atrocities  of  her  '*  Reign  of  Terror,"  the  national  councils  had  shown 
uncommon  military  talent  and  unbounded  energy.  The  invasion,  on 
*  the  north,  had  been  defeated ;  th^  Prussians  had  been  driven  back 
from  the  Rhine;  the  Spaniards  had  recrossed  the  Pyrenees;  die 
English  had  redred  from  Toulon ;  and  the  revolt  of  La  Vendee  had 
been  extinguished ;  whil«'  an  enthusiastic  army,  of  more  than  a  mil- 
lion of  men,  stood  ready  to  enforce  and  defend  the  principles  of  the 
Revolution  against  all  the  crowned  heads  of  Europe. 

[1794.]  38.  The  fall  of  Danton  and  his  associates,  which  occurred 
bk  the  early  part  of  1794,^  was  followed  by  unqualified  submission 
to  tJie  central  power  of  Paris,  from  every  part  of  France.  For  .a 
time  die  work  of  proscription  had  been  confined  to  the  higher  orders; 
but  when  it  had  descended  to  the  middling  classes,  and  when,  even 
after  all  the  enemies  of  the  Revolution  had  been  cut  off,  there  seemed 
no  limit  to  its  onward  courA,  humanity  began  to  revolt  at  the  cease* 
less  effusion  of  human  blood,  and  courage  arose  out  of  despair. 

39.  In  the  convention  itself,  which,  long  stupefied  by  terror,  had 

become  the  passive  instrument  of  Robespierre  and  his  ^^^^^  ^^^^ 

associates,  a  conspiracy  against  the  tyrant  was  at  length    or  uonm- 

formed  amonff  those  whose  destruction  he  had  already  "■»■"♦  ^^^ 

^  smu  of  tbb 

planned, — ^not  of  the  good  against  the  bad,  but  a  con-     kbion  or 

spiraoy  of  one  set  of  assassins  against  another :  his  ar-  ^Kaaoa. 
rest  was  ordered :  he  was  declared  o^t  of  tbe  pale  of  the  law ;  and, 
after  a  brief  struggle,  he  was  condemned,  with  twenty  of  his  associates, 
by.the^same  Revolutionary  Tribunal  which  he  himself  had  estab- 
lished, and  sent  to  the  scaffold,  where  he  perished  amid  the  exulting 
shouts  of  the  populace.  On  the  following  day  sixty  of  the  most  ob- 
noxious members  of  the  municipality  of  Paris  met  the  same  fate. 
Thus  terminated  that  Reign  of  Terror,  which,  under  the  cloak  of 
Republican  virtue,  had  not  only  overturned  the  throne  and  the  alter, 
and  driven  the  nobles  of  France  into  exile,  and  her  priests  inta  cap- 

a.S0B.SMb,11«l  b.Uiitb5Ch.   fiMp. 


46S  MKHHOUr  BBRORT.  {FivIL 

tinty,  bot  which  had  also  shed  iha  Uood  of  aiore  tim  »  million  of 

her  best  oitisens.* 

40.  The  fall  of  Robespierre  placed  the  direotioii  of  pablio  affiun 
in  the  hands  of  more  moderate  men ;  bat  the  genins  of  Oamot  still 
controlled  the  military  operations,  which  were  eondaoted  with  remark- 
able energy  and  suooess.  In  oonaeqnenee  of  the  extinction  of  ciTil 
employments,  and  the  forced  requisition  on  the  people,  the  whole 
talent  of  France  was  centered  in  the  anny,  whose  numbers,  by  the  be* 
ginning  of  October,  1 794,  amonnted  to  twel?e  hnndred  thousand  moL 
After  deducting  the  garrisons,  the  sick,  and  those  destined  for  the 
service  of  the  interior,  there  remained  upwards  of  seven  hundred  * 
thousand  ready  to  act  on  the  ofbnsive ; — a  greater  force  than  could 
then  be  raised  by  all  the  monarchies  of  Europe,  The  French  territory 
resembled  an  immense  military  camp,  and  all  the  young  men  of  the 
oountry  seemed  pressing  to  the  frontier  to  join  the  armies. 

41.  England,  at  the  head  of  the  allies  in  the  war  against  France, 
.  j^^^  ^,   made  preparations  that  were  considered  <*  unparalleled;" 

nausH     and  it  was  soon  easy  to  see  that  the  latter  was  destined 
Jt^^and  ^  beeome  irresistible  on  land,  and  the  former  to  aoquire 
THBF&EVQa  the  dominion  of  the  seas.     In  the  early  part  of  the  aeaeon 
ON  LAND.    f^Q  French  were  dispossessed  of  all  their  West  India 
possessions;  the  island  of  Corsica,  in  the  Mediterranean,  was  cap- 
tured ;  and  on  the  Ist  of  June,  a  Frencb fleet  of  twenty-six  ships  of 
the  line  was  defeated,  and  six  vessels  taken  by  the  English  admiral 
Howe,  off  the  western  coast  of  France.     But  numerous  victories  on 
the  land  far  more  than  compensated  for  these  losses ;  and  the  cam- 
paign was  one  of  the  most  glorious  in  the  annals  of  France.    At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  the  allies  were  pressing  heavily  on  all  the 
frontiers :  at  its  dose,  the  Spaniards,  defeated  in  Biscay^  and  Cata- 
lonia, were  suing  for  peace :  the  Italians,  driven  over  the  Alps,  were 
trembling  for  the  fate  of  their  own  oountry ;  the  allied  forces  had 
everywhere  recrossed  the  Rhine :  Holland  had  been  revolutioniied 

1.  JBwMir  la  a  dSatriet  of  uortbem  Spiia,  on  Uie  Boy  of  BiMij,  ud  moiniiig  Fnao^  U 
eomprf aes  Biiicay  Proper,  Alava,  and  Gulpnzooa,— the  three  Besqne  provf noes.  '  llie  Baiqtiei 
have  a  peenljar  langoage,  wtaieh  it  nndonbtodljr  of  great  anttqulty.  Some  bare  attempted  to 
trace  It,  as  a  dialect  of  the  PbcBDioUo,  to  the  Hebrew.  IthasaomealmUariliriotheHiuigMlaa 
acd  Turkish,    (^ap  No.  XIII.) 

*  The  Bepubllcan  writer,  Frodhomme,  glvea  a  Hst  of  one  nillion,  tweQtj4wo  IlioiwMid 
three  hundred  and  flfty-one  persons,  who  suflbred  a  violent  death  during  this  period,  of  wbon 
more  than  etghleen  tfaoosead  perished  by  the  gaillotlne.  In  his  ennniention  are  90t  Inolnded 
latVanainea   in  the  ylsons  Sea— nor  thoee  shot  t  T^lan —ri  Maatfleai      ' 


Oiuf^T.]  BIOUTEKMTU  OENTirRT.  4^ 

ftnd  sahdiied ;  and  the  English  troops  had  retarned  home,  or  had  fled 
for  refuge  into  the  States  of  Hanover. 

.    42.  The  failure  of  the  allies  in  the  campai^aof  1793  and  1794 
was  in  great  part  owing  to  a  want  of  oordial  eoSperation  ^^  beoohd 
among  them,  oecasioned  bj  the  prospect  held  out  to    partition 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  of  obtj^ning  a  further  share  ^'  »>i^- 
in  the  partition  of  ill-fated  Poland.     While  Poland  was  a  ftej  to 
eivil  dissensions,  it  was  invaded  in  1792  by  Russia,  and  early  in  the 
following  year  by  Prusda ;  and  the  result  was  a  second  partition  of 
the  Polish  territory  among  the  invading  powers,  with  the  ooncurrenoe 
and  sanction  of  Austria, — the  king  of  Prussia  assigning  as  reasons 
for  his  treachery  and  disregard  of  former  treaties,  that  the  ^^  danger- 
ous principles  of  French  Jacobinism  were  fast  gaining  ground  in  that 
country." 

43.  Scarcely  had  this  iniquitous  scheme  been  consummated,  when 
ihp  patriots  of  Poland,  with  Kosciusko  at  their  head,  arose  against 
their  invaders,  whom  they  drove  from  the  country.    But  ^^^^  ,^^^ 
Poland  was  too  feeble  to  contend  successfidly  against   faetition 
the  fearful  odds  that  were  brought  against  her.   Kosciusko  ^^^^^^^^ 
was  defeated,  wounded,  and  taken  prisoner' by  the  Russians;  and 
the  result  of  the  brief  strug^e  was  the  third  and  last  partition 
of  Poland,  among  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.     To  effect  tjps  un- 
hallowe^  object,  Austria  and  Prussia  had  withdrawn  a  portion  of 
their  troops  from  the  French  frontiers,  and  thus  the  time  was  allowed 
to  pass  by,  when  a  check  might  have  been  given  to  French  ambition« 

[1795.]     44.  The  first  coi^ition  against  the  French  Republici 
formed  in  March  1793,  embraced  England,  Austria,  ^^^^  ^^^ 
Pnusia,  Holland,  Spain,  Portugal,  the  two  Sicilies,  the  Bournoir  of 
Roman  States,  Sardinia,  and  Piedmont ;  but  the  successes    ^^  ™^ 

'  '  '  COALITION 

of  France  in  the  campaign  of  1794  led  to  the  dissolution  AOAiim 
of  this  confederacy  early  in  1 795.  The  conquest  of  Hoi-  »»^ce. 
land  decided  the  wavering  policy  of  Prussia,  which  now,  by  a  treaty 
of  peace,  agreed  to  live  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Republic,  and 
not  to  furnish  succor  to  its  enemies ;  and  before  the  first  of  August, 
Spain  also,  completely  humbled,  withdrew  from  the  coalition;  and. 
thus  the  whole  weight  of  the  war  fell  on  Austria  and  England. 
Russia  had  indeed  already  become  a  party  to'  the  war  against  France, 
but  her  alliance  was  as  y^t  productive  of  no  results,  as  the  attention 
of  the  Empress  Catherine  was  wholly  engrossed  in  securing  the  im- 
I  territories  which  had  fallen  to  her  by  the  partition  of  PoImuL 


464  UOVmSf  msiOlT.  [Fiara 

4$.  Daring  the  jttiT  1 795  the  renotion  Against  tbe  Beign  of  Terror 
was  general  throoghoat  France  :  tbe  Jaeobin  clnba  were  broken  ap, 
tbe  Parisian  populace  disarmed,  and  many  of  Uie  prominent  mem- 
bers of  tbe  ReToIationary  tribunals  justly  expiated  their  crimes  oa 
zxTiiL      ^^^  Bcaffold.     As  yet  all  the  powers  of  government  were 

nExr  ooK-    centered  in  tbe  Natianal  ConTontion ;  but  the  people  now 

■Ti-rtnrioM.  i^gjin  to  demand  of  it  a  constitution ,  and  tbe  surrender 
of  tbe  dictatoi^bip  which  it  had  so  long  exercised.  A  constitntioa 
was  formed,  by  wbiob  the  legislatiye  power  was  dirided  between  tvo 
Councils,  appointed  by  delegates  chosen  by  the  people,  that  of  tbe  Pipe- 
Hundred,  and  that  of  tbe  Ancients,  tbe  former  baying  tbe  power  of 
originating  laws,  and  the  latter  that  of  passing  or  rejecting  them,  ^he 
executiye  power  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  a  Dhrctory  of  five  mei&< 
bers,  nominated  by  the  council  of  Five- Hundred,  and  approved  \fj 
ihat  of  tbe  Ancients.  "        « 

46.  This  constitution  was  to  be  «ubmitted  to  tbe  armies  of  the 

people  for  ratification :  but  tbe  conTention,  composed  of  the  very 

xxn  ixsoa-  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  **  ^^^  directed  the  Revolution,  who  had 

BKcrioN  IN  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and  the  execution  of  the 
rABM.  Oirondist8,*and  who  had  finally  overthrown  the  tyrant 
Robespierre,  still  unwilling  abruptly  to  relinquish  its  power,  decreed 
tbat  two-thirds  of  their  number  should  have  a  seat  in  tbe  new  legis* 
latire  counoila  This  measure  met  with  great  opposition,  anil  caosed 
intense  excitement.  Although  the  armies,  and  a  large  majority  of 
the  people,  accepted  the  constitution,  a  formidable  insurrection  against 
ibe  convention  broke  out  in  Paris,  headed  by  the  Royalists,  compris* 
ing  many  of  the  best  oitizens,  and  supported  by  tbe  Parisian  Nafcional 
Guard  numbering  thirty  thousand  men,  but  destitute  of  artillery. 
The  convention,  hastily  collecting  to  its  support  a  body  of  five  thou- 
sand regular  troops  assembled  in  tbe  nei^borbood  of  Paris,  placed 
them  under  the  command  of  General  Barras,  who  intrusted  all  bis 
military  arrangements  to  his  second  in  command,  tbe  young  artilleiy 
officer  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  reduction  of  Toulon-^ 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  The  latter  was  indefatigable  in  making  pre* 
parations  for  the  defence  of  the  convention,  and  when  his  little  band 
was  surrounded  and  attacked  by  the  Parisians,  he  replied  at  pnoo  by 
a  discharge  of  cannon  loaded  with  grape  shot,  firing  with  as  much 
spirit  as  though  be  were  directing  his  guns  upon  Austrian  1>attalions. 
In  a  few  hours  tranquillity  was  restored ;  and  this  was  the  last  in- 
murrection  oi  tiie  people  in  the  French  Revolution*     Tbe  new  gov- 


6k»V.]  SIOSfmrTB  OJKNTUUT.  465 

cntttiettt  beibg  attablished,  the  oonteotion,  which  had  parsed  throqgh 
io  man  J  stonny  8oeD««,  and  had  ezperiesioed  so  graat  changes  in 
MntiiMiit,  determined  to  fiaish  its  dareer  by  a  signal  act  of  clemency, 
and  aitetr  hating  abolished  the  punishment  of  death,  and  published  a 
general  amnesty,  it  declared  its  mission  of  consolidating  the  Repub- 
lic aooomplished,  and  its  session  closed.     (Oct.  26th,  1795.) 

47.  The  military  events  of  1795  were  of  much  less  importance 
than  those  of  the  two  former  years.  England  indeed  maintained  her 
tnpremaoy  at  sea ;  but  the  Aust^ians  barely  sustamed  themsolyes  in 
Italy ;  and  success  was  erenly  balanced  on  the  side  of  Germany ; 
WhOe  a  general  ksaitude,  and  uncommon  financial  embarrassments, 
ihe  result  of  the  recent  extraordinary  rerolutionary  exertions,  pre- 
vailed throughout  Sraace. 

[1796.]     48.  In  the  spiing  of  1796  the  French  Directory  sent 
tiiree  armies  into  the  fid.d ;  that  of  the  Sambre  and   ^^  ^^^^ 
Meuae,'  under  Jourdan,  numbering  seventy  thousand     BioNor 
snen ;  that  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  under  Moreau,    ^■^^^^' 
numbering  seveuty-fiTe  thousand ;  and  the  army  of  Italy  under  Bona^ 
parte,  nuimbering  forty-two  thousand.    Jourdan  and  Moreau  made 
successful  irruptions  into  Germany,  but  they  wore  stopped  m  their 
mid-career  of  victory  by  the  Arch-duke  Charles  of  Austria,  one  of 
Ae  ablest  generals  of  his  time,  and  eventually  compelled  to  retreat 
aoross  the  Rhine. 

49.  The  operations  of  the  army  of  Bonaparte  in  Italy  were 
more   eventful.     Although    opposed  by  greatly  supe-    ^^^  ^^ 
tier  forces,  the  indelktigable  energy  and  extraordinary     axxt  or 
military  talents  of  the  youthftil  general  crowned  the      ^^^^' 
campaign  with  a  series  of  brilliant  victories,  almost  unparaUeled  in 
the  annals  of  war.     Napoleon,  on  assuming  the  command,  fotmd  his 
army  in  an  almost  destitute  condition,  maintaining  a  doubtful  contest 
OB  the  mountain  ridges  of  the  Italian  frontier.     Rapidly  forcing  his 
way  into  the  fertile  plains  of  the  interior,  he  soon  compelled  the 
king  of  Sardinia  to  purchase  a  dishonorable  peace,  subdued  Piedmont, 
aoB^ered  Lombardy,  hiunbled  all  the  Italian  States^  and  defeated, 
and  almost  destroyed,  four  powerful  armies  which  Austria  sent  against 
him.     The  battles  of  Montenotte*  and  MiUessimo,*  the  terrible  pas- 

L  Smmkn  and  M$Me.   Tlio  Sanbra  vailM  with  the  IImm  at  Namvr.    (M^  No.  XV.) 

a  Afirtl  IMfl^  IIM.    Mtuttm^tU  H  a  nottntain  iid«»  uaar  the  Medltairaoaan,  a  •boit  dl^ 


aAptUiS-14.   MiU40»i$M\MAWBuarm$9ftlwtaiij^tii^mtk»W9tliteom 


46A  lIDOSBJr  HBIOET.  {fmlL 

ange  of  the  bridge  of  Lodi,'  the  Tiotoxy  of  Areola,'  mi  bH  ef  Mab- 
tua* — in  fine,  the  briiliaDt  resolte  of  the  eampeigik,  ezeited  tin  ntnoflt 
•Dthosiasm  thronghoat  Fnmoe,  and  NapoleoD  «t  onee  beceoM  the 
fftTorite  of  the  people.  The  oounoils  of  government  t^efttedly  de^ 
creed  that  the  ermy  of  Italy  had  deeerred  well  oftheir  coustiyi 
add  the  standard  which  Napoleon  had  b<Mme  on  the  bridge  of  AxtM 
waa  given  to  him  to  be  preeerred  as  a  preoions  trophy  in  his  frmily* 
60.  England  had  for  some  time  been  greatly  agitated  by  a  diviaun 
xxxn  Di»-  ^^  opinion  rebooting  the  policy  of  oontimning  the  ww 
TUKBAMon  agabst  France ;  important  parliamentary  reforms  weH 
iH  ufOLANA.  demanded;*  party  spirit  became  extremely  riolent;  sod 
on  teveral  oooasioos  the  oonntry  seemed  on  the  brink  of  re?olatioa>^ 
Added  to  these  internal  difficulties,  in  the  moatii  of  August^  1796, 
Spain  concluded  a  treaty  <>  of  alliaaoe,  oifensiTe  and  defensive,  with 
France,  and  this  was  followed,  m  the  month  of  October,^  by  a  formal 
declaration  of  war  against  Oreat  Britain.  Still,  England  maiotamed 
her  supremacy  at  sea,  Ind  greatly  extended  her  oonqnests  in  tha 
East  and  West  Indies,*  while  a  powerlnl  expedition'  whidi  Fnaoe 
had  prepared  for  the  invasion  of  Ireland  was  dispersed  by  tempasts, 
and  obliged  to  retom  without  even  effseting  a  landing. 

L  M«3r  lOUi.  The  bridfe  of  L^di  crowM  Um  Addi,  twwty  Mlta  toatb-wMl  tm^  MOv* 
iMap  No.  XVII.) 

9.  Not.  15-17.  jfreo/«  is  a  amaU  Tillage  a  ihari  dlataaee  eeit  of  the  Adige,  thliteen  tam 
M«iai-weMft9«i  Verona,  aMlooehuiidradiaUaa  east  fronMflaa.   (JlftyNaXVa) 

3.  Mantua  la  a  fortlfled  lown  of  Austrian  Italy,  on  both  sides  of  the  Mindo,  twenty'Ons  milei 
south-west  trom  Verona.  It  derives  its  principal  celebrity  from  Its  betog  the  native  ooontiT  of 
VlrgU.  AAer  the  ooDq«e8l<»r  Anithem  Italy  by  OhartenagBe,  Msnliia  beoame  a repefaUe,  in^ 
Gonttnned  under  that  form  of  govemineat  till  the  twelfth  oentury,  when  the  Gonasga  tuoBj 
acqaired  the  chief  direclion  of  its  slTiiirs.  'n>ey  were  subsequently  raised  to  the  title  of  dnkMi 
and  beld^oeieaBioD  of  Maotna  dll  1707,  when  It  waa  taken  by  the  AusMans.  llB■taan^ 
reodensd  to  Napoleon,  Feb.  9d,  1797,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  six  months.  In  Jn^,  1790^  it  iar> 
rendered  to  the  Austrlans,  alter  a  siege  of  nearly  four  months.    iMap  No.  XVII.) 

a.  For  increasing  democratic  power  itc^  for  which  purpose  there  weie  numeroos  S8wciatl«as 
Oirougfaoul  the  kingdom,  and  the  reformen  wees  obaiiged  wiOi  a  desire  of  aabreitiiig  IheiDMi 
•Nhy,  aad  eataMlshing  a  Npabttcan  ooosttlntton,  similar  (e  that  of  fttnoe. 

b.  KJj^*  carriage  sorroonded—pelted  with  stones,  &C.,  Oct.  SSth^  1705,  and  the  monaroh  B■^ 
towly  escaped  the  ftiry  of  the  popolaoe.  A  crisis  in  money  matters  compels  the  Bank  of  AiP 
land  to  auspend  cash  pigments,  Feb.  1797.  DiaBOrteBtsinttwavy^aadastwurrfUiaBhW* 
•eet,  April,  1797.   Second  mvti^y.  May  and  June,  and  blockade  of  the  Thames. 

c.  Of  San  Ildefonso. 

d.  Oot  9d. 

e.  St.  Lucia,  Easequibo,  and  Demarara,  in  the  West  Indies,  were  reduced  in  liay,  1798)  nA 
early  in  the  same  year  Ceylon,  the  Malaccas,  Cochin,  Trinoomalee,  <tc^  in  the  East  Indiss.  1^ 
Gkipe  of  Good  Hope  had  been  pievfously  taken  by  the  EnglMi. 

t  The  French  fleet  under  Hoche,  carrying  twenty-flve  fhoasand  lanl  fbroea,  Mlled  Dae.  15tli> 
1796.    A  formidable  connplracy  existed  in  Ireland  to  throw  off  the  EngUrii  yake  and  « 
a  repabUcan  govennnent,  and  alHanoe  with  Fraoee. 


CatfiY.]  SiaHTBBNTH  OKNTUKY.  46? 

[1797.]    51.  £arlj  in  the  spring  of  1797,  Napoleon,  after  otimii- 
hitiag  the  ardor  of  hiB  soldiers  by  a  spirited  address,*  in      ^^ 
whieh  hoTeconnted  to  them  the  splendid  victories  whioh  mafouom's 
they  had  already  won,  set  out  firom  Norih^n  Italyi>  at    atotuan 
the  head  of  sixty  thousand  men,  in  several  divisions,  to    ^^'^^^^ 
oanry  the  war  into  the  hereditaiy  States  of  Anstria.     Opposed  to 
him  was  the  Areh-dnke  Charles  at  the  head  of  superior  forces,  only 
a  part  of  which,  however,  could  be  brought  into  the  field  at  the  be- 
ginning of  ti|e  campaign.     Rapidly  passing  over  the  mountains.  Na- 
poleon drove  his  enemies  before  him,  and  was  ready  to  descend  into 
ihe  plains  which  spread  out  before  the  Austrian  capital,  when  pro- 
posals of  peace  were. made  and  accepted;  and  in  less  than  a  month 
after  the  first  movement  of  the  army  firom  winter  quarters,  the  pre- 
liminaries of  a  treaty  between  France  and  Austria  wei*e 
8igned.«     The  final  treaty  was  concluded  at  Oampo   tbbattop 
Formic^  on  the  17th  of  October  following.     Spain  and      oampo 
Holland  suffered  severely  in  this  war :  Austria  was  re-     ^^^^ 
munerated  fbr  the  loss  of  Mantua  by  the  cession  of  Yenice ;  while 
France  obtained  a  preponderating  control  over  Italy,  and  her  frontiers 
were  extended  to  tibe  Rhine.     Thus  terminated  the  brilliant  Italian 
campaigns  of  Napoleon.     Italy  was  the  greatest  sufferer  in  these 
eoateets.    "  Her  territory  was  partitioned ;  her  independence  ruined^ 
her  gulleries  pillaged; — ^the  trophies  of  art  had  followed  the  car  of 
victory ;  and  the  works  of  immortal  genius,  which  no  wealth  could 
purchase,  had  been  torn  from  their  native  seats,  and  violently  trans- 
planted into  a  foreign  soil.''^ 

52.  Daring  these  events  of  foreign  war,  the  strife  of  parties  was 
raging  in  France.  In  the  elections  of  May,  1797,  the  EayaUsts  pre- 
vafled  by  large  majorities,  and  royalist  principles  were  boldly  advo- 
cated in  the  legislative  councils, — so  great  a  change  had  been  pro- 

].  Cbii9»Arn<»toaflBaUtoirmaMte«rtteorDartaenIltf7,iiMrl^ 
TiM  wcotialloni  Ibr  this  pcaoe  were  euried  on  by  the  Aiutriana  at  Udbie,  a  short  dUtenoa 
Boith-eaflt  of  Ckmpo  FOrmio,  nd  by  Bonaparte  at  the  oaatle  of  Paisariano.   The  trealj  waa 
dated  at  Ckmpo  Fomlo,  beeawe  thia  plaea  lij  baCwaea  Udtna  and  rawerlatto^  although  the 
aaihaaiadon  bad  oefer  hekl  anjr  Gooferenoea  there.   (JV«q»  No.  XVII.) 

a  •«  Yon  haye  been  ▼letortoi»,''aaidhe^(' in  fiMirteen  pitched  battiaa  and  aavantyeoinhato; 
joa  have  made  one  hondred  tbouaand  prisonera,  taken  five  hundred  pieces  of  field  artlUeiy, 
two  thonaand  of  heavy  calibra,  and  fonr  seta  of  pontoons.  Tho  oontribntlona  yon  hare  levied 
OB  the  Tanqniahed  eoanbrtea  have  clothed,  fed,  and  paid  the  army ;  yo«  have,  beaides,  adda« 
thirty  miUtoM  of  Aranca  to  the  pabUo  treasury,  and  you  have  enriched  the  museum  of  Faria 
with  three  huadied  maatflipkma  of  the  worica  ofart,  the  produoe  of  thirty  eentoriea.'* 

b.  Harch  lOlh.  o.  April  Wh,  at  Judemb«K.  d.  . 


«i  voDtSH  fiisrcmr.  \fmn 

dneed  to  pablioc^ioii  bjtlie  sugoiDarf  exoe«e8  of  Uie  RefoMon 
Bat  the  Tigibnoe  of  the  ReTolstionarj  party  mm  •gun  troued, 
and  the  Directory,  who  were  the  Repoblicaii  leaden,  beeoouag 
alarmed  lor  their  own  existence,  bat  being  aaaored  of  the  rapport 

of  the  armj,  determined  apon  decisive  raeasorea    On  thi 

"^i^*"  **>«^*  of  the  3d  of  September,  twelye  thoorand  troopi, 

•r  uiuTAmr  imder  the  command  of  Aogereao,  and  with  the  coneorriDg 

vTn!!^  sopport  of  Napoleon,  were  introduoed  into  theei^td; 

the  Bojalist  leaders,  and  the  obnoxioiis  members  of  the 

two  oooneils,  were  9eiied  and  imprisoned;  and  when  the  Panstsni 

awoke  from  their  sleep,  they  foand  the  streets  filled  with  troops^  tiM 

walls  covered  with  proclamations,  and  military  despotism  estaUiabed.* 

The  Directory  now  took  open  themselves  the  supreme  power,  whik 

their  opponents  were  banished  to  the  pestilential  marshes  of  Omaa^' 

53.  The  year  1798  opened  with  immense  military  prepaiatioDi 
[1798]      ^^^  ^^    invasion  of  England,  the    only  power  tkn 

xxzri.  FM-  i^t  war  with  France.     Unosoal  activity  prevailed,  noi 
KnTrHK  m-  ^^^7  ^^  ^^  harbors  of  France  and  Holland,  bat  also  of 
vAnoic  iMt    Spain  and  Italy :  all  the  naval  resoovcea  of  Frsnoe  were 
BHQI.AND.    p^^  j^  reqaiwtion,  and  an  army  of  nearly  one  hundred 
attd  fifty  thonsand  men  was  collected  along  the  English  Chinnel, 
imder  the  name  of  the  Army  of  England,  the  command  of  wfaidi  wsi 
given  to  Napoleon.     Bat  the  haxards  of  the  expedition  indaoed  Na- 
poboQ  to  direct  his  ambitiooa  views  to  another  quarter,  and,  after 
^,r^^      considerable  diiBcolty,  he  persoaded  the  Kreotory  to 
tmDtnov  give  him  the  command  of  an  expedition  to  EgJP^  * 
TO  aoiPT.    pipo^noe  of  the  Turkish  empire.     The  ultimate  objeots 
of  Napoleon  appear  to  have  been,  not  only  to  conquer  Egypt  *^ 
Syria,  bat  to  strike  at  the  Indian  possessions  of  England  by  the 
overland  route  through  Asia,  and  aft«r  a  series  of  oonqaests  that 
should  render  his  name  as  terrible  as  that  of  Ghenghis  Khan  or  Tarn- 
orlane,  establish  an  Oriontal  empire  tibat  should  vie  with  that  of  Al- 
exander 

54.  Filled  with  these  visions  of  military  glory,  Napoleon  laikd 
from  Toulon  on  the  19th  of  May  with  a  fleet  of  five  handred  8aO. 
carrying  about  forty  thousand  soldiers,  and  ten  ^ousand  seamet. 
He  took  with  him  artisans  of  all  kinds ;  he  formed  a  complete  col- 
lection of  philosophical  and  mathematical  instruments ;  and  aboat 

1.  fVMdk  OvitnuL    Bee  SnlMin,  p.  303. 

a.  failed  tbi  Bsvolotion  of  Ui«  aislitcttith  FVoettdor. 


«  butadrecl  di  t!ie  ffiOBt  ilttistrioxis  soientific  men  of  Priu)^,  rep6t$mg 
implioii  ocmidcnee  in  the  jonthfal  genera),  hastened  to  join  the  ex- 
pedition, whose  desidnation  was  still  unknown  to  them. 

55.  The  fleet  first  sailed  to  Malta,'  which  quioklj  surrendered » 
its  almost  impregnable  fortresses  to  the  sovereignty  of  France, — the 
way  katti^  been  previously  prepared  by  a  conspiracy  fomented  by 
the  secret  agents  of  Napoleon.  Fortunate  in  avoiding  the  fleet  of 
the  English  admiral  Nelson,  then  cruising  in  the  Mediterranean,  tfaear^ 
mament  arrived  before  Alexandria  on  the  first  of  July,  and  Napo- 
leon, hastily  landing  a  part  of  his  forces,  marched  against  the  city, 
which  he  took  by  storm  before  the  dismayed  Turks  had  tixne  to 
make  preparations  for  defence. 

56.  With  consummate  policy  Napoleon  proclaimed  to  the  Arab 
population^  that  he  had  eome  to  protect  their  religion,  restore  their 
rigbts,  and  punish  their  usurpers,  the  Mamelukes;  and  thus  be 
■ou^t,  by  arming  one  part  of  the  people  against  the  other,  to 

1.  MalUu  (Bee  also  p.  159)  On  the  daeUoe  of  the  Romim  empire  Malta  MI  under  Uie  de» 
minion  of  0ie  Goths,  and  afterwards  of  (he  Saracens.  It  was  subject  to  the  crown  of  Stcl]/ 
IMm  1190  to  1525^  when  tbo  emperor  Charles  V.  conferred  it  on  the  Knights  HospiUlIen  of 
SL  JobOy  who  bad  been  expelled  (torn  Rhodes  by  the  Tories.  In  1565  it  was  nttsuooeBeniDy  b» 
sieged  by  the  Turks;  the  knights,  under  their  heroic  master  ValettOy  founder  of  the  city  called 
by  fats  name,  flnaHy  compelling  the  enemy  to  retreat  with  great  loss.  In  1796  It  fell  into  th« 
luwdaof  Napoleon;  bntOie  Frenoh  gmrisons  8mrendeAdtDUieBngUsh,8ept.5tb,18M.  TM 
treaty  of  Paris,  in  1814,  annexed  the  island  to  Great  Britain. 

a.  June  ISth,  1798. 

b.  The  population  of  Egypt  at  this  time,  consisting  of  the  wrecks  of  several  nations,  wnp 
eomposed  of  three  classes ;  Ccvpts,  Arabs,  and  Turks.  The  Oopts,  the  ancient  inhalAtants  of 
I^t,  a  poor,  despiaed»  and  bnttaliied  race,  aiaomited  at  moat  to  two  bondred  tbomqiit 
Ibe  Arabft,  subdivided  into  seyeral  classes,  formed  the  great  mass  of  the  population :  1st,  then 
were  the  Sheiks  or  chieft;,  great  landed  proprietors,  who  were  at  the  head  of  the  priesthood, 
the  n^^tatracy,  religion,  and  leaning :  9d,  there  was  a  large  claas  of  smaller  landholders ;  and, 
Sd,  the  great  mass  of  tho  Arab  population,  who,  as  hired  peasants,  by  the  name  of  fellahs,  in  n 
condition  lilUe  better  than  that  of  slaves,  cultivated  the^roil  for  their  masters;  and  4lh,  thn 
Badovin  tribes,  or  wandering  Arabs,  children  of  the  desert,  who  wonld  never  attach  tfaam- 
•elves  to  the  soil,  but  who  wandered  about,  aeeklng  pasturage  for  their  nilmeroos  berde  of 
cattle  in  the  Oases,  or  fertile  spots  of  the  desert  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile.  They  could  bring 
Into  the  Held  twenty  thousand  horsemen,  matchleas  in  bravery,  and  tn  Uie  skill  with  whtdl 
their  horses  were  managed,  but  deetltnte  of  discipline,  and  fli  only  to  harass  an  enemy,  not  to 
tight  him.  The  third  race  was  that  of  the  Turks,  who  were  iotroduce4  at  the  ttme  of  thnoon* 
(uest  of  E^ypt  by  the  Sultans  of  Constantinople.  They  numbered  about  two  handreci  tbooMndk 

and  were  divided  into  Turks  and  Mamelnkfi.  Most  of  the  former  were  engaged  In  tndea  naA 
handicrafts  in  the  towns.  The  latter,  who  were  Circassian  slaves  pofohased  ft«m  nmong  cto 
handsomest  boys  of  the  Circassians,  and  carried  to  Bgypt  when  yonng,  and  thara  trained  ft* 
the  practice  of  arms,  were,  with  their  chiefli  snd  owners,  the  beya,  the  real  masters  and  tynmin 
of  the  country.  The  entire  body  consisted  of  about  twelve  thousand  horsemen,  and  eneli 
Mameluke  h&d  two  fellahs  to  wait  upon  him.  **  They  are  all  splendidly  armed :  in  their  girdkt 
are  always  to  be  seen  a  pair  of  pistols  and  a  poniard ;  from  the  saddle  are  saq>ended  another 
ptlroT  pIMb  kttd  a  batcatet;  on  one  aide  ia  a  sabre,  on  tSie  other  a  bionderboafe,  and  Uie 
servant  ee  Ibot  cairlsi  a  earbine." 


4r0  liC»»BV  HBIOKT.  [PivIL 

AmftnliM  thmr  meuia  of  resiBUaoe.    LesTing  Ume  Hummod  mh 
diars  in  guriaon  air  Alexandria,  he  set  out  on  the  6th  of  Jidj  lior 
__  ^      Cairo'  at  the  head  of  thirty  thooaaad  meA.    After  some 
BAtna  or   skirmiehing  on  the  route  with  the  MameliikeB,  on  the 
THB        21st  of  the  month  he  arrived  opposite  Cairo,  on  the  west 
'^^^^^'*'    aide  of  the  Nile,  where  Monrad  Bej  had  formed  an  iii> 
trenohed  camp,  defended  by  twenty  thooaand  men,  while  on  the 
plain,  between  the  camp  and  the  pyramida,  were  drawn  np  nearly 
ten  thonaand  Mamelnke  horsemen.     Napoleon  arranged  his  army 
in  five  diyisiona,  each  in  the  form  of  a  square,  with  the  artillery 
at  the  angles,  and  the  baggage  in  the  centre ;  but  scarcely  had  he 
made  his  dispositions,  when  eight  thousand  of  the  Mameluke  horse- 
men, in  one  body,  admirably  mounted  and  magnificently  dressed, 
and  rending  the  air  with  their  cries,  adyanoed  at  full  gallop  upon  the 
Sf|uares  of  infontry.     Falling  upon  the  foremost  division,  they  were 
met  by  a  terrible  fire  of  grape  and  musketry,  which  drove  them  frooa 
the  front  round  the  sides  of  the  column.     Furious  at  the  unexpected 
resistance,  they  dashed  their  horses  against  the  rampart  of  bayonetSi 
and  threw  their  pistols  at  the  heads  of  the  grenadiers,  but  all  in 
vain, — the  tide  was  rolled  back  in  confusion,  and  the  survivors  fled 
towards  the  camp,  which  was  quickly  stormed,  its  artillery,  sUHrea, 
and  baggage  were  taken,  and  the  ''  Battle  of  the  Pyramids''  was  soon 
at  an  end.     The  victors  lost  scarcely  a  hundred  ^  men  in  the  action, 
while  a  great  portion  of  the  defenders  of  the  camp  perished  in  the 
Nile ;  «nd,  of  the  splendid  array  of  Mameluke  horsemen  that  had  so 
gallantly  borne  down  upon  the  French  columns,  not  more  than  two 
thousand  five  hutidred  escaped  with  Mourad  Bey  into  Upper  Egypt. 
57.  A  few  days  after  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids,  Napoleon  expe- 
^^^„      rienced  a  severe  reverse  by  the  destruction  of  his  fleet 
munut  aw    which  he  had  left  moored  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir  near 
na  ifiLa.    Alexandria.     On  the  morning  of  the  let  of  August  the 
British  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Nelson,  appeared  off 

L  GiJr*  (U'-ro)  Om  mxtflrn  mjAtaX  of  Kgjrpt,  and  the  aeeond  cltj  of  the  Mohammedan 
woM,  to  near  the  cartem  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  twelre  mllee  abore  the  apex  oT  ito  delta, 
Mdone  bafadrad  and  twelre  mOea  aoolhcaat  fh>m  Aleauidria.  Fopidatlon  Tariooily  eatfmatwt 
•llhMn  two  hondred  and  SIty  to  three  hundred  thoonnd.  Oaho  is  sapposed  to  have  been 
fnadad  aboot  the  jear  97Q|  by  an  Arab  general  of  the  lint  Fattmate  caliph,  llie  neighbor 
lood  of  Cairo  abonnda  vtth  plaoea  and  objleeta  poaaemtog  great  Intereat,  among  which  are 
the  pframMa,  and  the  remahia  of  the  dty  of  IIellopolia.*the  On  of  the  acriptprea.  (JM^ 
lfo.XlL) 

a.  ^Soaroely  a  hondred  kQled^aod  wovoded.**— Ihien.  *«11m  Tiolon  haid^  loei  twe fan- 
4i«d  man  In  the  action.**— Altoon. 


Obav.T.1  BIQBTBnneH  aSSTVBY.  47i 

ihe  barbor,  and  oa  the  afternoon  of  the  same  dty  ihe  tfctadc  was 
eonunenoed,  seyoral  of  the  British  ships  p^etrating  between  tibe 
French  fleet  and  the  shore,  so  as  to  plaoe  their  enemies  between  two 
fires.  The  action  that  followed  was  terrific.  The  darkness  of  night 
was  illnmined  by  the  incessant  discharge  of  more  than  two  thousand 
cannon;  and  during  the  height  of  the  contest  the  French  riiip 
L^Orient,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  guns,  haying  been  fi>r  some 
time  on  fire,  blew  up  with  a  tremendous -explosion,  by  which  every 
ship  in  both  fleets  was  •shaken  to  its  centre.  The  result  of  tihis  &- 
mous  "  Battle  of  the  NileV  was  the  destruction  of  the  French  naval 
power  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  shutting  up  of  the  French  army  in 
Egypt,  out  off  from  its  resources,  with  scarcely  the  hope  of  return, 
the  dispelling  of  Napoleon's  dreams  of  Orienial  conquest,  and  the 
reyiyal  of  the  coalition  in  Europe  against  the  French  republia 
Turkey  declared  war ;  Russia  sent  a  fleet  into  the  Mediterranean ; 
the  king  of  Naples  took  up  arms ;  and  the  emperor  of  Austria,  yield- 
ing to  the  solicitations  of  England,*  recommenced  ho8tilitie& 

58.  Notwithstandbg  Uie  loss  of  his  fleet,  and  the  storm  Aat  was 
arising  in  Europe,  Napoleon  showed  no  design  of  abandoning  hia 
eonquests.  WiUi  remarkable  energy  he  established  mills,  foundries, 
and  manufactories  of  gunpowder  through9ut  Egypt,  and  soon  put  the 
country  in  an  admirable  stote  of*  defence.  Upper  Egypt  was  con- 
quered by  a  divimon  under  Desaiz,  who  penetrated  beyond  the  ruins 
of  Thebcfl ;  and  finally,  in  the  early  part  of  February,  [1799] 
1799,  Napoleon,  leaving  sixteen  thousand  men  as  a  re-  n.  strun 
serve  in  Egypt,  set  out  at  the  head  of  only  fourteen  thou-  ^"^^^' . 
sand  men  for  the  conquest  of  Syria,  where  the  principal  army  of  the 
Bultan  was  assembling.  On  the  6th  of  March,  Jaffti,  the  Joppa  of 
antiquity,  the  first  considerable  town  of  Palestine,  was  carried  by 
storm,  and  four  thousand  of  the  garrison  who  had  capitulated  were 
mercilessly  put  to  death — an  eternal  and  ineffaceable  blot  on  the 
memory  of  Napoleon. 

59.  On  the  16th  of  March  the  French  army  made  its  appearance  be* 
fore  Acre,  where  the  Pacha  of  Syria  had  shut  himself  up 

with  all  his  treasures,  determined  to  make  the  most  des-  ^^achI* 
perate  resistance.     He  was  aided  in  the  defence  of  the 
place  by  an  English  officer,  Sir  Sidney  Smiln,  who  commanded  a 
small  squadron  on  the  coast     Foiled  in  every  attempt  to  take  the 
place  by  storm,  Napoleon  was  finally  compelled  to  order  a  retreat, 
-  after  a  siege  of  more  than  two  months,  having  m  the  meantime,  with 


49!^  ICOMftK  WSnmt.  JtMiL 

only  iix  tkoiuand  of  his  Tetersns,  defesied  an  armj  of  fliirtj  thov- 
sand  Oriental  militia  in  the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor. ^  On  the  mom- 
iag  of  that  battle  Kleber  had  left  Nasareth*  to  make  an  attack  on 
the  Torlmh  oamp  near  the  Jordan,^at  he  met  the  advancing  hoeta 
in  the  plain  in  the  vioinitjfiof  Moant  Tabor.  Throwing  his  littlo 
army  into  aqoares,  with  the  artillery  at  the  angles,  he  bravely  main* 
xui  BATTLE  **"*^  *^®  unequal  combat  for  six  hours,  when  Napoleon, 
or  MoowT  arriying  on  the  heights  which  OTcrlooked  the  field  of  bat* 
VABoa.  |]q^  ^^^  distinguishing  his  meiP  by  the  steady  llaming 
q>ot8  amid  the  moving  throng  by  which*  they  were  surrounded,  an* 
nounced,  by  the  discharge  of  a  twelve  pounder,  that  succor  was  at 
band.  The  arrival  of  fresh  troops  soon  converted  the  battle  into  a 
oomplete  rout ;  the  l^urkisfa  camp,  with  all  its  baggage  and  ammuni- 
tion, fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,  and  the  army  which  the 
country  people  called  <<  innumerable  as  the  sands  of  the  sea  or  the 
stars  of  heaven"  was  driven  beyond  the  Jordan  and  dispersed,  never 
again  to  return. 

60.  Napoleon  reached  Egypt  on  the  Ist  of^une,  having  lost  more 
than  three  thousand  men  in  his  Syrian  expedition  ;  but  scarcely  had 
he  restored  quiet  to  that  country^  when,  on  the  llth  of  July,  a  body 
of  nine  thousand  Turks,  admirably  equipped,  and  having  a  numerous 
pack  ef  artiQery,  landed  at  Abonlktr  Bay,  having  been  transported 

2jj^  thither  by  the  squadron  of  Sir  Sidney  Smith.  Napoleon 
BATTU  or  immediately  left  Cairo  with  all  the  forces  which  he  could 
^'^'^^  command,  and  although  he  found  the  Turks  at  Aboukir 
strongly  intrenched,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  iCttack  them  with  inferior 
Ibrces.  The  result  was  the  total  annihilation  of  the  Turkish  army,— • 
five  thousand  bemg  drowned  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir,  two  thousand 
killed  in  battle,  and  two  thousand  taken  prisoners. 

61.  By  some  papers  which  fell  into  his  hands,  Napoleon  was  now, 
fbr  the  first  time,  informed  of  the  state  of  afhirs  in  Europe.  Early 
in  the  season  the  allies  had  collected  a  force  of  two  hundred  and  tttf 
thousand  men  between  the  German  ocean  and  the  Adriatic,  as  a  bar- 
rier against  French  ambition ;  and  fifty  thousand  Russians,  under  the 
veteran  Snwarrow,  were  on  the  march  to  swell  their  numbers.  To 
this  vast  force  the  Fijapch  could  oppose,  along  their  eastern  frontiersi 

L  Mowu  Ttbor  !•  tweotj-flre  miles  aoutb-eaat  Awin  Acre,  eod  flflj-three  nortb-eeat  tttum  !•• 
ffUMleai.  It  U  the  mountatn  on  which  oocorred  the  traasflguratlon  of  ChriaL—Matthew,  xtU. 
t,naiKrlc,lx.8.   (Jlfap  No.  VJL) 

8.  A'axereO,  a  tmaU  town  of  Peteeane,  celebnted  ts  haTing  been  the  eei^  roddwoe  of  Ite  _ 
a>Cuidar  ofCbiittianlty,  II  leteii^  aOM  horUMast  ih>m  ienttatetik    (ARy  Xo.  Vfo 


Mid  seattered  o?er  Italy,  an  army  of  only  one  hundred  and  seventy 
thoneand.  In  Italy  the  united  Rnasians  and  Austrians  gradually 
gained  ground  until  the  French  lost  all  their  posts  in  that  country 
except  Genoa :  many  desperate  hattles  were  fought  in  Switzerland, 
but  victory  generally  followed  the  ullied  powers/while,  in  Germany, 
the  French  were  forced  back  upon  the  Rhine :  Corfu  had  been  con- 
quered by  the  Russians  and  English,  and  Malta  was  closely  block- 
aded. 

62.  When  Napoleon  was  informed  of  these  reverses  of  the  Freneb 
arms,  his  decision  was  immediately  made,  and  leaving  .Kleber  in  oom« 
mand  of  the  army  of  Egypt,  he  secretly  embarked  for  France.  After 
a  protracted  voyage,  in  which  he  was  in  constant  fear  of  being  cap* 
tured  by  British  cruisers,  he  landed  at  Frejus'  on  the  9th  of  Octo* 
ber,  and  on  the  18th  found  himself  once  more  in  Paris.  The  moal 
enthusiastic  joy  pervaded  the  whole  country  on  account  of  his  return. 
The  eyes,  the  wishes,  and  the  hopes  of  the  people,  who  were  dissatis- 
fied witli  the  existing  state  of  things,  were  all  turned  on  him  :  .men 
of  all  professions  paid  their  court  to  him,  as  one  in  whose  hands 
were,  already,  the  destinies  of  their  country :  the  Directory  alone 
distrusted  and  feared  him. 

63.  Napoleon,  perceiving  that  the  French  people  had  grown  weary 
of  the  Directory,  and  relying  on  the  support  of  the  army, 
concerted,  with  a  few  leading  spirits,  the  overthrow  of  otkrtbeow' 
the  government.     As  preliminary  measures,  the  Council      o'  ^o= 

of  the  Ancients^was  induced  to  appoint  him  commander 
of  the  National  Guard  and  of  all  the  military  in  Paris,  and  to  de- 
cree the  removal  of  the  entire  Legislative  body  to  St.  Cloud,'  under 
bis  protection ;  but  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  alarmed  by  ru- 
mors of  the  approaching  dictatorship,  raised  so  furious  an  .opposition 
against  him,  that  Napoleon  was  in  imminent  danger.  As  the  only 
resource  left  him,  he  appealed  to  his  comrades  in  arms,  and  on  the 
9th  of  November,  1 799,  a  body  of  grenadiers  entering  the  Legisla- 
tive hall  by  his  orders,  cleared  it  of  its  members;  and  thus  military 

1.  F^ut  it  a  town  of  aontb-Mitern  Fmnoe,  in  a  spacious  plain,  one  mile  fh>m  the  Mediter- 
ranean,  and  forty-five  miles  north-east  nrom  Toulon.  Napoleon  landed  at  St.  Rapbael»  a  small 
fishing  tillage  about  a  mtle  and  a4iair  fh>m  Fn^us.  Fn^us  was  a  place  oflmportance  in  the 
time  of  Julius  CsBsar,  who  gave  it  his  own  name.    (^a/>  No.  XIII.) 

S.  St,  Clmd  is  a  delighlful  village  six  miles  west  from  Paris,  4)ontaining  a  royal  castle  and 
magnificent  garden,  which  were  much  embellished  by  Napoleon.  Napoleon  chose  Bl,  Glow! 
fer  bis  rssidenoe ;  hence  the  expression  cabinet  of  St,  CUmd.  I7nder  the  foraur  gownment 
Ite  phme  was,'  ca^tasl  ^tf  VgrnOU*^  or  cakiaut  of  tko  TmUoruo^ 


474  I    MODXBir  HIBTOET.  [PinlL 

Ibroe  wu  left  triampluuit  in  the  plaoe  of  tbe  eongtitution  and  tLe 
ZLT.  NAFo-  ^^^     ^  ^^^  ooDstitation  was  soon  formed,  by  wbioh 
laoir  ruwr  the  ezecattye  power  was  intrusted  to  three  consuls,  of 
ooKgui.     ^^nj  Napoleon  was  the  chief     The  "  First  consul,"  as 
Napoleon  was  styled,  was  b  everything  bat  in  name  a  monaroL    Not 
only  in  Paris,  but  throu^oat  all  France,  the  feeling  was  in  favor  of 
the  new  gOTomment ;  for  the  people,  weary  of  anarchy,  rejoiced  at 
the  prospect  of  repose  under  the  strong  arm  of  power,  and  were  as 
unanimous  to  terminate  the  Refvoluiion  as,  in  1789,  they  had  been 
to  commence  it^     The  ReTolution  had  passed  through  all  its  changes ; 
— ^monarchical,  republican,  and  democratic ;  it  closed  with  the  mili- 
tary character ;  while  the  liberty  which  it  strove  to  establish  was  im- 
molated by  one  of  its  own  &Yqrite  heroes,  on  th)3  altar  of  personal 
ambition 


cbuRTL]  msann/sBSTB  osktuhy.       "  475 


CHAPTEK    VI. 

THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 
SECTION  I. 

THE  WAB8  OF  NAPOLEON. 

ANALYSIS.  [EvsMTf  op  ths  tkak  1800.]  1.  Napoleon^  propoialfl  for  peaoe.  Rqiectod 
l»y  the  Bfiiiih  go^emmanL— S.  imiary  foroe  of  Great  BriUIn  and  Auatrla.  SltuaUou  of  FVaaoe. 
Eflbel  of  NapoleoD'a  gOTwninenfr-S.  DIapoaitioii  of  Um  fVenoh  foroea.-4.  SuoeeveB  of  Morean. 
[Bngen.  Moeaklrch.]  Ma«eiia  la  shot  up  in  Genoa.  Napoleon  panoi  over  the  Great  SL 
BwMnL  [Great  SL  Bernard.]— <5.  Surprise  of  the  Auatrlana.  Napotoon*t  progreaa.  Victorf 
of  Bfanaigo.  [Marengo.]--!}.  Eflbrta  ai  negotiation.  MalU  aurrenden  t<^the  Britiah.— 7.  Opet^ 
•ttona  of  the  French  and  Auatriana  in  Bavaria.  [Hohenlinden.]  Paange  of  the  Splugea  bj 
Maodonald,  [Splngen.]  Armistice.  Peace  of  LunevUle.  [Lnneyille.]— 0.  Maritime  confbc^ 
waey  agalnaft  England.   Itavflbet.   PraTloua  ordan  of  the  I>ani8h  and  Rnailan  goremnMBta. 

9-  [EFzjrra  or  1801.]  England  lendB  a  powerAil  fleet  to  the  Baltic  Battle  of  Oopenhageo. 
—10.  The  Buaiian  empelor  Paul  la  strangleid,  and  auooeeded  by  Alexander.  Diaaolut^on  of  the 
Uagoa  of  the  North^ll.  The  French  army  in  Egypt  Oapitolation.  General  peace.  [Amiena.] 

IS.  [EvsNTB  or  180S,  TBS  TBAR  OP  PzACK.]  Intopal  AflUra  of  France.  Napoleon  made 
eonaul  for  life.— 13.  Conduct  of  Napoleon  in  hla  relaOona  with  foreign  Statea.  Holland— the 
Italian  republica— the  Swiu  cantons.  Attempt  to  recover  St.  Domingo.  [Hiatorfcal  aooount 
of  St.  Domingo.]— 14.  Circumatancea  leading  to  a  asMSWAL  or  tbb  waz  w  180X  Uoatile 
acta  S^EnyUnd  and  France. 

1&  Firrt  military  operations  of  the  French,  in  the  year  1803.    [Hanover.]    Preparetlona  for 

•    the  Invaaion  of  England.— 16.  Rebellion  In  Ireland.    Conspiracy  against  Napoleon  early  In 

V  1801   The  ailUr  of  the  Duke  D^Enghien.    [Baden.]— n.  Hostile  acU  of  England  agalnat  SpalUi 

^nie  latter  Joina  France.— 18.  Napoleon,  emperor.  May,  1804— crowned  by  the  pope»-aholnted 

•overeiga  of  Italy,  Hay,  1805. 

1ft.  New  coalition  a^nat  France.  Pmsala  remaina  neutral.  Beginning  of  the  war  by  Ana- 
tria^-M.  The  French  forces.  Napoleon  victorious  at  Ulm.  [Ulm.]  English  naval  victory  of 
Thkftlgar.  [TraAdgar.]  Additional  victorlea  of  Napoleon,  and  treaty  of  Preabnig,  De&  1808. 
(Aoaterlllc.} 

[1806.]  SI.  Conquests  of  the  English.  [Mahrattaa.  Bueooa  Ayrea.]  Napoleon  rapidly  es- 
tenda  hla  supremacy  over  the  continent  The  aiBtirs  of  Naples,  Holland,  and  Germany.— SS. 
Cfrcomitaneea  which  led  Prusria  to  join  the  eoalitioa  i^ainat  NapoleoB.— «3.  Napoleon**  vido- 
lies  over  the  Prussians.  He  enters  Berlin.  [Jena.  AuenNadt]— S4b  The  Beriin  deereea.  Ne> 
poleon  in  Poland.  BatUe  of  Pultusk.  Battle  of  Eyhm,  Feb.  1807.  Fall  of  Dantslc.  [Eylan., 
DanWe.>-SS.  BatUe  of  FHedland.  [FHedland.  NIeraen.]  The  treaty  of  Tilsit.  Lossea  bu#>  ' 
tead  by  Prussia.  [TllsiU  Westphalia.]— 86.  Cireumstanoea  that  led  to  the  bombaidmeDt  of 
Copenhagen,  by  the  English  fleet.  Denmarl^  Joina  France.  Portngueae  aflkirs.  The  French 
la  Lisbon.  [Rio  Janeiro.  Braxii.]— S7.  The  deeigns  of  Napoleon  against  the  Peninsular  men* 
anha.  AflUra  of  Spain,  1808.  Godoy-xabdication  of  the  Spanish  monarofa^  and  hla  son  Ftedk 
nand.  Joseph  Bonaparte  becomea  king  of  Spain,  and  Murat  king  of  Naplea.— 98.  Beaiatance 
of  the  Spaniards  and  beginning  of  the  Peninsular  war.— 89.  Snccessea  of  the  Spaniarda  ai 
Oadla,^  Vakocla,  Saragoasa,  and  Bayleo.  [Baylea.  Ebro.]— 30.  War  In  Portugal,  and 
evacuation  of  that  country  by  the  FVench  foroea.  [Oporto.  Vlmiera.  Clntra.]— 31.  Napoleon 
takea  the  field  in  person,  and  the  British  are  rapidly  driven  from  Spain.  [Bepkouu  Buigoti 
Tndala*  Coranna.] 


4n  wnaas  hsiort.  jfjm  a 

paw.]  ».  AmtftenddMlyrMtwtttewv.  Vkiortai  of  Napoleon,  wbo  aMn  VI«bm  la 
May ;  and  pcaee  with  Auatiia  In  October.  [EckmubL  Aapem.  Wagram.]— 33.  War  witli 
itae  TyrotoM.  BrlUah  expedlUoa  to-  HoUawL  GooUoiiaiMe  of  the  war  in  the  Spontah  peain- 
•ula.  DUBcttltiea  belweeo  Napoleon  and  the  pope.— 34^  Napoleon**  divorce  ftom  Joaapblne 
and  marriage  with  Maria  Louiaa  of  Austria,  1810.  Eflhota  of  this  marriage  upon  Napoleon^ 
Aitura  proapeeta.  His  oooduct  towanb  Holland.  Sweden.  Hto  power  In  the  oentiml  parte  of 
Europe.  Jealon^r  of  the  RuMiaa  emperor.^SS.  Gonttnoanee  of  the  war  In  the  Speniah  penlif 
nla.  WelUngton  and  Maawna.  ^Cludad  Bodrigo.  Buaaeo.  Torrea  Vedrai.]-.3S.  The  pe- 
BinsuU  war  during  the  year  leiL    [Badi^loa.    Albuera.} 

37.  Eveota  of  the  peninaolar  war  from  the  beginnl^  of  1813  to  the  relreaf  of  the  Fnmk, 
•eroM the Pyreneee.    [Salamanea.    Vllioria} 

38.  NAroLKOM'i  RuaiiAN  Campaiob,  18IS.    Bventa  that  led  to  the  opening  of  a  war  with 

Boaila.    The  opposing  natlona  in  thla  war 30.  The  **  Grand  Army**  of  Napoteoa.    The  o^ 

posing  Russian  foroa.— 40.  Napoleon  croases  the  Nlemeo,  Jane  IdiS.  Retreat  of  the  Rossiana. 
^riy  disaitera  of  the  French  army.  [Wllna.!— 4f.  Onward  march  of  the  anny.  Battle  of 
Bmolenaku.  Entrance  of  the  deserted  dty.— 43.  Napoleon  pursoes  the  retreating  Bnssiam^ 
who  make  a  stand  at  Borodino.  [Borodino.]  The  OTcniiig  befbre  the  bat4le.>-43.  Battle  of 
Borodino,  Sept.  7th.— 44.  Contioaed  retreat  of  the  Russians,  who  abandon  Mosoow.  The  city, 
OB  the  ontranoe  of  the  FVench.  Hie  homing  of  Mosoow.  Napoleon  begins. a  retrsat  Oct.  lOih. 
•-49.  The  horrors  of  the  reireatw— 4tt.  Napoleon  at  SmoIensJca  Re  renews  the  retreat  Nor. 
14th.  Battles  of  Kraanof,  and  passage  of  the  Bereaina.  [Krasnol.  .  Beresina.]  Marahal  Ney. 
Napoleon  abaadoni  the  army,  and  reaches  Paris,  Dec  18ih.    His  losses  In  the  Russian  oampatga. 

47.  War  between  England  and  the  United  States  of  America.  Mejdco.  The  war  in  tha 
iBdlanseas. 

t18l9.]  48L  Napo1eott*a  preparations  ftnr  renewing  the  war.  Prosrfa,  Sweden,  and  Austria. 
Battlea  of  Lutzen  and  Bauiaen.  Armistice,  and  congress  of  Prsgue.  [Bautien.]— 48.  War  re- 
newed Aug.  18th.  Austria  Jotna  the  allies.  Battles.  [Culm.  Gross-Beren.  Katabach.  Deo- 
newiiz.]  Battles  of  Lefpsle,  and  retreat  oftbe  Flench.  Lossesof  the  French.  Revolts.  WeUlugton. 

[IK14.]  50.  General  invasion  of  Franna.  Bemadotte  and  Murat  Energy  and  bUenta  of  Nar- 
poleon.  The  allies  march  upou  Paris,  which  capitulates.  Deposition,  and  abdication,  of  Napo* 
leon.    Treaty  between  htm  and  the  allies.   fEIba.]    Louis  XVItC.    Reatrlcted  limits  of  h>anee. 

[1815.]  61.  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba.  Marshal  Ney.  All%uion 
iobmita  to  Napoleon.— 5-i.  Napoleon  In  vain  attempts  negotiations.  Forces  of  the  allies;  of 
Napoleon.— 53.  Napoleon*s  policy,  and  movemenls.  Battles  of  Ligny,  Quatre  Braa,  Wavt^ 
tmd  Waterioo.  Second  capitulation  of  Paris.  NapoIeon^s  abdication— attempted  cscapn 
to  America— exUe-^nd  death.  54.  Flrrt  objects  of  the  allies.  Return  of  Louis  XVIII. 
Execution  of  Ney,  and  Labedoy6re.  Fate  of  Murat— 55.  Second  treaty  of  Paris,  lu  tenasL 
BestonUon  of  the  p>llaged  treaaures  of  art. 

1.  As  soon  as  Napoleon  was  seated  on  the  consular  throne  of 
.       .      France  he  addressed  to  the  British  goyernment  an  ahle 

L  ivzNTB  OF  commnnication,  making  general  proposals  of  peace.  To 
^^\km^^  this  a  firm  and  dignified  reply  was  given,  ascribing  the 
evils  which  afflicted  Europe  to  French  aggression  and 
French  ambition,  and  declining  to  enter  into  a  general  pacificatioa 
until  France  should  present,  in  her  internal  condition  and  foreiga 
policy,  firmer  pledges  than  she  had  yet  given,  of  stability  in  her  owa 
government,  and  security  to  others.  The  answer  of  the  British  gov* 
ernment  forms  the  beginning  of  the  second  period  of  the  war — that 
in  which  it  was  waged  with  Napoleon  himself,  the  skilful  director  of 
all  the  energies  of  the  French  nation. 

2.  War  being  resolved  on,  the  most  active  measures  wero  tak»t 


OBa.?t]  KnnmoDfTH  anmjBY.  W 

mi  botib  flM«  to  profleeuie  it  with  yigor.  The  Usd  forced,  equipped 
iDiliiia,  and  aeamen  of  Gr^t  Britain,  amounted  to  .three  hundred 
and  seventy  thooaand  men,  and  Austria  furnished  two  hundred  thou* 
sand.  Fraoee  seemed  poorly  prepared  to  meet  the  oomiog  storm. 
Her  armies  had  just  heen  defeated  in  Qermany  and  Italy;  her 
treasury  was  empty,  and  her  government  had  lost  all  credit ;  the  af- 
filiated Swiss  and  Dutch  republics  were  diaoontented ;  and  the  French 
people  were  dissatisfied  and  disunited.  But  the  establishment  of  a 
firm  and  powerful  government  soon  arrested  ^se  disorders;  the 
finances  were  established  on  a  solid  basis;  the  Yendoan  war  was 
amicably  terminated;  Russia  was  detached  from  the  British  alli- 
ance ;  many  of  the  banished  nobility  were  recalled ;  confidence,  en- 
ergy, and  hope,  revived ;  and  the  prospects  of  France  rapidly  bright-  ^ 
ened  und^  the  auspices  of  Napoleon. 

3.  At  the  opening  of  the  campaign  the  French  forces  were  dis- 
posed in  the  following  manner.  The  army  of  Germany,  one  hundred 
and  twenty-ei^t  thousand  strong,  under  the  command  of  Moreaiii 
was  posted  on  the  northern  confines  of  Switierland  and  north  alopg 
the  west  bank  of  the  Rhine :  the  army  of  Italy,  thirty-six  thousand 
strong,  under  the  command  of  liassena,  occupied  the  crest  of  the 
Alps  in  the  neighlA)rhood  of  Genoa ;  while  an  army  of  reserve,  of 
fifkf  thousand  men,  of  whom  twenty  thousand  were  veteran  troops, 
awaited  the  orders  of  the  first  consul,  ready  to  fiy  to  the  aid  of  either 
Moreau  or^asaena. 

4.  Morean,  victorious  at  Engen  and  Moeskurch,'  drove  the  Aua- 
trians  back  from  the  Rhine,  and,  penetrating  to  Munich,  laid  Bavarift 
under  oontributL(m.  Massenaf  after  the  most  vigorous  efforts  against 
a  greatly  superior  fbrce,  was  shut  up  in  Genoa  with  a  part  of  his 
army,  aikd  finally  compelled  to  capitulate.     Napoleon,  on  hearing  the 

'  reverses  o^  Massena,  resolved  to  cross  the  Swiss  Alps  and  fidl  upon 
Piedmont     Taking  the  route  by  the  Great  St.  Bernard,*  on  the  17th 

1.  Engf  Mod  Moetkirek  are  io  the  loaUi-eMtem  part  of  Baden^  Mar  Iha  northern  booMlaiy 
ofSwiUeriand.    (Jfap  No.  XVII.) 

a  Qrtai  St.  Bermard  la  the  name  giren  to  a  fiunooa  paaB  of  the  Alpa,  leading  over  the 
moontatna  flrom  the  Swlaa  town  of  MarUgny  to  the  Italian  town  of  Aoata.  In  Its  highest  poit 
It  riaea  to  an  eleration  of  more  than  eight  thousand  feet,  being  almost  Impassable  In  winter, 
and  rery  dangeroos  In  spring,  ftom  the  avalanches.  Near  the  summit  of  the  paas  Is  the 
fiimoua  hospital  founded  In  Ott  by  Bernard  de  Menthon,  and  occupied  by  brethren  of  the  order 
of  8L  AHgnatine,  whose  eapedal  duty  It  is  to  assist  and  relieve  trarellers  crossing  the  moantains.  ' 
In  the  midst  of  the  tempests  and  snow  storms,  the  monks,  accompanied  by  dogs  of  extraonU- 
Miy  sise  and  sagacity,  set  oat  for  the  purpose  of  tracking  those  who  have  lost  their  way.  If 
t^  And  ttie  bpdy.of  a  traveller  who  has  pedsded,  thsjy  oarry  It  Into  Uie  vaalt  of  the  dead, 
vham  tt  rauaiiM  lyli«  aa  a  taMe  iwtn  aaiAher  tledm  to  bil}«gfat  Io  1)^^  II  la 


47S  HODnir  HBErrOBT.  fPjArll 

of  M«y  his  aimy  begin  the  Moeni  of  tlie  moontsin.  Am  artinery 
wagODS  were  taken  to  pieoes,  and  pnt  on  the  backs  of  mplea,  irldle 
a  hondred  large  pines,  each  hollowed  out  to  reoeiye  a  pieoe  of  artQ- 
lery,  were  drawn  np  the  mountain  by  the  soldiers.  To  enooorage  the 
men,  the  mnsio  of  each  regiment  plmyed  at  its  head ;  and  where  the 
isoent  was  most  difficult  the  charge  was  sounded. 

6.  Great  was  the  surprise  of  the  Austrians  at  beholding  this  large 
army  descending  into  the  Italian  plains.  Before  the  end  of  the 
month  Napoleon  was  at  Turin,  and  on  the  2d  of  June,  after  little 
opposition,  he  made  his  triumphant  entry  into  Milan.  On  the  14th 
he  was  attacked  by  the  Austrian  general  Melas,  at  the  head  <^  greatly 
superior  forces,  on  the  plains  of  Marengo.'  Here,  after  twelve  hours 
of  incessant  fating,  yictory  was  deeided  in  favor  of  the  French  by 
the  stubborn  resistance  of  Desaix,  and  the  happy  charge  of  the  gal- 
lant Kellerman.  General  Desaix,  who  had  just  arrived  6om  Egypt, 
foil  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  result  of  the  victory  gave  Napoleon 
the  entire  command  of  Italy,  and  induced  the  Austrians  to  pro- 
pose a  suspension  of  arms,  which,  in  anticipation  of  a  treaty,  was 
agreed  to. 

6.  The  efforts  at  negotiation  were  unsuocessfol,  as  no  satis&otory 
arrangements  could  be  made  between  England  and  France,  and.in  the 
latter  part  of  November  the  armistice  was  terminated,  and  hosMli- 
ties  recommenced.  In  the  meantime  Malta,  which,  during  mors 
than  two  years,  had  been  closely  blockaded  by  the  British  forces,  was 
compelled  to  surrender,  and  was  permanently  annexed  to  the  British 
dominions. 

7.  On  the  t'enewal  of  the  war,  the  Austrian  army,  eighty  thousand 
strong,  under  the  Archduke  John,  and  the  French  army,  somewhat 
less  in  number,  under  Moreau,  were  facing  each  other  on  the  eastern 
confines  of  Bavaria.     The  Austrians  advanced,  and  on  the  3d  of  Be- 

ttMB  Mt  vp  agiiiMt  Uie  inill,  unong  the  other  dewi  bodies,  which,  on  soeoiut  of  the  ooM,  deeaj 
•0  ilowly  that  they  eie  oClen  reoognlxed  by  Iheir  Mends  tAer  the  lapse  of  years.  It  Is  Impoa- 
tfble  to  bury  the  dead,  as  tbero  is  nothing  about  the  hospital  but  naked  rocka.  Kot  a  ti«a  or 
buh  la  to  be  •esn,  but  everiaatii«  winter  reigns  in  this  dreaiy  abode,  the  highest  inhabited 
ptaee  ic  Europe. 

When  the  amy  of  Napoleon  crossed  the  St  Bernard,  erery  soldier  recefred  fVora  the  monks 
a  laige  ration  of  bread  and  cheese,  and  a  draught  of  wine  at  |he  gate  of  the  hospital :  a  saaaon- 
able  supply  which  exhausted  the  stores  of  the  establtshment,  but  was  ftiUy  repaid  by  the  Flrrt 
OoBSnl  before  the  dose  of  the  campaign. 

The  JLUtU  8U  Btmurdj  over  which  Hannibal  crossed,  is  farther  west,  separating  Piedmont 
ftom  SaToy.  The  undertaking  of  the  Oarthaginian  was  ihr  more  difflcnll  than  that  of  Napoleon. 
(JM^NcXIV.) 

L  Jforffv*  is  a  small  TiOsgeof  NorUiem  Ita^,ln  aa  ezteadT<e  plain,  toi^y^hrea  miMaaoall^ 
west  Ihw  HUan.    (Jir«r  No.  XIL) 


^aiAP.TI]  NEfETKEirrH  OKfTTTRT.  4W 

oember  bronj^t  on  the  fianons  battle  of  Hohenlinden/  in  lAidi  they 
were  completely  oyerthrown,  and  driren  back  with  great  slaughter. 
Morean*  rapidly  porsned  the  retrea^g  enemy,  and  penetrated  within 
sixty  miles  of  yienna,  when,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Austrian  gen- 
eral, an  annistioe  was  agreed  to  on  the  25th.  In  the  meantime,  in 
the  very  heart  of  winter,  the  French  general  Macdonald,  at  the  head 
of  fifteen  thousand  men,  had  crossed  from  Bwitserland  into  the  Italian 
Tyrol,  by  the  famous  pass  of  the  Splogen,"  more  difficult  than  that 
of  St  Bernard,  The  French  forces  in  Italy  now  numbered  more 
than  a  hundred  thousand  men,  and  the  speedy  ezpuluon  of  the  Aus- 
trians  was  anticipated,  when  an  armistice,  soon  followed  by  the  peace 
of  LuneTille,*  put  an  end  to  the  contest  with  Austria.* 

8.  In  the  meantime  Napoleon,  with  consummate  pdicy,  was  sue- 
cessftilly  planning  a  union  of  the  Northern  powers  against  England ; 
and  on  the  16th  of  December,  1800,  a  lAaritime  confederacy  was 
signed  by  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  and  soon  afler  by  Prussia, 
as  an  acceding  party.  This  league,  aimed  principally  against  Eng- 
land, was  designed  to  protect  the  commerce  of  the  Northern  powers, 
on  prinoiples  similar  to  the  armed  neutrality  of  1780;  but  its  effect 
would  haye  been,  if  fully  carried  oat,  to  depriye  England,  in  great 
part,  of  her  nayal  superiority.  The  Danish  goyemment  had  preyi- 
ouslj  ordered  her  armed  yessels  to  resist  the  search  of  British  cruis- 
ers ;  and  the  Russian  emperor  had  issued  an  embargo  on  all  tiie 
British  shipe  in  his  harbors. 

9.  ISngland,  determined  to  anticipate  her  enemies,  despatched,  as 
soon  aJ9  possible,  a  powerful  fleet  to  the  Baltic,  under  the  command  of 
Nelson  and  Sir  Hyde  Parker.  Passing  through  the  Sound  under 
the  fire  of  the  Ijanish  batteries,  on  the  30th  of  March  the  fleet  came 


1.  Hdl«iil<ii4mto«tli]i«*orBftvaf^Bki6lMniiitl8B«M(lh>mMii^  (JKp  Mow  ZVIL) 
QmplMll's  aobto  ode^  Iwslnirinft 

«  On  Linden,  when  the  eon  was  low, 
AU  HoodleM  lay  the  ntroddcn  now,*' 
•  JM  rwMfarad  Uie  MiBc^  at  leti^  of  UOt  bnttla,  baidUM' to  elmort  eve^ 

S.  The  Ptus  •f  du  S^Mgen  leads  over  the  Alps  tnm  the  Orisons  to  the  Italian  T>roi,  into 
the  Talley  of  the  Lake  of  Oomo.  It  waa  only  after  the  moat  incradible  eflHrts  that  MacdewM 
■loceeded  in  paatlag  his  army  over  the  mountain ;  and  more  than  a  hnadred  soldiery  and  aa 
many  hones  and  muleSi  were  swallowed  np  In  Its  abyssea,  and  never  more  heard  ot  Since 
lan  there  .has  been  a  road  over  the  Splogen  passable  Ibr  wheel  CMtlafss>  II  was  boflt  by 
Austria,  at  great  expense.    (^•v^o.XIV.)  ^ 

'  a.  LvmniUtt  In  the  former  province  of  Lomine,  is  on  the  road  fVom  Paris  to  Strsabooig^ 
ilzteen  miles  soutlKeaat  fh>m  Nancy.  By  the  treaty  condnded  here  fai  1801,  and  which  Fraada 
WIS  obUged  to  give  his  assent  to, "  not  only  as  emperor  of  Anstria,  bnl  In  the  name  of  tho 
0«rman  empiie,"  Belgtam  and  aO  flie  Ml  bank  of  the  BUne  were  again  IbrmaUifoaded  to 
IVttei^«idLombad^was«Kflledtaloaiitodepeiidantatat«.  <JHv»  No.  ZSLwA  XVIL) 
».reh.Mh,l8tt. 


Ill  HODSBK  BXSTOET*  [Fai  q. 

to  muckat  opposite  tlio  harbor  of  Copeiibi«fn,  yfikvek  wu  proUcted 

by  an  impoeii^  amy  of  forte,  nioD-ofwar,  fire^ps,  tad 

"^  "rrr"    flMtiDg  batteriea.     On  the  2d  of  AprU  NeboD'brovgbft 
or  1801.     rr  Tr    .         .     ,     ,         ,         .  .         J- 

hia  ahipa  into  the  harbor,  where,  in  a  iqiaoe  not  exoeeoug 

ft  mile  and  a  half  ip  extent,  they  were  reoetved  by  a  trencndoas  fir« 

from  more  than  two  thousand  oannon.     The  En^ibh  repliod  witk 

equal  spirit,  and  after  four  hoars  of  inoessant  eannooade  the  whoU 

front  line  of  Danish  ressels  and  floating  batteries  was  silaioed,  vitk 

ft  loss  to  the  Danes,  of  more  than  six  thousand  men.    The  Eogliili 

loss  was  twelve  hundred     Of  this  battle,  Nelson  said,  ""I  have  beei 

in  one  hundred  mnd  five  engagements,  bat  that  of  Copenhsgea  wtf 

the  most  terrible  of  them  alL" 

10.  While  Nelson  was  preparing  to  follow  np  his  sueeeeebyftt- 
tacking  the  Russian  ieet  in  the  Baltic,  news  reached  him  of  ao  eveot 
ftt  St  Petersburg  whidi  changed  the  whole  ourrsot  of  Northers 
poltoy.  A  conspiracy  of  Russian  noblemen  was  formed  against  the 
Bmperor  Paul,  who  was  strangled  in  his  diiamber  on  the  night  of  the 
24th  of  March.  His  son  and  suooessor  Alexander  at  once  resolved 
(o  abandon  the  confederacy,  and  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  (heet 
Britein.  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Prussia  followed  his  example;  and 
thus  was  dissolved,  in  less  than  six  months  after  it  had  been  formed, 
the  League  of  the  North, — the  most  formidable  confederaej^  ever 
arrayed  against  the  maritime  power  of  Bngland. 

11.  While  these  evente  were  transpiring  in  Europe,  the  army 
which  Napoleon  had  left  in  Egypt,  under  the  command  of  Kieher, 
after  losing  ite  leader  by  tlie  hands  of  an  obscure  assassio,  wtf 
doomed  to  yield  to  an  English  force  sent  out  under  Sir  Ralph  Abet* 
crombie,  who  fell  at  the  head  of  his  Tictorious  columns  on  the  pUaoi 
of  Alexandria.^  By  the  terms  of  ei^itulation,  the  French  troopfli 
to  the  number  of  twenty-four  thousand,  were  conveyed  to  France 
with  their  arms,  baggage,  and  artillery.  As  Malta  had  previoudy 
surrcodered  to  the  British,  there  vras  now  little  left  to  contend  fiv 
between  France  and  England.  To  the  great  joy  of  both  nationB 
preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  London  on  the  1st  of  October, 
and  on  the  27th  of  March,  1802,  tranquillity  w{U3  restored  through- 
out Europe  by  the  definitive  treaty  of  Amiens.^ 

12.  Napoleon  now  directed  all  his  energies  to  the  reconstraction 

1.  ^taftpw.  <aM^87S.)   Tte4elirtUi«tmt74irAtti«wvMOfliidue«lM«(ob $71^44^ 
h  jMt  Ito  Btttawkui  ^^MikUA  £^ttHikUt>  fif  JEUdlS^M 

A.  jMitiaaumaii. 


ChapVI]  nineteenth  CENTTTRT.  481 

of  society  in  France,  tlie  general  improyement  of  the  conntry,  and 
the  consolidation  of  the  power  he  had  acquired.     By  a 
general  amnesty  one  hundred  thousand  emigrants  were     of  1802, 
enabled  to  return :  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  re-    '«*  ^^^ 
stored,  to  the  discontent  of  the  Parisians,  but  to  the  great 
joy  of  the  rural  population  :  a  system  of  public  instruction  was  es- 
tablished under  the  auspices  of  the  goyemment :  to  bring  back  that 
gradation  of  ranks  in  society  that  the  Beyolution  had  oyerthrown, 
the  Legion  of  Honor  was  instituted,  an  order  of  nobility  founded  on 
personal  merit :   great  public  works  were  set  on  foot  throughout 
France :  the  collection  of  the  heterogeneous  laws  of  the  Monarchy 
and  the  Republic  into  one  consistent  whole,  under  the  title  of  the 
Code  Napoleon,  was  commenced ;  an  undertaking  which  has  deseryed- 
ly  coyered  the  name  of  Napoleon  with  glory,  and  suryiyed  all  the 
other  achieyem^nts  of  his  genius ;  and  finally,  the  French  nation,  as 
a  permanent  pledge  of  their  confidence,  by  an  almost  unanimous  yote, 
conferred  upon  their  fayorite  and  idol  the  title  and  authority  of  con- 
sal  for  life. 

13.  In  his  relations  with  foreign  States  ihe  conduct  of  Napoleon 
was  less  honorable.  He  arbitrarily  established  a  goyemment  in 
Holland,  entirely  subseryient  to  his  will;  and  he  moulded  the 
northern  Italian  republics  at  his  pleasure  :  he  interfered  in  the  dis- 
sensions of  the  Swiss  cantons  to  establish  a  goyemment  in  harmony 
with  the  monarchical  institutions  which  he  was  introducing  in  Paris ; 
and  when  the  Swiss  resisted,  he  sent  Ney  at  the  head  of  twenty  thou- 
sand men  to  enforce  obedience.  England  remonstrated  in  vain,  and 
the  Swiss,  in  despair,  submitted  to  the. yoke  imposed  upon  them. 
Napoleon  was  less  successful  in  an  attempt  to  recoyer  the  island  of 
St.  Domingo,'  which  had  reyolted  from  French  authority.     Forces 

J.^SL  Domingoy  or  Hajrti,  called  by  Columbus  Hispaniola,  {lAtUe  Spaing  Is  a  large  Island 
of  the  West  Indies,  about  fifty  miles  east  of  Cuba.  It  was  first  colonized  by  the  Spaniards, 
by  whose  cruelties  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  were  soon  almost  wholly  destroyed.  Their  place 
was  at  first  supplied  by  Indians  forcibly  carried  off  fN>m  the  Bahamns,  and,  ai  a  lat(«r  period 
by  the  Importation  of  rast  numbers  of  negroes  firom  AfHca.  About  the  middle  of  the  dx- 
toenfh  century  the  French  obtained  footing  on  Its  western  coasts,  and  in  lODI  Spain  ceded  to 
France  half  the  Island,  and  at  subsequent  periods  the  possessions  of  the  latter  were  stlll  Ihrther 
aogmented.  From  1776  to  ITSD  the  French  colony  was  at  the  height  of  Its  prosperity,  but  in 
1791  {he  negroes,  excited  by  news  of  the  opening  revolution  in  France,  broke  out  in  insurrec- 
tion, snd  in  two  months  upwards  of  two  thousand  whites  perished,  and  large  districts  of  fertile 
plants! ions  were  devastated.  While  the  war  was  ragtng,  commissioners,  sent  fh>m  Fronoe, 
taking  part  with  the  negroes  against  the^planters,  proclaimed  the  fy^odom  of  all  the  blacks  who 
should  enrol  themselves  under  the  republican  standard :  a  measure  equivalent  to  the  instant 
aLontion  of  slavery  throoghont  the  island.  The  English  government,  apprehensive^  of' danger 
III  4to  Wasl  India  possessions  ftoa  tW  astabUtfynent  iif  so  giaat  a  rsifolotfaiiaiy  oolpott  # 
▼  81 


488  MODIBN  BISrOBT.  [P^nU 

lo  Um  niiniber  of  thirty-fire  thounnd  men  were  sent  ont  to  redooe 
the  isluid)  but  nearl j  all  periehed,  yictims  of  fatigae,  difleaae,  and  the 
perfidy  of  their  own  government 

14.  It  soon  became  evident  that  the  peaoe  of  Amiens  could  not 
be  permanent  The  encroachmei^  of  France  upon  the  feebler  Eu- 
ropean powers,  the  armed  occupation  of  Holland,  the  great  accumi- 
lation  of  troops  ou  the  shores  of  the  British  Channel,  and  the  evident 
designs  of  Napoleon  upon  Egypt,  excited  the  jealousy  of  England ; 
and  the  latter  refused  to  evacuate  Malta,  Alexandria,  and  the  Cape 
of  Qw)i  Hope,  in  accordance  with  the  late  treaty  stipulations,  until  sat- 

iT.  amwAL  ^Bfactory  expirations  should  be  given  by  the  French  gov- 
OF  TBI     emment     Bitter  recriminations  followed  on  both  sides, 

wAa.  1808.  ^^  jj^  ^^  month  of  May,  1803,  the  cabinet  of  London 
issued  letters  of  marque,  and  an  embargo  on  all  French  vessels  in 
British  ports.  Napoleon  retaliated  by  ordering  the  arrest  of  aU  the 
English  then  in  France  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  sixty  years. 

15.  The  first  military  operations  of  the  French  were  rapid  and 
facoessful.     The  electorate  of  Hanover,*  a  dependency  of  England, 

Ibi  Mtnaet  of  lh«  Gulf  of  MmIco,  and  koplng  to  taks  fl4viataga  of  the  ooaftidoii  praralllng 
la  tlie  talBiid,  attempted  ita  rednedon,  bat  after  aa  enormoiu  loai  of  men  finally  eracnated  it  In 
ITW.  5o  aooner  was  the  Island  dellTered  tnm  external  enemiea  than  a  Mghtftil  dvll  war  en- 
■oed  between  ibe  molattoea  and  aegroea,  bat  the  Ibnner  wera  overeome,  and  In  December 
180Q  Tonasahit  LoaTerture,  tbe  able  leader  of  tbe  blacks,  was  sole  master  of  the  French  part 
of  tbe  island.  Napoleon  at  flni  oonflrmed  htm  in  bis  command  as  general-tn-chiei;  but  finding 
that  be  aimed  at  lodepciideofc  aotbority,  inthe  winter  of  1801  be  aent  out  a  larps  force  to  radnoe 
the  island  to  submission.  Daring  a  trace  Toaaaatnt  was  snrprised  and  carried  to  France,  wbers 
he  died  in  April  180S.  Hostilities  were  renewed :  in  Norember,  1803,  tbe  French,  driven  into 
n  comer  of  the  islsnd,  capitulated  to  aa  JBngllsb  squadron ;  ynd  in  Jaanary,  18M,  the  Hajtias 
chMb,  to  tbe  name  of  tbe  people,  renoonoed  all  dependence  on  Fnmoe.  Numerooa  dril  warn 
and  rsToIutions  long  continued  to  distract  the  island.  In  1881  that  part  of  the  ialand  origlnallj 
aettled  by  tbe  Spaniards  Toluntarily  placed  itself  nnder  4he  Haytlen  government,  which  siffl 
saialabia  its  taidependenoe. 

In  1791  8t  Domingo  was  in  a  most  flooridiing  condition,  bat  Its  oommeroe  and  indnstiywere 
swioasly  interrupted  bj  the  bloody  wan  and  revolutions  which  succeeded^  Moreover,  It  waa 
not  to  be  expected  (bat  bslMvilixed  negroes,  suddenly  loosed  from  bondage,  under  a.bamlng 
iOD,  and  wlthoal  the  wants  or  desires  of  Europeans,  ebould  exhibit  the  vigor  and  Induatry  of 
the  bitter.  Tbe  Haytlen  government  has  found  it  neoewary  to  adopt  a  **  Rural  Oode,"  which 
makes  labor  compulsory  on  the  poorer  clasaea,  who  in  return  share  a  portion  of  the  produce  of 
tbe  lands  of  their  masters.  Nominally  free,  tbe  blacks  remain  really  enslaved.  But  the  island 
la  hfg'ww'mg  to  attume  a  more  thriving  appearance ;  the  manners  and  morals  of  tbe  people^ 
although  still  bad,  ara  improving ;  and  aomething  has  been  done  for  public  instruction.  What 
oi*  lo  be  tbe  final  rosults  of  this  experiment  of  negro  emancipation,  time  only  can  determine^ 

1.  Bantptr  is  a  large  kingdom  of  north-western  Germany,  bounded  north  by  the  Geimaa 
Ocean  and  the  Elbe,  east  by  Prussia  aud  Brunswick,  south  by  Hesse  Gaaael  and  tbe  Prusaian 
department  of  tbe  Lower  Bhinci  and  west  by  Holb^yl.  A  poclion  of  western  Hanover  is 
•laoat  dlvUed  ftpm  the  rait  by  the  grand-duchy  of  Oldenburg.  (See  JMsv  No.  XVn.)  Ibia 
kingdom  la  formed  oat  of  tbe  duchies  formerly  possessed  by  several  fkmiliea  of  tbe  Jnnkir 
biaach  of  tbe  boose  of  Dnuwiick.   Emeei  Angoataa,  Duke  of  Bruaswiok,  mairied  SoptaSa,  • 


CfaOL  TI]  MilgfJUBLTH  CmitmT.  48» 

was  qviekl J  oonquered,  and  in  uttesr  disregard  of  neutral  rights  the 
whole  of  the  North  of  Oermany  waa  at  once  oocnpied  by  French 
troops,  while,  simnltaneonsly,  an  army  was  sent  into  southern  Italy, 
to  take  posiefliion  of  the  Neapolitan  territories.  But  these  move- 
ments were  insignificant  when  cogapared  with  Napoleon^s  gigantic 
preparations  estensibly  for  the  invaeicm  of  England.  Forts  and  bat- 
teries were  eonttmeted  on  every  headland  and  accessible  point  of  the 
Channel :  the  number  of  vessels  and  small  eraft  assembled  along  the 
ooast  was  immense ;  and  the  fleets  of  France,  Holland,  and  Spain, 
were  to  aid  in  the  enterprise.  Sogland  made  the  most  vigorons 
preparations  for  repelling  the  anticipated  invasion,  which,  however^ 
waa  net  attempted,  and  perhaps  never  seriously  intended, 

16u  The  year  of  the  renewal  of  the  war  was  farther  distinguished 
by  an  unhappy  attempt  at  rebellion  in  Ireland,  in 
idiioh  the  loitders,  Bussell  and  Emmett,  were  seised, 
brought  to  trud,  and  ^ecuted.  Early  in  the  ftllowiog  year,  1804,  a 
conspiracy  against  the  power  of  Napoleon  was  detected,  in  which  the 
generals  Morean  and  Pioh^gm,  and  the  royalist  leadw  Oeorges,  were 
implicated.  Moreau  was  allowed  to  leave  the  country,  Pichegm 
was  fdnnd  strangled  in  prison,  and  Qeorges  was  executed.  Napoleon, 
either  believing,  or  afiiBcting  to  believe,  that  the  young  Duke  D'Eughien, 
a  Bourbon  prinoe  then  living  in  the  neutral  territory  of  Baden,*  waa 
concerned  in  this  plot^  caused  him  to  be  seised  and  hurried  to  Yin- 
oennes,  where,  after  a  mock  trial,  he  was  shot  by  the  sentence  of  a 
court  martial : — an  aet  which  has  fised  an  indelible  stain  on  the 
^aemory  of  Napoleon,  as  not  the  slightest  evidence  of  criminality  was 
broo^t  against  the  unhappy  prince. 

1 7.  Owing  to  the  intimate  connection  that  had  been  formed  betwe^ 
the  courts  of  Paris  and  Madrid,  England  sent  out  a  fleet  in  the 
autumn  of  1804,  before  any  declaration  of  war  had  been  made,  to 
interrupt  the  homeward  bound  treasure  frigates  of  Spain  ;  and  thesu 
were  captured,*  with  valuable  treasure  amounting  to  more  than  tiro 


r  of  JaiMi  T.  of  Baglftad ;  and  GMige  Lo«!%  ttie  laiiM  oT  fliit  imiTtege,  be^^ 
kla«  or  Bneland,  with  Uw  tttie  of  fieoige  L,  ia  1714 ;  flom  whiob  4inM  ttll  1837,  at  the  dMth 
or  WinUm  IV^  both  England  and  HanoTor  bad  the  aame  aorereign.  On  the  aooeuton  or  a 
iNBaJe  to  the  throne  oT  Great  Britain,  the  Salle  law  oonTerred  the  cro¥m  or  Hanover  on  anothei 
braneh  or  the  Hanorerian  fkmiljr.  During  Che  anpremacj  oT  Nap<»ledta,  Hanover  eonadtnted  a 
part  or  the  kingdom  or  WeatphaBa,  bwt  waa  restored  to  ita  faiwAd  aoTereign  in  1813.  {Map 
Vo,  XVUA 

L  The  grawMMhy  of  Badtm  oeoopiea  the  adolb^eaieni  ai^le  or  Gemangr,  hsrtng  Switsar- 
IndoafheaaiittH  and  FtaaeeMdUMaiahBavwU  (the  Palatinate)  OB  the  weaL  (fMafMn. 
X¥IL) 

a.  Oct  4th,  ISO! 


484  IfODERK  HI8TX)BT.  [Pii 

million  poands  sterling.    The  Britisli  gOTemment  wu  sererdy 
sured  for  this  hastj  act    Spain  now  openly  joined  France,  and  de- 
clared war  against  England.* 

18.  On  the  18th  of  May  of  this  year  Napoleon  was  created,  by 
decree  of  the  senate,  "  Emperor  ofi  the  French;"  and  on  the  2d  of 
December,  1804,  was  solemnly  crowned  by  the  pope,  who  had  beea 
induced  to  come  to  Paris  for  that  purpose.     The  principal  powers 

of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Ore&t  Britain,  reoo^ 
nised  the  new  sovereign.  On  the  2Gtb  of  May  of  the 
following  year  he  was  formally  anointed  soyereign  of  Northern  Italj» 
The  iron  orown  of  Charlemagne,  which  had  quietly  reposed  a  thou- 
aand  years,  was  brought  forward  to  give  int^est  to  the  ceremony, 
and  Napoleon  placed  it  on  his  own  head,  at  the  same  time  pronoonmn^ 
the  words,  '^  G-od  has  given  it  me :  beware  of  touching  it.'' 

19.  The  continued  usurpations  charged  upon  Napoleon  at  lengtb 
induced  the  Northern  Powers  to  listen  to  the  solicitations  of  England  ; 
.and  in  the  summer  of  1 805  a  new  coalition,  embracing  Rusma,  Aus- 
tria, and  Sweden,  was  formed  against  France.  Prussia,  tempted  by 
the  glittering  priie  of  Hanover,  whidi  Napoleon  held  out  to  her,  per* 
sisted  in  her  neutrality,  with  an  evident  leaning  V)wards  the  Fren^ 
interest.  The  Austrian  emperor  precipitately  commenced  the  war 
by  Invading^  the  neutral  territory  of  Bavaria ;  an  act  as  unjus^able 
as  any  of  which  he  accused  Napoleon.  The  latter  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity of  branding  his  enemies  as  aggressors  in  the  contest,  and  de* 
clared  himself  the  protector  of  the  liberties  of  Europe. 

20.  In  the  latter  part  of  September,  1805,  the  French  forces,  m 
eight  divisions,  and  numbering  one  hundred  and  eighty  idiousand  men^ 
^re  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  preparing  to  carry  the  war  into 
Austria.  The  advance  of  Napoleon  was  rapid,  and  everywhere  the 
enomy  were  driven  before  him.  On  the  20th  of  October,  Napoleon, 
having  surrounded  the  Austrian  general  Mack  at  Ulm,'  compelled 
him  to  surrender  his  whole  force  of  twenty  thousand  men.  On  the 
very  next  day,  however,  the  English  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral 
Nelson,  gained  a  great  naval  victory  off  Cape  Trafalgar,^  over  the 

1  Ulm  it  an  eatteni  fronttor  town  of  WUtonbefS*  on  Uie  WMtorn  bank  of  Uio  Dnmbe,  a«r> 
eoty-aix  miles  north-west  iVom  Munich.  Formeriy  a  Dree  dty.  It  was  aUached  to  BaTaria  la 
1803,  and  in  1810  to  Wirtemberg.    (Map  No.  XVU.  ) 

S.  Cajft  Trafalgar  is  a  promontoi^^of  th«  aototh-waalaili  ooaat  of  Spain,  iw«ntj4lre  wXim 
oortb-wostof  tba  fbrtress  of  GibraUar.  In  llie  graat  naval  baUle  of  Got.  9Jit,  JSDS,  the  &«> 
isb,  nnder  Nelson,  baTlng  twenty-aeTao  aaU  of  Iba  Una  and  ttiraa  fttgatas,  were  oppo«rt  I9  tta 

a.  Din.  ISth,  MOl  kav^nhtMOlL 


fhur.yi]  imiKTSaESITH  OSNTirBT.  485 

oombined  itoets  <^  Franoe  and  Spain ;  but  it  was  dearly  pnrehaaed 
by  the  death  of  the  hero.  On  the  13th  of  November  Napoleon  en- 
tered Yienn^  and  on  the  2d  of  Deoember  he  gained  the  great  battle 
of  Ansterliti,*  the  most  glorious  of  all  his  vietories,*  which  r^iolted 
in  the  total  oyerthrow  of  the  combined  Russian  and  Austrian  armies, 
and  enabled  the  yTctotr  to  dictate  peace  on  his  own  terms.^  The  em- 
peror of  Russia,  who  was  not  a  party  to  the  treaty,  withdrew  his 
troops  into  his  own  territories :  the  king  of  Prussia  received  Hanover 
as  a  reward  of  his  neutrality ;  and  Great  Britain  alone  remained  at 
open  war  with  France. 

21.  While  the  ISnglish  now  prosecuted  the  war  with  vigor  on  the 
oofsan,  humbled  Uie  Mahratta'  powefs  in  India,  subdued  the  Butch 
colony  of  the  Cape,  and  took  Buenos  Ayres*  from  the  Spaniards,  Na- 
poleon rapidly  extended  his  supremacy  over  the  continent 

of  Europe.  In  February,  1806,  he  sent  an  army  to  take 
possession  of  Naples,  because  the  king,  instigated  by  his  queen,  an  Aus- 
trian princess,  had  received  an  army  of  Russians  and  English  into  his 
capital  The  king^of  Naples  fled  to  Sicily,  and  Napoleon  conferred 
the  vacant  crown  upon  his  brother  Joseph.  Napoleon  next  placed 
his  brother  Louis  on  the  throne  of  Holland :  he  erected  various  dis- 
tricts in  Germany  and  Italy  into  dukedoms,  which  he  bestowed  on 
bis  principal  marshals :  while  fourteen  princes  in  the  south  and  west 
of  Germany  were  induced  to  form  the  Confederation^^  of  the  Rhine, 
and  place  titiemselves  under  the  protection  of  France.  By  this  latter 
atroke  of  policy  on  the  part  of  Napoleon,  a  population  of  sixteen 
millions  was  cut  off  from  the  Germanic  dominion  of  Austria.      ^ 

22.  In  the  negotiations  which  Napoleon  was  at  this  time  carrying| 
on  with  England,  propositions  were  made  for  the  restoration  of  Han- 
pver  to  that  power,  although  it  had  recently  been  given  to  Prussia.    It 

VnaOi  tad  8p«nUh  fleet  of  thlrly-tbree  tail  of  the  Hoe  and  teron  MgatOA.  Nolaon,  who  was 
noitaUj  wounded  in  Ibe  action,  lived  onlj  to  be  made  aware  of  the  de«'*iietion  of  the  enemy*! 
fleet.    (^«jiNo.XlIL) 

1.  Atuteriiti  (ows'-ter  litz)  la  a  sman  town  of  Moravia,  thirteen  mQea  southwest  of  Brann 
the  capital.    (JIfoji  No.  XVII.) 

S.  The  MahrttoM  were  an  extent^  ;e  Hindoo  nation  In  the  western  part  of  sontbem  Hindoatan. 
The  various  tribes  ef  which  the  nation  consisted  were  first  united  into  a  monajcchy  about  tlie 
Inlddle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

3.  BumM  jSfret  (in  Spanish  bwt.nooe-1-res,)  is  a  large  city  of  South  America,  capital  of  the 
fepDbUc  of  La  Plata.  In  1810  l>egan  the  revolutionary  movements  that  ended  in  the  emanci- 
petion  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  States  of  La  Plata  from  Spain.  The  declaration  of  indepen- 
dence was  made  on  the  9th  of  July,  ISIS. 

•  LeasoTtlie  alUesthbrtytlMNiaaiid,iakmed,woiMid«l,andtakMiprlionorib    Loiseftte 
VmMh  twelve  thooMmd. 
KlkwIjorPlMbiBS^  Deo.  STIa,  1801  «.A4yl8lh. 


48$  mDIU  HBIOKT  (PjMlt 


«M  iBuicufBi  napeeUd  thfti  NipolMB  litd  oAred  to  wfai  Afrtitnr 
of  Boan*  at  tfie  «zpaBM  of  his  Pruiiaii  allj.  Tliefle,  and  qUmt 
oMMe,  wooMa  the  indignalioii  of  the  Prmnaa;  an^the  Piumubi 
monapBh  opeal  J  joined  the  ooalition  aguost  Napoleon  4Mfore  his  own 
arraogenienta  were  oompleted,  or  hk  alliea  eonld  jiM  him  anj  aansfe* 
anoe.  Both  England  and  Bnnrin  had  proained  Em  tiieir  oodper» 
iion. 

23.  WithhisnaaalpromptitadelfapolaMipathiBlroopeittniotioB, 
and  on  the  8th  ef  <Mober  reMhed  the  adnyMed  Pkiunan  oa^>oetL 
On  the  14th  he  routed  the  Pnunana  wi^i  terriUe  alangfater  in  Ae 
battle  of  Jena,'  and  on  the  nmo  daj  Marahal  Baronet  gained  the 
battle  of  Aueratadt,*  in  whieh  ike  Bake  of  Bmnawiok  was  mortaD j 
wonnded.  On  these  two  fields  the  loss  of  the  Prossiaas  was  nesriy 
twentj  thousand  in  kiDed  and  woonded,  besides  nearij  as  many 
prisoners.  The  total  loss  of  the  Vrench  was  ftmrteen  thoosand.  Li 
a  smgle  daj  the  strength  of  the  Prossian  monarehy  was  prestratedi 
Napoleon  rapidly  fallowed  np  his  Tiotories,  and  en  the  35th  his 
vangoard,  under  Marshal  DaTOust,  entered  Berlin,  only  a  fortnight 
after  the  eommenoement  of  hostilities. 

24.  Snoonraged  by  his  sueoesMS  Napoleon  issoed  a  series  of  ediols 
from  Berlin,  deokring  the  Britiflh  islands  in  a  state  of  Mookade,  and 
esdudtng  British  mann&otores  from  all  the  oontinenial  ports,  fie 
then  pursued  the  Bussians  into  Poland :  on  the  SOth  ef  NoTomber  fail 

troops  entered  Warsaw  without  resistanoe ;  but  on  the 
^™'  *  26th  of  Deeember  his  adTsnoed  foroes  reeeired  a  ehede 
in  Ij^e  ssTore  battle  of  Pultusk.  On  the  8th  of  February,  1807,  a 
sanguinary  battle  was  fought  at  Bylau,*  in  which  eadi  side  lost 
twenty  thousand  men,  and  both  elaimed  the  Tiotory.  In  some  minor 
engagements  the  allies  had  the  advantage^  ]mt  these  were  more  than 
eonnterbalanccd  by  the  siega  and  &U  of  the  important  fortress  of 
Daatsto,*  whieh  had  a  garrison  of  serenteen  thousand  men,  and  wii 
defended  by  nine  cundred  oannon. 

1.  JtM  It  a  town  of  o«ntnl  G«rBuuiy,  In  the  gnnd-dnohy  ot  Btxt  W«lmw,  oallM  wwtlMBk 
or  tlM  rlrtr  Salta,  fbrty-tbree  mtiM  ioQib-WMt  flrom  Leipile.  Tbe  baltla  wm  foqght  b«tir«B 
ttetowmorJeiiaaiMl  Wetnitf.    (JfapNo.  XVIL) 

9.  AuerataA  (ow'-er-stadt)  It  a  tmall  Tillage  of  Praatiaii  Saxooyy  lix  mOot  w«it  of  HaaflriMmb 
and  about  twenty  mllet  north  of  tlie  battleground  of  Jena.    ( JITay  BTo.  XVIL) 

3.  JRy/an  (How)  to  a  TtUage  In  Ptuaala  proper,  or  Eaat  PmiBla,  Iweo^-eigtU  mUea  eootk 
flfom  Xonlgtbcrv.    ( Jfop  No.  XVIL)    » 

4  D»muic  ia  an  frnportaal  owanmelal  elty,  aM^oityMd  ftftrat^of  thaipeMrlMOf  V^M 
Praatia,  on  the  wettcm  bank  of  the  VUtola,  about  three  mllea  fnoL  MB  mmA 
wwlawdle  the  F—ih  My  STth  I8W.    (JK^  Ko.  ZVB^ 


OiA^.vi]  nnjjgi'jfliiija'rH  oENraRT.  487 

25.  At  length)  on  the  I4th  of  June,  Napoleon  fought  the  great 
and  decisiye  battle  of  Friedland,^  and  the  broken  remains  of  the 
Bnasiui  army  fell  back  npon  the  Niemen."  An  armistice  was  now 
agreed  to  :  on  the  25th  of  June  tiie  emperors  of  France  and  Russia 
met  for  the  first  time,  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony,  on  a  raft  in 
the  middle  of  the  Niemen,  and  on  the  7th  of  July  signed  the  treaty 
of  Tilsit.'  .All  sacrifices  were  made  at  the  expense  of  the  Prussian 
monarch,  who  received  ba^  only  about  one-half  of  his  dominions. 
The  elector  of  Saxony,  the  ally  of  France,  was  rewarded  with  that 
portion  of  the  Prussian  territory,  which,  prior  to  the  first  partition 
in  1772,  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland :  this  portion  waa 
now  erected  into  the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw.  Out  of  another  por- 
tion wi|8  formed  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,*  which  was  bestowed 
upon  Jerome  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon ;  and  Russia  agreed 
to  aid  the  French  emperor  in  his  designs  against  British  commerce. 

26.  Soon  after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  it  became  eyident  to  England 
that  Napoleon  would  leaye  no  means  untried  to  humble  that  power 
on  the  ocean,  and  it  was  believed  that,  with  the  conniyance  of  Russisi 
he  was  making  arrangements  with  Denmark  and  Portugal  for  the 
oonyersion  of  their  fleets  to  his  purposes.  England,  menaced  with 
an  attack  from  the  combmed  navies  of  Europe,  but  resolving  to  an- 
ticipate the  blow,  sent  a  powerful  squaolf on  against  Denmark,  with 
on  imperious  demand  for  liie  instant  surrender  of  the  Danish  fleet 
and  naval  stores,  to  be  held  as  pledges  until  the  conclusion  of  the 
war.  A  refusal  to  comply  with  this  summons  was  followed  by  a  four 
days'  bombardment  of  Copenhagen,  and  the  final  surrender  of  the 
fleet.  Denmark,  though  deprived  of  her  navy,  resented  the  hostility 
of  England  by  throwing  herself,  without  reserve,  into,  the  arms  of 
France.  The  navy  of  Portugal  was  saved  from  fallmg  into  tho 
power  of  France,  by  sailing,  at  the  instigation  of  the  British,  to  Rio 

1.  FruHoMd  (freed' UDd)  If  « town  of  EutPRMla,  on  the  weitern  bank  of  tbe  itrer  Alto 
(al'-leh)  twenty-eight  mllee  ■outb-eut  from  Konigibeiv»  nod  eighteen  north-eeei  of  VjrbM. 
(Jiref»No.XVIL) 

ft  The  rlTer  Jfitmtn  (Pollih  Bfem'en)  rtoee  In  the  Pniwlen  pforltMe  oCGiodao^  nd,  peering 
throngh  the  nortb-eaetem  extremity  of  Pknaain,  entera  •  gvlT  of  the  Settle  by  two  cbannde 
twenty-two  mUee  apart,  and  eaeh  about  thirty  mllee  below  TUilL    {M^p  No.  XVU.) 

a.  TiUit  Is  a  town  of  East  Pnwla,  on  the  eonlhern  benk  of  the  Nlemeo,  risrty  mUee  north* 
CMtoTKonigaberg.    ( Jfaf»  Ko.  XVIL)  • 

4.  irMi;pA4i/j«ia  aname,  Itt,  originally  giren,  in  the  Middle  Agee,  tea  laige  part  of  Germany  t 
M,  to  a  duchy  forming  a  part  of  the  great  dnehy  of^zonf :  3d,  to  one  of  the  drdeo  of  the 
German  empire:  4th,  to  the  kingdom  of  Weatpbella,  created  by  Nepoleon:  Mh,  to  the  prmni 
FnMrian  ptovlnee  of  WeetpheWa,  erealed  In  1815.  M oat  of  dm  preeanl  pcovlaoe  wai  I 
UeMhofthewdlHalonk   BeealaoNole^p  SOD.    (JKvNouZVII.). 


488  VODEBK  HSSIOBT.  [PauU. 

Janeiro/  the  capital  of  the  Portagaeae  oolony  of  BraaiL*    Napoleon 

had  already  aDDOunoed,*  in  one  of  his  imperial  edicts,  that  *'  the 
House  of  Braganxa  had  ceased  to  reign,^'  and  had  sent  an  army  under 
Junot  to  occupy  Portdgal.  On  the  27th  of  November,  the  Porta- 
guese  fleet,  bearing  the  prince  regent,  the  queen,  and  court,  sailed 
for  Brazil ;  and  on  the  30th  the  French  took  possession  of  Lisbon. 

27.  The  designs  of  Napoleon  for  the  dethronement  of  the  Peniii- 
■ular  monarchs  had  been  approved  by  Alexander  in  the  conferences 
of  Tilsit ;  and  when  Napoleon  returned  to  Paris  he  set  on  foot  a 
series  of  intrigues  at  Madrid,  which  so<jn  gave  him  an  opportunity 
of  interfering  in  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Spanish  nation,  hia  recent 
ally.  Charles  TV.  of  Spain,  a  weak  monarch,  was  the  dupe  of  his 
faithless  wife,  and  of  his  unprincipled  minister  Godoy.     The  latter, 

secured  in  the  French  interest  by  the  pretended  gift  of  a 
principality  formed  out  of  dismembered  Portugal,  al- 
lowed the  French  troops  under  Murat  to  enter  Spain ;  and  by  &aud 
and  false  pretences  the  frontier  fortresses  were  soon  in  the  hands  of 
the  invaders.  Too  late  Godoy  found  himself  the  dupe  of  his  own 
treachery.  Qharles,  intimidated  by  the  difficulties  of  his  situation, 
resigned  ^  the  crown  to  his  son  Ferdinand,  but,  by  French  intrigues, 
was  soon  after  induced  to  disavow  his  abdication,' whfle  at  the  same 
time  Ferdinand  was  led  to  expect  a  recognition  of  Lis  royal  title  from 
the  emperor  Napoleon.  The  deluded  prince  and  his  father  were  both 
enticed  to  Bayonne,  where  they  met  Napoleon,  who  soon  -compelled 
both  to  abdicate,  and  gave  the  crown  to  his  brother  Joseph,  who  had 
been  summoned  from  the  kingdom  of  Naples  to  become  king  of  Spain. 
The  Neapolitan  kingdom  w^  bestowed  upon  Murat  as  a  reward  for 
his  military  services. 

28.  Although  many  of  the  Spanish  nobility  tamely  acquiesced  in 
this  foreign  usurpation  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  kingdom,  yet  the 
great  bulk  of  the  nation  rose  in  arms :  Ferdinand,  although  a  prisoner 
in  France,  was  proclaimed  king :  a  national  junta,  or  council,  was 

1.  Rio  Janeiro,  tiie  oupiUl  of  BnzU,  It  tbe  most  Important  commardal  dty  lod  Maport  of 
Boath  Amorica.  PopalaUon  aboat  two  hoodrod  iboaaand,  of  wliom  about  half  are  if  UIMi  and 
the  rest  moitly  negro  slavos. 

3.  Prior  to  ]8U8  BratU  waa  merely  a  Portqgueae  oolony,  but  on  the  arrival  of  tho  prince 
regent  and  hia  court,  accompanied  by  a  laiige  body  of  emlgrantfl,  January  SSlh,  1806,  It  was 
raised  U^a  kingdom.  In  189S  Brazil  waa  declared  a  kingdom  Independent  of  the  crown  of 
Portugal.  The  empire  of  Brasll,  aetedd  only  In  extent  to  Uie  giant  empires  of  China  and 
Bttsaiii,  embracea  nearly  the  half  of  th^^uth  American  continent ;  but  its  populatlon—whiteiS 
Begroea,  a«:d  Indiana— Is  less  than  alz  millionai  of  whom  only  about  one  mllUou  are  whitea. 

a.  Not.  13th,  1807.  b.  March  98th,  1806. 


CIurTL]  imnrBENTH  OKNTUKT.  489 

dkOflen  to  direeft  the  afiun  of  the  government ;  and  the  English  at 
•nee  eent  large  sappUee  of  arms  and  ammmiition  to  their  new  allies, 
while  Napoleon  waa  preparing  an  overwhelming  force  to  snstain  his 
nmirpation.  A  new  direction  waa  thus  given  to  affairs,  and  for  a 
time  the  European  war  centered  in  the  Spanish  Peninkula. 

29.  In  the  fil%t  contests  with  the  invaders  the  Spaniards  were 
generally  sacoessfiiL  A  French  squadron  in  the  Bay  of  Cadiz,  pre- 
vented from 'escaping  by  the  presence  of  an  English  fleet,  was  forced 
to  surrender :  *  Marshal  Moncey,  at  the  head  of  eight  thousand  men, 
was  repulsed  us  an  attack  ^  on  the  city  of  Valencia :  Saragossa,  de- 
landed  by  the  heroic  Palafox,  sustained  a  siege  of  sixty-three 
days ;«  and,  although  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  drove  the  French 
troops  from  its  walls :  Cor'  dova  was  indeed  taken^  and  plundered 
by  the  French  marshal  I>iq>ont,  yet  that  officer  himself  was  soon  after 
oompelled  to  surrender  at  Baylen,'  with  eight  thousand  men,  to  the 
patriot  general  Oastanos.  This  latter  event  occurred  on  the  20th 
of  July,  the  very  day  on  which  Joseph  Bonaparte  made  his  trl- 
umphid  entry  into  Madrid.  But  the  new  king  himself  was  soon 
obliged  to  flee,  and  the  French  forces  were  driven  beyond  the  Ebro.* 

SO.  In  the  meantime  ^e  spirit  of  resistance  had  extended  to  Por- 
tugal :  a  junta  had  been  established  at  Oporto'  to  conduct  the  gov- 
ernment :  British  troops  were  sent  to  aid  the  insurgents,  and  on  the 
aist  of  August  Marshal  Junot  was  defeated  at  Yimiera,*  by  Shr 
Arthur  Wellesley.  Thia  batUe  was  followed  by  the  convention  of 
Ointra,'  whidi  led  to  the  evacuation  of  Portugal  by  the  French 
fDrees. 

81.  Great  was  the  morttflcation  of  |Ripoleon  at  this  inauspicious 
beginning  of  the  Peninsular  war,  and  he  deemed  it  necessary  to  take 

L  BmgUik  U  a  town  of  Spain,  In  Uie  proTlnee  of  Jaflo,  twcat3r4wD  mll«  north  tnm.  Uie  dlgr 
aCJaan.   It  commands  llie  tomI  leadiog  from  butUe  into  Andalotla.    (JMvNo.Xin.) 

%,  Tbo  Skn  (UMlMiar  iMnw)  flows  Uumifth  the  north  eaitarn  p«rt  of  Spain,  and  Is  the  onlj 
gnat  rlTsr  of  the  peniflsilla  that  lUls  Into  the  Bledlterraneen.  Belbra  the  second  Pnnlo  wir 
It  fbimed  the  bonndary  between  the  Roman  and  Osrthsginlan  tenitortes,  and  tn  the  lime  of 
Ohsrlemasn^  between  the.Moorish  and  Christian  domtakme.    {Mmp  No.  XIIL) 

Z.  Ofmtt^  u  Important  commercial  dty  and  seaport  of  Portngal,  Is  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Xtooro,  two  miles  frtm  its  month,  and  one  hnndrsd  and  seTenty-fonr  mUes  north-east  from 
Ll^beau   (Jfnp  No.  XIII.)      . 

4.  rtmifra  Isa  smaU  town  of  the  Portosoese  prorlnoe  of  EsUemadtan,  about  thhiy  miles 
northeast  ftvmUsbon.    (Jtfeji  No.  XUI.) 

5w  atf  Is  a  small  town  of  Portogal,  twelve  miles  aorth-wsst  fW>m  Lisbon.  By  the  con> 
TcmSon  signsd  hers  Aug.  SSd,  180S,the  French  fonss  wero  to  be  conveyed  to  France  with  their 
vmS|  artillery,  and  property.  This  convention  was  eocesedlnfly  onpopnlar  In  England.  {Map 
No.  XIIL) 

a.JaneMlh.  h.ianettth.  e.  Jvne  llth,  to  ti«.  17th.  d.  IvwSih.  " 


4M  MODMBM  UlBftlU*  pPistt 

the  fidd  ta  panoB.  OoUaotiagkukoopaviiii  tbi  giwfeaitnpiii^^ 
IB  the  early  part  of  NoYember  lie  wai  id  tiie  nordi  of  Spain  st  iSbm 
head  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  thonnmd  bod.  He  at  onee  eoni* 
manicated  hia  own  energy  to  the  operatkme  of  the  army :  llie  Spaa* 
iarda  were  aeyerely  defeated  at  Beynoea,^  Brngoa,^  and  Tndd*;^  and, 
OB  the  4th  of  Deoenber,  N^»oleon  foroed  an  enteanA  into  the  capital 
The  British  troopa>  who  were  mardiing  to  the  anBiatanoe  of  the  Span^ 
iarda,  were  driven  book  upon  GonmBa,'  and  being  there  attadttd^ 
while  making  preparationa  to  embarit,  liiey  coaqMlled 
the  enemy  to  retire,  but  thdr  brave  eomaiandar^  ttp 
John  Moore,  waa  mortally  wounded.  On  AiB  foUowing  day  tha 
Britiab  abandoned  the  ahorea  of  Spain,  and  the  poaiaflwen  of  tiba 
ooontry  aeemed  aaaored  to  tiie  Frenoh  empo'or. 

32.  A  ahort  time  heSate  the  battle  of  Ooromia  Napobon  reoeifed 
despatehea*  which  indnoed  him  to  retam  immediately  to  Pan&  The 
Aoatrian  emperor,  humbled,  bnik  not  aabdned,  and  atimolaied  by  tim 
warlike  spirit  of  hia  anbjecta,  once  more  resolved  to  try  the  baaarda 
of  war,  while  the  best  troops  of  Napoleon  w«re  oocnqnad .  in  the 
Spanish  Peninsola.  On  the  8th  of  April  large  bodies  of  Anafcrisai 
troops  erossed  the  frontiers  of  Bohemia,  of  ^e  Tyrol,  and  of  Italyj 
and  soon  involved  in  great  danger  the  diaperaed  divisiolui  of  Napo* 
Icon's  army.  On  the  17th  of  the  same  month  Napaleon  arriv^  and 
took  the  command.in  person.  Baffling  the  Anstrtan  genenis  by  tha 
rapidity  of  his  movements,  he  speedily  oonfisntrated  his  divkioii% 
and.  in  four  daya  of  oossbats  and  manoBiivrsa,  from  the  Idth  to  the 

west  from  Bnigot.  Tadela  U  od  Ow  nbro,  one  hqndred  aud  tan  miles  «Mt  from  Bimoa. 
BufotltODeMiMlfedtmlthlftjHaiwmllMiiMdiorMMMd.  At  R«j»mb  Bteke  «m  ttaMad 
bj  tlM  FVeneh  uid«r  Marriial  Vletor:  at  Boi^gos  the  Spaniah  eoont  da  BelvMera  «m  ovoi^ 
llitowa  by  Mantel  Sovtt :  aad  at  I^Mlela  FUafoz  and  OMaaoa  vam  baalBB  by  MM^ 

&  CtnuauLfM  acHy  a^  aa^nrt  qf  flpalii,  >i  fta  north  waatea  eoEMaiilf  of  Iha  kfacilHiu 
Sir  John  Bioon  wm  alrnek  dovn  by  a  eaaaes  baU  aa  he  waa  «ihnatli«  a  regiment  to  thi 
charge.  «*  Wnpped  faj  hia  altendaala  in  Ua  vtiUtaffj  cloak,  he  waa  laid  1«  a  giar^  hatfSr^ 
farmed  on  the  rampartaof  Ooctmna,  whan  a  aaonmnent  waa  aoen  alter  eonalmetad  over  M 
naoofllDed  remaina  by  the  generoatty  of  tha  Weneh  marahal  Key.  Not  a  woid  waa  apokanai 
themelaaeholy  iatwment  by  toNhligl^ttook  plaee:  aUentiy  th^  hdd  him  lb  hit  gmiva)  wtaBa 
the  diatani  cannon  of  the  battle  fiiad  the  fluaral  hoaoia  to  hia  memory.'V.^iaa«. 

Thia  toachlDg  scene  haa  been  Tirklly  daaoribed  in  one  of  the  moat  beaatUtt  piamaer 
poatry  In  the  Bngllab  htt«nage,  beginning— 

**  Not  a  dram  waa  heard,  nor  a  frineral  notes 

Asbiacorpaototfaenunpartawebnnied;  ^ 

Not  a  aoldler  dlaehaiged  Ua  (iuaweU  shot 

(^er  the  gmva  wlaeraoar  hero  we  borled/* 

a.  Not.  10th  and  I  lib.  b.  Not.  10th.  c  Not.  SliL 

d.Jaa.lSlh.lS0OL  a.  Jan.  lal,  ISOa 


CMai'.VI]  nmnrfiflKNTH  C5ENTTJBT.  491 

22d  incltisive,  he  completed  the  ruin  of  the  Austrian  anny.  On 
the  last  of  these  days  he  defeated  the  Archduke  Charles  at  Eckmnhl,* 
and  compelled  him  to  recross  the  Danube.  Bapidlj  following  ug  his 
Tictories,  he  enteifed  Vienna  on  the  13th  of  May,  and  although  worsted 
in  the  battle  of  Aspern*  on  the  2l8t  and  22d,  on  the  5th  of  July  he 
gained  a  triumph  at  Wagram/  and  sQon  after  dictated  a  peace^  by 
which  Austria  was  compelled  to  surrender  territory  containing  thr^e 
and  a-half  millions  of  inhabitants. 

33.  During  the  war  with  Austria,  the  brave  Tyrolese  had  seized 
^e  opportunity  to  raise  the  standard  of  revolt ;  and  it  was  not  until 
two  powerful  French  armies  had  been  sent  into  their  country  that 
they  were  subdued.  The  British  government  also  sent  a  fleet,  and 
an  army  of  forty  tkousand  men,  to  make  a  diversion  against  Napo- 
leon on  the  coiast  of  Holland ;  but  the  expedition  proved  a  failure. 
The  war  still  continued  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  and  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  was  sent  out  by  the  Britbh  government  with  a  large  force 
to  codperate  with  the  Spaniards.  In  the  meantime  difficulties  had 
arisen  between  the  French  emperor  and  the  Pope  Pius  YIL :  French 
troops  entered  Bome;  and  by  a  decree^  of  Napoleon  the  Papal 
States^^  were  "annexed  to  the  French  empire.  This  was  followed  by 
a  bull  of  excommunication^  against  Napoleon,  whereupon  the  pope 
was  seized  and  conveyed  a  prisoner  into  France,  where  he  was  de- 
tained until  the  spring  of  1814. 

34.  Near  the  close  of  1809  the  announcement  was  made  that  Na- 
poleon was  about  to  obtain  a  divorce  from  the  Empress  Josephine, 

1.  JBdbMJU  Is  a  tmn  rma^t  «r  BaTuta,  ttdrtaen  IIiIm  toath  of  Batisbon,  and  ttty^wo 
adlat  norttMaat  from  Mnaielu  Marthal  OaTO«^  haTinf  partleotaly  tfttbigniilMl  Unaair 
iBllMbatttAof  UieSad,  was  failed  by  NaiK>l6(vi  tt>  the  dignity  o^prinoa  of  EckmnhL  (Jlf^ 
Rk>.  XVU.) 

^  jf  j]i<rm  is  a  mall  Austrian  TiUsgis  on  tha  eastern  bank  oT^lie  DanuSe,  opposite  the  island 
of  Loban,  about  two  miles  btiow  Vlenoa.  (Mmp  No.  XVII.)  After  two  days'  eontinoons 
Siting,  with  vast  loss  on  botb  sides,  Napoleon  wss  obliged  to  withdraw  his  troopa  from  the* 
Md,  and  take  reftige  In  the  island  of  Loban.  Blanhal  Laones,  one  of  Napoleon's  ablest  gsn- 
enis,  was  mortslly  wouided  on  the  Held  of  Aepem,  haying  both  his  legs  carried  away  by  a 
cannon  ball.  Napoleon  wss  deeply  aflbeted  on  beholding  the  dying  Marshal  brooght  off  the 
field  on  a  Utter,  and  extended  In  the  sgooies  of  death.  Kneeling  beilde  the  rude  oooeh,  he 
wept  freely. 

3.  ITofram  is  ssmanAostrlsn  Tillage  sleTsnmnssnorth-esst  of  Vienna.  (Jlfiy  No.  XVn,> 
In  the  battle  of  Wsgram  each  party  lost  about  twsnty-flTe  thoosuid  men :  fow  prisoners  weie 
taken  on  either  side,  and  the  Austrians  ntlrsd  from  the  field  In  good  order.  The  French 
bullstin,  copied  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  mys  the  Frsnoh  took  twenty  thousand  prisoner^— now 
admitted  to  be  a  grossly  erroneous  statemenC  The  retreat  of  the  Anstrlami,  howerer,  gaTe  to 
V^oIeoB  all  the  moral  advantages  of  a  yictoiy. 

a.1^mtyofVienM,O0t.I4lh.  b.  May  ITU^JMa 

&  Bee  Note^  p.  dl  June  11th  ^ 


JCODXBH  HBROBT.     .  [Fina 

jbr  the  purpose  of  aUjing  himeelf  with  one  of  the  rojal  fiuailies  of 
Borope.  To  Joeephine  Napoleon  was  warmly  attached ;  bat  leaaona 
of  state  policy  were,  in  his  breast,  superior  to  the  dearest  affections. 
His  first  marriage  having  been  annulled*  by  die  French 
sen%te,  early  in  1810  he  received  the  hand  of  Maria 
Louisa  of  Austria,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Francis.  This  mar- 
riage, which  seemed  permanently  to  establish  Napoleon  ^s  power,  by 
uniting  the  lustre  of  descent  with  the  grandeur  of  his  throne,  was 
one  of  the  principal  causes  of  his  final  ruin,  as  it  was  justly  feared 
by  the  other  European  powers  that,  secured  by  the  Austrian  alliance, 
he  would  strive  to  make  himself  master  of  Europe.  His  conduct 
towards  Holland  justified  this  suspicion.  Dissatisfied  with  his  broth- 
er's government  of  that  country,  he,  soon  after,  by  an  imperial  de- 
cree,^ incorporated  Holland  with  the  French  empire.  In  the  same 
year  Bemadotte,  one  of  his  generals,  was  advanced  to  the  throne  of 
Sweden.  Napoleon  continued  his  career  of  aggrandizement  in  the 
central  parts  of  Europe,  and  extended  the  French  limits  almost  to 
the  frontiers  of  Russia,  thereby  exciting  the  strongest  jealousy  of 
the  Russian  emperor,  who  renewed  his  intercourse  with  the  court  of 
London,  and  began  to  prepare  for  that  tremendous  conflict  with 
France  which  he  saw  approaching. 

35.  The  war  still  continued  in  the  Spanish  peninsula.  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  who  had  recently  been  created  Lord  Wellington,  had  the 
chief  command  of  the  English,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  foroea.  On 
the  10th  of  July  the  Spanish  fortress  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo^  surrend- 
ered to  Marshal  Msssena,  but  on  the  27th  of  September  Maasena 
was  defeated  in  an  attack  up4m  Wellington  <Hi  the  heights  of  Rosaoo.' 
Wellington,  still  porsutng  his  plan  of  defensive  operations,  then  re> 
tbred  to  the  strongly-fortified  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,'  which  defend- 

1.  Ciudad  B0dHf0  (In  Spufah  Ui»<XHlad'  rod-ree«o,  mMiiins,  *<Uie  dty  Bodrlgo,*^  Is  a 
lttoiigl7-ft>rtUled  city  of  Spain,  flftj^lve  milea  soatb-weat  lh>m  Salamanca.  In  1813  this  d^ 
was  retaken  hf  Wellingtoa,  an  achlerement  which  acquired  for  him  the  UUe  of  Duke  of  Qndad 
Bodrfgo  tmm  the  Spanish  gOTemment.    (Mup  No.  Zill.) 

Sl  Biuaee  b  a  mountain  ridge  starting  from  the  northern  bank  of  the  riTer  MoodsKO  a  few 
bUss  northreast  of  Cotmbra,  and  ezleodlng  north-west  about  eight  miles.  On  the  summit  of 
the  northern  portion  of  this  ranges  around  the  convent  of  Busaoo,  setenteen  miles  north-eait 
of  Coimbrs,  Welllngion  eoileoted  his  whole  army  of  fifty  thousand  men  on  the  evening  of  Ssp- 
tmber  SStli,  while  Massena,  with  seventy4wo  thousand,  lay  at  its  foot,  deteroJned  to  force  tbs 
pesBsge,  which  he  attempted  early  on  the  following  morning,  but  without  success.  (.tf«y  No 
XIII.) 

a  TWtm  WedroM  Is  a  small  village  on  the  road  from  Lisbon  to  Coimbrs,  twenty<lbiir  miles 
Borth-wsst  of  the  former.  The  **  Lines  of  Torres  Vedras,'*  constructed  by  Wellington  in  1911^ 
siniMlBle<l  of  three  distinct  rsnges  of  defence,  exlending  fttnn  the  river  Tagus  to  the  .4t)aaiis 
•k  Dea  15tk,  UMML  b.  July  flih,  ISia 


Ctatf,TIj  imffBTBEIfrH  GENTUET.  4M| 

ed  the  approadieB  to  Lisbon.  MaasenA  followed,  but  in  tmin  «n« 
deayored  to  find  a  weak  spot  where  he  eould  attack  with  any  prospeol 
of  success,  and  after  continuing  before  the  lines  more  than  a  month, 
he  broke  up  his  position  on  the  14th  of  Noyember,  and,  for  the  first 
time  since  the  accession  of  Napoleon,  the  French  eagles  commenced 
a  final  retreat 

36.  The  earljpart  of  1811  witnessed  the  siege  of  Badajos*  bj 
Marshal  Soult,  and  its  surrender  to  the  French  on  the 

10th  of  March ;  but  this  was  soon  followed  by  the  battle 
of  Albuera^'  in  which  the  united  British  and  Spanish  forces  gained 
an  important  victory.     Many  battles  were  fought  during  the  re* 
mabder  of  the  year,  but  they  were  attended  with  no  important 
results  on  either  side. 

37.  The  year  1812  opened  with  the  surrender  of  the  important 
sity  of  Valencia  to  Marshal  Suchet  on  the  9th  of  Jan-  ^j^  voavun 
uary — the  last  of  the  long  series  of  French  triumphs  in    oampaicui, 
the  peninsula.     On  the  same  day  Wellington,  in  another       ^^^^ 
quarter,  laid  siege  to  Ciudad  Bodrigo  ]  and  the  capture*  of  this  place 
by  tihe  British  arms  was  soon  followed  ^  by  that  of  Badajoz.     Wel- 
lington, following  up  his  successes,  next  defeated  Marmont^  in  the 
battle  of  Salamanca  :*  the  intrusive  king  Joseph  fled  from  Mad- 
rid, and  on  the  next  day  the  capital  of  Spain  was  in  the  possess- 
ion of  the  British  army.     The  concentration  of  the  French  forces 
again  compelled  the  cautious  Wellington  to  retreat  to  Portugal ;  but 
early  in  the  following  year,  1813,  he  resumed  the  o£fensive, — gained 

Oeeui,~tbe  moftt  adraiieed,  •mbracing  Torres  Vedru,  being  twaiity<&lD9  mflM  in  tangtb,— Um 
Moond,  tSbovx  tight  miles  in  ttie  raar  of  the  flnrt,  being  twentyWbor  mUes,  and  the  third,  or 
**  lines  of  embercaUon,'*  In  the  vldnlty  of  LIsboik,  designed  to  eorer  the  embeiwUen  of  th» 
troops  It  that  extremity  staDold  beeome  neceaaaiy.  More  than  llAy  miles  of  fbrtifloaHens,  bri^ 
tSh^  with  six  hnndred  pieces  of  artlllei7,  and  one  hundred  and  llAy  forta,  flanked  with  abattia 
•Bd  bveastworlta,  and  pwewitlng,  In  some  plnees,  high  hills  artiflelally  scarped,  in  othendeep 
and  narrow  passes  carefullj  ehoked,  and  artiflclal  pools  and  marshes  made  bj  damming  up  the 
slrfMuns,  were  defended  by  seventy  thousand  dispoaabl^en.  The  French  force  under  Msasena 
tmonnted  to  aboat  the  same  number.    (JVo^  No.  XUL) 

1.  Badqfn  is  a  city  in  the  west  of  Spain,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  Ibe  Goadiana,  abont  two 
hundred  miles  south-west  of  Madrid,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  miles  east  ef  Lisbon. 
(Jlfiy  No  XIU.) 

S.  dOwgra  is  a  small  town  fourteen  miles  soatlMast  of  Bad^jos.    In  the  battle  of  Alboecs, 
fought  May  16ib,  1811,  the  allied  British,  Bpaniah,  and  Portuguese  troops,  were  commanded  bj\ 
Marshal  Berasford,  and  the  French  by  Blarshal  Soolu'  (Mmp  No.  XIU,) 

3.  gsfflwawra  is  a  city  of  Leon  In  Spain,  one  hmMlred  and  nineteen  milea  noi1b*weei  from 
Madrid.  It  was  known  to  the  Bomans  by  the  name  of  SaUmamUcm.  During  a  toog  period  H 
Was  celebrated  as  being  ibe  sest  of  a  University,  which.  In  the  flAeenth  and  sizteflth  ceniufie^ 
was  attended  by  (kom  ten  thousand  to  flfleed  thousand  students.    (Map  No.  XIII.) 

a.  Jan.  ISth.  b.  AprU  6lh.  «.  July  8M.  4.  Ai«.  11th. 


a^  dMift^  \mM^  of  Tttlorm,*  tnd  beftm  tiM  dose  of  the  cmptig^ 
drovo  tlw  Frenoh  mtom  the  Pyrenees  into  their  aim  territories. 

38.  Doring  these  reverses  to  the  French  crms,  erents  of  greater 
flragnitnde  then  these  of  the  peninsular  war  ware  ocenpjing  the  per- 
eonal  attention  of  Napoleon.  The  jeatoasj  of  Russia  at  his  repeat- 
ed enoroaehments  in  Central  and  Northern  Europe  has  alre«fybeen 
mentioned :  moreover,  the  oommereial  interests  of  Rnssia,  in  com- 
mon  with  ihofi  <ii  the  other  Northern  powersy  had  been  greatly  in- 
jured by  the  measures  of  Napoleon  for  destroying  the  trade  of  Sng- 
land ;  but  the  Freneh  emperor  refbaed  to  abandon  his  isTorite  policy, 
and  the  angry  diseossions  between  the  cabinets  of  8t  Petersborg 
and  Versailles  led  to  the  assembling  of  vast  armies  on  both  sidesi 
and  the  commeneement  of  hostilities  in  the  early  part  of  the  sommer 
of  1812.  Napoleon  had  driten  Sweden  to  enter  into  an  alliance  witii 
Eoasik  and  England ;  bat  he  arrayed  aroand  his  standard  the  im> 
mense  forces  of  France,  Italy,  Qermany,  the  Oonfederation  of  the 
Rhine,  Poland,  and  the  two  monarchies  Prnssia  and  Anstria. 

39.  The  "  Grand  Army''  assembled  in  Poland  for  the  Rosnan 
war  amounted  to  the  immense  aggregate  of  more  than  ilTe  hundred 
thousand  men,  of  whom  eighty  thousand  were  cavalry — ^the  whole 
suf^rted  by  thirteen  hundred  pieces  of  cannon.  Nearly  twenty 
thousand  duuriots  or  carts,  of  all  descriptions,  followed  the  army, 
while  the  whole  number  of  horses  amounted  to  one  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  thousand.  To  oppose  this  vast  army  the  Russians  had 
colieeted,  at  the  beginning  of  the  oontest,  nearly  three  hundred  thou- 
sand men ;  but  as  the  war  was  carried  into  the  interior  their  forces 
increased  in  numbers  until  the  armies  on  both  sides  were  nearly 
equal 

40.  On  the  24th  of  June,  1812,  Napoleon  crossed  the  Niemoi  at 
the  head  of  the  <'  Grand  Army,"  and  entered  upon  his  ever  mem- 
orable Russian  campaign.  As  the  enormous  superiority  of  his  foroes 
rendered  it  hopeless  for  the  Russians  to  attempt  any  immediate  re- 
sistance, they  grad^ly  foil  back  before  the  invaders,  wasting  the 
country  as  they  retreated.  The  wisdom  of  this  course  soon  became 
apparent  A  terrible  tempest  soon  set  in,  and  the  horses  in  the 
French  army  perished  by  thousands  from  the  combined  effiaots  of  in* 


1.  nmrim  It  ft  lofWB  la  llw  SpoUh  prorUbe  of  AtoTi,  on  tht  n$d  behretn  Bw|ot  aad 
Bi9«>M»ilx4riiiOMiiorllMUl<hMntti»lbriiMr.  ThetMCttoorVtUorUalmoatmitliiliMtlM 
Pimtlkpommj^BptikL   (JViy  Sto.  zm.) 


OttfiTi]  isnxnfBESffs:  ceamxfKY.  4Si 


\  ran  and  mmatj  forage :  the  soldters  sidcened  in  great  nnm- 
Wn;  and  before  a  single  ^ot  had  been  fired  twenty-five  thotisand 
aiek  and  dying  men  filled  the  hoepitalfl';  ten  thoneand  dead  horseif 
atrenred  the  road  to  Wilna,'  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  pieces  of 
eanooft  were  abandoned  fcM^  want  of  the  means  of  ^ansport. 

41.  Still  Napoleon  pressed  onward  innieyeral  divisions,  frequently 
ddrmiabing  with  the  enemy,  and  driving  them  before  him,  nntil  he 
arrived  under  tiie  fortified  walls  of  Smdensko,  where  thirty  thousand 
Bnaaiana  made  a  stand  to  Oppose  him.  A  hundred  and  fifty  cannon 
were  brought  up  to  batter  the  walls,  but  without  efiect,  for  Uie  thick- 
ness of  tiie  ramsparts  defied  the  efforts  of  the  artillery.^  But  the 
French  howitiers  set  fire  to  some  houses  near  the  ramparts ;  the 
fiamee  spread  wiHi  wondevlbl  rapidity,  and  during  tiie  night  which 
followed  the  battle  a  lurid  light  from  the  burning  dty  Was  cast  over 
the  French  bxvouaosy  grouped  in  dense  masses  fi>r  several  miles  in 
curoumforenoe.  At  three  in  ike  morning  a  solitary  French  soldief  . 
Boaled  the  walls,  and  penetrated  into  the  %iterior ;  but  he  found 
neither  inhabitants  nor  opponents.  The  work  of  destruction  had 
been  completed  by  the  Toluntaiy  saeriloe  of  the  inhabitants,  who  had 
withdrawn  with  tiie  army,  leaving  a  mined  city,  naked  walls,  and  the 
cannon  which  mounted  tiiem,  as  the  only  trophy  to  the  conqueror. 

42.  The  division  of  the  army  led  by  Napoleon  followed  the 
Bnssians  on  the  road  to  Moscow,  engagbg  in  frequent  but  indecisire 
enoounteni  with  th^rear  guards  Wlmn  ^Uie  retreating  fbrceS  had 
reached  the  small  village  of  Borodino,*  their  commander,  General 
Kntnaof^  resdived  to  risk  a  ba4stle,  m  the  hope  of  saving  Moscow. 
On  the  evening  of  the  Gth  of  September  the  two  vast  armies  took  their 
positions  facing  each  other, — each  numbering  more  than  a  hundred 
and  thirty  thousand  men-— the  Eussians  having  six  hundred  and  forty 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  the  French  five  hundred  and  ninety.  Napoleon 
sought  to  stimulate  the  enthnsiaBm  of  Ms  soldiers  by  recounting  to 
them  the  ^ries  of  Marengo,  of  Jena,  and  of  Austeriits ;  while  a 
procession  of  dignified  clergy  passed  through  the  Russian  ranks,  be- 
stowing their  blessings  upon  the  kneeling  soldiers,  and  invoking  the 
aid  of  the  God  of  battles  to  drive  the  invader  from  the  land. 

1.  WUmMf  the  ftwmer  oqrftal  of  liOniftDia,  Ui  al  tiie  cohlliieiioe  of  tbe  riTWi  WUeoka  and 
WUna,  eHtora  trfbatarlMor  Um  NtomM,  alMMU  two  hmdred  and  IMIy  mOaa  BoillMail  inm 
Wanaw.  Populatton  nearljr  forty  thouiaiMl,  of  whom  more  Oun  UreBiy  UMonnd  an  Java* 
{Map  Mo.  XVII.) 

8.  BTtwfaW  (boiHHtoe-ao)  to  a  aaatt  Tfliaga  aboot  aaraaty  mllat  aowtb-irart  tnm,  f  awow 
€■  Um  amall  ftraam  ofttia  KoloUa,  a  tribvtarj  of  tbe  Moakwa. 

a  Aog,  lltlL  ^ 


4M  MODXBH  fiVTOKT.  tWMmgJL 

48.  At  nx  o'obMk  on  the  moniiog  of  d&«  7tk  a  gim  irod  frMi  the 
n«ook  llnM  aanoinioed  the  oofluteBMrnent  of  tke  \mMB :  tlie  rotf 
of  more  Uun  a  thousand  oaimoQ  shook  the  earth :  vast  douds  of 
SBftoke,  shutting  out  the  light  of  the  son,  arose  in  awfol  sablimHy 
OTsr  the  soene ;  and  two  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  eombataats,  led 
on  in  the  gathering  gloom  by  the  light  of  the  cannon  and  mnaketry, 
engaged  in  the  work  of  death.  The  battle  raged  with  desolating  fory 
nntil  night  put  an  end  to  its  horrors.  The  shui^tor  was  immense. 
The  loss  on  both  sides  was  nearly  equal,  amounting,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, to  ninety  thousand  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  Russian 
position  was  eyentually  earried,  but  neither  side  gained  a  deoiaiTS 
Tiotory. 

44.  On  the  day  after  the  batde  the  Russians  retired,  in  perliBei 
order,  on  the  great  road  to  Mosoow.  Preparations  were  immediately 
made  by  the  inhabitants  for  abandoning  that  city,  long  rerered  as 
the  cradle  of  the  empire  ;''and  when,  on  the  14th,  Napoleon  entered 
it,  no  deputation  of  citiMns  awaited  him  to  d^reoate  his  hostility, 
but  the  dwellings  of  three  hundred  thousand  persons  were  as  silent 
as  the  wilderness.  It  seemed  like  a  city  of  the  dead,  N^>oleon 
took  x^  his  residenoe  in  the  Kremlin,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  csara; 
but  the  Bttssian  authorities  had  determined  that  their  beloved  oitj 
should  not  afford  a  shelter  to  the  inTader&  At  midnight  on  the 
ni^tof  the  15th  a  yaat  light  was  seen  to  illuminate  the  most  disftni 
part  of  the  city ;  fires  broke  out  in  all  direotioi^;  and  Moscow  soon 
exhibited  a  Tast  ocean  of  flame  agitated  by  the  wmd.  Nine-tenths 
of  the  oity  were  consumed,  and  Napoleon  was  driven  to  seek  a  tern* 
poraiy  refuge  lor  his  army  in  the  country ;  but  afterwardi  returning 
to  the  Kremlin,  which  had  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  fire,  he  re> 
mained  there  until  the  19th  of  October,  when,  all.  his  propossls  of 
peace  being  rejected,  he  was  compelled  to  order  a  retreat 

45.  The  horrors  of  that  retreat,  whieh,  during  fifty-five  days  that 
intervened  until  the  recrossing  of  the  Niemen,  was  almost  one  con- 
tinued battle,  exceeded  anything  before  known  in  the  annals  of  war. 
The  exasperated  Russians  iotercepted  the  retreating  army  wherever 
an  opportunity  offered ;  and  a  cloud  of  Cossacks,  hovering  incessant* 
ly  around  the  wearied  columns,  gradually  wore  away  their  numbers. 
But  the  severities  of  the  Russian  winter,  which  set  in  on  the  6th  of 
November,  were  far  more  destructive  of  life  than  the  sword  of  the 
enemy.  The  weather,  before  mild,  suddenly  changed  to  intense  cold : 
the  wind  howled  frightfully  through  the  forests,  or  swept  over  the 


Ojur.yi.J  KINSTBaiTH  dBNTUBY.  40T 

plains  with  reaistloaB  fvry ;  and  ^e  mow  fell  in  thick  and  continue 
abowersy  soon  confounding  all  objects^  and  leaving  the  arm  j  to  wander 
without  landmarks  through  an  icy  desert  Thousands  of  the  soldiers, 
falling  benumbed  with  cold,  and  exhausted,  perished  miserably  in  sight 
of  their  companions ;  and  the  route  of  the  rear  guard  of  the  army  was 
literally  choked  up  by  the  icy  mounds  of  the  dead.  In  their  nightly 
bivouacs  crowds  of  starving  men  prepared,  around  their  scanty  fires, 
a  miserable  meal  of  rye  mixed  with  snow  water  and  horse  flesh ;  but 
numbers  never  awoke  from  the  slumbers  that  followed ;  and  the  sites 
of  the  night  fires  were  marked  by  circles  of  dead  bodies,  with  their 
feet  still  resting  on  the  extinguished  piles.  Clouds  of  ravens,  issuing 
from  the  forests,  hovered  over  the  dying  remains  of  the  soldiers ; 
while  troops  of  famished  dogs,  which  had  followed  the  army  from 
Moscow,  howled  in  the  rear,  and  often  fell  upon  their  victims  before 
life  was  extinct  The  ambition  of  Napoleon  had  kd  the  pride  and 
the  chivalry  of  Europe  to  perish  amid  the  snows  of  a  Russian 
winter ;  and  he  bitterly  felt  the  taunt  of  the  enemy,  '^  Could  the 
French  find  no  graves  in  their  own  land  T^ 

46.  Napoleon  had  first  thought  of  remaining  in'Winter  quarters  tkt 
Smolensko ;  but  the  exhausted  state  of  his  magazines,  and  the  con- 
centrating around  him  of  vast  forces  of  the  enemy,  which  threatened 
soon  to  overwhelm  him,  convinced  him  that  a  protracted  stay  was 
impossible,  and  on  the  14th  of  November  the  retreat  was  renewed — 
Napoleon,  in  the  midst  of  his  still  faithful  guards,  leading  the  ad- 
vance, and  the  heroic  Ney  brmgtng  up  the  rear.  But  the  enemy 
harassed  them  at  every  step.  During  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th,  in 
the  battles  of  Krasnoi,'  Napoleon  lost  ten  thousand  killed,  twenty 
thousand  taken  prisoners,  and  more  than  a  hundred  pieces  of  cannon 
fell  Into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  terrible  passage  of  the  Bere- 
sina,'  which  Was  purchased  by  the  loss  of  sixteen  thousand  prisoners, 
and  twenty-four  thousand  killed  or  drowned  in  the  stream,  completed 
the  ruin  of  the  Grand  Army.  All  si^rdination  now  ceased,  and  it 
was  with  difficulty  that  Marshal  Ney  could  collect  three  thousand 
men  on  foot  to  form  the  rear  guard,  and  protect  the  helpless  multi* 
tude  from  the  indefatigable  Cossacks ;  and  when  at  length  the  few 
remaining  fugitives  reached  the  passage  of  the  Niemen,  the  rear 
guard  was  reduced  to  thirty  men.  The  veteran  marshal,  bearing  a 
musket,  and  still  facing  the  enemy,  was  the  last  of  the  Grand  Army 

L  Xratnoi  U  a  small  toim  alMmt  tbirtj  mllos  MutlMrwt  tnm  Bmoteniko.  {Muf  No.  XVIL^ 
&TlwjS«v«Mclfaw«l«nilrl^iitei7oftlMDnl«per.   See  JK^  No.  XVIL 

32 


IfODBBV  HflnORT.  [Kotll 

ivh0  faft  the  Busiba  territory.  N^Kileoii  kid  almdj  ibtndoDed 
tlie  remnant  of  his  forces,  and,  aetting  out  in  a  aledge  for  Paris,  be 
arrired  there  at  midnight  on  the  18tii  of  December,  eren  before 
the  ntfwa  of  hie  terrible  rereraes  had  reached  the  capital  It  has 
been  eatiniated  that,  in  this  foraona  Roaaian  campaign,  one  hundred 
and  twentj'five  thousand  men  of  the  armj  of  Napoleon  perished  in 
battle ;  that  one  hundred  and  thirfy^wo  thousand  died  of  &tigae^ 
hunger,  and  cold ;  and  that  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  were  taken 
prisoners. 

47.  While  these  great  events  were  transpiring  on  the  continent  of 
Borope,  dificulties  arose  between  the  United  States  of  America  and 
Great  Britain,  which  led  to  the  opening  of  war  between  those  two 
powers  in  the  summer  of  1812.  Mexico  was  at  this  time  passing 
through  the  struggles  of  her  first  Revolution ;  and  a  feeble  war  was 
still  mabtained  between  the  French  and  British  possessicms  in  the 
Indian  seas ;  but  these  events  were  of  little  interest  in  comparison 
with  that  mighty  drama  which  was  enacting  around  the  centre  of  Na- 
poleon's power,  and  which  was  converting  nearly  all  Burope  into  a 
Sold  of  Mood. 

48.  Notwithstanding  his  terrible  reverses  in  the  Russian  campaign. 

Napoleon  found  that  he  still  possessed  the  confidence  of 
the  French  nation :  he  at  once  obtuned  from  the  senate 
a  new  levy  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men — took  the  most 
vigorous  measures  to  repair  his  losses,  and,  having  arranged  his  dif- 
ficulties with  the  pope,  on  thd  15th  of  April  he  left  Paris  for  the 
theatre  of  waf  In  the  meantime  Prussia  and  Sweden  had  joined 
the  alliance  against  him;  a  general  insurrection  spread  over  the 
German  States ;  Austria  wavered ;  and  already  the  confederates  had 
advanced  as  far  as  the  Blbe.  On  the  2d  of  May  Napoleon  gained 
the  battle  of  Lutsen,  and  a  fortnight  later  that  of  Bautzen ;'  but  as 
these  were  not  decisive,  on  the  4th  oV  July  an  armistice  was  agreed 
to,  and  a  congress  met  at  Prague  to  consider  terms  of  peace. 

49.  As  Napoleon  would  listen  to  nothing  dalculated  to  limit  his 
power,  en  the  expiration  of  the  armisiioe,  on  the  10th  of  Augast, 
war  was  renewed,  when  the  Austrian  emperor,  abandonmg  the  cause 
olP  his  son-in-law,  joined  the  allies.  Napoleon  at  once  commenced  a 
series  of  vigorous  operations  against  hb  several  foes,  and  with  van* 

1.  BMMtten  (bouVMB)  ii  ft  town  of  Saxony  on  the  eaitom  bank  of  tbo  river  Sprae^  thiitf^so 

(jir«No.xvii^ 


<nui  iaooeM  fcuglit  the  bftttles  of  Oulm;^  Gross-BereA,*  tbe  Katsbatih,* 
ft&d  Ddnnewits,^  in  which  the  allies,  although  not  decidedly  viotorionB, 
Were  conatantly  gaining  strength.  In  the  first  battle  of  LeipsjCy 
fongfat  on  the  16th  of  October,  the  resalt  was  indecisive,  bnt  in  th# 
battle  of  the  16th  the  French  were  signally  defeated,  and  on  l^e  fol- 
lowing morning  began  a  retrograde  movement  towards  the  Rhine. 
Pressed  on  all  sides  by  the  allies,  great  nxmibers  were  made  prisoners 
daring  the  retreat;  about  eighty  thousand,  left  to  garrison  the 
Prussian  fortresses,  surrendered;  the  Saxons,  Hanoverians,  and 
Hollanders,  threw  off  the  French  yoke ;  and  it  was  at  this  time  that 
Wellington  was  completing  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Spain. 
50.  The  year  1814  opened  with  the  invasion  of  Franoe,  on  the 
eastern  frontiers,  by  the  Prussian,  Russian,  and  Austrian 
armies ;  while  Wellington,  having  crossed  the  Pyrenees, 
laid  siege  to  Bayonne :  Bemadotte,  the  old  comrade  of  Napoleon, 
but  now  king  of  Sweden,  was  marching  against  France  at  ihe  head 
a  hundred  thousand  men ;  and  Murat,  king  of  Naples,  brother-in-law 
of  the  French  emperor,  eager  to  secure  his  crown,  entered  into  a  se- 
cret treaty  with  Austria  for  the  expxdsion  of  the  French  from  Italy. 
Never  did  the  military  talents  of  Napoleon  shine  with  greater  lustre 
than  at  this  crisis.  I>uring  two  months,  with  a  greatly  inferior  force, 
he  repelled  the  attacks  of  his  enemies,  gained  many  brilliant  victo- 
ries, and  electrified  all  Europe  by  the  rapidity  and  skill  of  his  move- 
ments. But  the  odds  were  too  great  against  him ;  the  enemy  had 
crossed  the  Rhine,  and  while,  by  a  bold  movement,  Napoleon  threw 
himself  into  the  rear  of  the  allies,  hoping  to  intimidate  them  into  a 
retreat)  they  marched  upon  Paris,  which  was  compelled  to  capitulate 
b^re  he  could  come  to  its  relief  Two  days  later  the  emperor  wtti 
formally  deposed  by  the  senate,  and,  oh  the  6th  of  Apnl,  with  a 
trembling  hand,  he  signed  an  unconditional  abdication  of  the  thronee 
of  France  and  Italy.  By  a  treaty  concluded  between  him  and  the 
allies  on  the  11th,  Napoleon  was  promised  the  sovereignty  of  the 

1.  Citlm  is  a  niuai  town  in  Um  north  of  Bohemia,  at  the  foot  of  Ihe  Ene-Geblrg  monntalu, 
i^bovt  fifty  milea  north'West  ftom  Pngne.  On  (he  SOth  of  Aogint,  1613,  the  French  nnder 
Vaadamme  were  ntterly  OTerwhetmed  by  the  aliied  Aaitriant,  Roaiianii  and  Praariaaa,  eom. 
nanded  by  Barclay  de  Tolly.    {Map  No.  XVII.) 

2.  ChroM»'Ber*n  (grooe-blren)  Sa  a  BinaU  Tillage  a  abort  distance  aonlh  of  Bertln,  and  eaat 
ofPoCadam    (Jtf^p  No.  XVIL) 

3.  The  K»',Mbaek  (kata-baek)  ia  a  western  trfbntary  of  the  Oder,  In  Slllda.  The  battle,  or 
aerenJ  batUos  of  that  name,  wers  fought  near  the  eastern  bank  of  that  stream,  west  of  LlegniU, 
and  flny<4iye  miles  north-west  from  Breslan.    (Jfap  No.  XVII.) 

4.  Dtnntwitx  Is  a  small  Tillage  of  Pniaslaii  Saxony,  MTan  aiki  norttheaK  flront  Wftlciab«g 
(JKyNaXVIL) 


iOO  VODOS  HB3I0BT.        *  {EwU 


i  of  Slbfty*  and  a  peaiioii  of  one  hmdred  dMmaBiid  pomidt  per 
anomn.  .  On  the  3d  of  May,  Lonia  XVIIL,  retnrDing  from  hia  long 
oxile,  reentered  Paris :  to  oonctliate  the  Frendi  people  he  gaye  tbem 
a  eonstitational  charter,  and  soon  after  condnded  a  formal  treaty 
with  the  allies,  by  which  the  continental  dominions  of  France  were 
restricted  to  what  they  had  been  in  1792. 

51.  The  final  settlement  of  European  affiurs  had  been  left  to  a 
general  congress  of  the  ministers  of  the  allied  powers,  which  assem* 
bled  at  Vienna  on  the  25th  of  September ;  bat  while  the  conferences 
were  still  pending,  the  congress  was  thro#n  into  o(mstemation  by  the 
announcement  that  Napoleon  had  left  Elba.     An  extensive  con^ira- 

cy  had  be^  formed  throa|[^oat  France  for  restoring  the 
£illen  emperor,  and  on  the  1st  of  March,  1815,  he  landed 
at  Frejos,  accompanied  by  only  eleyen  hundred  men :— everywhere 
the  soldiery  received  him  with  enthusiasm :  Ney,  who  had  sworn 
fidelity  to  the  new  government,  went  over  to  him  at  the  head  of  a 
force  sent  to  arrest  his  progress;  and  on  the  evening  of  the  20th  of 
March  he  reentered  the  French  capital,  which  Louis  XYIIL  had 
left  early  in  the  mornmg.  With  the  exception  of  Augereau,  Mar* 
mont,  MafDdonald,  and  a  few  others,  all  the  officers,  civil  and  military, 
embraced  his  cause; — at  the  end  of  a  month  his  authority  was  rees- 
tablished throu^ut  all  France ;  and  he  again  found  himself  »t  the 
summit  of  power,  by  one  of  the  most  remarkable  transitions  recorded 
in  history. 

52.  In  vain  Napoleon  now  attempted  to  open  negotiations  with 
the  allied  powers,  and  professed  an  ardent  desire  for  peace ;  the  allies 
denounced  him  as  the  common  enemy  of  Europe,  and  refused  to  re- 
cognise his  authority  as  emperor  of  the  French  people.  All  Europe 
was  now  in  arms  against  the  usurper,  and  it  was  estimated  that,  by  the 
middle  of  summer,  six  hundred  thousand  effective  men  could  be  as- 
sembled against  him  on  the  French  frontiers.  But  nothing  which, 
genius  and  activity  could  accomplish  was  wanting  on  the  part  of  Na- 
poleon to  meet  the  coming  storm ; — and  in  a  country  that  seemed 
drained  of  men  and  money,  he  vras  able,  by. the  Ist  of  June,  to  put 

1.  XOfl,  <di6  atUulU  of  Oie  Greeks,  and  the  lUa  or  R^a  of  the  Romaos,)  Is  a  moaatebiooi 
Island  of  the  MedUerraoeao,  between  the  Italian  coast  and  Oorsica,  six  or  seven  mllea  from  the 
nearest  point  of  the  former,  and  having  an  area  of  about  one  hundred  and  flftj  sqiiara  mites. 
It  dorives  Its  chief  historical  Interest  from  iu  having  been  the  residence  and  empire  of  Napo^ 
leon  from  the  3d  of  May  1814,  to  the  96(h  of  February  1815.  During  thU  short  period  a  mA 
was  opened  between  the  two  principal  towns,  tnde  revived,  and  n  now  em  seeuMd  to  hate 
aawnednponttie  Island.    (JH^p  No.  VJU.) 


CBMf  vt]  NJMiTiBJurrM  Gsmmr.  Ml 

•n  ibot  an  army  of  two  himdred  and  tWtaiy  thouaaad  Teierana,  who 
had  served  in  hid  former  wars. 

53.  His  policy  was  to  attaok  the  allies  in  detail,  before  their  foroen 
could  be  concentrated,  and  with  this  view  he  hastened  across  the 
Belgian  frontier  on  the  15th  of  Jane,  with  a  force  nnmberiDg,  at  that 
point,  one  hondred  and  twenty  thousand  meo.  On  the  1 6th  he  defeated 
the  Prussians,  under  Blucher,  at  Ligny,'  but  at  the  same  time  Ney  was 
defeated  by  Wellington  at  Quatre  Bras.'  The  defeat  of  the  Prussians 
induced  Wellington  to  fall  hack  upon  Waterloo,*  where,  at  eleven 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  18th,  he  was  attacked  by  Napoleon  in 
person,  while,  at  the  .same  time,  large  bodies  of  French  and  Prussians 
were  engaged  at  Wayre.*  On  the  field  of  Waterloo  the  combat 
raged  during  the  day  with  terrific  fury — Napoleon  in  vain  hurling 
column  after  column  upon  the  British  lines,  which  withstood  his  as- 
saults like  a  wall  of  adamant ;  and  when,  at  length,  at  seven  in  the 
evening,  he  brought  up  the  Imperial  Guard  for  a  final  effort,  it  was 
driven  back  in  disorder.  At  the  same  time  Blucher,  coming  up  with 
the  Prussians,  completed  the  rout  of  the  French  army.  The  broken 
host  fled  in  all  directions,  and  Napoleon  himself,  hastening  to  Paris,  was 
the  herald  of  his  own  defeat.  Once  more  the  capital  capitulated,  and 
was  occupied  by  foreign  troops  :  Napoleon  a  second  time  abdicated 
the  throne,  and,  after  vainly  attempting  to  escape  to  America,  sur- 
rendered himself  to  a  British  man-of-war.  He  was  banidied  by  the 
allies  to  the  island  of  St  Helena,*  where  he  died  on  the  5th  of  Ma^ 

I.  LifHf  ft  ft  sman  Tillage  on  the  small  stream  of  the  same  name,  two  or  three  mUes  north- 
«Mt  of  Fleoraai  and  aboat  eighteen  miles  east  of  sonth  from  Waterloo.  {Maps  Nos.  XII. 
and  XV.) 

9L  QuAtrt  £ra$  (kah-tr-brah  ''four  arms,**)  is  at  the  meeting  of  foor  roads  about  ssTenteea 
mlies  loalh  fh>m  Bnusels,  and  nearly  ten  miles  south  from  Waterloo.  (Jlfa^«  Nos.  XIL 
•ndXV.) 

X  WaUri00  is  ft  small  Tillage  or  hanUet  of  Belgium,  nine  miles  sonth  of  Bmssels,  and  on  ite 
soolh-westem  border  of  tbe  forest  of  Soignies.  The  great  road  Anom  Bmssels  leading  sonth  to 
Charlerol  passes  through  Waterloo,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  south  of  which  was  tho 
centre  of  the  position  of  the  allies,  who  occupied  the  crest  of  a  range  of  gentle  eminences,  ex- 
liodlttg*about  two  miles  in  length,  and  crossing  the  high  road  at  right  angles.  Tbe  FVsndi 
oraqr  occupied  a  oorrespooding  line  of  iW^ssussflf  parallel,  on  the  oppoelta  sideof  the  vailcgr* 
asMlobontlhrse-quarlers  of  a  mile  distant.  In  the  voU^  belweeii  theM  rld^ss  the  •»  Bottle  of 
Waterloo"  was  fought   (Jtfop*  Nos.  Xn.  and  XV.) 

4.  fTmtn  be  small  vill^e  on  the  western  bank  of  a  smaU  strson  called  tbe  Dyle,  nine  vllet 
•  little  south  of  east  from  Waterloo,  and  flAeen  miles  south-east  frea  Bmssels.  Hie  rlTcr  Qyl* 
is  not  deep,  but  at  tbe  period  of  the  battle  it  was  swollen  by  tbe  rsceni  hesTy  rain,  and  th» 
■DMiswsrelnanilfystate.    (JMbfs  Nos.  XII.  and  XV.) 

A.  SC  MaltMm  Is  an  iaiand  of  (he  Atlntte  Ooeau,  belengtag  to  Gnat  Bvttaia,  in  Ofleen  deg. 
Siiesp  min.  south  InL,  and  twetTo  hundred  miles  west  flwthe  const  of  BsBgusia  In  Sooth  AJ; 
itak  I  ijih  IM  snil  s  bilf  mllii.  brsailtTi  §\r  anil  r  HrFf  n'ln  &iaarMl^Wiiid,tt»lBi» 
rtar«rvhldhIaaplai«aafeMtflAss»teMli«dfoetal»PstheltMlcrfltoM.  Ite  hli^a^ 


HBRQBT*  [Fiwlt 

imi,  dsriag  «M  of  ike  ami  ▼iohnt  lfl«q^<0te  Ofti  Udemrfs^ 
on  the  ifiland — fitting  time  for  tke  aoul  of  Napoleon  to  take  its  do- 
pertinre.  In  his  last  lomonta  his  tiion^^ta  wandered  to  tbe  aoenes  of 
his  military  glory,  and  hia  last  worda  were  those  of  eoounaad,  aa  hs 
faioied  himsolf  at  the  head  of  his  armiea. 

54.  After  the  oapitalation  of  Paris,  the  tranqniliiation  of  Franoei 
and  the  future  peaoe  and  safety  of  Eorope,  reoeiyed  the  first  atten* 
tiea  of  the  allies.  Louis  XVIII.  following  in  the  rear  of  their 
orsuos,  entered  the  oapital  on  the  8th  of  July;  but  the  Freneh 
people  felt  too  deeply  the  hwoilifttion  of  defeat  to  ezpreas  any  joy  at 
his  restoration.  The  mournful  tn^edy  which  followed,  in  tiie  exe- 
eution  of  Manhal  ^ey  and  Labedoytee  for  high  treason  in  favoring 
Napoleon^s  return  firom  Blba,  after  the  undoubted  protection  which 
had  been  guaranteed  them  by  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  was  a  staia 
upon  the  character  of  the  allies ;  and  although  Ney^s  treason  was 
beyond  that  of  aay  other  man,  to  the  end  of  the  world  his  guilt  will 
be  forgotten  in  the  broken  &ith  of  his  enemicB,  and  the  tragic  interest 
and  noble  heroism  of  his  death.  The  &te  of  Murat,  king  of  Naples, 
was  equally  mournful,  but  leas  unjust  On  Napoleon's  landiog  at 
Frejus  he  had  made  a  diyersion  in  his  &Tor  by  breaking  lus  alUanoa 
with  Austria,  and  oommenoing  the  war ;  but  the  cowardly  Neapoli- 
tans  we^e  easily  overthrown,  and  Murat  was  obliged  to  seek  refuge  in. 
Vrance.  At  the  head  of  a  few  followers  he  afterwards  made  a  descent 
€|)on  the  coast  of  Naples,  in  the  hope  of  regaining  his  power ;  but 
being  seised,  he  was  tried  by  a  military  commission,  condemned,  and 
executed. 

55.  Oh  the  20th  of  November,  1815,  the  second  treaty  of  Paris 
was  conofuded  between  France  and  the  allied  powers,  by  which  Uie 
French  frontier  was  narrowed  to  nearly  the  state  in  which  it  stood 
in  1790 :  twenty^ight  million  pounds  sterling  were  to  be  paid  bj 
France  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  a  larger  sum  still  for  tha 


pwhndradMAttMillMtimMifht  JamMom,  Sm  p«V 
rlttaiilitiMoolytowii.  I.TTiirirmti1,  ft«  rMWmiiio  nf  TTipnlKon  HiMto 
OB  the  platora.  In  ttie  middle  of  an  •xtenalTo  pirk.  After  Najpokoa^  death  Uta  fcoMe  wain 
aeme  thae  whihaWledi  hut  laaa  taaUy  ceiraarted  taito  a  klftlof  (hnati«  eatablWuBeiil;  ead 
Mseatly,  the  room  la  whl^  Sia  eanqveior  of  Aartartlte  hraathad  hit  laat,  ivm  eeoufled  aa  m* 
eaftphoweaadatablal 

K^ioteoii  arriTod  at  81.  Helena  on  ttie  I3Hi  of  Oetober,  1819^  and  tiiera  he  esi>ired  on  the  SIk 
of  Maf,  IStL  mafomatMy  after  havtw  been  depodted  fhr  nineteen  jmn  tai  a  hwble  «rava 
■aar  Ihn  hooaa)  wu%  in  1S40,  ooqjwvd  vHh  fraat  penqi  end  oaNnonr  to  Fknnoa»  «hfl% 


ihujtjt]  JHUHfi'Kim4fH  OBNT0BT.  W 

i|)o]iati0Bfl  wiiidi  she  had  mflieied  on  oilier  powoM  daring  her  Rero- 

lution,  and  for  fiye  years  her  frontier  fortresses  were  to  be  placed  in 
the  hands  of  her  reoent  enemies ;  while  the  vast  treasures  of  art 
whioh  adorned  the  mnsenms  of  the  Lonvre — ^the  trophies  of  a  hundred 
Tictories — ^were  to  be  restored  to  the  States  from  which  they  had 
oeeii  pillaged  by  the  orders  of  Napoleon.  .  Moumfdlly  the  Parisians 
parted  with  these  memorials  of  the  glories  of  the  consulate  and  the 
empire.  The  tide  of  conquest  had  now  set  against  France  herself:— 
her  pride  was  broken — ^her  humiliation  complete — and  the  iron  en- 
tered into  the  soul  of  the  nation. 


SECTION    11. 

FBOM  THE  FALL  OF  NAPOLEON  TO  THE  PBESENT  TDOL 

L  THE  FERIOD  OF  PRAGSi  ISlft-MSa. 

iUfALYSIB.  CTUATisa  Of  ISIS.]  L  Tmij  betwwn  Riiiri%  PiniMta*  Awtria,  and  £§«• 
lMi4.  TlM<*HoljAIUHMb'*  G«itfna«oofliiioiitolU~8.  IltuaunhiI»|Ol4«6ta,alld«aMk— 
^  OoadMon  of  Swop*.   Oontinoad  popular  tKfiit0««a|  but  obaoee  In  ill  obiMi. 

4.  TbM  toclal  eoatMt  fa  Xmslakd.  Proapfliitr  of  finglMMi  doriag  tho  wv^—S,  IMiappoiidad 
aspoetalloiuk  GuMsofagenanlramlilon.  aoardty,  Id  JSIS^— <l  Other  coDiribmlng  oua— 
^«a«i.fc^  mpply  of  tlM  pfadow  nwtata,  Jbg.  Domnd*  of  ih^  BwHrala  r^7.  PoUcv  of  Ite 
B^Utk  gOTwninoDL  Refoms  tnnlad.  Baportod  9oiuiginej.r-S.  SCrlngont  maasorea  of  gor* 
anmant.  Tbe  maollBg  al  Maaobaatar.  tMaaebealer.]  CoaUaoad  aomplahila.  GoTatnmanl 
earrlat  aU  4to  Important  maaaarea.-^.  Tha  piratical  Stataa  of  Mortham  AMaa.  [Barbai7.]  Tha 
UalladStataaof  AmaflaaaBdAlglan^lOL  fibaiilamnaBt  of  Algtara  by  an  JBogMah  aquadrop,  In 
laiS^— li.  Importaaoabof  tbaia  aTcnla.   Dedina  of  tha  Ottoaian  ampiiaw 

Ul  attaatlon  of  Fbahos  ai  tba  tUno  of  tha  aeoond  vaatontf on.  Changa  la  pabltc  (Ming 
■jpdiMA  tba.Bonapartiata  and  Bapablieana,  Pimlnhmaat  of  tha  BavolotlODlats  damandad  ^38, 
BattgUwa  and  poUtlaal  tbaiU,  Atrodtiaa.— 14.  DaauuMla,  and  aotai  of  tha  Oiambar  of  Dapvtiaa 
of  18}A.  aii«alar  poaiUdB  of  paEtl«i.^lS.  FoUof  of  tba  king  and  adnlaUj,  and  «m«»  d'atat 
(Ao^MaA)  of  Sapt.  1810.— 18.  EAmU  of  tba  naw  ■aawitaa. 

IL  SEVOLUnOMB  IN  SPAIH,  POBTUOAL,  NAPLES,  PnDMONT,  QRUOl^ 
niAMCB,  BBLeiUM,  AND  POLAND:  18»-]BU. 

L  Staxx.  1.  Spain  fkoaa  1818  to  1810.  Grant  of  a  oonstttotion  la  1890.  Tba  paHgr  oppoaad 
to  tt.  Action  takan  by  tba  Enropaan  powara^— S.  Intartoaooa  of  tha  Francb  tai  1893.  B« 
Bftataidar  of  tha  rdgn  of  Ferdinand.   Tha  oooraa  of  Englang  and  tha  United  Stataa  of  Amarka. 

n.  PonTUOAU  1.  Sltoatlon  of  Portugal.  RaTOlntion  of  ISUi  OppoalttoB  lo,  and  aop* 
praaaion  of;  tha  naw  cenatltutlon.  Anarcby.— S.  Don  Pedro.  Don  Mlgnell  naarpattoo.  QtU 
war.    Foreign  interferenoe,  and  raatoraUon  oftranqjiUllty. 

IIL  NiLPLBs.  1.  HIatory  of  tha  kingdom  of  Naplea  prerlona  to  1815.--8.  Tba  anbMqnent  rala 
«f  Faidlnand.  Popnlar  laMuraaUoo  la  July,  1880.  Grant  of  a  cooatttotloB.  Baaolntiaa  of 
SaHla,Avtite,aadPnMla,to  pvtdowB  thaopMtttndoa.  [1WppaiL>-3.  Oondaet  of  IMW 
Mad.  .[LiVbirii.]   Aa  Anatrtaa  amy  aappraiaaa  tha  Eawolittloa. 

IV.  Itaasom.   L  A<ea—fcatfUtB8MdlalaH>0Bawby.   Clwdiala.  VMalao.]  PaeUi«i«^ 


804  If  ODXRK  B18TDRT. 

wplihiW  of  th»  PHaiiiMiMi    ■■  tewfWBtto^  to  PtidMoat,  Matdi  MIL 

toffTMUiaodabdlcaUooorttekliif.    AuMrlu  totiriteVBM  Mippravn  Ite  EtmiottHL 

V.  Turn  Gkbbk  Rktoldtiov.  1.  History  of  Groece  ttom  1481  to  18iL  Proclaouflott  of 
CSraelM  iDdspMdeoM  in  1881.  BnppioMioa  of  Ike  Barotatkw  la  Mortheni  Gnem.  [Utaa- 
lan.  Tn«Mo.J— 9.  B«gliinii«  and  ■pnMd  oT  the  BevoJaUoB  !•  the  Heraa.  Fkodamalioa  of- 
the  MeaaenUa  teoate.  [Kalamatia.]  AklezlendedtatbeGreeka.— 3.  Rage,  ud  cruelties,  of  the 
Tnrfca.  £lfccu  produoed^4.  ETonto  oa  the  Aalalie  coaat,  Ia  Gtadia,  Cfpnm,  Rhodea,  ftc. 
Buocenet  awl  rataliatory  meaaurea  of  the  Greaks.  [Monemheria  Mavarioo.  TtipoUlsa.]~-Jb 
Defeai  of  the  Turks  at  Theimopyla.  The  peniaaula  of  Oitwandm  laid  waate  bjr  tlMm.  [Gai^ 
aamira.]    The  Turks  driveo  ttom  the  oonatrf  to  the  cities. 

£189;i.}~6.  Aeu  of  the  Gieek  ooofieai.  [EpidaanM.]  Hiwanioni  and  dH&eoltiea  ana«f 
the  Greeks.— 7.  Principal  military  evenu  of  Id^i.  [Scio.  Napoli  di  Roiaaiiia.]--&  Ocatruetiea 
of  Scio.  EvenU  In  Southern  Maoedonia.  [Salonica.]— 8.  ErenU  in  Weuem  Greece.  Hie 
Oieek  Oro^bips.    CT«<wdos.]    Greet  Iocs  of  Turkish  vetaala.   Thklng  of  Napoli  di  P**-*^^^e 

[1893.}— 9.  fiTonis  of  the  war  during  the  year  1823.  [MisMlof^L]  The  poet  Lord  Bjion. 
[ltS4.}— 10.  The  Turks  besiege  Negropoot,  aubdue  Gandlat  rBdooe  Ipaarai  and  allaek  Semo^ 
The  Egyptian  lleeL  [lft2S^]-ll.  Soooeaaea  of  Ibrahim  Pacha  in  the  Moree.  Siege  and  ftdl 
of  Mtasolonghl.  [Saloon.]  Fate  of  the  InlmbMnnto  of  If  lsBoloi«hl.— IS.  Dai^er  apprehended 
(hvn  the  successes  of  Ibrahim  Pacha,  and  treaty  of  liondon,  July  1897.-13.  Allied  sqnadiea 
■eat  to  the  archipelago.  Battle  of  NaTartno.  Esge  of  the  Porte.— 14.  Freooh  and  Ei«lish  army 
seat  to  the  Morea,  1898.  War  between  Russia  and  Turkey.  [Pruth.]  Convention  with  Ibra- 
him Pacha.  Successes  of  the  Greeks.  Retaliatory  meaaures  of  the  aollan.— 15.  Protocol  of  the 
alllea,  Jan.  1837.  [Cydades.J  Succeasea  of  the  Rnssfansi  and  peace  of  Adrianople.  [Balkan 
Mts.]— Itt.  Unsettled  coodiUoa  of  the  couaiiy  aad  Us  aobeaqaent  hialory. 

VI.  Tna  Fkbnch  Rcvoldtioh  or  1830.  I.  Beginning  of  the  rdgn  of  Charlea  X.  PHnclpha 
of  bis  government  and  oppoallkiB  of  the  paopla.  The  PoUgaae  mlniMry,  1938.— >>.  The  royal 
apecch  at  the  opening  of  the  Chambers  in  183U.  Eflteta.  Reply  of  the  Chambcra.  DIasolatiea 
of  the  Chambers.— 3.  War  with  Algien.-4.  CooUaued  exeltement  In  France.  Reaott  «f  the 
eluetlonaL  Courie  paraoed  by  the  ministry.  The  three  ordinances  of  July  S6th.  Aooompaay- 
tag  report  of  the  ministers.— A.  Hie  ooane  pursaed  by  the  public  jooroala.  RacHemeat 
througfaoul  ParlSb  Apalhy  of  the  kiag  and  mbdsters.— <L  RveaU  of  the  STih.  ManosoaL 
Arming  of  the  people.— 7.  On  the  S8lh  the  riot  assumes  the  aspect  of  a  Revelttttoa.  The  oca 
test  durtag  the  day.  Ito  reenlts.— 8.  Renewal  of  the  eoateot  oa  thetMid  day.  DeiseUoo of 
the  troops  of  the  linoi  and  success  of  the  reToluUoo.  InstaUaUoa  of  a  proviaiooal  goTeranaeak 
Louis  Pblllippe  elected  klag.— 8.  Alarm  of  the  eoadnental  soTereigBa.  The  emperor  of  Raada. 
Charles  X.  and  his  ministers. 

VII.  Bkloiom.  ,  1.  Bllecu  of  the  FVeheh  RetolatioB  upon  Eorope.  BeTOlutloB  In  BelgiBm. 
—9.  Vain  attempts  at  reconciliation.  DedaraUota  of  Belglaa  IndependaacOb  Protocol  of  the 
five  great  European  powers.  Selection  of  a  king.  [aaseOsbors,  Gottia.]  Siege  aad  aap^ 
render  of  Antwerp.    Prosperity  of  Belgium.  <^ 

VIIL  Polish  RavoLirriov. '  1.  DIspotftton  made  of  Poland  by  the  congresa  of  Vlama.  Al- 
esaoder's  arbitrary  government  of  Poland.— S.  The  government  of  Poland  under  the  emperar 
Nicholas.  Character  of  Constantino.  Bflhct  of  hia  barbarities.  Beerat  societies.  [Voihyala.] 
--3.  Revolutionary  outbreak  at  Wanaw,  Not.  1630.  A  genersl  rising  in  Waiaaw.  The  pro- 
visional goverameat.  .J.  Fraltleas  altempta  to  negotiate.  Raaslan  and  Ptdlih  ftwces.  Opeali« 
events  of  the  war.— S.  NIgbl  attacks  and  root  of  the  Rusilaas.  [Bag  River.]''  Ooodoctof 
Prussia  and  Ausirla.--0.  Battle  of  Ostrolenka.  [Minsk.  Ostrolenka.]  *  Death  of  Diebllscfa  and 
^  Constantine.  Conspiracy  at  Warsaw.— 7.  Diteeasfons  among  the  Poles.  PaU  of  Wanaw  and 
'  end  of  the  war.    Fate  of  the  Polish  generals,  aoldiefa,  and  nobility.    R^alL 

m,  ENGLISH  REFORMa    FRENCH  REVOLLTION  OF  1848.    REVOLUTIONS  IN  THE 

GERMAN  STATES,  PRUSSIA,  AND  AUSTRIA.    REVOLUTIONS  IN  ITALY. 

HUNGARIAN  WAR.    USURPATION  OF  LOUIS  NAPOLEON. 

L  EiveLiflB  RaroRMs.  1.  England  from  180)  to  1630.  Reforma  obtabMd  hx  1698  and  1899. 
Reslgnatloa  of  the  Weaiagton  ministry,  1830.  The  whig  mintatfy  of  Eart  Gray.  LordRoaaeO'k 
Reform  WD  :-4eet  In  the  Commooa.— 9.  DiMolatleB  of  ParttaUMal.  Bwitt  of  tba  aaw  alectloBs> 
tasaaAdeMtoftkeBaftwmWIiilSBl.    Fap^lar  fMBiiaeat,  aad  noifc   Ifiu^.    BriildL>^ 


OHiP.TL]  •  NnnETBENTH  CElTrtJRY.  505 

Vblid  deftfttof  the  Seforai  bill.  1832.    Resfgoatlon  of  ministers.   Otmes  of  their  reinstatement  * 
fliuil  passage  of  (he  Reform  bill.— 4.  Important  effects  of  this  measure.    More  Intimate  mien 
with  Franoe.    Prosperity  of  England  under  the  change.— 5.  Accession  of  Victoria  lo  the  throne, 
1H37 ;  and  her  marriaxe  to  Prince  Albert,  1P40. 

II.  Frcnch  Rbvolution-  or  1848.  1.  Most  imj^rtant  erenU  of  the  reign  of  Louis  PhlUlppe. 
—9.  Lara>-etie's  Instmmentality  in  his  oleetiou.  Anomalous  and  difficult  position  of  Louts 
PhlUlppe.  The  temporary  success  of  his  goycrament.V-a.  Discontent  of  the  middle  and  lower 
clS8aeB.~4.  The  political  reform  banquets  of  1647-8.  The  contemplated  banquet  for  the  294 
of  Feb.,  184?,— forbidden  by  the  government.  Measures  lalceu  by  the  opposition  deputies.— 5. 
AoDouncement  of  the  postponement  of  the  banquet.  Popular  assemblage  dlspcr;^.  DI^ 
turtwnces  in  the  evening  of  the  S9d.— 6.  Renewed  disturbances  on  the  morning  of  the  23d. 
Demands  of  the  National  Guards  acceded  to.  9he  people  llrcd  upon  In  the  evening.— 7. 
A  Thiers*  ministry  organized.  Proclamation  on  the  morning  of  the  34th,  and  withdrawal 
of  the  troops.  Disarming  of  the  troope,  abdication  of  the  king,  pillage  of  the  palace,  and  flight 
of  the  king  and  ministers.— 8.  Meeting  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Adoption  of  a  Republic. 
—9.  M.  Lamartine.  General  adhesion  to  the  new  government.— 10.  The  Moderate  and  the 
Red  Repablicans.  <  Their  respective  principles.  Demands  upon  the  government.— II.  Anl« 
moslties  of  the  two  sections  of  the  Republican  parly.  Popular  demonstrations.  The  April 
elections.  The  executive  commlltodr-1'2.  Insurrection  of  the  15tb  of  May.  Its  suppression. 
^13.  Precautionary  meuures  of  the  government.  Insurrection  of  June— suppressed  after  a 
bloody  contest.- 14.  Cavaignac  chief  executive.  T)reatment  of  the  insurgent  prisoners.  Adop* 
tion,  and  character  of,  the  new  constitution. 

III.  RsvoLirnoirs  in  rna  Gkkman  Statvs,  Parssu,  and  Austria.  I.  Efllscts  of  the  recent 
Fkvnch  Re^'olutlon  upon  the  German  Stales.  Events  in  Baden.— 2.  Events  at  Cologne^ 
Munich,  and  Hesse-Cassel.  [Hanau.  ireaao-Cassel.]— 3.  Convention  at  Heidelberg.  [Heidet 
berg.]  Action  of  the  Frankfort  diet.  Course  of  Frederick  William  of  Prussia.  Saxony  and 
Danover.    Revolt  ofSleswick  and  HoMeln. 

4«^Excitement  in  Vienna,  caused  by  the  Revolatlon  In  Paris.  [Gallcia.  Mettemtch.]~5. 
Opening  of  the  diet  of  Lower  Austria.  Commotions  and  bloodshed.— 6.  Concessions  of  the 
government,  and  triumph  otibe  people.— 7.  Eflbrts  of  government  to  fblffl  its  promises.  Dl^ 
flcQlllea  that  inlervened.  Rule  of  the  mob.  Flight,  and  return,  of  the  emperor.  [Insprack.] 
8.  Demands  of  the  Boliemlans.  A  Slavic  Congren.  Bomburdment  of  Prague,  and  terratnatloA 
of  the  Bohemian  Revolution.— 0.  Hungary  at  this  peritxl.  Revolt  of  the  Croats,  who  are  sup- 
ported by  Austria.  [Hungary.  Croatia.]  Second  Revolution  in  Vienna.  Flight  of  the  em 
peror.  [Olmutz.]  Siege  and  surrender  of  Vieima.—lU.  The  Uimgarian  army  during  tlie  siege. 
—11.  Character  of  the  soeond  Revolution  in  Vicuna.  Reaction  in  Ihe^wpular  mind,  and 
triumph  of  despotism. 

IV.  Rbvolutions  in  It^lt.  1.  Austrian  influence  and  interference  in  Italian  affairs  slnee 
*Jie  fall  of  Napoleon.  [Modena.  Parma.  Papal-States.]— 2.  Election  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  in 
1848.  His  character  and  acta.  Austria  Interferes.  '  [Fcrrare.]  A  general  rising  againet  Ana* 
tria.  Witlsdrawal  of  Austrian  troops.  [Bologna.  Lucca.]— 3.  Austrian  force  in  Lombardy. 
General  insurrection  throughout  Austrian  Italy.  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  espouses  Urn 
cause  of  Italian  nationalUy.  Final  triumph  of  lh«  Anatrians  under  Radetslqr.  An  armlstiee.^ 
4.  Renewal  of  the  war— second  triumph  of  Radetsky,  and  abdication  of  Charles  Albert.— 5. 
Blockade  and  fall  of  Venice.— 6.  Revolution  in  Naples.  [Kingdom  of  Naples^War  with, 
and  final  rvduetion  of,  the  Sleiltana.  [Palermo.]— 7.  DMHcnltles  of  the  pope.— 8.^ts  growing 
unpopnhirity  and  flight.  [Gaeta.]  The  Roman  Republic  instituted.— 9.  The  pope's  appeal  for 
aid— how  responded  to.— 10.  Reduction  of  Rome  by  the  French  army.  Return  of  the  pope. 
The  change  In  him  and  his  people. 

V.  IJuNOAaiAN  WAR.  1.  Immediate  cause  of  the  second  Revolution  In  Vienna.  Hoi^iarlaft 
and  Croatian  war.— 2.  Historical  account  of  the  Magyars.  [Theiss.]  Chnrac!cr  of  the  Hun- 
garian government.— 3.  Repeated  acknowledgmenta  of  Its  tmlepemlR^nce.— 4.  Ferdinand  thf 
Fifth.  His  means  of  Influence,- and  Austrian  control  over  the  govemftient  of  the  Hongariaa^ 
The  two  parties  in  Hungary.— 5.  Concessions  to  Hungary  in  Marcb,  1848.    [Peslb.l— 6.  Anarchy 

•  and  misrule  in  Hungary.— 7.  A  more  alarming  danger  to  Hungary.  Her  population.  RovoH 
Of  Croatia.  [Slavonians.]  The  Serbian  revolt.  [Serbs.]  Actual  beginning  of  the  war  on  th« 
part  of  Hungary.  [Carlowlts.  Poterwardcln.  The  Banat.]  Austria  openly  supports  tpm 
OKMUaa  nriMlUoiu-&  ioUoo  of  the  Hungarian  DlaL   DeTbat  of  Jolhicliid)  i^ar  PHaCh^-^ 

X 


KM  MODBV  mBTOBT.  '    [fm% 


m  a*iio«l«if»  kit  iDcowwr.  Fklluraor  the  •ttamplaC MgottstioM.— 10.  DeiMShAoraerenl 
«r  119  Hui^tflM  toftdm,— bni  gweni  adbMWoe  lo  KomuOi  and  itw  ooobUt.  Wutof anB*- 
bat  pwtiaUy  npplM.  Huffutui  IbrM.— U.  AnrtriM  plan  of  iurutoL  Aunta*  tm 
IMtH  Jep.  ]84ll|  •od  tba  covtnuMiii  reUm  to  Debrwdn.  Conoeatniioa  oT  tte  HoagirteB 
tecM.  GManl  Bam.  [Debrecslii.  Oomora.  Eperiat.  Bokowina-l-lS.  Lots  of  Emo. 
BMaltatflntnpulMd.  Hto  Iwd  •nceawBi.  [EHMk.  WaUacbs.  UamooatMlL  CrooM. 
VNMUvar.}— 13.  Daoibbiiia.  OperatloiisiAtto  TalteyorilMTbatM.  [SscgwliD.  Iiana>  Kap 
poliM,4«.]  Battlwor  K«po|nB^l4  Ooigny.  HlaTlctoriesovorUieAiislnaoi-  [TapK>bicd(& 
CMoUo.  Waitien.  NugrSailo.]  8ic«o  of  Bnda.  [B«U.]-iS.  ConsUUxlioa  for  ibe  Amlrta 
fnpire.  DwIaniUon  oC  Uai«uiaB  iiMl«g>eiM&eDM.  KoaMith  coTamor  of  fiwiiuy'-^^  ^"^ 
trUn  ttd  Ruvlan  prep«ratkM»  for  a  aeoodt  rMnpelgn.  Tito  Uunguian  fiHCfls.—n*  lovtfiot 
Of  Hiu^uy  in  Juno.  iPmbwz.  Bartfeld.}~i8.  Gradtul  coooMitraiioa  of  tb«  «^^" 
Bw«v7.  CH^^yoi.]  BwteriUot  of  Ua^m*!!.— Ifti  Goigej'a  retraai  lo  And.  [OmmL  Wh 
An4.]  Waoiof  obnoert  ano^  ibo  Biii«ariaa  geiMcmla^-^n.  Rotroatof  Dombiinki.  I>a^ 
•t  Tanoswar,  and  bnakl^  op  of  tlM  aooUioni  Hansarian  anoy.  XSoifej'a  IkUun  U)  W^ 
PoBbliiakL  aiampeciodlUoUly.  8upraqMpoworooiifeindoponh}iii.--^I'Go>8eT'itiwaai| 
•od  awrMider  of  bia  army.  Aug.  13ih,  l849.-4».  Prevtou  mcc-tw  of  Ibo  BaoSBrUiiB  t^ 
Ttetnlly  of  Comoro.  [Raab.]  Sarfonder  of  Goroon,  8epL  9»h.—93.  Fata  of  KowaUn  w^ 
PwibliiiU,  he  [Wlddi]i.]-S4.  Tha  cloaios  tribady  of  tba  Uungariaa  war.  Fate  of  IM  » 
Ikrior  oOlaara,  Hnngarian  aoldlan,  Ac  _ 

VL  UauaPATiON  or  Lowia  Namlbor.  1.  Elaetioii  of  a  cblaf  magiiinta  In  Frw»  to  »»* 
Uni  aU  canrtldatw.  Cafalgnae,  and  Lonia  Napolaon.  ElaeUon  of  tha  latter.  I^'^^JT: 
•pA  oalh  of  oOc^—S.  Hialoiy  of  Louis  Napolooo  down  to  tha  pariod  of  his  elacUoo.  [Fo»w 
«f  Han.]— 31  HIa  daclaraUon  of  prlociplas.  Jealousy  of  blm.  Partiaa  in  tha  "^^^^7' 
Wani  of  eonfldanoa  batwaaa.tha  Pmsldant  and  Aawmbly.  Aeta  of  tba  A99eAbl7.'>-  "^ 
poaad  nr  Won  of  tha  oonatltuUon.— 6.  Prealdeni'^  maaaaita  of  NoTombar  IdSl-  ^"^'^"^fJIZ 
voalt^  of  tha  Aasambly  agalwt  tha  Praiidaoi.-?.  An  apppaohiog  crisl^-ho«  «*^^£f^ 
LoolaKapolaoo.  QrcuraMaaoas  of  tha  cmiii  d*«tat  of  Deoamber  9d.-^  Maeting. tf»>^ 
•fmambaraofthaAaMmbly.  Tha  pubUc  praa.  Dacraa  for  an  Section.  ^"^^'^"^^^ 
«pBher  4th,  «oppnaaad  by  tha  mUUary.-ll.  Basuli  of  tha  alaetiou  of  Dacamber.  iM  v 
HQMtKnltoB    LottU  Napolaon  Praaidaot  for  ten  yaaiB.    AmumaathA  UUaofevpeiW' 


I.  THE  PERIOD  OF  PEACE :  1815—1820. 
1.  On  the  day  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  anotberW»8 

concluded  between  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  finfr 
"oTlSl?*  ^^^^^  designed  a?  a  measure  of  security  for  th*  »"* 

powers,  and  declaring  that  Napoleon  Bonaparte  d^ 
/amify  should  be  forever  exclude  from  the  throne  of  France, 
tlie  8%Dja  day  a  third  treaty,  of  notorious  celebrity,  called     a 
Holy  /nianoe,"  was  subscribed  by  the  emperors  of  Boss*  ^ 
Austria,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  bound  themselves,  *'  ^^ 
formity  with  the  prmciples  of  Holy  Scripture, — ^to  lend  each  o 
every  aid,  assistance,  and  succor,  on  every  occtision."    This  tre»  j 
iras  ere  long  aooeded  to  by  nearly  all  the  continental  powers  ss  p^^  ^ 
to  the  oompaot,  although  l^e  ruling  prince  of  England  deolin^  ^|o 
kg  it,  on  the  ground  that  the  English  constitution  prevented  b 
iN^m  beooming  a  party  to  any  oonvention  that  was  not  oounterf^ 
\X  W  tf^onaMj^  mlniater, 


^QaiiiTi]  suijviwii'rH  cnmntY.  507 

2.  Tiio  i«nnB  of  ^  Holy  AUkBoe  wore  drawn  hj  the  yomg 
Russian  emperor  Alexander,  whose  enthosiastio  benevolence  prompt- 
ed him  to  devise  a  plan  of  a  commoi^  international  law  that  should 
substitate  the  pcacefiil  reign  of  the  Gospel  in  place  of  the  rude  em- 
pire of  the  fitiord.  But  the  law  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  although  be- 
neficent in  its  origin,  was  to  be  interpreted  by  absolute  monarcbs :  as 
it  was  evident  that  its  only  active  principle  would  be  the  maintenance 
of  despotic  power,  under  the  mask  of  piety  and  religion,  it  was  justly 
regarded  with  dread  and  jealousy  by  the  liberal  party  throughout 
Europe,  and  was  in  reality  made  a  convenient  pretext  for  enforcing 
the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience,  and  resisting  all  efforts  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  constitutional  freedom. 

3.  The  treaties  of  1815  both  closed  the  ascendency  of  imperial 
France  in  Europe,  and  terminated,  for  a  time  at  least,  the  revolution- 
ary movements  in  the  civilised  wo^d.  Twenty-five  years  of  war  had 
exhausted  the  treasures  of  Europe,  and  covered  her  soil  with  mourn- 
ing, and  never  before  had  the  sweets  of  repose  been  so  eagerly  cov- 
eted by  rulers  and  people.  *  But  although  the  nations  had  tired  of 
the  mingled  hcMTors  and  glories  of  military  strife,  the  excitement  oo- 
eaatoned  by  the  revolutionary  wars  contmued,  and,  for  want  of  other 
channels  of  action,  sensed  hold  of  the^social  passions  of  the  masses : 
military  gave  place  to  democratic  ambition — the  old  ante-revolution- 
ary oontest  between  despotism  and  democracy  revived, — to  be  fol- 
lowed by  other  revolutions  still,  until  one  or  th4  other  principle  shall' 
triumph — ^until,  in  the  language  of  Napoleon,  Europe  shall  become 
either  Cossack  or  Republican. 

4.  In  England,  the  social  contest,  wearing  a  milder  aspect  than 
Uk  tbe^ooatiBent,  displayed  itself  in  the  legal  strife  for  government 
relief  and  parliamentary  reforms.     During  a  long  and 
expensive  war,  England  had  enjoyed  extraordinary  do-    x2(olaxix 
mestio  proeperity :  since  the  year  1 792  her  population 

had  increased  more  than  four  millions,  notwithstandiug  the  absorp- 
tion of  five  hundred  thousand  men  in  the  army  and  navy :  the  ex- 
ports, imports,  and  tonnage,  of  the  kingdom,  had  more  than  doubled 
since  the  war  began ;  and  although  the  publie  debt  had  grown  to  an 
tnormons  /  amonnt,  agriculture,  commeroe,  and  manufactures,  had 
gone  on  inoreaeiDg,  daring  the  whole  stnig^,  in  an  unparalkied  ratio.- 

5.  It  was  confidently  anticipated,  not  only  by  the  ardent  and* en- 
thusiastic, but  also  by  the  prudent  and  sagacious,  that  when  the 
enorinaaa  eipflSMS  of  thft  var  eetohlishinent  should  be  xesunpod^  ml 


BOB  MODmr  HISIOftT.  [PjarlL 

pMoo  had  tbrown  open  the  poAs  of  all  Europe  to  tike  enterpriBe  of 
British  merchants,  the  tide  of  national  prosperity  would  rise  Btill 
JJ^rher  and  higher ;  bat  never  were  hopes  more  cmellj  disappointed. 
EzporU,  to  an  enormous  amoont,  being  suddenly  thrown  into  oountries 
impoTcrished  by  war,  glutted  the  foreign  market ;  and  the  eonaign- 
ment.s,  in  most  instances,  were  sold  for  little  more  than  half  their 
oriciual  cost — spreading  min  throughout  the  oommercial  interostab 
MoreoTeV,  the  opening  of  the  European  and  Amerioan  ports  for  the 
the  supplies  of  grain,  glutted  the  home  market  of  England ;  and 
prices  of  every  species  of  agricultural  prodooe  soon  fell  to  two-thirds  * 
of  what  they  had  been  during  the  closing  scenes  of  the  war  :  a  season 
of  unusual  scarcity,  in  1816,  threatening  a  fiunine,  increased  the 
general  distress,  which,  like  a  pail  of  gloom,  enshrouded  the  whole 
kingdom. 

6.  Other  causes,  in^  addition  to  those  originating  in  the  mere 
transition  from  a  state  of  war  to  one  of  peace,  doubtless  contributed 
tb  the  general  revulsion  in  business,  among  whieh  may  be  mentioQed, 
as  the  most  prominent,  the  greatly  diminished  supply  of  the  predoua 
metals  from  South  America  •  owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  that 
country  then  occupied  with  revolutionary  wars,  and  the  rapid  con- 
traction of  the  paper  currency^of  Great  Britain,  in  anticipation  of  m 
speedy  return  to  specie  payments.     But  the  English  Radical  or  Re- 

*  publican  party  attributed  the  difficulties  to  excessive  taxation  and  the 
measures  of  a  corrupt  government;  and  a  vehement  outcry  was 
raised  for  parliamentary  refdrm,  and  retrenehment  in  all  branches  of 
public  expenditure. 

7.  The  English  government,  wiser  than  the  continental  powers, 
has  ever  had  the  prudence  to  make  seasonable  eonoes^ons  te 
reasonable  popular  demands,  before  the  spark  of  discontent  has  been 
blown  into  the  blase  of  revolution ;  and  now,  after  a  spirited  contest^ 
a  heavy  property  tax,  that  had  been  patiently  submitted  to  as  a 
necessary  war  measure,  was  repealed,  amid  the  universal  transports 
of  the  people :  the  remission  of  other  taxes  followed,  and,  in  one 
year,  a  reduction  of  thirty -five  million  pounds  sterling  was  made  from 
the  national  expenditure,  although  strongly  opposed  by  the  ministry. 
Still  the  distress  continued ;  the  popular  feeling  against  the  gOTera- 
ment  increased ;  numerous  secret  political  societies  were  oiganissd 
among  the  disaffected ;  and  early  in  the  following  year  (1817)  a  oom- 

a.  From  1815  to  1810  the  amoQiit  of  gold  and  aUrer  ooln  prodaoed  fhMn  tho  mlAot  of 
1  aom  atooi  isvaa  ailliian  povada  MwHot  «a  flfi»ud  4  hMT: 


Chu».VX]  NINETEENTH  OENTOET.  509 

mitiee  of  parliament  reported  ^at  an  eztensiye  conspiracy  existed, 
chiefly  in  the  great  towns  and  mann&ctoring  districts,  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  monarchy,  and  the  establishment  of  a  republic  in  its  stead. 

8.  In  consequence  of  the  information,  greatly  exaggerated,  which 
bad  been  communicated  to  the  committee,  ministers  were  enabled  to 
carry  throng  parliament  bills  for  suspending  the  privileges  of  the 
writ  of  habeas  corpus,  and  for  suppressing  tumultuous  meetings,  de- 
bating societies,  and  all  unlawful  organizations.  Armed  with  ex- 
tensiipe  powers,  government  took  the  most  active  measures  for  putting 
a  stop  to  the  threatened  insurrection  :  a  few  mobs  were  suppressed ; 
many  persons  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of  high  treason ;  ^nd  several 
were  convicted,  and  8u£fered  death.  In  1819  a  large  and  peaceable 
meetibg  at  Manchester,*  assembled  to  discuss  the  question  of  parlia- 
mentary reforms,  was  charged  by  the  military,  and  many  lives  in- 
humanly sacrificed ;  but  all  attempts  in  parliament  for  an  inquiry 
into  the  conduct  of  the  Manchester  magistrates,  under  whose  orders 
the  military  had  acted,  were  defeated.  Although  the  people  still 
justly  comp^iifed  of  grievous  burdens  of  taxation,  and  unequal  rep 
resentation  in  parliament,  those  evils  were  not  so  oppressive  as  to  in- 
duce them  to  incur  the  hazards  of  revolution ;  and  government, 
having  yielded  to  the  point  where  danger  was  past,  was  sufficiently 
strong  to  carry  all  its  important  measures. 

9.  An  event  of  general  interest  that  occurred  soon  after  the  close 
of  the  European  war  was  the  merited  chastisement  of  the  piratical 
State  of  Algiers.  During  a  long  period  the  Barbary"  powers  had 
carried  on  a  piratical  warfare  against  those  natiobs  that  were  not  suf- 
ficiently powerful  to  prevent  or  punish  their  depredations.  From 
the  year  1795  to  1812  the  United' l^tates  of  America  had  preserved 
peace  with  Algiers  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  tribute ;  but  in  the 
latter  year  the  Dey,  believing  that  the  war  with  England  would  render 
the  Americans  unable  to  protect  their  commerce  in  the  Mediterranean, 
commenced  a  piractical  warfare  againsl^all  American  vessels  that  fclW 
in  the  way  of  his  cruisers.  In  the  month  of  June  1815,  an  Ameri- 
can squadron,  under  the  command  of  Commodore  Decatur,  being  sent 

I.  ManekeaUr^  the  greal  centre  of  the  cotton  maDufiictiire  of  Groat  Britnin,  and  the  greatest 
wairaflictiiriDg  town  in  the  worlds  is  litoated  on  the  Irwell,  on  affluent  of  the  Mency,  tbirty-ono 
miles  east  t)rom  LivcrpooL    (Map  No.  XVI.) 

8.  Bartarf  is  the  iiome  thot  hos  been  nsnally  given.  In  modern  llrocss  to  that  portion  of 
northern  AMca  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  lying  between  the  western  ftontier  of 
Hgypt  and  the  AUontle.    The  name  Barhary  is  derired  from  that  of  its  ancient  InhabitanU,  the 


510  MODEBV  BXBtOftT  [hunt 

id  tbe  MediterraacMi,  after  oapturii^  ietend  AlgeriM  ¥)elMls,  «M9h 
pcllod  Algiers,  Tripoli,  and  Tunia,  to  release  all  AmericM  prisoneTB 
in  their  possession,  pay  large  sams  of  monej,  and  relinquish  all  fotnre 
claims  to  tribute  from  the  United  States. 

10.  In  the  following  year,  the  continued  piracies  of  the  AlgefifieS 
upon  some  of  the  smaller  European  States  that  elaamed  the  proteo 

.  tion  of  England,  inddoed  the  British  goTemmant  to  send  out  a  pow(> 
erful  squadron,  with  direcdoos  to  obtain  frofli  tbe  Dey  unqualified 
abolition  of  Christian  slavery,  or,  in  case  of  refiisal,  to  destmj,  if 
possible,  the  nest  of  pirates  whose  toleranoe  had  so  long  been  a  die* 

,  grace  to  Christendom.  On  the  27th  of  August  the  Britnh  fleet^ 
commanded  by  Lord  Exmouth,  appeared  before  Algiers,  whose  fbf- 
tifieations,  admirably  constructed,  and  of  the  hardest  skme,  were  d#- 
fended  by  nearly  five  hundred  cannon  and  forty  thcusaikd  men.  N4 
answer  being  returned  to  the  demands  of  iht  British  gdremtnent, 
the  attack  was  commenced  in  the  afternoon  vf  the  same  day ;  and 
although  the  defence  was  most  spirited,  by  ten  in  tbe  oven^g  all  the 
fortifications  that  defended  the  approaches  by  sea  were  totally 
ruined,  while  the  shot  and  shells  had  carried  destruction  sad  death 
throughout  the  city.  On  the  following  morning  the  Dey  svbmitted, 
agreeing  to  abolish  Christian  slayery  foreyer,  and  immediatelj  re- 
storing twelve  hundred  captives  to  their  country  and  frieBd&  The 
total  number  liberated  at  Algiers,  Tripoli,  and  Tunis,  was  mors  than 
three  thousand. 

1 1.  The  humiliation  of  the  piratical  Barbary-powers  by  the  Ameri- 
ci^ns  in  1815,  and  the  battle  of  Algiers  in  the  following  year,  wero 
events  highly  important  to  the  general  interests  of  humanity,  not 
only  from  their  immediate  results,  but  as  the  beginning  of  the  de- 
cisive ascendency  of  the  Christian  over  the  Mohammedan  world. 
Former  triumphs ^f  the  cross  over  the  crescent  had  averted  subju- 
gation from  Christendom,  or  had  been  obliterated  by  subsequent  dlS' 
asters ;  but  since  the  battle  ^  Algiers,  the  followers  of  the  prophet 
have  seen,  and  mournfully  submitted  to,  their  destiny ;  Algiers  has 
since  become  a  province  of  a  Christian  State ;  and  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire \s  only  saved  from  dissolution  by  tl^js  jealousies  of  its  Christian 
neighbors. 

12.  The  situation  of  France  at  the  time  of  the  second  restoration 

of  Louis  XVIII.,  with  a  vast  foreign  army  quartered 

III.  FaAKCE.  -  1  a  1     * 

upon  her  people,  an  empty  treasury,  igoid  an  unsettled 
government,  was  gloomy  in  the  extreme.     With  a  vacillation  peeolis* 


Ohu^.lri]  NIKSTEENTH  OElTf^RT.  ^  Hi 

Ho  the  Frenob  people,  public  opmion  liad  alread  j  turn^  ag&zflsi  tbb 
Bon&partisto  and  t)ie  Repablicans,  wbo  were  regarded  as  tiie  oathorji 
of  all  tbe  evils  under  which  the  nation  suffered ;  and  the  king  soo& 
found  himself  seriously  embarrassed  by  the  ardor  of  his  own  friends. 
Punishment  of  the  Revolutionists,  and  a  restoration  of  the  powers 
and  privileges  of  the  nobility  and  the  clergy,  were  violently  demand- 
ed  by  the  Royalists;  but,  fortunately,  the  extreme  danger  of  any 
violent  reactionary  movement  <was  too  manifest  to  permit  the  king 
to  intrust  the  government  to  the  ultraists  of  his  own  party. 

13.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  presence  of  a  large  foreign  army, 
France  might  again  have  been  doomed  to  the  horrors  of  civil  war : 
as  it  was,  the  party  feuds  of  centuries  between  the  Roman  Gatholicb 
and  P'-otestants,  revived  by  the  imbittered  feelings  of  the  m;oment, 
broke  forth  anew  in  the  soutK  of  France :  the  Royalists  demanded 
vengeance  against  the  Republicans ;  and  political  zeal  combined  mtln 
religious  enthusiasm  to  arouse  the  worst  passions  of  the  people,  and 
incited  to  numerous  massacres,  which  recalled  the  memory  of  the 
bloodiest  period  of  the  Revolution.  Although  the  king  denounced 
these  atrocities,  and  called  upon  the  magistrates  to  bring  the  guilty 
parties  to  justice^  the  latter  were  screened  from  arrest,  i>r,.  if  taken, 

'  were  acquitted  in  face  of  the. clearest  evidence  of  their  guilt. 

1 4.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies,  at  its  first  meetmg,  in  the  atitumn 
of  1815,  urgently  demanded  of  tiie  king  that  those  ''who  had  im- 
perilled alike  the  throne  and  the  nation  should  be  delivered  over  to 
the  just  severity  of  the  tribunals :"  stringent  laws  were  passed  punish- 
ing seditious  words ;  courts  martial  were  established  for  trying  politi- 
cal ofTenods ;  and  when  the  king,  after  the  execution  of  Ney,  La- 
bedoyere,  and  a  few  others,  proposed  a  general  amnesty,  the  chamber 
had  prepared,  and  dem&nded  the  proscription  of,  a  list  of  twelve  hun- 
dred additional  victims ;  and  in  order  to  secure  the  amnesty  the  king 
was  compelled,  against  his  inclination  for  moderate  measures,  to  assent 
to  an  amendment  providing  for  the  perpetual  banishment  of  all'  those 
who  had  voted  for  the  death  of  his  brother,  the  unfortunate  Louis 
XVJ.  France  presented  the  singular  spectacle  of  an  ascendant  Roy- 
albt  party  arrayed  in  opposition  to  the  king,  who,  in  order  to  check 
their  undue  zeal,  was  compelled  to  ally  himself  with  the  Bepubli- 
cans,  the  natural  enemies  of  his  cause. 

•  15.  Although  the  ultra  Royalists  controlled  the  action  of  the  1^- 
islature,  there  was  still  a  powerful  party  of  ultra  Revolutionists 
among  the  people ;  and  it  was  the  policy  of  ihe  ki^g  and  his  ministry 


612  UODWJS  BISTORT.  [Paey  IL 

to  guard  againat  the  danger  of  the  asoendencj  of  either,  by  oonform- 
ing  to  the  general  priociples  which  the  Bevolution  had  iropresaod 
upon  the  nation.  As  the  legislative  body  continually  thwarted  the 
government,  it  was  determined  to  alter  the  composition  of  the  repre- 
sentatives by  a  coup  d^etcU,  or  arbitrary  ordinance  of  the  king ;  and 
accordingly,  on  the  5th  of  September,  1816,  a  royal  ordinance  was 
published,  which  dissolved  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  arbitrarily  di- 
minished the  number  of  representatives,  and  secured  the  election  of 
a  majority  of  those  who  were  attached  to  the  measures  of  the  minis* 
terial  party. 

16.  The  royal  ordinance  of  September,  although  conferring  the 
*  right  of  suffrage  upon  only  one  hundred  thousand  out  of  thirty  mil- 
lions  of  the  population  of  France,  was  far  more  democratic  than  ac- 
corded with  the  wishes  of  the  Boyaiists,  who  feared  that  the  new 
representatives,  chosen  mostly  from  the  middle  classes  of  landed  pro- 
prietors, would  incline  towards  a  republican  form  of  government,  under 
which  they  might  most  effectually  secure  their  own  rights,  and  divide 
among  themselves  the  honors  and  empluments  of  office.^  And  such, 
indeed,  was  the  result.  The  eleqtoral  law  proclaimed  by  the  king, 
and  the  subsequent  creation^  of  a  large  body  of  peers  taken  from 
the  Liberals  and  Bonapartists,  soon  placed  the  control  of  govem- 
mei^t  in  the  hands  of  the  democratic  party,  which  was  naturally  an- 
tagonistic to  the  power  which  had  given  it  influence ;  but  the  Boyai- 
ists, who  at  the  restoration  had  seemed  the  ruling  party,  were  unwilling 
to  resign  the  control  of  the  government ;  and  tlie  struggle  continued 
to  increase  in  violence  between  them  and  the  Liberals,  until  it  finally 
resulted -in  the  Bevolution  of  1830,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  mon- 
archy. 

II  REVOLUTIONS  IN  SPAIN,  PORTUGAL,  NAPLES,  PIKDMOfrl, 

GREECE.  FRANCE,  BELGIUM,  AND  POLAND: 

1820— 18SL 

L  Spain.  1.  Durbg  the  period  of  general  peace,  from  1815  to 
1820,  Spain,  under  the  rule  of  the  restored  Ferdinand,  was  in  a  state 
of  constant  political  dotation;  and  in  1820  an  insurrection  of  the 
soldiery  compelled  the  king  to  restore  to  his  subjects  the  free  and 
almost  republican  constitution  of  1812.     The  Bepublicans,  however, 

a.  By  the  ordinance  of  Sept.  5th,  18IG,  Uie  right  of  suffhige  was  eatablUbed  on  the  baila  of 
Ilia  pajnent  of  three  handfed  IhuiGS  diraet  taxes  to  Iho  goYerumenU 
bw  March  Sih,  1810.    , 


Omj».yi}  KHSTBTERfirra  osftttrt.  ifis 

irlio  tiiiifi  obtained  the  direciioii  of  the  government,  showed  little 
iKudom  or  moderation ;  and  a  large  party,  directed  bj  the  monke 
and  friars,  and  supported  by  the  lower  ranks  of  the  populace,  was 
formed  for  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy.  Several  of  the  European 
powers,  in  a  congress  held  at  Verona,  adopted  a  resolution  ,to  sup- 
port the  authority  of  the  king  in  opposition  to  the  constitution  which 
he  had  granted ;  but  England  stood  aloof,  and  to  France  was  in- 
trusted  the  execution  of  the  odious  measure  of  suppressing  democratic 
principles  m  Spain. 

2.  Accordingly,  early  in  the  year  1823,  a  French  army  of  a  hun- 
chred  thousand  men,  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  d'AugouUme, 
entered  Spain :  the  patviots  made  but  a  feeble  resistance,  and  the 
king  was  soon  restored  to  absolute  authority,  on  the  ruins  of  the  con« 
stibution.  The  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand,  who  died  in 
1883,  was  charaoterixed  by  the  complete  suppression  of  all  liberal 
principles  in'  politics  and  religion,  and  the  revlTal  of  the  ancient 
abuses  which  had  so  long  disgraced  the  Spanish  monarchy.  England 
and  the  United  States  severely  eensured  the  interference  of  France 
ia  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Spanish  nation,  and  showed  their  sym- 
pathy with  the  cause  of  the  oppressed  by  recognizing,  at  as  early  a 
period  as  possible,  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  South  American 
republics,  which  had  recenlJy  renojinced  their  allegiance  to  Spain. 

II.  PoRTUOAL.  1.  The  adjoining  kingdom  of  Portugal  was  a 
prey  to  similar  commotions.  The  emigration  of  the  king  and  court 
to  B^asil  durii^l^  the  penin^lar  war,  has  already  been  mentioned, 
(p.  488.)  The  nation  being  dissatisfied  with  the  continued  residence 
of  ^e  court  in  Bracil,  which  in  fact  made  Portugal  a  dependency 
of  thfr  l&tter,  and  desiring  some  fundamental  changes  in  the  frame 
of  goremment,  at  length  in  August  1820  a  revolution  broke  out,  and 
a  free  constitution  was  soon  afber  established,  having  for  its  basis  the 
abolition  of  privileges,  the  legal  equality  of  all  classes,  the  freedom 
of  the  press,  and  the  formation  of  a  representative  body  in  the  na- 
tional legislature.  This  constitution,  bdng  violently  opposed  by  the 
dergy  and  privileged  classes,  who  formed  what  was  called  the  apos- 
tolical party,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Bon  Miguel,  the  king's 
younger  son,  waa  suppressed  in  1823^  and  a  state  of  anarchy  con- 
tbued  until  the  death  of  the  king  in  1826,  when  the  crown  fell  to 
Don  Pedro,  emperor  of  Braiil. 

2.  Don  Pedro,  however,  resigned  his  right  in  favor  of  his  infiftht 
idau^ter  Donna  Maria,  at  the  same  time  granting  to  Portugal  a 
X*         83 


614  tfODnsr  wemisr.  fftu»a 

eonstitntional  charter,  and  appointiDg  his  brother  Hoik  Mi^^  regentb 
Althongh  tfao  latter  took  an  oath  of  fldelitj  to  the  charter,  he  eooii 
began  openly  to  aspire  to  the  throne,  and  by  means  of  an  artfnl 
priesthood  caused  himself,  in  18^,  to  be  proclaimed  florercign  of 
PortugqJ,  whi|,e  the  charter  was  denomiced  as  inconeistent  with  the 
purity  of  the  Roman  fkith.  The  friends  of  the  charter,  aided  by 
Don  Pedro,  who  repaired  to  Europe  to  assert  the  rights  of  hie 
daughter,  organised  a  resistanoe,  and  after  a  sanguinary  struggle, 
during  which  they  were  once  driven  into  exile,  they  olteined  tko 
promise  of  support  from  France,  Spain,  and  England,  who  n  1834 
entered  into  a  convention  to  expel  the  younger  brother  f^m  the  fct- 
tuguese  territories.  Soon  after,  Don  Miguel  gave  up  his  pretefisknus, 
and  the  young  queen  was  placed  upon  the  throne,  since  whioh  tim^ 
the  country  has  remained  comparatively  tranquil. 

III.  Naples.  1.  The  kingdom  of  Naples,  embraoing  Sicily  and 
southern  Italy,  nearly  identical  with  the  Magna  GrsBoia  of  antiquity, 
had  been  erected  into  an  independent  monarchy  in  1734,  under  the 
Infante  Don  Carlos  of  Spain,  who  took  the  name  of  Charles  IIL  It 
continued  under  a  succession  of  tyrannical  or  imbecile  rulers  of  the 
Bourbon  dynasty  till  1798  :  the  Italian  portion  of  tiie  kingdom  wuft 
then  overrun  by  the  Frencn,  who  held  it  from  1803  till  1815,  when 
it  reverted  to  its  former  sovereign  Ferdinand,  who,  during  the  Frencir 
rule,  had  maintaiued  his  court  in  the  Si<»lian  part  of  his  kingdom. 

2.  Under  the  rule  of  Ferdinand,  popular  education  was  wholly 
neglected ;  the  roads,  bridges,  and  otfabr  publie  works  whieh  the 
French  had  either  planned  or  executed,  were  left  unfiniiAed^  or  Ml 
into  decay ;  and  yet  the  people  were  oppressively  taxed,  and^a  repr^ 
sentative  government  was  denied  them.  At  length,  on  the  2d  of 
July,  1820,  the  growing  discontents  of  the  people  broke  out  in  opeA^ 
insurrection,  and  a  remonstrance  was  sent  to  the  government  de« 
manding  a  representative  constitution.  One  based  on  the  Spanisll^ 
constitution  of  1812  was  immediately  granted,  and  the  Neapolitan 
parliament  was  opened  on  the  1st  of  October  foDowhsg ;  but  on  the 
same  month  a  convention  of  the  three  crowned  heads  who  formed  the 
Holy  Alliance,  attended  by  ministers  from  most  of  the  other  Sa« 
ropean  powers,  met  at  Troppeu;'  and  it  was  there' resolved  by  the 

].  Treppauy  the  cAptt«l  of  Aiutrian  Silesia,  is  situated-  on  (be  Oppa,  a  tributeij  of  IM  Oto^- 
thirtjr-sevea  mlies  nortb-east  trom  Olmulz.  From  aOth  October  to  20th  Novegibar,  1890^  It  was 
tbe  place  of  meeting  of  the  diplomatic  oonsreis,  which  aftemrarda  ramored  to  Laybaeh.  (Jlf^ 

a».zvix.) 


Okjm.Vl]  NIKBTBBNTH  CBNTtfRT.  ,Bili 

0oy6reigDS  of  Rasria,  Austria,  and,  Prussia,  to  put  down  the  Neapoli- 
tan constitQtion  by  force  of  arms. 

3.  France  approved  the  measure,  but  the  Britisli  cabinet  remained 
/  nentral.  The  <^d  king  Ferdinand,  wiio  l^ad  been  invited  to  visit  tb^ 
sovereigns  at  Laybach,'  was  easily  convinced  that  bis  promises  tiadf 
been  extorted,  and  therefore  were  not  binding ;  and  Austrian  trooplf 
iaimediately  prepared  to  ezecnte  tbe  resolutions  of  the  congress, 
while  the  aid  of  a  Russian  army  was  promised,  if  necesi?ary.  An 
Austrian  force  of  forty-three  thousand  men  entered  the  Neapolitan 
*erritory,  heralded  by  a  proclamation  from  Ferdinand,  calling  his 
subjects  to  receive  the  invaders  as  friends.  A  few  slight  skirmished 
took  place,  but  the  country  was  quickly  overrun ;  foreign  troops  gar- 
risoned the  fortresses ;  the  king's  promise  of  complete  amnesty  was 
forgotten ;  and  courts  martial  and  executions  closed  the  brief  drama 
of  the  Neapolitan  Revolution. 

IV.  Piedmont.  1.  Piedmont  is  the  principal  province  of  the  Sar- 
dinian monarchy ;'  and  the  latter,  first  recognized  as  a  separate  king 
dom  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  comprises  the  whole  of  north- 
em  Italy  west  of  the  Tessino,'  together  mi\  the  island  of  Sardinia 
in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Piedmontese,  never  considering  them- 
selves properly  as  Italians,  had  been  proud  of  their  annexation  td 
France  under  the  rule  of  Napoleon ;  and  on  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy  they  were  the  first  of  the  Sardinian  people  to  exhibit  the 
Eberal  principles  of  the  French  Revolutionists,  and  to  complain  of 
the  oppressive  exactions  imposed  upon  them  by  the  government. 

2.  Scarcely  had  the  Neapolitan  Revolution  been  suppressed,  when 
an  insnrrection,  beginning  with  the  military,  broke  out  in  Piedmonts 
On  the  10th  of  March,  1821,  several  regiments  of  troops  simulta- 
neously mutinied ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  malcontents  were  se- 
cretly favored  by  Charles  Albert,  a  kinsman  of  the  royal  family,  who 

r 

1.  Lmgback^ flMCftpltal of  Aiulrlaii  Hljrrfa,  (wWdi  Wtv emtoMM  the  AnebUfi  f^ OtHnOiU' 
and  GBrnlola,)  to  siUuUed  on  a  narlg&bto  tiream,  a  Mbotaiy  of  tlM  Skre^  flf^-ftiar  mllaa  noKfe^ 
aaat  from  Trieste.  It  to  celebrated  in  diplomatic  history  fi>r  the  congreai  held  here  in  1821. 
(*«!»  No.  xvn.) 

9.  Sardinia  (Kingdom  of)  emhraoes  the  teriltoiy  of  Piedmont,  Genoa,  and  Klee,  and  fflk^ 

MJUaeent  dochjr  of  Savoy  on  the  weat  side  of  the  Alps,  together  irlth  the  toUmd  of  Saidloia. 

SaToy,  which  was  goYemed  by  ita  own  connts  as  early  as  the  tenth  centnry,  was  thenodefi 

»  of  iMs  nio^rehy.   Genoa  was  annexed  to  t)^e  Sardlnton  crown  at  the  peace  of  1815.    {Mof 

»>.  xvn.) 

3.  Tbe  Tuttno  or  Tieino  (anciently  TIclnns,  see  p.  158,)  baring  Ito  soorcea  in  Bfount  Su 
Golhafd,  flows  southward,  and  after  trarerslng  the  Lego  Maggiore  in  its  entire  length,  aaid 
ftMhir  1^  ^^^'BB'Io'T  between  Lombaidy  and  Piedmont,  fldli  Into  the  Po  at  PaTla.  (JKi|>Kd 
XVU.) 


eid  MODERN  mSTORT.  (FivO. 

aftanrardfl  became  king  of  Sardinia.     The  seizure  of  the  eiftadel  of 

Tarin,  on  the  12th^  was  followed,  on  the  13th,  bj  the  abdication  of 
the  king  Victor  Emanuel,  in  fayor  of  his  absent  brother  Charles 
Felix,  and  the  appointment  of  Prince  Albert  as  rejpsnt.  While  ef- 
forts were  made  to  organize  a  government,  an  Austrian  armj  was 
assembled  in  Lombardj  to  put  down  the  ReTolutlon :  the  new  king 
repudiated  the  acts  of  the  regent,  who  threw  himself  on  the  Aus- 
trians  for  protection :  on  the  8  th  of  April  the  insurgents  were  over- 
throim  in  battle ;  and  on  the  10th  the  combined  rojal  and  Austri|Ha 
troops  were  in  possession  of  the  whole  country.  In  Piedmont,  aa  ni 
Naples,  Austrian  interference,  ever  exerted  on  the  side  of  tyraimyi 
suppressed  every  germ  of  constitutional  fcee|iom. 

y.  The  Greek  Revolijtion.  1.  In  the  year  1481,  Greece,  the 
early  and  favored  seat  of  art,  science,  and  literature,  was  conquered 
by  Uie  Turks,  after  a  sanguinary  contest  of  more  than  forty  years. 
The  Venetians,  however,  were  not  disposed  to  allow  its  new  masters 
quiet  possession  of  the  country ;  and  during  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  it  was  the  theatre  of  obstinate  wars  between  them 
and  the  Turks,  which  continued  till  1718,  when  the  Turks  were  con- 
firmed in  their  conquest  by  treaty.  Although  the  Turks  and  Greeks 
never  became  one  nation,  and  the  relation  of  conquerors  and  oon- 
quered  never  ceased,  yet  the  Turkish  rule  was  quietly 
submitted  to  until  1821,  when,  according  to  previous  ar- 
rangements, on  the  7th  of  March  Alexander  Ypsilanti,  a  Greek,  and 
then  a  major-general  in  the  Russian  army,  proclaimed,  from  Moldavia, 
the  independence  of  Greece,  at  the  same  time  assuring  his  counlary 
men  of  the  aid  of  Russia  in  the  approaching  contest  But^the 
Russian  emperoV  declined  intervention;  the  Porte  took  the  moat 
rigorous  measures  against  the  Greeks,  and  called  upon  all  Mussnlmen 
to  arm  against  the  rebels  for  the  protection  of  Islamism  :'  the  wildest 
fanaticism  raged  in  Constantinople,  where  hundreds  of  the  resident 
Greeks  were  remorselessly  murdered ;  and  in  Moldavia  the  bloody 
struggle  was  terminated  with  the  annihilation  of  the  patriot  army, 
and  the  flight  of  Ypsilanti  to  Trieste,'  where  the  Austrian  govern- 
'  ment  seized  and  imprisoned  him. 

L'  Mami9m,  from  tiM  Arabic  word  <«/«««,  *«o  be  frse,  «fe,or  devoted  to  Ciod,"  le  IkelaB 
whkli  the  followers  of  Mahomet  apply  to  their  Hllgioo.  The  term  **  Mohammedlam**  le  •• 
«iyecUonable  as'the  term  **  popery.** 

t.  Triesu^  a  seaport  town  of  Anatrlan  niyria,  in  near  th«  DCMtb-eaetem  extramlty  of  the 
Adriatic,  MTenty-three  milee  north-eatt  from  Venloe.  During  the  middle  agea  IrieMe  wae  the 
•i^UaleraianUr^pabliaL   (^t^  Ifo.  XVUO 


Obat.  TI]  IVUfBTBEHTH  OBIVT0&T.  ViT  _ 

2.  In  soathern  Greece  no  cmeltlefl  oonld  queneh  the  fire  of  liberfy; 
and  sixteen  days  after  th^  proclamaiioQ  of  Ypsilanti  the  Revolution' 
of  the  Morea  began  at  Soda,  a  large  Tillage  in  the  northern  part  of 
Achaia,  where  eighty  Tnrks  were  made  prisoners.  The  reyblution 
rapidly  spread  over  the  Morea  and  the  islands  of  the  ^^ean :  the 
ancient  names  were  reeved ;  and  on  the  6th  of  April  the  Messenian 
senate,  assembled  at  Kalamatia,^  proclaimed  that  Q-reece  had  shaken 
off  the  Turkish  yoke  to  save  the  Christian  faith,  and  restore  the 
ancient  character  of  the  country.  From  that  time  the  Greeks  found 
friends  wherever  free  principles  were  cherished ;  and  from  England 
and  the  United  States  larger  contributicms  of  clothing  and  provisions 
were  forwarded  to  relieve  the  sufferings  inflicted  by  the  wanton 
atrocities  of  the  Turks. 

3.  The  rage  of  the  Turks  was  particularly  directed  against  the 
Greek  clergy,  many  of  whom  were  murdered,  among  them  the  aged 
patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  Adrianople;  and  several  hundred 
of  the  Greek  churches  were  torn  down,  while  the  Christian  ambassa- 
dors  of  neutral  powers  in-vain  remonstrated  with  the  Turkish  divan. 
These  excesses,  and  the  massacre  of  those  whom  the  Turks  took  in 
arms,  showed  to  the  Greeks  that  the  struggle  in  which  they  had  en- 
gaged was  one  of  life  and  death ;  and  it  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  ^e  Greeks  often  retaliated  when  the  power  was  in  their  hands. 

4.  During  the  summer  months  the  Turks  committed  great  depre- 
dations among  the  Greek  towns  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  :  the  inn  • 
habitants  of  the  island  of  Candia,  who  had  taken  no  part  in  the  insur- 
rection, were  disarmed,  and  the  archbishops,  and  many  of  the  priests, 
execated :  in  Cyprus,  irtiere  also  there  had  been  no  appearances  of 
insurrection,  the  Greeks  were  disarmed,  and  their  archbishop  and 
other  prelates  murdered.  The  most  barbarous  atrocities  were  also 
committed  at  Rhodes,  and  other  Islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago, 
where  the  villages  were  burned,  and  the  country  desolated.  But 
when  in  August  the  Greeks  captured  the  strong  Turkish  fortresses 
of  Monembasia*  and  Navarino,'  and  in  October  that  of  Tripolitza,^ 

1.  KBUmaiiA  ii  near  the  head  of  the  Menenlan  GuU;  now  called  the  Gulf  of  KalmatU.  Us 
ancient  name  waa  CB/mM.    UtaeaalorthePamlfliurtTer-AoirtbePamitia.    (JIA|pNo.L) 

a,  The  (brtieaa  of  Mt/wemb^ia.  It  In  the  vicini^  of  the  ancient  Epidenrns,  on  the  eaat^  eoenl 
of  Laeonia,  forty-three  milea  aonthecaat  flt>m  Sparta.    ( JTop  Mo.  L) 

3.  JVavariiio  la  on  the  westom  coast  of  Measenia,  near  the  ancient  Pylna.  It  aianda  oft  the 
aootb  aide  ofa  floe  aemi-circular  hay  of  the  aame  name^  cat  offOpom  (he  aea  by  the  loaf  narrow 
Iriand  of  Sphagia  -anciently  Sfku*Ur%^    (Map  No.  L) 

4.  TV^WttM,  a  town  of  modem  origin,  and,  under  the  Tuik%  the  capital  of  the  Mena,  la 
•bout  ftre  mUaa  north  of  TVm,  la  the  aaeiaa^  AioKUa.   Us  ane  lV#efii«a,  ''tte  thnt 


lis.  MODSBK  mnoftT  [AmS 

they  took  a  terrible  reTenge  upon  tMr  enemieB ;  Hid  in  TripolitBi 
done  eight  thoaavid  Tarke  were  pat  to  death. 

5.  On  the  5th  and  6th  of  September  the  Oreek  general  Uljaes 
defeated,  near  the  paas  of  ThermopyUs,  a  large  Torkieh  army  whieh 
had  advanced  from  Macedonia;  bat  on  the  otiier  hand  the  peainaahi 
of  Gaasandra^  was  taken  by  the  Torka,  when  uiree  thoosand  Grerici 
were  put  to  the  sword ;  women  and  chitdrai  were  carried  into  dave- 
ry,  and  the  floorishing  penineola  converted  into  a  desert  waste.  The 
Athenian  Acropolis  was  garrisoned  by  the  Torks,  and  the  inhalMtaata 
of  Athens  fled  to  SaUmis  for  safe^ ;  bat  in  general,  throogheut  idl 
soathem  Greece,  the  Turks  were  driven 'from  the  country  distriota, 
and  compelled  to  shut  themselves  up  in  the  eities. 

6.  The  year  1822  opened  with  the  assembling  of  the  first  Oreek 

congress  at  Spidaums,*  tibe  proclaiming  of  a  provisional 
constitution  on  the  13th  of  January,  and  the  issoing, 
on  the  27th,  of  a  manifest^  which  announced  the  union  of  the  Gredcs. 
under  an  independent  federative  government,  under  the  presidency 
of  Alexander  Mavrocordato.  But  the  Greeks,  long  kept  in  bondage, 
and  unaccustomed  to  exercise  the  rights  of  freemen,  were  unable  at 
onoe  to  establish  a  wise  and  firm  government :  they  often  quarreled 
among  themselves ;  and  their  captain,  or  captains,  who  had  exercised 
an  independent  authority  under  the  government  of  the  Turks,  could 
seldom  be  brought  to  submit  to  the  coutrol  of  the  central  govern- 
ment The  few  men  of  intelligence  and  liberal  views  among  them, 
and  the  few  foreign  officers  who  entered  their  service,  had  a  difficult 
task  to  perform ;  and  all  that  enabled  them  to  continue  the  strug^ 
was  the  wretchedly  undisciplined  state  of  the  Turkish  armies. 

7.  The  i^rinoipal  military  events  of  1822  were  the  destruction  of 
Bcio'  by  the  Turks,  the  defeat  of  the  Turks  in  the  Morea,  the  sueoeesee 
of  the  Gre^  fire-ships,  and  the  surrender  of  Napoli  di  Romania'* 

fItiM)'*  Is  mpposed  to  be  d«rlt«d  flrDm  tte  drcanutiBee  of  tti  Imvlag  bean  eoutrootod  of  fte 
niin  of  tbe  three  dUes  Tegca,  MantinM,  aod  PallAotium.    {Mmp  No.  L) 

1.  The  peninsulA  of  Castandra  is  the  same  as  the  andeot  Peiiau^  at  (he  eaatorn  entranee  of 
ttM  Ttaermalc  Oalf,  now  Golf  of  Salonlcft.    (Maps  Noa.  I.  aail  X.) 

%,  SfUtairvt.    See  MonemUSaaia. 

S.  Sei9  (aiMieiitl7  Ck»»)  is  a  celebrated  and  beantiAil  iataSd,  abovt  fii1ii]p4wo  mtlaa  la  leagOi, 
BMr  the  Lydian  eoaat  of  Asia  Minor.  In  antfqalty,  and  In  modem  tinea  down  to  tbe  drevlfkil 
cataatroplie  of  18SS,  the  island,  althoogh  for  the  niott  part  monntalnoQa  and  rugged,'  waa  enl^ 
ttvated  with  tbe  greatest  oaro  and  aaatduitj.  It  waa  called  tlie  **  paradise  of  modem  Greeea^" 
Seio  aspired  to  the  honor  of  being  tbe  native  oountiy  of  the  first  and  greatest  of  poets,— 
«<  The  blind  old  man  of  Chlo'a  rocky  isle.*' 

4  ^Tkyaff  «  XdMenfa  (Oie  andant  JVbtvf^  the  port  of  Afioa)  it  Mtocted  <m  8  polm  o^Jaaa 
nf«»iaiiortt«J9|olhr«M4«aair«rifSaplli.   (^ff^Ho.!.) 


to  tbe  Greeks.  The  Or^k  po^mlatioii  of  the  fionHehing  and  <!«• 
fenbelesB  i^and  of  8cio  had  declmed  every  invitation  to  engage  in 
t^  Revolntion)  nnlal  a  Greek  iSeet  appeared  on  the  coast  in  March 
1822,  when  the  peasants  arose  in  arms  against  their  Turkish  masters, 
attacked  the  citadel^  and  put  the  Turkish  garrison  to  the  sword.  To 
punifih  the  Sciots,  on  the  Hth  of  April  five  thousand  of  the  most  bar- 
Wous  of  the  Turkish  Asiatic  troops  were  landed  on  the  island, 
which  was  given  up  to  indiwriminate  pillage  and  massacre ;  and  in  a 
few  days  the  paradise  of  Scio  was  changed  into  a  scene  of  desolation. 
According  to  the  Turkish  accounts,  twenty  ^onsand  individuals  were 
put  to  the  sword,  and  a  still  greater  number,  mostly  women  and 
children,  sold  into  slavery.  Soon  after,  one  hundred  and  fifty  villagei^ 
in  southem  Macedonia  experienced  the  &te  of  Scio ;  and  the  pacha 
of  Sa^ottioa^  bozisted^that  he  had  destroyed,  in  dhe  day,  fifteen  hun* 
died  women  and  children 

8.  In  the  meantime  the  Turks  had  made  extensive  preparations  to 
CD&quer  western  G'reece-^the  ancient  Epirus,  Acam&nia,  and  iEt61ia, 
and  relieve  the  Turkish  garrisons  in  the  Morea ;  but  after  some  suc- 
cesses they  experienced  a  series  of  defeats  so  disastrous,  that,  during 
the  Bontii  of  August  alone,  more  than  twenty  thous&nd  Turks  per- 
ished by  the  sword.  In  Jute,  soon  after  the  destruction  of  Scio, 
forty-seven  Greeks  rcyed  a  number  of  fire-ships  into  the  midst  of  the 
fle«t  of  4iie  enemy,  and  blew  up  l^e  vessel  of  the  Turkish  admiral, 
with  mere  than  two  thousand  meto  on  board.  The  adndral  hiijaself, 
mortally  wounded j  was  carried  on  shore,  wh^e  he  died.  On  the  lOth 
of  November,  seventeen  daring  sailors  conducted  two  fire-ships  into 
the  midst  of  the  Turkish  fleet  off  the  island  of  Tenedos^'  and  ffetened 
oner  of  them  to  the  admiraPs  ship,  and  the  other  to  that  of  the  second 
in  command.  The  former  narrowly  escaped ;  the  latter  blew  up  with 
eighteen  hmidred  men  on  board.  Several  of  the  TurkieAi  vessek 
were  wrecked  on  the  Asiatic  coast;  others  were  captured ;  and  out 
df  a  flee%  of  ihirty-five  vessels  that  had  sailed  for  the  relief  of  the 

V  Stfotti^  (inolflaUrTbMialmfici;  si  ttie  betd  of  Oie  tltefiiuilo  OiAT  la  HMedonta,)  toaoi^' 
•  celebniml  city  and  leaport  of  Europepn  Turkey,  at  the  aortb-eastem  tttremity  of  th* 
Onlf  of  SaloDica.  Tbe  town  was  known  to  Herodotus,  Thticygid^  and  iEschines,  by  the 
BfilM  tff  TUfMa,  but  Casaandm  cMhuiged  ita  nanie  to  that  of  bis  wife  ThesbaloDiea,  the 
daughter  of  Phlll]>|  and  abter  of  Alexander  the  Great,  f  n  TheasaloiUea  tbe  Apoatte  Panl  mad* 
many  converts,  to  whom  be  adressed  the  Epistle  to  the  Tbesaaloniaiis.    {Maps  Noe.  I.  and  X.) 

A  Temdo§  la  m  smaO  but  celebrated  island  of  Turkey,  In  the  iEgean  Sea,  (Arehlp^lag^' 
Bfteen  miles  soatb-weat  fh>m  tbe  mouth  of  tbe  DardaneUea,  and  about  five  miles  west  frum 
tJ^JUMM  jam  AeoMdiHrtaViftil^  (iSiMM*it.>  tt  was  the  ptoe^ta  nUdk  tktCMeiaiiIMM 
iMdetiMMgnvdiMMtbaSmtiMtBakofTkoy.    (.MvKo.UD 


Morefti  only  eigfatoen  retarned,  aiiich  injured,  to  the  DaidaneUeo. 
Finally,  tofcrown  the  soooeMes  of  the  year,  on  the  12th  of  Deoember 
the  strong  Tnrkiah  fortreee  of  Napoli  di  Romania  was  earned  bj 
assaslt 

9.  Baring  the  year  1823  the  war  was  earned  on  with  resolts  gen- 

erally &Torable  to  the  Greeks.  In  Thessaly  and  Epints 
there  was  a  sospension  of  arms:  on  the  22d  of  Marok 
the  Greek  fleet  gained  a  viotory  over  an  Egyptian  flotilla :  daring 
expeditions  were  made  to  the  ooast  of  Asia  Minor :  a  Tmkish  army 
of  twenty-five  thousand  men,  that  attempted  to  invade  the  Morea  by 
way  of  the  Corinthian  Isthmus,  was  repulsed  by  the  brave  Suliot 
leader  Maroo  Botiaris,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory;  and  the 
Torks  fidled  in  repeated  attacks  on  MissolonghL^  In  the  summer 
of  this  year  the  illustrious  poe^  Lord  Byron,  arrived  in  Greece,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  aid  of  Greek  independence ;.  but  he  died  at 
MisBolonghi  on  the  19th  of  April  following. 

10.  The  Turks  commenced  the  campaign  of  1824,  while  dissensiona 

prevaUed  among  the  Greek  captains,  by  seising  Negro- 
.'  pent,  subduing  Candia,  and  reducing  the  small  but 
stiong^y-fortified  rocky  island  of  Ipsara,  in  which  latter  place  Ubib 
heroic  Greeks  blew  up  their  last  fort,  after  two  thousand  of  the  enemy 
had  entered  it,  and  thus  perished  with  their  conquerors.  The  Turk- 
ish fleet  next  ^made  an  attempt  on  Samoa,  but  was  driven  away  in 
terror  by  the  skill  and  boldness  of  the  Greek  flrenships.  A  large 
Egyptian  fleet,  sent  to  attack  the  Morea,  was  frustrated  in  all  its  de- 
signs, and  the  campaign  terminated  gloriously  to  the  Greeka 
'  11.  The  eampaign  of  1825  was  opened  by  the  landing,  in  the  Morea, 
of  an  Egyptian  army  under  Ibrahim  Padba,  son  of  the 
viceroy  of  Egypt,  whom  the  saltan  had  induced  to  engage 
in  the  war.  Navarino  soon  fell  mto  his  power ;  nor  was  his  course 
arvssted  till  he  had  carried  desolation  as  far  as  Argos.  In  the 
meantime  Missolonghi  was  closely  besieged  by  a  combined  4and  and 
naval  Turkish  force,  which,  on  the  2d  of  August,  after  a  contest  of 
several  days,  euffered  a  disastrous  defeat,  with  the  loss  of  nine  thou- 
sand men.  But  Missolonghi  was  again  besieged,  for  the  fourth  time, 
the  siege  being  conducted  by  Ibrahim  Paoha  alone,  who  had  an  army 
of  twenty-five  thousand  men,  trained  mostly  by  French  officers.  Af- 
ter repelling  numerous  assaults,  and  endoring  the  extremities  of 


Oiur.yi]  NIRBEEERTH  OSBTTUBY.  BStl 

hminty  HiaaoioDgfai  mX  leogih  fell,  on  ilie  22d  of  April,  1826,  when 
ei^teen  hundred  of  the  garrison  cat  their  way  through 
the  enemy,  and  reached  Salona'  and  Athens  in  safety. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  escaped  to  the  mountains ;  large  numbers 
were  captured  in  their  flight ;  and  those  who  remained  in  the  city, 
about  one  thousand  in  number,  mostly  old^men,  women  and  children, 
blew  themselres  up  in  the  mines  that  had  been  prepared  for  the 
purpose.  Five  thousand  women  and  children  were  made  slaves,  and 
more  than  three  thousand  ears  were  sent  as  a  precious  trophy  to 
Constantinople. 

12.  Ibrahim  Pacha  was  now  in  possession  of  a  large  part  of 
southern  Greece,  and  most  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  or 
iEgean  Sea ;  and  the  foundation  of  an  Egyptian  military  and  slave- 
holding  State  seemed  to  be  laid  in  Europe.  This  danger,  connected 
with  the  noble  defence  and  sufferings  of  Missolonghi,  roused  the  atten- 
tion of  the  European  governments  and  people :  numerous  philanthropic 
societies  were  formed  to  aid  the  suffering  Greeks ;  and, 

fioally,  on  the  6th  of  July,  1827,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
at  London  between  England,  Russia,  and  France,  for  the  pacification 
of  Greece — stipulatmg  that  the  Greeks  should  govern  themselves,  but 
that  they  should  pay  ^ibute  to  the  Porte. 

13.  To  enforce  this  treaty,  in  the  summer  of  1827  a  combined  Sng- 
#  lish,  French,  and  Russian  squadron,  sailed  to  the  Grecian  Archipel- 
ago ;  but  the  Turkish  sultan  haughtily  rejected  the- intervention  of 
the  three  powers,  and  the  troops  of  Ibrahim  Pacha  continued  their 
devastations  in  the  Horea.  On  the  20th  of  October  the  allied  squad- 
ron entered  the  harbor  of  Navarino,  where  the  Turkish-Egyptian  fleet 
lay  at  anchor ;  and  a  sanguinary  battle  followed,  in  which  the  allies 
nearly  destroyed  the  fleet  of  the  enemy.  The  Porte,  enraged  by  the 
result,  detained  the  French  ships  at  Constantinople,  stopped  all  com- 
munication with  the  allied  powers,  and  prepared  for  war.  ^ 

14  In  the  following  year  the  French  cabinet',  in  connection  with 
England,  sent  an  army  to  the  Morea :  Russia  declared  war  for  vio^ 
lations  of  treaties,  and  depredations  upon  her  commerce ; 
and  on  the  7th  of  May  a  Russian  army  of  one  hundred 
and  fifteen  thousand  men,  under  command  of  Count  Wittgenstein; 
crossed  the  Pruth,'  and  by  the  second  of  July  had  taken  seven  for 

1.  Sa/MM  ft  Um  Mune  as  the  uiclenk  AtephtaM,  in  lioerli.  See  jSmpkistOt  p.  96.  (M*p  No  1.) 
8.  The  river  Prutk,  forming  the  boundary  between  the  Roaslan  prOYinee  of  BesMnibla  and 

tbe  Ttarictoh  prorinoe  of  MokUTia,  eoten  the  Danobe  aboitt  ilxty  miles  from  Its  mooih.  (Jf^pt 

lloi.Z.aiMiXVIW 


Mi  KODSBN  H18TOKT.  [PitrlK 

twiwa  from  the  Tarka.  In  August  »  ooiit€Pntl<m  was  oondocM 
with  Ibrahim  Paoha,  who  agroed  to  evacHate  tho  Morea  with  hie 
troo]>8,  and  set  his  Ghreek  priaooers  at  liberty.  In  the  meantime  ^e 
Greeks  continued  the  war,  drove  the  Turks  from  Ihe  <;ountrj  north 
of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  and,  towards  the  close  of  the  year,  fitted  out 
a  great  number  of  privateers  to  prey  upon  the  commerce  of  the 
Turks  in  the  Mediterranean.  In  consequence  of  these  measures  the 
sultan  banished  from  Gonstantinople  all  the  Greeks  and  Armenians 
not  bora  in  the  eity,  amounting  to  more  than  twenty-fiyo  thousand 
persons. 

15.  In  the  month  of  January,  1829,  the  sultan  reeeited  a  protoeol 
from  the  three  allied  powers,  dedaring  that  they  took 

the  Morea  and  the  Gyc'  lades*  under  their  protection,  and 
that  the  entry  of  any  military  foree  into  Greece  would  be  regarded  as 
an  attack  upon  themselves.  The  danger  of  open  war  with  France 
and  England,  together  with  the  successes  and  alarming  advance  of 
the  Russians,  now  commanded  by  Marshal  Diehitsch,  who,  by  the 
close  of  July,  had  crossed  the  Balkan'  mountains  and  reached  the 
Black  8ea,  and  on  the  20th  of  August,  took  Adrianople,  within  one 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  of  the  Turkish  capital,  induced  the  suHan 
to  listen  to  overtures  of  peace.  On  the  14th  of  September  the 
peace  of  Adrianople  was  signed  by  Turkey  and  Russia,  by  which  the 
sultan  recognised  the  independence  of  Greece,  granted  to  Rusm 
considerable  commercial  advantages,  and  guaranteed  to  pay  the  exr 
penses  of  the  Russian  war. 

16.  The  provisional  government  of  Greece,  which  had  been  or- 
ganised during  the  Revolution,  was  agilated  by  disoontente  and  jeal-. 
ousies ;  for  some  time  the  country  remained  in  an  unsettled  condition, 
and  the  president,  Ooiint  Capo  d'Istria,  was  assassinated  in  October 
1831.  The  allied  powers,  having  previously  determined  to  erect 
Greece  into  a  monarchy,  first  ofiered  the  crown  to  Prince  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  (since  king  of  Belgium,)  who  decUned  it  on  account 
of  the  unwillingness  of  the  Greeks  to  receive  him,  and  their  dissatis- 
fiiction  with  the  boundaries  prescribed  by  the  allied  powers.     Finally^ 

*  L  Tbe  C^'lada  Is  a  name  slvm  bj  the  uideni  Greeks  to  Uuit  Uuge  elnstar  of  Isleiids  intte 

iBgean  Sea  lying  east  or  aoutbern  Greece.    (Map  No.  III.) 

^  3.  The  Balkan  mountains  are  the  same  as  the  andcat  ffamiw,  whieh  fimned  tbe  norlhoni 

bouudary^orTbmce,  sepafmllag  k  from  Mnsla.    (See  Mt^  No.  JUL)    The  Balkan  range  extends 

from  the  filuck  Sea  westward  a  distaaoe  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  dividing  tbe 

Turkish  provinces  of  Bulgaria  and  RoumelLs,  and  the  waters  that  flow  into  tbe  '; 

tbe  nortb  from  those  thai  flow  into  tbe  Marlta  on  tbe  south,    (.tfiyi  No.  IL) 


Aii».  tt]  NiNttiSirTfi  tSterrtt At.  ft* 

tli«  eroiHi  was  o(Mifened  on  Otba,  a  Bayfttian  prince,  who  attived  at 
Kanplia  in  183B.  « 

VI.  The  French  Revolution  or  1830;  1.  On  the  death  of  Louis 
XVIII.,- in  1824,  the  crown  of*France  fell  to  hie  brothcf  Charles  X„ 
who  commenced  his  reign  by  a  declaration  of  his  intentions  of  con- 
flrming  the  constitutional  charter  that  had  been  granted  the  French 
{People  at  the  time  of  the  first  restoration.  But  the  new  king,  bit- 
terly opposed  to  the  principles  of  the  Revolution,  and  governed  by 
the  counsels  of  bigoted  priests,  labored  to  build  up  an  absolute  mon- 
Mchy,  with  a  privileged  nobility  and  clergy  for  its  support ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  people,  persuaded  that  a  plot  was  formed  to^ 
deprive  them  of  their  constitutional  privileges,  talked  of  open  resist- 
ance to  the  arbitrary  demands  of  the  court.     A  ministry,  which  the 

'  j^putar  party  had  forced  upon  the  king,  was  suddenly  dismissed,  and 
ifr  August,  1829,  an  nltraroyalist  ministry  was  appointed,  at  the  head 
of  which  was  Prince  Polignac,  one  of  the  old  royalists,  and  an  early 
adherent  of  the  Bourbons. 

^  ^  At  the  opening  of  the  Chambers  in  March  1^0,  ihe  speech 
ttom  the  throne  plainly  announced  the  determination  of  the  king  to 
overoome,  by  force,  any  obstacles  that  might  be  interposed  in  the 
way  of  his  government,  concluding  with  a  threat  of  resuming  the 
concessions  made  by  the  charter.  As  soon  as  this  speech  was  made 
public  the  funds  fell ;  the  ministers  had  a  decided  majof ity  opposed  to 
them  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  a  spirited  reply  was  returned, 
declaring  that  ^  a  concurrence  did  not  exist  between  the  views  of  the 
government  and  the  wishes  of  the  people ;  that  the  administration 
Was  acttmted  by  a  distrust  of  the  nation ;  and  that  the  nation,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  agitated  with  apprehensions  which  threatened  its 
prosperity  and  repose."  The  king  then  prorogued  the  chambers, 
and  on  the  1 7th  of  May  a  royal  ordinance  declared  them  dissolved, 
and  ordered  new  elections, — measures  that  produced  the  greatest  ex- 
citement throughout  France. 

3.  In  the  meantime  the  king  and  his  ministers,  hopii}g  to  facilitate 
their  projects,  and  overcome  their  unpopularity  by  gratifying  the 
taste  of  the  French  people  for  military  glory,  declared  war  against 

.  Algiers,  the  Dey  having  refused  to  pay  longstanding  claims  of  French 
citfsens,  and  having  insulted  the  honor  of  France  by  striking  jbhe 
French  consul  when  fte  latter  was  paying  him  a  visit  of  ceremony. 
A  fleet  of  ninety-seven  vessels,  carrying  more  than  forty  thousand 
iridierfl^  embarked  at  Toulon  on  the  10th  of  May,-M)n  the  14th  of 


824  MODERH  HIBTOBT.  [PabtH. 

Jntia  efieoted  a^  landing  on  the  Afrkaui  ooast, — and  on  tke  5th  of 
July  compelled  Algiers  to  capitulate,  afler  a  feeble  resistance.  The 
Dej  was  allowed  to  retire  unmolested  to  Italj ;  and  his  vast  treasures 
fell  into  the  bands  of  the  conquerors. 

4.  The  success  of  the  French  arms  in  Africa  occasioned  great  ex- 
ultation in  F/ance,  but  did  nothing  towards  allaying  the  excited  state 
of  public  feeling  against  a  detested  ministry.  The  elections,  ordered 
to  be  held  in  June  and  the  early  part  of  July,  resulted  in  a  large  in- 
crease of  opposition  members ;  and  the  ministerial  party  was  left  in 
a  miserable  minority.  The  infatuated  ministry,  however,  instead  of 
withdrawing,  madly  resolved  to  set  the  voice  of  the  nation  at  defianoe, 
and  even  to  subvert  the  constitutional  privileges  granted  by  the 
charter.  They  therefore  induced  the  king  to  publish,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  26th  of  July,  three  royal  ordinances, — the  first  dissolving  * 
the  newly-elected  Chamber  of  Deputies — ^the  second  changing  the 
law  of  elections,  sweeping  off  three-fourths  of  the  former  oonstitaency, 
and  nearly  extinguishing  the  representative  system — and  the  third, 
suspending  the  liberty  of  the  press.  In  the  ministmal  report,  pnl>- 
lished  at  the  same  time  with  these  ordinances,  the  ministers  argue,  in 
fi&vor  of  the  latter  measure,  that  "  At  all  epochs,  the  periodical  press 
has  only  been,  and  from  its  nature  must  ever  be,  an  instrument  of 
disorder  and  sedition"  1 

6.  In  defiance  of  these  ordinances  the  conductors  of  the  liberal  ' 
journals  determined  to  publish  their  papers ;  and  on  the  evening  of 
the  same  day,  the  26th,  they  published  an  address  to  their  country- 
n^en,  declaring  tha*^  "  the  government  had  stripped  itself  of  the  charac- 
ter of  law,  and  was  no  longer  entitled  to  their  obedience," — Slanguage 
that  would  probably  have  exposed  them  to  the  penalties  of  treason 
if  the  cont^t  had  terminated  differently.  It  was  late  in  the  day  be- 
fore inteUigence  of  tiie  arbitrary  measures  of  government  was  gen- 
erally circulated  through  Paris :  then  crowds  began  to  assemble  in 
the  streets :  cries  of  "  down  with  the  ministry,"  and  "  the  charter 
forever,"  were  heard  :  the  fearless  harangued  the  people ;  and  during 
the  night  the'  lamps  in  several  of  the  streets  were  demolisEed,  and 
-the  windows  of  the  hotel  of  Polignac  broken.  So  little  had  the 
king  anticipated  any  popular  outbreak,  that  he  passed  the  day  of  the 
26th  in  the  amusements  of  the  chase ;  and  it  appears  that  the  infatu- 
ated ministry  had  not  even  dreamed  of  a  Evolution  as  the  conse- 
quence of  their  obnoxious  measures. 

&  On  the  morning  of  the  27  th  several  of  the  jonmalists  printed 


taiR  yi.]  JiiNJH'KlBNl'H  CESmjRT.  .     \    C95 

asd  distribiited  their  papers ;  bat  tbeir  doors  were  soon  oloflod,  and 
^  their  presses  broken  by  the  police.  This  morning  the  king  appointed 
Marshal  Marmont  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Paris ;  bnt  it 
was  not  till  four  in  the  afternoon  tl^t  orders  were  given  to  put  the 
troops  under  arms,  when  tfiej  were  marched  to  different  stations, 
to  aid  the  police,  and  overawe  the  people.  The  latter  then  bev 
gan  to  arm :  some  skirmishing  occurred  with  the  troops :  during  the 
night  the  lamps  throughout  the  city  were  demolished ;  and,  under 
the  cover  of  darkness,  many  of  the  streets  were  barricaded  with 
paving-stones  torn  up  for  the  purpose.  At  the  close  of  the  day  Mar- 
mont had  informed  the  king" that  tranquillity  was  restored;  and 
therefore  no  additional  troops  were  sent  for  ;^  nor  were  the  great 
depots  of  arms  and  ammunition  guarded.   ^ 

7.  At  an  early  hour  on  the  morning  of  tbe  28th,  armed  multitudes 
appeared  in  the  steets ;  and  numbers  of  the  National  Guard,  which 
the  king  had  previously  disbanded,  appeared  in  their  uniform  among 
the  throng,  and  with  them  the  famous  tricolored  flag,  so  dear' to  the 
hearts  of  all  Frenchmen.  To  the  surprise  of  Marmont,  the  king, 
and  the  ministry,  the  riot,  which,  on  the  previous  evening,  they  had 
thought  suppressed,  had  assumed  the  formidable  aspect  of  a  Revolu- 
tion. By  nine  oVlock  the  flag  of  the  people  waved  on  the  pinnacles 
of  Notre  Dame,  and  at  eleven  it  surmounted  the  central  tower 
of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  which  was  afterwards,  however,  retaken  Jby 
the  royal  troops.  Marmont  showed  great  indecision  in  his  move- 
ments :  his  columns  were  everywhere  assailed  with  musketry  from 
the  barricades,  from  the  windows  of  houses,  firom  the  comers  of  the 
streets,  and  from  the  narrow  alleys  and  passages  which  abound  in 
Paris ;  and  paving-stones  and  other  missiles  were,  showered  upon 
them  from  the  housetops.  The  royal  guards  were  disheartened: 
the  troops  of  the  line  showed  great  reluctance  to  fire  upon  the  citi- 
zens ;  and  the  28th  closed  with  the  withdrawal  of  the  royal  forces 
from  every  position  in  which  they  had  attempted  to  establish  them* 
selves  during  the  day. 
^  8.  The  contest  was  renewed  early  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day, 
when  several  distinguished  military  characters  appeared  as  leaders  of 
the  people,  and  among  them  General  Lafayette,  who  took  command 
of  the  National  Guard ;  but  while  the  issue  was  yet  doubtful,  several 
regiments  of  the  line  went  over  to  the  insurgents,  who,  thus  strength- 
ened and  encouraged,  rushed  upon  the  Louvre  and  the  Tuilleries, 
and  speedily  overoame  the  troops  stationed  there.     So  soddden  was 


BURMIf*  HtmmtL 


tki  /MHMiU  lUi  IknuMii  hmmM  wiA^iSMmltj  t 
hind  him  mare  than  iw«nly  thoosMid  doUan  of  the  pttUie  fvada. 
About  half  pa^i  three  P.  M.  the  last  of  the  militarj  poeU  in  Paris' 
•orrendered ;  the  royal  troope  who  eeoaped  hariAg  in  the  maaatiiae 
retreated  to  Si  Cload,  where  were  the  king  and  nuniatry,  now  in  eon* 
aternation  for  their  own  aafety.  The  RoTolntion  was  ipeedily  eom- 
pleted  by  the  installation  of  a  provisional  gpyerBment :  on  the  3U4 
Louis  Phillippe,  Duke  of  OrleanS)*  the  most  popular  of  the  royal 
&uiily,  aooepted  the  office  of  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom : 
when  the  Chambers  met  he  was  elected  to  the  throne ;  and  on  the 
9th  of  August  took  the  oath  to  snpport>the  oonstitutional  charter. 

9.  The  resulte  of  the  reTolutionary  movement  in  FraacOi  and  the 
overthrow  of  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  in  de^oe  of  the 
guarantees  Qf  the  congress  of  VienBa,  spread  alarm  among  the  sov- 
ereigns of  contbental  Europe ;  and  the  emperor  of  Bussia  went  so 
far  as  not  only  to  hesitate  about  acknowledging  the  title  of  the  oiti> 
sen  king,  of  France,  but,  as  is  believed,  was  preparing  to  support  the 
elaisM  of  the  exiled  Charles  X.,  when  the  popular  triumph  in  Eng- 
land, in  the  passage  of  the  Beform  Bill  of  1832,  by  eonvertiug  a 
former  ally  into  an  enemy,  raised  up  obstacles  that  arrested  his 
measures.  Charles  X,  after  having  abdicated  the  throne,  was  per- 
mitted to  retire  unmolested  from  France;  but  his  ministers,  attempt- 
ing to  escape,  were  arrested,  and  afterwards  brought  to  trial,  when 
three  of  them,  including  Polignac,  were  declared  guilty  of  treason, 
and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  At  the  end  of  six  years  they 
were  released  from  confinement, — ^indignation  towards  them  having 
given  place  to  pity.  ' 

VII.  BsLQiuji.  1.  The  French  JReiolution  of  1830  produced  a 
powerful  sensation  throughout  Europe,  and  aroused  an  insurrection- 
ary spirit  wherever  the  people  complained  of  real  or  fancied  wronger 
while  the  continental  sovereigns,  on  the  other  hand,  alarmed  for  the 
safety  of  their  throaes,  looked  with  jealousy  on  every  political  move- 
ment that  originated  with  the  people,  and  prepared  to  suppress,  by 
military  force,  the  bcipient  effiorto  of  rebellion.  The  Belgian8,^who 
had  been  comp^ed  by  the  congress  of  Vienna  to  unite  with  the  Hol- 
landers in  forming  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  having  long  been 
goaded  by  uiguat  laws»  and  treated  rather  as  vassals,  than  i^  subjects, 

A.  liOOtoPlkflllppai  Ihik«or  ViM«  U  bftMrth,  Dakc  of  Otartiw  «ii  Um  SmUi  oThto  graad 
lhttMrlBl7SS,AJMlDiik«ofOiiMMoa  tii»<lMtboriilAflak«Uil7IM,iis«Alhe  mb  of  Look 
PbUU|>p^  J<m^  Duke  ofOdBB^ar-bttt/u  known  imter  hit  Befoliittooaiy  tlOt  «f  FhUi^ 


CNv.yi]  .  KUfBTKwrH  gkbttoet.  ^  taf 

of  thcT  Dutdi  king,  judging  the  period  I^Torftble  fi>r  diasoiTiiig  their 
muon  with  a  people  foreign  to  them  in  language,  manners,  and  in- . 
teresta,  arose  in  insurrection  at  Brussels,  in  the  latter  part  of  August, 
aad,  after  a  contest  of  four  days'  duration,  drove  the  Duteh  authori- 
ties and  garrison  from  the  city. 

'  2.  In  vain  were  efforts  made  by  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  reconcile 
the  eonflictlDg  demands  of  the  Dutch  and  the  Belgians,  and  again 
unite  the  two  people  under  one  government.  The  proposals  of  the 
prince  were  disavowed  by  his  father  the  kmg  of  Holland,  and  equally 
rejected  by  the  Belgians ;  and  on  the  4th  of  October  the  latter  made  a 
formal  declaration  of  their  independence.  Soon  after,  the  representa- 
tives of  the  five  great  powers, — France,  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Russia, 
and  Austria,  assembled  at  London,  agreed  to  a  protocol  in  favor  of 
an  armistice,  and  directed  that  hostilities  should  cease  between 
the  Dutch  and  Belgians.  The  Belgians,  having  decided  upon  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  first  offered  the  crown  to  the  Duke  of 
Nemours,  the  second  son  of  Louis  Phillippe;  but  the- latter  de» 
olined  the  proffered  honor  on  behalf  of  his  son ;  after  which  the 
Belgian  congress  elected  Leopold,  prince  of  Saxe  Coburg-Qotha,* 
for  their  king.  As  the  Dutch  continued  to  hold  the  city  of  Antwerp, 
contrary  to  the  determination  of  the  five  great  powei^,  a  French 
apny  of  sixty-five  thousand  men,  under  Marshal  Gerard,  entered  Bel- 
gium in  November  1832,  and,  after  encountering  an  obstinate  defence, 
compelled  the  surrender  of  the  place  on  the  24th  of  December. 
Since  her  separation  from  Holland,  Belgium  has  increased  rapidly  in 
every  industrial  pursuit  and  social  improvement 

YIII.  Polish  Revolution.  1.  By  the  decrees  of  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  most  of  that  part  of  Poland  which  Napoleon  had  erected 
into  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  conferred  upon  his  ally  the 
king  of  Saxony,  (see  p.  487,)  was  reestablished  as  an  independent 
kingdom,  to  be  united  to  the  crown  of  Russia,  but  with  a  separate 
eonstituUon  oibd  administration;  and  on  the  20th  of  June,  1815,  the 
Russian  emperor  Alexander  was  proclaimed  king  of  Poland.  The 
mild  character  of  Alexander  had  inspired  the  Poles  with  hopes  that 
he  would  protect  them  ia  the  ^joym^&t  of  their  libertiea;  but  hi* 

1.  Sax0-Coiurg^Ootha  is  a  duchy  of  oentnl  Germimy,  eowlatiiig  or  tlie  two  prl]icliMUtia% 
Saxe-Coburg,  and  Gotha;— Uie  former  on  ibe  south  skle  of  the  Tburlnglaa  forest,  and  the  lafler 
on  the  north  side.  Area  of  the  whole,  seven  hundred  and  ninety-sewn  square  miles :  popola- 
Uon  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand:  chief  towns,  Cobuig,  and  Gotha.  The  goTemmeni  ia 
a  ■oaettettoBal  noaaiehy.  Tba  hooea  of  8Bj»Oobuif  km  laianMntod  wUh  Um  priacipal 
rflanUlesofBofopa^   (JKvRo.XVIL)  K 


liODSBK  HttTOBT.  [FauIL 

fine  profemiims  soon  began  to  prove  delnsiTe:  ere  long  none  but 
Bnttians  hold  the  chief  places  of  goyemment :  the  article  of  the 
coDStitution  establishing  liberty  of  the  press  was  nullified  :  publicity 
of  debate  in  the  Polish  diet  was  abolished ;  and  numerous  state 
prosecutions  imbittered  the  feelings  of  the  Poles  against  their 
tyrants. 

2.  On  the  accession  of  Nicholas  to  the  throne  of  Bussia,  in  De- 
cember 1825,  although  the  lieutenancy  of  Poland  was  intrusted  to  a 
Pole,  yet  the  real  power  was  invested  in  the  king^s  brother,  the 
Archduke  Constantine,  who  held  the  appointment  ;of  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army.  Oonstantine  proved  to  be  the  worst  of  tyrants — 
a  second  Sejanus — delighting  in  every  species  of  judicial  iniquity 
and  ministerial  cruelty.  The  barbarities  of  Constantino,  ssnctioned 
by  Nicholas,  reTivedthe  old  spirit  of  Polish  freedom  and  nationality; 
and  the  successful  examples  of  France  and  Belgium  roused  the  Poles 
again  to  action.  StBoret  societies,  organised  for  the  express  purpose 
of  seciif  iog  the  liberty  of  Poland,  and  uniting  again  under  one  gov- 
ernment those  portions  that  had  been  torn  asunder  and  despoiled  by 
the  rapacity  of  Bussia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  existed  not  only  in  Po- 
land  proper  and  Lithuania,  but  also  in  Yolhynia^  and  Podolia,  and 
even  in  the  old  provinces  of  the  Ukraine,  which,  it  might  be  sup- 
posed, had  long  since  lost  all  recollections  of  Polish  glory. 

3.  The  fear  of  detection  and  arrest  on  the  part  of  some  members 
of  one  of  these  societies,  led  to  the  first  outbreak  at  Warsaw,  on  the 
evening  of  the  29th  of  November,  1830.  The  students  of  a  military 
school  at  Warsaw,  one  hundred  and  eighty  in  number,  first  attempted 
to  seize  Constantine  at  his  quarters,  two  miles  from  the  city ;  but 
during  the  struggle  with  his  attendants^  of  whom  the  Bussian  general 
<}endre,  a  man  in&mous  for  bis  crimes,  was  killed,  the  duke  escaped 
to  bis  guards,  who,  being  attacked  in  a  position  from  which  retreat 
was  difficult,  lost  three  hundred  of  their  number,  when  the  students 
returned  to  the  city,  liberated  every  State  prisoner,  and  were  joined 
by  the  school  of  the  engineers,  and  the  students  o^the  university.  A 
party  entered  the  only  two  theatres  open,  calling  out,  "  Women, 
home— -men;^  to  arms  1"  The  arsenal  was  next  forced,  and  in  one 
hour  and  a  half  from  the  first  movement,  forty  thousand  men  were 
in  arma  Constantine  fell  back  to  the  frontier.  Chlopicki  was  first 
appointed  by  the  provisional  government  commander-in-chief  of  the 

L  rtfUyaiaU  a  proTliiM  of  BufopMa  pallida,  fcfiBtflyooiii^^ 
lrliw«MithorOradn»aiidlfliiA.    (JK^VaXTlJO 


Chap  VI]  HIKOTEENTH  CBNTtniT.  820 

«rai3^of  Poland,  and  afterwards  was  made  dictator ;  but  he  soon  re 
signed,  and  Adam  CsartorLski  was  appointed  president 

4.  After  two  months^  delay  in  fruitless  attempts  to  negotiate  with 
the  emperor  Nicholas,  who  refused  all  terms  but  absolute  submission, 
the  inevitable  conflict  began — Russia  haying  already  assembled  an 
army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men  under  the  command  of  ^ield 
Marshal  Diebitsch,  the  hero  of  the  Turkish  war,  while  the  Poles  had 
only  fifty  thousand  men  equipped  for  the  fight.  On  the  5th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1831,  the  Russians  crossed  the  Polish  frontier:  on  the  18th 
their  advanced  posts  were  within  ten  miles  of  Warsaw ;  and  on  the 
20th  a  general  action  was  brought  on,  which  resulted  in  the  Poles 
retiring  m  good  order  from  the  field  of  battle.  On  the  25th  forty 
thousand  Poles,  under  Prmce  Radzvil,  withstood  the  shock  of  mora 
than  one  hundred  thousand  of  the  enemy  \  and  at  the  close  of  the 
day  ten  thousand^f  the  Russians  lay  dead  on  the  field,  .and  several 
thousand  prisoners  were  taken. 

5.  Skryznecki,  being  now  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Polish  forces,  concerted  several  night  attacks  for  the  evening  of  the 
31st,  which  resulted  in  the  total  rout  of  twenty  thousand  Russians, 
and  the  capture  of  a  vast  quantity  of  muskets,  cannon  and  ammuni- 
tion. These  successes  were  so  rapidly  followed  up,  that  before  the 
end  of  April  the  Russians  were  driven  either  across  the  Bug*  into 
their  own  territories,  or  northward  into  the  Prussian  dominions.  The 
conduct  of  Prussia,  in  affording  the  Russians  a  secure  retreat  on 
neutral  territory,  and  furnishing  them  with  abundant  supplies,  while 
in  all  similar  cases  the  Poles  were  detained  as  prisoners,  destroyed 
all  advantages  of  Polish  valor.  Austria,  likewise,  permitted  the 
Russians  to  pass  over  neutral  ground  to  outflank  the  Poles,  but  de- 
tained the  latter  as  prisoners  if  they  once  set  foot  on  Austrian  terri- 
tory. Thus  Russia  and  Austria  interpreted  and  enforced  the  princi- 
ples of  the  "  Holy  Alliance." 

6.  While  the  Poles  were  stationed  at  Minsk,"  Skryznecki,  uniting 
all  his  forces  in  that  vicinity,  to  the  number  of  twenty  thousand,  sud- 
denly crossed  the  Bug  and  forced  his  way  to  Ostrolenka,*  a  distance 

1.  The  Buft  ft  large  tributary  of  the  Vistula,  forms  ft  great  part  of  the  eastern  bomidary  of 
llM  prasent  PblftDd.  Another  river  of  the  same  iwme^  miming  KNrth«<ast  through  Podolia  and 
Kberaon,  &Us  into  the  eatuary  of  the  Dnieper,  east  of  Odeosa.    {Map  No.  XVII.) 

2.  Minsk  is  a  small  town  of  Poland,  about  twenty-five  miles  south-east  of  Warsaw.  A  large 
dty  of  the  eame  name  is  the  capital  of  the  Russian  province  of  Minsk,  formerly  embrsoed  la 
FMftnd.    (^op  No.  XVII.) 

3.  Ostt0tmka  is  a  soudl  town  rixly-elght  miles  north-east  ttom  WarMW.    (Mof  No.  XVIL) 

T         34 


s»o  xoDBor  aiBioKr  [Pakil 

of  eigbty  milafl,  wfaero,  on  the  26lli  of  May,  he  engiged  m  batlla 
with  sixty  thousand  Rnssiana.  The  combat  was  terrifio— no  quarter 
was  asked,  and  none  was  given.  The  Poles,  led  by  the  heroic  Gen- 
eral Bern,  lost  onc-fourth  of  their  number.  The  loss  of  the  Russians 
was  less  in  proportion,  but  they  had  ihree  generals  killed  on  the  field. 
In  theYollowing  month,  both  the  Russian  commander-in-chief,  Mar- 
shal Diebitsch,  and  the  Archduke  Gonstantine,  died  suddenly.  About 
the  s^me  time  a  conspiracy  for  setting  at  liberty  all  the  Russian 
prisoners,  thirteen  thousand  in  number,  was  detected  at  Warsaw. 

7.  Dissensions  among  the  Polish  chiefii,  and  the  want  of  an  ener- 
getic government,  soon  produced  their  natural  consequences  of  di- 
vided, counsels,  and  disunited  efforts  in  the  field ;  and  by  the  6th  of 
September,  during  the  strife  of  factions  at  Warsaw,  a  Russian  army 
of  one  hundred  thousand  men,  supported  by  three  hundred  pieces  of 
cannon,  had  assembled  for  the  storming  of  the  city.  Although  de- 
fended with  heroism,  after  two  days'  fighting,  in  wMch  the  Russians 
had  twenty  thousand  slain,  and  the  Poles  about  half  that  number, 
Warsaw  surrendered  to  the  Russian  general  Paskewitch — ^the  main 
body  of  the  Polish  army,  and  the  most  distinguished  citiiens,  retiring 
from  the  city,  and  afterwards  dispersing,  when  no  farther  hopes  re- 
mained of  serving  their  ill-&ted  country.  Large  numbers  crossed 
the  frontiers  and  went  into  voluntary  exile  in  other  hinds  :  most  of 
ihe  Polish  generals,  who  surrendered  under  an  amnesty,  were  sent  to 
distant  parts  of  the  Russian  empire ;  and  the  soldiers,  and  Polish 
nobility,  were  consigned  by  thousands  to  the  dungeons  and  mines  o( 
Siberia.  The  subjugation  of  Poland  is  complete :  her  nationality 
seems  extinguished  forever. 

in.  ENGLISH  REFORMa    FREITOH  REVOLUTION  OF  1848.    RKVa 
LUTIONa  IN  THE  GERMAN  STATES,  PRUSSIA,  AND  AUS- 
TRIA.   REVOLUTIONS  IN  ITALY.    HUNGARIAN 
WAR.    USURPATION  OF  LOUIS  NAPOLEON. 

I.  English  Reforms.  1.  From  the  death  of  George  the  Third, 
in  1820,  to  the  death  of  Gkorge  the  Fourth,  in  June  1830,  En^and 
was  agitated  by  a  continued  struggle  between  the  two  gVeat  parties 
which  divided  the  nation — ^the  whigs  anc^he  toriea  Civil  disabili- 
ties of  all  kinds  were  loudly  objected  to,  and  political  abuses  denoune- 
ed  with  a  plainness  and  force  never  before  known  in  England.  In 
1828  the  reform  party  obtained  the  abolition  of  the  test  act,  which, 
though  nearly  obsolete  in  point  of  fact,  still  imposed  nominal  disabili- 
ties on  ProtesUnt  dissenters;  and  in  1829  the  barriers  which  had 


to  lon^ezelttbd  Bomui  Galholm  from  tlielegUntoe  irsfe  removed. 
At  the  time  <^  the  aoceasioQ  of  William  IV.,  in  1830,  a  tory  minisiryi 
headed  bj  the  Dnke  of  Wellington,  was  in  power ;  but  the  decided 
sentiment  of  the  nation  in  fa¥or  of  reform  in  all  the  branches  of  gov- 
ernmenti  oocaeioned  its  resignation  in  November  of  the  same  jear.  A 
whig  ministry,  pledged  f»r  reform,  with  Barl  Orey  at  its  heady'^then 
oame  into  pow^r ;  and  on  the  first  of  Maroh  of  the  following  year 
Lord  John  Russell  brought  forward  in  parliament  ^he  ministerial 
plan  for  reforming  the  representation  of  EnglancT,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  which,  if  adopted,  would  extend  the  right  of  suffrage  to  half 
a  million  additional  voters,  disfranchise  fifty-six  of  the  so-called  rot- 
ten or  decayed  boroughs,  and  more  nearly  equalise  representation 
throughout  the  kingdom.  After  a  long  but  animated  debate  the  bill 
passed  a  second  reading  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  majority  of 
only  one,  but  was  lost  on  the  third  reading,  the  vote  -being  two  hun- 
dred and  ninety-one  for  the  bill,  and  two  hundred  and  ninety-nine 
i^i;ainst  it. 

2.  By  advice  of  the  ministers,  the  king  hastily  dissolved  parlia* 
ment,  and  ordered  new  elections  for  the  purpose  of  better  ascertain- 
ing the  sense  of  the  people.  The  elections  took  place  amid  great 
excitement^  and  the  advocates  of  reform  were  returned  by  nearly  all 
the  large  constituencies.  The  new  parliament  was  opened  on  the 
14th  of  June,  1831.  The  reform  bill,  being  again  introduced,  passed 
the  commons  by  a  majority  of  one  hundred  and  thirteen^  but  was  re- 
jected by  ike  lords,  whose  numbers  remained  unchanged,  by  a  ma- 

'  jority  of  forty-one.  The  rejection  of  the  bill  by  the  lords  led  to 
strong  manifestations  of  popular  resentment  against  the  nobility: 
serious  riots  occurred  at  Nottingham  and  Derby;*  and  at  Bristol* 
many  public  buildings,  and  an  immense  amount  of  private  property, 
-were  destroyed ;  ninety  persons  we]:e  killed  or  wounded ;  five  of  the 
rioters  were  afterwards  exeopted,  and  many  were  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation. 

3.  On  the  12th  of  December  Lord  John  Russell  a  third  time  in- 
troduced a  reform  bill,  similar  to  the  former  two ;  and  on  the  23d 
of  March,  1832,  it  passed  the  Commons  by  a  majority  of  one  hundred 
and  sixteen,  but  was  defeated  io  the  House  of  I^prds  by  a  majority 

1.  JDtrAf  Is  a  Iju^  tovn  on  the  Derwent,  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  north-west  (h>m  London. 

t.  BrUtM  Is  a  luge  aad  Important  otty  and  seaport  of  England,  at  the  conSnenoe  of  the 
Anm  and  the  Frome^  eight  jnlles  tnm  the  entnnce  of  the  Ibnmer  into  Bristol  Channel,  and 
one  hondred  and  eight  miles  west  (Vom  Loudon.  The  city  extends  orer  six  or  Beren  distinct 
»Yail«jB,amldsk a pldmsiiiie and tatUe district.   (JWvNo.XVf^ 


BS9  WmOM  BSanOET.  [FmbvH 

of  fertj.  The  mmiftry  now  •drfawd  tiia  king  to  create  a  voSeiant 
number  of  peon  to  inanre  the  passage  of  the  bill ;  and  on  his  refosal 
to  proeeed  to  suoh  extremities,  all  the  members  of  the  eabioet  re- 
signed. Political  unions  were  now  formed  throngfaont  the  country; 
the  Mople  determined  to  refuse  payment  of  taxes,  and  demanded 
that  the  ministers  should  be  reinstated.  There  were  no  riots,  but 
the  people  had  risen  in  their  ooUeetiTe  strength,  determined  to  assert 
their  just  rights.  The  king  yielded  to  the  force  of  public  opinion, 
and  Earl  Orey  and  his  colleagues  were  reinstated  in  oi&oe,  with  the 
asmirance  that,  if  necessary,  a  suAcient  number  of  new  peers  should 
be  created  to  secure  the  passing  of  the  bill.  When  the  lords  were 
apprised  of  this  fiMt  thoy  withdrew  their  opposition ;  but  it  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  many  of  them,  and  all  the  bishops,  left  their  seats  on 
the  final  passage  of  the  bill,  which,  having  been  rapidly  hurried 
through  both  houses,  received  the  royal  assent  on  the  7th  of  June. 

4.  The  passage  of  the  Reform  bill  was,  to  England,  a  political 
revolution — ^none  the  less  important  because  it  was  bloodless,  and 
carried  on  under  the  protection  of  law.  Thereby  the  electoral 
franchise,  instead  of  being  confined  to  a  varied  and  limited  daas  in 
the  interest  of  the  aristocracy,  was  extended,  not  to  the  whole  citi- 
■ens,  as  in  America,  but  to  a  large  body  comprising  the  middle 
classes  of  society,  who  were  thus,  in  eflFect,  vested  with  supreme 
power  in  the  British  empire.  An  entire  change  in  tiie  foreign  policy 
of  the  country  was  the  consequence.  The  French  Revolution  of  1830 
had  elevated  to  power  the  middle  classes  of  the  French  people  also  ; 
and  the  ceaseless  rivalry  of  four  centuries  between  France  and  Eng- 
land was,  for  the  time,  forgotten  :  the  political  interests  of  the  two 
groat  powers  of  Western  Europe  were  united ;  and  the  Russian  auto- 
crat, in  full  march  to  overturn  the  throne  of  the  citisen-king,  and 
put  down  republicanism  in  France,  was  arrested  on  the  Vistula,  where 
his  arms  found  ample  employment  in  crushing  the  last  remnants  of 
Polish  nationality.  As  to  England  herself,  none  of  the  many  evils 
arising  from  democratic  ascendency  in  the  government,  so  often  pie- 
dieted  by  the  aristocratic  party,  have  yet  followed  in  the  train  ci  re- 
form ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  peace,  power,  and  prosperity  of  Hxe 
country,  have  increased  thereby. 

5.  The  reign  of  William  lY.  was  terminated  on  the  19th  of  June, 
1837,  when  the  Princess  Victoria,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent, 
and  grand-daughter  of  George  III.,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen  years.     One  effect  of  the  descent  of  the  crown  to  a 


Chup.yL]  NimrrSSNTH  ODTITRT*  58S 

female  wee  tlie  8eperati<m  from  it  of  Hanoyer,  after  a  auon  of  more 
ifaian  a  eentory.  On  the  lOth  of  February,  1840,  her  majeety  was 
married  to  Albert,  prinee  of  Saze-Cobnrg  and  Gotha,  a  dnchy  of 
central  Qermany. 

IL  Frbwoh  RsvoLirnoi^  of  1848.  1.  -The  moat  important  events 
that  distingaiahed  the  reign  of  Loois  Phillippe  were  the  abolition 
of  the  hereditary  rights  of  the  French  peerage  in  October  1831 ; 
the  siege  of  Antwerp,  and  its  sorr^ikder  by  the  Dutch,  after  a  long 
and  Tigorons  resistance,  in  1832;  an  attempt  of  Lonis  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  nephew  of'  the  emperor  Napoleon,  to  excite  an  inaorreo- 
tion  at  Strasbourg,  in  October  1836,  for  the  purpose  of  oyerthrowing 
the  government ;  the  second  attempt  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  excite  a 
revolution  in  France,  by  landing  at  Boulogne  in  August  1840,, and 
his  subsequent  condemnation  to  perpetual  imprisonment;  and,  in 
December  of  the  same  year,  the  splendid  pageant  of  the  restoration 
of  the  remains  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  to  France. 

2.  Louis  Phillippe  had  been  selected  to  fill  the  throne  of  France 
ohiefly  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  venerable  Lafayette,  who, 
thinking  France  still  unfitted  for  a  republic,  preferred  for  her  ^  a 
throne  surrounded  by  republican  institutions."  Placed  in  this 
anomalous  position,  Louis  Phillippe,  in  the  vain  attempt  to  ooncili* 
ate  both  monarchists  and  republicans,  had  a  difficult  game  to  play ; 
and  while  he  was  laborbg  to  consolidate  his  power,  a  large  and  influ- 
ential party,  that  he  dare  not  openly  denounce,'  was  sealously  striving 
to  undermine  it.  Yet  for  a  time,  with  an  immense  revenue,  and  un- 
bounded patronage,  and  the  numerous  means  of  political  conniption 
which  they  placed  at  his  disposal,  the  government  of  Louis  Phillippe 
seemed  to  be  steadily  acquiring  solidity,  and  by  its  success  in  keep- 
ing down  domestic  factions,  and  maintaining  friendly  relations  witii 
foreign  powers,  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  wisdom  and  firmness. 

3.  Yet  amid  all  this  seeming  security,  the  middle  and  lower  classes, 
disappointed  in  their  expectationB  as  to  the  results  of  the  Revolution 
of  1830,  were  daily  growing  more  and  more  discontented  with  the 
measures  and  policy  of  the  government ;  and  it  was  this  all-pervadiqg 
feeling  of  discontent,  which,  without  any  serious  agressions  on  the 
part  of  government,  and  without  any  previous  conspiracy  on  the  part 
of  the  people,  led  to  the  unpremeditated  Revolution  of  February 
1848, — ^a  revolution  which,  in  its  completeness  and  importance,  and 
the  bloodless  means  by  which  it  was  accomplished,  is  without  a  par* 
aUd  in  history. 


MM  IIO)>SBK  mSTOBT.  t^^^ 

4.  Ihirmg  Ae  wittier  of  ld47^  iMtnieroin  polMold  ntfiMi  Biti- 
qnets  were  held  throughout  France ;  aiul  the  omiaeioii  6f  the  lnag\i 
health  from  the  list  of  toasts  en  these  ooeasioDs  was  a  eircumstanee 
that  added  much  to  the  jealousy  with  which  these  displays  were  re- 
garded by  the  gOTemment  The  leaders  of  the  opposition  hating 
aanomiecd  that  reform  banqnets^woidd  be  held  dironghoat  Fraifee 
on  the  22d  of  Febmary,  Washington's  birthday;  on  the  erening 
preceding  the  22d,  the  admhiiatration  forbade  the  litlended  meetbug 
in  Paris,  and  made  extensire  military  preparations  to  suppress  it  if 
it  were  attempted,  and  to  crush  at  once  any  attempt  at  insurreeticm. 
In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  then  in  session,  this  arbitrary  measure 
of  goyemment  was  warmly  discussed^  when  the  opposition  membera, 
consenting  to  give  up  the  meeting  for  the  morrow,  concurred  in  the 
^lan  of  moving  an  impeachment  of  ministers,  Irith  the  expectation 
of  obtaining  either  a  change  of  cabinet,  or  a  dissolution  of  &e  Oham- 
ber  and  a  new  election,  which  would  test  the  sense  of  the  nation. 

B.  On  the  morning  of  the  22d  the  opposition  papers  aimounded 
that  the  banquet  would  be  deferred,  when  the  orders  for  the  troops 
of  the  line  to  occupy  the  place  Of  tiie  intended  meeting  1rere  counter* 
manded,  and  pioquets  only  were  stationed,  in  afewphuses;  but  no 
serious  distorbance  was  anticipated,  either  by  the  ministry  or  its  op> 
ponents.  The  announcement  of  the  opposition  journals,  however, 
came  too  late ;  and  at  noon  a  large  concourse,  chiefly  of  the  working  • 
classes,  had  assembled  around  the  church  of  the  Madeline,  where 
the  procession  was  to  have  been  o^anised.  But  the  mxdtitude  ex- 
hibited no  symptoms  of  disorder,  and  were  dispersed  bj  the  munici> 
pal  cavalry  without  any  loss  of  life.  In  the  evening,  however,  dis- 
turbances began  :  gunsmiths'  shops  were  broken,  open ;  barricades 
were  formed;  lamps  extingaished ;  the  guards  were  attacked;  the 
streets  were  filled  with  troops ;  and  appearances  ii^dicated  a  sangco- 
nary  strife  on  the  morrow. 

6.  At  an  early  hour  on  Wednesday,  February  28cl,  crowds  again 
appeared  in  the  streets,  barricades  were  erected,  and  some  ddrmish- 
ing  ensued,  in  which  a  few  persons  were  killed.  Numbers  of  the 
National  Guards  also  made  their  appearance,  and  a  portion  of  them, 
having  declared  for  reform,  sent  their  colonel  to  the  king,  to  acquaint 
his  majesty  with  their  wishes.  He  immediately  acceded  to  their  , 
requests,  dismissed  the  Quisot  cabinet,  and  requested  Oount  M0I6  to 
form  a  new  ministry.  This  measure  produced  a  momentary  calm ; 
but  the  rioters  contmued  to  traverse  the  streets,  often  Atta<ddng,  and 


Ohaf.TL]  nineteenth  OENTIJRT.  685 

flometimes  diBarmiikg,  the  municipal  goarcU.  Betwaen  ten  and  eleren 
in  the  evening  a  crowd,  passing  the  Hotel  of  Foreign  Affairs,  wi|8 
suddenly  fired  upon  hj  the  troops  with  fatal  effect.  The  people  fled 
in  consternation,  hut  their  thirst  for  vengeance  was  aroused,  and  the 
cry,  "  To  arms  !  Down  with  the  assassins  !  Down  with  Louis  Phil- 
lippe  !  Down  with  the  Bourbons  I"  resounded  throughout  Paris. 
,  7.  The  attempt  to  establish  a  Mol6  administration  having  £iuled, 
the  king  sent,  late  at  night,  for  M.  Thiers,  and  intrusted  to  him  tl^ 
formation  of  a  ministry  Ihat  should  be  acceptable  to  the  people ;  aiid 
on  tlie  following  morning,  the  24th,  a  proclamation  to  the  citizens  of 
Paris  announced  that  M.  Thiers  and  Odillon  Barrot  had  been  ap- 
pointed ministers — -that  orders  had  been  giv^n  the  troops  to  cease 
firing,  and  retire  to  their  quarters — that  the  Chamber  would  h^  dis- 
solved, and  an  appeal  made  to  the  people — and  that  General  Lam- 
oriciere  had  been  appointed  commandant  of  the  National  Guaxdi|. 
The  order  to  the  troops  to  retire,  which  occasioned  the  res^gnatioii 
of  their  commander.  Marshal  Bugeaud,  after  a  protest  against  the 
measure,  was  a  virtual  surrender,  on  the  part  of  government^  of  tl|e 
means  of  defence  ;•  and  the  king  and  royal  Iftmily  soon  found  them- 
selves at  the  mercy  of  an  excited  populace.  The  troops  quietly  al- 
lowed themselves  to  be  disarmed  by  the  mob,  who  then,  to  the  num- 
ber of  twenty  thousand,  and  accompanied  by  the  National  Guard, 
directed  their  course  to  the  Palace  tloyal  and  the  TuiUeries,  and 
demanded  the  abdication  of  the  king.  In  the  course  of  the  day  the 
king  signed  an  abdication  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the  young  Count  of 
Paris ;  but  before  this  fact  was  generally  known  the  armed  populace 
broke  into  the  palace,  made  a  bonfire  of  the  royal  carriages  and  furni- 
ture, smd  after  having  carried  the  throne  of  the  state  reception  room 
in  triumph  through  the  streets,  burned  that  also.  Meanwhile  the 
ex-king  and  queen  escaped  to  St.  Cloud,  whence  they  pursued  their 
way  to  Versailles,  and  thence  to  Dreux,  from  which  latter  place  thej 
escaped  in  disguise  to  England,  whither  they  were  followed  by  M. 
Ouizot,  and  other  members  of  the  late  mmistry. 

8.  On  the  day  of  the  king's  abdication  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
assembled;  but,  being  overwhelmed  by  the  crowd,  the  greatest  con- 
fusion prevailed,  and  amid  shouts  of  "  No  king  !  Long  live  the  Re- 
public," the  members  of  a  provisional  government  were  named,  and 
adopted  by  popular  acclamation.  Although  a  majority  of  the  depu- 
ties seemed  opposed  to  the  establishment  of  a  republic,  and  it  was 
by  no  means  certain  that  there  was  any  great  party  out  of  Paris  in 


586  MODSRH  BISTORT.  [PastS. 

its  &TOr,  every  attempt  to  adjourn  the  question  was  the  signal  of  re- 
newed shouts  and  disorder ;  and  amid  the  turhulent  demooBtrations 
of  the  Parisian  populace  the  French  Republic  was  adopted,  and  pro- 
elaimed  to  the  nation.  Royalty  had  Tanished,  almost  without  a 
struggle, — ^blown  away  by  the  breath  of  an  urban  tumult, — and  the 
■IraDgest  roTOtution  of  modem  times  was  consummated. 

9.  The  leading  member  of  the  prorisional  govemment  was  M. 
Lamartine,  to  whom  belongs  the  renown  of  saving  the  country  from 
immediate  aaarehy.  By  his  noble  and  fervid  eloquence  the  passions 
of  the  mob  were  calmed ;  and  by  his  prompt  and  judicious  measuresi 
among  the  first  of  which  was  ihe  declaration  of  the  abolition  of  capi- 
tal punidunent  for  political  oiTences,  tranquillity  and  confidence  were 
at  once  restored.  On  the  26th  the  bank  of  France  was  reopened ; 
the  publas  departments  resumed  their  duties ;  and  with  unparalleled 
vianimity  the  army,  the  clergy,  the  press,  and  the  people^  in  the 
provinces  as  well  as  in  Paris,  immediately  gave  in  their  adhesion  to 
the  new  Republia 

10.  The  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  was  accomplished  by  the 
union  of  the  two  great  sections  of  the  democratic  party — the  Mod- 
erate and  the  Red  Republicans.  The  principles  advocated  by  the 
former  were  the  right  of  self  government,  civil  and  religious  liberty, 
and  universal  suffrage.  The  latter  went  much  farther,  and,  adopting 
the  leading  prfaiciples  of  the  Socialists,  demanded  the  establishment 
of  new  social  relations  between  capital  and  labor ;  a  new  distribution 
of  wealth,  the  elevation  of  the  laboring  classes  at  the  expense  of  the 
wealthy,  labor  and  food  to  all,  by  government  regulations,  and  the 
working  out,  on  a  national  scale,  of  the  grand  problem  of  Commun- 
ism. Believing  that  it  is  the  duty  and  in  the  power  of  government  to 
remedy  most  of  the  many  evils  of  society,  the  people  soon  began  to 
manifest  the  hopes  which  they  expected  the  Revolution  to  transform 
into  realities.  Deputations  from  all  trades  and  callings — even  to 
shoe^eaners,  waiters,  and  nursery-maids — ^waited  on  the  provisional 
government,  making  known  their  grievances,  and  demanding  relief, 
which  generally  consisted  of  freedom  from  taxation,  the  establish- 
ment of  national  workshops,  fewer  hours  of  labor,  higher  wages,  and 
more  holidays. 

11.  Although  the  Moderate  and  Red  Republicans  had  united  in 
overthrowing  the  monarchy,  no  sooner  was  tranquillity  restored  than 
the  animosities  of  the  two  sections  revived  ;  and  when  it  was  found 
that  the  Moderates  had  control  of  the  provisional  government,  their 


CfcttRVI.]  NINBTKENTH  OENTURT.  5W 

opponents  detemuned  upon  its  oyerthrow.  On  sersral  oooasions, 
during  the  month  of  April,  tbb  working  oksses  of  Paris  assembled 
in  mass  to  make  a  demonstration  of  their  numbers ;  but  the  fidelity 
of  the  National  Guard  showed  that  the  real  physical  power  of  Paris 
was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  preirisional  government.  The  elections^ 
held  in  April,  also  showed  a  large  majority  in  favor  of  the  Moderate 
party ;  and  on  the  ballot,  in  May,  for  an  exeoutive  committee  of  the 
government,  consisting  of  five  members,  not  one  of  the  avowed  Red 
Bepublicans  was  elected ;  and  Ledru  Rollin,  the  most  violent  and 
ultra  of  the  committee,  was  the  lowest  on  the  list 

12.  On  the  15th  of  May  the  National  Assembly  was  surrounded 
by  the  populace,  led  by  Barbes,  Blanqui,  Hubert,  and  other  Com- 
munist leaders,  who,  after  having  driven  the  deputies  from  their  seats, 
and  assumed  the  functions  of  government,  proclaimed  themselves  the 
na^nal  executive  committee,  and  through  Barb^,  one  of  their  num- 
ber, declared  that  a  contribution  of  a  thousand  millions  of  francs 
should  be  levied  on  the  rich  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor — ^that  a  tax 
of  another  thousand  millions  should  be  raised  for  the  benefit  of  Po- 
land— that  the  National  Assembly  should  be  dissolved — and,  finally, 
that  the  guillotine  should  be  put  in  operation  against  the  enemies  of 
the  country.  But  in  the  meantime  the  National  Guard  was  called 
out,  the  rioters  were  soon  dispersed,  their  leaders  arrested,  and  tho 
provisional  government  reinstated. 

13.  Owing  t<^  the, fear  of  another  demonstration  against  the  gov- 
ernment, the  full  command  of  all  the  troops  in  Paris  was  given  to 
Ckneral  Gavaignao,  the  minister  of  war ;  and  all  the  approaches  to 
the  National  Assembly,  and  the  different  ministries,  were  strongly 
guarded.  In  June,  the  government,  finding  the  burdens  imposed 
on  the  public  treasury  too  heavy  to  be  borne,  determined  to  send  out 
of  Paris,  to  the  provinces,  about  twelve  thousand  of  the  workmen  then 
unprofitably  employed  in  the  national  workshops.  This  was  the 
signal  of  alarm :  disturbances  began  on  the  evening  of  the  22d :  on 
the  23d  the  most  active  preparations  were  made  by  both  parties  for 
the  coming  contest,  and  some  blood  was  shed  at  the  barricades  erect* 
ed  by  the  insurgents.  At  one  o'clock  on  Saturday  morning,  the  24th, 
General  Oavaignao  declared  Paris  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  the  struggle 
began  in  earnest.  From  that  hour  until  four  o'clock  in  the  aft^moony 
when  the  insurgents  were  driven  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  the 
musketry  and  cannonade  were  incessant,  and  Paris  was  a  vast  battle- 
field.    The  fight  was  renewed  at  an  early  hour  on  Sunday  morning, 


6M  liODERK  HB3T0BT.  [PjkII 

and  oonftiniied  dwing  most  of  ike  day,  and  it  was  not  till  noon  on 
Monday  that  the  straggle  was  termiflated,  by  the  anooiiditional  Bar- 
render  of  the  last  body  of  the  insurgents.  The  number  kiUed  and 
wounded  in  this  insurrection — ^by  hx  the  most  terrible  that  has  ever 
deeolated  Paris — ^will  never  be  Imown ;  bat  five  thousand  is  ptohMj 
not  a  high  estimate. 

14.  The  exertions  and  success  of  General  Oavaignae  in  defending 
the  government  procured  for  him  a  vote  of  thanks  from  the  Aasembly, 
and  the  unanimous  appointment  of  temporary  ehicf-exeeutive  of  the  na- 
tion, with  the  power  of  appointing  his  ministers.  Many  of  the  leaden 
t>f  the  insurrection,  among  them  Louis  Blanc  and  Gau8sidi^e,fled  from 
the  country  :  a  small  number  of  those  taken  with  arms  in  their  hands 
were  condemned  to  tran^rtation ;  but  the  great  majority,  after  a 
short  confinement,  were  set  at  liberty.  The  Assembly,  in  the  mean- 
time, proceeded  with  its  task  of  constracting  the  new  Oonstitu^MXi, 
which  was  adopted  on  the  4th  of  November,  1848,  by  a  vote  of 
seven  hundred  and  thirty-nine  in  its  £KVor,  and  thirfy  in  oppositioB. 
It  declared  that  the  French  nation  had  adopted  the  republiom  form 
of  government,  with  one  legislative  assranbly,  and  that  the  ezeevtive 
power  should  be  vested  in  a  Presidoit,  to  be  elected  by  universal 
sufirage,  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Its  principles  were  declared  to  be 
liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity ;  and  the  basis  on  which  it  rested^ 
family,  labor,  property,  and  public  order. 

III.  Bevolutions  in  ths  Qe&van  States,  Prus^a,  and*  Aust&ia. 
I.  As  soon  as  the  first  accounts  of  the  French  I^evolutioii  of  the  24tli 
of  February,  1 848,  reached  Germany,  the  whole  <^  that  vast  coimtry 
was  in  a  ferment :  popular  commotions  took  place  in  all  the  large 
cities ;  and  the  people  demanded  a  political  constitution  that  should 
give  them  a  share  in  legislation,  establish  the  liberty  of  the  press, 
and  otherwise  secure  them  their  just  rights.  On  the  29th  of  Feb- 
ruary deputations  from  every  town  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  de^ 
manded  of  the  Grand  Duke  liberty  of  the  press,  trisl  by  jury,  th 
right  of  the  people  to  bear  arms,  and  meet  in  public,  and  a  more 
popular  representation  in  the  national  diet  at  Frankfort.^    On  the 

a.  Tb»  praiMt  ooofedflffitioB  of  Genaiuiy,  organbnd  in  ISU^  embnoet  wmOf  tbtty  BlalM^ 
■oine  cf  very  smtll  dimensiona,  bnt  each  possessing  an  independent  government,  md  omif 
liable  to  be  called  on  to  furnish  its  proportionate  contiikgent  to  the  army  of  the  Ooufbdermtion 
In  case  of  dang«r.  The  emperor  of  Aualric,  being  the  aorereigD  of  many  tenrltortes  that  fmt 
considered  fleft  of  the  German  empire,  is  a  member  of  the  Germanic  Confederation ;  and  his 
minister  has  the  right  of  presiding  In  the  Confederate  Genuanlc  Diet,  held  at  Frankfort.  The 
Aueirtaa  Oermaa  pmrlDeas  beloiigUig  to  tha  Gennanle  Oonfbderati«D  an  Uie  arob-daahy  «# 


OmAJt.  VL]  NINETEENTH  OBNTUTIT.  639 

the  2d  of  Marob  ^e  Duke  yielded  to  their  demands,  and  appointed 
a  ministry  from  the  poptdar  party. 

2.  Similar  demonstrations  were  made  in  nearly  all  the  German 
States.  At  Cologne,  a  riot  ensued,  the  t6wn-house  was  stormed,  and 
the  authorities  made  prisoners.  At  Mnnich  the  people  stormed  the 
arsenal,  and,  having  possessed  themselves  of  the  arms  it  contained, 
forced  £rom  the  Bavarian  king  the  concessions  which  he  had  refased 

^to  make.  At  Hanau,*  in  Hesse  Cassel,*  the  Elector  yielded  only  af- 
ter a  severe  conflict  Within  a  week  from  the  revolution  in  Paris 
the  demands  of  the  people  had  been  acceded  to  throughout  nearly  all 
the  south  and  west  of  Germany. 

3.  In  a  popular  convention  held  at  Heidelberg"  on  the  5th  of  March, 
the  necessity  of  the  reforms  demanded  by  the  people  was  insisted  upon ; 
and  at  the  same  time  the  Federal  Diet,  sitting  at  Frankfort,  invoked 
the  different  German  States  to  take  the  measures  necessary  for  a  new 
coBstitntion  of  the  Diet,  providing  that  the  people  as  well  as  the 
rulers  should  be  represented  in  it  King  Frederick  William  of 
Prussia,  after  having  in  vain  resisted  a  popular  revolution  in  Berlin, 
unexpectedly  to  all  pl%^  himself,  foremost  in  the  rai^s  of  the  reform 
party,  with  the  hope,  it  is  believed,  of  reuniting  the  German  States 
in  one  great  empire,  and  placing  himself  at  its  head.  The  king  of 
Saxony  was  compelled  to  grant  the  requests  of  his  subjects,  who  had 
pronounced  in  fiivor  of  reform :  the  king  of  Hanover  also  yielded, 
but  with  much  reluctance,  and  only  when  farther  delay  would  have 
eost  him  his  throne.  On  the  26th  of  March,  Sleswick  and  Hoktein,^ 
the  two  southern  duchies  of  Denmark,  which  had  always  considered 


J.  KmcKisatowiiortfiMn  tboaMad  twJwMlMitB  in  tlM  etoetonto  of  Bmw,  etoven  mitos 
Borth-^ast  from  Frankfort.    {Map  Vo.  XVIL) 

S.  Hes99  Cassel  Is  an  Irregularly-flhaped  State  of  Germany,  oonstoting  of  a  oeotral  territory 
ant  aerenldataehed  portlone,  ttie  wbole  Ijins  >MMt|y  Borth  of  nom^-weeleni  Bavaria.  Tba 
government  la  a  limited  monarchy.  Heaae  Daimatadt,  or  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Heaae,  alio  a 
Umltad  monarchy,  la  divided  by  He«e  Gaaael— part  of  it  lying  north  and  part  tooth  of  the 
liTerHayn.    (JM49  No.  XVIL) 

3.  H$idMerg  la  a  city  of  northern  Baden,  on  the  sooth  side  of  the  Neckar,  fbrty-elght  mUea 
south  of  FrankforL    (Jtfiip  No.  XVU.)  

4.««MidfcaBdJ9W«t0<«.    8eep.40e,aBdJre|MNoe.XIV.aBdXVIL 

Austria,  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  irlth  Horarla  and  SQesla,  pert  of  Gallda,  the  eoonty  of 
1^fol,end  thedvddesofStyrla,OBrinthia,aiMlOamiola,wlthtbetowaof  TOeste.  Tbeoth«r 
States  of  the  Austrian  empire  have  no  oonnectioD  with  the  Germanic  Confederation.  The  king 
of  Prossla,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Austrian  emperor,  Is  a  member  of  the  OonfederaUou. 
The  empires  of  Austria  and  Pruwla,  and  the  kingdoms  qf  Bayaria,  Saxony,  HanoTer,  an^ 
Wlrtomburg,  have,  each,  four  roles  In  the  German  Diet ;  and  the  smallest  State,  the  firee  elty 
of  Hatthurg,ooiilalnli«  an  area  of  only  Ibrty-ttane  Mfuan  miles,  has  one  tote:  ttie  prtodptfl^ 
of  lrliT»>frfrF»««*«",  with  a  population  of  only  seren  thousand,  haa  also  one  role. 


640  MODERN  HXSTOBY.  [Par  IL 

themselTes  as  goyerned  hj  the  king  of  Denmark'  in  ku  capacity  of  » 
prince  of  Germany,  long  dissatisfied  with  the  Danish  rale,  and  iirl- 
tated  bj  the  refusal  of  the  king  to  accede  to  any  of  their  demands, 
declared  themselves  independent  of  Dcnuarlc,  and  solicited* admiaaioa 
into  the  Germanic  Confederation.  Being  assisted  by  twenty  tbonaaod 
Prussian  and  Hanoverian  volunteers,  they  waged  a  sanguinary  war 
against  the  Danish  king  until  foreign  intervention  tenniBated  the 
contest. 

4.  For  some  time  there  had  been  much  political  excitement  in 
those  portions  of  the  Austrian  empire  embracing  Galicia/  Hungary, 
and  northern  Italy ;  but  down  to  the  period  of  the  French  Bevolu- 
iion,  in  February  1848,  the  German  provinces  of  the  empire  had  re- 
mained tranquil  When,  however,  news  of  the  downfidl  of  Loui* 
Phillippe  reached  Vienna,  a  shock  was  felt  which  vibrated  through- 
out the  whole  Austrian  empire :  the  public  funds  immediat^y  fell 
thirty  per  cent. :  the  people,  sympathizing  with  the  Parisians,  ^- 
pressed  themselves  npon  the  great  subject  of  reform  with  a  freedom  and 
earnestness  altogether  foreign  to  their  habits ;  and  the  royal  family, 
panic-stricken  by  the  gathering  tempest,  were  doseted  in  de^  con- 
sultation. All  the  royal  family  and  the  imperial  cabinet,  with  th« 
exception  of  the  Archduke  Louis,  uncle  of  the  emperor,  and  the  min* 
ister  Metternioh,  were  in  favor  of  making  immediate  coneeasions  to 
the  people,  as  the  only  means  of  retaining  the  provinces,  if  not  of 
preserving  the  throne.  Metternioh  tendered  his  reeiguatiini,  bat  waa 
persuaded  to  retain  his  post  only  on  condition  of  being,  as  hitherto, 
nnobstructed  in  las  administration  of  the  governments 

5.  At  the  opening  of  the  Diet  of  Lower  Austria,  at  Vienna,  on 
the  13th  of  March,  an  immense  concourse  of  citizens^  headed  by  the 
students  of  the  Univeraity,  marched  to  the  hall  of  the  Assembly,  and 
there  presented  their  petition  in  £bvor  of  a  constitutional  goremment, 
a  responsible  ministry,  freedom  of  the  press,  a  citizens'  guard,  trial 
by  jury;  and  religious  freedom.  The  crowd  increasiog,  the  Arch- 
doke  Albert  ordered  the  people  to  difiperse,  but,  not  being  obeyed, 
commanded  the  soldiers  to  fire  upon  them.  Many  victims  fell,  and 
the  greatest  excitement  was  occasioned,  which  was  only  partially 
calmed  by  an  order  from  the  emperor  for  the  military  to  withdraw.    , 

§.  ^)ie  city  guard  had  in  the  meantime  sided  with  the  people,  and 

L  Qajtffiia  and  iMtdomnia^  now  coostHuUng  a  provliieo  of  the  Aoatritn  empire,  and  lylof 
norUi  of  Hungary,  indude  Uioaa  ierrilorias  of  Polund  wUoh  have  fallca  to  AntlrU  iu  tte  tiiI^ 
out  iMitltiona  of  that  ooonlry.    {Maf  No.  X  VH.; 


Chiir.VI]  KINJSTSSKTH  CSNTUBT.  541 

opened  to  ih^m  the  arsenal.  Mettemich  and  the  Arohdoke  Albert 
resigned.  On  the  next  day,  the  14tb,  the  emperor  abolished  the 
censorship  of  the  press,  and  assented  to  the  formation  of  a  National 
Ooard ;  and  forty  thousand  citlisens  enrolled  their  names,  and  were 
famished  with  arms.  On  the  foUowbg  day,  the  15th,  all  the  other 
demands  of  the  people  were  complied  with,  and  a  promise  given  that 
a  convention  of  deputies  from  each  of  the  provinces  should  be  as- 
sem\>led  as  speedily  as  possible  for  the  purpose  of  framing  a  consti* 
tution  for  the  empire.  This  announcement  was  received  with  ex- 
pressions of  the  greatest  joy ;  and  the  supposed  dawn  of  Austrian 
liberty  was  celebrated.by  triumphal  processions  and  illuminations. 

7.  The  first  period  of  the  Revolution  terminated  with  the  triumph 
of  the  people,  and  was  followed  by  apparently  sincere  efforts  on  the 
part  of  the  government  to  fulfil  its  promises  and  carry  out  the  reforms 
projected.  But  serious  difficulties  intervened.  The  various  races  in 
the  empire — Qermans,  Jdagjars,  Slavonians,  a^d  Italians — ^were  jeal-* 
ous  of  each  other,  while  their  wants  and  requirements  were  dissimi- 
lar :  the  people,  generally,  were  unprepared  for  free  institutions ;  and 
the  government  was  undecided  to  what  extent  concessions  were  expe* 
dient  During  the  whole  oj  April  and  May,  the  mob,  guided  by  the 
students,  who  often  conducted  themselves  disgracefully,  ruled  in 
Vienna :  the  liberty  of  the  press  degenerated  into  licentiousness  :  a 
shameful  literature  flooded  the  city :  violations  of  law  and  order 
were  frequent :  the  Reign  of  Terror  commenced ;  and  finally,  on  the 
18th  of  May,  the  emperor,  anxious  for  his  personal  safety,  secretly 
left  Vienna  and  repaired  to  Innsprucic '  in  the  Tyrol.  But  the  with-  * 
drawal  of  the  emperor  was  not  what  the  people  wished,  and  they  de- 
sired him,  now  that  Mettemich  was  removed,  to  lead  them  onward 
in  the  ?ray  of  reform.  Returning  in  August  he  strove  in  vain  to 
resume  the  reins  of  government :  the  students  of  the  university  and 
the  democratic  clubs  usurped  the  entire  'control  of  the  city,  and,  in 
the  name  of  democracy,  exercised  a  most  cruel  and  unmitigated*des- 
potism. 

8.  In  the  meantime  the  Bohemians,  of  Slavic  origin,  opposed  to 
every  measure  tending  to  identify  them  with  the  Grerman  Confedera- 
tion, had  demanded  of  the  emperor  a  constitution  that  should  give 
them  a  national  existence,  equivalent,  in  its  relations  with  the  empire, 
to  that  enjoyed  by  the  Hungarians.     Bein^  refused  their  demands,  a 

t.  hauptnckt  the  cUeT  dty  of  the  lyrcl,  Is  on  the  river  Inn,  two  hnndred  and  forty 
eovth-wett  from  Yteaim. 


Mft  UGDmS  HfiSTOBT.  [Pav  IL 

eongMfls  of  the  Sla^e  natiods  of  the  AuBfrtui  empire  had  uaembled 
at  Prague  early  in  Jane,  and  was  diacnaiing  the  varioos  plans  of 
Slayio  regeneration,  when  a  yast  assemblage  of  oitiiens  and  stadents 
addressed  a  *' Storm  Petition"  to  Prinoe  Windisohgratz,  the  militaff 
oommander  of  the  citj,  demanding  the  withdrawal  of  the  r^olar 
troops,  and  a  distribation  of  arms  and  ammunition  for  tlie  nse  of  the 
people.  The  petition  not  being  granted,  the  people  rose  in  open  re- 
volt ;  a  most  fearfol  and  bloody  confiiot  ensaed  within  the  eity,  which 
was  also  bombarded  from  the  sorronnding  heights,  and  after  almost 
an  entire  week  of  fighting,  on  the  17th  the  city  capitulated.  The 
Slavic  congress  was  broken  up ;  the*  bright  visions  of  Bohemian  na- 
tionality vanished;  and  snbseqnently  the  strong  national  feelings 
of  the  Slavonic  population,  and  their  hatred  alike  of  Msgyars  and 
Germans,  rendered  them  the  chief  supporters  of  the  Austrian  thr<me 
and  government 

'  9.  At  this  time  Hungary^  was  striving  for  a  peaceable  maintoianoe 
of  her  rights  against  Austrian  encroachments ;  and  Oroatia,*  which 
was  considered  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Hungarian  mcmarchy,  eoh 
couraged  by  Austria,  had  revolted,  and  her  troops  were  already  on 
their  march  towards  the  Hungarian  ca])^tal.  Austria  now  op«ily 
supported  the  Croats ;  and  an  t>rder  of  the  emperor,  on  the  5th  of 
October,  for  some  troops  stationed  in  Vienna  to  march  against  Hun- 
gary,  inroduoed  another  Revolution  in  the  Austrian  o^itaL  The 
people,  sympathising  with  the  Hungarians,  opposed  the  march  of  the 
troops :  a  sanguinary  contest  followed ;  the  insurgMits  triumj^ed ; 
the  ministry  was  overthrown ;  the  minister  of  war  murdered ;  and 
the  emperor  fled  to  Olmuts,'  attended  by  the  troops  that  remamed 

1.  Hmmgturff  takm  In  Us  wtdMi  aeeeptalloa,  Inetiidet,  bedim  Huagaiy  pn^ar,  CkMtta, 
SUvonli,  tbe  military  frontier  provincee,  the  Baaat,  and  Transylvania.  The  Oarpathlan  mouii- 
taliw  form  the  bonndary  of  Hungary  on  the  north-eaat,  Beparatinff  It  ttom.  Galicla  and  Lodo* 
meria.  Tlie  graater  pan  of  the  Idagilom  octaiiita  of  two  extiaBaiTe  plirim 
Hungary,  north  of  Boda,  traTeraed  by  the  Danube  from  weat  to  eaat ;  and  the  great  plain  of 
Sonth^  Hongary,  aonth  of  Bnda,  watered  by  the  Danube  and  its  tribntaileB,  the  Drave, 
the  Save,  and  the  Thela^  with  the  nvmerouA  aflluenta  of  the  latter.  The  whole  of  tfato 
lower  plain,  an  exceedingly  fertile  territory,  embraclsg  thlrty-eix  thouaaod  Engliah  aqoara 
mflee,  is  in  aoarcely  a  ilngle  point  more  than  one  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Danube. 
(Jlq»No.XVU.) 

S.  Orotim,  (Austrian)  regarded  as  forming  the  maritime  portloo  of  Hungaiy,  has  SUronla, 
TnrUflh  Croatia,  and  Dalmatla,  on  the  east  and  south-east,  and  the  Adriatle  on  the  south-west. 
The  Dmve  separalea  it  from  Himgary  proper.  The  Gfeoats  are  of  BlvTonlc  stock,  and  speak  a 
dialect  which  has  a  greater  aflhiUy  ^iUi  the  PolSah  than  any  other  laoguaga.  About  the  year 
liao  Croatia  was  incorporsted  with  Hungaiy.    {Map  No.  XVU.) 

X  Olmmu,  a  town  of  Ifomvla,  and  one  of  the  rthmgest  forttswes  of  the  Aoatrian  <a»pU«»  la 
en  the  river  Blareh,  forty  miles  north-east  of  Brunn.    Olmulx  was  taken  bj  the  Swedes  In  ths 


fidtfafal  to  hifl  cause.  Fortnnatelj  for  the  emperor,  a  large  and  fkith* 
fill  armj  in  other  parts  of  the  empire  enabled  him  soon  to  conoentrate 
an  oyerwhelming  force  around  the  chief  seat  of  rebellion :  Prince 
WindischgratK  from  the  north,  and  Jellaohioh  the  ban  or  governor 
of  Croatia  fpom  ^  tenth,  united  their  forces  before  Vienna:  on 
the  morning  of  the  28th  of  October  thej  opened  their  batteries  on 
the  city;  and  on  the  31st,  after  a  great  destruction  of  life  and  prop- 
erty, compelled  an  nnoonditional  surrender.  •  Of  sixteen  hundred 
persons  arrested  under  martial  law,  nine  only  were  punished  with 
death. 

10.  While  these  events  were  occurring  at  Yienna,  a  Hungarian 
army  of  twenty  or  thirty  thousand  men,  which  had  pursued  Jellaohioh 
to  the  Austrian  frontier,  had  remained  there  many  days  awaiting  an 
invitation  from  the  Viennese  to  come  to  their  aid.  At  last,  on  the 
28th  of  October,  the  Hungarians  took  the  responmbiHty  of  advaneiftg 
into  the  Austrian  territory :  on  the  dOth  and  3ist  they  met  the  im- 
perialists, whoi  some  skhrmishing  ensued ;  but  the  &tal  blow  had 
already  been  struck  at  Vienna,  and  the  Hungarian  array  reoroased 
Ae  frontiers. 

1 1.  The  second  Revolution  of  Vienna  was  a  riot,  neither  national 
nor  liberal  in  its  character,  and  not  participated  in  by  the  otl|er 
parts  of  tibe  empire ;  but  its  suppression,  in  connection  with  the 
scenes  of  anarchy  whidi  preceded  it,  produced  an  unfavorable  efieot 
on  the  cause  of  freedom  throughout  the  whole  of  Oermany.  A  re- 
action had  already  t|ken  place  in  the  popular  mind :  peaoe,  under 
imperial  rule,  began  to  be  prefen^ed  to  the  unchecked  excesses  of  the  * 
mob:  the  emperor  Ferdinand,  yearning  for  repose,  resigned  hia 
orown  in  favor  of  his  nephew  the  Archduke  Joseph :  the  government 
resumed  its  despotic  powers ;  and  Austria  fell  back  to  her  old  posi- 
tion. In  Prussia,  Frederick  William,  imitating  the  Austrian  empe- 
ror, and  calling  the  army  to  his  aid,  dissolved  the  assembly  which  he 
had  called  for  the  purpose  of  constmoting  a  constitution,  and  forgot 
all  his  promises  in  favor  of  reform  and  constitutional  liberty.  With 
Prussia  and  Austria  against  them,  the  smaller  German  States,  di- 
vided in  their  counsels,  could  accomplish  nothing ;  and  the  project 
of  German  uqity  was  virtually  abandoned. 

IV.  Revolutions  in  Italy.  1.  Smee  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Aus- 
trian influence  has  been  predominant  in  Italy.     The  Congress  of 

Thirty  Year»'  War :  It  was  besieged  uiuuccesafallj  by  Fi#erick  Uw  Great  in  1738;  and  TM^ 
•tto  waa  oonflaed  there  ia  17M.    (.tf«r  No.  XVIL) 


S44  MO0XBN  HBTOBT.  [Pittr  II 

Tieima  ungned  to  AuBtrU  tlie  whole  Miknese  and  VeDetun  pror- 
iaoeBi  now  indaded  in  Aastrian  Lomburdj :  at  the  same  time  ib« 
dependent  thrones  of  Tiuoanj,  Modena,'  and  Panna,*  were  filled  bj 
nembers  of  the  hoaae  of  Hapsburg;  and  it  was  not  long  before 
Austria,  in  her  steady  adherence  to  the  principles  of  doBpotism,  had 
exacted  treaties  from  all  the  princes  of  Italy,  stipulating  that  no  con- 
sUtation  should  be  granted  to  their  subjects.  When,  in  1820,  the 
Neapolitans  established  a*  constitution,  Austria  suppressed  it  by  the 
force  of  arms,  (see  p.  516) :  in  1821  she  interfered  in  Piedmont; 
and  in  1831  and  1832,  in  the  Papal  States*  also,  for  the  purpose  of 
suppressing  all  iiberal  tendencies,  whether  io  the  goyemment  or  the 
people. 

2.  The  election  in  June  1846,  of  Cardinal  Mastai,  to  fill  the  pon- 
tifical chair,  with  the  appellation  of  Pius  the  Ninth,  threatened  the 
subversion  of  Austrian  influence  throughout  a  great  part  of  Italy. 
The  pope,  a  plain  upright  man,  earnestly  desiring  to  ameliorate  the 
oondition  of  his  people,  immediately  commenced  the  work  of  reform; 
and  the  liberal  course  pursued  by  him  at  once  rcTived  the  spirit  of 
nationality  throughout  the  entire  peninsula.  Austria,  alarmed  by 
these  moTcments,  used  every  means  to  change  the  course  of  the  pope; 
and  on  the  19th  of  July,  1847,  the  Austrian  army  entered  Ferrara,* 
a  northern  frontier  town  of  the  Papal  States.  The  occupation  of 
Ferrara  was  the  signal  for  a  general  rising  against  the  emperor  of 
Austria,  not  only  in  Bome,  but  also  in  Florence,  Bologoa,*  Lucca,* 
and  G^oa,  without  regard  to  their  distinct  governments.     In  De* 

1.  The  Duekf  cf  Modtma  is  ft  State  of  northern  Italy,  having  Austrian  Lombaidy  on  the 
■Oftti,  (ha  northern  dMalon  of  the  Pftpal  States  on  the  east,  F^urma  on  the  weet,  and  Tuscany, 
Luoca,  and  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  aoatiL  JlMbme,  the  andealJiriitiM,  Is  the  capiteL  The 
goTemment,  an  absolute  monarchy,  is  possessed  by  a  collateral  kjhuich  of  the  fJouseof  Aiislrla. 

SL  the  Duekf  of  Parma  a4|6ins  Modena  on  the  west,  and  has  Austrian  Lombardy  on  the 
north,  fkom  which  it  is  separated  by  Ibe  Po.  Government,  an  aijeolate  moaarchy.  QaplCalf 
Parma,  thirty-three  miles  soath-west  ftx>m  Mantoa. 

8.  The  Ptepal  Sutet,  or  the  ^  States  of  the  Church,^  occupying  a  great  part  of  central,  with  a 
porlloB  of  noithem  Italy,  have  Aoatdaa  Italy  on  the  north,  flrom  which  they  are  separated  by 
the  Po;  Modena,  Tdscany,  and  the  Mediterranean,  on  tfie  west;  th^  Neapolitan  domlniooa  on 
the  south ;  and  the  Adriatic  on  the  north-eaaU 

4.  Arrera,  formerly  an  independent  dochy  bdonging  to  the  Arnlly  of  EsM,  and  now  Ibe 
most  northern  city  belonging  to  the  pope,  la  on  the  weet  bank  of  the  Volano,  five  mUee  sovOb 
of  the  Po,  and  fiily-three  miles  south-west  fh>m  Venice. 

5.  Bolognof  the  second  dty  in  rank  in  the  Papal  Slates,  It  at  the  sotithemjrerge  of  the  vall^r 
of  the  Po,  twenty-dve  milea  sootb-wesi  fkom  Femn.  BologBa,  whioh  bts  alwnya  awuned  ttie 
tltlo  of  **  Learned,"  has  given  birth  to  eight  popes,  nearly  two  hundred  cardinals,  and  mora 
Uum  one  thooaand  literary  and  sdentidc  men  and  artists.  ^ 

6.  LmccOj  a  duchy  of  central  ftaln  and,  next  to  San  Marino,  the  amalleat  of  the  Italian 
Stales,  haa  the  duchy  of  Modena  oW  the  north,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  aontb-wesl 
Loeoa,  Its  capital,  ia  jsleren  mllea  north-eaat  of  Pisa,  and  thlrty^ight  west  of  Florance. 


> 

eember  the  Austrian  army  was  withdrawn ;  and  the  right  of  the 
States  of  Italj,  not  under  Austrian  rule,  to  ohoose  their  own  formg 
of  government,  seemed  to  be  conceded. 

3.  The  Austrian  emperor,  fearing  for  the  safety  of  Lombardy, 
which  was  already  in  commotion,  increased  his  forces  in  that  prov- 
ince, until,  m  the  beginning  of  March  1848,  the  different  garrisons 
numbered  a  hundred  thousand  men.  The  proclamation  of  a  r^ublio 
in  France  hastened  the  crisis  in  the  Austrian  portion  of  Italy,  and, 
by  the  unexpected  tidings  of  the  Revolution  in  Vienna,  the  climax 
was  precipitated.  On  the  18th  of  March  the  citizens  of  Milan  arose 
in  insurrection,  and  after  a  contest  of  five  days  drove  the  Austrian 
troops,  commanded  Cy  Marshal, Radetsky,  from  the  city.  At  the 
same  time  the  Austrians  were  driven  out  of  Parma  and  Pavia ;  and 
nearly  all  the  Venetian  territory  was  in  open  insurrection.  On  the 
23d  of  Murch  the  king  of  Sardinia,  Charles  Albert,  issued  a  procla- 
mation in  favor  of  Italian  nationality,  and  marched  into  Lombardj 
to  fdd  in  driving  the  Austrians  beyond  the  Alps.  The  Austrian  gen- 
eneral,  Radetsky,  a  skilful  and  veteran  commander,  retreated  until  he 
could  concentrate  all  his  forces,  when  he  returned  to  meet  the  Ital- 
ians, who,  gradually  overpowered  by  superior  numbers,  were  soon 
compelled  to  retire ;  and  one  by  one  the  Austrians  regained  possess-, 
ion  of  all  the  cities  from  which  they  had  been  driven.  After  defeat- 
ing the  Sardinian  king  in  several  engagements  during  the  latter  part 
of  July,'  on  the  5th  of  August  Radetsky  was  again  before  Milan  :  aU 
Lombardy  submitted ;  an  armistice  was  agreed  upon ;  and  Charles 
Albert  retired  to  his  own  dominions.  • 

4.  After  some  attempts  of  England  and'  France  to  mediate  be- 
tween the  contending  parties,  the  armistice  was  terminated  by  Charles 
Albert  on  the  20th  of  March,  1849,  on  the  avowed  ground  that  its 
terms  had  been  repeatedly  violated  by  the  Austrians ;  but^  in  reality, 
in  obedience  to- the  clamors  of  his  people,  and  as  the  only  chance  of 
saving  his  crown,  and  preventing  Sardinia  from  becoming  a  republic. 
Sardinia  was  poorly  prepared  for  the  conflict :  her  forces  were  badly 
organized,  and  her  officers  incompetent ;  while  opposed  to  them  waa 
one  of  the  most  efficient  and  best-disciplined  armies  in  Europe,  under 
the  command  of  an  able  and  experienced  general.  At  twelve  o'clock 
on  the  20th,  the  moment  that  the  armistice  expired,  Radetsky  entered 
Piedmont,  while  the  Sardinians  were  utterly  ignorant  of  his  move- 
ments ;  and  by  the  24th  the  war  was  at  an  end.  Charles  Albert, 
defeated  in  three  battles,  and  rightly  judging  that  more  favor  would 

35 


646  MODEKN  BISTORT,  [PjoalL 

be  shown  biB  oonntrymen  if  the  mipreme  power  were  in  other  hands, 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Victor  Emanuel  on  the  evening  of  the 
23d,  and  in  a  few  hours  left  the  country — bidding  adieu  not  only  to 
his  crown,  but  his  kingdom  also.  Victor  Emanuel  purchased  peace 
by  the  payment  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars  as  indemnity  for  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war. 

5.  While  these  successes  were  .attending  the  Austrian  arma  in 
Piedmont,  an  Austrian  army  was  blockading  Venice,  which  on  the 
22d  of  March,  1848,  had  proclaimed  the  <'  Republic  of  Samt  Mark.^ 
Venice  held  out  until  her  provisions  were  exhausted,  and  an  immense 
aijiount  of  property  had  been  destroyed — not  less  than  sixty  thousand 
shot  and  shells  having  been  thrown  into  the  city  during  tbe  last  few 
days  of  the  siege.  In  the  last  days  of  August  1849,  Venice  sur- 
rendered to  Marshal  Radetsky ; — and  with  the  fall  of  the  Republic 
of  Saint  Mark,  Austria  recover^  her  authority  throughout  all  north- 
em  Italy. 

6.  During  this  peWod  the  southern  portions  of  the  peninsula  were 
hr  from  enjoying  tranquillity.  The  subjects  of  Ferdinand,  king  of 
Naples'  and  Sicily,  had  risen  early  in  1848,  and  their  demands  for  a 
constitution  were  acceded  to ;  but  the  promises  of  the  king  to  the 
Sicilians  were  broken,  and  Sicily  revolted  from  his  authority,  and 
elected  for  her  sovereign  the  Duke  of  Gknoa,  the  second  son  of 
Charles  Albert  king  of  Sardinia.  A  sanguinary  war  between  the 
Neapolitans  and  Sicilians  followed :  Messina,  after  two  days^  bom- 
bardment, fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Neapolitans  :  the  Sicilians  were 
defeated  in  %,  desperate  battle  at  Catania ;  Syracuse,  terror  stricken, 
surrendered  without  a  blow :  Palermo,*  the  last  stronghold  of  (he 
islanders,  fell  after  a  short  struggle ;  and  Ferdinand  of  Naples  re- 
sumed his  former  sway  as  unlimited  monarch  of  the  two  Sicilies. 

7.  From  the  well-known  liberal  character  of  Pius  the  Ninth,  and 
the  manner  in  which  his.reign  began,  it  was  to  be  expected  that,  in 
the  Papal  States  at  least,  liberty  would  find  a  quiet  asylum.  For  a 
time  prince  and  people  were  united  in  the  noble  cause  of  the  political 
regeneration  of  Italy ;  but  the  people  soon  outran  the  pope  in  the 
march  of  reform,  and  began  to  murmur  because  he  lingered  so  far 
behind  them.  He  granted  liberty  of  the  press,  and  its  license 
alarmed  him  :  he  placed  ands  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  but  could 

1.  The  Kingdom  of  J^apUt,  otherwise  called  the  ** Kingdom  of  the  two.Sleiliea,**  neerij 
UflDllefd  with  the  Magna  Chr«da  of  aaUquitj,  eoiBpriflM  the  aoiithen  perdMi  of  Iielj,  logMher 
with  SieUy  and  the  a4f  aceat  lalanda. 

9L  PoUrmo :  tee  PoiMnmi*,  p.  117. 


ndt  control  the  use  of  tbem  :  he  named  a  ooxmcil  to  assist  him  in  the 
administration  of  civil  affiiirs,  but  was  dismayed  at  the  cries  for  a 
representatiye  assembly  that  shonld  share  in  the  government  of  the 
country. 

8.  In  the  summer  of  1848  symptoms  of  reaction  began  to  appear: 
Pius  signified  to  the  Roman  Chamber  of  Deputies  that  it  was  asking 
too  much ;  and  ^is  appointment  of  Rossi  to  the  post  of  prime  minis- 
ter exasperated  the  people,  and  diminished  his  own  popularity. 
Rossi's  ayowed  hostility  to  the  democratic  movement  led  to  his 
assassination  on  the  i5th  of  November,  ^is  he  was  proceeding  to  open 
the  Chambers ;  and  eight  days  later  the  pope  fled  from  Rome,  and 
took  up  his  residence  in  Gaeta,'  in  the  territory  of  the  king  of  Naples. 
On  the  9th  of  February  following,  a  National  Assembly,  elected  by 
the  people,  proclaimed  that  the  pope's  temporal  power  was  at  an  end, 
and  that  the  form  of  government  of  the  Roman  States  should  be  a 
pure  democracy,  with  the  name  of  "  The  Roman  Republic." 

9.  Month  after  month  Pius  remained  at  Oaeta,  unwftling  to  de- 
mand foreign  aid  to  reinstate  him  in  his  temporal  sovereignty,  and 
hoping  that  his  people,  acknowledging  tteir  past  misconduct,  would 
recall  him  of  their  own  accord ;  but  no  signs  of  any  change  in  his 
lavor  being  exhibited,  he  at  length  availed  himself  of  the  only  re- 
source  left  him.  The  Roman  Catholic  powers  of  Austria,  Naples, 
Spain,  and  France,  responded  to  his  appeal  for  aid :  the  Austrians 
entered  the  Papal  States  on  the  north — ^the  Neapolitans  on  the 
south — a  body  of  Spanish  troops  landed  on  the  coast — and,  to  the 
ahame  of  republican  France,  towards  the  close  of  April  a  French 
army,  under  the  command  of  General  Oudinot,  was  sent  to  southern 
Italy,  under  the  avowed  pretence  of  checking  Austrian  influence  in 
that  quarter,  but,  in  reality,  as  the  sequel  proved,  to  restore  papal 
authority  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Republic. 

1 0.  The  pretended  ^*  friendly  and  disinterested  mission"  of  the  French 
army  was  resisted  with  a  heroism  worthy  of  the  days  of  the  early 
Roman  Republic,  and  the  first  attack  of  the  French  upon  the  city  of 
Rome  resulted  in  their  defeat;  but  the  assailants  were  reenforced,  and, 
after  a  regular  siege  and  bombardment,  on  the  30th  of  June,  1849,  . 
Rome,  surrendered.  When  the  French  troops  entered  the  city  they 
were  received  with  silence  and  coldness  on  the  part  of  the  people ; 

1.  (Sf&stA  Is  a  itrongTHbrtiiM  seiport  town,  forty-one  mnes  nortb-wett  ftom  Naptea,  and 
ievakt^mro  mites  lOQth-^aat  fh>m  Bome.  Cteert  was  )>at  to  deaCh,  by  Older  of  Antony,  in  tte 
Immediate  Tldnity  of  tUs  town. 


648  MOOBBH  mSTOBT.  [Pin  IX. 

the  Bonum  giutrdfl  oonld  not  be  induced  to  pay  them  the  eattoraary 

aalate ;  the  common  laKorers  refused  to  ei^gage  in  remoTing  the  bar- 
ricades from  the  streets,  and  the  Frenoh  soldiers  were  compelled  to 
perform  this  task  themselves.  Pius  the  Ninth  returned  to  Rome, 
stealthily,  and  in  the  night,  a  changed  man»  Three  years  of  political 
experience  had  changed  his  seal  for  reform  into  the  most  imbit- 
tered  feelings  towards  all  democratic  institutions :  political  tolerance 
gaye  place  to  the  most  determined  support  of  absolutism ;  and  the 
blessings  with  which  his  people  once  greeted  him  were  changed  to 
curses. 

y.  HuNOA&iAN  War.  1.  It  has  been  mentioned  that  the  imme> 
diate  cause  of  the  second  Revolution  in  Vienna,  in  October  1848, 
was  the  order  to  some  Austrian  troops  stationed  in  Yiaina  to  march 
to  the  aid  of  the  Croats,  who  had  revolted  from  Hungary.  The  Hun- 
garian and  Croatian  war  soon  became  a  war  between  Hungary  and 
Austria.  In  order  to  understand  the  true  character  of  this  important 
war  it  will*be  necessary  to  explain  the  previous  political  connection 
between  the  two  countries. 

2.  The  Magyars,  from  whom  the  present  Hungarians  are  desoend- 
ed,  were  a  numerous  and  powerful  Asiatic  tribe,  which,  after  over- 
running a  great  part  of  central  £urope,  settled  in  the  fertile  plains 
of  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss,'  about  the  dose  of  the  ninth  century. 
For  a  long  period  the  government  of  the  Magyars  was  an  elective 
monarchy,  and  in  the  year  1526  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  of  the  house 
of  Hapsbuig,  was  elected  to  the  throne  of  Hungary ;  and  this  was 
the  first  connection  between  the  two  countries.  Seven  succeeding 
Austrian  princes  of  the  same  house  were  elected  in  suocession  by  the 
Hungarian  Diet,  until,  in  the  year  1687,  the  Diet  declared  the  suo- 
cession to  the  Hungarian  throne  hereditary  in  the  honse  of  Hapsburg; 
yet  the  independence  of  the  kingdom  was  not  affected  thereby,  al- 
though Hungary,  with  all  its  dependent  provinces,  among  which  was 
Croatia,  became  permanently  attached  to  the  Austrian  dominions. 
The  same  as  Bohemia,  it  acknowledged  the  Austrian  emperor  for  its 
monarch ;  but  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia,  were  still  separate 
nations^  each  governed  by  its  own  laws. 

3.  In  the  year  1790  Leopold  the  Second,  emperor  of  Austria, 
yielded  to  the  demands  of  the  Hungarian  Diet,  and  signed  a  solemn 

1.  Tbe  7%0i$»,  (aodent  7VU«riw,)  ft  northern  Uibntaiy  of  the  Danube^  It  a  Ui|e  and  navl- 
fable  rirer  of  Hungary,  flowing  south  ^through  the  great  Uungariaii  pUio.  Tbe  aiea  oC  tU 
iNwIn  is  eatlmated  at  aU  thouaand  aqoaxe  mUea.    (JtffpNoXVUj 


Onr.  VI.]     ^  NntBTBENTH  ClESTtTRY.  549 

declaration  that  "  HuDgarj  is  a  tree  and  independent  nation  in  her 
entire  system  of  legislation  and  government,"  and  that  "  all  royal 
patents  not  issued  in  conjunction  with  the  Hungarian  Diet,  are  illegal, 
null,  and  void."  After  the  peace  of  1815,  Francis  the  Second  re- 
solved to  govern  Hungary  without  the  aid  of  a  Diet,  in  violation  of 
the  laws  which  he  had  sworn  to  support ;  but  after  a  long  period  of 
confusion  he  found  it  necessary,  in  1825,  to  yield,  and  again  summon 
the  Diet  His  attempt  to  subvert  the  constitution  of  Hungary,  ter- 
minated  in  renewed  acknowledgment  of  the  constitutional  rights  of 
the  Hungarians,  and  a  reiteration  of  the  declaratory  act  of  1790. 

4.  Ferdmand  the  Fifth,  who  succeeded  his  father  Francis  in  1 835, 
took  the  usual  coronation  oath,  acknowledging  the  rights,  liberties, 
and  independence  of  Hungary ;  and  the  project  of  incorporating 
Hungary  with  Austria  seemed  to  be  abandoned;  but  still  the  empe- 
ror, by  the  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative  in  making  appointments 
to  office,  could  command  a  majority  in  the  bouse  of  the' Magnates, 
and,  by  the  influence  which  he  could  exert  u  the  elections,  hoped  to 
secure  an  ascendency  in  the  House  of  Deputies.  Moreover,  the  af- 
fairs of  Hungary,  insifcead  -of  being  regulated  in  Hungary  by  native 
Hungarians,  were  managed  by  a  bureau  or  chancery  in  Vienna,  under 
the  direct  supervision  and  control  of  the  Austrian  cabinet.  Austrian 
influence  very  naturally  produced  an  Austrian  party  in  the  country, 
opposed  to  which  was  the  great  mass  of  the  Hungarians,  who  took 
the  designation  of  the  Liberal  or  Patriotic  party. 

5.  At  a  most  opportune  moment,  just  after  the  first  Be  volution  in 
Vienna,  in  March  1 848,  when  the  emperor  had  conceded  to  the  people 
of  his  hereditary  States  the  rights  and  privileges  which  they  demand- 
ed, a  deputation  from  Hungary  appeared,  asking,  for  their  kingdom, 
the  royal  assent^  to  a  series  of  acts  passed  by  the  Hungarian  Diet,' 
providing  for  its  annual  meeting,  the  union  of  Transylvania  and 
Hungary,  the  organization  of  a  National  Guard,  equality  of  taxation 
for  all  classes,  religious  toleration,  freedom  of  the  press,  and  a  re- 
sponsible ministry.  After  some  delay  these  acts  received  the  royal 
assent,  and  on  the  11  th  of  April  were  confirmed  by  the  emperor  per- 
sonally, in  the  midst  of  the  Diet  assembled  at  Pesth,*  the  capital  of 
Hungary.  These  concessions  were  received  with  the  utmost  joy 
throughout  the  Hungarian  nation. 

1.  PmO,  which,  In  ooqjanction  with  Bada,  is  the  8Mt  of  gOTemment  of  HoDgaiy,  is  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Danuhe,  ii^medlately  opposite  Bada,  with  which  it  Is  ooonectad  hj  a  bridgt 
of  boats.  Population  about  sixty-flve  thousand.  It  Is  one  hundred  end  thhrty-llTe  nsUss  soolb- 
eosl  fkom  Vlemift.    (JVsp  No.  XVIL) 


ISO  '      imOSN  HOTKttT.  [FmA 

6.  The  flodden  chAB^  from  the  xeetninti  of  a  rigjid  gffwvrummkt 

to  the  enjoyment  of  oooBtitationAl  liberty,  exerted,  amoog  the  miMW 
who  had  hitherto  enjoyed  no  politieal  priyilegee,  and  eopeoially  in  the 
provincea  dependent  upon  Hungary,  an  influenoe  the  noft  adverse  te 
rational  freedom.  Liberty  was  eonstrued  to  mean  lioenae :  in  some 
places  the  Jews  were  plundered  and  maltreated :  officers  and  jvrora 
who  did  their  duty  were  sacrificed  to  the  vengeance  of  the  mob  T  tha 
imbittered  feelingB  and  prejudices  of  race  were  kindled  into  all  their 
fury ;  and  the  most  horrid  atrocities  were  committed,  while  the  new 
government,  scarcely  organized,  was  too  feeble  to  afford  protection  to 
the  persons  and  property  of  the  more  peaceful  inhabitants.  Calls 
upon  the  Austrian  government  for  assistance  from  the  Austrian 
troops  in  the  provinces  to  suppress  this  anarchy  were  unheeded;  and 
the  indifference  thus  shown  to  the  welfare  of  Hungary  gave  rise  to  tbe 
first  threats  of  separation. 

7.  A  more  Alarming  danger  to  Hungary  was  the  opposition  againsi 
her  in  her  own  provinces,  first  secretly  encouraged,  and  afterwards 
openly  aided,  by  the  AiJIrian  government  The  Hungarian  domin- 
ions embrace  a  population  of  about  fifteen  miUions,  of  whom  only 
six  millions  are  Magyars ;  and  unfortunately  the  other  eight  millions 
were  so  jealous  of  the  Magyar  ascendency  as  to  be  found  either  cold 
to  the  cause  of  Hungary,  or  openly  joining  the  Austrian  par^. 
First  t^e  Croats,  a  portion  of  the  southern  Slavi,  or  Slavonians,'  af- 
ter demanding  entire  independence  of  Hungarian  rule,  and  lowing 
a  disposition  to  place  themselves  in  more  immediate  oonnection  with 
Austria,  also  a  Slavonic  nation,  took  up  arms  against  Hungary,  and 
rejected  all  advances  towards  reconciliation.  Notwithstanding  the 
unconstitutionality  of  their  position,  the  emperor  sided  in  their  fiivor, 
and  sent  Austrian  armies  to  their  aid.  Portions  of  Slavonia  proper 
joined  the  Croats ;  and  the  Serbs,'  or  Servians,  in  eastern  Slavonia, 
distinguishing  their  revolt  by  the  greatest  atrocities,  with  unrelent- 
ing fury  laid  waste  the  Magyar  villages,  and  massacred  the  unresist 
ing  inhabitants.  The  actual  begmning  of  the  war  on  the  part  of 
Hungary  was  the  bombardment,  on  the  12th  of  June,  1848,  of  Oar* 

I.  llie  SlnoniMii  eomprite  a  nameioiu  fkmlly  of  natloiM,  deeoeodanto  of  Uw  andeoft  Bar* 
matiami  The  SlaTOoten  langaage  extends  throughout  the  whole  of  Earopeaa  Ruteia ;  and 
dlaleeU  of  it  are  ipokeD  bj  the  Qroata,  Senrtaoi,  aad  SUToalaM  proper,  and  alte  bj  the  Peloa 


9.  The  801*9  or  Serrlana,  who  belong  to  the  widespread  SlaTonian  stock,  an  Inhabitanla  of 
theToridsh  pioTinoe  of  Swfto;  hot  many  of  the  Serbs  are  scafttefM  Ihroogho^t  the  aeiilhsni 


Qiur.¥IJ  KIKlffrBSNfH  OSSTXSB,Y.  551 

lowitasy'  the  metrppolifl  or  holy  city  of  the  Serbs.  The  city  made  a 
brave  defence :  the  Ottoman  Serbs  hastened  across  the  frontiers  to 
the  assistance  of  their  brethren,  and  the  Magyars  were  driven  back 
into  the  fortress  of  Peterwardein.*  The  whole  Servian  race  in  the  . 
Banat*  then  rose  in  rebellion,  and  th^ peninsula^  at  the. confluence 
of  the  Theiss  and  the  Dannbe  became  the  theatre  of  a  furious  con- 
flict between  the  hostile  races.  Fmally,  on  the  29th  of  June,  the  Aus- 
trian cabinet,  throwing  off  all  disguise,  announced  the  intention  of 
Austria  to  support  Croatia  openly.  It  soon  appeared,  also,  that  the 
altered  condition  of  Austria,  consequent  upon  the  late  triumphs  of 
the  imperial  arms  in  Italy,  had  determined  the  emperor  to  revoke 
the  concessions  recently  made  to  Hungary. 

8,  The  Hungarian  Diet,  now  convinced  that  the  constitution  and 
independence  of  Hungary  must  be  defended  by  force  of  arms,  decreed 
a  levy  that  should  raise  the  Hungarian  army  to  two  hundred  thou- 
sand men.  In  the  meantime  Jellachich,  the  ban,  or  governor,  of 
Croatia,  had  advanced  unopposed  into  Hungary,  at  the  head  of  an 
Austrian  and  Croatian  army,  and  had  arrived  within  twenty  miles 
of  Pesth,  when  the  eloquence  and  energy  of  Kossuth,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  patriot  party,  collected  a  considerable  body  of»troops, 
and  on  the  29th  of  September  Jellachich  was  repulsed  and  the  Capi- 
tal saved.  The  ban  fled,*and  on  the  5th  of  October  the  rear  guard 
of  the  Croatian  army,  ten  thousand  strong,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Hungarians. 

9.  Hitherto  both  parties,  the  invaders  and  invaded,  appeared  to 
be  acting  under  the  orders  of  the  emperor-king,  a  kind-hearted  man, 
but  of  moderate  abilities,  and  unfitted  for  the  trying  situation  in 
which  he  fouhd  himself  placed.  Wearied  by  the  contentions  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  his  empire,  desiring  the  good  of  all  his  subjects,  but 
distracted  by  diverse  counsels,  and  involved,  by  a  series  of  intrigues^ 
in  conflicting  engagements,  Ferdinand  abdicated  the  throne  on  the 

1.  CmrlawUx  to  a  town  of  Sbtvooia,  on  the  right  bank  of  tlia  Darndw^  fiwr  mlkt  MmUi-«Mt  of 
PMerwudeln.    (JUk^  No.  XVII.) 

S.  P0t«n9«rrf«tl^  Uie  capital  of  tlie  SlaToaian  military  ftonUer  diatrict,  and  one  of  the  itrongeift 
IbitraaMs'ln  the  Austrian  empire,  is  (m  the  sooth  bank  of  the  Dannbe,  ill  eastern  Slaronla.  It 
derires  ito  preeant  name  fkom  Peier  the  Benntt,  who  nwrwhalleil  here  the  eoidien  oT  the  tot 
emsade.    (.ifop  No.  XVn.) 

3.  TtM  Banof,  or  Hongary-beyond-the-ThelsB,  is  a  large  diTfslon  of  tonlh-easteni  Hangaiy, 
haTing  TkvnqrlTaiila  on  the  taA,  and  BiaTonla  on  the  west.    (Map  No.  XVIL) 

a. ««  The  rery  spot  thai  was,  in  1097,  the  theatre  that'  witnessed  Um  splendid  Tictoriee  of 
Eugene  of  Savoy  orer  the  Turks,  and  which  were  followed  by  the  peaoe  of  Garlowitz,  that 
nsBorsbleeraln  the  Ustory  oTthe  hooMOT  Anslrla  and  of  Europe.**— SUI«s'.Awirte,U.]p.  68. 


»t  KODBBV  BlSfrORT.  [Pisrlt 

2d  of  Deoember,  bat  a  abort  time  after  the  seoond  Se^olution  in 
Yieniia,  (see  p.  542 ;)  and,  by  a  family  arrangement,  the  crown  was 

•  transferred,  not  to  the  next  heir,  Ferdinand's  brother,  bnt  to  his 
nephew  Francis  Joseph.  The  Hangarian  Diet,  declaring  that  Ferdi- 
nand had  no  right  to  lay  down  the  crown  of  Hungary  and  transfer 
it  to  another — that  the  same  was  se|f;led  by  statnte  on  the  dirtctheits 
of  the  house  of  Hapsbnrg — and,  moreover,  that  Francis  Joseph  had 
not  taken  the  requisite  oath,  in  the  Hungarian  capital,  to  preserre  in- 
Tiolate  the  constitution,  laws,  and  liberties,  of  the  Hungarians,— -de- 
nied the  right  of  the  new  emperor  to  reign  over  their  nation.  The 
Hungarians,  however,  averse  to  a  war  with  Austria,  attempted  n^o- 
tiations  for  a  settlement  of  all  difficulties ;  but  the  Austrian  cabinet^ 
desirous  of  setting  aside  the  constitutional  privileges  recently  grant- 
ed to  Hungary,  had  resolved  upon  the  unconditional  submission  of 
the  Hungarians ;  and  the  new  emperor  yielded  himself  to  the  course 
of  policy  dictated  by  his  ministers.  . 

10:  With  the  alarming  prospect  of  a  desperate  conflict  with  the 
whole  power  of  the  Austrian  empire,  several  of  the  Hungarian  leaders, 
who  had  thus  far  supported  all  the  measures  of  the  movement  party, 
withdrew  altogether  from  the  struggle ;  but  the  great  mass  of  the 

'Hungarian  people,  more  than  one-half  of  the  high  aristocracy,  and 
nearly  all  the  untitled  nobility,  and  both  Romanist  and  Protestant 
clergy,  rallied  around  Kossuth,  and  sided  with  the  country.  Although 
the  peasantry,  whom  the  constitution  had  elevated  from  the  condition 
of  serfs  to  that  of  freemen,  rose  en  fjtasse,  arms  and  ammunition 
were  wanting,  and  the  regular  troops  of  Hungary  were  still  in  Italy, 
fighting  the  battles  of  Austria.  Manufactories  of  powder  and  arms 
had  to  be  established ;  bnt  they  arose  as  if  by  magic ;  and  in  every 
town  the  anvils  rang  with  the  clang  of  the  arms  which  the  artisans 
forged  by  night  and  by  day.  But,  after  all  possible  efforts,  the  Hun- 
garian army,  at  the  actual  opening*  of  the  campaign  in  December 
1848,  amounted  to  only  about  sixty-five  thousand  men,  which  was  as 
nothing  compared  with  the  forces  which  Austria  was  concentrating 
for  the  subjugation  of  the  country. 

1 1.  The  plan  of  Prince  Windischgratz,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Austrian  forces,  consisted  in  invading  Hungary  from  nine  points  at 
the  same  time — all  the  lines  of  attack  tending  to  a  common  centre, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  The 'main  divisions  of  the  Austrian 
army,  entering  Hungary  from  the  north  and  west,  met  with  but  little 
opposition  from  the  Hungarian  general  Gorgey,  who  had  the  oom- 


OuM.YL]  NINETEENTH  OENTITRT.  85S 

mand  in  that  quarter,  and  on  the  5th  of  January,  1849,  both  Win> 
dischgrats  and  Jellachich  entered  Pesth  without  striking  a  blow. 
Kossuth  and  the  government  retired  to  Debreezin,'  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  kingdom,  leaving  a  strong  garrison,  however,  in 
the  almost  impregnable  fortress  of  Gomom,*  while  the  Hungarian 
forces  gradually  concentrated  in  the  valley  of  the  Theiss,  from 
Eperies*  to  the  Danube.  To  protect  the  rear,  General  Bern,  a  Pole, 
was  sent  to  Bukowina,^  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Transylvania,  at 
the  head  of  ten  thousand  men. 

12.  On  the  30th  of  January  the  Hungarians  lost  the  strong  for- 
tress of  Esseck*  in  Slavonia,  which  surrendered  with  about  five  thou- 
sand men.  About  the  same  time  Bern  was  driven  from  Bukowina, 
and,  after  repeated  disasters,  from  Transylvania  also, — ^the  Saxons 
and  Wallachs,*  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population,  having  joined 
the  Austrians.  The  Szeklers,  however,  a  wild,  restless,  and  warlike 
race  of  southern  Hungary,  espousing  the  side  of  the  Hungarians, 
placed  themselves  under  the  command  of  Bem,  who,  thus  reenforoed, 
was  soon  in  a  condition  to  resume  the  offensive.  Again  he  entered 
Transylvania,  at  the  head  of  a  well-disciplined  corps  of  twenty  thou- 
sand men ;  and  although  ten  thousand  Russian  troops  had  crossed 
the  frontiers  to  aid  the  Austrians,  he  repeatedly  defeated  their  united 
forces,  took  Hermanstadt*  after  a  severe  battle,  and  entered  Cron- 
stadt*  without  opposition.     In  a  few  weeks  Bem  was  complete  master 

L  Dekrecxhty  the  smt  mart  fbr  tbe  produoe  of  Dorthern  and  eastern  Hungary,  Is  sttoated  in 
a  flat,  sandy,  and  arid  plain,  one  hundred  and  fourteen  miles  east  of  Pesth.  Population  ftw^- 
flre  thousand.    (Jlfap  No.  XVII.) 

8.  Comornj  situated  on  a  point  of  land  formed  hy  the  confluence  of  the  Waag  and  the  Dan- 
ube, is  (brty-six  miles  northeast  of  Bnda.  The  citadel  b  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  iu 
Europe,  and  has  never  l>een  taken.    IMtgt  No.  XVII.) 

X  Eperiu  is  a  fortified  town  of  Upper  Hungary,  on  an  affiuent  of  the  Theiss,  one  hundred 
and  forty  miles  north-east  of  Pesth. 

4.  Bukcwina^  ceded  by  the  Turks  to  Austria  in  1774,  is  now  included  in  Gallcia  and  Lode- 
meila.    (.«a;»  No.  XVII.) 

5.  Eftcky  (anoient  Jr«r«is,)  the  capital  of  SlaTonla,  is  a  strongly4brtifled  town  situated  oii 
the  Drare,  thirteen  miles  ft-om  its  conflueooe  with  the  Danube.  It  Is  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
four  miles  south  of  Buds.  Munia,  founded  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  in  the  year  135,  became 
the  capital  of  Lower  Pamwnia.    (Map  No.  XVII.) 

S.  The  yFs//fidk«— properly  tbe  inhabitants  of  tbe  Turoo-Russian  prorinoe  of  Wallacfala,  are 
the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Daclans.    (Pronounced  Wol'-Iaks :  WoMft'-ke«.) 

7.  UermantUity  the  capital  of  tbe  **  Saxon  land,**  a  Saxon  portion  of  TransylTania,  is  situated 
In  an  extensive  and  fertile  plain,  on  a  branch  of  the  Alula,  in  the  southern  part  of  lysn^yl- 
Tanla.    (.Wa^  No.  XVU.) 

8.  Cronstudt,  the  largest  and  most  populous,  as  well  as  the  principal  mannftwtnrlng  and 
oommerdal  town  of  Transylvania— also  In  the  ^  Saxon  land*'— is  seventy  milea  east  of  Hi» 

(Map  No.  XVU.) 


SSjA  MODEBU  history.  [FakIL 

of  TrantylTHik,  from  wkioh  be  paaaed  into  tho  BMWt,  aod  cftptared 
Temeswar,*  its  capital. 

13.  In  the  meaatime  important  events  had  oocorred  in  the  valley 
of  the  Theise.  About  the  fint  of  FeUnary  Crenerml  Dembinaln, 
also  a  Pole,  was  invested,  by  Koesath,  with  the  oommand-in-chief  of 
the  HoDgarian  armies^  Althoogfa  the  appointment  of  Dembinaki 
aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  native  Hungarian  officers^  who  seoonded 
him  with  little  oordiaUty,  yet  his  plan  of  operations  was  judicioosL 
Leaving  strong  garrisons  at  Ss^din'  and  on  the  Maros,*  about  the 
middle  of  February  he  concentrated  his  forces  in  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Theiss,  to  meet  the  Austrians,  then  advancing  in  full  foroe 
under  Windisohgrati.  In  the  vicinity  of  Kapoloa,'  on  the  2Gth  and 
27th,  a  severe  battle  was  fought  between  forty  thousand  Hungariana 
and  sixty  thousand  Austrians^  without  any  decisive  result ;  but  had 
it  not  been  for  the  mactivity  of  Gorgey,  who  restricted  himself  to  a 
defensive  position,  the  Austrians  would  have  suffered  a  total  defeat. 

14.  Early  in  March  Dembinski  resigned,  and  General  Vetter  waa 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Hungarian  forces ;  bat  owing 
to  the  illness  of  Vetter  the  command  soon  devolved  on  Gorgey, 
under  whom  was  gained  a  series  of  victories  by  which  the  Austriaoa 
were  for  a  time  driven  out  of  Hungary.  On  the  4th  of  April  Jella* 
ehioh  was  defeated  at  Tapiobieske,'  and  on  the  6th  the  corps  of 
Windischgrats  at  GikluUo:'  on  the  9th  Gorgey  took  Waitien*  by 
storm  :  on  the  19th  the  Ausrians  were  defeated  in  a  desperate  battle 
at  Nagy-Sarlo ;'  and  on  the  20th  Gorgey  relieved  the  fortress  of 
Gomom,  which  the  Austrians  had  dosdy  besieged  during  several 
months.  In  a  few  days  the  main  body  of  th^  Austrians  was  driven 
from  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  when  nothing  but  a  routed  army 
remained  between  the  Hungarians  and  the  city  of  Vienna.  Had 
Gofgey  then  followed  up  his  successes,  as  he  was  strongly  urged 
to  do  by  Kossuth,  in  two  days  his  forces  might  have  bivouacked 
in  the  Austrian  capital;  but  he  remained  inactive  eight  days  at 
Comom,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  siege  of  the  fortress  of  Buda/ 

I.  Titmenoar,  th«  capital  of  the  Baaai,  Is  a  8troiigly-forUa«d  lowiu  aeT«aty-avo  mllaa  nortlft. 
Msl  of  Pcterwardeln.  It  was  takm  ftom  ihe  Turks  in  J716  bj  Prince  Eogene.  Tbe  Bcsa 
caoal,  Mveoty^bree  mllcs  in  Icnstb,  panes  through  th«  town.  TemaBwar  is  supposed  to  rep- 
naenl  the  aodent  Tahisoos,  to  which  Ovid  was  banished.    {Map  No.  XVH.) 

9.  Sugtdin  is  a  large  town  of  Hungary,  siloated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Maroa  and  th» 
IVllai,  one  hundred  mllea  sooth-east  of  Pesth.    (Map  No.  XVII.) 

3.  For  tbe  river  Maroa,  and  the  towns  Kapolna,  Tapiobleske»  Gdddlia,  Waltaen,  and  Nagr- 
Sarlo,  see  Map  No.  XVII. 

4.  BmdOj  sltaated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  one  hundred  and  Ihirty-Ave  miles  aouth 


Clkir.YI]  NINETEENTH    DENTURY.  556 

H^fiich  was  carried  by  storm  on  the  2l8t  of  May.  Buda  was  the  bait 
whieh  the  retreating  army  left  behind  them  to  lure  the  Hmigarians ; 
and  its  siege  was  the  salvation  of  Vienna,  and,  perhaps,  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire. 

15.  On  the  4th  of  March  the  Austrian  emperor  had  made  known 
the  project  of  a  constitution  for  his  empire,  the  effect  of  which  would' 
have  been  to  rob  Hungary  of  her  independence  and  constitutiontif 
rights.  This  measure,  in  connection  with  the  well-known  fact  that 
Russia  had  been  invoked  to  lend  her  aid  in  suppressing  the  HungaHatr 
rebellion,  induced  the  Hungarian  Diet  to  make,  on  the  1 4th  of  Jtily; 
1849,  the  declaration  of  Hungarian  independence.  The  Diet  also 
decreed  that,  until  the  form  of  government  to  be  adopted  for  the 
future  should 'be  fixed  by  the  nation,  the  government  should  be  con^ 
ducted  by  Louis  Kossuth  and  the  ministers  to  be  appointed  by  him. 
Kossuth  was  thereupon  unanimously  declared  governor  of  Hungary, 
with  little  less  than  regal  powers. 

16.  The  demand  which  the  Austrian  emperor  had  made  upon  the 
Czar  for  assistance  was  neither  rejected  nor  delayed  ;  and  prepara- 
tions for  a  second  campaign  against  Hungary  were  speedily  com- 
pleted. Four  hundred  thousand  men,  of  whom  one  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  were  Russians,  were  assembled  on  the  Hungarian 
frontiers  early  in  June, — the  whole  being  placed  under  the  command- 
in-chief  of  the  Austrian  general  Haynau,  of  whom  little  was  then 
known,  except  that  he  had  served  under  Eadetsky  in  Italy,  where  he 
had  distinguished  himself  by  his  atrocities.  To  meet  this  force  the 
Hungarians  had  raised  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
men,  with  four  hundred  pieces  of  artillery.  Of  these,  forty-five  thou- 
sand, under  the  immediate  command  of  Grorgey,  were  on  the  upper 
Danube,  between  Presburg'  and  the  capital.  The  other  principal 
divisions  of  the  Hungarian  forces  consisted  of  thirty-five  thousand 
men  under  General  Perczel  in  the  Banat,  thirty-two  thousand  under 
General  Bem  in  Transylvania,  and  twelve  thousand  under  Dembinski 
at  Eperies,  near  the  Galician  frontier. 

17.  Almost  simultaneously,  in  the  early  part  of  June,  Haynau,  at 
the  head  of  fifty  thousand  men,  entered  Hungary  at   Presburg; 

east  of  Vienna,  la,  in  coi^ttncUon  with  Pesth,  the  capital  of  Hungary.  Attilm  oocaalonally  made 
Buda  his  residence.  Arpad,  the  Magyar  chief,  made  It  his  head-quarters  in  the  year  900 ;  and 
It  then  became  the  cradle  of  the  Hungarian  monarchy.    {Map  No.  X  VU.) 

1.  Pruburgt  once  the  capital  of  Hungary,  is  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Danube,  thirty^oar 
miles  east  of  Vienna.  The  castle,  now  in  ruins,  is  memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  appeal  mad« 
In  1741  by  Maria  Theresa  to  the  Hungarian  States,  whieh  was  so  genaioaaly  nipODM  to  t9 
tlMtattflr.   Seep. 49a    (JT^NcXVIL) 


5S6  MODERN  HISTORY.  [Pj«n 

PaakiewitoL  at  the  head  of  eighty-aeTen  thousand  RuBsiaiiB,  paaMd 
the  frontiers  of  Galioia,  and  deaoended  into  the  vallej  of  the  Th«iH 
bj  way  of  Bartfeld*  and  Eperiea ;  and  forty  thousand  Russians  and 
fourteen  thousand  Austrians  entered  Transylvania  from  the  south 
and  east  Smaller  divisions  entered  at  other  points — the  whole  de- 
Vgoed  to  enclose  the  Hungarians  within  a  circle  of  armies,  in  the 
plains  of  the  Theiss  and  the  Danube. 

18.  The  plan  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians  was  too  successfully 
earned  out.  The  Russians,  after  encountering  a  heroic  resistance, 
drove  Bern  from  Transylvania:  Jellaohich,  after  experiencing  the 
most  disastrous  defeat  in  the  defile  of  Hegyes,'  marched  up  the 
Theiss :  the  Russians,  under  Paskiewitch,  in  two  divisions  entered 
Debrecsin  on  the  7th  of  July,  and  Pesth  on  the  lith.  Haynaa 
fought  his  way  from  Presburg  to  the  vicinity  of  Gomorn,  near  which 
place  he  fought,  on  the  llth  of  July,  a  severe  battle  with  Gorgey, 
in  which  the  latter  had  the  advantage.  On  the  19th  he  reached 
Pesth,  where  he  renewed  those  brutal  scenes  which  had  marked  his 
whole  career  in  Hungary.  To  his  own  everlasting  infamy,  and  the 
deep  disgrace  of  the  Austrian  government,  he  repeatedly  ordered 
ladies  of  great  respectability  and  high  rank  to  be  publicly  flogged 
for  having  held  communication  with  the  insurgents, — and  one,  the 
daughter  of  a  professor  in  Raab,  for  having  turned  her  back  upon 
the  emperor  as  he  entered  the  city.  Brave  officers  were  hanged  by 
him  for  no  other  crime  than  that  of  defending  their  country.  Hay- 
nau,  by  his  barbarities,  fully  earned  the  title  which  has  been  given 
him, — that  of  "  Hungary^s  Hangman." 

19.  From  Gomorn,  Gorgey,  constantly  harassed  by  the  enemy,  re- 
treated to  Waitsen,  and  thence  to  Onod,'  and  on  the  29th  crossed 
the  Theiss  at  Tokay ,^  from  which  place  he  turned  south,  and,  pur- 
sued by  the  enemy,  continued  his  retreat,  until,  on  the  8th  of  August, 

1.  BarlfM  it  tt  tlie  foot  of  the  fiTpathlan  monntalM,  in  northern  Hongwry,  on  the  Tope,  an 
affluent  of  the  TbelM.  It  formerly  ei\|oyed  considerable  diBtincUon  as  a  eeat  of  learning.  It  la 
one  hundred  and  Uny-Are  miles  north-east  fh>m  Pesth.    {Mof  No.  XVIL) 

3.  Uegf9  is  a  small  town  of  Southern  Hungary,  thlrty-flve  miles  north-west  of  Petarwardetai. 
{Map  No.  XVII.) 

3.  (Hod  is  on  the  western  bank  of  ttie  Theiss,  ninety-five  miles  north-east  of  Peath.  (JK^p 
No.  XVII.) 

4.  Tokajf  is  a  small  town,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bodrog  with  the  Theiss,  one  buni- 
drod  and  thirteen  miles  nonh-east  (h>m  Pesth.  Tokay  derires  its  whole  celebrity  th>m  its  beiiig 
the  nttrepH  for  the  sale  of  the  famous  sweet  wine  of  the  same  name,  made  In  a  hilly  tract  of 
country  extending  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  northwest  flrom  the  town.  The  finest  quality  of 
the  wine  is  that  which  flows  from  the  rtpe  grapes  by  their  own  pressure,  while  in  heaps.  (Jfv 
No.  XVIL) 


Ohaf.  VI]  NINETEENTH  OENTURY.  W7 

he  reached  ihe  fortress  of  Arad,^  on  the  Maros.  Petty  jealoamea 
between  the  Hungarian  generals  frequently  prevented  oonoert  of 
action  and  a  union  of  forces  when  the  safety  of  whole  armies  depend- 
ed upon  it;  and  the  ambition  of  Gorgey,  in  particular,  who  was 
possessed  of  both  skill  and  courage,  seemed  to  be  to  show  himself  a 
great  general.     His  country^s  safety  was  a  secondary  consideration. 

20.  Dembinski,  in  the  meantime,  had  retreated  south,  and  crossed 
the  Danube  also  in  the  Banat.  After  almost  constant  fighting  on 
the  5th,  6th,  7th,  and  8th  of  August,  on  the  latter  of  which  days  he 
was  seyerely  wounded,  on  the  9th  his  army,  commanded  by  Bern, 
fought  with  Jellachich  and  Haynau  the  decisive  battle  of  Temeswar, 
in  which  the  Austrians  were  at  first  repulsed  with  great  loss ;  but 
the  failure  of  ammunition  in  the  Hungarian  lines  finally  gave  the 
victory  to  the  Austrians.  The  southern  Hungarian  army  was  com- 
pletely broken  up  by  this  disaster :  many  laid  down  their  arms  and 
returned  home  :  some  escaped  into  Turkey ;  and  some  thousands  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  pursuing  enemy.  On  the  8th  (Sergey  had 
reached  Arad  with  forty  thousand  troops,  within  half  a  day's  march 
of  the  spot  where  Dembinski  was  fighting ;  but  instead  of  joining  his 
oountrymen  at  that  opportune  moment,  when  he  might  have  turned 
the  scale  of  victory,  he  was  then  engaged  in  efforts  for  obtaining  the 
dissolution  of  the  government,  and  procuring  for  himself  the  ap- 
pointment of  dictator.  Grorgey's  fidelity  to  the  Hungarian  cause  had 
long  been  suspected,  even  by  Kossuth  himself,  yet  he  had  been  re- 
tained in  command  of  the  largest  division  of  the  Hungarian  army ; 
and  now,  when  he  declared  that  he  alone  could  and  would  save  the 
oountry  if  dictatorial  powers  were  conferred  upon  him,  Kossuth, 
considering  the  cause  of  Hungary  desperate,  took  the  important  step 
of  dissolving  the  government  and  conferring  upon  Gk>rgey  the  8U« 
preme  civil  and  military  power.     (Aug.  10th.) 

21.  It  soon  appeared  that  Grorgey  had  long  maintained  a  treason- 
able correspondence  with  the  enemy.  He  had  long  disobeyed,  at  his 
pleasure,  the  orders  sent  him  by  the  government ;  and  he  now  made 
such  a  disposition  of  his  forces  that  the  Russians  might  enclose  his  army, 
of  which,  in  spite  of  its  corrupt  condition,  he  still  stood  in  fear.  On 
the  1 3th  he  surrendered  to  the  Russian  general  Rudiger,  without 
any  conditions,  his  entire  force,  with  one  hundred  and  forty-four  can- 
nons.    When  the  troops  were  drawn  up  for  surrender,  grief  and  in- 

1.  Arad  b  a  ftnuigly-fortlfled  town,  aitiutod  oa  boUi  aldM  of  the  Marai,  twentj^^tYn  mikt 
north  of  TemMWW.    (4f^No.XVU.) 


5W  MODBir  msrOBT.  ppABtIL 

dlgnatitn  wore  Timble  throvgliaat  the  ranks :  one  offioer  lirdce  hk 
fword,  and  threw  it  with  cnreea  at  Gorgej's  feet :  many  a  hiUBar 
shot  hte  noble  oharger,  that  it  might  not  saryive  the  disgraoe  of  its 
master;  and  some  regiments  homed  their  standards,  det^mined 
neT«r  to  surrender  them  to  the  enemy. 

22.  A  few  days  before  Oorgey's  treacherons  snmnder,  one  parting 
gleam  of  snooees  shed  its  lustre  on  the  Hungarian  arms.  At  mid- 
night on  the  3d  of  Atigost  the  garrison  of  Oomom,  commanded  by 
General  Kli^ka,  sallied  from  the  fortress,  and  drove  baok  the  Ana- 
triane  with  dreadftil  slaughter ;  and  so  great  was  the  panic  that  on 
the  9th  of  August  Raab'  was  taken,  and  with  it  supplies  and  ammu- 
nition to  the  value  of  several  millions  of  dollars.  The  peasantry  in 
the  valley  of  the  Danube  roee  em  tfuutty  and  Klapkm  thought  serious^ 
ly  of  marching  upon  Vienna  itself,  when  the  news  of  Oorgey's  sur- 
render paralysed  all  ferther  effort.  Oomorn  surrendered  on  (Jie  29tli 
of  September,  on  favorable  terms ;  and  with  the  fall  of  that  impoit- 
ant  fortress,  terminated  the  military  operations  in  Hungary. 

23.  After  the  surrender  of  Grorgey,  Kossuth  left  Arad  and  direei- 
ed  his  course  to  the  Turkish  frontier,  and,  finding  that  no  hope  re- 
mained of  serving  his  country,  delivered  himself  up  to  the  Ottoman 
garrison  at  Widdin.'  Austria  in  vaid  demanded  him  of  the  Tnrkirii 
government.  When  he  was  finally  permitted  to  leave  the  country 
he  came  to  the  United  States.  The  attentions  there  bestowed  upon 
him  for  bis  noble  eflforts  in  the  cause  of  Hungarian  freedom,  called 
forth,  from  the  Austrian  government,  a  remonstrance,  which  was 
nobly  answered  by  Mr.  Webster,  the  American  Secretary  of  State. 
Bern  also  fled  into  Turkey,  where,  after  receiving  a  command  in  the 
Turkish  army,  be  died  in  1 850,  of  wounds  received  in  the  Hungarian 
war.     Dembinski  and  a  few  others  followed  the  fortunes  of  Kossuth. 

24.  On  the  6th  of  October,  1849, — a  day  rendered  forever  mem- 
orable for  in&my  in  the  annals  of  Austria — thirteen  Himgarian 
generals  and  staff  officers,  who  had  surrendered,  were  shot  or  hanged 
at  Arad  :  many  of  the  Hungarian  ministers  and  other  civil  officials 
were  also  executed  :  an  immense  number  of  inferior  officers  were  soit 
to  fortresses  to  be  imprisoned  for  life,  or  a  term  of  years;  and  about 
seventy  thousand  Hungarians,  who  had  taken  part  in  the  contest, 

1.  RMab  to  Bltualed  toutb  of  the  Danubei  tweaty4wo  miles  aoutb-wast  of  Oomorn.  It  wm  a 
ilfOttg  poal  under  the  Romans.  In  1809  an  Austrian  force  was  routed  by  Che  Franoh  under  Ua 
valla.    (Jir44»  No.  XVU.) 

a.  WUUm  la  a  ibrtifled  town  of  Bnlgarto  In  Turkey,  on  the  soufhera  bank  of  the  DaniriM,  one 
tonndied  and  sUtgr-ftre  miles  ioath-eaat  of  Peterwardein.    (JTo^  No.  VIL) 


ek^^n]  NnnSTBBKTH  CENTITRY.  659 

were  forcibly  enKsted  in  Anstrian  regiments.  Tims  terminated  the 
stmggle  of  Hnngary  for  freedom.  Her  national  existence,  preserved 
through  a  thousand  years,  was  annihilated,  not  so  much  by  the  over- 
whelming power  of  two  great  empires,  as  by  the  faults  and  treason  of 
her  own  sons> 

VI.  Usurpation  of  Louis  Njifolkon.  1.  After  France  had 
adopted  a  republican  constitution  in  1848,  the  election  of  a  chief- 
magistrate,  to  hold  the  executive  power  of  the  nation  for  four  years, 
became  the  absorbing  subject  of  thought  and  discussion  with  the 
French  people.  Six  candidates  were  in  the  field, — Lamartine,  Ledru 
Rollin,  Raspail,  Gknerals  Changamier  and  Oavaignac,  and  Louis  Na- 
poleon. Lamartine,  who  had  saved  the  country  from  anarchy  in  the 
Revolution  of  February,  but  had  made  a  feeble  president  of  the  pro- 
visional government,  soon  virtually  withdrew  from  the  contest,  by  re- 
questing his  friends  to  make  no  efforts  in  his  behalf:  the  adherents 
of  Ledru  Rollin,  although  earnest  and  active,  were,  comparatively, 
few  in  number :  Raspail  and  Changamier  possessed  no  peculiar  rec- 
ommendations for  the  office ;  and  it  was  soon  evident  that  the  choice 
would  lie  between  General  Oavaignac  and  Louis  Napoleon — ^the 
former,  popular  with  the  Assembly  and  the  leading  republicans,  a 
man  of  tried  integrity,  and  possessing  every  requisite  qualification 
for  the  office — ^the  latter  an  adventurer,  who  had  made  two  fool- 
hardy attempts  to  usurp  the  throne  of  France,  viewed  with  jealousy 
and  distrust  by  the  republicans,  and  treated  with  coldness  by  the 
politicians  of  all  parties,  but  strong  in  the  prestige  of  a  name, 
and  hailed  by  the  people  as  the  living  representative  of  that  worid- 
renowned  emperor  whom  France  can  never  forget.  The  result  of 
the  election  surprised  every  one.  Seven  and  a-half  millions  of  votes 
were  polled  in  the  nation,  and,  of  these,  five  and  a-half  millions 
were  cast  for  Louis  Napoleon,  who  was  inaugurated  President  on 
the  20th  of  December.  He  then  solemnly  swore  <<  to  remain  &ith- 
fol  to  the  Democratic  Republic,  and  to  fdlfil  all  the  duties  which  the 
oonstitution  imposed  upon  him." 

2.  Louis  Napoleon,  the  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte  and  Hortense 
Beanhamais,  the  king  and  queen  of  Holland,  was  born  in  the  palace 

a.  Wbfen  KohdUi,  with  the  vaamben  of  the  proriiional  goTerameBt,  was  ratrafttiiig  ftvm 
potiit  to  point  m  the  Auitrlan  and  Raaslan  annlet  advanced,  he  earrled  with  him  the  Hunga- 
rian regalia— the  royal  Jewela,  and  the  crown  of  8C  Stephen— ol]»)eels  of  aloaoat  reHgiona  tvb- 
eratlon  to  the  Hungarian  people.  It  long  remained  a  myatery  what  had  become  of  them,  Imi 
alter  years  of  aearch  by  lodlrlduals  sent  out  by  the  Austrian  goremmenti  they  were  dlaeofaied 
In  Sept  1853;  buried  la  an  hon  chest  near  the  eonflnes  of  Wallachia. 


560  MODERN  mSTORT.  [PjkIL 

of  the  TnillericB  on  the  20th  of  April,  1808,  and,  being  the  first 
prince  of  the  Napoleon  djnastj  born  under  the  imperial  r6gimey  and 
the  only  one  liying  at  the  time  of  his  election  as  President  of  the 
French  Eepublic,  considered  himself,  and  was  admowledged  by  the 
BonajMurtists,  as  the  legitimate  representative  of  the  emperor  Napo- 
leon, and  the  heir  to  his  empire.  After  his  second  attempt,  in 
August  1840,  to  excite  a  Revolution  against  Louis  Phillippe,  he  was 
confined  in  the  castle  of  Ham,^  from  which  he  made  his  escape  in 
May  1846,  after  an  imprisonment  of  more  than  five  years.  Being 
in  London  at  the  time  of  the  Eevolution  of  February,  1848,  he  imme- 
diately repaired  to  Paris,  but  was  so  coldly  received  by  the  members 
of  the  provisional  government  that  he  again  left  the  country.  Soon 
after  he  was  informed  that  he  had  been  elected  a  member  of  the  As- 
sembly from  three  different  departments ;  but  the  hostility  against 
him  in  the  Assembly  was  so  great  that,  deeming  it  unsafe  to  take 
his  seat  as  a  delegate,  he  resigned  the  office.  Li  the  election  to  fill 
vacancies,  in  August,  he  was  reelected,  when  he  returned  to  France, 
and  on  the  26th  of  September  took  his  seat  as  the  representative  of 
Paris,  his  native  city.  But  even  then,  nearly  all  the  members,  re- 
garding him  as  a  secret  enemy  of  the  government,  treated  him  with 
marked  coldness  and  neglect;  nor  did  the  icy  reserve  wear  away, 
when  the  suffrages  of  nearly  six  millions  of  his  oountrymen  had 
elevated  him  to  the  first  place  in  the  Republic. 

3.  The  first  act  of  Louis  Napoleon  was  to  make  a  public  declara- 
tion of  the  principles  of  his  government,  which  he  avowed  to  be 
strictly  republican ;  yet  from  the  outset  it  was  assumed  by  a  large 
portion  of  the  Assembly  that  he  would  prove  unffuthful  to  his  oath, 
and  endeavor  to  establish  an  imperial  dynasty.  The  Assembly  was 
composed  of  several  parties, — first,  the  Legitimists,  who  were  ad- 
herents of  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons : — second,  the  Orlean- 
ists,  who  desired  to  see  the  heir  of  Louis  Phillippe  raised  to  the 
throne  : — third,  the  Republicans,  both  mod^nte  and  ultra ; — and, 
finally,  the  Bonapartists,  who  openly  expressed  their  desire  for  the 
restoration  of  the  empire,  and  were  encouraged  by  Louis  Napoleon, 
although  he  remained  professedly  attached  to  the  Republic. 

4.  From  the  beginning  there  was  no  mutual  confidence  between 
the  President  and  the  Assembly ;  and  while  the  conduct  of  the 

I.  Mam,  celebrated  fi>r  ito  strong  fortreee  used  u  a  State  Priaou,  la  a  town  la  a  manlQr  plait, 
in  the  former  proTlnce  of  Picardy^teveuty  miles  north-east  from  Paria»  and  thirty-flve  aouth-eaal 
from  Amlena.   Here  Prinoo  PoUgnac  and  other  ministers  of  Cliarke  X.  were  oonflniMl  for  lU 


0«i»,  VI]  NINETEENTH   CENTURY.  561 

former  exhibited  marked  dishonesty  of  purpose  in  farthering  his  am* 
bitious  views,  the  whole  career  of  the  latter  was  a  series  of  intrigues 
against  the  President,  of  party  contests,  and  encroachments  upon 
popular  rights.  The  Assembly  introduced  severe  restrictions  upon 
the  liberty  of  the  press  :  it  placed  the  entire  control  of  education  in 
the  hands  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  :  it  made  restrictions  upon 
the  right  of  suffrage,  which  disfranchised  three  millions  of  electors ; 
and  it  united  with  the  President  in  sending  an  army  to  crush  the 
rising  Republic  of  Rome. 

5.  The  constitution  of  1848  provided  that  it  might  be  revised  by 
a  vote  of  three-fourths  of  the  Assembly  during  the  last  year  of  the 
Presidential  term,  and  that  the  President  should  be  ineligible  to 
reelection,  until  after  an  interval  of  four  years.  This  latter  provision 
would  therefore  render  the  continuance  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  power 
impossible,  without  a  revision  of  the  constitution.  Early  in  1851  the 
question  of  revision  was  brought  before  the  Assembly,  and  after 
being  the  subject  of  some  very  exciting  and  stormy  debates,  in  which 
any  change  was  vehemently  opposed  by  the  republicans,  the  motion 
to  revise  failed  by  nearly  a  hundred  votes. 

6.  In  his  annual  message  in  November  the  President  strongly  urged 
upon  the  Assembly  the  extension  of  the  right  of  suffrage,  a  measure 
which  greatly  increased  his  popularity  with  the  French  people ;  but 
the  bill  introduced  for  that  purpose  was  rejected  by  the  Assembly. 
Soon  after,  the  increasing  animosity  of  the  Assembly  towards  the 
President  was  exhibited  by  the  proposal  of  a  law  authorizing  his 
impeachment  in  case  he  should  seek  a  reelection  in  violation  of  the 
constitution.  His  accusation  and  arrest  on  a  charge  of  treason  were 
also  hinted  at. 

7.  The  strife  of  parties  in  the  Assembly  was  fast  bringing  matters 
to  a  crisis  that  would  probably  have  ended  in  anarchy  and  civil  war, 
when  suddenly — ^unexpectedly — and  quietly,  Louis  Napoleon  put 
forth  his  hand,  and  with  a  degree  of  skill  that  would  have  done  honor 
to  his  great  name>sake,  grasped  the  reins  of  power,  and,  crushing  the 
constitution,  overwhelmed  all  opposition  to  his  will.  On  the  night 
of  Monday,  December  1st,  the  palace  of  the  President  was  the  scene 
of  a  gay  assemblage  of  the  fashion  and  beauty  of  Paris ;  and  it  was 
remarked  that  the  President  was  in  the  highest  spirits,  and  unusually 
attentive  to  his  gaests.  On  the  following  morning  the  inhabitants 
of  Paris  awoke  to  find  the  city  filled  with  troops,  and  every  com-, 
manding  position  in  the  vicinity  occupied  by  them,  while  the  Presi- 
de 


S62  MODERK  HIBTORT.  [PiKn 

dait'i  daoree)  posted  on  ererj  wall,  mnnounoed  the  dissolution  of  tho 
Naikmftl  Assembly,  the  restoration  of  nniyeraal  saffrage,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  martial  law  throu^oat  Paris.  The  diief  members 
of  the  ABsembly,  together  with  Generals  Cavaignac,  Ghangamier, 
Lamoriciere,  and  others,  had  been  seized  in  their  beds,  and  were  already 
in  prison  :  not  a  man  was  left  of  sufficient  ability  and  popularity  to 
rally  the  people ;  the  coup  cTetat  was  entirely  sooeessful,  and  Louis 
Napoleon  was  absolute  dictator  of  Franee. 

8.  On  Tuesday  the  2d  of  December  about  three  hundred  members 
of  the  Assembly,  finding  the  doors  of  the  hall  of  legislation  guarded,  met 
in  another  part  of  the  city,  declared  the  President  guilty  of  treason, 
and  proclaimed  his  deposition ;  but  scarcely  had  they  signed  the 
decree  when  they  were  surrounded  by  a  band  of  soldiers,  and  sll 
marched  to  prison.  The  Assembly  being  destroyed,  measures  were 
next  taken  to  disarm  the  power  of  the  press ;  and  none  of  the  jour- 
nals, except  the  government  organs,  were  allowed  to  appear.  On 
Wednesday,  the  3d,  a  decree  was  promulgated,  convening  the  whole 
people  for  an  election  to  be  held  between  the  1 4th  and  22d  of  De- 
cember— the  questions  submitted  to  them  being  whether  Louis  Na- 
poleon should  remain  at  the  head  of  the  state  ten  years,  or  not,  with 
the  power  of  forming  a  new  constitution  on  the  basis  of  universal 
suffrage.  On  Thursday,  the  4th,  troops  were  called  out  to  suppreffi 
an  insurrection  in  Paris :  no  Quarter  was  given,  and  about  a  thousand 
of  the  insurgents  were  killed,  when  tranquillity  was  restored.  In 
some  of  the  departments  the  people  rose  in  great  strength  against 
the  usurpation ;  but  the  army  remained  faithM,  and  in  the  course 
of  two  or  three  days  all  resistance  was  quelled. 

9.  It  had  been  arranged  that  the  army  should  vote  first  on  we 
great  question  submitted  to  the  nation ;  and,  as  had  been  anticipated, 
its  vote  was  nearly  unanimous  iu  favor  of  Louis  Napoleon.  The 
official  returns  showed  nearly  seven  and  a  half  millions  of  votes  m 
his  favor,  and  but  little  more  than  half  a  million  against  him-  Thus 
the  nation  sanctioned  his  usurpation  of  the  2d  of  December,  s^d 
virtually  proclaimed  its  wish  for  the  restoration  of  the  empire.  On 
the  ist  of  January,  1852,  the  result  of  the  election  was  celebrated  at 
Paris  with  more  than  royal  magnificence,  and  on  the  1 4th  the  new 
constitution  was  decreed.  It  was  avowedly  based  on  the  constitution 
which  the  emperor  Napoleon  had  given  to  the  French  nation,  y 
intrusted  the  government  to  Louis  Napoleon  for  ten  years,  m*^* 
him  commander-in-ohief  of  the  army  and  navy,  gave  him  oontrol  over 
legislation,  and  the  power  to  declare  war  and  make  treaties.  He  ^ 
all  but  in  name  an  emperor ;  and  before  a  year  had  passed  he  assumed 
that  title,  apparently  with  the  consent,  and  by  the  desire,  of  the  n»' 
tion.  France  had  accepted  the  Napoleon  Dynasty  as  a  refuge  fi^om 
anarchy — as  the  only  compromise  between  Bourbonism,  or  the  p**** 
find  Republioanism,  or  the  future. 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHICIL  AND  fflSTORICAL  VIEWS, 

(in  ADDmON  rO  THE  NOTES  THBOIK2HOUT  TSE  WOEK.)  "^ 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  THE  FOLLOWING  MAPS- 

Paob  Map  Mix 

ANCIENT  GREECE. 564 L 

ATHENS  AND  ITS  HARBORS. 586 IL 

ISLANDS  OF  THE  .£GEAN  SEA 568 m. 

ASIA  MINOR. 570 IF. 

PERSIAN  EMPIRE 5» V. 

PALESnVE^ 594 Vt 

TURKEY  IN  EUROPE «76 VIL 

ANCIENTITALY 578 VIIL 

ROMAN  EMPIRE., 581  UL 

ANCIENT  ROME. 563 X. 

CHART  OP  THE  WORLD 564 XL 

BATTLE  GROUNDS  OF  NAPOLEON,  &c 586 XIL 

FRANCE,  SPAIN,  AND  PORTUGAL. 566 HIL 

SWITZERLAND,  DENMARK,  «tc. 5M ZIY. 

NETHERLANDS  (HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM) 5W XV. 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND SM XVL 

CENTRAL  EUROPE 596 XVIL 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AftlERHA 596 Xym. 


MCIEST  ASD  I9DBKII  6KEECE.    Map  No.  I. 

A  ntmnX  dcacrlpilon  of  both  Anciml  and  Klodern  Greece  may  be  found  on  pp.  SI  and  9i^ 
Creclaii  MyUH>l(>g>-,  "ii  to  3:— Ancient  History  of  Greece,  i(7  to  IZI^Modem  UMory,  516  to 
fti3.  For  descriptive  uecounU  of  the  Grecian  tStaiea,  and  linportaM  lowna,  dllea,  rirersy  kmul»- 
gruuoda,  kjc^  see  the  ^IndeK  to  the  DeseripUve  Nutee"  at  tbe  end  of  the  volaine. 

Tlia  followInK  ia  a  bnef  syDopels  uf  the  leading  cveuta  In  (iiedan  History,  beginning  w.tb 
the  llwalan  wan,  whlcb  ended  B.  C  40V.  llie  I'elopounesian  want  lasted  nearly  ibiity  yearii 
h.  C  431««;4.  8ulgjugaU«Mi  of  Greece  by  Philip  of  Macedou,  B.  C.  338,  after  wtiich  oiHne  tbe 
votiqoests  of  AlexaiMler,  the  Achsan  League,  and  then  ibe  Roman  conqiMsst,  B.  C.  140.  (h>m 
whicb  time,  during  thirteen  hundred  and  tifiy  years,  Greece  continued  lo  be  either  really  or 
nominally  a  portion  or  Ibe  Roman  empire.  Tbe  oountrv  was  inraded  by  Ahiric  the  Goih, 
A.  1).  40U,  and  afterwanla  by  Gensertc  and  Zaber  Kban,  In  the  sixlb  and  seventh,  and  by  the 
Norinans  ia  the  eleventh  century.  After  tbe  capture  of  Coiifltauiioople  by  the  crusaders  io 
14U4,  Greece  was  divided  into  feudal  principaliilvs,  and  governed  by  a  variety  of  Norman,  Ve- 
iitfiinn,  and  Prankish  nobles.  It  was  invaded  by  the  Turks  in  143d,  and  oooquered  by  them  In 
i4t*l.  It  was  the  theatre  of  war*  between  the  Turks  and  Venetians  during  tbe  slxieenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries ;  but  by  the  treaty  of  Paasaroviteh,  in  1718,  it  was  given  up  to  tbe  Turka, 
who  retained  possession  of  tbe  country  till  tbe  breaking  out  of  the  Greek  Revoluilon  in  1821. 

The  present  kingdom  of  Greece  embraces  all  the  Grecian  [leuinsula  south  of  tbe  ancient 
Kplrua  and  llies'  saiy,  as  seen  on  tbe  accompany  ing  map,  together  with  Eubos'a,  theCye'  hidee. 
aiid  the  Dortbem  Spor'  ades.  Tbes'  saly,  now  a  'l^irkish  pruvince,  reisins  its  ancient  name  and 
liuiiis:  £pirus  is  embraced  in  the  Turkish  pn>vince  of  Albania,  for  which,  see  Map  No.  VU. 

Ilie  Modem  Greeks  are  described  as  being,  geuerslly,  •*  rather  above  the  middle  height, 
and  well-shaped ;  they  have  the  face  oval,  features  regular  and  expressive,  eyes  btrge,  dark, 
and  animated,  eyebrows  arched,  hair  Ioiik  and  dark,  and  complexions  olive  colored/*  lliey 
retain  many  of  ttie  customa  and  ceremonies  of  the  ancients ;  the  common  people  are  extremely 
credulous  and  supersUiious,  and  pay  much  attention  to  auguries,  omens,  and  dreams.  Tbey 
belong  mostly  lo  the  Greek  Church  ;  they  deny  tlie  supremacy  ol  the  pope,  abhor  the  worship 
of  images,  and  reject  the  doctrine  of  pun^atory,  but  believe  in  transubetaiitluUon.  The  priesta 
nre  generally  poor  and  illiterate,  although  imprcving  In  ibeir  atuduments;  and  their  habits  are 
generally  simple  and  exemplary. 

Tlie  inhabitants  of  Northern  Greece,  or  lleilaa,  are  said  to  have  retained  **  a  cbiralriMis  aiKt 
warlike  spirit,  with  a  simplicity  of  maimers  and  mode  of  life  which  strongly  remind  us  of  the 
|>ictiirea  of  the  heroic  age."  The  inhabitanta  of  the  Peloponnesus  are  mora  ignorant  and  lesa 
bonast  than  those  of  Hellas.  Previous  to  the  Greek  lievoluliol^  remains  of  the  Hellenic  race 
were  found,  la  their  greatest  purity,  in  tbe  mountainous  fiarts  of  the  coontry— in  the  vicinity 
of  Mount  Parnassus  in  Northern  tireece,  and  the  Inhospitable  tracts  of  Tkygetos  in  Southern 
<'reeoe,  whither  tbey  tiad  l>eeu  driven  from  the  philiis  by  their  ruthless  oppressors.  Tbe 
lauffmage  of  the  modem  Greeks  bears,  in  many  oi  its  words,  and  In  Its  general  fonns  and 
graiOBUtlcal  BtnuAure,  a  strong  resemblanoe  to  tbe  ancient  Gneek— eluiilar  to  the  relation  sus- 
tuined  by  the  Italian  to  the  Latin ;  but  as  the  pronunciation  of  the  ancient  Greek  is  loel,  bow 
far  tbe  modem  tongue  corresponds  to  It  In  that  particular  cannot  be  ascertained. 

TraTellers  still  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  floe  viewsevery  where  foond  In  Grecian  ac«o»- 
ry  ;-HiLnd  besides  tlieir  natural  beauUes,  (he)'  are  doubly  dear  to  us  by  the  tliousand  hallowed  aaso* 
ciations  connected  with  them  by  scenes  of  hlslorio  inieresi,  aad  by  the  numerous  raiua  of 
ancient  art  and  splendor  which  cover  the  country— recalling  a  glorious  Past,  upon  which  we 
love  to  dwell  as  upon  the  memory  of  departed  flrienda,or  tbe  scenes  of  happy  ehUdbood— 
**tw«e(,  but  moomfUl,  to  the  soul." 

**  Tet  are  thy  skies  as  blue,  ihy  crags  as  wild ; 

Sweet  are  thy  groves,  ana  verdant  are  thy  fleld% 

Thine  olive  ripe  as  when  Minerva  smiiifd. 

And  still  bis  honied  wealth  Hymettua  yieida 

There  the  blithe  l>ee  his  fk-agrant  fortress  builds. 

The  ft-eebora  wanderer  of  thy  mountain  air; 

Apollo  still  thy  long,  long  summer  gtlda, 

Sull  In  his  beam  Mendell*s  marbles  glare; 
Art,  Glory,  Freedom  fhil,  but  Nature  still  is  lUr. 

** Where'er  we  tread,  *tis  haunted,  holy  ground; 
No  earth  of  thine  is  lost  in  vulgar  mould, 
But  one  vast  realm  of  wonder  spreads  around, 
And  all  the  muses  tales  seem  truly  told, 
Till  the  sense  aches  with  gazing  to  behoU 
The  scenes  our  earliest  dreams  have  dwelt  uponi 
Each  hill  and  dale,  each  deepening  glen  and  wold. 
Defies  tbe  power  wblch  crushed  tliy  temples  gone : 

Age  shakes  Athena'e  tower,  but  spares  grey  Marathon.*' 

'  -      C»ifd#lfar0M«b  canto  IL 


NO,  t 


AHCIIHT  ATIIRI.    Hap  No.  n. 

Anew  Um  bmhimiiU  of  Miiqntty  vhloh  aUU  exfail  at  Athnt,  the  mort  tlrikiaff  trathoM 
whkh  Nrmoiiiit  the  Acrop'  olla,  or  OwroplMi  dtadel,  vhtch  It  a  rocky  height  rising  abrvpUj 
out  of  the  Attle  pUiO|  end  afOoeMlble  ooly  on  the  western  tide,  whera  ttood  the  Prtfflm'a^  a 
BugBlfceot  tinictaiv  of  the  Doric  order,  vhlch  terred  at  the  gale  at  well  at  the  dafenoe  of 
Che  Acrop' oUt.  But  the  chief  glory  of  Athent  wat  the  Par"  iAmms,  or  temple  of  Minerva, 
which  ttood  OB  the  higfaetl  point,  and  near  the  oeaire,  of  the  Acrep'  oUt.  It  wat  eoMtraeted 
enUrely  of  the  Boat  heautlful  while  marble  ftom  Meant  Pentri'  ItcUiB,  and  lu  dlmenalona  wore 
two  hundred  and  tw«nty<elght  fset  by  one  hundred  and  two— haring  «lght  Doric  oolumnt  in 
each  of  the  two  frontt,  and  teventeen  in  each  of  the  tldet,  and  also  an  Interior  nmge  oC  alz 
«olaauM  In  each  end.  Theeelling  of  the  wettera  pari  of  the  main  httUding  was  supported  by 
Ibnr  Interior  oolumaa,  and  of  the  eastern  end  by  sizleea.  The  entire  height  of  the  building 
above  Ita  pUtform  was  tlxty-ive  feet  The  whole  wat  enriched,  within  and  without,  with 
malfhlmn  wcrkt  of  art  by  the  Irst  aculptecs  of  Greece.  This  magulflcent  structure  remained 
eaUre  until  the  year  1087,  when,  during  a  siege  of  Athens  by  the  Venetians,  a  bomb  fell  on  tte 
devoted  Par*  thenon,  attd  setting  fire  to  the  powder  which  the  Turks  had  stored  there,  entirely 
destri>]f«d  the  roo^  and  reduced  the  whole  building  almost  to  ruins.  The  eight  columns  of  the 
eastern  Oont,  however,  and  several  of  the  lateral  colonnades,  are  ttiU  standing,  and  the  whoie^ 
dilapidated  as  It  is,  still  retains  an  air  of  inexpremible  grandeur  and  sublimity. 

North  of  the  Par*  thenon  stood  the  ErtehtkHum^  an  Irregular  but  beaulifhl  atotietih«  of  the 
Ionic  order,  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Neptune  and  Minerva.  Considerable  remains  of  H 
are  still  exIsUng.  In  addition  to  the  three  great  edifices  of  the  Acrop'  oUs,  which  were  adorned 
with  the  most  finished  paintings  and  sculptures,  the  enUre  platform  of  the  hill  appaan  to  hav« 
been  coverMi  with  a  vast'composition  of  architecture  and  sculpture,  consisting  of  temples, 
monuments,  and  statues  of  Grecian  gods  and  heroes.  Among  these  may  be  BMntioned  statues 
of  Jupiter,  ApoUo,  Neptune,  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Minerva;  and  a  vast  number  of  statnes  of 
aminent  Greciatt»--the  whole  Aorop'  oils  having  been  at  once  the  Ibrtress,  the  sacred  enclosure, 
and  the  trsaauiy  of  the  Athenian  nation,  and  forming  the  noblest  museum  of  aenlptiire,  the 
richest  gallery  «f  painting,  and  the  best  school  of  architecture  in  the  world. 

Beneath  the  southern  wall  of  the  Acmp'  olis,  near  Its  eastern  extremity,  wat  the  Tkaatre  ^ 
Bkttkm*^  wMch  wat  capable  of  containing  thirty  thousand  persons,  and  whose  seats,  rising  one 
above  another,  were  cut  out  of  the  sloping  rock.  A<JUolnlng  this  on  the  east  was  the  Odium 
built  by  Ferides,  and  beneath  the  western  extremity  of  the  Acrop'  oils  was  the  Odium  or 
JfuMieal  7A«str«,  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  tent.  On  the  north-east  side  ofthe  Acrop'  oils  stood 
the  Prytamiumy  where  were  many  statues,  and  where  citiaens  who  had  rendered  service  te  the 
State  were  maintained  at  the  public  expense.  A  short  distance  to  the  north-west  of  the 
Acrop'  oils  was  the  small  eminence  called  Areop*  sgua,  or  hill  of  Man,  at  the  eastern  extremiigr 
<of  which  was  situated  the  celebrated  court  of  the  Areop'  agos.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mila 
eoutb-west  stood  the  Payz,  the  place  where  the  public  asaerablles  of  Athens  were  held  In  lis 
palmy  days,  a  spot  that  will  ever  be  atsoclaled  with  the  renown  of  Demoathenes,  and  other  ftuned 
Athealan  orators.  The  steps  by  which  the  speaker  mounted  the  rostrum,  and  a  tier  of  three 
aeau  Ax  the  audience,  hewn  in  the  solid  roch^  %re  stUI  visible.  A  short  distance  south  of  the 
Pnyx  was  the  eminence  called  the  Ji*$ium,  that  part  of  Athena  where  the  poet  Musmus  la  laid 
to  have  been  buried.  ^ 

In  the  Oerawietu,  north  and  west  of  the  Acrop'  oils,  one  of  the  most  considerable  parts  of  the 
ancient  city,  were  many  public  buildings,  some  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  gods,  others 
used  for  stores,  and  for  the  various  markets,  and  some  for  schools,  while  the  old  Anua,  often 
used  for  large  aseemUles  of  the  people,  occupied  the  interior.  North  of  the  Areop'  agus  la  the 
Timple  tff  7^Im«im,  built  of  marble  by  Qmon.  The  roei;  friezes,  and  cornices,  of  this  temple^ 
have  been  but  little  impaired  by  ttme,  and  the  whole  is  one  of  the  most  noble  remains  of  the 
ancient  magnifloeace  of  Athens,  and  the  most  perfect,  if  not  the  most  beautiftal,  exiatSng 
apecimen  of  Grecian  architecture. 

South-east  of  the  Acrop'  oHs,  and  near  the  nissus,  is  now  to  be  seen  a  duster  of  sixteen  mag^ 
nlfioent  Ooriathian  columns  of  Pentellc  marble,  the  only  remaining  onea  of  a  hundred  and 
(wanty,  which  mark  the  site  of  the  Tomple  •f  Jupiur  Olfmyhu,  On  the  left  bank  df  the 
Dlmat  was  the  SUdnua,  used  for  gymnaatlc  ooatetti^  and  eapabia  of  aooommodattag  twanty-Ova 


Han. 


568 

Tlw  marbto  mbU  hare  dteppearad,  bat  Um  i 
nl-drealar  end  atUl  remain. 

iMl  wltboat  the  Mwieot  city  walls  on  the  eaet  was  the  Z«cfon,  embelllibed  vtth  bntUfa^a, 
grorei,  aad  foiuitaliia,-~a  place  of  laoinbHDg  for  miUtarj  and  gymnailte  exerclan,  and  n 
fliTorlle  resort  for  pblloaophlcal  study  and  contemplatioa.  Mesr  the  foot  of  Moont  Anchasmua 
vas  the  C|ni«««r'  ^««,  a  place  adorned  with  several  temples,  a  gymnaaiam,  and  groves  sacred  to 
Heivales.  Beyond  the  walls  of  the  city  on  the  north  was  the  Jicadtwtg.,  or  Public  Garden, — 
■nrroonded  with  a  wall,  and  adorned  with  statues,  temples,  and  sepuk^res  of  lUnstrioos  men, 
and  planted  with  oil  re  and  plane  trees.  Within  this  enclosure  Plato  pnsseesed  a  small  garden, 
la  which  be  opened  hU  sehoni.    Thence  arose  the  ^eudtmic  sect 

Athens  had  three  great  harbors,  the  Pine'  us,  Mnnyeh'  la,  and  Phal'  enim.  Anciently  these 
porta  formed  a  separate  city  larger  than  Athens  Itself;  with  which  they  were  ooonect«d  by 
means  of  two  long  walls.  Daring  the  prolonged  conflict  of  the  rerolntionafy  war  In  Greece, 
ftom  1890  to  1^7,  Athena  was  in  rains,  bat  it  Is  the  now  capital  of  the  kfa^om  of  Greece. 

Hie  phllOBOphieal  era  in  the  history  of  Athens  has  been  beautlftdly  alluded  to  by  MUiOb 

**6ee  there  the  oil  re  nrove  of  Academe, 
Ptato*s  retirement,  where  the  Attic  bird 
Trills  her  thick-warbled  notes  the  summer^oag: 
There  flowery  hill  HymeUas  with  the  sound 
Of  bees*  Industrious  mormor  ofl  Invites 
To  stodious  mating ;  There  lUssus  rolls 
His  whtsperinff  stream :  within  the  walls  then  Tleir 
TIm  schools  of  ancient  sages ;  his  who  bred 
Grsai  Alexander  to  subdue  the  world, 
Lyceum  there,  and  nainted  Stoa  next; 

To  sage  philoeophy  next  lend  thine  ear. 
Prom  Heaven  descended  to  the  low^roofod  honee 
Of  Socrates ;  see  there  his  tenement, 
Whom,  well  Inspired,  the  oracle  prononnoed 
Wisest  of  men;  fh>m  whose  mouth  Issued  forth 
Mellifluous  streams  that  water*d  all  the  schools 
Of  Academics  old  and  new,  with  those 
Bumamed  Peripatetics,  and  the  se<H 
Epleorean,  and  the  Stoic  severe.** 


ISlilfDS  OF  THE  ^OEAN.    Map  No.  UI. 

The  iEeSAN  Ska,  now  called  the  Archipelago,  Is  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  lying  between 
Greece,  the  islands  Crete  and  Rhodes,  and  Asia  Minor.  It  embraces  those  groups  of  IalandS| 
the  Cyc'  lades  and  the  Spor'  ades  ;*  also  Buboe'a,  Lesbos,  Chios,  Tenedoe,  Lemiios,  Ax.,  nenrty 
all  of  which  duster  with  Interesting  danlcal  associations.  Mentioning  only  the  roost  important 
in  history,  and  beginning  in  the  northern  Archipelago,  we  have  TVuum^  now  These  or  Tasao, 
early  colonlxed  by  the  Phoenicians  on  account  of  Its  valuable  stiver  mlnet'.—Samotkrsee,  where 
the  mysteries  of  Qybele,  the  **  Mother  of  the  Gods,"  are  said  to  have  originated :— /^«maM, 
known  in  ancient  mythology  as  the  spot  on  which  Vulcan  fell,  after  being  hurled  down  IVom 
heaven,  and  where  he  established  his  forge:— 7>im^«,  whither  the  Greeks  retired,  as  Vii;gil 
relates,  in  order  to  surprise  the  Trojans  i—LesboM,  celebrated  for  its  olive  oil  and  figs,  and  as 
being  the  abode  of  pleasure  and  licentiousness,  while  the  inhabitants  boasted  a  high  degree  of 
intellectual  cultivation,  and,  espedally,  great  musical  attainments  :—Ckio»f  now  8do,  called  iho 
garden  of  (be  Archipelago,  and  claimed  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Homer:— $aiii««,  early 
distinguished  in  the  maritime  annals  of  Greece  for  Its  naval  ascendency,  and  for  its  splendid 
temple  of  Juno  i-^IeariA,  whose  name  mythology  derives  fh>m  Ic'  anis.  who  fell  into  the  sea  near 
the  island  after  the  unfortunate  termination  of  his  fliglit  fh>m  Crete  •.—Patmots  to  which  St. 
John  was  banished,  and  where  he  wrote  his  Apocalypso:— G9«,  celebrated  for  Its' temple  of 
iEsculaplus,  and  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Hippocrates,  the  greatest  physician  of  aiiUquitj  :— 
JVYsyriM,  said  to  bare  been  separated  flrom  Cos  by  Neptune,  that  he  might  hurl  It  against  the 


*  The  division  between  the  QyC  lades  and  Spor'  ades,  on  the  accompanying  Map,  shoaM 
laetade  the  Iriaads  dStcemio,  Thtroy  and  jSMpkt,  among  the  latter. 


Ho.  m. 


r- '--.7 —  -I,  llfrR'i*^'k!;i'l"Ti    'I  ,  ''*:     ' 

.1  i '       ^     ^^. 


570 

gtoat  Po<y>»'t<i-.-^m'^*a,  laWI  to  hKft  b<aa  awto  to  rite  by  Hwaf  ftwn  the  boHaa  <f 
the  Ma,  In  order  to  reoelve  the  AryoMOU  (taring  a  itonii,  on  tbelr  return  ttom  OakUm^^ 
Tlk*r»t  now  onlled  flnnuirlni  mM  to  knve  bean  romed  Iniba  Ma  by  adod  of  earth  tbrown  flroai 
tbe  abip  Ar«o  i—Jtttfp^tmm^  eaUed  atoo  Trapedu,  orlhe  *"  Table  of  ibe  Goda»"  because  ila  aoU 
WM  fertile,  and  almoM  enamelled  witb  flowen:-jflaMr^iw,  the  birthplace  of  tbe  lanblc  poet 
Simon'  IdM :— /m,  dalmed  to  hare  been  the  bmrial  place  of  Homer:— Jir«<M,  now  Mllo,  eele- 
bnlad  fur  Hi  oballnaie  reiistance  to  the  Atheniam,  and  lu  crael  treatment  by  them,  ^aee  p. 
63)  :^amtifar0My  oelebcaied  for  Ila  groUo,  of  great  depth  and  lingiilar  beanty :— FarM,  fiuned 
for  iu  beauUful  and  enduring  marble  :-%Vmm,  the  largeat  of  the  t^jrc'  ladea,  oeiebnUed  for  the 
vorahip  of  Bacehua,  who  la  Mid  to  have  been  bom  there  >-jf«r^iM,  celebraled  in  mythology 
•a  the  Mone  of  the  moat  remarkable  advratum  of  Peraena,  who  changed  IV>lydec'  tea,  hlng  of 
thia  iaiaad,  and  hla  anl^Jecta,  Into  atonea,  to  avenge  the  wronga  otfarud  to  hia  mother  Dnnm^- 
/>«foa,  (a  uuU  Iaiaad  between  Rhenea  and  Myeanoa,)  oelebniad  aa  the  natal  laland  of  Apollo 
and  Diana :— Cwc,  tbe  birtbptaee  of  the  Elegiac  poet  Simonidea,  grandaon  of  the  poei  of 
Amorgua.  The  Stmoni'dm  of  Ceoa  wm  the  author  of  the  oelebralfed  inscription  on  the  t4NDb 
of  the  Spartan  who  foU  at  Tbermopyla  :—**  Strmnger^  Uti  tiu  LmctdawunUau  Umt  im  «ra 
dgimg  A«r«  m  •^•iitnM  te  iAjct  /«»«.'*  i£gfna,  Salamla,  Gtale,  Rhodei,  *c^  have  bean  do- 
acribed  In  other  parts  of  thIa  work.    See  Index,  p.  M& 


ASIA  limi.    Map  No.  IT. 

Asia  Minoa,  or  Leaser  Asia,  a  celebrated  region  of  antiquity,  embmced  the  great  ] 
of  Western  Asia,  about  equal  la  aren  to  that  of  Spain,  and  bounded  north  by  the  Black  Sea, 
east  by  Armenia  and  the  Euphrates,  »outh  by  Syria  and  the  Medltetranean,  and  vast  by  tbe 
Siizlne  Sea  or  Archipelago.  Tbe  divisions  by  which  ii  is  best  known  In  htatoiy  are  the  nine 
ooaat  ptovlnoea,  Cilicla,  Pamphytia,  and  Lycia,  on  the  Mediterranean ;  Oarta,  Lydia,  and 
Mysia,  on  the  ili:gean  ;  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Pontus,  on  tbe  Euxine ;  and  the  four  ia- 
lerior  provinces,  Gaiatia,  Cappadocia,  Phrygla,  and  Pisidia.  All  of  thew  were,  at  times,  Inde- 
pendent kingdoms,  and  at  othera,  dcpeodciit  provinces. 

Tbe  most  renowned  of  the  esrly  kingdoms  of  A»{a  Minor  was  that  of  Lydia,  titoato  between 
Ibe  waters  of  the  Hermus  and  the  Mieander,  sad  bounded  on  the  east  by  Phrygla.  Under  the 
last  of  its  kiagA,  the  (aaktus  Ocesus,' renowned  fur  his  wealth  and  moiilAoenoe,  the  L^ian 
kingdom  was  extended  so  as  to  embrace  the  Grecian  coltinies  on  the  Euxine  coast,  and  neariy 
all  Asia  Minor  as  far  u  the  Ilalys.  On  tlie  overthrow  of  Croesus  by  Cyras  the  Persian,  B.  a 
MS,  the  Lydtan  kingdom  wm  fonaed  into  tbiee  sntrapies  belcwiging  to  the  lledo-Peralaa  em- 
pire, under  which  it  remained  upward  of  two  centuries.  The  Macedonian  succeeded  the  Per- 
elan  domiuton,  B.  C.  331,  ftom  which  time,  during  neariy  two  centuries,  Asia  Minor  wu  subject 
to  many  vicissitudes  consequent  on  tlie  changing  fortunes  of  Alexander's  sucoeasorv.  During 
Uie  century  immediately  preceding  the  Clirislian  era,  tbe  western  provincM  of  the  peninsula 
fell  sttcoeMlvely  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  under  whom  they  fonned  what  wm  called  the 
proconsulship  of  Asia,  (mo  Map  No.  IX.,)  the  Mme  which  the  Greek  writers  of  the  Boman  era 
call  Asia  Proper,  and  in  whicb  tense  we  find  the  word  Asia  used  In  the  New  Testament, 
(Acts,  3 : 0.)  although  In  some  pasHges  Phrygla  Is  spoken  of  m  distinct  from  Asia.  (Acts,  16 :  % 
end  Revelations.)  The  decline  of  the  Roman  power  exposed  the  peninsula  to  fresh  in\-Mions 
fhMD  tbe  East ;  and  at  tbe  period  of  the  flret  cnuade  the  Mohammedaas  had  spread  over  almost 
the  whole  peninsula.  Asia  Minor  now  coostitotos  a  pacha!lck  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  under  the 
name  of  ^atMia^  or  ^iiar«/ta— a  eomiption  of  a  Greek  word,  (avartf  Af ,)  meaning  tJu  Ea»t^ 
corresponding  to  the  French  word  Lnant. 

The  Greek  colonists  of  Asia  Minor,  who  spresd  themselves  along  the  coast  fkrom  tbe  Stiziiie 
to  Syria,  were  at  least  equal,  in  commercial  activity,  refinement,  and  tbe  ealUvatlon  of  the  arts, 
to  their  European  brethren.  Among  tbe  Grecian  poets,  philosophers,  and  historians  of  Asia 
Minor,  we  may  mention.  In  pootry,  Homer,  Hesiod,  Sappho,  and  Alcaeus;  In  philoeopby, 
ThUes,  Pytheg'onu,  and  Anaxag'  oras ;  and  in  history,  Herod' otus,  Ct6sift%  and  EHonyains  of 
HallcamaMUs.  ^natoii*  ts  now  occupied  by  a  mixed  population  of  Turks  and  Greeks,  Arme- 
nians snd  Jews ;  hesidM  wandering  tribM  of  Kurds  and  Turcomans  In  the  Interior,  engaged 
partly  in  paatoral,  and  partly  in  marauding  occupations. 


No.  IV. 


PBRSIAN  BIPIIB.    Map  No.  V. 

Ahcibht  Psmsii  conprebended,  lo  its  atmnat  extent,  all  the  ooantrlei  between  the  rffV 
Indue  and  the  MedllenmncwB,  and  from  the  £itxloe  and  Caspian  Seas  to  the  Peraian  Gutf  and 
Indian  Ocean ;  biit  In  its  more  limited  acoepuiioo  it  denoted  a  partieolar  provinoe,  bonndad 
pa  the  north  by  Media  and  Parthia,  on  the  east  by  Gannania,  on  the  soulh  by  the  P«enlan  Gul( 
and  on  the  west  by  Busiana.  (See  Map.)  This  was  the  original  seat  of  tb«  oonqoeron  of 
Asia. 

Great  obscurity  rests  on  the  earty  history  of  the  nations  embraced  within  the  limits  of  the 
Persian  empire ;  but  about  the  mlddie  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C,  Cyrusi  anpposed  by  some  to 
have  been  grandson  of  Astyairea,  the  last  Median  monafch,  being  elected  lender  of  the  PenAsa 
hordesi  became,  by  their  assisUne^  a  powerfbl  conqueror,  at  a  time  whon  the  Median  and 
Babylonian  kingdoms  were  on  the  decline,  and  on  their  ruins  founded  the  Fenian  empire 
which  properly  dates  finom  the  capture  of  Babylon,  B.  C.  536.  Gambysee^  generally  soppossd 
to  he  the  Ahasuenis  of  8criptur^  succeeded  Cyrus ;  then  followed  the  brief  relga  of  the 
usurper  Smerdia,  after  whom  Darius  Hystaapes  was  elevated  to  the  throne,  S81 B.  a  Darius  was 
both  a  legislator  and  conqueror,  and  his  long  and  suooesafbl  reign  exerted  a  poweifbl  iafloenes 
OTer  the  destinies  of  Wesleni  Asia.  Under  his  rule  the  Peraian  empire  attained  lis  grealert 
extent.  (See  Map.)  HU  vast  realm  be  divided  into  twenty  satrapies  or  provinoaa,  end  ap- 
pointed the  tribute  which  each  was  to  pay ;  but  his  government  was  little  more  than  an  or- 
ganlied  system  of  taxation.  The  attempu  of  Darius  to  reduce  Greece  to  his  sway  were  de- 
feated at  Marathon ;  (B.  C.  400 ;)  and  the  mighty  amuuneot  of  Xenes,  bis  son  and  socceisor, 
was  destroyed  in  the  battles  of  Sal'  amis,  Plata'a,  and  MyC  ale.  The  Medo-Peisian  emplra 
itself  was  Anally  overthrown  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  the  battle  of  Arfoein,  B.  a  331. 

The  Macedo4>rerian  kingdom  of  Alexander  succeeded  to  the  vast  Peraian  domains,  with 
the  additional  provtaices  of  Greece,  Thrace,  and  Maoedon— thus  exceeding  the  Persian  kingdom 
In  extent.  About  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.  C,  tho  Parthians,  under  Arsacea,  one  of 
their  nobles,  aroee  against  the  suooeason  of  Alexander,  and  established  the  Parthian  empire 
which,  under  iU  sixth  monarcli,  Mitbridates  I.,  attained  iu  highest  grandeur-extending  flroa 
the  Euphrates  to  the  Indus.  (See  Parthia,  p.  179.)  The  Pariblan  empire  lasted  nearly  four 
hundred  and  eighty  yean— flrom  B.  a  950  to  A.  D.  9-28,  at  which  latter  period  the  PersiaBS 
proper,  taking  advantage  o(  the  weakened  state  of  the  empire  under  the  SeleuddsB,  rd)elled, 
and  founded  a  new  dynasty,  that  of  the  Sastanida.  (See  Note,  Peraian  History,  p.  94A*)  '^ 
Persian  empire  luider  the  Sassanidn  continued  until  the  year  636,  when  it  waa  overthrown  by 
the  Moslems  in  the  great  battio  of  the  Ouleslah.  (See  p.  949.)  Persia  then  continued  a  provioee 
of  the  caliphs  for  more  than  two  centuries,  when  the  sceptre  was  wrested  ttom  them  by -the 
chief  of  a  bandit  tribe.  Alter  this  period  Persia  was  wasted,  for  many  centuries,  by  fo^igB 
oppression  and  internal  disorder,  (see  pp.  287—311—351,)  when,  toward  Uie  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  order  was  restored,  and  Persia  again  rose  to  distinction  under  the  government  of  Sbsh 
Abbas,  sumamed  the  Groat,  (p.  351.) 

The  present  kingdom  of  Peraia  is  reduced  to  the  limits  of  the  ancient  provinces  of  Persia, 
Media,  Oarmania,  Parthia,  the  country  of  the  Matienl,  and  the  southern  ooaato  of  the  Gssplaa 
Sea.  The  Turkish  territories  extend  some  distance  east  of  the  Tigris ;  Russia  is  in  posssMloB 
of  the  country  between  the  Euxlne  or  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  embmcing  a  part  of  Anneaia; 
and  on  the  east  the  now  independent  but  constantly  changing  kingdoms  of  C$bool  and  Belo- 
cblstan  embrace  the  ancient  Bactria,  India,  and  Gedroela,  together  wiUi  parU  of  Marglaoft  ao^ 
Aria,  (now  eastern  Kboraaean,)  and  the  country  of  the  ancient  Saraagni.  The  present  Penia 
has  an  area  of  four  hundred  and  flay  thousand  square  miies,  with  a  population  of  eight  or  ten 
millions.  The  most  striking  physical  features  of  Persia  are  ito  chains  of  rocky  mountains ;  ll> 
long  arid  valleys  without  riven ;  and  its  vast  salt  or  sandy  deserts.  The  population  b  a  mixtnra 
of  the  ancient  Peraian  stock  with  Arabs  and  Turks.  The  language  spoken  is  the  Ptrstir' 
simple  In  structure,  and,  like  the  French  and  English,  having  few  inflections.  The  religl<»a  of 
the  country  is  Mohammedanism  (of  tiie  Sheah  sect,  or  adherenta  of  AllO  which  seema,  ho^ 
ever,  to  be  rapidly  on  the  decline. 


Ho.  y. 


rALBSTMB.    MapNo.  VI. 


A  brief  gwgnphical  Mooant  of  pjubsaruiB  has  baan  aliwdf  glvvn  oo  paft  40;  Meomitt 
or  tto  Moia>llM,  CanMnlt— ,  MidlanltM,  PhiUMUtet,  AaiBOBllM,--ud  of  the  Jordaa,  JabMh- 
GUMd,  Gllgml,  Galta,  GUboa,  Hebron,  Tyn,  Sldoo,  Joppa,  Qjrria,  namaarm.  Babbab,  Edam. 
Samaria,  Gaxa,  Betboron,  Moaat  Tabor,  fco^  majbe  fimnd  by  raAning  to  the  Index  at  tbe  and 
of  the  Tolume. 

Jodiua  diTided  PaleaUne,  or  the  Holy  Land,  aiiioi«  the  twetve  braeUtioh  tribee,  wboao 
toc-ilitlea  Buy  be  learned  fh>m  tbe  aoeompanylng  map.  Tbe  Chlkban  of  laael  remaiDed 
united  aoder  one  government  until  tbe  death  of  Solomon,  wbao  ten  of  tbe  twelve  tribes^  vnder 
Jeroboam,  rebelled  againal  Beboboam,  the  son  and  anooeaaor  of  Solomon.  The  tribe  of  Jodab, 
With  a  part,  and  part  only,  of  the  IttUe  elan  of  Benjamin,  remained  IhithAil  to  Behoboem. 
From  this  Ume  forward  Judah  and  Israel  wen  lepante  kingdoma.  llie  dividing  Una  wna 
about  ten  milea  north  of  Jeraaalem,  between  Jericho  and  Gibeah,~the  fonner  belOBging  to 
Israel,  the  latter  to  Jodah.  Edom,  or  Idumea,  and  the  poaaeaaton  of  the  capital,  Jeraaalem, 
therefore  fell  to  Jodah ;  bat  foui^flAhs  of  the  territory,  and  the  aoverelgnty  over  the  Moabltea, 
belonged  to  laraeL  Hie  Syriana  (Aramitei)  and  Ammonltea,  aAer  this,  were  no  longer  under 
•abjection. 

The  hifltoty  of  laaASi.  fton  the  time  of  Jeroboam  to  the  carrying  awny  of  the  tan  trlbea 
captive  to  Aaeyria,  (B.  a  TSI^  waa  a  leriea  of  calamltiee  and  revolotlona.  Tkt  reigns  of  iu 
aeventeen  princes  average  only  flOeen  years  each ;  and  these  seventeen  kings  belonged  to  seven 
different  fhmilles,  which  wen  placed  on  the  throne  by  seven  sanguinary  oonsplraciea.  With 
th«i  captivity,  the  history  of  the  ten  tribes  ends.  Joeephus  assurea  us  thai  th^  never  returned 
to  their  own  land. 

The  history  of  Jitdaji,  after  tbe  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  is  little  more  than  the  history  of  n 
single  town,  Jerusalem.  AAer  the  lapse  of  three  hundred  and  eighty  nine  years  Jerusalem  waa 
taken  by  Neboehadnezaar,  (B.  C.  008,  and  afterwards,  B.  C.  587^  and  Jndea  became  tributary 
to  tbe  king  of  Babylon.  Tbe  termination  of  the  captivity  of  Judah,  after  a  period  of  seventy 
years,  was  the  act  of  pyrus,  soon  after  the  conquest  of  Babylon,  B.  a  530 ;  but  it  was  a  coot- 
mon  saying  among  tbe  Jews,  that  *^only  the  bran,  that  is,  the  dregs  of  tbe  people,  recurned  to 
Jeruaalem,  but  that  all  the  line  floar  atayed  behind  at  Babylon."  At  tbe  Ume  of  the  Persian 
oonqueai  by  Alexander,  Judea,  along  with  the  rest  of  the  Persian  provinces,  passed  under  tbe 
Maced<»ilan  dominion.  After  the  deaih  of  Alexander  we  find  Palestine  alternately  aufc^lect  to 
the  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt ;  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century  B.  O,  Jndea  was  rendered 
Independent  by  the  Maccabees,  (pp.  113—114,)  and  in  the  year  63  B.  a  it  was  conquered  by 
Poiiipey,  when  it  became  a  part  of  tbe  Roman  empire.    (See  p.  177.) 

Under  the  Boman  dominion,  Palestine  was  divided  into  five  provinces,  via.:  Upper  and 
Lower  Galilee,  Samaria,  Judea,  and  Perasa,— situated  as  follows :  The  dividons  of  Asher  and 
Naphtall,  (see  Map,)  embracing  the  country  of  the  Sidouians,  fbrmed  Upper  Galilee ;— the 
tribes  of  Zebulun  and  lamchar,  embracing  the  country  of  the  Perizltes,  fbnaed  Lower  Galilee ; 
—the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  west  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  tribe  of  Epbraim^  embracing  the 
oonntry  of  the  Hlvites,  formed  Samaria;— the  tribes  of  Bei\|amln,  Judah,  and  Simeon,  em- 
bracing the  countries  of  the  Jebusites,  Amorites,  HiUites,  and  Philistines,  formed  Jndea ;— the 
tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  tbe  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan,  embracing  tbe 
countries  of  the  Moabltes  and  Ammonitea,  and  the  kingdom  of  Bashan,  formed  Penea. 

Palestine  remained  under  the  Roman  dominion  (part  of  the  time  under  tbe  Eastern  or 
Greek  empire)  until  the  year  636,  when  Omar  conquered  Jeruaalem,  (see  p.  349:)  after  being 
more  than  four  hundred  years  subject  to  the  Arabian  caliphs,  the  country  fell  into  the  handa 
of  the  Turks,  (see  p.  S68,)  who  proved  more  oppressive  masters  than  any  of  their  predeoeasors. 
Then  followed  the  Crussdes;  and  about  four  hundred  and  sixty  years  after  the  conquest  of 
Omar,  tbe  Holy  city  was  rescued  firom  the  Mohammedan  yoke,  (see  p.  S83 ;)  but  after  a  aerlea 
of  changes,  In  the  year  1519  Jeruaalem  came  finally  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  whose  flag  haa 
ever  since  floated  over  its  sacred  places. 

The  inhabitants  of  Palestine  are  a  mixture  of  various  races— consisting  of  tbe  deecendanta 
of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country,  their  Arab  conquerors,  Turks,  Onsaders,  wandering 
Bedouins,  Kurds,  Ice,  but  all  now  equally  naturalized,  and  distributed  hito  varioos  daasaa  or 
tribes  according  to  their  several  religious  systems. 


h9,yfi 


TDIIBT  IN  BDIOPB.    Map  No.  VII. 

UrmormAN  Torkbt,  iDclodlng  Bfoldavla,  WalUcUa,  uid  8«rrta,  vUck  are  eonneotod  wUli 
Oie  PnrtA  only  ty  the  itenderest  tlea,  b  boondod  on  the  Dorth  bj  SlavoBla,  IJiiiigu7,  and 
Tmnaylvaoia— divbloM  of  Um  Austrian  emplra— firoin  which  It  b  leparated  bjr  the  Sare,  the 
Danube,  aud  the  eastern  Carpathian  mountaloa;  on  the  nortlfr-eaat  It  b  separated  firom  the 
Russian  provlnoe  of  Bessarabb  by  the  Pnith ;  on  the  east  it  has  the  Bbck  Sea,  the  Bospora^ 
the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Heltesponl ;  on  the  south  the  Archipelago  and  Greece;  and  oo 
the  west  the  Mediterranean,  the  AdriaUc,  and  the  Austrian  province  of  Dalmatia.  Area  oT 
European  Turkey  abont  two  hundred  and  ten  thouaand  sqoare  miles ;  population  about  flfleen 
mUiioos. 

The  leading  erenb  In  the  history  of  European  Turkey  may  be  stated  as  follows :  The  ancieat 
Byzaateum  founded  by  Byxas  the  Megarean,  B.  a  656 :— destroyed  by  Sepilmios  Severua  In  bb 
eontest  with  Niger,  A.  D.  196:— rebuilt  by  GonstanUne,  who  gave  it  hb  own  name,  and 
Boade  It  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empirci  A.  D.  3Sd :— captured  In  1904  by  the  Crusaders, 
who  ratained  It  till  1801  :->taken  in  14S3  by  the  Turks,  who  thus  put  an  end  to  the  Easieni  or 
Greek  empire,  and  flrmly  established  their  power  in  Europe.  Ilie  Turkish  arms  ooniinne  lo 
maintain  their  ascendeiM^  over  those  of  Christendom  until  their  check  In  1683  by  the  famova 
John  SobleakI,  in  the  skge  of  Vbnna.  (See  p.  389.)  Tben  began  Uie  decline  vt  the  Ottoman 
power:  It  received  a  severe  blow  by  the  victories  of  Prince  Eugene  in  1097,  (see  p.  390;)  sinoe 
which  period  province  after  provinoe  has  been  dbmembered  from  ti>e  empire,  which,  during 
the  last  centoiy,  has  been  saved  firom  dbsolution  only  by  Uie  mutual  jealousies  and  animoailias 
«r  ib  Chrbtian  neighbors. 

Ilie  divbions  by  which  European  Turkey  b  best  known  in  hlstoiy  are  Ramllla,  Bulgaria, 
Moldavia,  Wallachia,  Servla,  Bosnia,  Turkish  Ck-uatta,  Her<>egovina,  Albania,  Tbessaly,  and 
Macedonia,— for  which,  see  the  accompanying  Map.  Rumalioj  bordering  on  the  Black  Sea,  the 
Sea  of  Marmors,  and  the  Archipelago,  contabUng  the  dties  of  Adrianople  and  Constantinople^ 
and  watered  by  the  Msritza,  the  ancient  Hebnia,  b  coterminous  with  the  ancient  Thrace, 
<p.  71.)  Bnlfarioj  separated  fh>m  Rumllla  by  the  Balkan  range  of  mountains,  having  Sophia 
for  ib  capital,  and  the  Danube  for  its  nortliem  boundary,  corresponds  to  the  ancient  Mcesin 
Inforior,  (p.  300.)  JioUavia  and  ffs/ZacAto,  separated  ttota.  'nansylvania  by  the  Carpathian 
mountains,  correspond  to  the  ancient  Dacia  conquered  by  Tn^jan,  (p.  SOO-3.)  The  luliabitanta, 
deaoendanb  of  the  ancient  Daclana,  call  themselves  Rommuni^  or  Bomans.  Seroia,  peopled  by 
Sbvoniana— corresponding  to  the  ancient  Moesla  Superior,  formed  an  Independent  kingdom  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1365 ;  bat  since  that  period  it  has  &»• 
quentiy  rebelled  against  lb  Turkish  masters.  Tlie  internal  government  is  now  wholly  in  Oie 
bands  of  the  Servians,  who  pay  a  small  annual  tribute  to  the  sultan.  Bmhio,  now  a  pachalic 
of  Turkey,  comprising  also  under  ib  government  Tuskish  Croatb  and  Hersegovina,  and  occu- 
pying the  north-weetera  extremity  of  the  empire,  was  ancientiy  included  in  Ijower  Pannonb. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  it  first  belonged  to  the  Esstem  empire,  and  afterwards  became  a  separate 
kingdom  dependMit  upon  Hungary.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  In  1400,  atler  a  war  of 
aeventeen  years ;  but  It  was  not  till  1532  that  Solyman  the  Magnificent  finally  annexed  it  to 
the  Torliiah  dominions,  ^ibania^  a  large  provinoe  bordering  on  the  Adriatic,  Is  oeariy  the 
same  as  the  ancient  Epirus,  (p.  44.)  TAesstUf  and  JtfacMbaia  preserve  their  ancient  namea 
andUmits. 

CoMSTAHTmorLE,  tho  capital  of  the  Turkish  dominions,  occupies  a  triangular  promonU'ry 
near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  provinoe  of  Romilia,  at  the  Junction  of , the  Sea  of  Marmora 
with  the  Thracian  Boaporus.  It  b  separated  firom  its  extensive  suburlM  Gabta,  Pera,  &C.,  on 
the  norih,  by  the  noble  harbor  called  the  Golden  Horn.  Like  Rome,  (Constantinople  waa 
originally  built  on  seven  hills,  The  city  b  about  thirteen  miles  in  circuit— comprises  an  area 
•f  about  two  thouaand  acres  and  has  a  population,  exclusive  of  ib  suburbs,  of  about  five 
hundred  thousand.  The  seraglio,  containing  the  palace,  mint,  arsenal,  public  olBces,  4cc, 
occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Byzanteum,  (see  p.  318,)  at  the  apex  of  the  triangle.  It  b  about 
three  miles  in  circuit,  and  b  entirely  surrounded  by  walls.  The  Bospenu,  or  caiannel  of  Oon- 
BtanUnople,  is  abont  seventeen  miles  in  length,  with  a  width  var)*ing  firom  half  a  mile  to  two 
miles.  The  channel  b  deep ;  the  banks  abrupt,  witii  stately  dUk ;  and  Uw  a4}aoeiit  ooonUy  b 
■■rivalled  for  beauty. 


Ha  VIL 


AHCiENT  ITiLL    Map  No.  VIII. 

AHciBirr  Italt  wu  called  by  the  (Jraeks  Heqwria,  from  ft»  wciteni  ittiMtiMi  teraiilka  t« 
Gre«ee ;  and  fh>ra  tbe  Latin  po«U  H  recoired  th«  nunrs  Auaoiiia,  Saturate,  and  CEaotiia.  (Km 
also  p.  1^3.)  About  tbe  time  of  AritloUe,  (B.  C.  380,)  the  Grevks  divided  Italy  into  rix  eounlriei 
or  raglooSf-oAuMkola  or  Opiea,  Tyrrbenla,  lapygia,  Ombria,  LIguria,  and  Heoeila;  bot  Ui«di* 
vlaloiM  by  wbtch  it  Is  bast  known  In  Roman  history  aru  those  given  on  the  aocwmpsnyuig 
Mapf-^isalpiue  Gaul,  £truria,  Umbrla,  Pfcenum,  the  country  of  the  8abinM»  Latium,  Csn* 
pania,  Samnium,  Apulia,  C^bria,  Lncania,  and  Brutioram  Ager. 

Cis^pine  OsW,  or  O^ul  this  aid*  •f  tkt  Mp»,  embraday  all  northern  Italy  beyond  Ike 
Rubicon,  WHS  inhabited  by  GaUic  tribes,  which,  as  eariy  as  six  hundred  years  B.  C^  bcgaa  lo 
pour  over  the  Alps  Into  tbb  extensive  and  fertile  territory.  EtmriA,  embracing  the  eoontiy 
west  and  north  of  the  Tiber,  was  inhabited  by  a  nation  which  bad  attained  to  an  advanced  de> 
gree  of  civilixotlon  before  the  founding  of  Rome.  Umbria  embraced  the  country  esat  of 
Kiruria,  Hrom  the  Rubicon  on  the  north  to  the  river  Nar,  which  separated  It  ttom  tbe  asbins 
territory  on  the  south.  i>te«iiiiai.  Inhabited  by  tbe  Picentea,  was  a  country  ou  tbe  Adriatic 
having  the  river  ASsIs  on  the  north,  the  .Matrinus  on  the  south,  and  oo  the  west  the  Apennines, 
which  separated  It  fhun  Umbrla.  The  Country  of  the  Saiinrs,  at  the  period  wbea  It  was 
marked  out  with  the  greatest  clearness  and  precision,  was  separated  from  Latlum  by  the  river 
AdIo,  from  Etrurla  by  the  Tiber,  from  Umbria  by  the  Nar,  and  from  Picenum  by  the  centrd 
ridge  of  the  Apennines.  (See  also  Msp  No.  X.)  J^ttum  was  south  of  £truria  and  tte 
country  of  tbe  Sabines,  from  which  It  was  separated  by  the  Tiber  and  the  Ania  Cs^rs**^ 
separated  from  LaUum  by  the  river  Liris,  was  called  the  gardeo  of  Ilsly.  The  CampsnUa 
nation  conquered  by  the  Romans  was  composed  of  Oscans, Tuscans,  Samnltes,  and  Greeks;  Um 
latter  having  formed  numerous  colonies  In  southern  Italy.  Samnium,  the  country  of  the  SsmnHWi 
bordered  ou  the  Adriatic,  having  Picenum  on  tbe  north,  Apulia  on  the  south,  and  Latiom  and 
CampaiUa  on  the  west.  The  ambitious  and  warlike  Snmnites  not  unfrequentJy  brought  into 
the  field  a  force  of  eighty  thousand  foot  and  eight  thousand  horse.  Jipuluu,  inhabited  by  the 
early  Daunil,  Peucetilf  and  Meesapil,  bordered  on  the  Adriatic  on  the  east ;  and,  on  the  weat, 
on  the  territories  of  the  Samnltes,  tbe  Campanians,  and  Lucanlans.  CalairUf  called  alio  by 
the  Greeks  lapygia,  embraced  the  south-oastem  extremity  of  the  Italian  peninsuta,  answering 
nearly  to  what  Is  now  called  Terra  di  Otraolo.  Lucania,  inhabited  by  the  wariike  L"*^ 
who  carried  on  a  succeaeful  war  with  the  Greek  colonies  of  southern  Italyt  was  sepsrsiM 
ftt>m  Apulia  and  Calabria  on  the  north-east  by  the  Bradanua.  BrMtiorum  Agtr^  the  CooatrT 
of  the  Brutii,  comprised  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  now  called  Calabria  Ultrs. 
The  BruUI,  the  most  barbarous  of  tbe  Italian  tribes,  were  reduced  by  tbe  Romans  soon  after 
the  withdrawal  of  Pjrrhus  from  Italy. 

Since  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  Italy  has  never  been  united  in  one  Slate.   Afler 
having  been  successively  possessed  by  the  Heruli,  Ostrogoths,  Greeks,  and  Lombanto,  ^'t' 
magne  annexed  it  lo  the  emplro  of  the  Franks  In  774 :  from  858  till  tbe  eatabliahmeni  of  »« 
republic  of  Milan  in  1150,  it  generally  belonged,  with  the  exception  of  tbe  territory  of  tbe  Ve- 
netians, to  tbe  German  emperors.    In  1535,  Milan,  then  a  duchy,  came  into  tbe  poasessioo  o 
the  emperor  Charles  V.    Since  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  the  duchies  of  Milaa  »"J 
Mantua  have  penernlly  belonged  to  Austria,  with  the  exception  of  the  short  lime  they  **""fj 
a  part  of  the  Cisalpine  republic  and  the  French  empire.    Venice  was  a  republic  frook 
seventh  century  till  1707.    It  was  confirmed  to  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  1815.    The  pr***"* 
Italian  SUiica  are  the  kingdom  of  Lombanly  and  Venice,  forming  a  part  of  the  Austrian  emp 
—kingdom  of  Sardinia— kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily— Graod-duchy  of  Tuscany-SUl* « 
the  Church— Duchies  of  Parma,  Modena,  ond  Lucca— and  the  little  republic  of  San-Msrioo.  ^ 

The  French  rule  in  Italy  was  a  great  blessing  to  that  unhappy  country ;  **  but  tlie  coalition, 
says  Slsmondi,**  destroyed  all  the  good  conferred  by  France."  The  stale  of  the  people  «»»• 
trasts  very  dlsadvantogeoualy  with  thu  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  beauty  of  the  climA^e. 

"How  has  kind  Heav*n  adom'd  the  happy  loud.  And  Tyranny  usurps  her  happy  plains ^ 
And  scattered  t>lesslngs  with  a  wastetdl  band !  Tlio  poor  inliabitant  beholds  in  vain 
But  what  avail  her  unexhausted  stores,  The  redd*nin'^  orange  and  the  swelling JP*""* 

Her  blooming  mountains  and  her  sunny  shores,  J(>>ie8s  he  sees  the  growing  oils  and  *'/'*jJ^ 
With  all  the  gifts  that  Heaven  and  earth  Imparl,  And  in  the  in^rUt-'a  iViigroul  shade  '•£,"**: '-i 
The  smiles  of  nature  and  tho  charms  of  ar;,  Siurve*,  in  ilie  midst  of  natures's  bounty  cu*»^ 
While  proud  Oppression  in  her  valleys  reigns,  And  In  the  laden  vineyard  dies  for  Ihi"** 


Ho.  TUT. 


THE  BOIiR  BIPIKE.    Map  No.  IX. 

RsflAL  Bomb,  or  Rome  ander  the  Kings,  occnpying  a  period  of  about  two  hmidrad  and  tartj 
ymn,  Ai>m  the  fouiKUng  of  the  city,  753  B.  C,  to  the  OTerthrow  of  rojaltj,  510  B.  O,  ruled  over 
onlj  ft  narrow  strip  of  aeacoast,  from  the  Tiber  southward  to  Terraclna,  an  extent  of  about  serentj 
miles,  (see  Map  No.  X  0  bat  It  already  carried  on  an  extenatre  oommeroe  with  Sardinia,  Sicily, 
aadOsrthaffe. 

RcrriLicAif  Romi.  occupying  a  period  of  about  four  hundred  and  eighty  years,  fkom  the 
orerthrow  of  royalty  510  B.  C.  to  the  aooesaion  of  Augustas,  98  B.  a,  extended  the  Roman  do- 
minion, not  only  over  all  Italy,  but  also  over  all  the  Idands  of  the  Mediterranean— ^rer  Bgypt, 
and  all  Northern  AfHca  (h>m  I^ypt  westward  to  the  AUantic  Ocean— orer  Syria  and  all  Asia 
Minor— orer  Thrace,  Achala  or  Greece,  Macedonia,  and  Illyricum— and  orer  all  Gaul,  and  moot 
of  Spain. 

InrxatAL  RoMi  occupies  a  period  of  about  live  hondred  years,  extending  fkom  the  aoeeasloa 
of  Augustas,  38  B.  C,  to  the  orerthrow  of  the  Western  empire  of  the  Romana,  A.  D.  47(L 
Under  Augustas,  the  Roman  dominion  was  extended  by  the  oonqaeat  of  MmtU,  oorrsapondlng 
to  the  preaont  Turkish  provinces  of  Bulgaria  and  Senria— of  P««iM«t«,  correqKMidliig  to  thn 
eastern  part  of  southern' Avstria,  and  Hungary  south  of  the  Danube,  Styria,  Austrian  Oootla, 
and  Slavonla,  and  the  northern  part  of  Boanla— of  JV«rte«ai,  corresponding  to  the  Austrian 
Salxburg,  western  Styria,  Carinthia,  Austria  north  to  the  Danube,  and  a  snudl  part  of  aoatb- 
eaatem  Bararia— iUUd'a,  extending  over  the  country  of  the  Tyrol  and  eastern  Switxeriand— 
and  rimWtcta,  corresponding  to  southern  Wlrtemberg  and  Bavaria  south  of  the  Danabe. 
(See  also  Maps  Nos.  VIL  and  XVII.)  On  the  death  of  Augustua,  theraf6r^  the  Roman  empire 
was  bounded  by  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  on  the  porth ;  by  the  Euphrates  on  the  east ;  bjf^  . 
the  sandy  deserts  of  Arabia  and  AIMca  on  the  south ;  and  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  wesL 

The  aonthem  part  of  Britain,  or  Brittania,  was  reduced  by  OstiNlus,  in  the  rrign  of  Claudius ; 
and  Agrioola,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  extended  the  Roman  dominion  to  the  Frith  of  Forth, 
and  the  Clyde.  With  this  exception,  the  empire  continued  within  the  limits  given  it  by 
Angustus,  until  the  accession  of  Trajan,  who.  In  the  year  105,  added  to  It  Daeioy  a  region  north 
of  the  Danube,  and  corresponding  to  Wallachia,  Transylvania,  Moldavia,  and  all  Hungary  east 
of  the  Theiss  and  north  of  the  Danube.  lYi^an  also,  In  his  eastern  expedition,  descended  the 
T^ris  fh>m  the  mountains  of  Armenia  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  for  a  brief  period  extended  the 
sway  of  Rome  over  Colchis,  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria ;  and  even  the  Parthian 
monarch  accepted  his  crown  flrom  the  hands  of  the  emperor.  In  the  time  of  Tr^an,  therefore, 
who  died  A.  D.  117,  the  Roman  empire  attained  its  greatest  extent,— being,  at  that  period, 
the  greatest  monarchy  the  world  has  ever  known,— extending  in  length  more  than  three  thoo- 
sand  miles,  from  the  Western  Ocean  to  the  Euphrates,  and  more  than  two  thouaand  in  breadth, 
from  the  northern  limits  of  Dacla  to  the  deserts  of  Africa,— and  embraeii^  an  area  of  sixteen 
hundred  thousand  square  miles  of  the  most  ftftlle  land  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  Well  might 
it  be  called  the  Roman  World. 

Adrian,  or  Hadrian,  the  successor  of  Trajan,  voluntarily  began  the  system  of  retrendhment 
which  was  forced  upon  his  successors.  lu  order  to  preserve  peace  on  the  frontiera  he  aban- 
doned all  the  conquests  of  his  predecessor  except  Dacia,  and  bounded  the  eastern  provinces  by 
the  Euphrates.  The  unity  of  this  mighty  empire  was  first  broken  by  the  division  into  Eastern 
and  Western  in  the  year  395.  In  the  year  476  the  Western  Empire  fell  under  the  repeated 
attacks  of  the  barbarians  of  Germany  and  Scythia,  the  rude  ancestora  of  the  moat  polished  na- 
tions of  Europe.  The  Eastern  Empire  survived  neariy  a  thousand  yeara  longer,  but  Anally  fell 
under  the  power  of  the  Turks,  who  took  Constantinople,  Its  capital,  In  the  year  14S3,  and  i 
It  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 


Vo.  VL 


ARCIEHT  UIB.    Hap  No.  X. 


In  dMcriblng  Ancxbiit  Rons  onr  aUenilon  !•  flrat  dlNcied  to  the  relatlre  localitiM  of  Uw 
8eTen  Hills  on  which  Rome  was  orlginallj  built— ihe  ATonUne,  CoBllan,  Palatine,  Ksquiliue, 
Capltoline,  Viminal,  and  Quirinal-all  included  within  the  walls  of  Servius  TuUina,  built  about 
tbe- jear  550  B.  C.  About  two  hundred  and  ei{^ty  years  later  the  emperor  Auretlan  eommenoed 
the  erection  of  a  new  wall,  which  was  completed  by  Prob«s  Are  years  afterward.  Tim  eir> 
cumforeuce  of  the  Servian  town  was  about  six  miies;  that  givoi  it  by  the  wall  of  Aureiian, 
which  extended  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  And  Inekwed  a  part  of  the  Janlcolan  mount, 
was  about  twelve ;  although  the  city  extended  far  beyond  the  limiu  of  the  latter.  Tbe  modem 
rampart  sttrrouods,  subetaniially,  tbe  same  area  as  that  or  Aureiian. 

Tbe  greater  part  of  Modem  Rome  ouven  ihe  flat  surihee  of  the  Osmpns  Manivs,  the  Capi- 
loline  and  Quirinal  mounts,  and  the  right  hank  of  the  Tiber  from  Hadrian*s  Mansoleani,  (now 
the  Outle  of  St.  Angelo,)  south  to  and  ladoding  tbe  Janiculan  mount.  The  ancient  city  of  tbe 
SOTen  Hills  is  nearly  all  contained  wUhin  the  old  walU  of  Servius.  Almoet  tbe  whole  of  tbis 
area,  with  tbe  exception  of  the  Ospitolioe  and  Quirinal  hills,  Is  now  a  wide  waste  of  piles  of 
shattered  architecture  rising  amid  vineyards  and  mml  lanes,  exhibiting  no  tokens  of  habitation 
except  a  few  mouldering  convents,  villas,  and  cottages. 

B<^nningour  sarveyat  tbe  Ckpitollne  hill,  on  whidi  once  stood  thefkmous  temple  of  Jupit«r 
OapltoUnua,  we  And  there  no  vestlRes  of  ancient  grandeur,  save  about  eighty  feet  of  wl»al  are 
believed  to  have  been  tbe  foundations  of  the  temple.  At  the  northern  extremity  of  the  hill 
we  still  discern  the  fatal  Tupelan  Rock,  surrounded  by  a  duster  of  old  and  wretched  hovels, 
while  ruins  encumber  its  base  to  tbe  depth  of  twenty  feet. 

The  open  space  between  the  Captioiine,  Esquiiine,  and  Palatine  hills,  is  oorered  by  relics  of 
ancient  bulldfngs  interspersed  among  modern  churches  and  a  fttw  paltry  streets^  Here  was 
tbe  Oremt  Roman  Forum— b.  large  space  surrounded  by  and  flUed  with  public  buikiings,  templet, 
statues,  arches,  Jlc,  nearly  all  of  which  have  disappeared ;  and  the  surface  pavement  on  «  hieh 
they  stood  is  now  covered  with  their  ruins  to  a  depth  of  (him  fifteen  to  thirty  feet.  Tlie  space 
wbksh  the  Forum  oecujried  has  been  called,  until  recently,  Campo  Vaccino,  or  the  Field  of 
Cows ;  and  it  is  in  reality  a  market  place  for  sheep,  pigs,  and  cattle. 

In  early  times  there  was  a  little  lake  between  the  CapitoUne  and  Palatine  hills.  In  time  thb 
was  converted  into  a  marsh ;  and  the  most  ancient  ruin  which  remidns  to  o^  tlie  Clones 
JUaximoj  or  great  drain,  built  by  the  Tarquins,  was  designed  for  carrying  off  its  waters.  This 
dnin,  still  performing  its  destined  service,  opens  Into  the  Tiber  with  a  vault  fourteen  feet  in 
li«lght  and  as  many  in  width.  Hie  beautiful  circle  of  nineteen  Corinthian  columns  near  the 
Tiber,  aronnd  tbe  church  of  Santa  Maria,  has  been  usually  styled  the  Temple  of  FMta— sup- 
poeed  to  heltvDg  to  the  age  of  tbe  Antonines. 

On  the  Palatine  hill  Augustus  erected  the  earliest  of  the  Palaces  of  the  Ckteare  ;  Claudius  ex- 
tended them,  a|id  Joined  the  Palatine  to  tl»e  CapitoUne  by  a  bridge ;  and  towards  the  northern 
point  of  the  Palatine,  Nero  built  bis  "^Goklen  House,*"  fYonted  by  a  vestibule  in  which  stood 
the  emperor's  colossal  statue.  T^e  AvenUne  rises  from  the  river  steep  and  bare,  surmounted 
by  a  solitary  convent  On  the  Ccelian  are  remains  of  tbe  very  curious  circular  Temple  of 
Atiatw,  built  by  Claudius.  Southward  are.  the  ruins  of  the  Baths  of  CaracallOy  occupying  a 
surface  equal  to  one-sixteenth  of  a  square  mile.  Tlie  building,  or  range  of  buildings,  was  Im- 
mense,-~containing  four  magnificent  temples  dedicated  to  Apollo,  iGacuIapiua,  Uerculea,  and 
Bacchus,— a  grand  circular  vestibule,  with  baths  on  each  side  for  cold,  tepid,  warm,  and  sea- 
bathing—In the  centre  an  immense  square  for  exercise— and  beyond  it  a  noble  hall  with  sixteen 
hundred  marble  seats  for  the  bathoti,  and,  at  each  end  of  the  hall,  libraries.  On  each  side  of  the 
building  was  a  court  surrounded  by  porticoes,  with  au  odeum  for  music,  and.  In  the  middle, 
a  spacious  basin  for  swimming.  There  was  also  a  gymnnsium  for  runniug,  wrestling,  fcc,  and 
around  the  whole  a  vast  colonnade  opening  into  spacious  halls  where  tbe  poets  declaimed,  and 
philosophers  gave  lectures  to  their  auditors.  But  the  immense  halls  are  now  roofless,  and  the 
wind  sighs  through  the  aged  trees  that  have  taken  root  In  the  pavements. 

South  of  the  Palatine  was  the  Ctreiu  Maximue^  which  is  said  to  have  covered  the  spot 
where  the  games  were  celebrated  when  the  Romans  seized  the  Sabine  women.  It  was  mom 
than  two  thousand  feet  In  length,  and,  in  its  greatest  extent,  contained  seats  for  two  hundred 


Ho.  X. 


II* 


1p^ 


584 

■Ml  dsijr  tbooMBd  tpeetoion.    W«eni  HUItnee  ttoihqM^biiiaieilraeCnrahMCiliiiifdb 
Appeared. 

In  the  open  Mprntt  easlward  of  tho  Greal  Fomm  ■taadt  tho  C^luemm  tr  FUma  Amfki- 
tkMitrty  the  bout  of  Rome  and  of  the  wofM.  Thl«  Rlgnatie  odlllee,  whieh  wm  began  by  Y*- 
pnilan  aiid  completed  by  Titus,  is  In  Ibnn  an  Hlipse,  and  ootmb  an  ana  of  aboM  five  sad 
iv4iair  acres.  Tbe  external  eieration  connisted  of  fiour  storica»— «acb  of  tbe  three  lower  slorlss 
having  eighty  arches  supported  by  half  eotaroos,  Dorle  In  tbe  flrai  range,  Ionic  In  the  seoood, 
and  Corinthian  In  the  third.  The  wall  of  the  fourth  story  was  Awed  with  Cbrlnthlan  pilasten, 
and  lighted  by  forty  rectanguhu-  windows^  Tbe  spaee  surrounding  the  oential  elliptical  sraw 
was  occupied  with  sloping  galleries  resting  on  a  huge  mass  of  arches,  and  aaoendlag  towarii 
the  summit  of  the  external  wall.  One  hundred  and  sixty  staironsea  led  to  the  gallefiei.  A 
moTable  awning  covered  the  whole,  with  the  exception  of  the  Podium,  or  eovered  gslleiy  fcr 
the  emperor  and  perMos  of  high  rank.  WiUxlu  the  area  of  the  CoHseam,  gladiators,  raartyi^ 
slaves,  and  wild  beasts,  combated  on  the  Roman  festivals ;  and  here  the  blood  of  both  msn 
and  animals  flowed  Id  torrents  to  furnish  amusement  to  tlte  degenerate  Romans.  Tbe  CoUseoB 
to  now  partlaUy  in  ruins ;  scarcely  a  half  presento  lU  original  height ;  the  appermost  gaUeiy 
haa  disappeared;  the  second  range  Is  much  broken;  the  loweat  Is  neariy  perfect;  but  tiie 
Podium  is  in  a  very  ruinous  state.  From  Its  enormous  mass  **  walla,  palaces,  half  dtles  hsfe 
been  reared ;"  but  Benedict  XIV.  put  a  stop  to  Ita  dcstructloo  by  oonaecfBUng  tbe  wbole  to  the 
martyrs  whose  Mood  had  been  spilled  tfaersk  In  tbe  middle  of  the  onoe  bloody  arena  stands  a 
enieiflx ;  and  around  this,  at  equal  dlslance^  fourteen  altars,  consecrated  to  dlllbrent  iahils,sie 
erected  on  the  dens  once  occupied  by  wild  beasts. 

The  principal  ruins  on  the  Esquiline,  a  part  of  them  extending  their  Intricate  oorridon  oa  the 
heights  overiooking  the  Coliseum,  have  been  called  the  Baths  and  the  Palaee  of  Titos;  bat 
although  it  is  evident  that  baths  constltnted  a  part  of  their  phin,  the  design  of  the  whole  to  doI 
known.  What  is  called  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Medica,  In  a  gmilen  near  tbe  eastern  walls,  to  a 
«lecagonal  ruin,  supposed  to  belong  to  the  age  of  the  Antonlnes.  The  Batkt  of  DioeletU%i  on 
tiie  VImlnal  mount,  appear  to  have  resembled,  in  their  general  arrangement,  those  of  Csrscalli. 
t$au  farther  to  tlie  north-east  are  tbe  remains  of  tbe  camp  erected  by  S^anua,  the  minister  of 
Tiberius,  for  the  Pnetorian  guards.  In  the  beautiful  gardens  of  tbe  hisiorian  Sallust,  on  lbs 
eastern  declivity  of  the  Pindan  mount,  are  the  remains  of  a  temple  and  ctivus,  supposed  te 
belong  either  to  the  Augustan  age,  or  to  tbe  last  days  of  the  Republic  On  the  westen  ssceat 
of  the  thickly-peopled  Quirinal,  whose  heighta  are  crowned  by  the  palaee  and  gardens  of  ths 
pope,  are  exiensive  niins  of  walls,  vaults,  and  portiooes,  belonging  to  the  baths  of  OonstsnthM. 
Tbey  are  now  surrounded  by  the  beauUfUl  gardens  of  the  Colonna  palace.  Farther  south,  be- 
tween the  Quirinal  and  Capiioline,  some  striking  remains  of  the  Forums  of  Nerva  and  Tnj^ 
are  still  visible. 

Of  tbe  numerous  mlns  in  the  Campus  Martius,  we  have  room  for  only  a  Nief  notice^  ^  ^ 
Tkmtrt  ^  MareeUut^  eleven  arehes  of  the  exterior  walls  stiU  remain.  Of  the  Tktatr^  «/ 
Pompeiff  tbe  foundation  archee  may  be  seen  In  the  cellars  and  stables  of  the  Palaxxio  Pio.  1^ 
flmminitm  Circus  and  the  Ctreu*  ^ffonalia  are  entirely  in  rains.  The  Column  of  Jntouinu$ 
and  the  Tomb  of  Auguoiuo  are  still  standing,  with  their  suramlta  much  lowered. 

Tbe  Pantheon^  tbe  most  perfect  of  all  the  remains  of  ancient  Romev  is  a  temple  of  a  cfrcnlsr 
form,  built  by  Agrippa.  It  was  dedicated  to  Jupiter  the  Avenger,  but  besides  tbe  statue  of 
this  god,  it  contained  those  of  the  olher  heathen  deities,  formed  of  various  maleria]s-gol<^ 
silver,  bronze,  and  marble.  Tbe  portico  of  this  temple  is  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  long  by 
forty-four  in  depth,  and  is  supported  by  sixteen  Corinthian  columns  ^ch  of  the  ehalts  eoo- 
sisting  of  a  single  piece  of  OrienLal  granite^  forty-two  feet  in  height  The  besea  and  capital  sre 
or  white  msrblo.  The  main  building  consists  <^  a  vast  circular  drum,  with  nicbes  ftai>ked  by 
oolumns,  above  which  a  beautiful  and  porfeclly  preserved  cornice  runs  round  the  wbole  buikt* 
Ing.  Over  a  second  story,  Tormed  by  nn  atllc  sustaining  an  upper  cornice,  rises,  to  the  hel^t 
of  one  hundred  and  forty-lhreo  feci,  the  bcauUrul  dome,  which  is  divided  iotecnally  intosqiu^ 
panels  supposed  to  have  been  orlgiiMiIly  iuhiid  wUii  bronzet  A  circular  operiure  hi  the  dwne 
admita  the  only  ligiit  which  iho  place  receives.  Tiie  consecration  of  this  temple  (A.  D.  609  ^ 
a  Christian  church,  has  preserved,  for  the  admiration  of  tho  modems,  this  mo«t  beautlAi)  oi 
heathen  fanes.  Christian  altars  now  OR  the  recess  where  once  stood  the  most  flunoos  ita»i^ 
of  the  goda  of  the  heathen  workl. 


Ho.  XL. 


^     fs     ft    ^--^ 


^^  %  1 1 


i' 


CHART  OF  THE  WOILD.    Map  No.  XI. 

Map  No.  XL  to  »  CBiiiiT  or  tbb  World  on  Mereator^  prc»)«eU<Ni— t  Ckmrt  •f  Higtarpf  «^* 
htbltJDf  tbe  world  m  known  to  BoropoaiM  at  the  period  of  the  dtooorerr  of  Americar^aod  a 
Ckmrt  •/  I*9tk»tmat  linsa,  or  lines  of  equal  heat,  ehowlng  tbe  oooiparatlve  mean  annua)  tem- 
perature of  diflbreat  parte  of  tbe  Earth^s  •urfaoe. 

It  will  be  obterved  tbat  General  HIaloryt  previous  io  the  diacoTerj  of  Amertea,  la  conOned 
to  a  Muall  portion  of  tbe  Eartb*a  mrfaoe ;  as  repmenled  by  tbe  Ugbt  portions  of  tbe  Gbait; 
while  tbe  whole  Western  OontlAent  and  OrBeoland,  most  of  AlHea  and  Asia,  and  their  Islanda, 
and  parts  of  Nonbera  Europe  and  Teetond,  were  unknown  to  Europeans,  and  In  the  iJarlnnsn 
of  barbarlsoL    It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  hlstoiy  of  toe  Worlb  has  bat  Just  oom- 


The  Isothermal  Hoes  show  that  the  temperatura  of  a  place  does  not  depend  wholly  npon  iU 
latitude.  Thus  tbe  southern  limit  of  perpetually  ftoien  ground  In  the  norihem  hemisphere  (at 
a  mean  aanoai  temperature  of  thIrty4wo  degrees  Fkhreabdl)  follows  a  line  ranging  ftom  below 
lUty-flve  degrees  of  latitude  to  above  seventy.  The  mean  annual  lempentiire  of  London,  at 
flAy-one  and  a-half  degrees  north  latitude,  to  flAy  dtsgreee  of  Fahrenheit,  the  same  as  that  of 
Philadelphia,  which  is  eleven  and  a^ialf  degrees  of  latitude  ftuther  south.  The  line  of  greatest 
beat,  (at  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  eighty-two  and  four-tenths  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,)  is  more 
than  ten  degrees  of  latitude  north  of  the  Equator  In  South  America,  in  AOiea,  and  soatbem 
Hindostan ;  and  about  eight  degrees  south  of  the  Equator  In  a  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean  be- 
tween BonMK>  and  Hew  Holland.  The  sea  is,  generally,  considerably  wanner  In  winter  than 
the  land,  and  cooler  in  summer.  Contlnento  and  large  islands  are  found  to  be  warmer  on  their 
western  sides  than  on  tbe  eastern.  The  extremes  of  temperature  are  experienced  chiefly  tn 
large  inland  incts,  and  little  felt  In  small  islands  remote  fVom  cootinents.  Had  the  Arctic 
regions  been  entirely  of  land,  the  intense  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  wlnt^  would  hare 
been  equally  flUal  to  animal  lift. 


BATTLE  GROUNDS  OF  THE  WARS  OF  THE  FRENCH  RETOLUTiON 
AND  THE  WARS  OF  NAPOLEON.    Map  No.  XII. 

The  wars  growing  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  of  which  those  of  Napoleon  were  a  «oa- 
tinualion,  embrace  a  period  of  nearly  twenty-three  years,  flrom  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at 
Jemappes  on  the  17th  of  November,  1792,  to  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo  on  the  18th 
of  June,  1815. 

The  accompanying  Map  presents  at  a  glance  the  rast  theatre  on  which  were  exhibited  the 
thousand  Scenes  in  this  mighty  Drama  of  human  sufforing.  The  thickly-dotted  Spanish  peQln- 
sula  may  be  regarded  as  one  great  battle-Oeld,  where  Frenchman,  Spaniard,  Portuguese,  and 
Briton,  sank  in  tbe  death  struggle  together.  Those  dark  spoto  where  the  *^  pealing  drum,'*  the 
^  waving  standards,"  and  the  **  trumpets  clangor,"  invited  to  stoughter,  cluster  thickly  around 
the  easiem  boundaries  of  France,  including  Belgium  and  northern  Italy ;—  they  are  seen  in 
for-off  Egypt  and  Palestine,  recalling  Napoleon's  dreams  of  Easiem  conquest ;  and  th^  strew 
tlie  roule  tu  Moscow,  where,  (\rom  the  fires  of  the  Kremlin,  and  amid  the  snows  of  a  Rosslaa 
winter,  the  French  eagles  commenced  a  lasting  retreat. 

As  we  look  over  this  vast  gladiatorial  arena  of  ftwitic,  struggling  Life,  and  agonising  Death, 
our  thoughts  naturally  turn  fVom  its  mingled  horrors  and  glories  to  rest  upon  the  commanding 
genius,— the  wizard  spirit,— of  him  "  who  rode  upon  the  whirlwind  and  directed  the  Btarm"— 
of  blm  whom  Byron  well  describes  as  a  mighty  Gambler, 

**  Whose  game  was  empires,  and  whose  stakes  were  thrones, 
Wliose  table  earth,  whose  dice  were  human  bones.*' 

But  the  French  Revolution  and  the  wars  of  Na])oleon,  with  all  the  snlTerlng  which  they  oo> 
casloned,  have  not  been  unattended  with  useful  results  in  urging  forward  tbe  march  of  European 
civilization.  The  moral  ctiaracter  of  Napoleon,  the  most  prominent  actor  in  the  drama,  has 
been  variously  drawn  by  (Vieods  and  foes ;  but  the  towering  height,  the  lightning-like  mpklltj, 
and  the  brilliancy,  of  hto  genius,  have  never  been  questioned  Vy  hto  moat  bitter  rertlen. 


Ko.xn. 


FIANCE,  SPiiH,  iSB  POETOOiL.    Map  No.  XIII. 

nuxct,  (ancient  OaW,)  bordering  on  three  scu,  nnd  being  enclosod  bj  natural  boandaricn 
Ml  all  ilika  except  the  north-east,  where  her  natural  timiia  are  the  Rhine,  U  admimbij  situated 
Ibr  a  oommaading  influence  In  European  aflklrs ;  «nd,  besides  ber  large  population,  the  active 
•pirlt  of  ber  people,  the  fertiltty  of  ber  soil,  and  the  aincuity  uf  her  climate,  place  her  amone 
the  forenioel  of  the  great  naiiooa  of  the  earth  in  power  and  reeources^ 

When  0r»t  known  to  the  Romans,  Gaul  was  divided  between  the  BelgK,  the  Ceita>,  and  the 
Aquitani ;  the  Belgw  or  Belgians  between  the  Seine  and  Lower  Rhine;— tlie  Celu  b«rtween  the 
tSeine  and  Garooiie ;  and  the  Aquilanl  between  the  Garonne  and  Pyrenees ;  but  the  Romana. 
under  Augustus,  made  four  dUisions  of  Gaul  j^Belglca,  in  tbe  north-east  ;r— LogdunenMSi  be> 
iween  the  Seine  and  Loire  '^-AquUania,  between  the  Loire  and  Pyrenees  j-nand  Narboneoals,  in 
the  southeast.        *" 

None  of  the  baihariaa  thbes  of  Europe  passed  thioogh  a  more  agitated  or  brilliant  career 
thim  the  ancient  Gauls,  the  ancestors  of  the  Preuch  people.  They  burned  Rome,  conquered 
Mttoedonbu  forced  Therinopyhs,  pillaged  Delphi,  besieged  Carthage,  and  esUblisbed  the  empire 
of  Galatia  In  Asia  Minor ;  but,  after  a  century  of  partial  conflicts,  and  nine  years  of  general 
war  with  Caesar,  they  yielded  to  the  overehadowing  power  of  Rome.  When  Rome  fell,  Gaul 
was  OTemm  by  the  Germanic  nations :  then  came  the  b^iiining  of  the  empire  of  Uie  Franks — 
the  encroachments  and  defeat  of  the  Saracens— the  vast  empire  of  Charlemagne— and  then  tiie 
incTBising  power  of  tbe  feudal  nobility,  until,  in  the  year  U87,  the  last  of  the  Ckriovingian 
princes  possessed  only  the  town  of  Laon  I  L'nder  Hugh  Capet  even,  dukes,  coiuits,  and  minor 
saigneura,  shared  among  themselves  nearly  all  of  the  modern  kingdom.  But  by  degrees  the 
great  flefs,  one  aAer  another,  fell  to  the  crown ;  and  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century 
all  France  was  milled  under  one  monarchy  in  the  person  of  Louis  XIV. 

Thus,  with  her  history,  the  geography  of  France  has  been  continually  changing  ;  but  iboee 
divisions  of  her  territory  best  known  in  general  bis:  or)'  are  the  oM  Provinces,  as  given  on  (he 
aoeoupanying  Map.  These  provinces,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  were  all  either  dochies  or 
minor  seignories  ruled  by  the  feudal  nobility ;  and  their  history  is,  therefore,  virtually,  for  a 
long  period,  thai  of  separate  kingdoms.  (.See  description  of  Provence,  Briuany,  Normandy, 
Aquilaine,  Burgundy,  Roussillon,  &C.,  pp.  300,  371-'2, 3V9.) 

At  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution  the  ihirly-thrce  provincial  divisions  were  abolished, 
and  Fiance  was  then  divided  into  eigbiy-skx  Dcparlmenls  or  Prefectures ;  IheM  into  three 
hundred  and  sixty-three  Arroodissements  ;  these  iulo  two  ihousmid  eight  hundred  and  forty-live 
Cantons;  and  these  latter  into  thirty-eight  thousand  six  hundred  and  twenty-three  Communes. 

Bpaik,  anciently  Hispania^  a  name  given  te  the  entire  peninsula  beyond  the  Pyrenees,  was 
not  ftally  conquered  by  the  Romans  till  the  time  of  Augustus,  who  made  three  divisions  of  tbe 
country  ;— Jst,  Brntica^  in  the  south  of  Spain,  embracing  the  more  modem  province  of  Anda- 
losla ;— 9d,  Lusitanioy  embracing  all  Portugal  south  of  the  Douro,  and,  in  addition,  most  of 
Eatremadura  and  Salamanca ; — ^and,  3d,  Tarraeonensity  emliracing  the  remainder,  and  greater 
porttcm,  of  the  peninsula. 

About  the  time  of  the  subversion  of  Ihe  Western  empire  of  the  Romans,  Spain  was  overrun 
by  the  Vandals,  and  other  Gothic  tribes ;  and,  a  centui^  later,  the  Christianised  VisigoilM  estab- 
lished their  supremacy  in  every  part  of  the  peninsula.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  omlury 
the  Moon  from  Africa  overran  the  whole  country,  but  after  their  defeat  by  Charles  Marlel  in 
France,  (see  p.  253,)  the  Chrisiinns  began  to  make  bead  against  them,  founded  tbe  kingdom 
of  Leon  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  nnd,  from  that  period,  gradually  extended 
their  power  nulil,  in  149-2,  Granodo,  the  last  Moorish  kingdom,  yielded  to  the  arms  uf  Ferd'matid 
of  Aragon,  and,  soon  afler,  the  whole  Spanish  peninsula  was  united  under  one  government. 
In  1139  PoaTUOAL  became  an  independent  kingdom:  f^om  IS80  to  164U  it  was  a  Spanish 
proTlnee ;  but  at  the  latter  period  it  regained  its  independence.  For  historical  aecounis  of 
N^Tvre,  Aragon,  Castile,  Leon,  and  Grenada,  see  p.  317,— Portugal,  31& 


c^iA~Jsss^#:^^f 


Ko.  xm. 


P^?^ 


SWmSBUIIIi  DBHiU,  m  PiRTS  OF  NOBWil  AKS 
SWEDEN.    Map  No.  XIV. 

Ai  a  brief  oaUlae  of  the  klalory  of  Switsirland  haa  alrawlj  been  gireo  on  pag«  S0a»  and 
•r  Dbjukasx,  Swkdbn,  and  Norway,  od  page  SiH,  we  abaU  here  oonllne  our  attenikm  priad- 
|MUy  to  the  phjaieal  geogmphj,  govommenl,  population,  &o^  of  IhoM  coantiiea. 

SwiTaaax^ND  U  a  republic  formed  by  the  uiiioD  of  twentjr-two  coofedorated  Sutea  or 
caotoMi  whoae  total  area  la  aboul  Afteen  tbouaand  aquara  milea,  or  about  one-third  of  that  oi 
Um  Blate  of  New  Yorit.  Population,  about  two  mtUiona  two  hondrad  tboaaand,  of  wh9m 
nearly  two^hlrda  are  Proteaiaiita.  More  than  half  of  the  Swiaa  people  apeak  a  German  dialect: 
aboul  four  hundred  and  flr\y  thouaaod  »peak  French;  and  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-Are 
thouaand  a  oorrupt  Italian. 

The  greater  portion  of  Swltaerlaod  oonaiata  of  mountaina ;  and  the  geographical  appearance 
of  tlie  counuy  baa,  not  Improperly,  been  compared  to  a  large  town,  of  which  the  valloya  ara 
Che  atreeta,  and  the  mountaina  greupe  of  contiguous  houaea.  Both  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone, 
and  aeveral  otJier  Important  rivera,  have  their  aouroea  in  Switierlaud ;  but  the  Aar  draina  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  paaaca  through  the  lalies  of*Brienx  aiMl  Than,  and,  after  a  ooune 
of  about  one  hundred  and  aeren^  milea,  unites  with  the  Rhine.  The  lakes  of  Swftxeriand  ara 
numeroua-«ll  uavlgRble— and  remarliable  for  llie  depth  and  purity  of  their  watera,  and  their 
groat  rarieiy  of  flsh.  Lakea  Thun  and  Brieoz  are  nineteen  hundred  feet  above  the  lerel  of  the 
•ea— the  lakea  of  (^enem  and  Coiiatanoe  ubout  twelve  hundred.  Not  only  la  Swilzeriaad  much 
oolder  than  the  afdUaoeut  couoirica,  owing  to  its  elevation,  and  the  influence  ot  ita  glaciera  in 
cooling  the  atmosphere,  but  the  cold  has  increased  in  modern  tiroes,  and  many  tracta  aro  now 
bare  that  were  formerly  covered  with  foreats  and  pasture  grounda. 

The  kingdom  of  Dknmark,  properly  so  called,  comprises  oniy  Jutland,  or  the  northern  half 
of  the  ancient  Cimbrie  Chertotketej  together  with  the  ialiuids  between  Jutland  and  Sweden,  and 
thefaland  of  Bomholm  la  the  Baiik.  To  these  possessions  have  been  added  the  duchleai^ 
Sleswlck  and  Holatein,  which  originally  formed  part  of  the  German  empire ;  and  aa  aorereign 
of  which  the  Danish  king  now  ranks  aa  a  member  of  the  Germanic  confederation.  Iceland, 
part  of  Greenland,  the  Faroe  ialea,  and  aome  possessions  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  also  be- 
long to  Denmark. 

The  aurfaoe  of  the  Daniah  peninsula  la  remarkably  low  and  level ;  and  along  the  whole 
western  coast  of  Sleswlck  and  HoUteIn  the  country  is  defended,  as  in  Holland,  againat  irruptiona 
flpom  the  aea,  by  immense  mounds  or  dikes.  The  soil  la  rarioua,  but.  generally,  very  fertile. 
Tiiere  are  no  mountains,  and  no  rivers  of  any  magnitude ;  but  the  inlets  of  the  sea  are  numer^ 
oua,  and  penetrate  far  inhind.  Since  the  year  1660  the  government  has  been  perhaps  aa  abs9- 
iute  a  monarchy  aa  any  other  in  the  world ;  but  the  sovereigns  have  generally  exercised  their 
extensive  powera  with  great  moderation.  The  Lutheran  la  the  eataUiabed  religion,  populatioa 
but  little  more  than  two  milliona 

The  kingdom  of  Swkdbn  comprises,  with  Norway  and  Lapland,  the  whole  of  (he  Scandl- 
navhui  peninsula,  west  of  tlie  Baltic.  Sweden  Is,  in  genial,  a  level,  well-watered  country,  bot 
the  soil  is  poor.  Sweden  extends  so  far  north  that,  near  Tomea,  the  sun  is  visible,  at  mld- 
aummer,  during  the  whole  night.  The  government  of  Sweden  is  a  hereditary  monarchy,  with 
a  representative  diet  consisting  of  four  chambers,  formed,  respectively,  of  deputies  lh>B  A* 
nobility,  clergy,  btu^hont,  and  peasants,  or  cultivators. 

Norway,  forming  the  western  part  of  the  great  Scandinavian  peninsula,  is  a  moontalDOva 
country,  and  is  characterized  by  iu  lofty  mountain  plateau  in  the  interior,  and  the  deep  In- 
dentations or  arms  of  the  sea  all  round  tbe  coast.  Although  Norway  is  under  the  same  crowa 
with  Sweden,  It  is,  in  reality.  Utile  connected  with  the  latter  country.  Its  democratic  aaaemblyi 
called  the  SUrikimg^  meets  fix  three  months  once  In  three  yean^  by  Its  own  right,  and  not  by 
any  writ  from  the  king.  If  a  bill  pass  both  divisions  of  thia  assembly  in  three  succeaaive 
Btorthinga,  it  beoomea  a  law  of  the  land  without  tbe  royal  asaent— a  right  which  no  other 
monarchico4egialatire  aaaembly  in  Europe  poeseaaes. 


ITo  XIV. 


fI8  HBTBBKUNDS,  NOW  EIBUCBD  III  TBB  IU6D0I8  Of 
nOLLAND  AND  BELGIl'M.    Map  No.  XY. 

Nearly  the  whole  kingdom  of  Holland,  foflen  menlioned  lo  history  mOm  **Lov  Cdoatrieb,'*) 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  ioslgniAcant  btil  niBgea,  la  »  cootlnuoot  flet-^A  highly  fertile 
eoaolry— Id  great  part  conquered  by  human  labor  ttom  the  aea,  which,  at  higlk  tide,  is  abotre 
the  level  of  a  oooelderable  portion  of  the  surrounding  eountry.  The  latter  is  at  all  liraea 
liable  to  dangerous  ioundatlon*.  Where  there  are  no  natural  ramparts  egainst  the  sea,  enormoaa 
artlflcial  mounds  or  dikes  have  been  constructed ;  but  these  are  sometimes  broken  down  by 
the  force  of  the  waves.  That  extensive  arm  of  the  sea  called  the  Zuyder  Zee,  occupying  an 
area  of  about  twelve  hundred  square  miles,  was  formed  by  soooeaslve  Inundations  In  the 
course  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  surface  of  the  country  presents  an  immenae  networic 
of  canak,  the  greater  number  beimr  appropriated  to  the  purposes  of  dralnai^e.  When  the  ica 
Is  onoe  shut  out  by  the  dikes  the  marah  Is  intersected  by  water  courses ;  and  wind-mllla,  erect- 
ed on  the  ramparts,  are  employed  to  force  up  the  water.  Sometimes  the  nuush  is  so  for  below 
the  level  of  the  sea -even  twenty-ave  or  thirty  feet  below  the  highest  tides— that  two  or  more 
ramparts  and  mills,  at  diflbrent  elevations,  are  requisite.  Thers  Is  no  other  country  wbem 
nature  has  done  so  little,  and  man  so  much,  as  this.  The  north  and  west  provinees  oC  Bbuiicm 
are  very  similar  In  their  Oatneea,  (hrtllity,  dikes,  and  canals,  to  Holland. 

Goldsmith^  description  of  Holtand  Is  peculiarly  appropriate. 

*  To  men  of  other  minds  my  fkacr  flies,  Spreads  its  long  arms  around  the  watery  roar, 

EmbosomM  in  the  deep  where  Holland  lies :  Scoops  out  an  empire  and  usurps  the  shore : 

Alethinks  her  palieul  sons  before  me  stand,  While  the  pent  ocean,  rising  o*er  the  pile, 

Where  the  broad  ocean  leans  against  the  land ;  Sees  an  amphibious  world  beneath  bira  smile, 

And,  sedulous  to  stop  the  coming  tide,  The  slow  canal,  the  yellow-biossomM  vale, 

Ltn  the  tall  ramparts  artiOclal  pride.  The  wtliow-tufied  bank,  the  gliding  sail. 

Onward,  methluks,  and  diligently  slow.  The  crowded  mart,  the  cultivated  plain. 

The  firm  compacted  bulwark  seems  to  grow ;  A  new  creation  rescued  from  his  reign.^ 

Holland  and  Belgium  were  partially  subjected  by  the  Romans:  In  the  second  century  Hol- 
land was  overrun  by  the  Saxons :  In  the  eighth  both  were  conquered  by  Charles  Uartel ;  and  they 
Mbeequently  formed  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  Charlemagne.  From  the  tenth  to  the  fifleenth 
eentury  they  were  divided  Into  many  petty  soTereignties,  most  of  which  snoceaaively  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  thence  to  that  of  Austria,  and,  about  the  middle 
ot  the  sixteenth  oentmy,  the  whole  fell  under  the  rule  of  Charles  V.,  king  of  Spain  and  ent- 
peror  of  Germany.  The  arbitrary  measures  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Charles  V.,  led  to  a  general  rebellion  in  the  Netherlands :  the  indpendence  of  the  **  Republie 
of  tl»e  United  Provinces,*'  embracing  the  States  of  Holland,  was  acknowledged  by  Spain  in 
16(19,  while  the  ten  southern  provinces,  which  had  either  remained  loyal  to  SpiUn  or  been  kepi 
In  subjection,  liad  in  the  meantime  passed  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  house  of  .\ustria. 
From  this  period  the  southern  provinces  have  been  generally  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
Belgium.  After  baring  been  several  times  conquered  by  tlie  French,  and  reeorered  fh>m  them, 
they  were  Incorporated,  in  1705,  with  the  French  republic,  and  divided  into  departments.  In 
180G  the  republic  of  Holland  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  for  Louis,  a  brother  of  Napoleon  ; 
and  on  the  downftdl  of  the  latter,  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  In  1915,  united  Holland  and  Belgium 
to  form  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  which  Utter,  by  the  Revolution  of  1830,  was  dissolved 
into  the  present  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium.  A  portion  of  Luxembourg,  entirely  de- 
tached from  the  rest  of  the  Dutch  dominions,  belongs  to  Holland. 

Of  the  Inhabitants  of  Holland,  numbering  about  two  millions  six  hundred  thousand,  about 
two  millions  are  Dutch,  who  speak  what  is  called  the  Low  Dut^b,  as  distinguished  fVom  the 
High  Dutch  or  German— the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Dutch  or  Teutonic  hinguiige.  The  popu- 
lation of  Belgium  numbers  about  four  millions  three  hundred  thousand,  divided  among  three 
principal  races,— the  Germanic,  which  comprehends  the  Flemings  and  Germans ;  the  Gallic, 
to  which  belong  the  Walloons,  who  speak  a  dialect  of  the  ancient  French ;  and  the  Semitic, 
which  comprehends  only  the  Jews.  The  French  language  Is  used  in  public  aflUra,  and  by  aO 
the  educated  and  wealthy  dassea. 


KaXV. 


now  divided  into 


Pro\itit*s  of 

tfCrst  Fiafiderm 

2  Kit  st  Flanders 

^HiiiTiiiJitt 

^Anhverp 

6SoiittLBrxiha7ii 

SSamur 

yLtmbourg 


52 


fiUAT  BIITilH  iXB  IRBURB.    Map  No.  XVI. 

TIm  UmTBD  KtMaooM  er  GatJiT  Bkitaim  ano  Irklaxo  ooaaisia  of  the  idmiids  Great  Britain 
•ad  Iralaad,  the  former  Indading  the  onee  Indepeodeul  kingdoms  of  Eagiuid  and  Seotland, 
and  the  whole  conaUtuting  not  only  (he  nudent  and  the  oentret  bat  alto  the  main  bodj  and 
•Mt,  of  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  Barrisn  Emnaa.  The  oolonlea  and  Ibroign  dependenciea 
belongfng  loUie  raited  Kingdom  are  of  great  extent  and  Importanee^  oonsiatiag  principally  of  the 
British  poaaeasions  In  North  America,  the  West  Indies,  the  Gape  of  Good  Hope,  Australia,  and 
Uie  East  Indies.  The  British  Kast  India  possessions  alone  embraoe  an  area  of  one  million  two 
hundred  tboa»nd  square  miles.  It  is  doubtless  the  eommon  opinion  that  the  United  Kingdom 
is  indebted  to  its  territorial  pttosessluns  for  a  lanje  portion  of  lla  wealth  and  power;  but  many 
abk*  writers  have  come  to  the  eoneluaion  that  these  colonies  and  dependencies  occasion  an 
eooraMus  outlay  of  expense  wtthoal  any  equivalent  advantage,  and  that  they  are  a  source  of 
weakness  rather  than  of  strength. 

No  comuiy  ever  existed  more  fkvorably  situated  for  the  ceaire  of  a  mighty  empire  than  the 
United  Kingdom.  Its  insular  situation  gives  It  a  well  defended  frontier,  rendering  the  country 
comparatively  secure  from  hostile  attacks,  and  affording  unequalled  tedlilles  (br  commerce; 
while  its  soil  ei^oys  the  fortunate  medium  between  fertility  and  barrenness  that  excludea  Iik 
doienoe  on  the  one  hand,  and  poverty  on  the  other.  Its  harbors  are  numerous  and  excellent: 
lU  principal  rivers,  the  Thames,  Trent,  and  Severn  in  England,  and  the  Shannon  In  Ireland, 
nn  all  navigable  to  a  very  great  distance :  Iroa  is  found  la  the  greatest  abundance :  its  tin 
mines  of  Devon  and  ComwaH  are  the  most  productive  of  any  In  Europe :  its  salt  aprings  and  salt 
beds  are  alone  sufflcieut  fur  tiM  supply  of  tlie  wholu  world ;  and  Its  nuzkmustM*  coal  mines, 
Um  principal  source  and  foundation  of  Its  manufacturing  and  commercial  prosperity,  are  more 
valuable  than  would  have  been  the  possession  of  all  the  gold  and  silvo-  mines  In  the  worid. 
But  EnglHiid  has  an  enurinous  public  debt :  her  government  Is  very  expensive ;  and  con- 
sequenlly.  with  ail  her  wealth  and  proa|)erity,  the  burdens  of  taxation  are  unusually  heavy. 
In  1838  her  public  debt,  contracted  in  great  part  during  the  American  Revolution,  and  the 
trench  revolutioiuiry  war^,  amounted  to  nearly  eifkt  ku*Ured  miUion  pounds  tteriimg,  H«r 
expenditures  during  the  same  year  were  upwards  of  fifty  millions,  of  which  more  than 
lawnty-tiine  millions  were  appropriated  to  deli-ay  the  Interest  and  expense  of  managing  tha 
public  debt! 

riie  Inhabitants  who  occupied  the  British  isles  at  the  period  when  the  Romans  first  landad 
la  England,  fltty-flve  yeara  before  Christ,  belonged  partly  to  the  Celtic,  and  partly  to  the  Gottain 
Auniiy— the  Cells  having  very  early  passed  over  Into  England  from  the  conligiioua  coasts  of 
l'>ance;  and  the  Belgic  Coihs  having  at  a  later  period  driven  the  Cells  northward  and  west- 
ward into  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  and  occupied  tlie  eastern,  lower,  and  more  fertile  portiona 
of  England.  I'he  Romans  conquered  England  and  the  more  southern  portions  of  Scotland, 
but  appear  not  to  have  visited  Ireland.  After  the  deimrture  of  the  Romaaa,  about  A.  D.  4ilU, 
Che  Caledonian  Celts  overran  the  country,  whea  the  Saxon  chiefs,  Ilengist  and  Horaa,  were  In- 
vited over  to  aid  their  English  brethren.  The  conquest  of  England  by  the  untied  Saxons,  Jutes,  and 
Angles,  occupied  a  period  of  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  years,  fh>m  the  landing  of  HengisL 
In  tlie  ninth  and  tenth  cenlurien  occurred  the  repeated  Inroads  of  the  Daneii,  who,  at  length, 
in  1017,  under  their  leadcnt  Sweyn  and  Cunutc,  became  masters  of  the  kingdom,  which,  1k>w- 
ever,  they  only  held  till  1U4I.  In  the  year  1066  occurred  the  conquest  of  England  by  William 
of  Normandy.  Through  William  and  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Plaatagenet,  more  than  a 
third  part  of  France  was  placed,  by  inheritance,  marriage,  conquest,  &c  under  the  immediate 
Jurisdiction  and  sovereignty  of  the  kings  of  England  ;  but  during  the  relgu  of  John,  sumaxned 
Lncklaiid,  the  French  recovered  most  of  their  provinces.  In  1109  Henry  IL  began  the  conquest 
of  IteHand. 

The  lending  epochs  In  later  English  history  are,  the  Civil  Wars  ef  the  Two  Roses,  terminated 
by  the  battle  of  Boaworlli  Field  in  1484 :  the  union  of  tlie  erowna  of  England  and  Scotland  In 
1001:  tbe  great  Civil  War  in  the  reign  orCh:irles  I.,  followed  by  the  execution  of  that  monarch 
hi  )tM9 :  the  Restoration  in  IfiOt) :  the  Revolution  of  16HB :  the  lefisUUve  union  of  Englaad 
and  Scotland  In  1707 :  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover  In  1714,  (see  Hanover  p.  482 :)  the 
American  Wac,  177G-I7K4:  the  war  with  revolutionary  Prance,  1703-1815:  the  legislative 
unioa  of  Ireland  with  England  and  Scotland,  1799 :  the  repeal  of  tho  Tast  Act,  1W8 :  OsthoUe 
Bmancipal  ^n,  182.) ;  and  passage  of  the  Reform  Act,  18322. 


Ko.  XVI 


CBRTIil  KUUPR,  TMITHBI  WITI  NLIRI^  lUHfiiBT, 
IND  WESTBRtI  RDSSIt.    Map  No.  XVII. 

CiimLAL  EuRopK  mmy  be  conaldered  as  embracing  tbe  praaeot  numeroae  Gei 
•lid  Switzerimnd ;  including  in  the  former  those  portions  of  tbe  Austrian  Rnd  Prunian  empires 
which,  previous  to  the  French  Revolulioo,  belonged  to  the  German  empire. 

The  ^German  Empire*'  occupies  m  promlnrat  position  in  the  history  of  OontiBental  Europe; 
but  it  has  passed  through  so  many  changes  In  limits,  divisions,  and  govemnteDU  that  the  reader 
of  history,  unless  he  Is  familiar  with  them,  will  often  be  perplexed  by  apparent  coatnullcti<MM. 
Thus  the  emperor  of  Austria  Is  often  mentioned  as  the  emperm'  of  Germany ;  and  porttooa  of 
Germany  are  spoken  of  as  belonging  to  Austria.  The  following  sketch  of  tbe  Ocrmoa  Centre, 
and  the  Oermanie  ConfedermtiMi^  it  Is  believed  will  explain  these  seeming  inoonslsteDciea,  and 
render  German  history  more  intelligible  to  the  general  reader. 

The  llrst  Uariovinglan  sovereigns  of  Germany  were  hereditary  monarchs ;  bat  as  eariy  as  887 
the  great  vassals  of  the  crown  deposed  their  emperor,  and  elected  another  sovereign  In  his 
•tesd ;  and  IVom  that  period  down  to  the  dissolution  of  the  German  empire  In  I8Q6|  tbe  tut- 
perora  of  Germany  were  elected  by  the  most  powerful  vassals  of  the  empire,  some  <^  whom 
wera  monarchs  within  their  own  donudns.  From  1745  to  1806  the  Austrian  emptors  exerdaed 
a  double  sovereignty,— as  emperors  of  Austria,  and  emperors  of  Gormany  also ;  bat  a  portfoa 
of  the  Austrian  dominions  were  not  Included  in  the  German  empire. 

At  tke  period  of  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  tbe  German  empire  was  divided 
Into  what  were  termed  Ten  Great  Circles,  each  of  which  had  Its  diet  for  the  transaction  of 
local  business;  but  afhirs  of  general  Importance  lo  the  empire  at  large  were  treated  by  tho 
Imperial  diet  summoned  by  the  emperor.  The  Ten  Great  Circles  were,  lit,  the  Glrde  of 
Jltutriu ;  9d,  The  Circle  of  i^Mr^a^y,  (including  most  of  the  presmt  Belginm,  and  beiomg- 
Ing  to  Austria;)  3d,  the  Circle  of  fVeatphalia;  4lh,  the  Ctrele  of  the  PattimmU;  Sih,  the 
Circle  of  the  Upper  Rhine ;  Mh,  the  ^aoMaa  Circle,  (Including  Wlrtemberg  and  Baden ;  see 
Suabia,  p.  270 ;}  7th,  the  Circle  of  Ba  varia  ;  8lh,  the  Circle  of  Franevnia^  (see  FranoonIa,  p.  970 ;) 
9lh,  the  Circle  of  L»wer  Saxouf,  (including  the  duchies  of  Magdebui^g,  Holstein,  fcc :  the  latter 
a  part  of  Denmark ;)  lOlb,  the  Circle  of  Upper  Saxony,  (including  Pomerania,  Brandenbui^the 
eloctorate  of  Saxony,  &.c.)  In  addition  to  these  Circles  the  empire  embraced  the  kingdom  of 
Bohemia;  the  margraviate  of  Moravia;  tbe  duchy  of  Silesia,  (Austrian  and  Pmsslan;)  and 
various  small  territori^s  held  directly  of  the  emperor.  The  Swiss  cantons  had  revolted  flrom  tlM 
empire,  and  maintained  their  independence.  Thus  the  German  empire,  consisting  of  a  vast 
aggregation  of  States,  flnom  large  principalities  or  kingdoms  down  to  ttw  cities  and  the 
estates  of  earls  or  counts,  comprised  all  the  countries  of  Central  Europe,  and  was  bounded 
north  by  northern  Denmark  and  the  Baltic ;  east  by  Prusdan  Poland,  Galicla,  and  Hungary ; 
sonth  by  the  Italian  Tyrol  and  Switzerland ;  and  west  by  France  and  Holland.  The  Austrian 
monarch  was  at  the  head  of  this  vast  empire ;  but  he  had  also  othM*  Slates,  such  as  Hnngaiy, 
Galicia,  Slavonis,  Juv,  which  had  no  connection  with  the  German  empire.  Most  of  Proaala, 
and  the  southern  half  of  Denmark,  were  also  included  In  tbe  German  dominions. 

Napoleon  made  Important  changes  In  the  political  geography  of  the  German  empire.  By  the 
treaty  of  Campo  Formio  In  1797,  (see  p.  467,)  the  IVontiere  of  France  were  for  the  Orat  time  ex- 
tended to  the  Rhine ;  and  the  Circle  of  Burgundy  was  thus  cut  off  firom  the  German  dominions. 
The  treaty  of  Presburg  in  1805  was  followed  by  other  changes.  Austrian  Tyrol  being  given  to 
Bavaria,  and  Hanover  to  Prussia ;  and,  in  1806,  by  the  Oonfoderation  of  the  Rhine,  (see  p.  485,) 
a  populaUon  of  sixteen  millions  was  taken  fh)m  the  Gemianic  dominion  of  Austria.  Under 
these  circumstances,  on  the  6th  of  Aug.  1805,  the  Austrian  emperor  solemnly  renounced  the 
style  and  title  of  emperor  of  Germany.  Tbe  war  with  Prussia  in  1807  deprived  the  Pruasian 
monarch  of  nearly  one  half  of  his  dominions ;  and  Westphalia  was  soon  after  erected  ii^  a 
kingdom  for  Napoleon's  brother  Jerome. 

The  downfall  of  Napoleon  restored  Germany  to  its  geographical  and  political  position  in 
Europe,  but  not  ss  an  empire  acknowledging  one  supreme  head.  A  confederation  of  thtatf- 
flve  (afterwards  changed  to  thirty-four)  Independent  sovereignties,  and  four  ft^ee  otttes,  replaced 
the  old  elective  German  monarchy.  In  this  Conlbderellon  are  embraced  all  the  Austrian  and 
Prussian  territories  formerly  belonging  to  the  German  empire  ;  also  Holstein,  (a  part  of  Den- 
mark,) and  Luxembourg)  (a  part  of  Holland ;)— the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  the  Idnga  of 
Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Holland,  becomlsg,  for  their  respective  German  tenik»i«a|  partiM  ta 


Na  ZVn. 


598 


OMltagM^  IteafiUnof  tbeOmfiMicntloiianBMMVidbyft  diatflawhtob  ttiei 
tlv«  of  Anstrift  pratklM.  UnUl  «  Tary  raoeoi  period  tieh  of  the  German  States  had  iu  owa 
enalom  bouaee,  laril^  and  revenue  lawa,  by  wUoh  the  Internal  trade  of  the  eountiy  waa  anb- 
jecled  to  many  Texatlona  and  rulnoua  realrietiona ;  bat  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Praarin 
this  lelflsh  tyileni  hat  been  abandoned ;  ft«e  trade  ezisU  between  the  Slates ;  andaeommodl^ 
that  has  onoe  psssed  the  frontier  of  the  lesgoe  may  now  be  oonTcyed  wUhont  hinderancn 
throughout  its  whole  extent. 
For  notiosa  of  Rosala,  Poland,  and  Hongary,  see  pp.  987, 311,  and  549, 


TIE  UNITED  STATES  OP  AlERICi.    Map  No.  XYin. 

Ika  Umran  Statbs  occupy  the  middle  dirision  of  North  America,  extending  ftom  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Paciflc  Ocean,  aiMl  embracing  an  area  of  about  three  millions  two  hondnd  thoQ- 
aand  squsre  miles.  Phydcal  geography  would  divide  this  broad  belt  into  three  great  sections ; 
1st,  the  Atlantic  coast,  whose  riyers  flow  Into  the  AtlanUc ;  ad,  the  Vall^  of  the  HisBlsBlppi, 
whose  wstera  find  an  outlet  iu  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  and  3d,  the  PadBc  coast,  embradi^  an 
extensive  territory  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  section  between  the  Alleghaniea  and 
the  Atlantic,  embracing  the  thirteen  original  Slatea,  has  a  mil  generally  rocky  and  longfa  In  the 
north-eastern  or  New  England  Stales ;  of  moderate  fertility  in  the  Middle  States ;  and  generally 
light  and  sandy  in  the  Southern  Atbmtic  States.  The  Immense  Valley  of  the  MlssisBippI,  In- 
doded  between  the  All^hanies  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  drained  by  the  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  Ohio,  Arkansas,  and  Red  rivers,  Is  one  of  the  hugest  and  finest  basins  In  the  world, 
embracing  an  area  of  more  than  one  million  square  miles— neariy  equal^  all  Europe,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Russian  empire.  In  the  eastern  and  middle  sections  of  this  valley  the 
soil  is  generally  of  very  superior  quality ;  but  extensive  landy  wastes  skirt  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  exhibits  a  great  variety  of 
soil.  Wsshington  and  Oregon  territories  are  divided  into  three  belts  or  secilons,  by  mountain 
ranges  running  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast.  The  eastern  section  Is  rocky,  broken,  and 
barren ;  the  western  fertile.  Most  parts  of  Utah  and  western  New  Mexico  are  an  extensive 
elevated  region  of  sandy  barrens  and  prairie  lands:  the  northern  and  eastern  sections  of  Gall- 
fonda  are  hilly  and  mountainous :  the  only  portion  adapted  to  agriculture  being  the  southern 
section,  and  a  narrow  strip  along  tlie  coast,  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  width.  The  vast  mineral 
wealth  of  Gallfomia  gives  that  country  its  chief  importance.  * 

The  United  States  seem  destined  to  become,  at  no  distant  day,  in  population,  wealth,  and 
power,  the  greatest  nation  of  the  eartli.  In  the  year  1850  their  population  numbered  more 
than  twenty-three  millions;  and  If  it  should  continue  to  increase,  for  a  century  to  come,  as  it 
has  during  the  past  twenty  years,  at  the  end  tif  tb€  century  it  will  number  9n$  kmndnd  and 
tixiy  millions^  and  then  be  only  half  as  populous  es  Britain  or  Frsnoe.  Hardly  any  limits  can 
be  assigned  to  the  probable  wealth  of  so  extendve  and  fertile  a  country,  intersected  by  numer- 
ous canals  and  navigable  lakes  and  riveni,  bound  U^ether  by  its  roads  of  iron,  bordering  on 
two  oceans,  and  commanding  the  trade  of  the  world.  In  commerce  It  Is  even  now  the  second 
country  on  the  globe,  being  inferior  only  to  Great  Briiain:  in  its  sgricullural  products  it  has  no 
equal ;  and  in  roanafactures  it  has  alrea>iy  riwii  to  great  respectability.  Its  revenue,  whi<di  has 
arisen  chiefly  from  customs  on  imports,  and  the  sale  of  public  lands,  was  suflldent  in  January 
1837,  not  only  lo  complete  the  payment  of  (he  public  debt  contracted  during  the  two  wan  with 
Great  Briton,  but  also,  after  retaining  five  million  dollars  in  the  treasury,  to  distribute  more 
than  thirty-seven  millions  among  the  States.  In  1838  the  United  Slates  was  entirely  (tee  (torn 
debt,  while  at  the  same  time  Great  Britain  owed  a  debt  of  nearly  eight  hundred  million 
pounds  starting,  equal  to  more  than  thirly-five  hundred  milliona  ofdoUar$  1  the  annual  Interest 
on  which,  at  the  low  English  rates,  was  more  than  three  times  the  amount  of  the  total  annual 
expenditure  of  the  American  government. 
The  national  existence  of  the  United  States  commenced  on  the  4th  of  July,  1776;  when  they 


Vo.  xvm 


600 

I  lfe«ir  ladcpandraM  of  Great  BritiUa.  Tbe  Mvem  jmn?  ww  of  the  BavotaUoa  fol- 
lowed: the  d«aiilUve  inaety  of  peace  wm  signed  Septaaber  30lh,  1783:  the  prenat  ODUIila- 
lioo  was  raliOeil  by  CoiupnM  July  14tb,  I7W ;  mid  oa  the  30ih  of  April,  17dB^  WaaUoglon  wa* 
Iniunimled  flrat  Preakleat  uf  the  Unlled  (Males.  lu  J80JI,  LouMuie,  embnifeiiig  a  va«  sad  ua> 
dedtwd  territory  west  of  the  Misilislppl,  was  purchased  from  Tnam  Ibr  flfieen  miUloas  of  (k4- 
lars ;  and  In  1«1  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  United  SUtes  by  Spain.  On  the  4th  of  Jttn^  iHiS, 
the  American  Oongress  daclarod  war  against  Great  Britain:  peace  was  concluded  at  Ghent, 
Dec  i4lh,  Ml 4.  la  the  year  1845  the  Republic  of  Tezaa  was  anneiced  to  the  Untied  Stain. 
in  April  ItHS  a  war  with  Mexico  began:  OalUbmia  was  eoaqoered  by  the  Americans  duriiif 
iba  summer  of  the  same  year;  on  the  »7th  of  March,  1847,  Vera  Qnix  eapltoboed;  and  on 
the  I4ih  of  September  the  American  anny  entered  the  dly  of  Mexioo.  Id  Pebntary,  I8I8»  a 
treaty  was  eoncloded  with  Mexico,  by  which  the  Unlled  States  obtained  a  large  locrsass  oTlcr 
tUff^  awhfaeing  the  present  Now  Mexfoo^  Utah,  and  OalilbrBla. 


INDEX 


10 


THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  HISTORICAL  NOTES. 


1      rioK 

/(Arn&ala {Ml 

AciiAim Hi 

Ac'llum INi 

Acre iiefli 

Ailrlsinouie. fiX 

JfA^canSoi. 'M 

A'^i^ML. 74 

^I  K'M  l*o('ain(M ^'t 

JFAUUn^ lOH 

i*:tim IIH 

JE'guimu^ 1' 

Ai^riKcirtuin iKi 

Avdiiomrt yen 

Alt IW 

Aix-tii  c)ui(  cite. 'JSl 

Alexandria m 

Altai , VH\ 

AlijHr,.-.. 14:i 

JfUni 213 

jateman'ni 2h) 

Al|» 229 

Aleppi} 34n 

JtlbigrmaM :0.' 

AWeni 3Ai 

Almunza 404 

Ah»c9 Am 

AlbiKJT* ;.  An 

Jlmnumite* 4 

Ainpfala'fla 9 

Amtotift 279 

AmbOiM 1143 

AmMenUm 38 

AutliKjh 2« 

Andalusia 93-i 

JlHflea K9 

AnKolli 311 

Aiijon 305 

'Antwerp 343 

Jlpallo 23 

AponObfft T0» 

AqiiUtilne 300 

Aragon 317 

j9rcMinHdet 150 

Ard«n ..  133 

ArWIa 10) 

Arabia Hi) 

ArcAdIa 40 

ArtfM as 

Ar'gi>l1« «•< 

Ar'fimt 4A 

JSrg9nauUc  9tp9iHio% ....    33 
Ar'otusr. 13(» 

81 

.     Jt 


«2. 


TAOr 

AslaMliror M 

Asm 22!» 

Ancnlon 985 

Anpeni 491 

Allien 9^ 

Athens.. ., 47,  5«« 

.lUuiu* ICii 

All;uiU«., , 3«) 

AtiuH,  ml. 74 

AuRlria,.,, 313 

Att^ur? 334 

Aii»ltTliU 4a> 

AiicmiudL., 319 

Axores • «...  Sfld 

Axwf. 480 


B 


BnbjrYon • 

Itaee^nt. .,.'. 

Rulenric  tsles 

8;inlb«c...... 
M:(dad...... 

Biivurtn^ . . .-. 

Bnuiiockbum 

Oiiyuime *. 

Uurcclooa 

Biihtttnas 

Ikttloii '. 

Bayk'ii 

RadMjox \ 

B  'UUcii t 

Bnrbiiry. 

Biiika»,mM.»« 

lilliiUt.. .».,,., 

Barireld 

Belhurun ..^ 

^•achytlcml 

Bepder ^ 

Berlin p < 

Beilisle 

Bercsinn 

Biih>iria 

Bidaasoa • 

BlrtJiy 

lUackhofith ;... 

Bifnhelin........ 

BiWtila 

Bos'porue ^....  91V, 

Bna'rah 

Boiiillnn • 

Bordwttx 

BMWiirUi 


BuunmiL.' 


8S!li&:: 


41*2 
489 

4fla 

4IM 
MO 
S»i 
531 
33G 
114 
384 
413 
430 
439 
4J*7 
881 
379 
40- 

aus 

416 
30 
MO 
248 

98(1 

.mo 

.  307 
313 

:S 


PAfTC 

BoUignn W4 

HrahmtHt, 43 

BriifKliisHim..... 185 

Bretlgny 300 

Brest :wi 

BnuidtiibMrg 313 

Bninswick nJiO 

Breda :t73 

Brabimt •... 380 

Brnfiiiica 'XH 

Rriwes 40& 

Brazil. 4j=8 

Bristiii .'i3l 

Busir}« 2*i 

BmrgMftdiKiut Vm 

Biirgumly,  Tnin<jnnino. . .  ?7l 

Btii Kititdy  (iJirclc  of  > T^ 

Burgundy,  Upper. 37J> 

BuSfMttiHHS. i'^S 

Buenet  Ayroa..  .• 4R3 

Burgijs 490 

Bn«oo 4SM 

Buai,r .Vi9 

Rakowina 5.11 

Bndii .VJ4 

Byxanaum Sl(^  570 


Cappttdocia..^^ M 

CMt'nn; Ua 

Ciidini|« 30 

Cnnaaiillosb 41 

Capua 147 

Caiidi  no  Forks 147 

Catalonia..; 238 

tJlan'iiii} ,..   158 

CAprew........ I9I 

Caledonia.. ]{I9 

Gndc«lah 2JV 

Catnbray 2S4 

Ciesaren 283 

Ciilala HO 

Calmnr. 3IB 

Oaslllc HIT 

Ganartea 3i0 

Ckpe  V«nl  laloa. 3'0 

Cteriowits. iSSl 

Cnlcatta ; .3R5 

Oodls MH 

Caiwiiidm 518 

Oatm....^ 470' 

CiuBpn  Pormlo 487 

QuieBreioii A-H 

OkhlWiMlitei. 44t 

i4t 


pMMfff 


OBocHUfmoiit  mnssi 


'ft* 

OBjrioo 

833 

aw 

ChariMMiif 301 

aw 

459 
430 

amgmimm  tnmtf. HI 

aifete  W 

OnlptMOMl 143 

Clmbrt m 

Clnlra 4» 

ClodMl  Rodrlco. 488 

Otmorn'mm^ as 

Cloalum 136 

ClTp'M. IH 

CbwUdinm IM 

CtannoBt 960 

Corinth :.    51 

OorloltaiMibllk 46 

Ooreyrm 68 

CoruDte 89 

Oi>U4tia. 133 

CmumU 135 

GorioU 139 

Oonlea 7  152 

tec« 981 

CbkwM 954 

Oor'ooT« 809 

OoMtano* 331 

OMMohano 406 

OooriAod. 410 

Oobtomi 451 

Oomnna .'490 

CXMnon 553 

GMe 34 

CnuuH, 56 

Cnmsf SM 

Otmow 410 

ChMUSlk 548 

CroMtadt. 553 

CiMlpliolk. 903 

Coma 115 

OuUodcn. 488 

OulM 438 

Calm 496 

OgtUp0», 99 

CydopaM  ilnMtwM 96 

<^x«Bi|pa. 70 

gnwrnfc 60 

Qr»Hew 66 

<^1ail« • 989 


D 

69 

I)MiiilM»r 171 

DmU 900 

DalmatlA 906 

Damlelta 986 

Dauphin 304 

Danphlny 341 

BanUle 486 

Delphi 47 

Denmaik. 808 

Delhi 350 

DMna,r. 418 

Dettingeo. 490 

Dennewtti. 400 

Derby. Ml 


WAmu 

96 

DieM»r 137 

DBleper,r. a 

Doria 4S 

Doikr. 71 

Dorns'iod. *.  961 

Dominlfia. 436 

DoggerBuk. 441 

Dreuz 341 

DreMton 350 

Drmida 195 

Dttnber 995 

DniluuB 899 

Dublin. 307 

Donklifc. 378 

Dwliia,r. 369 

Djmtk'imm 180 

E 

Ebio «0 

EekMohl 491 

Edinbuivk 481 

EiloiB. 63 

EdghiU 364 

E«yp* 13 

E67Pmwp.or 469 

E8»«ta., 119 

Ella 50 

ElaMia. 96 

Blbe,r. 957 

Elba 500 

Emea'aa 948 

Emir 310 

Easeo. 477 

BplniB 44 

Eph'eana 57 

Eperiea 553 

Er4trta :...    85 

Ethiopia. 37 

Etrmritau 195 

Enphralea '  13 

Eiudne 34 

Eubm'a.. 56 

Eylaa 486 

T 

AtOT 86 

FUkJik. V 995 

Fermrm 644 

n&llod 407 

Plorenee 930 

Fknden 378 

Fomenoy. 481 

FOrwB,  Roman 144 

Franks.. ^ 810 

Franeonia » 970 

Ftanehe  Oomt*.. 379 

FnmlLlbrt. 419 

Frelua. 473 

FroderiokahaU 415 

FHoll 868 

487 

377 

Ar«M 94 

O 

OaqgM 37 

aSS. ^ 60 

Oanl 90 

, 1*7 


Oiiitt»tim§- 


....   ^ 

96 

Hair^amamaa. J^ 

HaaOafa Z 

HaltdonHlU S 

Hane JS 

Banover. «« 

Haaan cm 

Ham M 

JXm^tffM « 

Ii0b0 S 

Htlen S 

■n 

HeUeapont iji 

Hermean^pr. ^' 

Heronlanenm 394 

Her'uii 539 

ReaMChMel ctf 

Heidelbtnv JS 

Hermaaatadt "'  5^0 

Sr^i::::::::::::---5 

Bimien iso 

Him'erm,r. s$| 

Hlndoataa -••  3$ 

Hollaad ....•  '^J? 

Hotdd-  iMtUiti' }a 

HotihUitheil S 

Hondoraa m 

UohedllAdaa. 2m 


Hodioik^  Bay^  I 


OEOGRAPmOAI^  INDEX. 


m. 


»AOB 
llBMWT^ MS 

Ujf&ajim,*, 101 

I 

lMni8,r. 157 

IcdianL 390 

Ie*ni 1»5 

BlyrU M 

lUtriams 153 

Imbnu eo 

logrU 411 

Inospniok. 541 

bxiU 100 

Indoflir 19 

nbool 38 

103 

38 

fr^dand. 9S9, 

IMV. D6 

bpahan 351 

AteBMMi ,.  516 

Ith6me 51 

Italy 578 

J 

JUMhOllMd 59' 

JanM9^  Ttmp,9f 190 

JaTm.. 395 

fenualem IM 

lemappeB 455 

Jena 486 

Joatpkua 14 

Jordan 39 

Joppa 61 

JmpiUr !M 

JteM 25 

JmmiUr  JSm^  Tump  •/....   ISO 
j2aw«..T: 845 

K 

118 

350 

KatsbMh 490 

Kalamatla 517 

Khonatan 867 

KllUeonuikle. 376 

KtoT 987 

Kotxlm 386 

Kolin 498 

Kmnol 497 

Kwdlatan 989 

L 

Laoeda'moii. «.    35 

l<ao6nU 48 

LaTfnlum 196 

i;.4tluin 196 

lAoreDtinM ISO 

Uinowtfir 301 

LaHogna 384 

Laybaeh 515 

LMtMM 45 

LenuKM 80 

LewsUn, 91 

Lefani 316 

iMa 317 

ui5af/.v.v.v.*r.ir*i7.ii  w 


rAOK 

lA'aniUL  mts. 988 

UthuiuLla 318 

Uabon 3S0 

Uale 406 

LiYOola 407 

Lisaa 4»7 

Liegnlta. 431 

Llgny 501 

lAferians 99 

Lombardjr.. 816 

Loire,  r. 957 

Loaiibuig 489 

LodI 466 

Lodomeria .^540 

Ltuitamiaau 166 

Lu«aii 194 

Liueinburg....w 313 

Luaatia 313 

Lotter .• 356 

Lubeo 957 

Lutiea 359 

Lanerllle. ^ 479 

Lucca 544 

Lydia 98 

I^ons 109 

H 

Jlfar* 95 

Maiafhon 75 

Bfaotinte 90 

JMacecliM 113 

MattaA 158 

Man^UIai 157 

UagDMht. 161 

MaariUala 171 

M4rlM 174 

MsMla 90O 

MAfianiUUMrff 945 

Madgebmv 358 

HarstonMoor 365 

MadagaKsr ^ 304 

Madras 305 

Madrid ^ 404 

Malplaqust 405 

Manilla 438 

MarUnlqne.: 43l 

MtarteiU— Bifmn 455 

Mans 460 

Mantmu 466 

Malta 469 

Marengo 478 

Mahrattaa 485 

Mancbcater 500 

Memphis 14 

Mercury 95 

MeMenia 51 

Media. » 

Meran S3 

Melos 83 

MeaaAna 115 

Metanroa 150 

ModioUiaiim 917 

Mecca 947 

Medina 947 

MWIda. 95^ 

Mlnerra 96 

Mlnoa ,.    34 

MUimUta 41 

MUeloa 57 

430 

465 


13B 

Montaerrat. 988 

Moscow 907 

Moldavia 436 

Moravia 81S 

MoigartflB 813 

MOTHL 3M 

Molaeoaa & 893 

Mona 409 

MoDtenotta 465 

Mount  TalMMT.. 473 

Moeakiroh 477 

JtfiwM 96 

Munda ....;.  189 

JfiMMi/flum 947 

Munalw 3M 

Munichi. *.« 490 

JIfytMagp. 9» 

Mye'ato 88 

Mysore 448 

-    H 

Naupaotoa 48 

Naacoe IIS 

Narane 317 

Nantes 347 

Naaeby 365 

Namur. 384 

Nanra 408 

Naaaralli 479 

Navarteo. 517 

NapoUdlRoa. 518 

Naplea,iai«domot 546 

JV^teaa 94 

Neap*otta 115 

Neuatria 979 

Newbury 364 

New  NellieriaiMla. 873 

Nerwtaiden 385 

NewftHiiMllaiMl 408 

NeTa,r. 41i 

NHe 16 

Nineveh 17 

Nfee. 981 

Nice 338 

NlmegiMD •«...•  378 

Nlemeotf • 487 

JWrmMM. 968- 

Nonnandy .  *•••.•.•••••••  979 

Novogorod 308 

Nottingham. 384 

Num^ 158 

Numanlia... 168 

Nuremberg 898 

Jffmpka 94 

Nyttad 418 

0 

Oe4tam$ 98 

5lmnti 549 

Olymptus 97 

OlynthiM 90 

Onod 556 

Oporto 488 

Ormua 348 

Orieam 301 

Orange 363 

Ottmeiam 77 

OsUa 13t 

Oslrolsnka ^  898 

•^•v*-.«<»«  486 


!▼ 


oBoaaAFmoAL  ihdxz. 


PHIIIIMU.... 

PiinM 

P»tUMH«ia.. . 

rftnur  luitt.. 
pMnlilM, 


4d,  67  ' 
....  M 
....  •.» 
....  IttS 
....  117 
....   I.tt 


Wlwynu Sift 

Piiri» *>.»' 

^ji^  pmmtr 9M  ' 

PHpBlCkNUM M4 

PteTia to«! 

IfMiupgluiui 3^- 

Pk«MiU aw 

l*kUlUi«l^ 3e»4 

Pinniu «4 

P^iiriia,r....H ^ 

f^mia « 

Prr«<jii  //kC 57;f,  240 

Hui«bfctt(;uir iUI 

Fir'(e«mtM Itt- 

Pelunluin V...  ^'i'-M 

PesUi w W9 

VMerwardeiii ^1 

PArfuClNM 41 

FhocU tti 

Pbryria....: 1U3 

Piiamilitt 1«) 

Pharyj* lt)t 

Piiiiippl l«i'> 

Plitditt,  mu 44 

PictM 3.'7 

Pl»» 3I» 

PkidrooMl 4v!l 

Pint- «« 

liaiiv'n ''^  , 

nnCDiitia *•»«»; 

Ftitntart^ct ^01 

PoUdw'a (^ 

I\Hr. Wtf 

PuMtUS....^ 1«3 

BtiniH-H »<*0 

P^.tl««ilm.. iWt> 

PkHdiora -j« 

PWr# , ,....  3H 

Purtugnl aiH 

PDt04SnMl)« ^^ 

Pii(h»Ua....r :<«> 

PwndklMrry 3ir, 

J»r«'l#r IW 

Pvwtoriaa  Oaari<« 1^3 

PioT«mQe.......« *'' 

Prague 3W 

Prmh 4J4; 

FrfwmJUi  Sanction 419 

PrestouPuQS..^ 421 

Pifa>c^.....%<'. l^;- 

PuUuik 4"{ 

P«lU)wa 4IJ 

Pn«burg 555 

^amidt..^. »• 

Pydnifl Jlj» 

Pyraiiaea 859 


Ooatn  Bras... 


a 


BaVbah. 


r»x 


558 


Bavan'oa S^ 

"^  •...  4W 


4ua 

Rnmltan  plain ITS 

KcynoM 490 

Uhitir,  r J"!l 

UhoiK*.  r 17- 

ItiiiKlM 'riO 

Uheint'* SFM 

KtuliioniKl .'. :«i 

Ui«a 407 

HioJandru <tM 

UoDCnrallas 85H 

Hoiim •..  2«| 

Itchelle. 3.7 

Roua^tlkm :i7.) 

Uoftiliack 4S:) 

Koine SHi 

Uubioun,  r IS* 

UuMia St<7 

UttluH 314 

n^twick .*. 363 

S 

•SafMra 24 

8urooibrace ^ 

Sunlii 57 

Ssiinaria 64 

itebiiie,  ler.. I-JK.  57t4 

i^mmiU* 147,  b7H 

Saitlhilu lai 

SuKiidtum J5C 

SitnnatlN. 0.t» 

SazottM ~  ia4 

'Saracen ^48 

SMMIKitU 24*1 

^vl^.l{(OMa ^i.>8 

.SMXony S70 

SiiiniiroiiiKl 310 

Savoy :i5j 

s*4loiiIea 519 

Siloim 5C« 

8.ixe^>bur]^Goiha s-r? 

^iiinur 4511 

Faveiuiy 4()0 

tviluriuitiea 493 

Sardinia,  klAgtfnm  of. ... .  515 

Sryihla 71 

Some '. 29i 

Sclo 5I« 

Suilnus 119 

^'mpacb 3l.> 

ScrbH ' 550 

Serlngapatam 4):) 

SIcyou 5-2 

Sitloii CI 

SScily 84 

Slleiiela lOi 

Sfrnilum 218 

SiUucidm ftl9 

Silesia :M:i 

Slttvoiila 390 

5'avo«mtt« 550 

.Slcswlck. 4.17 

Sinol^nsko 412 

SoIwayl'rUta, 901 

SottsoiU 255 

SorboniM 333 

Sitain \SA 

Spiroi..... -TM 

Splugbn.. 479 

Wmbi* in 

SUrlidff 295 

Siralsniid 3S6 

SUaftbOfg 38S 


va«i 

SIOlAllAllB.. 4t» 

8!.A»ban» sns 

w.  jiwt nr 

S.Crrtnnln 349 

St.  Qii«(iliii TOO 

:S!.  Pdenbiir.' 3t:9 

« .  Uir.stophera 4U6 

8i.  l.ncUi 4^ 

61.  Vtiicetits. , 4:18 

SI.  Biistaita 499 

Si.  Cloud 47^ 

St.  HvntMrd 4.7 

Si.  DcmdiiXD 4-<l 

tS<.  Kdotia Ml 

Snevi «.  S30 

swib.a a;o 

Surinam 3U3 

BiMiex SLiO 

]!lwiti«rlaiid eiiO 

Hyrla ftt 

ii)nicii'<e 84 

Kybnri* JIO 

Sl«g<»dili 554 


Tan'4^ 8S 

TnrvnMiiii lift 

Turquinil 131 

Tar»ti» JtiS 

Teifjrn Ml 

7V«'(oMe» 171 

Tvnnmiie 834 

TewkfMfbiiry IMI 

TfnlOHtc  KnigkU 3H 

IW-^kio 5IS 

7V//»  #Fw :il4 

TiMjcwIns 518 

Temwiwur 55  i 

Thvbesin  Egjpl 14 

Thob«  la  at. :*0 

Tht^Mdy: 31 

Theseiia :U 

Theban  tVar, 33 

Thrace 71 

'nienm>pv}m 71 

ThmcUui  (;her. l& 

Thera HI 

,  ThajwHS. . ,., 18« 

Thitriiigia.,, 27d 

iTheias,r..^ W« 

7\f«t« , Si 

I  Tiber,  r.....' )2* 

Tibur V 9ia 

Ticintu....,*.* 15i 

:T»U11 4h7 

j  Tours 253 

Tuumay .' 234 

I  Toulon , 404 

iTorgtm in 

'  Tobairo •. 441 

TorfoB 459 

Torres  Vedras..  .• 49J 

Toknv v. 556 

Troy ;...:....     33 

Trezftno -. 79 

Tribunes •. 131 

Trebia •.-. 158 

lYasim^aua .- 1.58 

TVffjaaV  ft t(0 

Tripoli  In  AC. ...1......  850 

TrlpolllnA «M 

Transylvaala.' 398 

yy^lfc^a^-^^-- t^ 4M 


GEOGBAPmOAIi  INDEX 


rAOK 

..^ »» 

TrtMte. 5lii 

1Vfpi»llUa 517 

TiMcanSea. IfKi 

Tunis 151 

Turtn Vu 

Tuacnny S31 

rnMlela 4W 

Tyre til 

Tyiie.r 804 

Tyrol.. 313 

u 

VknliM 390 

Ulm 4W 

UmbrU 903)574 

irr«Mw i^3 

Utica I«i 

Ulnieht 344 

V 

▼atancta. 110 

819 


rAOK 

Valencienofls. «...  37H 

ycMtu 24 

k'esta eC 

yeii Ul 

F'euetiaHt l-(5 

Vesuvius !U9 

Verona 313 

Venice 23i 

Vcraailios 380 

ycMtUan  JMdera 4(iO 

Viriatkus ICG 

Vienna. 3as 

Vigo  Buy -WH 

Viinlcra 480 

Viuoria..*^ 404 

yoigeians 137 

VoIkiu  r .381> 

Volhynla SOi 

yuican 85 

w 

Wnloi »4 

Wanaw 4l» 

Wagmm 4SH 


VAO« 

Wftterioo Mt 

Wttvro 5111 

tVaUack* 5r>:i 

Warwick .' 3IHJ 

Wo«ur,  r 8;.7 

Wwipliulia.. 300,  4K7 

Wlcklim*. 3:11 

Wlueinborg 3:ta 

Wlndaor. 373 

VVIIiMi 40.1 

WUidln 5ri8 

Worms. 314 

/fW«ey 330 

T 

Ycrroonk 949 

York. SW» 

z 

Zftina lOQ 

Zara «Hl 

Zeota 3IHI 

Zonidorf....». ^  189 


PUBLISHED  BT  IVISON'  AND  PHINNET,  NEW  70BE. 

WILLSOH'S  HISTORICAL  SERIES. 

HOnOES  OF  WILLKUrS  UHITBD  miBk 

JPVvai  the  Penmsflvania  Enquirer, 

«  We  beUere  It  to  be  by  ftr  tbe  meet  aeennle  aehoeUiMory  of  the  United  BlatM 
erer  published.  The  ityle  of  the  work  will  be  foand  peooUarly  deer  ud  eoneied  end 
at  the  same  time  9Uj  and  attraetlTe.'* 

Virem  the  Oenrier  tmd  Jntrumlt  AOamg, 

•<  An  imiMX>Tenient  upon  any  hiitory  of  the  United  States  of  the  Und  that  w«  htfve 
met.  It  is  compiehensiTe  enough  to  give  a  ftm  idea  or  the  subileel,  and  to  brief  enough 
not  to  be  tedious  to  the  pupiU   Besldei,  ft  to  aocorate  and  leUable  in  ito  fteto.*' 

f^ram  the  M'ew  Jereef  JiineeeJLe. 

<*  A  work  superior,  in  many  respects,  to  all  that  haTepfeeeded  it,aa  a  tdzt4K>ok 
of  American  History." 

Fnm  the  Penghketpeu  JemrutU, 

«WUtoon's  Htotorical  Works  win 
confer    a 
oountiy." 


l^rom  the  JVMoarJfc  DaUf  Advertieer. 

« If  0ie  present  work  to  not  ail 
that  we  desire,  it  is,  we  are  persuaded, 
the  nearest  approximation  to  a  true 
standard  of  School-History  that  hM  as 
yet  been  made." 


l^rom  the  Jfem  Terh  OUerver, 

•■Mr.  WiUson  to ftvonhly  known 
^  hto  United  Statea  Htotory,  wh^  to  dtoUngotahed  fcr  tts  aocomoj  and  eonvMhen. 


i 

JiTaTT&gimteU  Pitrt  and  Swan^. 

1 

Frem  the  AmarUaM  JeurnoL  ^  JBAimUm. 

**  We  know  of  no  other  Tohmie  of  Amerlcin  History  which  to  so  aceaiite>  and  it 
the  same  time  so  ftall." 

Ji^ia  efts  Beek  dsisiftfsi,  OtoslMuK. 

**The  Text-Book  Oommittee  haTti«  eonmined  Marchis  WUlson-a  History  of  the 
Uoited  States  woukl  hereby  recemmend  It  as  a  suitable  book  for  the  use  of  the  Com- 
mon Schools  of  the  dty.  We  would  sn^tgest,  that  hereafter  it  should  be  used  in  the 
place  of  Mrs.  Willard^lB  Abridgment  The  work  now  recommended  to  one  of  great 
accuracy,  dear  and  fordble  style,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  work  to  natnraL  The 
marginal  dates,  (new  style,)  as  here  arranged,  we  -consider  of  great  importaaoa  to  a 
school4>ook,  when  dates  are  tought  as  a  part  of  Oommon  School  Ingnietlon. 

On  the  9M  February,  1847,  the  Board  of  Trustees  and  VisltorB  of  tte  OooimoB 
Behooto  of  GbMlanall  unanimously  adopted  the  foUowlag  rseolntton  w 

«  AeM/«0dL  That  the  United  States  HtotorjN  by  Msidus  Wlltoon,  be.  and  the  same 
to  hereby  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Trustees  and  Visitors  as  the  text-book  to  be  used  in 
theOotRunon  ftcbckoti  of  ClndimAtit  tn  p1iic«  of  tbe  Abridgmant,  by  Mrt.  WUIird,** 

4 


PUBUBHB)  BY  IVISOK  JUW  PHINKET,  NKW  TOBK. 

"iriLlSOfi'S  flISTOBIGAL  8ERIIS. 


SUu*  AlUr  found  at  Ctpam,  tU  fett^fuirt  mudftur/Mt  kifk. 

No.  8.— WILLSON'S   AMERICAN    HISTOBY. 

tl25. 


University  EdiUoM,  oomprWng  Book  T.— HtotoHcftl  flkotdiM 
or  tlM  Indtai  Thbm,  with  a  DmaripfAnn  of  j\nierican  AnUqultleB,  uul  aa  lnqal7  inlo 

with  Eumpaui 

HlbtOfyorUM ,  .  _^ 

Rerolotlon,  umI  the  European  Wars  in  which  England  was  inrolved  by  that  CSoniast 
3d,  An  Ejounination  of  the  Charaoler,  Teadaocy  and  JaflnoBoe  of  our  National  CkiTera- 
ment,  and  an  HisUricml  Sketch  of  the  Parties  that  divided  the  Country  fh>iii  the  doM 
or  the  RefuKKkm  to  tba  termtnatinB  of  the  Second  War  with  England.     Book  ill, 

Ftoi  l^IHilonF  -   -   -    -    

FVeoch  to  tik 

O^wBreCoB, , -      . 

Early  History  of  Louisiana.    Part  S^HIstonr  of  Mezioo,  fh>m  tha  Ooaqoast  by  Oorti^ 
to  tba  eomnMneement  of  the  War  wMh  the  l^ted  States  (n  ]84fl.    Part  Sl— History  of 
TaxatilNHn  the  tuna  of  Us  dlaooTanr  by  La  aalte  inn664,  to  the  UjpM 
Iflio  tba  Amarlcan  Hhion  in  1843.   AppeiMlfx.~flketoh  of  the  Meiicaa 
laiftoetawo.   706pa|M. 

Book  L  eoBtatei  Plam  asA  Diawk^  of  aB  the  priaaipal  Movate 

to  exist  In  our  own  territory,  and  in  other  portions  of  the  OootfaMDt.    Aenfoltl 


le  Indian  TVibea,  with  a  DeacrtpHoD  of  American  AnUquUies,  and  aa  lnqnl7  inlo 
r  Origin,  and  the  Orlgtai  of  the  Indian  Tribea.  Book  If.— History  of  the  l/uitad 
■a.  («uaa  aa  the  above,)  with  Appendteea  addlttooaL,  showing^  Ist. :  our  BoUtlont 
\  History  daring  oar  Colohiai  existence ;  an  Account  of  tbo  Ba/brmatloii, 
I  Puritan  Sects,  kc ;  9d,  Aa  Aopount  of  Parliea  In  England  during  out 
Ml  the  European  Wars  in  which  England  was  involved  by  that  Ooniest; 
natloa  of  the  Charaoler,  Teadeocy  and  laflnenoe  of  our  National  Ctovera- 
HisUricMl  Sketch  of  the  Parties  that  divided  the  Country  fyom  the  dose 
RevotaMoB  to  tba  termtnatinn  of  the  Second  War  with  England.  Book  III, 
-UlilonF  of  IIWMaaeat  British  VirovlBoia,  fhim  their  Early  astllaiMat  by  tha 
to  the  preaent  Umai  comprising  History  of  the  Oanadaa,  of  Nova  Scotia  aid 
isloB,  Prince  Edwai^'s  Island,  New  Brunswick  ahd  Newfbundlaod.     Also,  tba 


War.   OBavof* 


of  iUpbeD*aTrav«k  in  Oenlral  America  and  TocaluafesnodBolly  ft  van ;  and  oopiit 
of  Ifaa  moit  taleresilnf  drawta«a)  made  by  Ifr.  OtOHrwwtd^lanm  bean  « 
prwsly  <br  Ihli  wortc 


VOTIOB. 

Atfli  tkM  JUadtsm  Saaasr,  Aidteaa. 

•It  «0MaloaaTtnrlai«»qvaiilltr«rBalUr,  aMlla  daeMadly 
^     "rtonrof  * 


„       and  Aaadaatlaa  than  ai^  other  hlstocy  of  the  American 

prova  iavalaabla  i»aU  panooa  and  tiaasea  as  a  book  of  laferanoa. 

Mvw  pMiMtd  any  blatorioal  worilL  wtttt  iBoia  ttUtawtkM,  Ifltanat^ 


ftr 

Itwlilata» 


.  -.  >^)i%*  ttfumn 


PUBLISHED  BY  IVISON  AND  PHINNEY,  NEW  YORK. 


WILLSON'S  HISTORICAL  SERIES. 


Jtuint  ti  a  0Ums  ng  at  JMbna,  40  feet  in  height, 

HoncEs  07  wnxsoirs  amebigah  hibioby. 

fyom  the  AVt0  York  Observer. 
**Th(e  work  before  us  has  tap«rior  clulnu  to  attentioD.** 

From  the  Democratic  Review* 
**  WUlsmi^  AnMrlcaQ  History  supplies  a  very  urgent  went,  and  In  a  most  desirable 
inner,  aoeomiiaiiie«l  us  ii  is  by  lusiructive  pliites,  niid   with  a  Aill  murKinal  analysis 
» whioi  make  U  a  valuable  work  of  referenoe  fur  the  general  reader.** 


fVoai  the  AVis  York  Evangelist. 
<*  A  rery  complete  and  concise  history  of  our  oouutiy." 


From  the  Jfewark  Advertiser^  A*.  J. 

**This  work  Is  a  desldemtum  in  historic  literature,  and  siippli4«  a  varnnm  not  \ 

previously  occnpied.    K^'erythitwr  iuteresiiiur  nod  worthy  ofbeiiiiyr  known  in  t>i«  lilsiory  { 

of  tlie  Western  Coulineul,  from  (juulimnlu  to  Groeutaiid,  U  clearly  and  succinctly  ttar>  \ 

rated."  5 

6 


PUBLI8HXD  BY  IVI80K  AND  F. 


HDThET, 


NKWTOBK. 


WIJ.LSOH*S  HISTORICAL  SERIES. 

VOTIOBS.Or  WILLSOV'S  AKIBIOAB  HlSTOBT. 


"Ttebait 


on  tha  sul^eet  we  1mt«  «Tar  m 


«« We  lUiTe  little  bat  eonmeodatton  to  bertow  on  thie 
wofk." 

IVmi  tki  OtacMUMtf  CkrtmicU. 
«  We  oonmMMl  Ihle  book  to  tto  pttblie  ae  one  or  onlveiMl  tmenrt.* 

jywm  tk9  Ate  r«r*  7WI«ii«. 
**Tbe  aoit  enednet  and  oompnhenilYe  hietory  of  Amertn  that  baa 
ovnottoe." 

No.  4.— WTLLSON'S  OUTLINES  OF  GENERAL 

Histor/.     Now   flnt.  pabliBhed,  Aug.  1854.     86ho6l   Editba. 

eoo  iMgei.  Octom  $1  26. 

UniTezsity  EditiDZL  850  pages.  Ootara  $2  00. 


Tbe  PubUahera  tubmit  to  Teaohen,  Soperfntendenta  of  Schoola,  Jco-  **  Wl 
OUTLINES  OF  GENERAL  H ISTORT^^wilb  tbe  confldent  belief  tbatlfewitt 


WnjJSONm 


to  tbem  as  deoidedW  auperior  to  any  otiier  work  oo  tbe 
Tbe  8CHOOL  EDITlOlf  of  ibe  Ontiinea  embracoB  MO  oetaro  pagca    ertcuding 
IHwi  tbe  earlleat  Hiatoric  peiioda  to  tbe  year  1852.    la  Oieclan  and  Roman  HIatoiy. 


I  and  legendaiy,  aiMi 
dern  Wftlen.  Tblif- 
1  all  diapoted  poiota 


tbe  line  flxed  by  blslorieal  eritlelam  la  drawn  between  the  nncertalo  and 
tbe  autbentlc    Hie  reanltB  of  tbe  faiYeatigntloBa  of  tboM  able  nodern 
wall,  Grote,  Nlebnbr,  and  Arnold,  are  £!▼»— •»!  tbe  aatboriUea  on  all  diapi 
oTaeneral  Inteieat  are  oited. 

A promlaentebaraeterlMleortbe work  li  Ma  UNITY  OF  PLAN,  whieh  japiweifud 
throogfaooL— tbe  atiantton  oT  tbe  roader  being  oonflned  chiefly  to  tboae  nallOM  whoae 
MtfcMMM  nlatorr  baa  exerted  a  marked  Influence  on  tbe oivllliation  of  mankind.  11m» 
we  baTOh  after  a  brief  notloe  of  tbe  early  Ages,  tbe  HIatory  of  Greece,  nntU  that  eoontiy, 
and  all  the  naUons  around  the  Hedtterranean,  era  abeorbed  In  tbe  overabadowing  power 
of  the  Roman  Empire ;— then  tl»e  Soman  WORLD  until  tbe  dIaaoIaUon  of  tbe  Weelam 
ISmpire ;— then  aueeaeds  the  gloomy  neiiod  of  tbe  Middle  AgeB.biu  marked.  In  regular 
tocoeaion,  by  tbe  ailghty  colnaans  or  Saracen  dotelidon,  the  Feudal  fiyMem,  C%lTaliy, 
and  the  Gruaadea;  the  period  cloalng  with  the  dIaooTery  of  America,  and  the  dawn  of  a 
brighter  future.  The  several  raooeedlng  centoriea  are  iJao  ao  marked  by  promi 
'         '         Miderable  unity  of  narratiTe  eadly  all 


moatiy  «iMeM«tv«  eventa  aa  to  render  conelderable  unity  of  narratiTe  endly  attainable ; 
—the  SlxteenOk  by  the  Age  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Oharlee  V^  and  |he  Age  of  BUaabeth— 
the  SeTenteentb  by  the  Thirty  Yeara*  War,  the  Kagiiah  Rerolntkm,  and  tbe  Ware  of 
Louie  XI  V.—Tbe  Ei^Haenth  by  the  War  of  the  Spaoiah  Snooeerion,  Peter  the  Great  of 
Russia  and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  tbe  War  of  the  Austrian  Soooesalon,  the  Seven 
Year^  War,  the  American  Revolution,  and  the  French  Revolutlon-'-Ihe  Nineleenih  by 
the  Wars  of  Napoleon ;  the  Peace,  and  Reformai  which  followed ;  and  tbe  still  reoent 
RcTolutions  which  have  converted  Europe  into  a  great  Battle  Ground  for  Freedom. 

The  STYLE  in  which  the  work  is  written  will  be  found  to  be  chaate,  vlgorona  and 
elevated— the  PROPER  NAMES  are  so  accentuated,  especially  In  Grecian  and  Roman 
Hlalory,  that  tbe  student  will  readily  fbrm  tike  habit  of  their  correct  pmnuaelation;  in- 
stead of  quesUona,  a  full  ANALYSIS  preoedea  each  chapter  or  section;  nearly  eight 
hundred  GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  HUnORlCAL  NOTES  illustrate  and  explain  what- 
ever is  essential  to  the  Ihil  eluddaUon  of  the  text ;  and  eighteen  HIsnORICAL  MAPS, 
of  the  full  siae  of  the  page,  are  found  at  tbe  cloae  of  tbe  volume,  with  each,  an  acoonk- 
panying  page  of  explanatory  matter.  The  Historical  Mmm  are,  let,  Amdenl  Greece ; 
H  Athena  and  iU  Harbors;  M,  bl^nda  of  the  Agean  Sea;  4tb,  Aala  Minor;  Sib,  Per. 
aian  Empire  in  Ua  greatest  extent ;  Cth,  Paleatlne,  or  the  Holy  Land;  ftb,  Toikey  In  ; 


PUBIJSHED  BY  IVISON  AJTD  PHINNBT,  NKSW  YORK. 

WILLSON'S   HISTOaiCAL  SEBIE8. 


«•♦»'» 


Middle 
Rev- 


H0TIGX8  OF  WILLSOV'S  OUTLIHIS. 

Enropo,  with  the  Bospboras ;  Sth,  Ancient  Italy ;  9th,  Roman  Empira  in  its  greatest 
extent;  10th,  Ancient  Rome ;  lltb,  the  World  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America ; 
12tb,  BatUe  Groaods  of  Napoleon ;  13lh,  France,  Spain,  and  Portos^,  with  the  divisions 
best  known  hi  History :  I4lh,  Switzerland  In  Oantons,  and  the  Conntiies  around  the 
BalUo;  I5th,  the  Netherlands,  (now  Holland  and  B«Iginm;)  16th,  Great  Britain;  17th, 
Central  Eorope ;  18tb,  United  States  and  their  Territories.  These  m'aps  are  neatiy 
edortd  in  both  editions  of  the  History. 

It  is  oonlldsntly  beUeved  that  no  School  History  hitherto  pobllshed  has  been  pie- 
pared  with  greater  care,  or  more  Judicious  adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the  student. 

Hie  UNIVERBITV  EDITION  of  the  OutUoes  contahis  the  "^  School  edition"  com- 
plete, and  also  an  sddltiooal  part  of  350  pages,  eaUed  the  «*  PhUosophy  of  History  f  the 
whole  forming  A  lanre  and  handsome  ocUvo  of  850  pages.  The  subjects  treated  of  in 
the  13  chapters  of  thU  part  of  the  work:,  are,  1st,  'Hie  Antediluvian  World,  with  its 

S>logical  historyt  fcc ;  2d,  Early  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  fiabyloniaa  Civilization ;  3d, 
aracter  and  extent  of  avilizaUon  during  the  Fabulous  period  of  Oreciaa  History ; 
4th,— during  the  uncertain  period  of  Grecian  History;  5th,  The  Glory  and  the  F^"  --* 
Greece;  6th, 7th, and  8th,  Regal,  Republican,  and  Imperial  Rome:  Mh,  the  U 
Agea;  10th,  the  Reformation;  llth,nie  English  Revolution;  13th,  The  French 
olution. 

The  design  of  this  additional  pert  tp  the  **  Outlines'*  is  to  show  the  advanced  Stw 
deKV-not  that  this  World's  History  Is  ''a  mighty  maze  without  a  plan^—bnt  that  the 
great  events  in  Its  drama— the  rise,  growth,  n^  decay  of  its  mighty  Empires— its  great 
political,  moral,  and  intellectual  RevoluUonaiy  changes,  and  the  varying  phases  of  its 
dvUizatiODr  lie  along  an  unbroken  chain  of  causes  and  effocts  that  have  in  great  part 
been  developed  by  the  profound  researches  of  a  Gibbon,  a  HiJlam,  a  Niebuhr,  an  Ar* 
nnld,  a  Sismondl,  atSrote,  and  a  Guizot,  of  whose  labcHrs  our  author  has  freely  availed 
himself.  These  closing  chapters  of  the  work  exhibit  great  extent  of  research :  and  al- 
though they  condense  a  great  amount  of  matter  within  a  small  compass,  It  Is  believed 
th^  will  compare  fkvorably,in  point  of  style  and  interest,  with  the  best  Historieal  arti- 
cles in  the  English  Reviews. 

From  many  highly  favorable  notloea  of  WlUson's  OutUnes  of  HIstoiyi  we  aeleoi 
the  following: 

F^rcm  ik»  JV«w  TTk  OraieMrete/  Adn^rtiatr,  * 

*^  We  have  exsaodned  the  volmne  with  some  ears,  and  find  U  mmsoally  aecnrate, 
and  sdmlrsbly  adapted  to  the  use  of  sdiooto.  Mr.  WiUson  has  not  adopted  the  eaqr 
method  of  copyii«  from  RolUn  and  other  previous  compilers,  bat  has  prepared  his 
work  fhun  the  besi  somoee  from  the  wrilLngs  of  ThlriwaliyOrotei  Niebohr,  Arnold, 
and  other  historians  of  the  highest  reputaUon." 

From  Um  Rdigimu  Herald  {Bartftri), 
(t  A  valuable  text  book  of  history,  designed  for  the  higher  class  of  schools  and  for 
colleges.    The  author  Is  well  known  by  hlsunlied  States  History,  which  Is  so  exten- 
sively used  in  the  common  schools.    The  present  work,  modest  In  pretenslOD  but  solid 
in  worib,  appears  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  student." 

Frvm  Uu  Ckfi$Ua%  InUlUfmeer, 
^  Our  literature  in  the  department  of  History  is  here  enriched  by  a  most  valuable 
addition.  The  author  has  embodied  the  results  of  the  best  writers,  grouping  together 
the  main  sublects  of  history,  so  as  to  present  them,  as  much  aa  poulble,  in  ont  evm- 
pUu  view  to  the  reader ;  and,  in  this  way,  to  fasten  them  on  the  memory,  hastead  of 
descending  to  such  minuteness  of  detail  as  would  have  a  contrary  effaat.  The  work, 
while  admirably  adapted  to  teachers  and  schools,  for  whose  use  it  seems  to  have  been 
designed,  is  worthy  the  attention  of  the  general  reader." 

A-oM  Os  A*.  7.  TVOtms. 
^ftforms  a  nsalW  book  of  reference,  as  well  as  a  mamial  for  iostniottoiijoomo^ 
ing  the  results  of  the  latest  hivwttgatlons  by  the  best  modem  scholars,  espeeiaUy  TUrl- 
wall  and  Grote  in  Grecian,  and  Niebuhr  and  Arnold  In  Roman  History." 


PUBLISHSD  BY  IVISON  AIH)  PHIKinSY,  KSW  TOBK. 

WILLSON*S  HISTORICAL  SERIES. 
^.g » »■  ^ 

VOTICXS  or  WttlSOH'S  OVTLIVXa. 

*  A  Tery  good  text  book  fbr  the  bl|tti«r  clan  of  Khool^  Jadido«aIjdltU«d,  aad 
ooodeiiMd  with  giaol  eaio.    It  nanot  AUl  to  prove  mloable.** 

fWni  (JU  C%ic«f*  CkrutUn  Time*. 
"UalTtnrilir  ««U  adaptod  to  tW  piirpuM»for  wbkh  UhM  bMo  wrltteo." 

Fnm  Uu  CkrittUn  Oka^rwr,  PkiUitlpkiM. 
**  Wo  eonmoBd  R  to  Bu-eoU  and  Teachora  n  an  iutoreatlag  and  nOnaMa  tasHwok 
oTHlMory.** 

fhom  tke  O&ngr^aUgm^  Jturnml, 
'*Tho  work  displayi  much  hiitoricni  reseArch,  and  is  ono  of  the  mo^t  ueftil  bmdcs  , 
of  tho  kiiiiJ  now  btrfurc  ihe  ptibtio.    The  tiylt  is  good,  and  tbe  execution  neat  and  at-    ; 
tr<icUv«.    1 1  ts  not  only  valuablu  aa  a  text-book  for  acboufa^  but  as  a  manoal  for  tbo  ' 
f  cueral  atudotiL** 

fVtfia  tkt  J^.  T.  EoMgdUt, 

**  It  bat  the  merit  of  conciaetM^ai,  clear  arranipMiiont,  and  gotnl  atyle.    Tba  compiler 

la  fiivor  ibly  known  by  pn-viuui  wo:kft  of  a  similar  nature,  and  writing  wUh  an  eyo  to 

Ihe  practical  use  of  schoolii,  ho  has  prenared  a  vnry  uticral  aud  otimpetidiooa  book« 

which  will  answer  the  piirp^Mc  with  gUo<^ effect.    The  opinions  and  views nl  ttieauUiur, 

•I)  fur  OB  iliey  have  beou  [terinUted  to  cnlur  ihe  nnrriuiva*  arc  decidedly  jlaviirabiv  to 

rul-Kion,  doin«»crJtcy,  tind  into  li/vaee.    The  puiiil  will  ohuln  nut  only  a  comprf  benalve 

aiMl  hci-nrulti  uuUme  uf  lh<j  wurld>  hlstury,  but  a  store  of  itdtnimble  sehtiinenla  and 

I    vi«w^,  which  will  prv|>nr«  biin  i'«»r  a  more  enliirKed  acquaintance  with  ihia  tmponanl 

'  dei  firtmeut  ui  kuowledi^e.     It  \»  JiutU^  iilustrated  Kith  su^rx,  and  a  great  varlfrtjr  of 

note^  are  appended,  which  throw  much  Incideutal  light  upon  the  t«xL** 

fVem  tke  Bt»tam.  Traveler. 
**It  is  a  worit  which  win  tnke  aVomroandinx  place  In  a  matt  valuable  departmcni 
of  literature.  It  will  be  ndmille<i,  we  think,  lo  be  a  iext-b(K>k  of  uncommon  merit|  em- 
bracing: a  weli-diKcaled  rompertd  «r  Ancient  ami  Modem  Tllslnry,  end  a  clear,  well- 
written,  and  judidotts  view  ot  the  Philosoptay  of  lliaior>-.  WhHe  tbe  elyla  is  IqchI,  tbe 
plan  is  exceedingly  compmhetiAive ;  and  a  aubfect  which  ia  too  ufleo  diy  and  onla- 
ifrreating,  ia  tliua  made  mttrmettve^  aa  well  aa  Instructive,  fur  study  or  peraaal.  The 
wboie  amutmoenl  of  tba  work  Is  a«ch  aa  aaaaot  fail  to  be  satiafiMtory  and  proftable 
.  to  Btudeuia.** 

fVem  tke  FkUUelpkU  Dcil^  JVe»r. 
**Thi8  is  certainly  no  ordinary-  work— replete  as  it  Is  with  roqUifitriona  Inftmnallofi, 
eonvenienlly  armtiged,  and  admirably  Illustrated  wiih  maps  and  notes.  We  an  tinick 
wilh  the  extensive  reaeureh  and  great  patience  which  it  everywhere  exblblla.  Tbe  an- 
th(»r  has  been  c-ireful  to  iuiroduce  no  incident  or  event,  however  interi'Sitog  U  might 
seem  to  ib<i  siudeut,'which  has  ntiC  beenfiil'y  aatbenticated-^authentlcated,toA,  by  aucb 
wrilera  aa  Ntebuhr,  Gn'te,  Arnold,  lliirlwull,  jcc. ;  and,  besides,  it  possMaes  tbe  advan- 
taires  of  an  ea^y,  lucid,  and  aUraeilve  style— an  advuulage  which  will  greatly  enbaiioe 
its  popularity." 

I  Prem  the  DaUf  Miesouri  RepuKiean. 

4  **■  Mr.  Willson^s  History  of  lite  United  Stales,  and  an  American  History  Ibr  tbe  Qsa  of 
;  schools,  have  a  lur^eaale  and  a  deserved  popuiuriiv,on  accnimt  of  their  philosophical  an- 
{  rttnKemeni  anti  great  accuracy.  His  latest  wtirfc,  *The  Outlines  of  History,*  (Uiilveraity 
*  Ediiion,)  is.a  betuiiAilIy-priiiled  volume  of  SSf)  pages,  ootupfled,  not  from  stich  works 
}  as  the  cunvenlent  panes  of  Roliln,  or  the  grnoeAit  flctionA  or  Livy  alone,  but  flrom  tbe 
}  more  rit{id  works  vt-  Thirl  wall  and  Grota,  Niebuhr  and  AmoM,  SIsmondl  and  Gvlint, 
i  kc  We  reoommeod  ibia  work  to  leaehora.  k  seems  to  ue  admtniMy  adajptad  |o  leack 
I  aiudeoia  aocufaie  facta,  and  likewise  principlea  and  reasons.** 

VST  Preceding  and  following  tbis  page,  are  ■pedmana  of  tb»  eflhtaeB  ftdlpata 
'   s  WtUMNi*a  OuUlnea  of  Biaionr. 


10 


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\ 


HARVARD  COLLEGE 
LIBRARY 


THE  ESSEX  INSTITUTE 
TEXT-BOOK  COLLECTION 


GIFT  OF 

GEORGE  ARTHUR  PLIMPTON 

OF  NEW  YORK 

JANUARY  2S«  1924