^«^»*«^»W^«,_2i4^j^. '"i'^C
OUTLINES
AND W. C. LITTLE, ALBANY— BENNET K BRIGHT, UTICA— HOVT, PORTER S. CO. ROCH^
ESTER— MACK & ANDRUS, ITHACA— HOOAN & THOMPSON, PHILADELPBIA— CUSHING &
SONS, BALTIMORE— S. BABCOCK Si. CO. AND J. J. MC'C.».RTER, CHARLgSTON— AND LUKB
L00MI9, PITT9BURU.
1835.
ADVERTISEMENT.
The present, is an improved edition of Robbins' Ancient and Modern
History. A new and more extended article on the United States, has
been substituted for the one contained in former editions, in the tenth Peri-
od of Modern History ; and an addition of several pages has been made to
the article ' Learning and the Arts,' under the head of General Views, in
the same part of the work. These are from the pen of the Author, under
whose supervision an extensive and well digested series of Questions has
been prepared, which will be found at the end of the volume. Several pa.
ges of neatly executed outline, and other engravings, have also been added,
illustrating besides other parts, the mythology of ancient nations; anumber
of these are from original designs, executed expressly for this work.
The increasing demand for this History, and the high commendations
bestowed upon it by many teachers of distinguished reputation, have in.
duced the publisher to make these important and extensive improvements.
But notwithstanding their extent, (more than seventy pages having been
added — increasing the volume to more than seven hundred pages,) the
price of the work has not been enhanced ; and it is believed to be the
cheapest elementary work on History, now in use.
From these considerations, as well as from the commendations referred
to, and the high character it has already attained, the publisher feels as-
sured that the work will recommend itself to the attention, and patronage of
teachers, who have not already adopted it in their schools. Those who are
not familiar with the work, will allow the publisher to invite their attention
to the peculiarity of the general plan of the Author, — the division of the
political history into periods, and the exact matching of the history of each
nation in these periods, successively, so as to form a continuous whole—
to the brief but interesting Biographical sketches at the end of each period,
of eminent men who flourished during it — and to the various instructive
articles arranged under the title of ' General Views,' which close the two
grand divisions. Several of these are very copious, and interesting; and
the very successful effort of the author, in blending throughout the work
what would otherwise be a barren detail of facts, with incidents and anec-
dotes, the want of which so often renders the study of History dry and
uninteresting, cannot fail of attracting especial observation.
OUTLINES
OP
ANCIENT AND MODERN
HISTORY,
ON A NEW PLAN.
EMBRACING
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS,
AND
GENERAL VIEWS
OF THC GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION. MILITARY
AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS,
AND SOCIETY, OF ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS.
BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS,
ACCOMPANIED BY A SERIES OF QUESTIONS,
AND ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS.
TWO VOLUMES IN ONE.
VOL. I.
ANCIZNT niSTOR?.
HARTFORD:
PUBLISHED BY EDWARD HOPKINS.
SOLD BV WILLIAM D. TICKNOR, BOSTON— J. H. BUTLER, NORTHA; ?T0N— A. 8. BECKWITH
& CO., PROVIDENCE— H. HOWE &. CO., A. II. MALTBY, AND S. BABCOCK, NEW-HAVEN—
N. &. J. WHITE, LEAVITT, LORD, & CO. AND ROE LOCKWOOD, NEW-YORK— O. BTEKLB
AND W. C. LITTLE, ALBANY— BENNET & BRIGHT, UTICA— HOYT, PORTER & CO. ROCH
ESTER— MACK & ANDRUS, ITHACA— HOOAN & THOMPSON, PHILADELPHIA— CUSHING &
SONS, BALTIMORE— S. BABCOCK &. CO. AND J. J. Mc'CARTBR, CHARLSSTON— AND LUKK
Looms, PiTTasuRQ.
1835.
Elntered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835,
By Edward Hopkins,
In the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut
PREFACE.
The increasing interest which of late years has been felt in regard to educa*
tion, among all classes of the community, has given rise to new, and it is be-
lieved In many instances, improved methods of advancing this great object-
Books have been written with a special view of imparting instruction to
youthful minds, as well as of directing the inquiries and gratifying the curiosity
of riper understandings. In these works, so far as they have been elementary,
the principle of comparison and classification has extensively prevailed ; par-
ticular attention has been paid to the selection and arrangement of topics ;
things differing in kind have begn kept separate as much as possible ; and, in
general, there has been a marked cfibrt to obsene the methods of science, and
the laws by which the mind is usually governed in the acquisition of know-
ledge. In this way, ideas correctly arranged, and happily associated, have
been communicated to learners and readers, on the various subjects presented
to their consideration.*
" Ancient History," to which the reader is here introduced, " may be
treated either ethnographically, that is, according to the different nations and
states, or synchronically, that is, according to certain general periods of time.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages ; both may, however, to
a certain extent, be united." This is a remark of Heeren,t and the last was
the arrangement which he adopted in his admirable History of the States of
Antiquity, as well as in that which bears the title of the Political System of
Europe. In the present volume, the subject has been treated under an ar
rangement somewhat similar, both methods being combined, as far as could be
done vrith convenience. The synchronical method, however, predominates,
and that almost necessarily, in consequence of the very distinct eras wliich
have been observed in the work. If, therefore, the general reader should ex-
perience any inconvenience, or diminution of interest, from the temporary su»-
• pension of the history of any sir.rle nation, he still can pursue the account
V of such nation in continuity, provided he will take it up in the successive
'I periods, and omit, at the same time, the history of other nations. But it is
^ l)clieved, that the interest arising from the liistory of individual states, is very
^ little less on this plan, than on the ethnographical, and even that, should it be
v^ lonsiderably less, the clearer and more comprehensive views thence derived,
J would be an ample indemnification for the loss.
m But it is time that the plan of the present work should be more particularly
S explained. It is briefly as follows. In the first place, political liistory, or the
V 'As subservient to the improvcmenw above alluded to, we must acknowlodse tlie agency of
numerous contrivances by means of majjs, charts, eneravinss, and copious statistical tables,
"fc^ and also of a distinction of type between what is more and what is less essential in the subject
V^ matter of a treatise. Several of tlicse contrivances, as well a.s of the more ceneral improvements^
have been extended to historical productions, a-s btxiks designed for education ; and especially
great help has been derived from the last named particular — the use of diflerent sizes of type.
This auxiliary was susgested bv the success which attended the Rev. David Blair's celebrated
works for education, by whom it has been extensively employed. Accordingly, early use of it
was made in this country, in a series of historical productions, of which the present was one,
announced as developed on the plan of that gentleman, with the avowal, however, tliat they
were wholly original, and with the reasons of the common name whid) they bore. These
reasons have now ceased to operate in regard to the present work,
t Professor of History in Gotiingen.
•^
'^Xri. Wi./^ *"■"?
4 PREFACE.
history of states, is given, and the subject is divided into ten penods, each
being distinguished by some characteristic trait. The periods are then
carried on separately. The important facts of each are stated in large type,
and explanations, observations, anecdotes, adventures, and interesting par-
ticulars, illustrative of the events, manners, feelings, and opinions of the age,
added in the smaller type. The matter in the smaller type is properly an
expansion of that in the larger, or carries on the history merely by tracing
its minuter features. At the close of the period, the lives of the illustricus
persons who flourished during the same, are introduced, inasmuch as they
oMistitute, in some instances, a portion of the world's polittcal history.
Having in this way gone through the ten periods, then the reader, undei
th3 General Vif.avs, is instructcxi in the geography, politics, religion, milita-
ry and. naval affairs, arts, literature, manners, &c. of ancient nations. By
this means he is brought into a close and intimate acquaintance with those
communities whose political history he has read, and can picture to himself
their manner of living, thinking, feeling, and actuig. This latter part of the
book includes nearly such a subdivision of the general history of the human
race, as Heeren calls " the history of culture, or of humanity, which investi-
gates the history of men as men, without further reference to political rela-
tions." A portion, however, of the first part of the work, particularly the
biographical details, would be included, perhaps, in the professor's definition
of the history of cultvire.
A plan of this kind, it is thought, if faithfully executed, must render his-
tory clear and intelligible ; give vividness and interest to its various topics ;
enable the student to surmount the difliculties arising from dates ; present a
general view of the subject that may be easily comprehended and permanent-
ly established in the memory; and thus lay a strong and lasting foundation
fbr a knowledge of history. The subject is so arranged, that the whole body
of ancient history may be reviewed in its progress, embracing under one con-
tinuous aspect, the principal nations of the earth. And also, as already men-
tioned, the history of any particular nation may be taken up, and contempla-
ted by itself. The student or reader ha\ing once mast^^rcd tliis outUne, (if
the plan have been executed in any measure answerable to the author's
wishes, and to the importance of the subject,) will be qualified to enter upon
the perusal of more extended and elaborate works of ancient history. Having
the grand features of the subject distinctly arranged in his mind, he will
readily class whatever additional facts he may obtain. He may thus accumu-
J.ite knowledge without danger of confusion, and increase his power of recol-
lection by multiphed associations.
Though the work here presented to the public is especially designed for the
purposes of education, it also contemplates the benefit of those individuals tc
v/hom the topics of history are not unknown, by refreshing their memory
with scenes and incidents, "from which they have before cxijcrienccd pleasure.
It is hoped, moreover, that the work has been constructed with such a regard
lo truth and moral consistency, as to be auxiliary to tllit purity of manners,
icfinement of taste, and love of knowledge, of which every family ought to
be ilie cherished abode.
CONTENTS.
Introduction.
Benefits to be expected from history,
Sources of history, ....
General Division,
Ten periods, . . • . .
Antediluvian World,
Distinguished Glioracters,
Period L
Period IL
Deluge,
History of Assyria,
China,
Egypt,
Distinguislicd Characters,
Period nL
History of the Hebrews, ,
Canaanites, ,
Greece, .
Egypt, continued,
China, cwntiniied,
Distinguished Characters,
History of tlie Israelites,
Canif.inites, continued,
Phoenicians,
Greece, continued,
Egypt, continued,
Lydia,
Italy,
Distinguished Cliaracters,
Hietory of the Israelites, continued,
Greece, continued,
Macedon,
Assy rill, continued,
Egypt, continued,
Plireiiiciuns, continued,
Cartilage,
Italy, continued,
Distinguished Characters,
History of tlie Romans,
Greece, continued,
IsiMclites, continued,
Jews, .
Nineveli,
Babylon,
Modes,
Persia,
l^ydians, continued,
Egypt, coiitiinHxI,
Distinguished (yharucterft,
Period IV.
Period V.
Period VL
CONTENTS.
Period VII.
HisU>ry of Greece, continued,
Romans, cnntinued,
Egypt, continued,
Persia, continued,
Macfiinn, continued,
]>isl.ingnisheQ Cluiracters,
History of Greece, continued,
Rome, continiitd,
Sicily,
Syriii,
Jews, continued,
E<rypt, continued,
Pnrtliia,
China, continued,
Dislirguished Characteis,
History of Rome, continued,
Syria, continued,
Jews, continued,
Etrvpt, continued,
P I'lliia, continued,
DiKtinguislied Cliaracters,
History of Rome, continued,
Judea, continued,
E^rypt, continued,
Partiiia, continued,
Distinguislied Characters,
Generai- Views.
Antediluvian World. — Surface of the Earth, Seasons, Population and Longevity,
'•eligion, Arts and Sciences, Government, Commerce, : : :
Ascifria, (including Babylonia) — Government and Laws, Religion, Customs,
Ijoarning, Arts, ::;:::::
Ofdna. — Geogi-aphy, Government, Religion, Sciences and Arts, : :
Egypt. — Situation, Name and Division, Cities, Momunents and Works of Art,
Government and Laws, Mythology, Education, Domestic Habits, Manners and
Customs, Literature and Arts, Trade, Language, : : : :
Hebrews. — Ren'ains of Ancient Works, Cities, Religion, Government, Manners
and Customs, Ijcarning, Arts, Commerce, : : : :
Oanaaniies. — Customs, Manners, Arts and Sciences, Religion, : :
Greece. — Appearance and Face of the Country, Situation, Extent and Division,
Names, Interesting Localities, Cities, Government, Military Affairs, Naval
Affairs, Religion, Literature, Arts, Private and Domestic Life, : :
Phmnician.9. — Coimtry, Cities and Remains, Navigation and Colonics, Sciences,
Arts and Mtmufactures, Religion, : : : : :
l.ydians. — Coimtry, Cities, Character, Customs, : : : :
liomans. — Country, its Name, Situation and Division, Interesting Localities,
Capital of Italy, and Seat of the Roman Empire, Political State, Religion,
Militiiry Affairs, Fleets, Agriculture, Amusements and Public Spectacles,
Education, Literature, Arts, Domestic Life and Maimers, Foreign Commerce,
Syria. — Situjition and Cities, C/haracter of the Ancient Syrians, Language,
0«rt/jfl^e.— Extent, Govenmient and (Character, ; : :
Parthia. — Snuation, &c. :;:::.
Persia. — Extent and Situation, Education, Punishments, Military Art,
Mythology of Ancient Nations, : : : : :
Discoveries. Inventions, and Improvements of Early Ages, .
»^l
89
89
• • •
90
91
Period VIIL
. • • •
94
.
100
.
103
103
111
«...
112
113
113
114
Period IX.
.
117
124
. . .
X25
126
126
127
Period X.
128
.
147
147
149
149
157
160
167
iro
171
103
194
19S
216
217
217
217
219
22;;
INTRODUCTION.
1. The term History comprehends a record of all the remarkable
transactions which have taken place among the human family. Ii
is the collected result of individual experience in every age and na-
tion ; and is, consequently, a source of practical wisdom to legislators
and rulers, and of profitable reflection to private persons.
Tlie benefits to be expected from history deserve a few remarks in detail.
When it is written with a proper spirit, and in strict agreement with fivcts, there
is scarcely any branch of letters so well calculated to furnish an agreeable re-
laxation to the student ; to improve his understanding and enlarge his stores
of useful knowledge ; or, in general, to subserve the cause of morality and re-
ligion in human society.
From the infinite variety of aspects in which history presents the dealings
of I'rovidcnce, and from the immense number of characters and incidents
which it brings into view, it becomes a source of perpetual interest and enjoy
mcnt. The no\elist, with all the license he possesses to imagine such physi-
cal and moral combinations as he pleases, cannot clothe his subject with hall
the attractions which a reflecting mind attaches to true narrative.
The view of past ages fills the mind with a sublime and pleasing melancholy.
VVe dwell with deep and tender emotionon the actions, sufferings, and changes
of those who were " bone of our bones, and flesh of our flesh" — wc regret that
some of them should ever have lived to disorder the world with their crimes,
and that others should have died, to leave it without the benefit of their con-
tiiuied active labours.
History improves our understanding, and enlarges our stores of useful
knowledge, by bringing to our assistance the experience of others — the expe-
1 ience of all time ; by making us acquainted withhuman nature ; by delivering
the mind from bigotry and prejudice — from narrow and sectional feelings ; by
opening to us the springs of human affairs, and the causes of the rise, great-
ness, decline, and fall of empires.
There is something in the picture of the generations before us, of their
achievements and projects ; of their manners, pursuits, and attainments ; of
their mode of thinking and acting; of their religion, government, and litera-
ture ; which, going beyond the gratification of curiosity, or storing the mind
with mere ideas, teaches us wisdom, by the comparison of their situation witti
our own, and by a great variety of interesting reflections naturally suggested
to our thoughts.
From the whole that history presents us, we deduce conclusions that have
an important bearing on human happiness and virtue. This we consider an
the most signal benefit derivable from the record of past ages. It gives us,
in connexion with revelation, which furnishes a most interesting portion of
the world's history, a correct estimate of life and of hmnan nature in all its va-
riety. It shows us how man has acted according to his own pleasure, whether
uprightly or wickedly, and, at the same time, how God has conducted the
train of events to bring about the purposes of His wisdom and grace.
Speaking in tlie way of aphorism, history is a record of what Clod lias done,
and of what he haa cither enabled or sutTered man to do, on the stage of the
world. Even, therefore, without the direct commenta of the writer, which
nevertheless are due, we can derive important instruction froiij it ; and can
hardly help being in^pressed with the grandeur or solemnity of the movement?
of Providence, in the deotiny of nations.
C mTRODUCTION.
]n short il is here that we are supplied with the most rational entertainment,
and our faculties of imagination, memory, reason, and judg-ment, are put to a
most agreeable and salutary exercise. It is here we learn political science and
philosophy; we ascertain the necessity of government, the blessings of civili-
zation, the progress of reason and society ; and especially it is here we see
" a God employed
In all the good and ill that chequer life,"
and in all the events that have a bearing on the interests of true religion,
2. History is derived to us from various sources, differing in de-
grees of authenticity, but in general illustiating and confirming one
another. The principal sources are the narratives of writers, whose
knowledge of the events they describe may have been acquired by
personal observation ; inspection of public documents ; poetic le-
gends ; and oral tradition. In addition to these, there are se^'e^al
other sources that are highly valuable, supplying the want of direct
and regular narrative, such as monuments, ruins, coins, &c.
Monuments on the surface of the ground, such as pillars and licaps of stone
or earth, since they are intended to perpetuate the knowledge of important
events, throw some light on the proper subjects of history.
Ruins indicate the existence of arts and wisdom in ancient times, which are
otill astonishing to the civilized world. They afford a knowledge of antiquity,
which description, in many cases, co'jld never supply. Such are the ruins thai
exist in Egypt, the Holy Land, Greece, and Italy, in their cities, temples, aque
ducTs, columns, &c.
Coins and medals offer very valuable means of historical information.
They have often been examined and studied for that purpose, are abundant,
and some of them possess considerable antiquity. The oldest known, belong'
ao the 5th century B. C.
Inscriptions on marble may be mentioned as another source of history.
The Arundelian marbles, so called from the earl of Arundel, who brougnt
them from Greece into England, are the most celebrated collection of marblea
bearing inscriptions, and thus communicating knowledge of antiquity. The
Chronicle of Paros is the most important of these inscriptions, as it contains
the chronology of Athens, from the time of Cecrops 1582, commonly put 1568
B. C, to 264 B. C.
ANCIENT HISTORY.
GENERAL DIVISION.
HisiORY may be divided into two great parts, viz. An
cieiit and Modern. Ancient History includes a period of
4004 years, and extends from the Creation of the World to the
Nativity of Jesus Christ. Modern History includes a period
of 1S29 years, and extends from the Nativity of Jesus Christ,
to the present time.
Observatwns. Ancient History, which is the subject of this vo-
hime, comprehend in cr an account of the Creation, and the grand
events connected with it; of the fall of man ; of the deluge; of the
origin of natirns ; and of the principles, achievements, manners,
habits, religion, learning, &c. of the early race of mortals, is equally
curious and instructive.
Prriod I. will extend from the Creation of the World,
,4004 years, B. C, to the Deluge, 2348 years B. C. This is
the Antediluvian Period.
Period II. will extend from the Deluge, 2348 years B. C,
to the Calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C. This is the
period of the Confusion of Languages.
Period III. will extend from the Calling of Abraham,
1021 years B. C, to the Departure of the Israelites from
Egypt, 1491 years B. C. This is the period of Egyptian
Bondage.
Period IV. will extend from the Departure of the Israel-
ites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C, to the Dedication of Solo-
mon's Temple, 1004 years B. C. This is the period of the
Trojan War. '
Period V. will extend from the Dedication of Solomon V
Temple, 1(J04 years B. C, to the Foimding of Rome, 752
years B. C. This is tlie period of Homer.
Period VI. will extend from the Founding of Rome, 752
years B. C, to the Battle of Marathon, 490 years B. C. Thi.«
is the period of Roman Kings.
10 GENERAL DIVISION.
Period YII. will extend from the Battle of Marathon, 490
3^ears B. C, to the Birth of Alexander, 356 years B. C.' This
is the period of Grecian Glory.
Period VIH. will extend from the Birth of Alexander, 356
years B. C, to the Destruction of Carthage, 146 years B. C.
This is the period of Roman Military Renown.
Period IX. will extend from the Destruction of Carthage,
146 years B. C, to the First Campaign of Julius Caesar, 8C
years B. C. This is the period of the Civil War between
Marius and Sylla.
Period X. will extend from the First Campaign of Julius
Caesar, 80 years B. C, to the Nativity of Jesus Christ, and
the Commencement of the Christian Era. This is the pe-
riod of Roman Ijiterature.
Observations. The characteristic, or title of each of these pe-
riods, is derived from some prominent event, or striking peculiarity
by which it is marlvcd. Thus, for instance, during the last period
but one, Rome, which was beginning to be mistress of the world,
was for a long time disturbed by the contentions of rival chiefs.
The period, therefore, is denominated tliat of the Civil War be-
tween Marius and Sylla, as marking the most important event in
the history of the world during that time. Thus, also, during the
last, or 10th period, literature greatly flourished among the Romans,
under the auspices of Augustus. It is, therefore, designated as the
period of Roman literature, as being the most striking peculiarity
of that era, among the nations. In the same manner, also, the cha
racteristics of all the others are derived.
PERIOD 1.
The Antediluvian Period^ extending from the Creation
of the World, 4004 years B. C. to the deluge, 2348
years B. C.
The Bible affords the only authentic history of the first ages of
the world. The events which it relates of those ages, are confirmed
by the appearances of nature, and by legendary tradition.
K5ECTI0N 1. All human records agree that men and em-
pires fust appeared in the East. There, those demigods
and heroes, who are the subjects of heathen fable, are repre-
sented as having hved and acted. When, therefore, the
Bible points to that quarter of the globe, as the cradle of na-
tions and of the arts, and as the theatre of the most wonder •
ful events, it only coincides with the general beUef of man-
kind on this subject.
The accoinit contained in that sacred book respecting the
creation of the world, or the beginning of time, is equally
worthy of credit. This, of course, is the first grand event
which history presents to us. The cosmogonies of nations,
that is, the schemes they have adopted respecting the fonna-
tion of the world, vary very much from one another, and
most of them are manifestly absurd and incredible. That
of the Hebrews, which constitutes the scriptural account, is the
only one that deserves imphcit belief
2. According to this account, it appears that about 5829
years ago, God called the visible universe into being, by
the word of his power ; that a determinate length of time
was occupied in the work, the various portions of the world
behig produced on six successive days ; that man was cre-
ated on the last day of those six, and constituted the head of
all the animal tribes ; that his happiness and increase were
provided for by the institution of marriage, which was soon
announced ; that God saw that all hi? work was good ; and
that he rested on the seventh day, hallo^ving it, as a day to
be devoted to religious solemnittes.
12 ANCIENT HISTOfty — PERIOD I.
§ Tlie earth, immediately subsequent to its creation, was a fluid,
dark, and shapeless mass of matter. The first thing done to bring
it into a perfect state, was the creation of light. I^hen the firma
nient expanded, to divide the upper from the lower waters.
Succeeding this, the assembled waters retired to their destined
bed ; and, at length, the dry land was seen, crowned with a rich
profusion of herbage, fruits, and flowers. These great occurrences
occupied the first three days.
The following day was devoted to an illumination of the earth.
The heavens were accordingly adorned with myriads of stars ; and
the greater luminaries were so disposed, as to distinguish between
day and night, and to divide the seasons of the year.
On the fifth and sixth days, the waters were replenished with fisli,
the air was filled with birds, the meadows wore stocked with cattle,
and every part of the earth's surface was inhabited by its appropriate
tribes.
The last work of the sixth day was the creation of man. This
was the crowning work of the whole. God formed him of the dust
of the ground, breathed into his body the breath of life, or immor-
tality, and hence man became a living soul. Woman was also
formed, out of the side of the man, who ^\ as cast into a deep sleep
for that purpose.
After the creation of this helper for man, she was given to the lat •
ter, and the sacred institution of marriage was ordained by the Creatoi
himself. From this pair sprang all the various nations of mankind.
As a matter of curiosity, and forming a perfect contrast to the ra-
tional account of the Scriptures, we will mention a few theories ol
philosophers and others, on the formation of the universe.
It was the opinion of Zenophanes, Strabo, and others, that the
earth, and the whole system of the universe, was the Deity himself
Pythagoras inculcated the famous numerical system of the monad,
dyad, and triad ; and, by means of his sacred quaternary, eluci-
dated the formation of the Avorld, and the secrets of nature.
Other philosophers adhered to the mathematical system of squares
and triangles; the cube, the pyramid, and the sphere, &c. While
others maintained the great elementary theory, which refers the
construction of our globe, and all it contains, to the combinations of
the four material elements, air, earth, fire, and water, with the as-
sistance of a fifth, an immaterial and vivifying principle.
It is recorded by the Brahmins, in the pages of their inspired
Shastah, that the angel Bistnoo, transforming himself into a great
boar, plunged into the watery abyss, and brought up the earth on
his tusks. Then issued from him a mighty tortoise and snake ; and
Bistnoo placed the snake erect upon the back of the tortoise, and he
placed the earth upon the head of the snake.
The negroes of Congo aflirm that the world was made by the hands
of angels, excepting their own country, Avhich the Supreme Being
'jonstructed himself; that he took great pains with the inhabitants,
and made them very black and beautiful ; and when he had finished
the first man, he was well pleased, with him, and smoothed him over
4004—2348 b. c. 1$
the face ; and hence his nose, and the noses of all his descendants,
Decame flat.
Buffon, a modern infidel philosopher, conjectures that this earth
was originally a globe of liquid fire, struck from the body of the
sun, by means of a comet, as a spark is produced by the collision
of flint and steel; that at first it was surrounded by gross vapors,
which, cooling and condensing in process of time, constituted, ac-
cording to their densities, cartli, water, and air ; wliich gradually
arranged themselves according to their respective gravities, round
tlie burnuis mass that formed tlieir centre.
Darwinian infidel also, in accounting for the origin of the world,
supposes that the mass of chaos suddenly exploded, like a barrel of
gmipowder, and in that act exploded the sun, which, in its flight, by
a similar convulsion, exploded the earth, which in like manner ex-
ploded the moon ; and tlnis, by a chain of explosions, the w^hole so-
lar system was produced, and set in regular motion.
3. Adam and Eve, the names of the first human pair,
were placed by the Deity, immediately sul)sequent to their
creation, in the garden of Eden, with instructions to keep and
dress it. They were allo\ved the free use of all the fruit of
the garden, with a single reservation, which w^as designed as
a trial of their obedience. The penalty of death was threat-
ened if they should transgress the command of their Maker.
Created pure and innocent, and placed in a state of unalloyed
liappiness, they had every inducement to do well.
§ Adam and Eve seem to have been created without the garden,
and immediately afterwards brought into it. It is evident that Eden
was east of Canaan, or of the wilderness where iMoses wrote the sa-
cred history. But the precise spot cannot now be ascertained.
The most extravagant opinions have been entertained on this sub-
ject ; and not only the four quarters of the globe, but even the air
and the moon, have been conjectured to include this delightful
abode. Following the Bible as nearly as we are able, and judg-
ing from the weU known names of the Hiddekel, or Tigris, and the
Euphrates, we may determine, witli some probability, that the Gar-
den of Eden was situated in or near Mesopotamia, probably Diarbee,
a part of that country.
It is clear that Moses intended to give an intelligible description
of the situation of Eden to his countrymen, who might know it ex-
actly, though we cannot ; and it is clear, also, that, though the face
of the coimtry may have been greatly changed by means of the de-
luge, the Tigris and Euphrates continued nearly the same course
after that event as before.
The tree, the fruit of which Adam was forbidden to eat, is called
the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, which intimates that,
by abstaining from this fruit, tlie knowledge of good would be en-
joyed, but, by eating it, the knoAvledge of evil would be fatally in-
(•Toduced.
14 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD I.
4. The innocence and felicity of the first pair were of very
fihort duration. They violated, with daring impiety, the sole
cx)mmand of their Maker. The precise time of this transac-
tion cannot he determined ; hut it was probably only a few
days after their creation.
The woman, being deceive^ by the subtlety of Satan, in
the form of a sei^pent, was the first in transgression ; and, by
her means, Adam also sinned. A sense of guilt and misery
unknown before, then pervaded their bosoms ; though they
were preserved from despair l)y the promise of a Saviour.
§ The greatness of the sin of our first parents is no less evident than
tlie subtlety of the Temjitcr. In their sni was involved almost every
crime — ingratitude, sensuality, ambition, imbelief, distrust, malignity,
pride, insubordination.
The effect was decisive. The face oi creation was altered. " Na-
ture gave signs that all was lost." Death was introduced
into the system, and our first parents, from that moment, became
liable to dissolution, with all their posterity. The seeds of death
were then planted in facir frame, and the moral qualities of their
«ouls became wholly corrupt and sinful.
The disclosure of their crime was in the highest degree distress-
ing to the guilty pair. God called them to acccunt, and his awful
frown and displeasure, chilled and penetrated their souls. The
ground Avas cursed for their sakes, and a great variety of evils was
entailed upon them.
The serpent, who was the instrument of the crime, received his
doom, in connexion with the promise of a deliverer on the part ol
man, who had been so fatally beset and overcome. The seed of the
woman was eventually to bruise the Serpent's head — a declaration
referable, in its full extent, only to Jesus Christ, tlie Saviour of
mankind. The immediate expulsion of Adam and Eve from para-
dise, was the natural conclusion of this dreadful and calamitous
scene, after their Maker had first mercifully provided them with
coats of skin, to cover their nakedness. Cherubims, and a flaming
sword, which turned every way, placed at the east of the garden,
prevented all access to the once happy abode, particularly to the
tree of life.
5. In the first year of the world, 4004 years B. C. waa
l)orn Cain, the firsi begotten of the human family. The suc-
ceeding year. Abel was born. These brothers not only fol-
lowed different occupations, but possessed very different cha-
racters. The hitter frui*s of the apostacy appeared at length
in the murder of the one l>y the other.
On an occasion of presenting an offering unto God, Cain,
who was a husbandman, l^rought of the fiuit of the ground ;
Abel, who was a shepherd, brought of the firstlings of his
4004—2348 b. c. 15
flock. The ofTerers, being dissimilar in character, and their
ofiferings having a dissimilar significancy, Avcre not alike ac-
cepted of Jehovah. Cain and his ollcring were rejected.
This circiunstaacc excited the indignation of Cain, who,
taking his opportunity when they were alone in the field, rose
up against his brother and slew him.
On account of liis crime, Cain was forthwith punished by
Jehovah. He was called to a solemn leckoning, and, hear
ing with anguish liis doom pronounced, " a fugitive and a
vagabond shall thou be in the eartli," he went out from the
presence of the liord, and dwelt in the land of Nod, on the
east of Eden.
He, however, built a city, at length, and his family and de-
Bcendants became famous as inventors of useful and ingenious
arts, though it does not appear that any of them were pious,
and enjoyed the divine favour.
§ The murder of Abel occfirred, it is generally supposed, but a
short tune before llie bh'th of Seth, or about 130 years after the cre-
ation. As Adam and Eve, in the mean time, must have had other
children, the human family was no doubt considerably multiplied
during 130 years. Hence the events that are I'ecorded by Moses,
in connexion with the murrlfvof Abel, are easily accounted for, with-
out supposing more than one lumian pair, from whom all the mhav
bitants then on the earth were descended.
After the death of Abel, Adam and Eve had many other children,
the eldest of the sons was named Seth, and his descendants, from
their piety, were styled "the children of God," in oppo-sition to the
descendants of Cain, who were styled "the children of men.''
Tiiese at lengtli mingled together, and thus prepared the way for the
imivcrsal wickedness that afterwards prevailed.
G. After a short account of Cain and his family, the sa-
cred historian informs us respecting " the generations of
Adam;" and recording the births of Enos, Cainan, Mahalaleel,
and Jared, he presents us with a brief but interesthig history
of Enoch. Being eminently pious, he is said to have walked
with God, for the space of 300 years, and at the expiration
of that time, to have l^een taken up to iieaveii, without pass-
ing through the scene of death.
The sacred genealogy is carried on to the time of Noah
and his sons, and the date of the life of each one of the pa-
triarchs is minutely given.
§ As Adam lived 930 years, he must have beheld a numerous pos-
terity, and been conversant with many who survived till near the
lime of the deluge. Doubtless he must have been greatly affected,
!6 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD I.
in view of the wickedness which so soon began to spread over the
earth, and which he had been the instrument of introducing.
The place of his sepulchre is not mentioned in scripture ; yet va-
rious conjectures (and they are mere conjectures) have been formed
on the subject. St. Jerome stations his remains in the cave of Mach-
pelah ; and the generality of the primitive fathers suppose him to
have been buried on IMount Calvary, in the very spot whereon Christ,
(he second Adam, shed his blood for mankind.
Tlie descendants of Seth, at first continuing pure and uncorrupted,
at length, by intermarriages v.ith the family of Cain, became, M-itli
the rest of mankind, exceedingly degenerate. From these inter-
marriages sprang the giants of those times, men of extraordinary
strength and stature, and, perhaps, of more extraordinary wick-
edness. These became '• men of renown," heroes, conquerors, and
chieftains.
7. The Deity, justly provoked by the enormous degeneracy
of his creatures, determined to destroy, Ijy a universal deluge,
the race of man, together with the whole animal creation, ex-
cept a very small remnant who were to restock the earth af-
ter that catastrophe.
One himdred and twenty years, however, did he merci
fully afford to the children of men, as a space for repentance,
during which time, Noah, " a preacher of righteousness,"
endeavoured to reclaim them from their wickedness, and warn-
ed them of then- doo)u. His zeal and labours seem to have
produced no effect. The earth became at length filled with
violence.
From the tremendous sentence which God had pronounced
Koah and his family were excepted, he having "foimd grac.e
in the eyes of the Lord." Connected with the intimation
which Noah had received concerning tlie appi'oaching deluge^
were several particular instructions, relative to his deliver-
ance.
This was to be accomplished l)y means of a large vessel
called the ark, which he built during the intervening period;
agreeably to the divme directions.
§ The ark was built of gopher word, which some suppose to be
the cypress tree. Its form was thiit of an oblong square, with a
flat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one cubit in the middle.
It consisted of three stories, each of v/hicli, excluding the thick-
ness of the floors, might be eighteen feet high, aud was divided
into separate apartments. It was pitched within and without, to
Keep it tight, and lighted from the upper part. It was, probably,
well supplied with air ; and, though it had neither sails nor rudder
it was well contrived for lying steadily on the surface of the water
4004—2348 b. c \^
Willi this means of safety, Noah awaited the destruction which
uas fast coming upon the world.
Distingni-sked characters in Period I.
1. Adam, the first of the human race.
2. Eve, the first woman.
3. Cain, llie earhest born of mankmd, and fii'st murderer.
4. .Tubal, tlie first musician.
5. Tubal-cain, the earhest instructer in the mechanic arts-
G. Enoch, translated to heaven on account of his piety.
7. Methuselalt, the oldest man that has ever hved, being
969 years old when he died.
^ 1. Adam was created by the Almighty from the dust of the earth,
on the Cth day of the creation. His Maker, it is said in Scripture,
" breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became
a living soul." He Avas thus endued with an immortal principle,
and being placed in a probationary state, not only his own cha-
racter, but the character of his posterity, was to be affected by his
conduct.
As he came from the hands of his Maker, he was pure, holy, and
happy ; and he liad every mt)tive to persuade him to continued rec-
titude of conduct. His outward circumstances also were favourable
for this end. He v^as placed in a delightful garden, tlie easy tillage
of which constituted his employment. God imposed upon him but
one test of obedience, and that was abstinence in regard to eating
the fruit of a certain tree in the garden.
Persuaded by Eve, who, having been tempted by Satan, had pre-
viously transgressed, he partook of the forbidden food, and thus
death entered into the world, and " all our wo." His conduct in-
volved the greatest impiety, and the consequences have been dread-
ful in time, and will be so throughout eternity, in regard to multi-
tudes of his offspring, who have imitated him in his disobedience, and
repented not.
It is highly probable that he, together with the woman, embraced
an offered Saviour, hnmediately made known, both having repented
of their sin. He lived many j'ears afterwards, having begot sons
and daughters, and died at the advanced age of 930 jears. For fur-
ther particulars, see Genesis, 2d, 3d, and 4th cliapters.
2. Eve was created " an help meet" for Adam, liaving been
formed, by the Creator, from one of the ribs of Adam, AvhicJi was
taken from him in a deep sleep. Thus she became "• bone of his
bones, and flesh of his flesh," and was given to him as his wife.
She proved to be first " in the transgression." Satan, a fallen spi-
rit, assuming the form of a serpent, and, tlirough the organs of that
animal, exerting the powers of speech, accosted her when alone, and
interrogated her respecting the forbidden tree. Taking her by sur-
prise, and sectning her attention and good will, he at length persuaded
wer to disobey the express command of God.
B2
18 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD t.
She partook of tlie fruit; "and gave also unto her husband with
her, and he did eat." This event, in regard to tlie first human pair,
is supposed to have taken place very soon, if not immediately after
they were placed in the garden. Eve, as a particular punishment to
be inflicted upon her, was doomed in sorrow to bring forth children,
and to be subject to her husband.
3. Cain rendered himself famous by his wickedness. In an unpro-
voked manner he murdered his brother Abel, and thus was the first
who committed a crime which has ever been considered as the most
atrocious that man commits.
God directly punished him by an awful malediction ; and b^ causing
him to become a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth. Going out
" from the presence of tVe Lord," he dwelt in the land of Nod, on the
east of Eden. He at length built a city, and called it Enoch, after
the name of his son.
Nothing is recorded of the time and manner of his death. He was
most probably a person of great energy and enterprise, as has often
been the fact with the wicked ones of the earth.
4. .Tubal is spoken of in Scripture as "the father of all siich as
handle the harp and organ," as his brother Jabal is mentioned as
' the father of such as dwell in tents." From all accounts, both sa
cred and profane, music must have been early knov/n among man
kind, and its perlbrmers must have been among the earliest civilizer.s
of the world.
5. Tubal-Cain is called " an in?tructer of every artificer in brass
and iron." Probably he was so called from his having discovered
the art of working in these metals ; the most useful of the mechanic
arts, and lying at the foundation of all of them.
6. Enoch lived 65 years before he begat Methuselah. He "walk-
ed with God after he begat Methuselah 300 years, and begat sons anci
daughters. And all the days of Enoch were 365 years. And Enoch
walked with God, and he was not, for God took him." Such is the
simple and sublime record of scripture respecting a good man. It
i,s an infinitely more precious memorial than the splendid marble
monument, or the ever-during pyramid.
7. Methuselah is not known to have been remarkable for any
thing except his age. He must have lived to the very jca.r of the
flood. The circumstance of the longevity of the antediluvians, was ex-
tremely favourable to the communication of knowledge, by tradition.
PERIOD II.
The Period of the Confusion of Languages, extending
from the Deluge^ 234S years B. C. to the calling of
Abrahafn, 1921 years 13. C.
§ It may be observed here, that this period, in profane history, and
even two or three others succeeding it, are what is termed fabuious.
The events recorded are to be admitted with a great degree of cau-
234S— 1921 i. c. 19
linii, except so for as Scripture incidentally throws its light upon
them. And it is well known, also, that there is a portion of the
early history of almost every nation, which is but little entitled to
credit. We sh;ill adduce the common accounts, and when neces-
sary, shall endeavour to distinguish between the probable and impro-
bable events.
Section 1. At the appointed time, God brought the wa-
ters of the flood upon all tlie earth. For this purpose, he
broke up the fountains of the great deep, and opened the win-
dows of heaven. Diuing forty days and forty niglits, with-
out intermission, the waters were thus poured upon the surface
of the globe.
As the ark was completed, Noah, being 600 years old, went
into it, together with his wife, his three sons, a.nd their wives,
taking with him all kinds of beasts, birds, and reptiles, by pairs,
and by sevens, agreeably to the divine direction.
According to the antedihinan computation. Noah remained
in tlie ark one year and ten days ; and on coming oitt, he
built an altar, and offered a sacriflce to tlic Lord, who blessed
Noah and his sons. They settled in the vicinity of mount
Ararat, in Armenia.
§ The waters increased gradually during the space of five months,
when they rose to the elevation of 27 feet above the sununits of the
highest mountains. Men, beasts, birds, and reptiles, thus being de-
prived of the means of safety, all perished.
The purpose of God being effected, he caused a wind to pass over
the earth, in consequence of which the Avaters began to subside. The
ark rested on the mountains of Ararat, on the 17th day of the 7th
month, or the 6th of May.
The waters continuing several months afterwards, it was not
until the 27th of tlie 2d montli, or the 18th of December, that the
inmates of the ark came forth in pursuance of the divine com
mand.
2. The truth of the Bible respecting the deluge, is strikingly
confirmed by the general voice of mankind, and by the pliy-
sical structure and appearance of the earth's surlace.
§ The Chaldeans, Egyptians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Greeks, and
other natior.s, all had some traditions respecting the deluge. Not to
mention any that have been yet published, the author of this outline
would state a fact once delivered to him by an intelligent adventurer,
his countryman.
Residing some time among the natives of the North West Coast of
America, he fell into conversation with one of them around tlie fire
of his wigwam, on various topics. Among other things, the Indian
inquired of him, whether his people knew any thing concerning a
great flood that hdd once taken place.
20 ANCIENT HISTORY. PERIOD II.
The stranger resident affecting surprise, with a view to learn what
notion the natives iiad on the subject, asked his inquii ,t, how long
ago it happened. The Indian immediately scooping up a handful of
ashes that lay before him, promptly replied, "as many moons as
there are aslies here."
In agreement with the universal voice of tradition, the surface of
tlie earth, in various respects, indicates the occurrence of such a ca-
tastrophe. Its broken state, the disposition of its strata, and the re-
mains of marine productions on the tops of the highest mountains,
are no doubtful evidence on this subject.
3. After the deliverance of Noah and liis family from the
flood, God established a gracious covenant with him, which is
recorded at length in the 9th chapter of Genesis. Among
other things, he made a grant of flesh as food for mankind,
and he engaged no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in
confirmation of which he set his bow in the cloud. ^
4. Not long after this period, Noah, who had engaged in
the pursuits of husbandry, having been intoxicated by the
juice of the grape, was discovered in this disgraceful situa-
tion by his youngest son Ham, who, with indecent levity, in-
formed his brethren of the ciicumstance. The latter, however,
treated their father with the highest degree of filial decorum.
This conduct procured for them the blessing of Noah,
while that of Ham subjected him, in his son Canaan, to a
dreadful curse.
§ Noah, we are informed by the sacred historian, lived 3.'50 years aftei
the deluge, so that his entire age was 950 years. The Orientals havo
a tradition that he was buried in Mesopotamia, where they show his
sepulchre, in a castle near Dair Abunah, or the " monastery of our
father."
5. The three sons of Noah were, of course, the first foun
ders of nations. They peopled the several quarters of the
globe, Shem, the east and south of Asia ; Ham, Syria, Ara-
bia, and Africa ; Japheth, the north and west of Asia, and
also Europe.
§ From the immediate descendants of Shem were derived the Ela-
mites or Persians^ the Assyrians, and the Lydians. By Joktan, the
fourth in descent from Siiem, llie uttermost parts of tlie east were
E copied, and perhaps America also, where, it is said, some traces of
is name yet remain.
Joktan had 13 sons, and scripture says that the dwt^lling of Jok-
tan's posterity " was from Mesha, as thou goest up to Sephar, a mount
iu the East."
From the sons of Ham, who is supposed to be the Chronos of the
Greeks, were descended the Ethiopians, the Babylonians, the Egyp-
2348—1921 B. c. 21
tinns, the Coidiians, ilie Pliilisiincs, the Lybians, the Canaanites, the
.Sidonians, and the PhcRiiieians.
From tlie sons of Japheth wore descended the Cimbri, the Gauls,
the Germans, the Scj-thians, the Tartars, the Medes, the lonians,
t!ie Iberians, the Muscovites, and the Thracians. From their sons
\^ ere derived other particular tribes, whose names need not here be
rehearsed.
0. During 101 years after the flood, i. e. till the year 2247
B. C. all the descendants of Noah spoke but one language
The occasion of a diversity of tongues in the world, and of
the origin of distinct communities, was the following.
At tlte time above referred to, the human family, in jour-
neying from the vicinity of mount Ararat, arrived at length
at a plain in the land of Sliinar. On this spot they began to
erect a city and a tower, whose top might aspire to heaven, for
the purpose of avoiding the dispersion of their households, and
of acquiring a name.
Such a purpose, and perhaps others still worse, being of-
fensive to tlie DeitV; he confoinided their language, and thus
tlic workmen, not being able to understand one another, de-
sisted fi-om their vmdertaking. The consequence was the
dispersion of mankind into different nations.
The name given to the city was Babel, wliich signifies
confusion.
5 In erecting the tower thej' made use of brick instead of stone, and
the want of mortar was supphedby slime, or bitumen, of which the
region afforded an abundance. The identical materials of this fa-
bric have been supposed, at different times, to have been discovered ;
but this is uncertain.
7. Mankind having become separated into different com-
munities or nations, their history must thenceforth be given
accordingly. We shall commence with the Assj^rian nation,
and briefly trace the outline of its history, as also the liistory
of other sovereignties that existed during this period,
ASSYRIA.
8. As.sYRTA, considered as afterwards including Babylonia,
is the oldest of nations, and foundetl on the spot where the
tower of Babel was erected. We may date tlie commence-
ment of this empire not many years after tlie dispersion took
place, or about 2229 years B. C Its founder was Asliur. the
son of Shem, who built Nineveh, its capital. It continued
alone about 120 years, and then being united to Babylonia,
became a mighty empire.
22 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD II.
§ In the order of lime, there were two empires of tlie Assyrians.
Tlie first is liere spoken of, which lasted till the year 767 B. C.
It is supposed by some that Babylon, which was built by Nimrod^
the grandson of Ham, the Belus of profane history, was, from the
beginning, the capital of Assyria. But we rather follow those autho-
rities that suppose Babylonia and Assyria to have been originally
two distinct kingdoms, both founded about the same time, the former
by Nimrod, the latter by Ashur.
The Babylonians became, at length, tributary ; and Ninus, king of
Assyria, having deposed Nabouius, united the uvo states into one.
4.fter his death, Semiramis, his widow, transferred the seat of govern-
aient from Nineveh to Babylon.
9. Under Semiramis tlie Assyrian empire Vv'as greatly en-
larged. She assumed the government dining the nonage of
Ninias, son of her husband, Ninus. She signahzed her name
by enlarging and embellishing Babylon, and by her nume-
rous military exploits.
^ It is said, that, in completing Babylon, she employed the labours
of 2,000,000 men. Thiswoman, after having enlarged her dominions,
conquered a great part of Ethiopia, and invaded India, though with-
out success, was murdered, as is supposed, at the instigation of
Ninias.
10. Ninias, her successor, was a very insignificant sove
reign ; and the history of his successors, for more than 30 ge •
Derations, is unknown. They must have been an indolent
and elTeminate race.
§ Ninias, unlike his predecessors, being whollj^ intent on his plea
sures, kept himself secluded in his palace, and seldom appeared
before his people. But, to retain them in their duty, he kept a cer-
tain number of regular troops, whom he renewed every year, com-
manded by an officer on whose fidelity he could depend. This
method he seems to have adopted, that the officers might have no
time to gain the affections of the soldiers, or to form conspiracies
against him.
Not only are his successors imknown, as to their conduct or ex-
ploits, but even their names, till the time of Sardanapalus, the last of
them, (who will be noticed in the proper place,) are a matter of con-
troversy among historians.
During this unrecorded period of the Assyrian history, Sesostris,
king of Egypt, if his name may be here anticipated, who carried on
his conquests into the East, must have overrun Assyria ; but, as his
power wa-; nf>1 supported by his successors, the Assyrians must have
soon regained their former state.
CHINA
11. China, it is not to be doubted, is among the most
ancient empires of the world. Its records extend to more
than 2200 years B. C. A.ccording to the most current opi.
2348—1921 B. c. 2S
nion, it was founded by one of the colonies formed at the
dispersion of Noah's posterity, under the conduct of Yao, who
took for his colleague Chun, afterwards his successor.
Otlier accounts state Fo-hi to have been the founder of this
monarchy, and many writers consider Fo-hi to have been Noah
b'.mself Tlie Chinese pretend a much higher antiquity than
is here assigned to them, but their pretensions are merely the
effect of national vanity.
§ Tlie sovereigns of China, from Chun to the present time, are di-
vided into 22 dynasties, tlie first of which, that of Hia, began 2207
years B. C. Four, and a part of the fifth, of these dynasties, preceded
the Cliristian era.
The first dynasty was founded by Yu, surnamcd Ta, or the Great,
whom Chun aricjj ted in preference to his own children. It lasted
441 years, under 17 emperors.
Yu-ta was a great proficient in agi'iculture, astronomy, and the
kindred studies. On the subject of the first, lie wrote an excellent
treatise. He died much regretted, after a reign of 17 years.
Kya, the last monarch of this dynasty, \vas greatly detested by his
subjects. He was driven from the throne, and died after an igno-
minious exile of three years.
EGYPT.
12. Egypt claims, and certainly possesses, a high anti-
(jtiity. Its early annals, however, are so obscure, that scarcely
any thing can be ascertained respecting its first kings, after
Menes.*
Menes is generally acknowledged as the founder of the
Egyptian empire, and is supposed to be the same as Misraim,
mentioned in scriptin'e among Ham's sons, 2188 years B. C.
His children divided the land ; whence arose four kingdoms,
which subsisted separately during several centuries, and were
successively united under one yoke.
These four kingdoms are known by the names of Thebes,
Thin, Memphis, and Tanais. The people had attained to
considerable civilization, but a period of barbarism soon after-
j
♦ Some late writcra, adopting' the Samaritan text of the Bible, which places
tlic deluge several hundred years beyond the common era, compute the reign
of Menc3 at about 2800 years B. C. Witli this they cause the other events ol
the early period of the world to correspond. We mention tiiis circumstance,
because the computation which is thus made may possibly be correct, and it
eeems to derive some little confirmation from tlie liisfory of the Egyptians,
both a3 touched upon in the Bible, and as gathered from their hieroglyphic
recordB. Still, however, we incline to the common accounts.
24 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD II.
wards succeeded, supposed about 20S4 years B. C, under the
shepherd kings,* which lasted more than two centuries.
i 111 the time of Menes, the greatest part of the coiintry was a mo-
rass, till he diverted the course of the Nile, and founded the city ot
Memphis within the ancient bed of that river. He instructed the
Egyptians in theology, introduced domestic luxury, and instituted
magnificent feasts.
It was under Tiraaus, one of his successors, that the government
was subverted and the country subdued by a multitude of ignoble
persons, wlio came from the East, and treated in the most inhuman
manner the ancient inhabitants.
These invaders were called Hycsos, or shepherd kings, and, ac-
cording to Manetlio, held all Lower Egypt 259 years.
In the kingdom of Thebes, a king by the name of Athothes I. is
said to have reigned at a very early period. He was the same as was
worshipped under the name of Mercury. After h's death his tvi^o
sons divided the kingdom ; but nothing is known of their successor.?
for a long period. In the kingdom of Thin, Yeuephes is said to have
built some pyramids, and to have had his reign distinguished by a
great famine, a? that also of one of his successors was distinguished
by a dreadful plague.
In the kingdom of Mem.phis, Tosorthros reigned, not long aftef
Menes. From the knowledge he liad of physic, he is styled Escula-
pius. He is said to have invented the arts of building and writing.
Of the last kingdom of Egypt, during this period, there seem to
be no records, or none worth naming. Indeed, in regard to those
of the others that have come down to us, there is extreme uncer-
tainty.
Distinguished characters in Period II.
1. Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled.
2. Ashur, who built Nineveh.
3. Nimrod, a warrior, and supposed to be the first king.
4. Menes, first king of Egypt, and civilizer of the East.
5. Ninus, an Assyrian monarch, who conquered a large
portion of Asia.
6. Semiramis, a female conqueror, and able sovereign.
\ 1. Noah is by some considered the Chronos of the Greeks, and is
properly the second father of mankind. Little needs to be said of
him, besides what has already appeared. His eminent piety pro-
cured for liim and his family an honourable exemption from the aw-
fully destructive effects of the deluge.
i ♦ These kiiig-g, who were detested by the Eg-yptians, held the government
■when Abraham visited it; but were expelled bef'uic the time of Joseph. Thia
circumstance explains the remarkable fact, that Abraham, a shepherd, was
very kindly entertained in Eg-ypt ; while, in a subsequent ag-e, Joseph's bre-
thren, because they were shepherds, were held in abhorrence by the inhabi-
tants. We have here a pleasing confirmation of the truth of tnc scriptural
carrative.
2348—1921 B. c. 25
Having built the ark aorreeably to the divine direction, he entered it
ot the age of 000 years, taking with him seven members of his family,
togetlier with tiie animals that were intended to restock the earth.
[Jnder the special care of God, lie, and tlie various inmates of the
arli, survived the desolations of a world, and leaving the ark in safety,
at a little more t'.iaii the expiration of a year, he built an altar, and
offered sacrifice unto the Lord.
Noah lived 350 years after the flood, was engaged in tiie tillage of
the earth, and saw his descendants increasing around hiiu. For an
important incident in liislife, which has already been mentioned, we
refer to Gen. ix. 20—28.
2. Ashur was one of the sons of Shem, and supj^osed to be the
founder of the Assyrians. Scarcely any thing is recorded of him.
The scripture asserts that he went out of the land of Shinar, and
builded Nineveli, and tlie city of Rehoboth, and Calah.
3. Nimrod '' seems at first to have exceedingly distinguished himself
by inmting, which was then not so much a diversion, as a useful
method of preventing the hurtful increase of wild beasts. This em-
ployment required great courage and address, and thus alTorded a
field for aml)ition to aspire after pre-eminence, and gradually attached
a number of valiant men to one leader."
" From such a beginning, Nimrod began to claim authority, and
enforce sul)jection ; and, in fact, is the first king we read of in au-
thentic history; and afterwards he took occasion towage w^ar, to
extend his conquests, and to enlarge his acquisitions by violence and
blood. Thus, casting oflf the fear of God, and acting in defiance of
the divine prohibhion of shedding human blood, he rendered himself
notorious, and his name became a proverb."'
"The beginning of his kingdom," says scripture, '"was Babel, and
Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar."
4. Menes, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was worshippea
as a god after death. He appears to have been deservedly popular,
by his ai)ilities and wisdom. He built the town of IMemphis, as is
generally supposed. If he was the same as JMisraim, mentioned in
scripture, as some assert, he was one of tlie sons of Ham. He is said
to have reigned 62 years over Upper Egypt, and 35 over Lower
Egypt.
.5. Ninus was a son of Belus. He was very warlike, and extended
his conquests from Egypt to the extremities of India and Bac
triana. He became enamoured of Semiramis, the wife of one of his
officers, and married her, after her husband had destroyed himself,
through fear of his powerful rival, or from jealousy. He reigned 52
years, and at his death, left his kingdom to the care of his wife, Se-
miramis.
6. Semiramis possessed exquisite beauty, and an heroic soul. It
was on these accounts that the Assyrian monarch fell in love \vith her.
In ner infancy, it is fabulously said, she was exposed in a desert, but
her life was preserved by doves one whole year. She was at length
found by one of the shepherds of Ninus, and brought up by him as
one of his own children.
c
tS ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III.
Slie was so tenderly beloved by her husband, Menones, that he
could not survive his expected loss of her, and the knowledge that
ehe was demanded by his sovereign. After the death of Ninus, whom
she had married, assuming the reins of government in her hands, she
immortalized her name by enriching Babylon with new works and
embellisliments.
Of these, the principal were the walls of the city, the quays and
the bridge; the lake, banks, and canals, made for draining the
river ; the palace, the hanging gardens, and the temple of Belus
She also enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a large part ol
Ethiopia.
Her greatest and last expedition was directed against ludia.
She advanced towards the river Indus, and having prepared boats,
attempted to pass it with her army. The passage was for a long
tmie disputed, but, after a bloody battle, she put her enemies to
flight. Upon this she advanced directly into the country, leaving
60,000 men to guard tlie bridge of boats built over the river.
As soon as the Indian king thought her far enough advanced, he
faced about ; a second engagcunent ensued, more bloody than the
first, 'i'lie Assyrians were routed, and Seiuiramis, after being twice
wounded, was obliged to fly, and return to her country with scarcely
one third of her arm)^
Some tnue after, discovering that her son was plotting against her,
site vohmtarily abdicated tlie throne, put the government into his
hands, and withdrew from public life. She lived 62 years, of which
she reigned 42. Her cliaracter, in respect to those qualities that
adorn a woman, seems not to have been highly esteemed.
PERIOD III.
The Period of Egyptian. Bondage, extending from the
calling of Abraham, 1921 years B. C. to the departure
of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C.
HEBREWS.
Section 1. The Hebrews or Israelites, commonly
called the People of God, are derived from Abraham, the ninth
in lineal descent from Shem. His calling of God is a re-
markable event in history, and was designed for purposes al
together religious. This took place 1921 years B. C.
The nation of which he was the founder, though neithei
powerful nor refined, is one of the most interesting that evei
existed. Their history instructs us in a way different from
that of all others, because it brings directly into view the Di-
vine dealings with them.
921—1491 B. c. 27
Abiahain's family increased very slowly at first ; but Ja-
cob, Ins graiulr^oM, left a numerous oDspring. Twelve song
became the heads of as inany separate tribes in the nation.
§ Abraham, acc(;rdiiig to the Lord's conimand, left tlie land of
the Chaldees, his native countrj^, and dwelt with his father Terah,
in Haran. By tlie same command, after Terah's death, he went
into the land of Canaan, whicli God promised to his posterity.
They were at length to be included within the boundaries of thai
country.
Tlie divine design in thus setting apart one family from the restoi
mankind, was to preserve the true religion in the world, and to pre-
pare the way for the great work of redemption by Jesus Christ. The
earth had now begun to be overrun with idolatry.
Abraliam having acquired a name by iiis wealth and piety, and
having passed through various trials, died at an advanced age, leaving
behind him several sons, of wliom only Isaac was the child of pro-
mise. Ishmael, by the maid of Abraham's wife, became the proge-
nitor of a distinct tribe or nation.
Two sons were tlie progeny of Isaac, viz. Esau and Jacob, the
former of whom sold his birthright to Jacob, who also by artifice
obtained his fatlier's blessing. In the line of Jacob, whose name was
afterwards changed to Israel, were the Israelites descended. His
twelve sons gave the names to the several tribes of which the nation
was composed.
Esau Avas the father of the Edomites, or Idumeans.
2. Jacob clojed an eventful life, 1689 years B. C, in mak-
ing a proplietic declaration of the future state of his descend-
ants, and the period of the coming of the Messiah. He had
previously been l)rought out of Canaan, into Egypt, by meana
of liis son Joseph, whom his brethren, through envy and ma-
lice, sold into that country.
The dilferent occurrences by which Joseph became minis-
ter to the king of Egypt, speak the immediate interposition
of 13ivine Providence, which was preparing for the accom-
plisliment of the promises made to the |)alriarch Abraham.
The history of Joseph, as recorded in Scripture, is unparalleled in
beauty and interest. Some of the principal incidents are the fol-
lowing.
Joseph, who was much loved by liis father and hated by his bre-
thren, upon a certain occasion which Avas presented, fell into tlie
Sjowerof the latter, who sought to slay him. This horrid design,
luwever, being providentially prevented, they availed themselves oJ
the opportunity of selling him to some Ishmaelite slave merchants,
who carried liim into Egypt, wliere he was bought by Potiphar, an
officer of the court.
Here, at length, lie was wrongfully thrown into prison, by a false
accusation of Potiphar's wife ; but, being proved to be an interpreter
ti8 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III.
of dreams, he was introduced to the notice of Pharaoh, who, on a cer
lain occasion, wanted his services in this capacity.
His success in interpreting tlie king's dreams, and his subsequent
conduct, procured for him the highest distinciien ; and he became
the administrator of the government. During the Aimine, v\'^hich he
predicted, and which reached the land of Canaan, all his brethren, ex-
cept Benjamin, came to liim to buy corn.
Joseph knew them, although tliey did not know him ; and by an
innocent contrivance, having brought them into Egypt tlie second
time, with their brother Benjamin, he declared to tliem that he was
Joseph whom they had persecuted and sold.
Their surprise, mortification, and terror, were at first overwhelming ;
but their distressing apprehensions were at length alleviated by his
assurances of pardon and kindness j and inviting his father and fa-
mily into Egypt, he allotted them a portion of the territory. Here
they grew and multiplied exceedingly.
3. Joseph coutiiuied to mle over Egypt, after the death of
Jacob. His own decease, which occmied 1635 years B. C
left the Tsraehtes without a protector. In less than 40 years
from tliis event, they fotind a cruel tyrant and oppressor in
another king, who knew not Joseph.
This king, whose name \vas Plmraoh,* seeing the He-
brews to be too numerous and mighty, resolved to enfeeble
them ; and, therefore, condemned them to slavery, and or-
dered his people to cast every new-bom son among them into
the river.
The object in vie\v \vas defeated : for the people increased
m an unexampled manner. God was with tliem, and, in
the wonderful preservation of Moses, and his education in the
court of Pharaoh, was preparing for them a deliverer from
their cruel bondage.
§ For the particulars of this persecution of God's people, we refer to
tlie beginning of the book of Exodus.
CANAANITES.
Section 4. The Canaanites were an ancient people.
The country which they inhabited was called the land of
Canaan, the name of Ham's youngest son, who settled it im-
mediately after the dispersion at Babel. He divided it among
his eleven sons. The general denomination of Canaanitea
included seven nations, which are frequently mentioned in
scripture.
§ The Canaanitcs seem to have laboured, in a particular manner,
under the evil influence of the curse denounced against their proge-
♦ A name common to the kings of Egypt.
1921—1491 B. c. 29
ntor*; bclngf doomrn, in the end, to subjeetion, expulsion, or extirpa-
tion, and being subilivided into so many bttle kingdoms.
The beginning of their iustory is extremely dark. They are sup-
posed, however, upon the increase of their families, to have possess-
ed themselves of tlie Arabian side of Egypt, and there to have erected
a kingdom coeval witli that of Misraim. But they seem at length to
liave been expelled from that region.
5. The first, MUthciitic account of this people apphes to the
inhabitants of the vale of Siddim, who. 1912 years B. C, were
invaded by (. hedorlaoiuer. king of Elain, and obhged to pay
an annual tiibute. When they afterwards revolted, they
were piniislied v.itli great severity.
F"'ifteen years after this, a most terrific judgment was in-
flicted on the inhabitants of Siddin^, in consequence of their
gross wickedness. Four cities in this delightful vale, Sodom,
Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim, were at once destroyed by
fne from heaven. The whole tract of country in their vicinity
became a sea, called the Dead Sea.
§ The 18th and IGth chapters of Genesis contain an account of this
catastrophe, and of its causes ; to these we refer the reader.
At the present time, from the accounts of travellers, it appears that
tlie sea and adjacent region are marked by several peculiarities wor-
thy of notice.
In a journal of one of our American missionaries in Palestine,
of recent date, we find the following account. " The water looks
remarkably clear and pure ; but, on taking it into my mouth, I
found it nauseous and bitter, I think beyond any thing I ever
tasted.
'' It has been said, that these waters are so heavy, that the most
impetuous winds can scarcely ruffle their surface. Nothing could
be more entirely without foundation. The waves ran so high, that
I found dilHculty in filling some bottles with water. My clothes
were wet by the waves, and, as they dried, I found them covered
with salt."
Quantities of bitumen are gathered in the vicinity, which, in ap-
I)earance, resembles pitch, but may be distinguished from it by its
sulphureous smell and taste. Pebbles are also found here which burn
when held in a blaze, producing a very disagreeable scent, but they
lose nothing of their size.
6. Dming this period, nothing more of much importance
is recorded concerning the Canaanites. The compact of tlie
Hittites with Abraham, respecting the cave of Machpelah,
the selhng of a piece of ground to Jacob, by Hamor. king of
Sliechem, {tnd the massacre of his subjects by some of the
sons of Jacob, on account of an insult which the patriarch's
family liad received, are the only events transmitted to us.
30 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III.
GREECE.
7. The Greeks are an ancient people, whose origin ia
clouded with fable. All that we know, during the piesent or
preceding period, of the descendants of Japhet, who peopled
Europe, is comprised in the history of this nation.
We date the commencement of the Greeks, as a commu-
nity, from the founding of Argos by Inachus, who arrived in
Greece, from Phaniicia, 1856 years B. C. Sicyon is by some
thought to have been founded before ; but we incHne to the
opinion that Egialtes, a son of Inachus, was the founder of
Sicyon.
§ As much has been written concerning the fabulous times in the
history of Greece, we will here present a very brief account of that
portion of its history. These fables, however, are supposed to be
founded on facts, and the greater part of the deities worshipped by
the Greeks, were princes by whom their progenitors had been go-
verned.
Uranus, afterwards worshipped as the heavens, appears to have
been one of tlie earliest of their princes. He married his sister Ti-
thea, and migrated from Asia into Greece, where he founded a king-
dom. He had many children, called Titans, who rebelled against
their father and dethroned him.
Saturn, or Chronos, succeeded his father Uranus, whom, with the
help of his brethren, he dethroned ; and dreading lest he should be
treated in tlie same manner by his own children, he ordered them to
be shut up, or put to death, immediately after their birth ; but Jupi-
ter was concealed by his mother, and sent to Crete, where he was
educated.
Jupiter began to reign in Thcssaly, after having dethroned Saturn.
The Titans, jealous of him, declared war against him, but were van-
quished, and expelled Greece. He soon divided his dominions with
his two brothers, Pluto and Neptune.
The countries whicli lie reserved to himself, he governed with great
wisdom ; he had )iis palace, and held his court, on Mount Olympus, '
whence tlie poets gave this name to heaven, when Jupiter was wor-
shipped as a god.
8. The ancient inhabitants of Greece were extremely
rude and savage, scarcely one degree superior to brutes.
They lived on lierbs and roots, and lay either in the open
fields, or, at best, sheltered themselves in dens, clefts, and hol-
low trees.
An improvement of their condition occasionally took place ;
out Greece, for some ages, was in a contmual slate of fluctu-
fttion. They were uiiac(|nainted with letters till the time of
Cadmus, who is hereafter to be mentioned.
Cecrops embarking for Greere. P. 31.
Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. P. 60.
1921— 1491 B. c. ai
§The general names by wliicli the natives of Greece were known
to old historians, were Graioi, Ilelieiiists, Achsei, Pelasgri. But the
most ancient iKiine of ail ap[)lied to thin country, is generally admitted
to be tliat of loura, which tiio Greel<.s derive from Ion ; but Josephus
derives it from Javan, son of Japheth.
9. Tlie i^everal states, except Argos and Sicyon, which at
length constituted Greece, Imd, at this time, no separate ex-
istence. Tliey sprang np afterwards, during the latter part
of the present period, as there will now be occasion to men-
tion.
In Argos, the descendants of Inacluis. having retained pos-
session of the tlirone for more than 300 years, were deposed,
1511 years B. C, by Danaus, an Egyptian fugitive, who be-
came the founder of a second dynasty, denominated BeUdee,
from his father, liehis.
§ At a much lal^r period, Perseus, a sovereign of Argos, having built
Mycenee, transferred tiie kingdom tliilher. It was at length conquer
ed by the Ilcraclida^, and united to liaceda^mon.
It nuty be liere noticed, tliat only two of the Grecian states, viz.
Lacedamion and Messenia, appear to have been foimded by native
Greeks ; tlu^ rest were established by tlte various brandies of the
Celtic family of Uranus, with the exception of Athens, which owed
its origin to an Egyptian.
Prior to these establishments, and even long after them, almost
every village had its petty tyrant, who bore the title of king. A name
has occasionally escaped oblivion. Laws we do not find among
Uiem, before the times of the Athenian archons.
Until that period, all depended on the will of the sovereigns ; onlj
in perplexed cases, they consulted some oracle, of which the two
most celebrated, were that of Jupiter at Dodona, and that of Apollo
at Delphi.
10. Cccrops, a native of Egypt, is iniiversally allowed to
have founded Athens, 1556 years B. C. At this time lie
arrived in Attica, with a colony of his countrymen, and
built twelve small villages or cities, of wiiicli Athens was one.
He gave laws to the wild inhabitants, whom ]ie divided
into twelve tribes, and instituted marriage among them. Tire
first altar in Greece was raised by him to Jujiiter.
§ The history of Greece is carried on for a lime in this event
Athens became the most illustrious of the Grecian states. The
province of Attica having been destroyed by the deluge of Ogyges,
remained desolate for more than two centuries, previous to the time
of Cecrops.
Athens, from its founder, first received the name of Cecropia, but
afterwards tliat of Athena?, in lionourof Minerva, its tutelary deity.
The Arundelian marbles, which were brought from Greece by tho
S2 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD HI.
Earl of Arundel, and are now kept in England, begin their chrono-
logy with the founding of Athens, but place that event 26 years
earlier, viz. 1582 B. C.
11. TJie successor of Cecrops was Cranaus. In his time
happened the famous deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly. The
third king of Athens was Amphictyon, who founded the cele-
brated Ainpliictyonic council.*
§ The deluge of Deucalion owed much of its importance to the
imaginations of the poets. It was probably only a partial inun-
dation.
In the reign of Amphictyon, a famine occurred, during which
Ericthonius, said to be the son of Vulcan, arrived from Egypt
with a supply of corn, and taught the natives the art of Agri-
culture, for which he was raised to the throne in the room of Am-
phictyon.
12. Corinth, another of the Grecian states, was founded
1520 years B. C, but did not receive the nahie of Corinth till
it was rebuilt, 1410 years B. C. It originally formed a part
of the kingdom of Sicyon, and was afterwards included in
that of Argos, till Sysyphus, some time in the following period,
seized it for his possession.
13. Thebes, a state of Greece also, was founded by Cad-
mus. The city, though begun by him, was finished by
Amphion and Zethus. He introduced letters into Greece,
1519 years B. C. Thebes he built a few yeais afterwards.
§ Cadmus is supposed to have been of Phoenician extraction. To
him are ascribed 16 letters of the Greek alphabet. He thus essen-
iially contributed to the literary distinction which Greece afterwards
attained.
14. Lacedffimon, or Sparta, another distinguished state of
Greece, was founded by Lelex, 1516 years B. C, but received
its name from Lacedtiemon, its fourth king. The govern-
ment continued in the family of Lelex till the return of the
Heraclidae to the Peloponnesus, an event to be noticed in
the coming period.
§ Sparta was called after the name of the wife of Lacedremon, the
great grand-daughter of Lelex. Sparta properly belongs to the
metropolis — Lacedccmon to the kingdom at large. The Pelopon-
nesus, in which Lacedaemon was situated, was the southern part of
Greece.
EGYPT.
15. The events in Egyptian history, during the present
epoch, refer chiefly to Nitocris and Sesostris, the one a fe-
♦ See General Views.
1921—1491 B. c. 33
male, the oilier a male sovereign. Nitocris began to reign
over Egypt, ir»78 years B. C, at Memphis. She afterwards
united some other sovereignties to her dominions.
The period when Sesostris began to reign cannot be easily
fixed ; some place it before that of Nitocris, but others place it
after her reign.
The names of a few other kmgs appear, but httle is kno\\T)
concerning their reigns. The successor of Sesostris is said to
have been Pheron. and some think that Rameses-Tubaete was
the king whose dreams Joseph interpreted.
Nitocris siiccocded her brother, an Ethiopian, wlio was murdered
by the Egyptians, and meditating revenge for his nntimely fate,
put many of her subjects to death privately, and afterwards con-
trived a building imder ground whither she dehided the chief ob-
jects of her vengeance to a feast, and, in the midst of their mirth,
overwhehned them with destruction, by turning a river upon them
through a secret passage. Slie then ehided tlie rage of tlie popu-
lace by taking refuge in a place well fortified with ashes. Iler person
is said to have been extremely beautiful, but her disposition was cruel.
Sesostris was tire most distinguished of all the Egyptian kings,
and almost the only conqueror among them. Historians relate that
his father was warned by Vulcan, in a dream, concerning the future
conquests of his son, and that, in consequence of this dream, lie got
together all the males born in Egypt on the same day with the prince,
and had them luu'sed and brought up with him, upon the presumption
that, being tlie companions of his youth, they would prove the most
devoted warriors and faithful counsellors.
Sesostris forming the design of conquering the world, set out with
an army of 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, and 27,000 armed chariots.
His conquests were extensive, and he returned hoiue laden with the
spoils of various subjugated nations, and followed by a surprising
n\miber of captives. He rendered his power highly advantageous to
his subjects, by enriching their country with useful works, and mag-
nificent edifices.
His behaviour, however, was grossly insolent to the kings and
chiefs of the conquered nations, who waited upon him to present
their tribute. He is said to have caused those princes, four abreast,
to be harnessed to his car, instead of horses, tliat they might dravir
him to the temple.
In his old age he lost his sight, and then was so weak and wicked
as to lay violent hands on Inmself.
CHINA.
16. Tlie second dynasty of the Chinese emperors con>
menced during this period, 1766 years B. C. It lasted 656
years, under 30 emperors. Like the first dynasty, it was ter-
Biinated by the vices of the last of them.
34 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD III.
5 Ching-tang was the founder of this dynasty. He is said to have
had the most excellent qualities. His modesty was almost unparal-
leled : he was the only person in the empire who thought he was
unfit for so important a trust. He was often on the point of resign-
ing his crown, but his nobles would not consent to it.
Tayvre, one of his successors, being once terrified by a prodigy,
which made him apprehensive of a revolution, received the following
impressive lesson from his minister. " Virtue has the power of tri-
umphing over presages. If you govern your subjects with equity,
you will be beyond the reach of misfortune."
V^xthing, another prince of this dynasty, after having for three years
implored heaven to bless him with such virtues as were suitable to
his station, is said to have seen, in a dream, a man represented by
heaven to be his prime minister, whose features he well recollected
when he awoke.
Causing the man to be sought for, such a person was found in the
condition of an obscure mason, working in a village, whence he was
brought to court. Being questioned on a variety of points concern-
ing government, he returned answers marked with so much wisdom
as excited the highest surprise.
The king, addressing him in a very proper manner, immedi-
ately appointed him his prime minister, and received the great-
est benefit from his pnident and skilful administration of govemr
ment.
Distinguished characters in Period III.
1 . Abraham, the immediate progenitor of the Hebrew na-
tion.
2. Melchisedec, king of Salem, and " priest of the Most
High God."
3. Sesostris, an Egyptian hero and conqueror.
4. Joseph, the chief ruler of Egypt under Pharaoh.
.5. Cecrops, the founder of Athens.
6. Cadmus, a Phoenician, who built Thebes, and introduced
letters into Greece.
1. Abraham was the son of Terah, and born in Chaldea. He
was 75 years of age when his father died. After this event he was
commanded by God to enter upon the land of Canaan, which God
promised to give unto his posterity. In the year following, a fa-
mine in the land of Canaan forced Abraham with his family to go
into Egypt.
In the same year, Abraham, with his nephew Lot, returned unto
Canaan. They however parted at length, because the land was in-
sufficient for both of their flocks. Lot went to Sodom— Abraham
removed to Hebron. God blessed Abraham, and the promise of a
posterity was confirmed to him again and again.
In the 100th year of his age, Isaac, his son, was born to him, after
his expectation had been long delayed. Passing through various
1921—1491 B. c. 35
scenes of life, lie v/as at length called to the severe trial of offering
up his son Isaac at the command of the Deity. All his lofty hopes
were reposed in that son, yet he hesitated not to execute the divine
behest.
Just at the moment, however, in which he stretched forth his hand,
to take the life of his son, God interposed, and satisfied with Abra-
ham's uitentjon, accepted that in room of the deed, rescuing Isaac
and commending the faith of the patriarch. Abraham died at the
age of 175 years.
2. Little is known of Melchisedec. When Abraham was retnrn-
mg from the destruction of Chedorlaomer and his confederates,
Melchisedec met and blessed him. The scriptural account is the
following: "And Melchisedec, king of Salem, bnnight forth bread
and wine ; and lie was the priest of the Most High God. And he
blessed him, and said, Blessed be Abram of the Most High God, pos-
sessor of heaven and earth. And he (Abraham) gave him tithes
of all."
The apostle says, in his epistle to the Hebrews, " Now consider
how great this man Avas, unto wiiom even the patriarch Abraham
gave the tentli of the spoils."
3. Sesoslris was a king of Egypt. His age is so remote from every
authentic record, that many ha ve supposed that the actions and con-
quests ascribed to tliis monarch are wholly uncertain and fabulous.
The amount of what has come down respecting him, as has al-
ready appeared in part, is the following. When he ascended the
throne, he became ambitious of military fame, and accordingly, at
the head of a numerous army, he proceeded to make the conquest of
the world.
He subdued the most of Asia, and even invaded Europe, bringing
the Thracians into subjection ; and, that the fame of his conquests
might long survive him, he placed columns in the subjugated provinces;
and, many ages after, this pompous inscription was read in several
parts of Asia: "Sesostris, the king of kings, has conquered this terri-
tory by his arms."
At his return home, the monarch employed his time in encouraging
the fine arts, improving the revenues of his kingdom, erecting tem-
ples, building cities, and digging canals. He committed suicide when
he had become old and infirm, after reigning 44 years. His era was
1722 years B. C.
4. Joseph is celebrated in sacred history, and no one's life was
more eventful in itself, or has been described with greater felicity
than his has been, in scripture. It is unnecessary to say over
again M'hat has been said respecting this eminent person, espe-
cially since the reference to scripture is so easy, and the reader who
once begins the story of Joseph, can seldom feel disposed to leave
it until it be finished. The triumph of innocence, and the suc-
cess of piety, in this instance, show the care of God over good men,
and may well lead them to put their confidence more and more in
him.
5. Cecrops was a native of Egypt. He led a colony to At-
56 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV
tica, and reigned over part of the covmtry. He married the
daughter of a Grecian prince, and was deemed the first founder of
Athens. He tauglit his subjects to cuUivate the ohve, and was the
first who raised an altar to Jupiter, in Greece, and offered him sa-
crifices.
After a reign of 50 years, spent in regulating his newly formed
kingdom, and in polishing the minds of his subjects, Cecrops died, and
was succeeded by Crauaus, a native of the country.
6. Cadmus was a Phcnician. He laid the foundation of Thebes.
This fact is very much invested with fable, which needs not to be de-
tailed. If Thebes, according to some, sprang up at the sound of
Amphion's lyre, i. e. by encouraging the workmen, still Cadmus
built a citadel which he called Cadmea, and thus formed the com
mencement of a city.
Cadmus was the first who introduced the use of letters into
Greece, though some maintain that the same alphabet was in ex-
istence among the native inlial)itants. This alphabet consisted
only of 16 letters, to which 8 were afterwards added. The wor-
ship of several of the Egyptian and Phcenician deities was also
iutroduced by Cadmus. His era is reckoned to be 1519 years B. C.
PERIOD IV.
The Period of the Trojan War, extejidmg from the de ■
parture of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 years B. C
to the dedication of ^oloino7i^s temple, 1004 years B. C.
ISRAELITES.
Section 1. The history of the Israelites at this era
assumes a very marked character. Oppressed by the Egyp-
tian monarch, they cried unto God for deUverance, and a di-
vine deUverancc they experienced.
Moses, selected as the instrument of saving his countrymen,
was in due time called to his work ; and, after a series of ini-
racles, which he |)erformed by the divine assistance, he led the
people out from before Pharaoh, into the borders of the pro-
mised land.
The consequence to many of the Egyptians was their de-
struction ; for Pharaoh and his army pursuing the Israelites
tlirough the Red Sea, were overwhelmed with its waters.
After wandering in the wilderness 40 years, and frequently
rebelling against God, the Israelites weie conducted by the
hand of Moses in sight of Canaan, when he died, without en-
leiing it himself, 1447 years B. C
149^—1004 E. c. 37
§ The story of Moses, and of his agency m dehvering the Israelites,
IS very inlcre^iting and instructive ; but we have no room for its pai-
ticulars. We will, however, mention some incidents, subsequent to
the retreat of the Israelites from Egypt.
The Irsraelites were no sooner delivered from the Egyptians, than
they murmured against Moses, on account of the w_ant of food ; to
satii^fy them, God sent first a great quantity of quails, and the next
morning manua, which fell regularly every day, except on sabbath
days, during the 40 years they remained in the wilderness.
Again the people murmured for water, and Moses, by the Lord'3
command, made a supply to issue from a rock. At this junc-
ture, the Amalekites attacked Israel, and were defeated by Jo-
shua. The people soon after arriving at Mount Sinai, God gave
them his law. During, however, the absence of Moses in the mount,
they fell into idolatry, in consequence of which 3000 of them were
put to death.
In the course of the second year after the retreat from Egypt,
Moses numbered the children of Israel from 20 years old and up-
wards, and there were found 603,550 men able to go to war, besides
the Levites.
About this time, 12 men were sent to spy the land of Canaan,
who, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, reported unfavourably
vvhich caused the people to murmur. Upon tliis offence, God con-
demned all those who v/ere twenty years old and upwards when
they came out of Egj^pt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and
Caleb.
As a punishment for their murmurs, the Israelites began to trave.
in the wilderness 1489 years B. C. At this time Korah, Dathan, and
Abiram, revolting against Moses, VN^ere swallou-ed by the earth, with
r50 of their associates. In 1452 years B. C, the Israelites began
their conquests, by the defeat of the kings of the Amorites, Bashan,
Moab, &c.
At the age of 120 years Moses died on Mount Nebo, in the land of
Moab, having first taken a view of the promised land.
2. The successor of Moses was Joshua, who conducted
tne people into the promised land, having, by the divme
command, mostly destroyed the wicked nations that inha-
bited it.
After this event, the Israelites, with some intermission,
were directed by leaders, called Judges, for the space of 356
years. They paid a high respect to these ofTicers, and also
to the priests, but they acknowledged no other king than God.
As the people at length became weary with this state of
thmgs, and desired a Icing, so as to be like the nations around
them, a king was, in the divine displeasure, granted to them.
§ Joshua having led the Israelites to the banks of the Jordan, whose
waters divided to aflbrd them a passage, conducted them safely over
D
3S ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV.
it. He conquered 31 cities in the course of six years. He died 1420
years B. C.
The people were perpetually inclined to forsake the worship of
Jehovah, and to pollute themselves with the abomuiations of the hea-
then. For this they were repeatedly brought into bondage, and con-
sequent distress. Their Judges were the instruments of delivering
them on these occasions.
One occasion wi\s as follows. The Israelites, being brought into
the power of the Midianites, after se^^en years of suffering, they cried
unto the Lord, who sent an angel to Gideon to announce to him that
he was chosen to deliver Israel from their oppressors.
By divine direction, Gideon retained of 32.000 men whom he had
collected, only 300 men, and Avith them, each carrying a lamp con-
cealed in an eartlien vessel, to be broken at a proper opportunity, he
so terrified the Midianites, that they fled in confusion, and turned
their swords against one another.
Samson also, on another occasion, delivered his countrymen by a
series of extraordinary efforts of strength and courage which we
cannot particularly recount. It may be only mentioned, that, at the
conclusion of his course, having been betrayed by his wife, and
deprived of his strength — upon its return, he pulled do\^ai, by a sin-
gle exertion of his muscular energy, the temple of Dagon on the
heads of his enemies, the Philistines, with whom he perished in the
general ruin.
Samuel, the last and most eminent of these leaders, and a prophet
also, rendered signal service to his countrj-mcn, especially by the
moral influence which he exercised over them. When old, however,
he took for his assistants in the governmeyt, his two sons, whose
mismanagement occasioned murmurs among the people, and a de-
sire to have a king.
3. Saul, the son of Kisb, was the first king of Israel. Hav-
ing been privately anointed by Samuel, he was afterAvards
publicly proclaimed, 1079 j^ears B. C. His reign was prospe-
rous at first, but at length was characterized by crime and ill
success. He perished miserabl)^
He was succeeded by David, who, thougli he erred in seve-
ral instances, was a man of distinguished talents, braver)', and
piety ; he raised his people to the highest pitch of national
prosperity and happiness. The A\i£e and ricli Solomon was
his son and successor. He laid the foundation of a magnifi-
cent temple, 1011 years B. C.
§ Saul, having spent an unhappy life, and being at war with the Phi-
listines, had his army routed, and three of his sons slain, and he him-
self, having received a wound, and fearing to fall info the hands of
Lis enemies, took a sword and fell upon it.
David had been previously anointed king, but he at first reigned
only over the tribe of Judah. But after the death of Ishbosheth. a
1491—1004 B. c. 39
son of Saul, who had assumed the government of the tribes, he reign-
ed over the whole of Israel,
He spent a very active and perilous life, and among tlie conquests
he made were the Philistines, tlie IMoabites, the Ammonites, and
the Syrians. He liad at length some domestic troubles, and was
in danger from an insurrection of his subjects, bat he lived to see
his enemies destroyed, and he left a rich and flourishmg realm to his
S(m.
CANAANITES.
4. The history of the Caxaanites, and some of the neigh-
bouring nations or tribes, is involved in that of the Jews dur-
ing this period. They were mostly subdued by Joshua, but
seemed to revive at diiirerent times, to the great annoyance of
the Israelites. From the time of Solomon, they can scarcely
be said to have had a national existence. The remnants of
them, except the Canaanites, properly so called, who after-
waids went inider the appellation of Phoenicians, were swal-
lowed up in the great monarchies that successively existed in
Asia.
PHGGNICIANS.
5. The Phqjicicians are known m history principally as
a navigating and commercial people, among whom the arts
were early cultivated. Their country was divided into seve-
ral small kingdoms ; but the most considerable of their sove
reigntics were the cities of Sidon and Tyre. We know no-
thing of tlie kings of Sidon till the present and succeeding pe-
riods. Hiram was king of Tyre, and contemporaneous with
David and Solomon.
§ Sidon, according to Josephus, was built by Sidon, the eldest son of
Canaan. Tyre was founded by the posterity of Sidon. Herodotus
gives to the older Tyre a great antiquity. The new city, reared op-
posite to the ancient, on an island, is said, by Josephus, to have been
built in the year B. C. 1255.
The Phcpuicians are regarded as the earliest navigators, merchants,
and workmen, of the world. We learn from ancient I'ccords, that
they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Medi-
terranean, but e\en over the ocean, as far as England, whence they
exported tin.
The early kings are not known, except those who had some com-
merce with the Jews. To Hiram, Icing of Tyre, both David and So-
lomon applied when proposing to build a tem{)le to the Lord. He
helped them by furnishing, not only precious materials, but also a
great number of workmen. After a glorious reign, Baleazar, his son,
eucceeded him.
40 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV.
GREECE.
6. The history of Greece during this period is pursued
first in a few details, respecting some of its dilferent sovereigii-
ties.
The kings akeady named, who had governed Athens, had
raised it to a considerable degree of civilization. But the king
who laid the principal foundation of Athenian greatness, was
Theseus. He united the 12 cities of Attica into one confede-
racy.
§ Theseus is said to have founded a more perfect equahty among
the citizens, in consequence of which, the state rather resembled
a repfibUc than a monarch}^ Owing to the inconstancy of the
people, he was banished from the country, notwithstanding his many
virtues.
7. Codrus, the last Athenian king, devoted himself to the
good of his subjects. With him royalty was abolished, since
the people thought no man Vv^orthy of succeeding him. This
change occurred towards the close of the present period, viz.
1069 years B. C.
§ Codrus being engaged in a war with the Heraclida, was told by
■;he oracle that the army would be victorious whose chief should
perish. He, therefore, with a chosen band, threw himself into the
nottest of the battle, and turned the fortune of the day in favour of his
countrymen, at the expense of his own life.
A dispute for the succession arose between two of his sons, and be-
fore they could accommodate their difference, the Athenians abolish-
ed royalty altogether, but placed Medon, one of the claimants, at the
head of the state, with the title of Archon. This office was for life
during more than 3 centuries; afterwards it was reduced to 10 years,
and finaUy to one year.
8. Corinth, having been seized by Sysyphus, was governed
in his family 250 years. The last king of this race was de-
posed l)y the Heraclidae, 1099 years B. C.
9. The first great enteiprise of the Greeks was the Argo-
nautic expedition, 1263 years B. C. It was led by Jason, and
is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile ad-
venture. Its destination was to Colchis, the modern Mingre-
lia, in Asia Minor.
§ According to some, the object Avas to open the commerce of the
Euxine sea, and to secure some establishment on its coast. Ac-
cording to others, Jason wished to avenge the death of his kins-
man Phryxus, and to recover his treasures, which had been seized
by the king of Colchis. Hence, in the language of fiction or
figure, it was the " Golden Fleece" that was the object to be rC'
covered.
1491—1004 B. c. 41
Tliis expedition was thought to be of so much importance, that all
the lieroes of the age were anxious to engage in it. Among the 54
reno«nied captains who were in the single sliip of Argo alone, in
which Jason embarked, were Hercules, Tiiescus, Castor and Pollux,
Pirithous, Laertes, Peleus, Oileus, «S:c.
In the course of their voyage, they attempted to land for refresh-
ment in a pan of Phrygia, but were prevented by Laomedon, king
of Troy, for ^v•hich they took ample revenge on their return, by pil-
laging that city.
On their arrival in Colchis, Medea, the daughter of the king, fell
in love with Jason, and, through her assistance, the Argonauts ef-
fected the object of their vo}''age. On their arrival in Greece, Her-
cules celebrated or instituted the Olympic Games.
10. A dispute for the divided sovereignty of Thebes, be-
tween the brotliers Eteocles and Polynices, gave rise to a war
that was terminated by single combat, in which both were
killed. This is called the war of the seven captains, and oc-
ciured 1225 years B. C.
The sons of the commanders slain in this war renewed the
quarrel of their fathers, about ten years afterwards. This is
called the war of the Epigonoi, a subject celebrated by Homer
in a poem now lost.
11. But the most celebrated event of this period, in the an-
nals of Greece, is the Trojan war. It commenced 1193
years B. C, and terminated in ten years. Troy was taken
and burnt to the ground. This war was undertaken by the
princes of Greece to avenge the wrongs sustained by IVIene-
laus,king of Laceda^mon, whose wife, Helen, had been seduced
away by Paris, a Trojan prince. The details of this war are
derived from Homer ; but he is reasonably supposed to have
related facts, for the inost part.
§ Troy, the capital of Phrygia JMinor, was founded 1546 years B. C.
by Scamander, who led thither a colony from Crete. Troas, the
fifth in succession from Scamander, either built a new city, or en-
larged the old one, and named it after himself, Troy. The Trojans
were a brave and warlike people.
The numlier of the Grecian warriors is supposed to have been
about 100,000. Nearly all Asia I\Iinor was leagued with Priam,
king of Troy. The Greeks, on landing at Troas, were warmly op-
posed, and they spent the first 8 or 9 years in reducing such cities
and islands as favoured the cause of Troy. At length the siege of
that capital began, and the most heroic deeds were performed on both
sides. At this juncture, the camp of the Greeks was visited by a pes-
tilence, and a (iuarrel ensued between Agamemnon and Achilles, the
Grecian leaders.
The death of Patroclus, slain by Hector, impelled Achilles to
D2
43 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV.
return into the Grecian camp. Hector Avas killed by Achilles,
and Achilles fell by the hand of Paris, who was himself slain by
an arrow At last the Greeks gained possession of the city by
stratagem, and utterly destroyed it. No vestige of its I'uins now
remains.
Such of the Trojans as survived sought new settlements in distant
regions. Antenor established himself in Italy, where he founded
the nation of the Heneti. ^Eneas settled also in Italy, where he
founded the kingdom of Alba.
12. The war of the HeracUdee, among the Gi-eeks, began
about 80 years after the destruction of Troy. Hercules, the
son of Amphitryon, sovereign of MyceuEe, was banished from
Ills country, with all his family, while the crown was pos
sessed by an usurper. After a period of a century, his de-
scendants, called Heraclidee, returned to Peloponnesus, and
subduing all their enemies, took possession of the states of My-
cense, Argos, and Lacedsemon. This return of the Heraclidae
is an event often spoken of in history.
13. A long period of civil war succeeded, and Greece, di-
vided among a number of petty tyrants, became a prey to op-
pression or anarchy. The difficulties of the times drove.many
of the Greeks from lionie, who founded important colonies, as
we shall hereafter learn.
EGYPT.
14. Concerning the Egyptians, during this period, very
little is known with certainty. Apophis is thought to have
been the Pharaoh who, together with his army, was drowned
m the Red Sea. Amosis, Amenophis II., and one or two
others, were warriors and conquerors.
§ A few things may be subjoined respecting some of the Egyptian
kings during this period. Mceris caused the celebrated lake, called
by his name, to be dug, to receive the waters of the Nile, when the
inundation was too abundant, and to water the country when it
proved deficient.
Hermes Trismegistes is celebrated for his philosophical writings.
He added 5 days to the year, which before consisted only of 360.
Amosis abolished the practice of human sacrifices, and conquered
Heliopolis, the ancient capital of Lower Egypt.
Actisanes, king of Ethiopia, united Egypt and Ethiopia under
his government. lie bore his prosperity with great prudence,
and behaved himself in a most affectionate manner towards his new
subjects.
Having caused a general search to be made after the Egyptian
robbers who infested the country, he commanded their noses to be
cut oR] and then banished tliem to the remotest part of the desert,
1491— 1004 E c. 4^
i)Cl\vcen Syria and Eg\-]:)t, where he built them a town, which, from
the mutilation of its inhabitants, Avas called RliinocoJura.
A Memphile of ignoble extraction was exalted to the throne. The
priests cliaracterised him as a magician, and pretended tliat he could
assume whatever form he pleased. His Egyptian name was Cetes,
wliich the Greeks rendered Proteus.
It was during his reign, that Paris and Helen were driven on
the coasts of Egypt, in their passage to Troy, but when the Egyp-
tian monarcli understood the shameful breach of hospitality which
the young stranger had conmiitted, he ordered him to quit his do-
minions.
LYDU.
15. The liistory of the kings of Lydia is very obscure.
They were divided into three dynasties. 1. The Atydae.
2. The Herachda3. 3. Tiie Mermnadee. The history of
Atydae is altogether fabulous. Argon was the first of the He-
raclid;p, and Candaules tlie last. Argon reigned about 1223
years B. C. The Lydians are celebrated as merchants and
trafiickers.
§ Lydia is supposed to have been founded by Lud, son of Sheni. It
was, however, called Lydia, from Lydus, one of its kings. It was
previously called Maeonia, from Mebou, also one of its kings. It was
conquered at length by the descendants of Hercules.
Lydia Proper was, strictly speaking, at first only that part of
Maeonia which was seated on the ^gean Sea ; but when the Greeks
or lonians settled there, the ancient inhabitants were driven to the
interior. The invaders named the sea coasts where they settled
Ionia, after the country whence they had emigrated, or rather,
whence they had been driven by the Heraclida ; while the Lydians
gave their name to the new countries in which they settled.
Long before the invasion of the lonians, the natives of Lydia were
devoted to commerce. The earliest instance on record of a gold and
silver coinage is found in their history. They were also the first
people who exhibited public sports.
ITALY.
10. Italy appears to have been inhabited at a remote
era. So early as 12S9 years B. C. we read of a king named
Janus, who, having arrived from Thessaly, planted a colony
on the river Tiber. Four sovereigns succeeded him in La-
tium ; during the reign of the last of whom, viz. Latinus,
arrived iEiieas, the Trojan prince, in Italy. ^Eneas married
Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus, and succeeded him in the
sovereignty. After ^Eneas there was a succession of kings to
the tune of Numitor, the grandfather of Romulus and Remus,
the founders of Rome.
44 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IV
The history of these kings is, however, ver}^ obscure and
confused, and very httle dependence can be placed upon it.
Of the numerous petty kingdoms of which Italy was com-
posed, those of Etruria and Latium alone deserve attention.
The Etruscans are thought to have been a very polished peo-
ple. The inhabitants of Latium were the immediate ances-
tors of the Romans. A considerable part of Italy was doubt-
less peopled by the Greeks.
§ Italy, afterwards the seat of the Roman power, was peopled at
an early era, though we cannot determine the particular point oi
time, with certainty as to the country at large. The colony on the
Tiber, as we have seen, Avas settled nearly 13 centuries before Christ.
There is every reason to believe that a part of Italy was inhabited
by a refined and cultivated nation, many ages before the Roman
name was known.
The Etruscans are justly considered as such a nation ; a fact
which is indicated by the monuments in the fine arts which they
have left, and some of which exist to this day. Their alphabet, re-
sembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them to have been of
eastern origin.
Though many of the inhabitants of Italy originated from Greece
and the east, yet a portion of them, it is believed, must have origi-
nated from the Celtic or Gomerian tribes of the north, who entered
Italy from that quarter.*
The story of Latinns and ^Eneas is briefly as follows. At the
time of the arrival of the latter in Italy, Latinus was engaged in a
war with the Rutuli ; and, on hearing of this arrival, he 'mmedi-
ately marched towards the strangers, expecting to find an unprinci
pled banditti.
But iEneas, though commanding a body of hardy veterans, held
out the olive of peace. Latinus listened to his melancholy tale, and
pitying the misfortunes of the Trojan exiles, assigned them a portion
of land, on condition of their joining against the Rutuli.
iEneas eagerly embraced the offer, and performed such essential
service in the cause of the Latins, that this monarch bestowed on
him his only daughter, Lavinia, in marriage, with the right of sue
cession to the crown.
Distinguished characters in Period IV.
1. Moses, the first Hebrew lawgiver and leader.
2. Joshua, a conqueror of Canaan, and pious mihtary
chieftain.
3. Orpheus, the father of poetry.
4. Musaius, a Greek poet.
5. Samson, a judge of Israel, and endowed with extraor
dinaxy strength.
* See Edin. Rev. No. 80. Art. V.
1491—1004 B. c. 45
6. Saiiconiathon, a Phoenician, one of the eailiest writers
of history.
7. David, a king of Israel, a warrior and poet.
§ 1. Moses, when an infant, having been exposed on the brhik of
the river Nih^, in an ark of bulrushes, the daughter of I'liaraoh found
the ark, saved the child, and liad him educated as her own son. At
forty years of age, having renounced the honours of Pharaoh's court,
he endeavoured to join his oppressed countrymen, but they would
not receive him. After this, circumstances induced him to flee to
the land of IMidian, where he married, and enjoyed a retirement of
40 years.
At the end of this period, God appeared to him in the mount of
Iloreb, and ordered liim to return to Egypt, with a commission to
Pharaoh, respecting liis release of the Israelites from bondage. He
accomplished this object only after the inliiction of ten severe and
awful plagues upon that monarch and his people. At length God
saw fit, through Moses, to destroy Pharaoh and the flower of his
military force in the Red Sea.
From this period, Moses w^as employed in receiving the moral
law from mount Sinai, in prescribing the form of the ceremonial
worship of the Hebrews, in regulating their civil polity, in con-
ducting their military operations, and in leading them through the
wilderness of Sinai, in which they were doomed to wander during
40 years.
At the age of 120 he died on mount Nebo, in tlie land of Moab,
having first taken a view of the promised land. This occurred 1451
years B. C. Moses was a man of eminent piety and wisdom.
2. Joshua was the successor of Moses, and led the Israelites into
the promised land, over the river Jordan, whose waters divided to
afford them a passaje. The first city which he conquered was Jeri-
cho ; this was followed by the speedy reduction of 30 others.
Having divided the land of Canaan among the ten tribes, Joshua
died, aged 110, 1426 years B. C.
3. Orpheus was the son of (Eager, or, as some say, of Apollo, by
Calliope. The fictions of poetry have put into his hands a lyre,
whose entrancing sounds stayed the courses of rivers, moved moun-
tains, and subdued the ferocity of wild beasts. Doubtless the effects
of his song, though not of such a nature, were considerable, in that
rude and early age, on the minds of untutored barbarians.
By the power of his music, as fiction reports, he regained his
wife, Eurydice, from the infernal regions, but lost her again bi con-
sequence of failing to comply with a certain condition, on which
she was restored. The condition was, that he should not look be-
hind to see Iter tiU he had come to the extremest borders of liell.
Contrary to promise he did this, through the impatience of love,
or by reason of fortretfiilness, and she vanished from before his eyes.
Orpheus, according to story, was one of the Argonauts ; of which
celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical a'^count. This, however,
is doubted ; and the poems that pass und^r his name, are, with rea-
46 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV.
son, ascribed to other and later writers. Tliere is little cause to
doubt that such a person as Orpheus existed, and that he was a
great poet and musician. The period assigned for him is 1284
years B. C.
4. Musaeus is supposed to have been a son or disciple of Linus or
Orpheus, and to have lived about 1253 years before the christian era.
None of his poems remain. A Musaeus, who flourished in the 4th
century, according to the judgment of most critics, wrote "The loves
of Leander and Hero."
5. Samson was the son of Manoah, of the tribe of Dan. As he was
raised up to avenge the Israelites of their oppressors, he was endow-
ed with extraordinary strength. On one occasion, he slew 1000 Phi-
listines with the jaw-bone of an ass. At various other times, he se-
verely molested and distressed them.
At length he was, through stratagem, betrayed by Delilah, and de-
prived of his strength. It, however, soon returned; and he pulled
down the temple of Dagon on the heads of his enemies, the Philistines,
with whom he perished in the general ruin. Some parts of his cha-
racter are very far from deserving imitation. His various exploits
and follies are recorded, .Tudges xiv. xv. xvi.
6. Sanconiatlion was born at Berytus, or, according to others, at
Tyre. He flourished about 1040 years B. C. He wrote, in the lan-
guage of his country, a history, in 9 books, in which he amply treat-
ed of the theology and antiquities of Phoenicia and the neighbouring
places.
This history was translated into Greek by Philo, a native of Byb-
lus, who lived in the reign of the emperor Adrian, Some few frag-
ments of this Greek translation are extant. Some, however, suppose
them to be spurious, while others maintain their autlienticity.
7. David was the son of Jesse, and anointed king of Israel, while
keeping his father's flocks, by Samuel, the prophet. He was a
valiant, prosperous, and warlike prince, and raised himself and
people to great eminence and renown. His name began to be
known and celebrated, from the time that he slew Goliath, the giant.
His military operations were planned with wisdom, and executed
with vigour.
He was distinguished as a sacred poet and writer of psalms; no
one in this department has ever equalled him. Tiiese inspired pro-
ductions are marked by loftiness, vigour, and felicity of expression
—abounding in the sublimest strains of dfvotion, and conveying the
most important trutlis and instructions to the mind.
This pious prince was left to fall into scandalous sins, in a few in-
stances, parlicularly in the seduction of Bathsheba, and the murder
of Uriah, her husband ; but he bitterly repented of them, and was
restored to the divine favour. He died, 1015 years B. C, after a
reign of 40 years.
1004—752 B. c. 47
PERIOD V.
The Period of Homer, extending from the dedication of Solo-
mon's temple, 1004 years B. C, to the founding of Rome,
752 years 13. C
ISRAELITES.
Section 1. From the accession of Solomon to the throne
of the Israelites, a period of profound peace and prosperity
was enjoyed by that people throughout liis reign. The
most important undertaking of tliis monarch, Avas the build-
ing and dedication of the temple of the Lord at .Terusalem.
Tliis magnificent structure Avas completed in seven yeare.
The dedication was performed by the king, with the most
solemn religious rites, in presence of all the elders of Israel,
and the heads of the various tribes.
This prince exceeded in wisdom all who went before him ;
but, in his old age, he took many wives and concubines out
of the idolatrous nations around him, who corrupted his
heart. The Lord therefore declared, by the prophet Abijah,
that he would divide the kingdom after his death, and give
ten tribes to Jeroljoam ; which accordingly took place.
§ The temple at Jerusalem was a most sumptuous and costly edifice.
The value of the materials, and the perfection of the workmanship,
rank it among the most celebrated structures of antiquity. It was
not very large, being little more than 90 feet in length, 30 in breadth,
find 45 in height ; but was finely proportioned, and, together with a
grand porch, Vv-as splendidly ornamented.
Towards the close of his reign, as a punisliment of his effeminacy
and idolatry, the Lord stirred up certain adversaries against liim ;
and, thouijh the principal evil threatened against Israel, was not to
occur during his day, yet he had the mortification of knowing that
it would be inflicted under the administration of his son ; and that
his own conduct would be the procuring cause.
We cannot help believing that he repented of his awful defection
from duty, though nothing in the Bible is recorded concerning this
point ; and all ought to be profited by the memorials which he has
left of his wisdom, and general piety.
2. Rehoboain, the son of Solomon, began to reign over the
IsraeUtes 975 years B. C. Having refused to lighten the
yoke his father had imposed on his subjects, ten tribes revolt-
ed, and followed Jerolioam, an entei-prising domestic of the
king. The tribes of Judali and Benjamin alone remained
48 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V.
faithful to Rehoboam. From this time Judah and Israel aie
separate kingdoms.
3. The kingdom of the Ten Tribes, or the Israelites, dur •
ing tliis period, was governed by a succession of vicious and
idolatrous monarchs ; and wars and feuds, treachery and mur-
der, mark their history in a shocking manner. Jeroboam was
their first king.
§ A few incidents in tlie lives of these kings may be noticed.
Jeroboam, to prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem to saeri
fice, made two golden calves, which the people worshipped ; for
which conduct, God declared that his whole house should be cut off,
Zimri, the fourth after Jeroboam, enjoyed the crown only seven
days. The city Tirzah, in which he was besieged by Orari, being
taken, he burnt himself to death in his palace.
Ahab, tlie sixth after Jeroboam, was the most impious king- who
reigned over Israel. He married Jezebel, a daugliter of a king of
the Sidoniaas, who excited him to commit all manner of wickedness.
Among other things, he wantonly murdered Naboth, for refusing to
give up his vineyard to Ahab.
Jehu, a captain under Jehoram, was anointed king by the prophet
Elisha ; and, though a wicked man, was the instrument of executing
the Lord's vengeance upon his impious contemporaries. He kiUed
Jehoram, and the 70 sons of Ahab ; and after liaving slain all the
priests of Baal, he destroyed the miages, and the house of their god.
Jehoash was successful as a warrior. He defeated Benhadad,
king of Syria, in three battles. In a war against Amaziah, king of
Judah, he took him prisoner, broke down the wall of Jerusalem, and
plundered the temple and the king's palace.
Pekah, the last king during this period, madp war against Judah,
with Rezin, king of Syria. Under his reign, part of tlie ten tribes
were carried captive to Assyria, by Tiglath Pileser.
4. Several of the kings of Judah. during the present peri-
od, were pious men, and adhered to the worship of God.
Others of them imitated the profligate kings of Israel. The
people whom they governed, and who have survived to the
present time, are called Jews, in distinction from Israehtes,
the name once applied .to the whole twelve tribes.
§ We will notice some of the transactions of their reigns. During
the reign of Rehoboam, Sesac, king of Egypt, took Jerusalem, and
carried off the treasures of the temple, and of the palace.
Jehoshaphat carefully enforced the worship of God. The Mo-
abites and Ammonites declared war against him ; but the Lord threw
them into confusion in such a manner, that they destroyed ona
another.
Aliaziah, directed by the councils of Athaliah, his mother, acted
wickedly. He went, witlr the vicious Jehoram, king of Israel, to
war against Hazael, king of Syria. Wlrcn Jehu destroyed the
1004—752 B. c. 40
house of Ahab, he sought Ahaziah, who was hid in Samaria, and
slew liim.
Joash reigned with justice as long as Jehoiada, the high priest, lived.
After his death, haviiig fallen into idolatry, Zechariah, the son oF
Jehoiada, reproved him for this sin, and was stoned by the king's
order. God then raised against him the king of Syria, Avho plun-
dered Jerusalem. His own servants also conspired against him,
and stew him in his bed.
Uzziah made successful wars against the Philistines and Arabians^
IiUflxicatcd with prosperity, he went into the temple to burn incense
upon the altar, and the Lord struck him with leprosy for his pre-
sumption.
Jotham, a pious prince, fought and orercame the Ammonites, and
rendered them tributary.
GREECE.
5. Greece, at the commencement of the present period,
was in an unsettled state. By the emigration of many of
Its inhabitants, colonies had been formed, particularly in Lesser
Asia. Afterwards colonies were sent to Italy and Sicily.
These, owing to the freedom of their governments, soon ri-
valled their parent states ; a circumstance wdiich induced the
latter to put an end to despotism, and to adopt popular consti-
tntions. In this \vork of reformation, Lycurgus, the legislator
of Sparta, was distinguished.
6. It may be mentioned, in connexion wnth this subject
and j^reviously to an account of the reformation of Sparta,
that the poems of Homer were introduced from Asia into
Greece by Lycurgus. He met w'th them in his travels in
that region, carefully preseived them, and brought them
home on his return, 886 years B. C Their effect on the na-
tional spirit and literature of the Greeks, was at length highly
propitious.
§ Homer flourished about 900 years B. C. He was a poor blind
man, and used to travel from place to place, singing his verses.
But Ids genius was trauscendant. All succeeding ages have bowea
to it ; and his poems have been taken as the model of all epic pro-
ductions of any note written since his day.
The present form of his poems is sup|)Osed not to have been the
ancient form. They were probably produced in separate pieces and
ballads; and were united into continuous poems, it is said, by cer-
tain learned men, mider the direction of Pisistratus, king of Athens.
The era of Grecian splendour was several centuries after the time
of Homer ; but by the preservation of Ids poems, the prsgress of the
tireeks in arts and literature was elTectually secured.
7. Lycurgus, by his peculiar institutions, raised Sparta
50 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IV.
from a weak and distracted state, to superiority in arms ovet
the other repubhcs of Greece. Sparta became tiuly republican
in its government, though the form of royalty was retained.
Its kings were merely the first citizens in the state, and ac-
knowledged the superior authority of the Ephori and the
people, to whom they were accountable. Their privileges,
however, sufficiently distinguished them from the mass of the
citizens.
With many things in his institutions that were commend-
able, there was much that was pernicious. His sole object
seems to have been, to render the Spartans fit only for war.
The chronological date of the commencement of this refor-
mation, is 8S4 years B. C.
§ After the return of the Herachdae, Sparta was divided between
the two sons of Aristodeiniis, Eurysthenes and Procles, who reigned
jointly. The oc<^'asioa of this was, that Aristodemus having been
killed while his childrpii were infants, their mother was unable to
leW wliicli of them was the first born, since they were twins. The
Spartans consequently agreed that they should be joint kings.
This double monarchy continued in the one line under 30 kings,
and in the other line under 27 kings, during a period of about 880
years. Polydcctes and Lycurgus were the sons of one of these
icings. Upon the death of his brother, the crown devolved on Ly-
curgus ; but his sister-in-law being with cliild, he resigned it.
She however intimated to Lycurgus that if he would marry her,
the child should be destroyed immediately upon its birth. Lycur-
gus, with a view to save it, desired that she would send it to him, and
he woidd dispose of it. Accordingly, the boy, as soon as he was born,
was sent to his uncle.
Lycurgus was at supper with a large party when the royal infant
arrived, but he instantly took it into his arms, and holding it to the
view of the company, exclaimed, " Spartans 1 beiiold your king."
The [)eople were delighted, and the boy was called Charilaus.
Lycurgus, witli a view to suppress the calumnies published against
him by the faction of the queen, determined upon a voluntary exile.
In his travels, he made it an object to acquire knowledge, and espe-
cially to ascertain the best means of government. It was during
this journey that he discovered the poems of Homer, as above men-
tioned.
Upon his recall to Sparta, he found things in so bad a condition,
that he set about a reformation of the manners of the people. He be-
gan his labom-s by instituting a senate to make laws, and see that they
were executed ; this senate was composed of 30 members, the kings
being of the mnnber
He next made an equal division of the lands, so that all the Spar-
tans shared it fairly between them. When he endeavoured to do the
same with the furniture, clothes, &c. he found the rich very averse to
1921—1491 B. c. 51
his proposals. He therefore took another course. He substituted
iron for gold and silver, as tlie medium of exchange.
As this iron money was of no account among the neighbouring
countries, the Spartans could no longer indulge in luxury, by pur-
chasing foreign costly articles. The necessary arts of life he allowed
to be practised only by slaves.
He then connnandcd that all persons, even the kings themselves,
sliould eat at public tables, and that these tables should be served
only with plain food. This regulation, more than any otlier, offended
the ricli citizens. They ro.se in a body and assaulted Lycurgus; and
one of them, pursuing liim to a sanctuary, struck out his eye with a
stick.
Lycurgus no otherwise punished this offender, tlian by making
him his page and attendant. In time, these dinners, at which they
served up a kind of soup, called black broth, came to be much re-
lished, and very pleasant discourse often enlivened them.
An admirable part of the ceremony at these public meals was the
follo\\ing. When the company were assembled, the oldest man
present, pointing to the door, said, " Not one word spoken here, goes
out there." Tliis wise rule produced mutual confidence, and prevent-
ed all scandal and misrepresentation.
The children were taught in large public schools, and were made
brave and hardy. All the people were accustomed to speak in short
piihy sentences, so that this style of speaking is even now called af-
ter them, laconic ; Laconia being one of the names of Lacedaemon.
When Lycurgus had firmly establislied his new laws, he ensured
their observance by the following contrivance. He left Sparta, after
liaving made the people swear, that they would abide by his laws,
imtil he should retu -ri. As he intended not to return at all, this was
to swear that they would keep his laws forever.
lAXurgus died in a foreign land. By some it is assented, that he
starved liimself to deatli. His laws continued in force 500 years,
during which time the Spartans became a powerful and conquering
people.
The institutions of this legislator were impaired by many blemishes.
Tlie maimers of the Lacedaemonian women were suffered to be
shamefully loose. The youth Mere tauglit to subdue the feelings of
lumianity. The slaves were treated with the greatest barbarity. Even
tlieft was a part of Spartan education.
The object of this was to prepare tlieir minds for the stratagems of |
war. Detection exposed tliem to punishment. Plutarch tells us of
a boy, who liad stolen a fox and hidden it under his coat, and who
rather chose to let the animid tear out his bowels, than to discover
the theft.
Sect. 8. The first of tlic Olympiads, an era by which
the events in Grecian liistory are reckoned, occtTrred 776
vears B. C. The Olympic games were first instituted about
1 450 years B. C, but having fallen into disuse, were restored
62 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V.
at difierent times, and from the period above mentioned, form
a certain epoch in history.
§ The natursx)f these games will be described under the " Gene-
ral Views," at the close of this work.
MACEDON.
Sect. 9. Macedon, a kingdom in Greece, and sometimes
considered distinct from it in its history, was founded by Ca-
ranus, an Arrive and descendant of Hercules, about 795
years B. C. The government continued in liis line 647
years, i. e. till the death of Alexander ^Egus, the posthumous;
son of Alexander the Great.
§ The history of Macedon under its first kings is obscure, and pre-
sents only some wars with the Illyrians, Thracians, and other neigh-
bouring nations. It became, as we shall hereafter learn, very power-
ful, and under Philip overturned the liberties of the other states of
Greece.
ASSYRIA.
Sect. 10. After a chasm of 800 years in the history of
the first kingdom of Assyria, we find a few particulars re-
specting one or tw^o of its last sovereigns. Fid, who is men-
tioned in scripture, subdued Israel in the reign of Menahem,
wdio became his tributar}^ This Pul is supposed to be the
king of Nineveh, who, with his people, repented at the preach-
ing of Jonah. If this be the fact, he flourished about 80C
years B. C*
§ The object of Jonah's preaching was to denounce the divine
judgements against this people on account of their wickedness. The
prophet after great reluctance to obey the command of God, and a
signal chastisement for his disobedience, repaired at length to Nine-
veh, and executed his commission.
The Ninevites took the alarm, and humbled themselves before
Jehovah, in consequence of which tliey were delivered at that time
from destruction. The Assyrian empire, of which Nineveh was the
."apital, ended, however, soon afterwards, as we shall now learn.
Sect. 11. iSat^danapalus was the last and the most vicious
of the Assyrian monarchs. In his reign a conspiracy broke
out, by which the kingdom was destroyed, 7f)7 years B. C
Three monarchies rose from its ruins, viz. Nineveh, wdiich
♦ Wc have here followed Uahcr, and not the autliors of tlic Universal Hia-
Uiry. Usher, as we think, more consistently, supposes I'ul to be the father al
Sardanapalua.
1004—752 B. c. 53
preserved the name of Assi/rla, Babylon, and the kingdom
of the Medcs.
§ Sardaiiapalus was tlie most effeminate of mankind. Ho never left
his palace, but spent all his time with his women and his eunuchs.
He imitated them in dress and pamtin^, and spun with them at the
distaff. Being besieged in his city, by Arbaces, governor of the Medes,
he at length set tire to his palace, and consumed himself, with his wo-
men, euiuichs. and treasures.
EGYPT.
Sect. 12. Egypt conlinned to be governed by a race of
kings, concerning whom the connnon accounts seem not to
be very satisfactory. TJie most considerable or the best known
of them were Shishak, Rhamses, Amenophis IV. and Thuo-
ris. Shishak is mentioned in scripture, and he is by some
authors considered the same as Sesostris. But we are dispo-
sed to consider Sesostris as much more ancient, and have ac-
cordingly spoken of him in a former period.
§ Concerning ShisJial; it appears that he built many temples and
cities, dug canals, and among other conquests, took Jerusalem and
spoilt the temple.
Rhamses possessed a very avaricious disposition. Diodorus in-
forms us, that he was never at any expense either for the honour of
the gods, or the welfare of his people ; but that his sole delight was
in the augmentation of his private treasure, which, at his decease,
amoimted to no less than 400,000 talents.
Amrnopliis IV. is tliought to be the same with Memnon, whose
famous statue was said to utter asoimd at the rising of the sun. The
monument in which he was buried, is much celebrated for its niag-
nificeuce. He acquired great renown by his expedition against the
Baclriaus.
Thuoria lost the Egyptian possessions in the East; and after his
death, Egypt, reduced within its natural boundaries, was divided
among several little kingdoms for about A\ years.
PHCENICIANS.
Sect. 13. The Pitcenicians, during this period, were go-
verned by the successors of Hiram, of whom the first was
Bcdeazar, his son ; and the se\'entli from him was Pygma-
lion, the brother of tlie celebrated Dido. The cruelties of
Pygmalion obliged her to lice to Africa, where she founded a
mighty sovereignty, as will now be mentioned.
CARTHAGE.
Sect. 14. According to the most probable accounts, it was
869 years B. C. when Dido arrived at Africa. The history
bi ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD V.
of theCARTHAGiNiANS is dated from this event. She fixedher
habitation at the bottom of a gulf, on a peninsula, near the
spot where Tunis now stands.
From this, Carthage arose, a city which afterwards became
famous for its wealth and power, and from its connexion with
the Roman wars. The early history of the people, who were
called after the name of theii* principal city, is but little
known. Its later history is involved in that of Rome.
It is probable Dido might have found a few inhabitants in
this place, whom its local advantages had induced to settle
there ; but to her and her attendants, Carthage is doubtless
mdebted for a regular foundation.
The colony had the same language, and national charac-
ter, and nearly the same laws, with the parent state. In the
I '.eight of its splendour, it possessed a population of 700,000
inhabitants, and had under its dominion 300 small cities, bor-
dering on the Mediterranean sea.
§ Pygmalion, wishing to posses.s himself of the immense riches of
Sichseus, the husband of Dido, took an opportunity, while they were
engaged in a chase, to run liim tlu-ough tlie body with a spear. The
suspicion of his sister Avas awakened ; but, concealing her design,
.she requested Pygmalion to furnish her with men and ships, to con-
vey her effects to a small city between Tyre and Sidon, that she might
live there with her brother i3arca.
The king granted her request ; but Dido liad no sooner embarked
her property on board, than her brother and others, who favoured
her real design, set sail for Cyprus, whence they carried off a great
mimber of young women, and tlien steered their course to Africa.
The Tyrian monarch, thus defeated in his schemes, was about to
send a fleet after the fugitives ; but the tears of his mother, and the
threatening predictions of the oracle, pre-vented his intended revenge.
ITALY.
Sect. 15. In Italy, at the time of Numitor, about 77.5
B. C, there was a turn in events deserving our notice. Amu-
lius, the brother of Numitor, being ambitious of the throne,
usurped the government, and connected this act with the
murder of the .king's only son, and with compelling Rhea
Sylvia, his only daughter, to become a vestal. He thus
meant to prevent any from becoming claimants to the throne.
The event, however, frustrated the hopes of Amulius ; for
from Sylvia sprung Remus and Romulus, twin brothers, who,
at length overcoming Amulius, replaced their grandfather
Niuiiitor, on the tluone.
1004—753 3. c. 55
§ Amulius, hear,ng of the birth of Renins and Romiilns, .so contrary
to his expectations, ordered the mother to be buried ahve, the pun-
ishment of incontinent vestals, and the cliildrcn to be thrown into the
river 'I'iber. The latter sentence was executed, but the f(n-mer was
prevented by the intercession of a daughter of Amulius.
The infants, though put into the Tiber, were saved, since the bas-
ket in which they were covered, floated on the surface. It was borne
to the foot of the Aventine mount, and there stranded. According
to some accounts, a she-wolf suckled them, which is incredible.
According to otlier accounts, the woman who preserved and nursed
tliem, was called Ijitpa, and as Lupa is the Latin word for she-wolf,
tliis circumstance caused the mistake.
The two brothers became shepherds, were fond of hunting wild
beasts, and at length turned their arms against the robbers that in-
fested the country. Having been informed of their high birth, they
collected their friends, and fought against Amulius, their uncle, and
killed him.
Numitor, after an exile of 42 j'ears, was then called to the throne
again, and was happj^ to owe his restoration to tlie bravery of his
grandsons. Such were the youths who were destined by Provi-
dence to lay the foundation of a city, which became the mistress of
the world.
Distinguished cJtaracters in Period V.
1. Solomon, endowed wnth extraordinary wisdom,
2. Homer, the greatest of the Grecian poets.
3. Hesiod, an eminent Greek poet.
4. Lyciirgus, a reformer of the Spartan repubUc. and wise
legislator.
5. Dido, a Tyrian princess, who founded Carthage.
6. Isaiah, tlie greatest of the prophetical writers.
§ 1. Solomon was the son of David by Bathsheha. He succeeded
David in the kingdom of Israel. He was tlie wisest of mankind. In
early life he appeared to be exemplary in piety, but was afterwards
guilty of great defection from the strictness of religion. It is be-
lieved, however, tliat he did not die an apostate. The temple whit^h
he erected at Jerusalem in honour of the God of Israel, has also ren-
dered his name immortal.
He wrote the books of Proverlis, and Ecclesiastes, and the Canti-
cles, all inspired by the Spirit of God. He died 975 years B. C. aged
58 years, and having reigned 40 years.
2. Homer was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but the
earliest whose works have survived the devastations of time. On
these accounts he is styled the father of poetry, and indeed, so far as
we can know with certainty, he is the most ancient of all profane
classical w^-iters.
The place of his nativity is unknown. Seven illustrious cities
contended for the honour of having given him birth. His parentage
56 ANCIENT HISTORi' PERIOD V.
and the circumstances of his life are also unknown, except in regarc*
to the latter, it was agreed that he was a wanderivg poet, and that
he was hlind.
His greatest poems, (and they are among the greatest of uninspi-
red books,) are tlie Iliad and Odyssey. Other works have been as-
cribed to liim, but without having been sufficiently substantiated. His
poetry is characterized by sublimity, fire, sweetness, elegance, and
universal knowledge.
The poems of Homer are the compositions of a man, who travel-
led and examined, with the most critical accuracy. Avhatever he met in
his way. jModern travellers are astonished to see the different scenes
which his pen described, almost 3000 years ago, still appearing the
same ; and the sailor who steers his course along the J^gean, beholds
all the promontories and rocks which presented themselves to Nestor
and IMenelaus, when they returned victorious from the Trojan war.
The first appearance of Homer's poems in Greece, was about 200
years after the supposed time of the bard. Pisistratus, tyrant of
Athens, was the first who arranged the Iliad and Odyssey in the form
in which they now appear to us. The Arundelian marbles fix the
period in which he flourished, at 907 years B. C.
3. Hesiod is generally considered as having been a contemporary
of Homer. He was born at Ascra in Bosotia. His greatest production
was a poem on AgricuUw^e, Avhich contains refined moral reflections,
mingled with instructions for cultivating fields.
His Theogony^ another poem, gives a faithful account of the gods
of antiquity. Hesiod is admired for elegance and sweetness. Cicero
highly commends him, and the Greeks were so partial to his moral
poetical instructions, that they required their children to learn them
all by heart.
4. Lycurgvs flourished about 884 years B. C. He was regent of
Sparta, until Charilaus, his nephew, had attained to mature 3'8ars.
Then leaving Sparta, he travelled in Asia and Egypt, for the purpose
of improving his mind, and observing the manners, customs, and po-
litical institutions of different nations.
Upon his return, he reformed the abuses of the state, banished lux-
ury, and produced a system whicli gave rise to all the niagnanimity,
fortitude, and intrepidity which distinguished the Lacedaemonians.
Having established his laws, and engaged the citizens not to alter
them until his return, he left his country, and, by a voluntary death,
rendered that event impossible ; thus securing, as far as in his power,
tlie perpetuity of his institutions.
5. Dido, also called Elisso, was a daughter of Belus, king of
Tyre, and married her uncle Sichajus. Her husband having been
murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, the disconsolate
princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a settlement.
A storm drove her fleet on the African coast, and there she founded,
or enlarged a city, that became much celebrated in the annals of
history.
Her beauty, as well as the fame of her entei-prise, gained her
many admirers j and her subjects wished to compel her to marry
1004—752 B. c. 57
larbas, king of Mauritania, by whom they were Uireatened with war.
Dido requested three montlis for consideration ; and, during that
time, she erected a funeral pile, as if wishing, by a solemn sacrifice,
to appease tlie manes of Sichseus, to whom she had vowed eternal
fidelity.
When her preparation was completed, she stabbed herself on the
pile, in presence of her people, and by this desperate feat, obtained
the name of Dido, valiant icoman. The poets have made yi'ncas and
Dido contemporaneous, but this is only a fiction, allowed perhaps by
the rules of their art.
6. Isaiah was th.e son of Amos, and of the lineage of David. He
prophesied from 735 to 681 B. C. during the reigns of several kings
of Judali. He is the greatest and the sublimest of the prophets. He
reproved the sinners of his day with boldness, and exposed the many
vices that prevailed in the nation. He is called the evangelical pro-
phet, from his frequent allusion to, and prediction of Gospel times.
He is said to have been cut in two with a wooden saw, by the cruel
king Manasseh.
PERIOD VI.
7V«e period of the Roman ki?igs, extending from the
fou7uling of Ro?Jie, 752 years B. C.^tothe battle of Ma-
rathon, 490 years B. C.
ROMANS.
Sect. 1. Romulus began the building of Rome 752 B. C.
His brother Renins was indeed concerned in the projected un-
dertaking, but a dispute arising between llie l)rolhers respect-
ing the place where the city should stand, they had recourse
to arms ; in consequence of which, Remus lost his hfe.
Romukis. only 18 years of age, was thus left to pursue the
enterprise alone. On the Palatine hill he fixed as the spot,
and enclosing about a mile of territory in compass, with a
wall, he filled it with 1000 houses, or rather huts. To this
collection he gave the name of Rome ; and he peopled it with
the tumultuous and vicious rabble, which he found in the
neighbourhood. At first it was nearly destitute of laws ; but
it soon became a well regidated community.
§ The liberty of building a city on those hills, where the two bro-
thers had fed tlieir flocks, was granted to them by Numitor, the king.
He assigned to them a certain territory, and permitted such of his
subjects as chose, to resort thither in aid of the work.
A division tiiking place, in regard to the particular spot where tlie
city should stand, Numitor advised them to watch the flight of birds.
68 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VT.
a ciislom common in that age, when any contested point was to be
settled. They took their stations on different hills. Remus saw six
vultures ; Romulus twice as many ; so that each one tiicught himself
victorious — the one having the first omen, the other the most com-
plete.
A contest was the result ; and it is asserted that Remus was killed
by the hand of his brother. Jumping contemptuously over the city
wall, he was struck dead upon the spot by Romulus, who declared
that no one should insult his rising walls with impunity.
2. Romulus, having been elected king, introduced order
and discipline among his subjeUs, which gradually improved
imder his successors.
He adopted many important regidations respecting the go-
vernment and policy of his newly acquired territory, the wis-
dom of which has been sanctioned by time. As some of
these, and other institutions that were afterwards added, are
to be presented under the General Yicws in this work, they
need not here be given.
3. Under tiie salutary regulations of Romidus, great
numbers of men, from the small towns around Rome, Hock-
ed to the city, and every day it increased in power and ex-
tent. The most important event under the administration
of Romulus, was the Rape of the Sabine virgins, by which
the Romans were supplied with wives, and which caused the
war that thence ensued between the Romans and Sabines.
After conqtiering some of the neighbouring kings, Romu-
lus was killed (it is supposed) by the Senators, having reigned
37 years, and was succeeded, at the expiration of one year,
by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, the wisest and best of the
Roman kings, 715 years B. C.
§ In the want of women, Romulus proposed intern)arriagcs with the
Sabines, his neiglibours. His proposal, however, was rejected wiiii
scorn. He then tried the effect of intrigue and force. Inviting the
neiglibourmg tribes to witness some magnificent s[vpctacle in the
city, he liad the pleasure of finding thattlie Sabines, with tlieir wives
and daughters, Avere among the foremost to be present.
At the proper time, the Roman youth i-ushed in among them with
drawn swords, seized the youngest and most beautiful of the women,
and carried them off by violence. The virgins, at fii-st olfended by
the boldness of the intrusion, at length became reconciled to their lot,
Tiie Sabines, as might be expected, resented the affront, and flew
to arms. After si-'veral unfortmiate attempts at revenge, the Sabines,
with Tatius, their king, at their head, entered tlie Roman territories,
25,000 men strong. HaAing by stratagem passed into the city, the^
752—490 B. c. 59
conlJnued the war at pleasure. At length the Romans and Sabiiies
prepared for a general engagement.
In tlie midst of the fight, liovvever, the Sabine v/omen who had
been carried off by the Romans, rushed in between the combatants.
"If," cried they, "any must die, let it be us, wlio are the cause of
your animosity ; since, if our parents or our husbands fall, we must,
in either case, be miserable in surviving tliem."
This movinji spectacle produced an effect. An accommodation
ensued, it was agreed that Tatius and Romulus should reign jointly
in Rome : that 100 Sabines should be admitted into the senate ; and
that the privileges of Roman citizens, should be extended to such of
the Sabines as chose to enjoy them.
Tatius lived but five years after this ; and Romulus, taking advan-
tage of this event, and elated by prosperity, invaded the liberty of
his people. The senators opposed his encroachn)ents, and at length,
it is .said, tore him to pieces in the senate house.
When the throne was offered to Numa, he wished to decline it ; and
il was not until his friends repeatedly urged him to accept it, that he
gave up his own wishes to theirs, and for the good of his country
consented to become king of Rome.
He was a wise and virtuous man, and, before his elevation to tlic
throne, lived contentedly in privacy. He proved excellent as a mo-
narch, and reigned 43 years in profound peace, inspiring his subjects
with the love of wisdom and virtue.
He multiplied the national gods, built temples, and instituted dif-
ferent classes of priests, and a great variety of religious ceremonies.
The Fiaminos officiated each in the service of a peculiar deity; the
Salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the Vestals cherished the sacred
fire ; the Augurs and Aruspices divined future events from the flight
of birds, and the entrails of victims.
4. The third king of Rome was Tullius Hostilius, who
was tlected, and beg'an to reign, 672 B. C. His disposi
tiori was v>-arlike. He subdued the Albans, Fidenates, a.nd
other neighbouring states. The Sabines, now disunited from
the Romans, became their most powerful enemy. Ttdlius
reigned 33 years, and, according to some accounts, he wad
killed by lightning. The most remarkable event during the
reign of Tulhus, was the combat between the Horatii and
Curiatii.
In the war between the Romans and Albans, as their armies were
about to engage, the Alban general proposed that the dispute .should
be decided by single combat, and that the side whose champion was
overcome, should submit to the conqueror. To this the Roman king
acceded.
It happened that there were three twin brothers in each army ;
those of the Romans were called Horatii, those of the Albans, Cu-
riatii J all remarkable for their prowess. To these the combat WiU
60 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VI.
assigned. The armies were drawn up in due order, and the brothers
took to their arms.
The signal being given, the youths rushed forward to the encoun-
ter. They were soon engaged hand to hand, each regardless of his
own safety, seeking only the destruction of his opponent. The three
Albans were severely woimded, and loud shouts ran along the Ra
man army. In a few seconds, two of the Romans fell and expired.
The acclamations were heard amid the Albans.
The surviving Roman now saw that all depended on him ; it was
an awful moment. But he did not despair ; he manfully roused his
spirits to meet the exigence of the occasion. Knowing that force
ulone could not avail, he had recourse to art.
He drew back, as if flying from his enemies. Immediately were
heard the hisses of the Romans. But Horatius had the felicity to
witness what he wished. The wounded Curiatii, pursuing him at
unequal distances, were divided. Turning upon the nearest pursuer,
he laid him dead at his feet. The second brother advancing, soon
shared the same fate.
Only one now remained on each side. The hisses of the Romans
were turned into cheerings. But what was their exultation when
they saw the last of the Curiatii stretched lifeless on the ground I
What followed, it is painful to relate. When Horatius reached
Rome, he saw his sister bitterlj^ lamenting the death of the Curiatii,
one of whom she was engaged to marry. In the dreadful moment
of ungoverned rage, he killed her on the spot.
Horatius was condemned to die for his crime, but making his ap-
peal to the people, he was pardoned, though his laurels and his cha-
racter were forever tarnished.
5. Rome was governed by four other kings, in succession,
viz. Ancius Martius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and
Tarquinius Superbus.
Ancus inherited the virtues of his grandfather, Numa, and
was, besides, a warrior; Tarquin enriched Rome with mag-
nidcent works ; Servius ruled with pohtical wisdom ; but
Tarquin the Proud pursued a course of systematic tyranny.
Withhim ended the monarchical form of government at Rome,
509 years B. C.
§ Servius married his two daughters to the tvv'o sons of Tarquin,
and then having established good government, was preparing to quit
the throne and live in peace and retirement. But these intentions
were frustrated.
Tullia, one of his daughters, preferred her sister's husband to her
own, and he was disposed to reciprocate so vile an attachment. To
answer their base purposes, they both killed their respective partners.
As one wickedness too surely paves the way for another, these flagi
tious wretches next ])lotted the death of Servius.
It will be read with horror, that not only did the cruel Tullia re-
joice, when she heai'd that Tarquinius had murdered her father, but
752— 490 b c. 61
that when she rode forth in her chariot, to congratiiiate the base mur-
derer, she would not permit her coacliman to indulge even his h\i-
manity, who seeing the bleeding body of Servius lying in the street,
was about to turn down another road, thinking, very rationally, that
his mistress would be shocked to behold the mangled corpse of her
old father.
Tullia had expelled from her heart all natural feeling, and per-
ceiving the hesiiation of the coachman, angrily bade the man drive
on ; he did so, and the chariot-wheels of the daughter's car wcr
stained with tlie blood of her gray-haired father.
Tarquin, surnamed the proud, upon this event, was made king ;
but though at first he ingratiated himself with the lower classes a!
the people, j-et by his oppressive and tyrannical conduct, he at length
became an object of universal detestation. His son Sextus having
greatly indulged in detestable vices, became the occasion of his own
and the king's ruin.
This prince, and CoUatinus a noble Roman, and some officers,
when with the army besieging Ardea, a small town not far from
Rome, in the height of a debauch, were boasting what excellent
wives each possessed. CoUatinus was cer*ain that his was the best ;
hi their merriment, the young men mounted their horses, and set off
for Rome, to discover whose wife was most properly employed iu
the absence of her husband.
The ladies were all found visiting and passing the time in amuse-
ment and mirth, except Lucretia, the wife of CoUatinus. She was
industriously spinning wool among her maidens at home. Sextus
was so taken with the good sense and right behaviour of Lucretia,
that lie fell in Io^■e with her, and wished her *o quit her husband,
indulging at the same time the most unwarrantable designs.
Lucretia, shocked at his vile proposals, and unable to survive her
dishonour, killed herself for grief, which so distracted CoUatinus, that
with Junius Brutus, and other friends, he raised an army, and drove
Sextus and his infamous father from Rome. The people had suffer-
ed so much under the tyranny of this king, that they resolved that
he should never coine back, and that they would have no more kings.
The cause of the interest which Brutus took in the death of Lu-
cretia, was the following. His father and eldest brother had been
slain by Tarquin. and unable to avenge their death, he pretended to
be insane. The artifice saved his life ; he was called Brutus for his
stupidity. When the infamous deed of the Tarquins was done, and
the catastrophe which ensued wa.s known, he seized the occasion of
revenge.
Snatching the dagger from the wound of the bleeding Lucretia, he
swore upon the reeking blade, immortal hatred to' the royal family.
" Be witness, ye gods," he cried, " that from this moment I proclaim
myself the avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause," &c. This energy
of speech and action, in one who had been reputed a fool, astonished
Rome, and every patriot's arm was nei-ved against Tarquin and his
adherents — against Tarquin and royalty.
F
62 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD TT.
6. From a monarchy, Rome now became a republic, Avith
a gradual increase of the power of the people from time to
time. At first the nobles had much the largest share in the
government. The supreme authority was committed to two
magistrates, chosen from the patrician order every year, who
were named consuls. Their power was nearly or quite equal
to that of the kings, only it was temporary. Brutus and
Collatinus were the first consuls, who, with several of their
successors, w^ere engaged in hostility with the Ijanished king.
§ Tarquiii, after his expulsion, took refuge in Etruria. where he
enlisted two of the most powerful cities, Venii and Tarqninii; to es-
pouse his cause. At Rome also he had adherents. A conspiracy
having been formed to open the gates of the city to him, the republic
was on the eve of ruin.
It was however discovered in season, and the two sons of Brutus
Having been concei'ued in it, he sternly ordered them to be beheaded
m his presence. He put off the father, and acted only the consul — a
dreadful necessity.
Some time after, in a combat between the Romans and Tarquins,
Brutus engaged with Aruns, son of Tarquin, and so fierce was the
attack, that they both fell dead together. Brutus was honoured as
the father of tlie republic.
Tarquin now fled for aid to Porsenna, king of Clusium, who ad-
vanced v/ith a large army to Rome, and had nearly entered it. The
valour of one man saved ♦he city. Iloratius Codes, seeing the ene-
my approach the bridge where he stood sentinel, and observing the
retreat of the Romans, besought them to assist him. He told them to
burn or break down the bridge behind him, whilst he went forward
to keep back the enemy.
He then remained alone fighting in the midst of his enemies, and
when he heard the crash of the bridge and the shouts of the Romans,
knowing that no way of entrance was left for the foe, he jumped into
the river and swam over to his friends in safety.
In the war with Porscima occurred another remarkable incident.
ISIutius Scaivola, a noble j'oung Roman, upon leave obtained of the
senate, disguised himself, and entered the tent of Porsenna. There he
saw a man so richly drest that bethought he was the king, whom he
contrived to kill, but it was only the king's secretary.
While endeavouring to quit the camp, Mutius was seized and car-
ried before Porsenna, wdio told him he would severely torture him if
he did not betray the schemes of the Romans. Mutiusonly answered
by putting his hand into one of the fires lighted near him, and hold-
ing it steadily there.
The king, seeing the courage and fortitude of this youth, leaped
from his throne, and drawing the hand of Mutius from the flame,
highly praised him, and dismissed him without farther harm. Peace
was soon concluded upon this incident.
752—490 B. c. 63
7. The Latins, excited by Mamilius, Tarquin's son-in-
law, declared war against the Romans, 501 years B. C. The
common people, oppressed by the patrician order, had become
disaffected, and refused to enlist into the service. In this
crisis, the Romans resorted to the desperate measure of having
a dictator, a magistrate with unlimited authority, for the pe-
riod of six months. This was an efi'ectual resort in times of
danger.
A few years after, the people, supposing their grievances
not sufficiently redressed, rose in general insurrection, when
the senate consented to create five new magistrates, called
tribunes, who were to be annually selected by the people.
These were to be sacred ; their office w-as to defend the
oppiessed, pardon olienders, arraign the enemies of the peo-
ple, and, if necessary, stop the whole machine of government.
They were afterwards increased to ten. The popular or de-
mocratic constitution of Rome may be dated from this period,
400 years B. C.
About this time, Coriolanus, a patrician and able warrior,
being banished from Rome, for proposing the abolition of the
tribunate, retired to the Volsci, among whom he raised an
army, and advanced to besiege Rome. Attacking the city,
lie would probably have conquered it, but he was turned from
his purpose by the prayers and tears of his mother, wife, and
children.
§ A few particulars respecting Coriolanus must here be related.
Passing over the circumstances of his banishment, we find tlial upon
his entrance into tlie territory of tlie Volsci, he met a most friendly
reception from Tullus Aufidius, a mortal enemy to Rome.
Having advised this prince to make war against the Romans, he
niarcliod at the head of the Volsci, as general. The approach of
( 'oriolanus, at the head of so powerful an enemy, greatly alarmed
the Romans, who sent him several ombassio^s to reconcile him to hip
country, and to solicit his return, lie was deaf to all proposals ; and
1 hough each successive embassy was made more and more solemn
and urgent, he bade them prepare for war.
At Rome, all was now confusion and consternation. The republic
was nearly given up for lost. Coriolanus had pitchea his camp at
only a very short distance from the city. As a last resort, it was
suggested, that possibly his wife or mother might effect what the
senate and the ministers of religion could not.
Accordingly his mother, Veturia, and his wife, Vergilia, with his
children, and the principal matrons of the city, undertook the 1?"*!
tmbussy. The meeting of Coriolanus and this train, was in the high-
64 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI.
est degree tender and affecting. In the sternness of his soul he had
resolved to give tliem a denial ; but the authority of a mother, and
the entreaties of a wife and of children, must be listened to.
"My son," cried his mother, "hovi^ am I to consider this meeting /
Do I embrace my son or my enemy ? Am I your mother or your
oaptive 1 How have I lived to see this day — to see my son a banished
man — and still more distressful, to see him the enemy of his coun-
try ? how has he been able to turn his arms against the place that
gave him life — how direct his rage against those walls that protect
his wife, his children, and his gods 1 But it is to me only that my
country owes her oppressor. Had I never been a mother, Rome had
still been free."
With these and similar woi-ds, and with the tears and entreaties of
his wife and children, his stern and obstinate resolutions v/ere over-
come. He was melted under them, and the feelings of a man rose
superior to the honour of a soldier and the vengeance of a foe. The
Volsci were marched from the neighbourhood of Rome, but the event
fulfilled the sad prediction which he addressed to his mother, in re-
ply— a prediction which only a Roman mother could hear — " O my
mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son."
The act of Coriolanus, of course, displeased the Volsci. He was
summoned to appear before the people of Antium: but the clamours
which his enemies raised M'^ere so prevalent, that he was murdered
on the spot appointed for his trial. His body was honoured, never-
theless, with a magnificent funeral by the Volsci, and the Roman ma-
trons put on mourning for his loss.
To show their sense of Veturia's merit and patriotism, the Romans
dedicated a temple to Female Fortune.
GREECE.
8. Greece, during this period, underwent several changes.
After the institutions of Lycurgus had been a number of
years in successful operation, those of Athens began to re-
ceive attention from some of their wise men. The office ot
archon had become decennial, at the beginning of this pe-
riod.
In 648 B. C, the archons were elected annually, were
nine in number, and all had equal authority. Under these
changes the people became miserable, and a reform was at-
tempted, first by Draco, and 150 years afterwards by the illus-
trious Solon, 594 years B. C. At the request of the citizens,
they each furnishc^d, during- his archonship, a written code
for the regulation of the state.
§ Draco was a wise and honest, but a very stern man. His laws
were characterized by extreme severity. Very trifling offences were
punished with death, " because," said Draco, " small crimes deserve
death, and I have»no greater punishment for the greatest sins,"— a
plan iJl adapted to the state of human society.
752—490 B. c. 65
Solon was one of the seven wise men of Greece. He established
excellent rules of Justice, order, and discipline. But, though possess-
ed of extensive knowledge, he wanted a firm and intrepid mind ; and
he rather acconnuodated his system to the habits and passions of his
countrymen, tiian attempted to reform their manners.
lie cancelled the bloody code of Draco, except the laws which re-
lated to nuu-der ; and he abolished the debts of the poor by an act of
insolvency. He divided the Athenians into four classes, of which the
three first consisted of persons possessing property, and the fourth of
those who were poor.
All the offices of the state were committed to the care of the rich ;
but those who possessed no property, were allowed to vote in the
general assembly of the people, in whose hands he lodged the su-
preme power.
He instituted a senate, composed of 400 persons, (afterwards in-
creased to 500 and 600,) who had cognisance of all appeals from the
court of Areopagus, and with whom it was necessary that every
measure should originate before it was discussed in the assembly of
the people. In this way he sought to balance the weight of the po-
pular interest.
Solon committed the supreme administration of justice to the
court of Areopagus. This court had fallen into disrepute, but So-
lon, by confining its numbers to those who had been archons, great-
ly raised the reputation of the body.
" The following anecdote of Solon and Thespis is worthy of remem-
brance. Thes[)is was an actor of plays. Solon having at one time
attended those shows, which were then very rude, called Thespis,
who had been acting various characters, and asked him if he was
not ashamed to speak so many lies I
Thespis replied, " It was all in jest." Solon, striking his staff on
tlie ground, violently exclaimed, " If we encourage ourselves to speak
falsely in jest, we shall run the chance of acquiring a habit of speak-
ing falsely in serious matters." Such a sentiment is worthy of the
wisdom of Solon.
9. Scarcely Imd Athens bej^uii to enjoy the benefit of
tliese new rea^ulations, when Pisistratns, a rich and ambi-
tious citizen, usurped the supreme power, (B. C. 560,) which
act Solon w\i3 unable to prevent. He and his posterity exer-
cised it during; 50 years.
Hippias and Hipparchu'^, his sons, who succeeded him, en-
joyed a peaceable crown for a time, but were at length de-
tlnoned, and democracy was restored.
§ Pisistratus secured the favour of the people by the following ex-
pedient. Wounding himself, he ran into the market place, and pro-
claimed tliat his enemies had inflicted the injury. Solon, with con-
tempt, said to him, " Son of Hippocrates, you act Ulysses badly ; he
hurt himself to deceive his enemies ; you have done so to cheat your
friends."
F2
66 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI.
The populace, as is generally the case, being deaf to the voice of
reason, Pisistratus became tyrant, or king of Athens. He secured
the affections of the people by his splendour and munificence. He
was eminent for his love of learning, and the fine arts. He adorned
Athens with many magnificent buildings.
The restoration of democracy was undertaken by Harmodius and
Aristogiton, who were citizens in middle life. They succeeded
eventually, though they both lost their lives in the attempt. Aristo-
giton was previously tortured, having fallen into the hands of Hip-
pias. By the aid of the Lacedaemonians the object was accomplish-
ed, and Hippias, who at first escaped the fate of his brother, was at
length dethroned.
Passing into Asia, he solicited foreign aid to place him in the so-
vereignty. Darius at this time meditated the conquest of Greece.
Hippias took advantage of the views of an enemy against his native
country, and Greece soon became involved in a war with Persia.
10. Under the institutions of Lycurgus tlie Spartans had
become a race of warriors. Being in the neighlwurhood of
Messenia, they were ahiiost constantly at war wdth that
state. The first Messenian war began 743 years B. G. and
lasted 19 years. There were two other periods of conten-
tion between Sparta and Messenia, but the latter was final-
ly subdued. The territory was seized and its inhabitants
were enslaved.
§ During one of these wars, the Lacedaemonians, it is said, bound
themselves by oath not to return home till they had conquered the
Messenians. Despairing, however, of ever returning, they sent or-
ders to the women of Sparta to recruit the population, by promiscu-
ous intercourse with the youiig men, who being children when the
war began, had not taken the oath.
The offspring of this singular and improper order were denomina-
ted Partheniae, or Sons of Virgins.
ISRAELITES.
11. The kingdom of Israel, tovv'ards the beginning of
the present }3eriod, (721 B. C.) was subverted by Salmana-
'/ar king of Assyria, or Nineveh. The Israelites were car-
ried captive to Assyria, whence they never returned. This
event occurred during the reign of Hosea, their last king.
§ Hosea had reigned nine years, when Salmanazar made him tribu-
lary. But Hosea having revolted, the Assyrian king besieged Sama-
ria, the capital of the ten tribes, and after three years took and plun-
dered it.
Except a few, who remained in Canaan, the Israelites were disper-
sed throughout Assyria, and lost their distinctive cliaracter. Those
who remained in their native country became intermixed with stran-
gers. The descendants of tliese mingled races were afterward.s
known by the name of Samaritans.
752 — 490 B. c. 67
Thus, in a little more than two centuries after the separation of the
ten tribes from those of Jiidah and Benjamin, were tliey destroyed
as a nation, having, on account of their great sins, previously suffered
an awful series of calamities.
JEWS.
12. The kingdom of Judah from the commencement of
this period enjoyed but a doubtful existence. It was invaded
at dilierent times by the Babylonians, rendered tributary, and
finally subdued.
Nebuchadnezzar, within 115 years after the destruction of
Samaria, took Jerusalem, and razed the city and its temple
to its foundations.
§ During the latter part of the kingdom of Judah, the greater por
tion of its kings were impious. Two or three of them, however,
were eminently religious. Such were Hezekiah and Josiah. They
were both of them reformers, and destroyed the altars of idolatry.
The idolatry of Ahaz was punished by the captivity of 200,000 of
liis subjects, thougli they were afterwards sent back upon the remon-
strance of the prophet Obed. Manasseh, an impious and cruel prince,
v/as carried to Babylon, bound with fetters. This affliction, becom-
ing the means of his repentance, God heard his supplications, and
brought him again into his kingdom.
13. Under Jehoiachin, who was carried captive to Baby
Ion, together with his people, commenced the Seventy years
(vaptivity of the Jews, 606 B. C. The king was after-
wards released, but remained tributary to the king of Baby
Ion.
§ In the reign of Zedekiah, the next but one in succession after Je-
hoiachin, Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians, and entirely de-
molished. Zedekiah, after seeing all his children slain, had his eyes
put out, and was brought in fetters to Babylon.
14. The Jews having been in captivity to the Babylo-
nians ju.-t 70 year.-', were permitted, by Cyrus, king of Persia,
to return to their native land, 536 years B. C. This was
accomplished under the direction of Zerubbabel and Joshua,
tlieir leaders.
They soon began the rebuilding of the temple, but their
enemies prevented them from making any progress. Seve-
ral years afterwards they commenced the work anew, and
completed it in the space of foiu' 5'ears, 516 B. C Upon
this event they celebrated the first passover.
§ The return of the Jews from their captivity happened the first
year of Cyrus, who, as we shall soon learn, had conquered Babylon,
and terminated the Babylonian empire.
The influence of adversity ou many of the Jews, seems to have
68 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI.
been very favorable on this occasion. It brought them to repent-
ance, and engaged them in the worship and ordinances of their re-
ligion. The vessels of the temple, which Nebuchadnezzar had
brought with him from Jerusalem, were all restored by the Persian
monarch.
NINEVEH.
15. Of the three kingdoms into which the ancient Assy
rian empire was divided upon the death of Sardanapalus,
Nineveh or Assyria comes first in order. Its first king ia
supposed to have been Tiglath Pileser, 747 B. C. A few
of his successors, during this period, were Sahnanazar, Sen
nacherib, Esarhaddon, Nebuchadnezzar, and Belshazzar.
Under tlie last of these kings the kingdom of Nineveh end
ed. Babylon, its capital, was taken by Cyaxares 11. aided
by Cyrus, and Belshazzar was killed, 538 years B. C.
§ Salmanazar was the sovereign mentioned above, in the history of
the Israelites. He destroyed the kingdom of the Ten Tribes.
Of Sennacherib it is recorded in his war with the Jews, that having
written a letter to Hezekiah full of blasphemy against the God of Is-
rael, God, in order to punish him, when he was just ready to take Je-
rusalem, sent an angel, who in one night smote 185,000 men of his
army.
Covered with shame, he returned to his own country, and there
his two eldest sons conspired against and killed him in the temple of
Nisroch.
About 108 years after this prince, Nebuchadnezzar began to reign
over the kingdom of Nineveh. He signalized his reign by many con
quests, partictdarly of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt.
His heart being elated with success, God, to punish him for his
pride, reduced him to such a state of insanity, that, wandering in the
forests, he lived upon grass, like a wild beast. He recovered twelve
months before his death, and, by a solemn edict, published through-
out the whole of his dominions the astonisliing things that God had
wrought in him.
Labynit, or the scripture Belshazzar, became peculiarly infamous
by profanely using the holy vessels which Nebuchadnezzar had
brought out of the spoils of the temple. He was at length besieged
.by Cyaxares II. king of the Medes, in conjunction with Cyrus.
During tlie siege he made a great entertainment for his whole court
on a certain niglit; but their joy was greatly disturbed by a vision,
and still more by the explanation which Daniel, the prophet, a Jew-
ish captive, gave of it to the; king, that his kingdom was taken from
him, and delivered to the Medes and Persians. That very nighl
Babylon was taken and Belshazzar killed.
BABYLON.
16. Babylon, the next kingdom in order of the second em-
752—490 B. c. 69
pire of Assyria, coiuinued separate not quite 70 years. Na-
boimssur was its liist king. After a few successive reigns,
and interregnums, it was subdued by Esarhaddon, one of the
kings of Nineveh, and annexed to his dominions, (380 B. C
§ The famous ;>stronomical epocha at Babylon, called the era of
Nabonassar, coniinenccd from the reign of this prince. V/e are un-
acquainted with tlie history of his successors, only Mcrodach seems
to be the same prince who sent ambassadors to Hezekiah, to congra-
tulate him on the recovery of his health.
MEDES.
17. The last in order of the kingdoms that constituted
the second empire of Assyria was that of theMEDES. After
the destruction of the first Assyrian empire, the Medes enjoy-
ed for some time the hberty they had acquired by their va-
lour. They formed a repubhc ; Ijut anarchy having prevailed,
they elected a king after 37 years.
Dejoces, the f.rst king, was elected 690 5^ears B. C. The
fourth king after him, viz. Cyaxares II. or Darius the Mede,
having with his nephew, Cyrus, conquered Baljylon, reigned
over it two years in conjunction with Cyrus ; after which the
kingdom of the Medes, and indeed the whole Assyrian em-
pire, was united to that of Persia, 536 years B. C.
§ The Medes are supposed to be the descendants of Madai, the third
son of Japhet, from whom they derived their name. They seem to
have been independent tribes at first, and not to have been united
under one monarcfiy till the time of Dejoces.
They were governed by petty princes, and some are of opinion,
that one of the four kings, who in the time of Abraham, invaded the
southern coast of Canaan, reigned in Media. They were first brought
into subjection to the Assyrian yoke by Ninus.
Some time after they had shaken olT this 5'oke, they were govern-
ed by kings of their own, who became absolute, and were controlled
bj'' no law. Of Dejoces it is recorded, that he no sooner ascended
tlie throne, than he endeavoured to civilize and polish his subjects.
fie built the beautiful city of Ecbatana, and made it the capital of his
empiie.
He tlien contrived a code of laws for the good of the state, and cau-
sed them to be strictly obeyed. In a war with Nebuchadnezzar I.
his capital was plundered, and stripped of all its ornaments, and
falling into the conqueror's hands, he was cruelly shot to death with
arrows.
Phraortes, his successor, was much more fortunate, and conquered
almost all upper Asia. Cyaxares I. a brave prince, made war upon
the kingdom of Ninev(!h, to avenge the wrongs inflicted by Nebu-
chadnezzar, A battle ensued, in which the Nincvites or Assyrians
70
ANCIENT HISTORY- -PERIOD VI.
"*ere defeated ; but a formidable army of the Scytliians having invaded
Media, Cyaxares marched with all his forces against them.
The Medes, however, were vanquished, and obliged to make an
alliance with the Scythians, who settled in Media, where they re-
mained for 28 years. Finding that they could not get rid of their
troublesome guests by force, they elTected it by stratagem. The
Scythians being invited to a general feast, which was given ia every
family, each landlord made his guest drunk, and in that condition
massacred him.
After this event, Cyaxares entered into a war with the Lydians.
This war continued five years. The battle fought in the fifth year,
\vas remarkable on account of a total eclipse of li;e sun, which hap-
pened during the engagement, and which was foretold by Thales, the
philosopher.
The Medes and Lydians, equally terrified, immediately retreated,
and soon after concluded a peace. Two more princes succeeded, viz.
Astyages and Cyaxares II. Astyages married his daughter to Cam-
byses, king of Persia, of which marriage Cyrus was tlie issue. After
the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the kingdoms of the Medes and
Persians.
PERSIA.
18. From tlie clays of Cyrus the Great, 536 years B. C
the Persian empire holds a distinguislied place in ancient
history. It was originally of small extent, and almost un-
known ; but after being founded by Cyrus, it included all
India, Assyria, Media, and Persia, and the parts adjoining to
the Euxine and Caspian Seas. It is sometimes called the
Medo-Persian empire.
Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent character,
and he obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic action:^
and splendid achievements. Having undertalcen an expedi-
tion against the Scythians, he was surprised and slain by
means of an ambuscade from the enemy, 529 years B.C.
He was succeeded b}'^ his son Cambyses, who is called in
scripture Artaxerxes, and who added Egypt to his empire.
Cambyses was succeeded by Darius, 522 years B. C, the son
of Hystaspes, who by a stratagem ol^tained the sovereignty.
§ The first inhabitants of Persia were called Elamitcs, and descended
from Elam the eldest son of Sliem. During, iiowevei', more than 10
centuries we liave little information relative to tlieir liistory. Che-
dcrlaomer, the only king of Elam recorded in liistory, conquered the.
king of Sodoiu, but was defeated by Abraliam. This incident i»
mentioned in Scripture.
Cyrus was born but one year after his uncle Cyaxares. The man-
ners of the Persians were admirable in those days, great simplicity
of dress, and food, and behaviour, universally prevailed, so that Cyrus
752—490 B. c. 71
wns plainly and wisely educated, as he was treated like other chil-
dren of tjis own age. But he surpassed them all, not only in aptness
to learn, but in courage and in address.
Whea he wa.s yet a boy, his mother took him to visit his grAnd-
father, but the pride and luxury of the court of Media quite surprised
and disgusted him. Astyages was so charmed with the sensible con-
versation and artless manners of the prince, that he loaded him with
presents. Cyru?, however, gave them all away to the courtiers, ac-
cording to their merits, or their services rendered to himself.
Sacas, the cup-bearer, he neglected, because he did not let him visit
Astyages when he pleased ; and when Astyages lamented his neglect
of so good an ofuccr, " Oh," said the young prince, " there is not
much merit in being a good cup-bearer ; I can do as well myself."
He then took the cup, and handed it to his mother with great modesty
and gracefulness.
Astyages admired his skill, but lauglnngly observed, " the young
waiter had forgotten one thing." " What have I forgotten 7" asked
Cyrus. " To taste the wine before you handed it to me and your mo-
ther." " I did not forget that, but I did not choose to swallow poison."
" Poison !" exclaimed the king. " Yes, there must be poison in the
cup, for they who drink of it sometimes grow giddy and sick, and
fall down." " Then do you never drink in your country ?" inquired
Astyages. " Yes, but we only drink to satisfy thirst, and then a lit-
tle water suffices."
Many similar anecdotes are recorded of this prince, which may be
iearnt from larger histories. Having reduced all the nations from
the iEgean sea to tlie Euphrates, he advanced towards Babylon, and
at length entered it by stratagem. Having caused deep and large
ditches to be dug all around it, he, on a certain night, when all the
Babylonians were engaged in feasting and merriment, ordered the
dams of the ditches to be thrown open, that the waters of the Euphra-
tes might run into them.
By this mean.s, the channel of the river, which ran through the city,
was left dry, so that the troops entered it without opposition. Tlie
guards were surprised and slain, together Avith the king and all his
family. The kingdom of Babylon was thus destroyed for ever.
Two years after this, Cyrus reigned over his vast empire alone
during seven years, in the first of which he published the famous
edict for the return of the Jews.
Of Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, it is recorded that he conqttered
Egypt, which remained under the Persian yoke 112 years. He made
himself master of Pelusium. the key of Egypt, by the following
stratagem. He placed in front of his army a great number of those
animals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who not daring to injure
them, made no opposition to the Persian army.
After an impostor named Smerdis, who reigned 7 months, Darius,
a descendant of Cyrus on the mother's side, ascended the throne.
In his time it was tiiat the Jews were permitted to rebuild their tem-
ple. After a war against the Scythians, he turned his arms, as we
uhrjU soon spe. anainst the Greeks.
72 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI.
LYDIANS.
19. In the history of the Lydians, the last of its dynasties,
was tliat of the Meimnadie. Gyges, one of the chief officers
of Candaules the king, having murdered the latter, became
possessed of his queen and throne, 718 years B. C. He was
the fust of the Mermnadte race. The fourth prince after him
was Croesus, so celebrated for his riches. His kingdom was
conquered by Cyrus.
§ A circumstance worthy of record occurred in the contest between
Cyrus and Croesus. After Croesus was taken prisoner, he was con-
demned by the conqueror to be burnt alive. When the unhappy
prince was led to the funeral pile, he exclaimed aloud three times,
Solon ! Solon ! Solon !
Cyrus immediately demanded, why he pronounced that celebra-
ted philosopher's name with so much vehemence in that extremity.
Croesus answered, that the observation of Solon, "Tliat no mortal
could be esteemed happy till the end of life," had forcibly recurred to
his recollection.
Cyrus was struck with the remark, and, as if in anticipation of his
own tragical end, ordered the unhappy king to be taken from the pile,
and treated him ever after with honour and respect.
EGYPT.
20. Egypt, during the present period, was governed by
the following kings — Sabbacon, Tharaca, Pharaoh-Necho,
Psammenitus, and a few others. Under the last of these,
525 B. C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, king of Per
sia, to which power it was subject more than a century.
§ Sabbacon, a king of Ethiopia, it seems, conquered Egypt. He
killed Nechus, king of Sais ; burnt Bocchoris, another king, to death,
and forced Anysis the blind to retire into the morasses. During his
continuance in Egypt, he acquired a high reputation for wisdom and
integrity. He finally relinquished the sceptre, and returned into
Ethiopia, because he would not massacre the priests, agreeably to a
suggestion said to have been imparted unto him by the tutelar god
of Thebes.
Tharaca, called in scripture Tirhakah, made war against Senna-
cherib, king of Assyria. After him there was an anarchy of two
years, and an aristocracy of twelve governors for fifteen years.
Pharaoh-Necho waged war against the Assyrians and Jews, killed
Josiah king of Judah, captured Jerusalem, imprisoned Jehoahaz,
and appointed Jehoiachim king.
Psammenitus reigned only six months before the invasion of Cam-
byses, and the subjection of his kingdom. He was kindly treated at
first by the conquerer, but thirsting for an opportunity to revenge
himself, lie was condemned to drink bull's blood, and died wretch-
edly.
752—490 B. c. 73
Distinguished Characters in Period VI.
1. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome.
2. Sappho, a Greek poetess, inventor of the Sapphic verse.
3. iEsop, a Phrygian philosopher and fabulist.
4. Solon, a legislator of Athens, and one of the wisest men
of (jreece.
5. Thales, founder of the Ionic philosophy.
6. Cyrus, a wise and successful prince, who conquered
most of the East.
7. Anacreon, a Greek poet, and father of the Anacreontic
verse.
8. Pythagoras, a Grecian philosopher.
§ J. Romulus was a son of Rhea Sylvia, and grandson of Numitor,
king of Allia, and born at, the same birth with Remus. His story
has already been lold. As the founder of Rome his name \s immor-
tal. Ills virtues were those of a military chieftain and adventurer
ill a rude age. He is net undistinguished as a legislator, though his
institutions had almost exclusively a warlike tendency.
After a reign of 37 or 39 years, he was killed, as is supposed, by
the senators. The fable, however, on this subject is, that as he was
giving instructions to the senators, he disappeared from their sight —
an eclipse of the sun, which happened at that time, being favourable
to the rumor that he was taken up to heaven. The Romans paid
liim divine honours under the name of Quirinus, and ranked him
among the twelve great gods.
2. Sappho was born in the island of Lesbos, about 600 years B. C
She is celebrated for her poetical talents and beauty. Her tender
attachments were extremely violent, and the conduct into which they
betrayed her must be reprobated by every virtuous mind. She con-
ceived such a passion for Phaon, a youth of Mytilene, that upon his
refusal to reciprocate it, she threw herself into the sea from Mount
Leueas.
She composed nine books in lyric vei'ses, besides epigrams, elegie^
&c. Of all these compositions nothing now remains but two frag-
ments, one of which is preserved by Longinus ; though they were
all extant in the age of Horace. Her poems were admired for their
sublimity, sweetness, and elegance ; yet they were highly objection-
able, it is .said, on account of their licentiousness.
3. ^Esop flourished about 580 years B. C. Those entertaining and
mstructive fables which he composed, have acquired for him a higlv
reputation, and he is generally supposed to have been the inventor
of that kind of writing. He was originally a slave, and had several
masters, but procured his liberty by the charms of his genius. Fall-
ing into the hands of an Athenian philosopher, he was enfranchised.
He travelled over the greatest part of Greece and Egypt, but re-
sided much at the court of Croesus, kmg of Lydia, by whom he was
sent to consult the oracle of Delphi. In this commission ^Esop b^
74 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VI.
haved himself with great severity, and sarcastically compared the
Delphians to floatmcr sticks which appear large at a distance, but are
nothing when brought near.
The Delphians. offended with his caustic remarks, accused him of
some act of sacrilege, and pretending to have proved it against him,
threw him down from a rock. He is said to have been short and
deformed in his person.
4. Solon was born at Salamis and educated at Athens. After de-
voting the early oart of his life to philosophical and political studies,
he travelled over the greatest portion of Greece ; but was distressed
with the dissentions that prevailed among his countrymen.
Having, hoAvever. been elected archon and legislator of Athens, he
made a reform in every department of the government. He institu-
ted the Areopagus, regulated the Prytaneum, and his laws flourished
iti full vigour above 400 years. He died, as some report, in Cj'prus, at
the court of king Philocyprus, in his 80th year, about 558 B. C.
5. Thales was born at Miletus, in Ionia. Like the rest of the an-
cients, he travelled in quest of knowledge, and for some time resided
m Crete, Phcenicia, and Egypt. Under the priests of Memphis he
was taught geometry, astronomy, and philosophy, and enabled to
measure with exactness, the height and extent of a pyramid, by its
shadow.
His discoveries in astronomy were great, and he was the first who
calculated accurately a solar eclipse. Like Homer, he looked
upon water as the principle of every thing. In founding the Ionic
sect of pb*Jlosophy, which distinguished itself for deep and abstruse
speculations, his name is memorable.
He died in the 96th year of his age, about 548 years B. C. His
compositions are lost.
6. Cyrus subdued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war against
CrcEsus, king of Lj^dia, whom he conquered, B. C. 548. He invaded
the kingdom of Assyria, and took the city of Babylon, by drying the
channels of the Euphrates, and marching his troops through the bed
of this river, while the people were celebrating a grand festival.
He afterwards marched against Tomyris, the queen of the Massa-
getae, a Scythian nation, and was defeated in a bloody battle, B. C.
1530. The victorious queen, who had lost her son in the previous
encounter, was so incensed against Cyrus, that she cut off his head,
and threw it into a vessel filled with human blood, exclaiming, '• Sa-
tisfy thyself with blood, which thou hast so eagerly desired."
According to Xcnophon, Cyrus possessed many excellent traits of
character.
7. Anacreon had a delicate wit, but he was certainly too fond of
pleasure and wine. All that he wrote is not extant ; though his odes
remain, and their sweetness, gayety, and elegance have been admi-
red in every age. With " flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces,"
they hhve a hurtful moral tendency.
He lived to his 85th year, and after every excess of pleasure and
debauchery, choked himself with a grape stone, and expired. His
statue was placed in the citadel of Athens, representing him as aa
752—490 B. c. 7S
old drunken man, singing, with every mark of dissipation and in-
temperance.
8. Pythiagoras was bom at Samos. In his 18th year he obtained
the prize for wrestling at the Olympic games. He afterwards tra-
velled in Egypt, Chalda^a, and llie east, and at length, in his 40th
year, he retired to Crotona, in Magna Graecia.
Here his universal knowledge gained him friends, admirers, and
disciples, and a reformation took place in the morals of the people.
The world is indebted to him for the demonstration of the 47th pro-
f)Osition of Euclid, respecting the square of the hypotheu'use. By
lis ingenious discoveries in astronomy he traced the true solar sys-
tem. The time and place of his deatta are unknown.
PERIOD VII.
Tlie Period of Grecian Glory ^ exteiiding from the Battle
of Marathon, 490 years B. C. to the birth of Alexatider,
356 years B. C.
GREECE.
I. The Greeks, soon after the expulsion of Hippias, the
king of Athens, became involved in a war with Persia. Un-
der Darius, the Persians invaded Greece, 496 years B. C.
His first fleet was wrecked ; but a second of 600 sail, con-
taining 500,000 men, ravaged the Grecian islands, and an
immense army poured down on Attica.
Miltiades, at the head of the Greeks, met the Persian hosts,
and defeated them on the plain of Marathon. The Persians
lost 6300 men in that battle, while the Greeks lost but 190.
The Grecian force did not exceed 10,000 men. The date
of this engagement is 490 years B. C. and one of the most
important in its consequences that history records.
§ Ambition and revenge in the breast of Darius, gave rise to his
project of invading Greece. The Athenians had rendered assistance
to the people of Ionia in attempting to throw off the Persian yoke,
and had rav;iged Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Darius soon reducing
the lonians to submission, turned his arms against the Greeks ; while
the exile Hippias, basely seconded the plans of the Persian monarch.
One expedition in a great measure failed ; and it was some time
before another could be gathered and prepared to act, so that it was
six years from the period in which the Persian invasion first com
menced, to the battle of IMarathon. Previously to the descent on
Attica, the Persians, under IMardonius, had attacked Thrace, Macedo-
nia, and the neighbouring provinces.
Marathon, where the Grecian and Persian forces met, was a small
lowTi by the sea side. The Greeks were led by ten generals, each
76 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VII.
of whom was to command for one day by turns, and Miltiades was
to take his turn as the others, although lie was cliief general.
Aristides, (one of the ten,) had sense enough to see the evil of such
a plan, and generosity to give up his honours, for the benefit of his
country. When it was his day to command he resigned it to Miltia-
des, because, as he said, " Miltiades is the best general." The other
generals saw the propriety of this conduct, and resigned to their
commander in like manner.
Miltiades, liowever, thought it his duty not to act till his proper day
came round, but he probably made the necessary preparation. TTie
armies engaged in a fierce and obstinate battle. Themistocles, a
brave man, and the compeer of Aristides, fought nobly by his side.
From the skill with which Miltiades had placed his troops, as much
s^ from the valour of those troops, the battle of Marathon was won
by the Greeks.
A soldier covered with the blood of the enemy ran to Athens with
the news, and had just strength enough left to say, " Rejoice ! the
victory is ours !" and tlien fell down dead, from his fatigue and
wounds.
Not long after this service rendered to his country, Miltiades, who
at first was loaded with honours, died in prison, where he was thrust
by the Athenians, because he could not pay a fine which they order-
ed him to pay. On a false pretence of treachery to his coimtry, this
great general had been condemned to death, and afterwards the sen-
tence of death was changed to the paying of a fine.
Greece, particularly Alliens, abounded with great men about this
time. A little tale or two concerning Themistocles may be interest-
ing here. At a time when he was great in power, he laughingly
said, that " his son was greater than any man in Greece.*' " How te
that ?" said a friend. " Why," replied Themistocles, " tlie Athenians
govern Greece, I command the Athenians, his mother commands
me, and this boy commands liis mother."
Themistocles was an able general, and saved his country in one
instance or more. But he was not an amiable man. Ambition was
his god. Plutarch relates that after the battle of Marathon, in which
Miltiades gained so glorious a victory, Themistocles was observed to
court solitude, and indulge in a profound melancholy.
Upon inquiry made of him respecting the cause of his mental de-
jection, he replied, that " tlie trophies of Miltiades would not permit
him to sleep." Indeed all his feelings and conduct showed how
completely ambition had gotten the mastery over him, and howmuch,
consequently, he wished to be master of Athens and of Greece. Yet
under the ungrateful treatment, which he afterwards received from
his countrymen, he \\'ould not betray the land that gave him birth,
tliough he had an opportunity of doing it.
2. On the death of Darius, Iiis son Xerxes prosecuted the
war against Greece. Dining the early part of this war were
fought the celebrated battles of Thermopyla' and Plata^a on land,
and those of the straights of Salamis and Mycale on water.
490— 35G B. c. 77
The battles of Theimopylae and Sulamis took place 480
years B. C. ; and those of Plataea ar'^a Mycale, 479. Leoni-
das, Themistocles, Aristides, Pausanias, and several others,
distingiiislied tlioniselvcs in the defence of Greece, and ac-
(juired lastinj^ renown by tlieir achievements.
Xerxes brought over with him 2,000,000 of fighting men,
besides vast numbers of women and domestics— =-the largest
army and assemblage of persons recorded in history. This
innnense force was eirectually resisted, during two days, at
the pass of Thermopylae, by (3000 Greeks.
Their valour, though it could not finally arrest the progress
of the Persians, cost the latter the lives of 20,000 warriors.
Athens vvas soon reached, which the Persians pillaged and
burnt. The women and children, however, had been pre-
viously conveyed to a place of safety, and tlie men betook
themselves to their fleet.
§ Xerxes was a vain mortal. He ordered a passage to be cut
through tlie liigli mountain of Athos, in Macedonia, and thus a canal
was made for his ships. He is said to have written a letter to
Mount Athos, in A\liich he " commanded it not to put stones in the
way of his workmen, or he would cut it down and tlu-ow it into the
sea," and he ordered tlie labourers to be chastised to make them work
faster.
When he saw, from a high hill, the plain covered with his soldiers,
and the sea with his ships, he at first, in the pride of his heart, called
himself the most favoured of mortals ; but when he reflected, that in
a hundred years, not one of the many thousands whom he beheld
would be alive, ho burst into tears at the instability of all human
things.
Almost all the small cities of Greece submitted to the Persian king
when he sent to them, as vvas the custom, for earth and water;
which was the same as to ask them, whether they would receive
him as their conqueror. Sparta and Athens, with the small towns
of Thespia and Plata;a, akmc refused to receive the heralds and to
send the token of homage.
Every thing gave way before the march of Xerxes, until he came
to tiie pass of Tliermopyla;. On this spot Leonidas, one of the two
reigning kings of Sparta, with his 6000 of bravo soldiers, awaited his
coming. Xerxes, after a weak attempt to corrupt him, imperiously
summoned him to give up liis arms. "Let him come and lake
them," was the short answer of tliis true native of Laconia.
The bravest of the Persian troops were ordered out against Leoni-
das, but they were always driven back with disgrace. At last a
wretch went and informed the king of a secret path, by which he
could mount an eminence wliich overlooked the Grecian camp.
The Persians gained this advantageous post during the darkness of
02
78 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII.
the night, and the next morning the Greeks discovered that they had
been betrayed.
Leonidas knew tliat it was in vain to expect his small army could
conquer the endless forces of Xerxes ; he therefore sent away his
allies, and kept with him only his 300 Lacedaemonians. He had been
told by the oracle that either Sparta or her king must perish, and he
longed to die for the good of his country.
Xerxes marched his vast army against this heroic little band. Leo-
nidas fell among tlie first, bravely fighting, and covered with wounds.
Of the 300 heroes, only one escaped to bear to Sparta the news that
her valiant warriors had died in her defence.
Xerxes having arrived at Athens, found it desolate and deserted.
He burnt down its citadel, and sent away its finest pictures and
statues to Susa, the capital of Persia. The Athenians having man-
ned their fleet, soon attacked that of the Persians, and put it to flight
after a very short, but severe engagement. Themistocles command-
ed on this occasion.
The Persian king had seated himself on a high mountain, that he
might see his Persians overcome the Greeks, but when he saw the
issue of the battle, so contrary to his expectations, he hastened with
a part of his army across the Hellespont.
A second overthrow awaited his army by land ; for IVIardonius,
his general, at the head of 300,000 Persians, was defeated with im-
mense slaughter, at Plataea, by the combined army of Athenians and
Lacedaemonians, amounting to a httle over 100,000 men, led by Pau-
sanias and Aristides.
On the same day with this battle, the Greeks engaged and destroy-
ed the remains of the Persian fleet at Mycale. Thus gloriously to
the Greeks, ended the celebrated expedition of Xerxes against Greece.
3. From the time of the battles of Plataea and Salamis, the
ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at an end. He left Greece
suddenly, and his inglorious life was soon after terminated
by assassination. The military glory of the Greeks was now
at its height. They were for the most part united in oppo-
sing the common enemy. Their danger was the cause of
their union, aud their union was the cause of their prosperity.
4. About 10 years after the return of Xerxes into Asia
with a part of his forces, Cimon, son of Miltiades, expelling
the Persians from Thrace, destroyed the Persian fleet at the
mouth of the river Eurymedon, and landing his troops, sig-
nally defeated their army the same da}^
Some years afterwards he destroyed a Persian fleet of 300
sail ; and landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph by de-
feating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 years 13. C.
Artaxerxes, who had succeeded his father Xerxes, soon sued
for peace. The terms were higlily honourable to the Greeks.
490—356 B. c. 79
{ The prosperity and military glory of the Greeks contimied 50
years ; after wliich, upon the return of the peace with Persia, the
martial and llio patriotic spirit heijan visit)ly to decline in Athen^s.
Still, as will soon ajipear, tlie following age, called the age of Pericles,
was an era of t!ie higliest splendour, so far as literature, taste, and
tlie fine arts were concerned.
Cinion M'as as renowned as his father Milliades. lie was joined
with Aristides at one time in the comniand of tlie Athenians; yet,
notwithstanding tlie important services which they rendered to their
country, they were both punished by the ostracism,* and scarcely
with any pretext.
Before Cimon was banished, besides the victories he gained for
Athens, he had greatly improved the city; he planted groves and
shady walks ; he erected fine places for exercise and public speak-
ing. The celebrated tragic poets, iEschylus and Sophocles were
wont to recite their pieces before him. Cimon was not less devoted
to his ungrateful countrymen after his return from banishment. His
victories procured the peace above mentioned. In it, he stipulated
for the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia.
Of Aristides, who was called " the just," many interesting anec-
dotes are recorded, but we have room for oidy two.
Once when he was carrying a prosecution against his enemy, and
sentence was about to be pronounced, before the accused had spoken,
Aristides entreated that the man might be heard in his defence, and
even helped him to make it.
On another occasion, when he was judge, a trial came before him,
in which one of the parties thouglit to irritate him against the other,
by declaring tliat the other had said and done many injurious things
against Aristides. " Do not talk about tliat," said Aristides, " tell
me only what harm he has dorie to thee, it is thy cause I am judg-
uig."
5. The authority in Athens became for a time divided be-
tween Cimon and Pericle?. In a few years, however, Peri-
cles stood at the head of the Athenian republic. His will had
almost the force of law. He adorned Athens with the most
magnificent structures, and rendered it the scat of learning,
taste, and the fine arts. He laboured, however, under the re-
proach of ha\'ing corrupted the manners of the people, by hi3
luxuries.
Under his administration commenced the Lacedeemonian
war, 431 years B. C, which lasted 28 years. He died three
years after its commencement, and was succeeded in tlie
government of Athens by Alcibiades, who ran a similar
course, though with less integrity. Alcibiades repeatedly ex-
•See " General Viewa."
80 ANCIENT HISTORX — PERIOD VII.
perienced the ingratitude of his countrymen — a conduct which
ne eagerly retahated.
The Lacedtemonian war ended in the humiliation and
submission of Athens. The Athenians agreed to demolish
their port, to limit their fleet to 12 ships, and to undertake for
the future, no enterprise in war, but under the command of
the Spartans, 405 year B. C. I.ysander, the Spartan com-
mander, signalized himself in this war.
§ Pericles was remarkable for the dignity of his manners, and the
elegance of his speech. For 40 years he secured an unbounded au-
thority. Athens, at this time, Avas considered as in its highest state
of refinement and knowledge, and with Sparta, ranked as the first of
the cities of Greece.
When some persons complained that Pericles spent too much of
the public money in beautifying the city, he M'ent into the assembly of
the people, and asked, " whether, indeed, they thought him extrava-
gant?" The people said, "yes." "Then place the expense at my
charge instead of }'ours," answered Pericles, " only let the new build-
ings be m.arked with my name instead of yours."
The people were either so pleased with the spirit of his reply, or were
po jealous of the fame which Pericles might acquire, that they cried
out, " he might spend as much as he pleased of the public treasures."
At a critical time in the Peloponnesian war, Pericles Avas taken
off in consequence of the ravages of a terrible plague which then
aflflicted Athens. That plague was one of the most malignant and
fatal which history relates to us.
Beginning in Ethiopia, it swept over several countries in its course,
and finally rested in Athens. It surpassed the efforts of the medicaJ
art to cure it. Few or no constitutions could withstand its attacks.
The nature of the disease was such that it threw its victim into a
sort of despair, so that he was disabled from seeking or applying
relief.
It was dangerous for friends to offer their assiotance to the diseas-
ed ; and the situation of the Athenians was such, in consequence of
being shut up by an invading army, that the malignity of the pesti-
lence was greatly increased. They fell down dead upon one another
as they passed along the streets, and the dead and the dying were
mingled together in the utmost confusion.
In this complication of distress, Pericles displayed a great soul.
He was able to inspire courage into the drooping hearts of his coun
trymen ; but after some fresh plans of conquest adopted during a
mitigation of the pestilence, he was himself cut off by the plague,
which had broken out anew.
On his death bed his friends attempted to console him, by recount-
ing his glorious deeds, particularly his military successes, and the
montiments he erected to commemorate them. " Ah," exclaimed the
dying statesman and hero, " you have forgotten the most valuabla
part of my character, and now the most pleasant to my mind— tliat
490—356 B. c. SI
none of my fellow-citizens have been compelled, through any act
of mine, to put on a mourning robe."
Tiie occasion of the Lacedaemonian war was as follows: — Corinth
having been included in the last made treaty between Athens and
Sparta, tlie Corinthians in waging war with the people of CorcyrSj
an ancient colony of tlieir own, solicited the aid of Atlicns, as did
also the people of Corcyra.
'Hie AthenLans took tlic part of the latter— a measure which ex-
ceedingly displeased the Corintliians, and was considered as viola-
ting their treaty witli Sparta. On tliis ground war was declared be-
tween Atliens and Laced^emon, each being supported by its respec-
tive allies. This war distracted and enfeebled Greece.
Alcibiades, who bore a conspicuous part in it on the Athenian
side, during the interval of a truce with Sparta, persuaded his coun-
trymen to try the conquest of Sicily, and was sent as the general of
the troops. When he was gone, his enemies raised an accusation
against him, and tJic fickle people directed him immediately to re-
turn.
Alcibiades, fearing to return whilst tlie Athenians were so incens-
ed against him, fled away secretl}'', and when he was told that for
his disobedience, all his property was confiscated, and that he him-
self was condemned to death, " I will show them that I am alive,"
he exclaimed.
He first fled to Argos, and next to Sparta, where he gained all
hearts by conforming to their plain dress and simple food. But the
king of Sparta perceiving that Alcibiades aflfected to appear what he
was not, was by no means backward to disapprove liim, which in-
duced the Athenian to quit Sparta, and seek protection in Persia.
Athens was now governed by a council of 400, and the tyranny of
these was so great, that Alcibiades was sent for to assist in restoring
the liberty of tlie people. The Spartans, with some vessels, were
watching the cit\', to take advantage of the confusion tliat prevailed.
Alcibiades, with tlie small fleet he had collected at Samos, attacked
the Spartans, destroyed their ships, and soon after entered Athens
in triumph.
The Athenians being again displeased with Alcibiades, he left tlie
city to avoid their displeasure. He at length retired to live in a
small village in Phrygia, with a woman called Timandra. The
Spartans persuaded the Persians to destroy him.
Accordingly, a party of soldiers went to his house, and fearing his
known courage, dared not to enter it, but set fire to the building.
Alcibiades rushed out, and the barbarians from a distance (for they
feared to approach him) killed him with darts and arrows. Timan-
dra buried the corpse decently, and was the only mourner of thia
once powerful man.
The defeat of the Athenian fleet at .Egos Potamos, by Lysander,
was the means of bringing the tedious Lacedaemonian war to a close.
The taking and plundering of Athens were the consequence of it
Having gained possession of the city, Lysander buint down the
houses and demolished the walls. It was said that hi was so cruel u3
82 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII.
to add insult to misfortune, by ordering music to be played whilst
tlie walls were destroyed.
G. Ly Sander, after the redaction of Athens, abolished the
popular form of government in that state, and saibstituted that
of the thiity tyrants, which was absolute. Many of the dis-
tinguished citizens tied from their country ; but T.'hrasybulus,
aided by a body of patriots, expelled the usurpers, and once
more re-established the government of the people, 403 years
B. C.
§ The thirty tyrants were as many Lacedsemonian captains, to
whom the government of tlie Atlienians Avas delegated by Lysander.
They held their authority but tliree years. To Lysander, history
ascribes the first great breach of his country's constitution, bj'' the
introduction of gold into that republic.
7. The persecution and death of Socrates, the philosopher,
took place about this time, (401 years B. C.) This transac-
tion has thrown a dark stain on the Athenian character.
He was destroyed contrary to every principle of reason and
justice.
§ Socrates was the friend and tutor of Alcibiades. The sophists,
whose manner of reasoning he turned into ridicule, represented him
as an enemy to the religion of his country, because, without con-
forming to the popular superstitions, he led the mind to a knowledge
of the Deity, the Creator of the universe ; and to the belief of a fu-
ture state of reAvards and punishments.
Ife made a noble and manly defence, in all the consciousness of
innocence ; but in vain. He was condemned to die by his inimical
judges. One of his disciples lamenting before him that he sliould
die innocent, " Would you have me die guilty ?" replied Socrates,
with a smile.
The juice of hemlock, or something resembling hemlock, a liqiior
which was said to cause death, by its coldness, was administered to
the philosopher. He continued calmly conversing witla his friends,
to the last moment of his life.
S. In the same year with the death of Socrates, occurred
the celebrated retreat of 10,000 Greeks, under Xcnophon,
from Babylon to the banks of the Euxine. This is considered
the most remarkable retreat on record. It was accomplished
in a few months, the soldiers traversing a hostile country of
1 (jOO miles in extent, amidst incredible hardships and dangers.
They lost only 1500 men.
§ The Greeks came into the situation above mentioned, in conse-
quence of assisting Cyrus, a younger brother of Artaxerxes Mnemon,
\ in his attempt to dethrone the latter. Cyrus failed in the attempt,
\ in a battle near Babylon, and lost his life. The Greeks, v.'ho amount-
ed to 13,000 at first, were reduced to 10,000, and in this situation
\
490—356 B. c. 82
were under tlie necessity either of submitting to the enemy, or of
making good their retreat.
The latter they both chose and accomplished. The Greeks were
led by Clearckus on this expedition, but he having trusted himself
among the Persians, was basely delivered up to the king, by whosp
order he was beheaded. In this exigency they elected Xenof)Vion, a
young Athenian, as their commander, under whom they were to
effect their retreat.
They observed the greatest order and discipline ; and though in
the midst of vindictive enemies, and with deserts, hills, mountains,
rivers, and even the sea before them, they arrived with an inconsi
derable loss, at the banks of the Euxine. Xenophon himself has
written an admirable account of this retreat.
Tlie Greek cities of Asia having taken a part in this enterprise of
the Greeks, Sparta was engaged to defend her countrymen, and
consequently was involved in a war with Persia. The disunion of
the Grecian states, and especially the hostility of Athens against
Sparta, rendered the war disastrous to the Spartans ; who, to avoid
destruction, sued for peace, and obtained it, by the sacrifice of all her
Asiatic colonies, 387 years B. C.
9. Among the Grecian states, Thebes became particularly
distinguished during the latter part of the present period.
It had been comparatively obscure before. The Thebans
contending among themselves, the Spartans interfered in the
contention, and seized on the Theban fortress. This mea-
sure brought on a war between Sparta and Thebes.
Athens at first united with Thebes, but at length Thebes
stood alone against Sparta and the league of Greece. Pe-
lopidas and Epaminondas were the Theban leaders, who
greatly distinguished themselves in this war. The celebra-
ted battles of Leuctra and Mantinea were gained by the The-
bans over their enemies, the one 371 years B. C., and the
other S years afterwards. In the latter engagement, the great
Epaminondas was slain.
The ravages of this contention among the Grecian states,
may be said to have paved the way for their entire subjugation
by a foreign pow-er.
§ The fortress at Thebes, which the Spartans had seized, was kept
by the latter during four years, but the angry and deceived Thehans
took their revenge. A party of them, headed by Pelopidas, putting
on women's clothes over their armour, entered among the Lacedae-
monians, at a feast given to them, and cut their principal otficers to
pieces.
Archias, the chief Spartan, had that very day received a letter from
Athens to inform him of the whole plot, but he had very improperly
thrown aside the letter without looking into it, saying, " business to-
morrow." He was the first man killed, and thus lost his life for a
84 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII.
neglect of his duty, in suffering the pleasure he enjoyed in the com-
panj'^ of his friends, to make him forget the interests of his country.
Epaminondas, the friend of Pelopidas, who had acted with the lat-
ter, was, upon the expulsion of the Spartans from the citadel, called
from a quiet and private life to become the general of the Theban
army. He was as much celebrated for his wisdom and virtue, as for
his bravery. Of all the excellencies of his character, he gained the
most respect for his strict regard to truth, as he was never known to
be guilty of a falsehood. In the battle of Leuclra, the Theban army
was much smaller than that of Sparta ; but the skill of their general^
in disposing the force to the best advantage, and the valour of the sol-
diers and officers, more than made up for the difference in numbers.
Besides, the Thebans were fighting for their liberty ; the Spartans
only for conquest. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the
Thebans prevailed.
Pelopidas shared the danger and the glory of his friend ; yet when
these valiant generals returned to Thebes, they were both called be-
fore the tribunal of justice for the crime of keeping their command
too long. Both were acquitted ; yet the enemies of Epaminondas
caused him to be elected a city scavenger, on purpose to disgrace and
vex him. But what might have been a disgrace to a mean person,
was no disgrace to this noble Theban. He accepted the office, saying,
"If the office will not give me honour, I will give honour to the office."
Epaminondas fell in the battle of Mantinea, and in the moment of
victory. A javelin had pierced his bosom, and becoming disabled, a
fierce contest arose between his foes and friends for the possession of
his person. The Thebans at length bore him from the field. Epa-
minondas, though in extreme agony from his wound, thought only
of his country ; and when informed that the Thebans had conquered,
he said, " then all is well."
He drew the weapon from his bosom, as no one around him had the
fortitude to do it, it being miderstood, from the nature of the wound,
he would expire as soon as it was extricated. The glory of Thebes
rose with this man, and with him it expired.
ROMANS.
10. In the history of Rome, during this period, we may
observe an additional change in its constitution of govern-
ment. It became, in effect, a democracy 471 years B. C.
The supreme authority passed from the higher order, into
the hands of the people. The popular character of the go-
vernment had been theoretically established before, but it be-
came now practically democratic.
§ This change Avas completed by Volero, a Roman tribune, who
obtained a law for the election of magistrates, in the comitia held by
the tribes. Before this time, the comitia, by centuries and by curiae,
could not be called but in virtue of a decree of the senate, after consult-
ing the auspices, and in those comitia the tribunes had been hitherto
elected. In the comitia held by tribes these restrauits were miknown
490—356 B. c. 85
11. Soon aftcnvards, (450 B. C.) upon the invasion of the
/Equi and Yolsci, the Romans liad lecaurse to the despotic
measure of choosing a (hctator. Quinctius Cincinnatus was
appointed. He was called from tlie plough to this office.
After having rescued a Roman army from destruction, de-
feated a powerful enemy, and rendered other signal servicea
to his country, he hastened to resign his power at the end of
16 days, though he might have held it 6 months, the term for
which dictators were appointed.
§ Cincinnatus was fixed upon as the wisest and bravest man be-
longing to the commonwealth. lie cultivated a small form of four
acres with his own hands. The deputies of the senate found him
following his plough in one of his little fields. They begged him
to put on his gown, and hear the message from the senate.
Cinciiuiatus anxiously asked, "if all was well '?" and then desired
his wife Racilia to fetch his gown from their cottage. After wiping
offthednst and dirt with which he was covered, lie put on his robe
and went to the deputies. They saluted him dictator, and bid him
hasten to the city, which was in the greatest peril.
A handsome barge had been sent to carry him over the river, for his
farm lay on the opposite side of the Tiber. His three sons, with his
friends, and several of the senators, were ready to receive him when
he landed at Rome, and to carry him in a pompous procession to the
house prepared for him.
The very next morning he began to fortify the city, and marshal
the soldiers for battle ; and he very soon gained a great victory, and
made the officers of the enemy pass under the yoke. His administra-
tion was entirely satisfactory to all parties, though the times were ex-
tremely turbulent. He most probably saved Rome from destruction,
by his wisdom and valour.
He was chosen dictator on another emergency, many years after-
wards, in his 80th year, and then also acted with vigour and wisdom.
12. In 451 years B. C. ten persons who were called the
Decemviri, were elected to frame a code of laws, and were
invested with ahsolute power for one year, during which all
other magistrates were suspended. They afterwards caused
their laws to be engraven on 12 tables, and placed in the most
conspicuous part of tlie city.
These laws were long preserved and acted upon, and are
to this day respected in some parts of Europe. They how-
ever manifested the stern spirit of the people, and like those
of Draco, might be said to be written in blood. Nine crimes*
* Parricide v/as very properly included as one of those crimes. But to the
honour of the Romans it sliould be observed, tiirit this crime was not knowTi to
becommittcd during- more than GOOyearsfrom the building of the city ]_,. Qg.
tiufl was the ftrst parricide.
U
TO A.NCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VII.
of very different complexions were punishable with death, one
of which was nightly meetings.
§ The Romans had no code of laws until that which was formed and
digested by the decemviri. The number of the laws was increased
from time to lime by the senate and people. Each decemvir, by turn,
presided for a day, and had the soverei.gn authority, with its insignia,
the fasces. The nine others acted solely as judges in the determina-
tion of law-suits, and the correction of abuses.
Their government lasted only three years. Its dissolution was
highly tragical. Appius Claudius, one of the ten, fell in love with the
beautiful Virginia; she was engaged to marry Icilius, formerly a tri-
bune of the people, and would not therefore listen to the proposals
of Appius.
He therefore, to get possession of the lovely virgin, procured a ba.se
dependant to claim her as his slave. The claim was made to Appiuji
himself, Avho pronounced an infamous decree, by which she was de-
clared to be the property of this profligate minion of his own.
Virginius, her father, who was falsely sworn to have stolen hei
from the dependant of Appius, was at a distance with the army
Intelligence, however, by means of IciJius, was conveyed to him re-
specting the transactions in the city, and he returned with all imagi-
nable speed.
Finding, notwithstanding his true and simple tale that Virginia
was his daughter, that he could not preserve her from the licentious
decemvir, he now begged to give her his parting embrace. His re-
CjUest was granted. He clasped his child in his arms, while she clung
round his neck, and wet his cheeks with her tears.
As Virginius was tenderly kissing her, before he raised his head, he
suddenly plunged a dagger into her bosom, saying, " Oh ! my child,
by this means only can I give thee freedom." He then held up the
bloody instrument to the now pale and frighted Claudius, exclaim-
ing, " By this innocent blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infer-
nal gods."
All was now horror and confusion. Icilius showed the dead body
lo the people and roused their fury. Virginius hasted to the camp
bearing with him the dagger reeking with his daughter's blood; and
instantly the camp was in an uproar. The power of the decemviri
and the senators could not still the tumult.
Appius would have been torn to pieces at once, but he found the
means of escape and vohmtary death. Public tranquillity was at
length restored, by the consent of the senate to abolish the decemviri.
The consuls were now restored, together with the tribunes of the peo-
ple, 499 years B. C.
13. A law for the intermarriage of the patricians and pie
beians at Rome was passed 445 years B. C. In the same
year military tribunes were created. These were in lieu of
the consuls : they were six in number, three patricians and
three plebeians. The consuls, however, were soon restored.
Coriolanus, meeting his mother, tvife, ^c. P. 64.
Virginius threatening the Tribune. P- Sf'
490-^356 B. c. 87
In 437 years B. C. was established the office of censors,
whose duty it was to make the census of the people every
five years.
§ Tlie people, in their desire for still more power, endeavoured to
break down the only two barriers that separated the patricians from
tiiemsclves. Tliese were, one, the law which prevented their inter-
marriage ; and the other, tlie constitutional limitation of all the highei
offices to the patrician order.
Tlie first point, after a long contest, was conceded— the other was
partially evaded. The senate sought a palliative in the creation of
the military tribunes above mentioned. This measure satisfied the
people for a time.
The new magistracy of the censors was highly important. In
addition to making the census, it was incumbent on the censors to
inspect the morals and regulate the duties of the citizens. It became,
in after times, the function only of consular persons, and after them,
of the emperors.
14. The dissentions between the different orders of the
people, raged with violence ; but the senate, not long after
their concession to the people, adopted for themselves a very
wise expedient. This was to give a regular pay to the troops,
an expense defrayed by a moderate tax on the citizens.
From this period soldiers were to be obtained, and the senate
had the army under its. control. Roman ambition now be-
came systematic, and irresistible.
15. Veil, the rival of Rome, was besieged by the Romans,
and after a siege of ten years, was taken by Camillus, 391
years B. C. Two years after, Falerii, the capital of the Fa-
lisci, surrendered to the same general. The dominion of
Rome, confined hitherto to a territory of a few miles, was
now rapidly extend^-d.
§ The siege of Vcii was attended with much expense of blood and
treasure to the Komans. They nearly despaired of taking it; but
upon the appointment of Camillus dictator, things soon assumed a
different aspect. lie secretly wrought a mine into the city, which
opened into the midst of tlie capital.
Then giving his men directions how to enter the bread), the city
was instantly filled with his legions, to the utter confusion of the be-
sieged. Tims, like a second Troy, was Veil taken after a ten years'
siege, and Camillus, according to the manner of the Roman kings,
enjoyed the honour of a triuniiiph.
It is related, that during the attack of Falerii, a schoolmaster be-
trayed into the Imuds of Camillus all his scholars, expecting to obtain
a handsome reward for his treachery. The boys happened to be
the sons of the principal Falisci, and the Roman general was given
OO ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII.
to understand, that they would probably deliver up their city to re-
cover their children.
The noble Roman, shocked at this perfidious action, sent back the
boys in safety to their parents, and giving each of them a rod, bade
them whip the traitor into town. This generous behaviour of
Camillus accomplished more than his arms could have done. The
place instantly submitted, leaving to the Roman the conditions of the
surrender, which were of course very mild.
The brave Camillus, becoming at length an object of envy or
jealousy with the people, he was obliged to quit Rome, and live at
Ardea, a town in its neighborhood, butthe}^ had reason afterwards to
be ashamed of their injustice.
16. Soon after the!?e successes, Rome experienced a terrible
calamity. It was taken, devastated, and burnt by tlie Gauls,
under Brennus, 385 years B. C. The capitol, however, was
preserved. This the barbarians besieged, but they were soon
expelled the city by Camillus.
§ The Gauls were a branch of the great Celtic nation, and inha-
bited regions beyond the Alps. These they had penetrated at ditfer-
eiA periods, and a portion of this people had already settled in small
towns at the foot of the mountains. This people, it seems, on some
occasion, had undertaken the siege of Clusium, a city of Etruria.
The Clusians, who were not of a warlike character, immediately en
treated the mediation of the Romans.
The latter sent ambassadors to Brennus, but without success.
These ambassadors then retired to Clusium, where they appeared at
the head of the Clusians in a sally against the besiegers. Upon this,
Brennus, in great displeasure, marched directly against Rome.
In this condition, an army was drawn out to save the city ; but the
numbers and impetuosity of the barbarians were such, that no ef-
fectual resistance was made. Tlie greatest part of tlie citizens fled
for protection to the neighbouring cities ; the young and brave men
entered into the capitol, resolved to hold out to the last against the
enemy ; and the aged senators assembled in the senate-house, deter
mined patiently to await their fate.
Soon after they entered the citj^, Brennus, and some of his soldiers,
went into the senate-house. The venerable appearance of these no-
ble old men rendered the Gauls afraid or unwilling to harm them.
A soldier at last gently shaking the beard of Papyrius, the old Roman
was so offended at tlie act, that he struck the man on his head with
an ivory staff he had in his hand : this slight blow instantly aroused
the fury of the barbarians ; they massacred tlie senators on the spot,
and set fire to the city.
In this season of distress, the Romans did not give up all for lost.
The little band, shut up in the capitol, made every possible arrange-
ment for defence. Tliey were assauUrd in vain. At tliis juncture,
Camillus, forgetting all liis private wrongs, gathered an army, with
which he entered Rome, and immediately put the barbarians to
flight.
490—350 B. c. 89
A singular occurrence, showing the providence of God in the go-
vernment of tlie world, attended the siege of Rome.
The Capitol was at one time nearly taken by surprise : a number
of Gauls having climbed up the steep rock on whicli it stood, were about
to kill the sentinels and make tliemselves masters of the place, when
some geese, kept near the spot, being awakened by tlie noise, began
to flutter their wings, and cackle loudly, so as to arouse the soldiers.
This little circumstance saved the capitol, and perhaps the Roman
name from extinction.
17. The constitution of Rome was still farther altered
about this time, 367 years B. C. The plebeians obtained the
right of having one of the two constils chosen from among
them. The mililaiy tribunes were abolished the next year.
V^'om this period the Roman pov\^er began rapidly to rise.
§ The vanity and ambition of a young woman produced this change
m the government of Rome. Fabius Ambustius, a patrician, had
married two daughters, one to a plebeian, and the other to a patrician.
The wife of tlie plebeian, envious of the honours of her sister, pined
with discontent.
Her father and brother, learning the cause of her unhappinesa.
promised her the distinction which she desired. By their joint en-
deavours, after much tumult and contest, they succeeded in obtain
ing for the plebeians the right of admission into the consulate. Lu-
cius Sextius was the first plebeian consul. The husband of the ple-
beian lady, viz. Licinius Stolo, was the second.
EGYPT.
18. The kingdom of Egypt, which had been conquered by
Cambyses, king of Persia, was, tmder Darius Nothiis, a dis-
tant successor, restored by Amyrtha^iis, 413 years B. C. It
continued independent for 60 years, under eight kings.
At the expiration of this term it was subjected again to the
Persian yoke, by Artaxerxes Ochus.
§ No very interesting particulars occur in this portion of the Egyp-
tian historj^ It is necessary only to observe, that it was by means
of aid afforded to them by tlie Greeks, that the Egyptians, after they
had revolted, under Amyrthajus, were enabled to withstand the Per-
sian force which sought to reconquer them. It was under a king
called Nectanebis that Egypt again lost her independence.
PERSIA.
19. The history of the Persian empire, during this period,
is mostly involved in that of the Greeks, with whom tlie for-
mer was so frequently at war. Darius, Xerxes, and Arta-
xerxes II. as we have seen, were, during most of their lives,
engaged in this war. Concerning the rest of the Persism
sovereigns, there is Uttle interesting to be communicated.
H2
90 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD Vlf.
§ Artaxerxes I. we are told, killed his brother Darius, being de-
ceived by Artabaniis, who imputed the murder of Xerxes to that
prince: but upon being acquainted with the truth, he put Artabanua
and all his family to death. During his reign the Egyptians at-
tempted to shake off his yoke, but were soon obliged to submit.
Xerxes II. was assassinated by his brother, Sogdianus, 45 days af-
ter he ascended to the throne. Sogdianus, who assumed the govern-
ment, enjoyed the fruits of his fratricide only six months and a
half, when he was smothered in ashes, (a mode of torture invented
on this occasion, and afterwards inflicted on great criminals,) by or-
der of his brother Ochus, who took the name of Darius Nothus.
Darius Nothus was a weak prince, in whose reign it was that the
Egyptians recovered tlieir independence. Artaxerxes II. succeeded
him, who was surnamed Mncmon, by the Greeks, on account of his
prodigious memory. He killed his brother Cyrus, who had taken
arms against him, in single battle. Tlie 10,000 Greeks who retreat-
ed under Xenophon, served in the army of this Cyrus.
Ochus succeeded him, who poisoned his brother, and murdered all
the princes of the royal family. He invaded Egypt, plundered the
temples, and killed the priests. But his chief minister, enraged at
tlie ruin of his country, poisoned him.
MACEDON.
20. The king-dom of Macedon, which was governed, dur-
ing several hundred years, by the descendants of Caranus,
was comparatively unknown till the time of Philip, who was
also a descendant of Caranus. Philip soon gave it celebrity.
Previously to the ])irth of his son Alexander, he had con ■
quered Thessaly, Peeonia, and lUyricum. He liad also gain*
ed a victory over the Athenians, at Mythone, 360 years B. C.
§ Philip ascended the throne by popular choice, in violation of the
natural right of tlie nearer heirs to the crown ; he secured his power
by the success of his arms against the neighbouring nations. He was
brave, artful, and accomplished, and by his intrigues gained over, at
an early period of his career, many Greeks to favour his interests.
Inhis war against theunited P?eonians, Illyrians, &c. hemetAvith sin-
gularly good fortune. Parmenio, his general, Avas sent against the
Illyrians, and he himself marched an army intoPffionia and Thrace,
where he was signally successful. On his return, a messenger ar-
rived with news of Parmenio's victory ; and soon after came another,
informing him that his horses had been victorious at the Olympic
games.
This was a victory that he esteemed preferable to any other. Al-
most at the same time came a third messenger, who acquainted him
that his wife, Olympias, had brought fortli a son, at Pol la. Philip,
terrified at so signal aluippiness, which the heathens generally con-
sidered as a bad omen, exclaimed, " Great Jupiter, in return for so
many blessings, send me a slight misfortune."
490—356 B. c. 91
Distinguished Characters in Period VII.
1. Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher.
2. Herodotus, a Greek, the father of profane history.
3. Pindar, the chief of the Grecian lyric poets.
4. Phidias, a Greek, the most famous sculptor of antiquity.
6. Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece.
6. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece.
7. Socrates, the greatest of heathen moralists.
8. Thucydides, an eminent Greek historian.
9. Hippocrates, the father of medicine.
10. Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philo
eopher.
§ 1. Confucius was born in the kingdom of Lt\, which is now t)ie
province of Chan Long, 551 years B. C. He was a man of great
knowledge and extensive wisdom, was beloved on account of his vir-
tues— rendered great service to his country by his moral maxims,
and possessed much influence even with kings, as well as with his
countrymen in general. He died in the 73d year of his age.
2. Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus. His history describes
the wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from tlie age of Cyrus
to the battle of Mj^ale. This he publicly repeated at tiie Olympic
games, when the names of the Muses were given to his nine books.
This celebrated work, which has procured its author tlie title of
father of history, is written in the Ionic dialect. Herodotus is among
the historians, wluit Homer is among the poets. His style abounds
with elegance, ease, and sweetness. He also wrote a history of As-
syria and Arabia, but this is not extant.
3. Pindar was a native of Theljes. His compositions were courted
by statesmen and princes, and his hymns were repeated in the tem-
ples, at the celebration of the festivals. Some of his odes are extant,
greatly admired for grandeur of expression, magnificence of style,
boldness of mctay>hors, and harmony of numbers.
Horace calls him inimitable ; and this eulogium is probably not
undeserved. After his death, his statue was erected at Thebes, in the
public place where the games were exhibited, and six centuries after-
wards it was viewed with pleasure and admiration by the geogra-
pher Pausanias. He died B. C. 435, at the age, as some say, of 86.
4. Phidias Avas an Athenian. He died B. C. 432. His statue of
Jupiter Olympius passed for one of the wonders of the world. That
of IMincrva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 39 feet in height,
and was made of gold and ivory.
5. Euripides was born at Salamis. He was the rival of Sophocles.
The jealousy between these great poets, was made the suliject of suc-
cessful ridicule by the comic poet Aristophanes. It is said that he
used to shut himself up in a gloomy cave, near Salamis, in which he
composed some of his best tragedies.
During the representation of one of his pieces, the audience, di».
92 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VII.
pleased with some lines in the composition, desired the writer to
strike them off. Euripides heard the reproof with indignation, and
advancing forward on the stage, he told the spectators, that he came
there to instruct them, and not to receive instruction.
The ridicule and envy to which he was exposed in Athens induced
him to retire to the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he
was entertained with the greatest munificence. He was here how-
ever destined to meet a terrible end. It is said the hounds of the king
attacking him, in one of his solitary walks, tore his body to pieces,
407 B. C. in the 78tli year of his age.
As a poet hp is peculiarly happy in expressing the passions of love,
especially the more tender and animated. He is also sublime, and the
most common expressions have received a most perfect polish from
his pen. His productions abound with moral reflections, and philo-
sopliical aphorisms.
The poet was such an enemy to the fair sex, that some have called
him the woman hater. In spite of his antipathy he married twice ;
but his connexions were so injudicious, that he was compelled to di-
vorce both his wives. From this cause may have arisen his erro-
neous conceptions of the female character. Of 75 tragedies, only 19
remain.
6. Sophocles was born about 497 B. C. He was distinguished not
only as a poet, but as a statesman and general, and filled the office of
archon with applause.
Twenty times he obtained the prize of poetry from his competi-
tors. Of one hundred and twenty tragedies which he wrote, seven
only are extant, but these prove him to have carried the drama
almost to perfection.
Accused of insanity by his children, who wished to obtain his pos-
sessions, the poet composed and read his tragedy of Oedipus, at Co-
lonos. Asking his judges whether tlie author of such a performance
could be insane, he was at once acquitted, to the confusion of his un-
grateful offspring.
He died in his 91st year, through excess of joy, at hearing of his
having obtained a poetical prize at the Olympic Games.
7. Socrates was a native of Athens. He followed the occupation
of his father, who was a statuary, for some time ; and some have men-
tioned the statues of the Graces, admired for their simplicity and ele-
gance, as tlie work of liis own hands. He was called away from this
meaner emplojnnent, for which, liowever, he never blushed, by a
friend ; and philosophy soon became his study.
He appeared like the rest of his countrymen in the field of battle,
and he fought with boldness and intrepidity. But his character ap-
pears more conspicuous as a philosopher and moralist, than as a
warrior. He was fond of labour, bore injuries with patience, and
acquired that serenity of mind and firmness of countenance which
the most alarming dangers could never destroy, or the most sudden
calamities alter.
He was attended by a number of illustrious pupils, whom he in-
structed by his exemplary life, as well as by his doctrines. He spokp
490—356 B.C. 93
with freedom on every subject, religious as well as civil. This inde-
pendence of spirit, and that visible superiority of mind and genin^
over the rest of his countrymen, created many enemies to him, ana
at length they condenmed him to death, on the false accusation oi
corrupting tlie Athenian youtii, of making innovations in the religion
of the Greeks, and of ridiculing the gods which the Athenians wc"*-
shipped. lie drank the juice of the hemlock in the 70lh year of iiis
age, and died 401 B. C.
Socrates believed the divine origin of dreams and omens, and was
a supporter of the doctrine of the inmiortality of the soul. From K'-s
principles, enforced by his example, the celebrated sects of the Pia-
tonists, Stoics, Peripatetics, &c. soon after rose.
8. Thuc3'dides was born at Athens. He early appeared in the
Athenian armirs, but being unsuccessful in some expedition, he was
banished Athens, in the 8th year of the Peloponnesian war. Pie then
wrote his history of the important events of that war, to its 21st
year.
So deeply was Thucydides inspired by the muse of history, that
he shed tears when he heard Herodotus repeat his history of the
Persian wars, at the public festivals of Greece ; the character of his
interesting work is well known. He is considered highly authentic
and impartial, and stands unrivalled for the fire, conciseness, and
energy of his narrative.
Thucydides died at Athens, where he had been recalled from exile,
in his 80th year, 391 B. C.
9. Hippocrates was born in the island of Cos, B. C. 406. He im-
proved himself by reading in the tablets of the temples, the diseases,
and means of recovery of individuals. He was skilful, and devoted
hisAvhole time to medical applications ami professional duties. Some
say he delivered Alliens from a dreadful plague.
According to Galen, his opinions were respected as oracular. Hia
memory is still venerated, and his writings, few of which remain,
procured him the epithet of divine. He died in the 99lh year of his
age, 3G1 B. (-., free from all disorder of the mind and body, and after
death, received the highest honours.
10. Xenophon M-as an Athenian. He Avas bred in the school of
Socrates, and ac<inired great literary distinction. He served in the
army of Cyrus the younger, and chiefly superintended the retreat of
the 10,000, after tlie l)attle of the Cunaxa. He afterward followed
the fortunes of Agesilaus, and acquired riches in his expeditions.
In his subsequent retirement he composed and wrote for the in-
formation of posterity, and died at Corinth, in his 90th year, 359
B. C. He continued the history of Thucydides, wrote a life of C}"--
ms the (ireat, and collected Memorabilia of Socrates. The simpli-
city and elegance of Xenophon's style have procured him the name
of the x\theiiian muse, and the bee of Greece.
94 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII-
PERIOD VIII.
The period of Roman Military Renown, extending from
the Birth of Alexander, 356 y>cars B. C. to the destruc-
tion of Cartilage, 146 years B. C.
GREECE.
Sect. 1. At the commencement of tliis period, the Greeks
U'ere greatly embroiled in domestic dissensions, and were fast
faihngfrom the enviable height to\Yliich their arms and na-
tional spirit had formerly raised them. They Avere no longer
the people they had been, and were prej^aring to receive the
yoke of a master. Fi-om that time their history is connected
with that of the Macedonian monarchy.
An attempt of the Phocians to plunder the temple of Del-
phos, excited the sacred war, in which almost all the states be-
came involved. The assistance of PhiUp being solicited by
the Thebans and Thessalians, he commenced hostilities by
invading Pliocis, the key to Attica. The eloquence of De-
mosthenes roused the Athenians to arms. But their struggle
was unsuccessful.
Philip met them at Cheroneea, gained a comj)lete victory,
and Greece fell into the hands of the conqueror. This event
is dated 338 years B. C. He however chose not to treat them
as a conquered people. The separate governments retaiiied
their independence, subject only, in their national acts, to the
control of Philip. After his death they hoped to recover their
liberty, but tliey only changed masters.
§ The sacrilege of the Phocians in robbing the temple of Dclphos,
subjected them to a summons to appear before the Amplilct)^onic
council, to answer for their crime. A fine being imposed, disputes
arose, which could be settled only by arms. The war continued 10
years.
The interference of Philip at this juncture was, as might hare
been expected, fatal to the liberties of Greece. Ileconirivcd toliave
tlie Phocians expelled from the Amphictyonic council, and to be him-
self chosen ill their place.
The elocpience of Demosthenes delayed for a time the fate of
G.eece. He was ever stirring up the Athenians against Philip and
satirizing that king. His speeches were called Philippics, since they
v\'ere directed against Philip, and hence Philippics has been a term
signifj-ing " spceclies against any person."
Demosthenes, it is well known, had to contend against many n»
356—146 B. c. 95
tural impediments, in attaining the art of addressing a popular assem-
bly. As a proof of his triumphant success, it is recorded, that
iEschines, a rival orator, once repeated a speech of his own, and one
of Demostlienes. His own was much applauded, but that of Demos-
thenes applauded much more. " Ah !" said the generous ^Eschines,
" how woidd you have applauded it, had you heard Demosthenes
speak it."
Soon after the battle of Cheronaea, Philip, calling a general coun-
cil of the states was appointed commander in chief of the forces of
Greece ; but on tlie eve of attempting the conquest of Persia, he was
assassinated by Pausanias, a captain of his guards, from private re-
sentment. The hopes inspired by his death proved abortive, as the
Greeks soon came under the yoke of his successor.
2. Greece was entered by Alexander, son of Philip, 336
years B. C. He obliged the Athenians to submit, burnt
Thebes, and was declared commander in chief of the Grecian
forces, in the expedition against Persia, which he began the
next year.
§ Alexander was 20 years old, when the death of Philip raised him
to the throne. The celebrated Aristotle was his teacher, and under
him, the youthful prince early desired to distinguish himself. He
read much ; Homer's Iliad he especially studied.
When very young, he managed the fiery war-horse Bucephalus,
which no one else dared to mount. In honour of this steed, he af-
terwards built a city which he called Bucephala. When he attended
his father to battle, he manifested not only valour, but skill ; and once
had the happiness to save his parent's life, when it was in great dan-
ger from an enemy.
At Corinth he saw Diogenes, named the Cynic, because he affect-
ed gi-eat dislike to wealth and rank, and lived in a strange, rude man-
ner. Alexander asked him whether he wanted any thing. " Yes,"
said Diogenes, " I want you to stand out of my sunshine, and not to
take from me, what you cannot give me."
Alexander admired this speech, and directly remarked, " W^ere I
not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." As if he had said, " Had I not
all things as Alexander, I would desire to scorn all things as Dio-
genes."
Before his expedition into Asia, which will soon be mentioned, he
was resolved to consult the oracle at Delphos ; but as he visited the
temple on a day on which it was forbidden to ask the oracle, the
priestess refused to go into the temple. Alexander, unaccustomed lo
denial, seized her by the arm and drew her forwards. " Ah, my son,
you are irresistible !" exclaimed the priestess. " These Avords," lie
observed. " are a sufficient answer."
The Grecian states had revolted after the death of Philip ; but
Alexander, in a few successful battles, brought them into subjection.
In an assembly of the deputies of the nation at Corinth, he commu-
nicated to them his resolution of undertaking the conquest of Persia,
agreeably to the designs of his father Philip.
96 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII.
3. Alexander, at the head of the Grecian forces, invaded
Persia 335 years B. C. He was then not 22 years of age.
He took with him only 35,000 men, and with this small force,
he conquered not only Persia, but Syria, Egy}3t, India, and
several othei- countries, and meditated the design of proceed-
ing to tlie Eastein ocean, which, however, he was obliged to
relinquish.
He accomplished his immense undertaking within the
short space of six years. On his return home, while he tar-
ried at Babylon, he died suddenly in a fit of debauch, as some
have maintained, in the 33d year of his age, and the 13th of
his reign. Alexander was not destitute of some traits which
we love in human beings ; but in a moral point of view, ho
must be regarded as a mighty murderer, and enemy of hu-
man happiness.
§ The first exploit of Alexander in this expedition, was the passage
of the Granicus, which he effected notwithstanding the opposition of
the Persians, who lost 20,000 men in the conflict. The fruit of this
victory was tiie submission of all Asia Minor.
The next encounter between the Macedonians or Greeks, and the
Persians, was in 333 B. C, near the town of Issus, in which the lat-
ter lost 100,CH)0 men ; and the motlier, wife, and children of Darius,
the Persian monarch, fell into tlie hands of Alexander.
After this victory he overrun all Syria, took Damascus, where he
found the treasures of Darius, destroyed Tyre, entered Jerusalem,
stormed Gaza, subjugated Egypt, and visited the temple of Jupiter
Ammon, in the Lybian desert, where he caused himself to be pro-
claimed the son of that fictitious deity ; on his return he built the
city of Alexandria.
Returning from Egypt he foimd Darius with his forces concentra-
ted on the eastern bank of the Tigris ; a battle ensued at Arbela, 331
years B. C, in which 300,000 Persians were slain, or as some, with
greater probability, say, 40,000, and but 500 Macedonians. Darius be-
took himself to flight, and was slain by Bessus, one of his lieutenants
Babylon, Suza, and Persepolis, fell into the hands of the conqueror,
who set fire to the last, at the instigation of the courtezan Thais.
Having finished the conquest of Assyria, Persia, and Media,
Alexander crossed the mountains of Caucasus, entered Hyrcania, and
subdued all the nations south of the Oxus. He then, passing into
Sogdiana, overtook the perfidious Bessus, and put him to death-
While in Sogdiana, he killed the veteran Clitus, his friend, in a fit ol
intoxication.
In 328 B. C. he projected the conquest of India. Penetrating be-
yond the Hydaspes, he defeated Porus, a king of that country. He
still continued his course to tlie East ; but when he arrived at the
banks of the Ganges, his soldiers, seeing no end to their toils, would
356—146 B. t. 97
go no farther. He returned to the Indus, and pursuing his course
southward by that river, he arrived at the ocean, whence he des
patched his fleet to the Persian Gulf.
After his arrival at Babylon, he gave himself up to much intempe-
rance, but was still projecting new conquests, when death suddenly
put an end to his career. Alexander possessed some generosity of
nature, but his vicious habits often overpowered it. Intoxication and
the love of conquest render his name odious to a good man.
One or two instances of amiable native feeling, will show what h
might have been, could he have controlled his violent passions.
He conducted himself very dutifully towards his mother, listened
to her reproofs with mildness and patience, and when Antipater, whom
he left to govern Macedonia in his absence, wrote a long letter com-
plaining of Olympias, the king said, with a smile, " Antipater does
not know that one tear shed by a mother, will obliterate ten such
letters as this."
WTien lie conquered Porus, who was seven and a half high, this sin-
gularly tall man, as he was introduced to Alexander, was asked by him
how he would be treated, "Like a king," replied Porus. Alexander
was so much pleased with this answer, that he restored his kingdom to
him, and ever afterwards treated him with kindness and respect.
4. The conquests and acquisitions of Alexander were divi-
ded, soon after his death, among thirty-three of his principal
officers. Four, however, of his generals, at length obtained
the whole, 312 years B. C. having partitioned the empire
among themselves. It then constituted four considerable
monarchies.
The names of these generals were Ptolemy, Lysimachus,
Cassander, and Seleucus. Egypt, Lybia, Arabia, and Pales-
tine, were assigned to Ptolemy ; Macedonia and Greece to
Cassander ; Bithynia and Thrace to Lysimachus ; but the
remaining territories in Asia, as far as the river Indus, w^iich
were called the kingdom of Syria, to Seleucus.
The most powerful of these divisions was that of Syria,
under Seleucus and his descendants, and that of Egypt imder
the Ptolemies. Only Ptolemy and Seleucus transmitted their
empires to their children.
§ Alexander nominated no successor. He had a son, called Her-
cules, by one of his wives, named Barsine. He also left a brother,
Aridajus. Aridaeus, and another son of Alexander, born subsequent-
ly to the conqueror's death, and called after his own name, were
soon destroyed. Hercules and Barsine, and Cleopatra, the only sis-
ter of Alexander, shared the same fate, not long afterwards.
Thus his whole family became extinct. Of this deatruction, the
contentions of his generals were the cause, and the cause of those
contentions was the neglect of appointing a successor. The vanity of
98 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII.
human grandeur, in this instance, appears peculiarly striking. Of the
wars and intrigues of these generals among themselves, we need
give no account, as they are not interesting. Some subsequent
events, relating to them or their sovereignties, will be mentioned in
the proper place.
5. From the period of Alexander's death, the history of the
Grecian states, to the time of their suljjugation by the Romans,
presents only a series of uninteresting revolutions. This
people had lost theii' political distinction. The last effort made
to revive the expiring spirit of liberty, was the formation of
the Achaean league, which was a union of 12 of the smaller
states, for this object.
This took place 281 years B. C, but it effected little,
§ Immediately after Alexander's death, Demosthenes made one
more effort to vindicate the national freedom, and to rouse his coun-
trymen to shake of the j^oke of Macedon ; but it was too late. The
pacific counsels of Phocion, suited far better the timid or languid
spirit of the people. Antipater, who governed Greece a short time
after Alexander's death, demanded tliat Demosthenes should be de-
livered up to him. But Demosthenes prevented this by comnritting
suicide.
Phocion, though lie opposed Demosthenes, was one of the most
em.:nent men of Greece. He recommended peace : inasmuch as he
was honest himself, he did not suspect the cunning of the enemy of
his country. After having been chosen general 45 times, and after
having performed the greatest services for his country, he was con-
demned to die by the ungrateful Athenians.
When about to swallow the dose of hemlock, that was to poison
him, he was asked what message he would send to his son. " Tell
him," said this virtuous old man, " that I desire he will not remember
the injustice of the Athenians."
The government of the Achaean league was committed to Aratus,
of Sicyon, with the title of Praetor, a young man of great ambition,
who immediately conceived the idea of freeing the whole country
from the Macedonian dominion. But this plan was defeated by the
jealousy of the greater states.
Sparta refused to follow the guidance of the PraBtnr of Achaia, and
Aratus, forgetful at once of the interests of his country, thought of
nothing but to wrpak his vengeance against Sparta. For this purpose
he solicited the ixA even of the Macedonians themselves.
6. Macedonia and Greece were now preparing to follow
the fate of all the nations within the grasp of Roman ambi-
tion. Their period of conquest was ended ; that of their
subjugation was at hand. The Romans, as we shall soon
learn, had become the most powerful of the contemporary na-
tions.
356—146 B. c. 99
An occasion was ofTeied for the interference of the Romans
in the affairs of Macedonia and Greece — an occasion which
w as eagerly embraced. Macedonia, with its last king, Per-
seus, first fell, 167 years B. C. Twenty-one years afterwards,
(ircece surrendered its independence to Rome, whose legions
w ere led by the consul Mununius. This event was hastened
by the dissensions which the Romans fomented between the
difiercnt states of Greece.
An insult, said to have been received by the deputies of
Rome from tlie Achaans, furnished the pretext for an attack
on Greece. From this time, Greece became a province of
Rome, under the name of Achaia.
§ The occasion of the introduction of the Romans into Greece, was
an invitation frojn tlie iEtolians, to assist them in repelling an attack
by Macedonia. Nothing could have better suited the wishes of the
Romans. Perseus, a successor of Alexander in the part of his em-
pire which fell to Cassander, was then king.
lie persuaded the Achaeans to join him in his preparations against
Rome. After being sometimes the conqueror, and sometimes the
conquered, he was at last vanquished by Paulus iEmilius, at Pydna,
and himself and all his family taken prisoners. They were carried
to Rome, and served to swell the train of the conqueror. Perseus
starved himself to death, and INhicedonia became a province of Rome,
The Romans had, in effect, conquered Greece, by their arts, before
tliey made use of their arms. They had corrupted many of the
principal Greeks; and, on the pretence above mentioned, they marched
their legions against this once renowned people. Metellus, the con-
sul, began the war, which Mummius completed.
(Corinth, in which the Greeks made a last stand, was razed and
burnt to the ground. Diaeus, who commanded the Greeks in this
city, killed his wife, to prevent her from falling into the hands of the
encmj', and then took poison, of which he died. Corinth was de-
.stroyed the same year which witnessed the destruction of Carthage,
146 B. C, which latter event we have referred to the beginning of the
next period,— having anticipated this item of the Grecian history.
Some time previously to the subjugation of Greece, Philopoemen
was selected to command the forces of the Achaean cities. lie was
an admirable man ; but, in one instance, he stained his character by
his conduct towards tlie 8partan>;, numbers of whom he cruelly
b'jtchercd, when that city A\as taken l)y him.
He was, however, called to sutler in his turn; for, at 70 years ol
age, he was taken prisoner, when besieging Messena. The Messe-
nians were so delighted to possess this illustrious man in bondage,
that they dragged him in chains to the public theatre, for crowds to
gaze upon him.
At night, he was put into a dungeon, and the jailor carried to him
a dose of poison. He calmly received the cup, and, having beard
100 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII.
that most of his friends had escaped by flight, he said, " tlaen I find
we are not entirely unfortunate," and, drinking off the fatal draught,
without one murmur, laid himself down and expired.
About this same time, Sparta had a king called Nabis, who was
notorious for his cruelty and avar-ce. Most of the wealthy citizens
lie banished from Sparta, that he might seize their riches, and many
he caused to be assassinated. He had received Argos from Philip, iu
pledge for some money which he had lent that monarch. He there
practised the most shocking cruelties.
He had invented a machine, in the form of a statue, re ml)ling his
wife, the breast, arms, and hands of which were full of pegs of iron,
covered with magnificent garments. If any one refused to give him
money, he was introduced to this machine, which, by means of cer-
tffm springs, caught fast hold of hmi, and, that he might deliver
himself from this exquisite torture, he readily granted whatever Na-
bis desired.
ROME.
7. Rome, at the commencement of this period, under cir-
cumstances more favourable for conquest than it ever had been
before, was not long- in subduing the petty nations within a
moderate distance of its territory. The name of " Gauls" still
inspired some terror, but the Romans soon began to despise
theiTij after they had repressed one or two invasions.
■ 8. Having subdued all their neighbours, such as the Her-
nici, the iEqui, the Yolci, &c. the Romans began to look for
greater conquests. They soon found an occasion against the
Samnites, a numerous and warhke people inhabiting the south
of Italy, with whom they were engaged in war 71 years.
This war commenced 343 years B. C. A war with the La-
tins commenced three years afterwards. The Latins were
soon subjvigated.
§ Tlie Samnites possessed that tract of country, which at this day
constitutes a considerable part of the kingdom of Naples. They
were a far more formidable enemy, both as to numbers and disci-
pline, than the Romans had hitherto contended with. Two consuls
were at first sent against them. The fortune of Rome attended one
of them ; but th? other, Cornelius, was involved in difficulty.
Having been surrounded by the Samnites, his army must have per-
ished had not the tribune Decius, with 400 men, made a diversion
iu his favour. Decius advanced to seize a hill in the midst of the
enemy. This bold attempt cost the life of cvciy one of his soldiers.
Decius alone escaped, but he preserved the army of the consul.
In the war with the Latins, at this time a distinct nation, again
Titus Manlius, who was consul, gave a most remarkable instance of
well meant, but mistaken severity. He had ordered the Roman sol-
diers not to quit their reinks, without permission, on pain of death.
356—146 B. c. 101
A son of the consul happened, witli Jiis detachment, to meet a troop
of Latins, headed by Melius.
Melius scoffingly addressed the Romans, and at last dared their
young connnander to fight him. Tlie son, Ibrgetl'ul of the orders of
his father, or regardless of them, in his indignation, sprang forward
to the encounter, and soon conquered tlie Latin. Then gathering to-
gether tlie arms of the fallen foe, he ran to his father's tent, and
throwing tlicin ;it his feet, told his storj'.
But tragical was the issue. The consul turned from him, and or
daring tlie troops to be assembled, tlius addressed him in their prO'
sence.
"Titus Manlius ! you this day dared to disobey the command oJ
3'our consul, and the orders of your father ; you have thus done aiv
injury to discipline and military government, and must, by your
death, expiate your fault. Your courage has endeared you to me, but
I must be just; and if yo\i have a drop of my blood in your veins
you will not refuse to die, when justice demands it. Go, lictor, and tia
him to the stake."
The astonished young man showed his noble spirit to the last, and
ns cahnly knelt down beneath the axe, as he had bravely wielded his
sword against the enemies of his country. The whole Roman armies
mourned his early death. How unnatural were even the virtues of
the Romans, in many histances !
9. Tlie war with the Samnites continued with occasional
suspensions, but was destined to end only with their ruin.
The Romans were generally successful in their battles,
though, in one instance, a Roman army experienced a signal
mortification, in being obliged to pass under the yoke.
The Tarentincp, having become the allies of the Samnites,
shared tlicir fate. The Samnites were completely subdued,
272 years B. C, although, in the mean time, the Romans had
on hand a war with some other states, as will be soon men-
tioned.
§ During the war with the Samnites, their general, Pontius, de-
coyed the Romans into a defile, in whicli they were wholly in the
power of their enemies. Rejecting tlie advice of his father, which
was either to ])ut tliem all to death, or liouourably to free them, ho
chose a middle course, and determined to disgrace them.
For that purpose, he obliged the Roman soldiers, with their officers
leading the way, to pass half naked under the yoke— a sort of gal-
lows made of three spears, two beiinr fixed firmly in the ground, and
one laid across on the top of the others. This was considered an in-
eufiferable disgrace.
The Romans keenly felt the indignity, and not having tlieir power
in the least crippled by this means, only became the more impatient
to subdue tlieir rivals. They had soon an op])ortunity of inflicthig
upon the Samnites a similar odium, and of obliging them at length to
eue for peace.
12
102 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII.
10. The Romans had a short contention with the Tus-
cans, 312 B. C. During two successive years, they were de-
feated,— in the last by Fabius. But the most important war,
about this time, was tliat in which they were engaged with
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.
The aid of this celebrated general had been sought by the
Tarentines. as allies with the Samnites, in their united con-
test with Rome. He landed in Italy with 30.000 men, and a
train of elephants, and commenced an attack on the Romans.
After various turns of fortune, he was at last totally defeat-
ed, with the loss of 20,000 men, and returned with haste to
his dominions. From this time, the hostile states, left to bear
alone the weight of the Roman powder, were no longer for-
midable, and all Italy submitted to Rome, about 270 years
B. C.
§ Pyrrhus was born to be a warrior ; but warriors make themselves
miserable. When he was preparing to comply with the invitations of
the Tarentines, Cineas, a wise and good man, asked him what were
his intentions and expectations ?
" To conquer Rome," said Pyrrhus.
" And what will you do next., my lord ?"
" Next, I will conquer Italy."
" And what after that ?"
" We will subdue Carthage, Macedonia, all Africa, and Greece."
" And when we have conquered all we can, what shall we do ?"
"Do ! then we will sit down, and spend our time in comfort."
" Ah ! my lord !" said the reasonable Cineas, " what prevents our
being in peace and comfort now ?"
Having arrived in Italy, he speedily conquered the Romans under
their consul Lsevinius. This victory was thought to have been gain-
ed by the effect produced by the elephants of Pyrrhus's army, the
Roman horses taking fright at the sight of these huge animals. Pyr-
rhus was surprised at the valiant and skilful conduct of the Romans,
for, at that time, all people, except those of one's own nation, were
considered barbarians, rude and unknowing.
After the first battle, observing the noble and stern countenances
of his enemies, as they lay dead on tlie field, Pyrrhus, awed into re-
spect, cried out, in the true spirit of military ambition, " O with what
ease could I conquer the world, had I the Romans for soldiers, and
had they me for their king !" He gained a second victory, but after
that he found himself losing ground daily, and was glad to leave
Italy before he was entirely conquered. The people of Sicily had
sent to him for assistance ; thither he went.
In Sicily, he also experienced a change of fortune, at first prospe-
rous, and then adverse. So that he once more returned to Italy, being
almost driven from Syracuse by the Carthaginians. The Romans
356—146 B. c. 103
fell before him again ; but at last, they terribly defeated him, and he
was obliged to return with haste to his own couiitry.
An anecdote, illustrating the generosity of the Romans and of Pyr-
rhus, and sliewing that tliis was the age of Roman virtue, is worth re-
cording. One of the pliysicians of Pyrrhus told the Romans, that
he w^ould poison his nnrster, if they would give liim a large reward.
Fabricius, tlie Roman general, was shoclced at this treachery, and di-
rectly informed Pyrrhus of it, sending away the pliysician with
scorn; "for," said the general, "we should be honourable even to
our enemies." Pyrrhus would not be outdone in generosity, and ex-
pressed his gratitude by sending to Rome all his prisoners without
ransom, and by desiring to negotiate a peace.
11. The diil'ereut states of Italy had now lost, their inde-
pendence ; but after their conquest, they did not all bear the
same reloition to Rome. Thek privileges were unequal, va-
rying according to the dilTerent terms granted to the con-
quered, and afterwards modified according to their fidelity
to the parent state. Some were entirely subjected to the Ro-
man laws ; others were allowed to live under the original in-
stitutions ; and some were tributary, and others allies.
The success of the war with Pyrrhus, gave the Romans
reputation abroad. They now seemed to themselves to be
equal to any enterprise. They had long been jealous of the
growing power of Carthage, and easily found a pretext for
declaring war against tliat republic. It was alleged that
Carthage had rendered assistance to the enemies of Rome.
Thus commenced what is commonly called the first Punic
War, 264 years B. C. It lasted 23 years. The Romans
were in general victorious, though they were once, under Re-
gulus, severely beaten before the gates of Carthage. Their
first attempts in naval warfare were made during this conten-
tion. Tliey were highly successful in them, although the Car-
thaginians had been long celebrated for their enterprise and
courage on the ocean.
The Romans Avon several naval battles, and took the
strongest of the Sicilian towns, Sicily being the principal
scene of the war. The i/l success of the Carthaginians, re-
duced them to the necessity of making peace on very humili-
atmg terms. They were requiied to quit Sicily, retiun all the
prisoners they had taken, and pay 3,200 talents of silver.
§ The Mamcrtines, who inhabited a small section of the island of
Sicily, had put themselves under the protcctionof Rome, with a view
to ward off impending ruin, with which the Carthaginians threatened
ihem, as allies of Hiero, king of Syracuse. The Romans, too prou J
104 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII.
to dignify the Mamertines with the name of alhes, instead of pro-
fessing to assist them, boldly declared war against Carthage, alleging
as a reason, the assistance not long before rendered by Carthage to
the southern parts of Italy, against the Romans.
Such was the frivolous pretext for this sanguinary war. It was the
object, both of Carthage and Rome respectively, to reduce Sicily en-
tirely to its sway. Tlie Carthaginians had already possessed them-
selves of a considerable part of it. The Syracusans at first having
confederated with the Carthaginians, at length turned against them.
Agrigentum was taken from the Carthaginians, after a long siege;
end a fleet of the Romans, the first they ever possessed, and which
they had equipped in a few weeks, defeated that of Carthage, in a
most signal manner. A second naval engagement soon followed, at-
tended with like success, the Carthaginians, imder Hanno and Hamil
car, losing 60 ships of war.
These victories so much encouraged the Romans, that they boldly
crossed the IMediterranean sea, and landing in Africa, took the small
town of Clypea. Regulus, the leader, Avas ordered to remain there,
and continue, as pro-consul, to command the troops ; but he earnestly
requested to return home, as he had a small estate of seven acrea
which required his care.
A person was directed to perform this service, and then Regulus,
satisfied that his wife and children woidd have food, willingly devo-
ted himself to his public duties. The Carthaginians had procured
forces from Sparta under Xantippus, and thus supported, defeated
the Romans, and took Regulus prisoner.
Regulus having been kept in prison several years, was then sent to
Rome to propose peace, and an exchange of prisoners. He was first
obliged to take an oath that he would return to Carthage, if he did
not succeed in his proposals. AVhen this noble Roman made his ap.
pearance among his countrymen, they were all touched by his mis-
fortunes, and were willing to purchase his freedom, by granting the
request of his enemies.
But he would not allow his country to suflfer for his sake, and,
though he knew that torture and death awaited him at Carthage, he
besought the Romans to send him back, and to refuse the Carthagi-
nians their prisoners. The senate, with the utmost pain, consented
to this disinterested advice; and, in spite of the tears of liis wife, tlie
embraces of his children, and the entreaties of his friends, Regulus
returned to Carthage.
The sequel may be easily conjectured. As soon as the Carthagi-
nians saw him come back with a denial, they put him to every kind
of suffering they could invent— to the most barbarous tortures, all of
which he bore with patient silence. He died as heroically as he had
lived.
After various successes on both sides, the Romans gained two na-
val battles, and thus so etfectually crippled the strength of the Car-
thaginians on their own element, tliat they sought a peace by great
sacrifices. The island of Sicily was now declared a Roman province,
though Syracuse maintained her independent government.
356—146 B. c. 105
12. A peace of twenty-lliree years' continuance subsisted
between Rome and Carthage, during wliich time the Ro-
mans had two short contentions — first with the Illyrians, and
next with the Gauls. Over both of tliese nations the Roman
arms tiiumplied. The temple of Janus, which was never
shut (luring' a time of war, was now shut for the second time,
since tbe foimtl.iiion of the city, 235 B. C. The Romans,
at this eia, becan to cultivate the arts of peace, and to acquire
a taste for literature.
§ The war with die Illyrians was owing to depredations committed
by them, on the t'-ading subjects cf Kome. Redress being reuised,
the consuls mart-lied against tlieiii, and most of the Illyrian towns
were obliged to surrender. The war with the Gauls was occasioned
by the irruption of these barbarians upon Italy. The Romans oppo-
sed them, will; such success, that they lost two kings, and in one bat-
tle alone 40,000 men killed and 10,0G0 taken prisoners.
13. The [ oace between the Romans and Carthaginians was
rather a matter of policy than of inclination. The Carthagi-
nians particularly had improved the time in preparing for re-
venge. They began the aggression in the second Punic war,
by laying siege to Saguntum, a city of Spain, in alliance
with Rome. Their leader in this war was the celebrated Han-
nibal, son of Haniilcar, under whom the first Punic war was
principally con.ductecl. The son inherited the fiither's enmity
lo the Romans, and was greatly superior to him in talents. ;
The war commenced 218 years B. C, and lasted 17 years.
It was at first highly favourable to the Carthaginians, and
Rome was thrown into imminent danger, and great distress,
by the victories of Hannibal, who had carried the war into
Italy. But the Roman fortune began at length to prevail,
and Hannibal avos recalled to save Carthage itself, inas-
much as Sci})io the Roman general, who triumphed in Spain,
had passed over into Africa, and spread terror to the gates of
('arthage.
Hannibal and Scipio met at Zama ; the battle of that
place decided the fate of the war, and the Carthaginians sued
for peace, which they obtained only by abandoning Spain,
Sicily, and all the islands — by surrendering all their prisoners,
and nearly the whole of their lieet, by paying 10,000 talents,
and by engaging to undertake no war without the consent of
Rome.
§ Of Hannibal it is recorded. t>i"» ^'-'-en onlv nine years of «" '
106 ANCICrJT HISTORY PERIOD VIII.
the instance of his father, he took a solemn oath at the ahar, decla
ring himself the eternal enemy of the Romans ; and never had they
so terrible a foe. Like most other great soldiers, he was capable of
bearing fatigue and hardship, heat and cold, good and bad fortune in
the extreme, with entire equanimity, and williout shrinking.
He was simple in dress, rigid in self-government — he ate, drank
and slept only so much as to support his iDody,_Rnd give him strength
to perform the intentions of his great mind. If, h.owcver, we are to
believe the accounts of his enemies, he was not without striking
moral defects — being cruel, negligent of his truth and honour, and a
scorner of the religion of his country.
Hannibal crossing the sea from Africa to Euroj , and taking Sa-
guntum, in Spain marched through Spain, and over the Pyrennean
hills into Gaul, along the coast of that country, and over the lofty
Alps crowned with snow, to Italy — a land journey of 1000 miles.
Such an exploit had never been done before. The difficulties of the
way would have disheartened any other man. In addition to this he
passed through various barbarous tribes, with most of whom he was
obliged to fight for a passage ; the Gauls among the rest attempting
to oppose his progress.
He arrived in Italy with only 20,000 foot and 6000 horse. "NVlien
he began this wonderful enterprise he was only 26 years old.
Several Roman generals of approved talent and valour opposed him ;
yet he w^as on the point of making himself master of proud Rome. In
the first engagement near the Ticinus, the Romans were defeated,
and they lost two other important battles at the Trebia and the lake
Thrasymenus.
Advancing to Canna;, the Carthaginians were opposed by the
whole force of Rome ; but in vain. Their fine army under their
consuls was totally routed. Varro gave orders for the battle against
the wish of his colleague Paulus iEmilius ; but the encounter once
begun, ^milius fought with the utmost skill and bravery, and died
covered with woimds.
Just before his death he was found sitting on a stone, faint and
streaming with blood. Tlie soldier who discovered him, besought
him to mount his horse, and put himself under his protection. " No,"'
said iEmilius with gratitude, " I will not clog you with my sinking
frame ; go hasten to Rome, and tell the senate of this day's disaster,
and bid them fortify the city, for the enemy is approaching it. I will
die with my slaughtered soldiers, that I may neitlier suffer the in-
dignation of Rome myself, nor be called upon to give testimony
against my colleague, to prove my own innocence."
It is an opinion generally entertained, though by no means certain,
that if Hannibal had marched directly to Rome, after tlie battle of
Canna;, tlie fate of the republic would have been inevitable. But
this lie did not see fit to attempt. The tide of success now began to
turn against liim. Wintering his troops in the luxurious city of Cap-
ua, they lost much of their virtue.
The Romans concentrated all their strength, even the slaves, arm-
ed in the common cause j and victory once more attended the staa
356—146 B. c. 107
dards of Rome. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marcellus.
The forces of the king of Macedon, who had joined the Carthaginians,
were also defeated at this juncture.
^^'Tlile Fabius, who was now opposed to Hannibal, conducted the
war prosperously, by always avoiding a general engagement, the
younger Scipio acconipHshed the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal
was sent into Italy after a long delay, to tlie assistance of his brother
Hannibal, but was defeated by the consul Claudius, and slain in battle.
Scipio, having triumplied in Spain, passed over into Africa, where
liis path was marked witli terror and victory. This policy he had
himself suggested to tlie Roman senate, as the only probable means
of driving the Cartliaginians from Italy. According to his expecta-
tions, when Carthage perceived the danger to Avhich itself was ex-
posed, Hannibal was recalled to protect his native land. He had been
• absent 16 years.
Scipio was an antagonist worthy of Hannibal. When he was
very young, he saved the life of his father in a battle ; and after the
fatal o\'ertlirow at Cann<e, hearing of some young men who thought
of abandoning their country, he, with a few other resolute spirits,
suddenly entered the room where they w'ere deliberating, and fiercely
drew his sword and exclaimed, " whoever is against Rome, this sword
is against him." The young men, intimidated by liis resolution, or
inspired by his spirit, took a vow with lam and his companions, to
fight for their country whilst a drop of blood remained in their veins.
The meeting at Zama, in Africa, between Hannibal and Scipio, the
two greatest warriors in the world, was highly interesting. They gazed
on each other with mutual aweand admiration. Hannibal invainstrove
to procure honourable terms of peace. The youthful Roman, however,
answered him with pride and disdain; and the armies prepared for battle.
The contest Avas dreadful ; but the superior vigour of the Romans,
notwithstanding the skill of the Carthaginians, prevailed. The latter
lost 40,000 men in killed and in prisoners, and were thus obliged to
conclude a fatal peace. Carthage was nearly ruined. As to Hanni-
bal, he survived this battle several years ; but being hated and hunted
by the Romans from place to place, he comiiiitted the uiijusliliable act
of suicide, so common in ancient times.
"Let us relieve the Romans of their fears," said he, "by closing
the existence of a feeble old man." He died at 70 years of age, at the
court of Prussias, king of Bythynia. The second Punic war ended
with the batUe at Zama, B. C. 201.
14. The Roman cloniiiiion now rapidly extended. Other
%nctories over other enemies attended the arms of the repubHc.
Philip king of Macedon was defeated by the Romans inider
Flaminius in Thessaly, 197 years B. C. The Gauls received
eome signal overthrows.
§ The war with Philip is called the first Macedonian war, and was ter-
minated by the request of Philip for peace, which the senate granted
the second year of the contest. The second Macedonian war, which
terminated the monarchy, as also that which put a period to Grecian
108 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII.
liberty, have already been narrated in the history of Macedonia and
Greece.
15. Five years afterwards, or 192 years B. C, commenced
the Syrian war, under Antiochus the Great. This ended m
his entire defeat, and in the cession to the Romans of all
Asia Minor. The pretext of this war was, that Antiochus
had made encroachments on the Grecian states, who were
then called the aUies of Rome. These successes, by pouring
wealth into Rome, began to cormpt the simplicity of the an-
ci-ent manners.
SICILY.
16. The history of Sicily is considerably included in that
of Rome and other nations, but a few particulars may deserve
a separate notice. In early times the government was a
monarchy, but it afterwards became a republic, and continued
such, except at Syracuse, the monarchy of which, after 60
years, was re-established in the person of Dionysius the Elder.
The Sicilians were frequently engaged in wars with the
Carthaginians, and the latter, in the com'se of time, possessed
themselves of a considerable part of the island. It was the
scene and the object of the first Punic war ; and in the se-
cond, the whole of it was brought under the sway of Rome,
by the consul Marcelliis, 212 years B. C.
§ This important island in the Mediterranean sea, the granary of
Italy, was settled in an early age of the world, though the exact pe-
riod is unknown. The Phoenicians h?'^. sent colonies thither before
the Trojan war. The Greeks at later periods made considerable set-
tlements in the island. The Corinthians founded Syracuse, which
became the most renowned of the Greek cities of Sicily.
The regal government exercised in the various parts of the island,
having become excessively tyrannical, was the cause of its being
abolished in all the cities held there by the Greeks. Dionysius, how-
ever, a person of mean birth, but great talents, found the means of
reviving the monarchy at Syracuse, and though thrice expelled on
account of his tyranny, he re-assumed the sceptre, which he transmit-
ed to his son, Dionysius the Younger.
This weak and detestable tyrant had been well educated by the
great Plato ; but he soon forgot all the good that had been taught
him. He so provoked his virtuous brotlier-in-law Dion, (whom the
jealousy of the nobles had banished,) by marrying Dion's wife to one
of his courtiers, that the latter led an army to Syracuse, drove the
tyrant from his throne, and recovered his wife. In the hands of Dion
the government was administered with much moderation and ability ,•
but this excellent sovereign was at last cruellv murdered
356— 146 B.C. 109
At his death Dionysius again ascended the tlirone, and was again
driven from it ; and after all' his various fortunes, it is said he became
a school-master at Corinth. The brave and humane Timoleon, a
Greek, was the person who accomplished the second banishment of
this tyrant. Tiniolcnu was ^ent for to assist the Syracusans against
the Carthaginians, and having defeated them, he entered Syracuse in
triumph.
Dionysius, being unfit to rule, surrendered himself and his citadel
into his hands, and was sent to Corinth. Timoleon again defeated
the Carthaginians mider Asdrubal and Amilcar, and at length sub
dued all the enemies of Syracuse. After having served Syracuse
and the Avhole island to the extent of his power, he gave up Ids
authority, and lived tlie rest of his days in tranquil retirement.
A few years after the battle of Caranaj, Marcellus the Roman con-
sul, laid siege to Syracuse ; and in spite of the wonderful machines
constructed and employed by Archimedes, he finally took it. Mar-
cellus, wlio was acquainted with the extraordinary abilities of this
man, when the city had fallen into his hands, gave orders, that
Archimedes should be conducted to him in safety.
When the city was taken, this philosopher was so absorbed in
study, that he was not aware of the event, until a soldier, rushing into
liis apartment, bade him rise and follow him. Archimedes desired him
to wait a moment until he had solved the problem that he was work-
ing. The soldier, not understanding what he was talking about, and
provoked at his disobedience, drew his sword and killed him on the
spot. Marcellus was greatly disappointed at this event.
SYRIA.
17. Dining the present period the kingdom of Syria, oi
Syro-Medio, rose into importance under its fotinder Seleiicug
Nicator, or the Conqueror, 312 years B. C. In the first divi-
sion of Alexander's empire, the country anciently called Syria,
fell to the lot of Antigonus. But Seleucus, a distinguished
and able officer in the empire, revolted, and made war upon
Antigonus, who being slain at the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus
remained possessor of his dominions. The sovereigns of this
new kingdom, after him, were known under the name of Se-
leucidae.
§ SjTia was first inhabited by the posterity of Aram, the youngest
son of Shem. The kings of this country were little known till the time
of Alexander the Great, except what is related of them in the Bible.
Hadadezer made an unsuccessful war against David. Benhadad was
three times defeated by Ahab and Ahaziah. A few other particulars
are related of the Syrian kings, till Syria was made a province of
the Assyrian Empire by Tiglath-Pilescr, who defeated and slew Re-
zin, the king of Syria, in battle.
18. The second and last division of Alexander's empire
was formerly mentioned. Seleucus who retained Syria, to
110 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII.
which other possessions were added, made war upon Lysi-
inachus, who had reduced Macedonia under his sway. Lysi-
machus was lolled, and Seleucus seized on his kingdom. But
the conqueror was assassinated the same year, by Ptolemy
Ceraunus, who afterwards reigned at Macedon.
§ Of the Seleucidag, or successors of Seleucus, to the end of this
period, the following epitome may be given. Antiochus Soter, or the
saviour, succeeded the conqueror. Of this Antiochus it is recorded,
that when a young man, he fell in love with one of his father's wives,
a young and beautiful woman, to such a degree, as to be nearly re-
duced to death.
His physician discovering, from the agitation of his pulse at the
sight of Stratonice, (the name of the object of his passion,) the true
cause of his disease, made it known to Seleucus the father. From
affection to the son he renounced Stratonice, and gave her to him in
marriage, 280 B. C.
Antiochus Theos, or tlie God, invaded Egypt. During his ab-
sence the provinces of the East were entered i^y the Parthians, who
founded a new kingdom. The Bactrians also became independent.
He made peace with Ptolemy Philadelphus, and married his daugh-
ter Berenice, after repudiating his wife. The king of Egypt being
dead, he took back his former wife, who poisoned him, Berenice, and
her son, 261 B. C.
After the reigns of Seleucus Callinicus, and Seleucus Ceraunus, re ■
specting whom nothing remarkable took place, Antiochus the Great
ascended the throne. He was at first engaged in subduing some of
his revolted governors. Afterwards he invaded Media, Parthia, Hyr-
cania. Bactria, and even India, 223 B. C.
Having planned the conquest ef Asia Minor, and taken some places
there, an embassy was sent by the Romans, desiring him to desist.
This brought on the war M^th the Romans which has been particu-
larly detailed. In this attempt he first conquered a part of Greece.
Here the Romans defeated him, and being closely pursued by Scipio
Asiaticus, he was beaten again in Asia. Among one of the conditions
of peace was the delivery of his son Antiochus, as a hostage to the
Romans.
Scleucits Philopater, who was left by his father to govern Syria,
during his absence, next ascended the throne, 187 years B. C. Hi»
general Heliodorus, in attempting to rob the temple of Jerusalem of
its treasures, was repulsed by the hand of God, and rigorously chas-
tised. He poisoned Seleucus after his return.
Antiochus Epiphanes, the son who was delivered as a hostage to
the Romans, and exchanged, after chastising Heliodjrus, gained pos-
session of the throne, 175 years B. C. In attempting to reduce Egypt
under his dominion, he was stopped by a Roman ambassador, who
obliged him to return.
Incensed at this, he vented his rage against the Jews, took Jerusa-
lem, slaughtered 40,000 persons, and made as many prisoners. The
Jews, however, revolted, and under Judas Maccabaeus defeated seve-
35G— 146 b. c. Ill
ral of his generals. These ^\'al•s will be detailed in the history of the
Jews. Antiochus, in attempting to exterminate the Jews, perished in
great torments.
Antiochus Eupator and Demetrius Sotcr continued the war with
the Jews, and Alexander I5ala«, tlie last sovereign, during this period,
abandoned himself to a life of debauchery.
JEWS.
20. In the history of the Jews at the commencement of
this j)eriod, we have to notice the favour which was mani
fested towards them by Alexander the Great, who granted to
them the freedom of their country, laws, and rehgion, and ex-
empted them from paying tribute every seventh year.
In their dei)cndent state, they had continued to enjoy a de-
gree of prosperity mider the soveieigns of Persia, even after the
time of Cyrus. His successors, down to the era of Alexander,
had, in general, treated them with much kindness. But with
the latter expired the prosperous state of Judea, 324 years
B.C.
§ Darius, son of Cyrus, favoured the Jew^s during his long reign.
Xerxes confirmed their privileges. Under Artaxerxes they were still
more favoured through the influence of his queen Esther, a Jewess.
From this prince, Ezra obtained very liberal donations to be applied
to the service of the temple, and authority to re-establish the govern-
ment according to the divine constitution, 480 years B. C.
Several years afterwards, under the same prince, Nehemiah his
cup-bearer, obtained leave to go to Jerusalem and rebuild its walls.
He and Joiada the high priest reformed many abuses respecting
tithes, the observation of the sabbath, and the marrying of strange
wives.
In tlie latter period, to wliich our accounts more particularly refer,
it is recorded that Jaddus, the high ])riest, in his priestly attire, met
Alexander tlie Great, and shewed him the prophecy of Daniel, in
which liis conquest was foretold.
21. From this time, 323 years B. C, Judea was succes-
sively invaded and subdued by the Egyptians and Syrians,
and the inhabitants were reduced to bondage. In conse-
quence of an invasion by Antiochus Epiphanes, about 170
years B. C. the sacrifices ceased among the Jews, and there
scarcely existed any external signs of their peculiar civil or
religious polity.
Such persecutions roused the Jews to drive the Syrians
from Judea, which they gloriously achieved under Judas
Maccaba^us, 166 years B. C.
§ Under the priesthood of Onias I., Ptolemy, governor of Egypt
taking advantage of the circumstance that the Jews would not fight
1 12 A^'CIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII.
on the sabbath, captured Jerusalem on that day, and carried off
100,000 persons, whom, however, he afterwards treated kindly.
When Eleazer was high priest, he sent to Ptolemy Philadelphus
six men of every tribe, to translate the sacred scriptures into Greek.
This translation is the celebrated one called the Septuagint, 277
B.C.
Jason, 170 B. C, on false reports of Antiochus' death, raised great
disturbances in Jerusalem, with a view to recover the high priest-
hood. Antiochus (Epiphanes) irritated by the frequent revolts of
the Jews, marched to Jerusalem, slew 80,000 people, took 40,000
captives, and then entered the temple and plundered the treasures.
Antiochus having commanded the Jews to observe the rites of the
heathen, and to eat of the sacrifices, some of the more conscientious
among them chose rather the loss of hfe ; among whom were a mo-
tlier and her seven sons, who expired in dreadful tortures. The same
yeai" the king's commissioner, who was entrusted vrith this iniquitous
business, was killed by Mattathias and his five sons, who thereupon
lied into the wilderness.
Judas Maccabffius, at the head of those who fled into the wilder-
ness, made war against Antiochus, and defeated several of his gene-
rals. The king hearing of the defeat of his troops in Judca, took an
oath, that he would destroy the whole nation. As he hastened to
Jerusalem, he fell from his chariot, and died miserably.
In a battle with a general of one of his successors, Judas was killed,
Jonathan his brother succeeded, and was made high priest, 153 years
B. C. A younger brother had been previously killed. The remain-
der of tlie history of the Maccabees is to be pursued in the next suc-
ceeding period.
EGYPT.
22. Egypt, having been in subjection 30 years since it
was last brought under the Persian yoke, was sul)dued by
Alexander the Great, 332 years B. C. He appointed Ptol-
emy Lagus its governor, who, after the conqueror's death, be-
gan a new dynasty of kings, called Ptolemajans or Lagidae
323 years B. C.
This dynasty lasted 294 years, and ended in Cleopatra.
Of the sovereigns that belong to the period now treated of, we
find the names of six of various characters.
Ptolemy Lagus, called also Soter or Saviour, was a man of great
abilities, and endeavoured to restore Egypt to its ancient splendour.
fie erected the famous library at Alexandria. He subdued Syria,
Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem.
Ptolemy Philadclpluis, or Lover of liis brother, pursued the steps
of liis father in a great measure. He protected commerce, arts, and
sciences, and erected magnificent buildings. Ptolemy Evergetes, or
the Benefactor, Wfus not only a lover of science, but an author. He
spared no pains to enrich his library.
Ptolemy Philopater, or Lover of his father, a surname probably
:^56— IIG B. c. 113
given liim in derision, being suspected to have put his father to death,
was a cruel prince. He slew his brotlier, murdered his queen, and
ordered all tlie Jews witliin his dominions to abjure their religion,
wliich however they refused to do.
Ptolemy Epiplianes, or the Illustrious, was famous only for his
vices. He suffered every thing to fall into disorder, and was at last
poisoned by his subjects.
Ptolemy Pliilometer, or Lover of his mother, engaged in an un-
successful war against Syria, in which he was taken prisoner, and
the crown given to his brother Physcon ; but after Philometer re
gained his liberty, they reigned jointly.
PARTHIA.
23. The histoiy of Parthia begins at this era. Arsaces,
a nobleman, descended as some think from Artaxerxes
Mnemon, king of Persia, revolted from Antiochus Theos,
king of Syria (256 B. C.) and fonnded the new kingdom of
Parthia, which at first consisted only of the province so called
From him his successors are called Arsacida?.
§ The single province of Parthia was not large ; but the Parthian
empire included not only Parthia, but Hyrcania, Sogdiana, Bactria,
Persia, Media, and several other regions. Parthia was first sub-
ject to the Medes, afterwards to the Persians, and lastly to Alexander
the Great : upon whose death, it fell to tlie share of Seleucus Nicator ;
and his successors held it till the reign of Antiochus Theos.
They were a warlike people, and the best horsemen and archers in
the world. For the sake of war, they neglected agriculture, trade,
and aU other callings.
2 1. The Arsacidai were in general conquerors^ and greatly
extended their dominions from time to time. Mithridates I.
the fifth from Arsaces, was a man of uncommon wisdom and
courage. He reduced the Bactrians, Persians, Medes, and
Elynifi^ans, and extended his dominions into India, beyond
the boundaries of Alexander's conquests.
CHINA.
25. The third dynasty of the emperors of China, which
commenced 1110 years B. C, ended during this period
viz. 246 years B. C. It included 35 emperors. It is called
the dynasty of Tcheou.
The fourth dynasty, which began at the latter date, lasted
43 years, terminating 203 years B. C. It included four em-
perors. It is called the dynasty of Tsin.
§ Chaus the fourth emperor of the third dynasty Avas excessively
fond of hunting. In the pursuit of that sport, he did incalculable
damage to tlie crops of his subjects. Their remonstrances being un-
heeded, they determined to destroy him. For this purpose, as he
K 2
114 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD VIII.
was wont to pass a large river, on his return from the chase, in a
boat which waited for him, they caused one to be built of such con-
struction as to break in pieces before it reached the opposite shore.
Entering his boat, he and his attendants soon went to the bottom.
Ching, the second emperor of the fourth dynasty, left a monument
of his power, which still astonishes those that behold it, viz. the fa-
mous wall, 500 leagues long, which separates China from its north-
ern neighbours. He suppressed the tributary kingdoms, and reduced
them to their former state of provinces.
Elated with his success, he became ambitious of being thought the
first sovereign of China. With this view he ordered all the historical
writings and public records to be burned, and many of the learned
men to be buried alive, that past events might not be transmitted
to posterity.
Distinguished Characters in Period VIII.
1. Plato, an eminent Grecian philoso}iher, called the
Divine.
2. Apelles, the greatest of the painters of antiquity.
3. Alexander the Great, conqueror of most of the world
known to the ancients.
4. Demosthenes, the prince of orators.
5. Aristotle, the ablest logician and philosopher of antiquity.
6. Euclid, the greatest master of mathematical science.
7. Theocritus, the father of pastoral poetry.
8. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy.
9. Archimedes, a famous geometrician of Syracuse.
1. Plato was born about 429 years B. C. His name, Aristocles, was
changed to Plato, from the largeness of his shoulders. He Avas 8
years the pupil of Socrates, after whose death, he travelled into
foreign countries. When lie had finished these, he retired to the
groves of Academus, where he was attended by a crowd of noble and
illustrious pupils.
His learning and virtues were topics of conversation in every part
of Greece ; he was elegant in his manners, and partook of innocent
pleasures and amusements. He died in his 81st year, about 348 B. C.
The works of Plato are numerous ; they are all in the form of a
dialogue, except twelve letters. The ancients and even the learned
moderns have highly respected and admired the writings of this great
philosoplier. They display unusual depth of tiiought, and singular
elegance, melody, and sweetncssof expression. Amongother trutlis, he
maintained by many powerful arguments the immortality of the soul.
2. Apelles was born in the island of Cos, and lived contemporary
with Alexander, who would suffer no other to draw his picture. His
Venus rising out of the sea, was purchased by Augustus, and placed
m a temple at Rome. The lower part had .sustained some injury
v.'hich no artist could repair. He wrote some pieces which were
extant in the age of Pliny.
356—146 B.C. 115
One of his piclures of Alexander exliibited the conqueror with a
thunderbolt in his hand. The piece was finished with so much skill
and dexterity, tluit it used to be said that there were two Alexanders :
one invincible, tke son of Philip : the other inimitable, the produc-
tion of Apelles. The date of his death does not appear.
3. Alexander was born at Pella in Macedonia, 355 B. C. At the
age often years he was delivered to the tuition of Aristotle, and early
followed his faliier to the field. When he came to the throne, he in-
vaded Asia, as has been already described, defeating Darius in three
great battles, reducing Egypt, Media, Syria, and Persia, and spread-
ing his conquests over a part of India.
On his return from India he stopped at Babylon, where he died in
his 32d year, from excess in drinking, or as some think, from poison.
He aspired to be thought a demigod, but was humane, liberal, and a
patron of learning. With many valuable qualities, much is it to be
regretted that he should have been the scourge, by being the conqueror
of the world.
His tender treatment of the wife and mother of Darius, who were
taken prisoners, has been greatly praised. 'Ilie latter, who had sur-
vived the death of her son, killed herself when she heard that Alex-
ander was dead. He was guilty of many extravagant and profligate
actions ; yet amidst them all he was fond of candour and truth, and
after any act of wickedness, appeared to be stung witJi grief and re-
morse.
When one of his ofl^cers read to him as he sailed on the Hydaspes,
a history which the officer had composed of his wars with Porus,
and in which he had too liberallj' praised him, Alexander snatched
the book from his hand, and threw it into the river saying, "AVliat
need is there of such flattery ? Are not the exploits of Alexander suf-
ficiently meritorious in themselves, without the colouring of false-
hood ?"
The death of his friend Clitus, of which he was the author, while
it might be in a degree palliated, shewed how capable he was of re-
gret for a wrong action. Clitus had greatly abused Alexander ; they
were both heated with wine and passion. The monarch after bear-
ing the abuse for some time, ordered CUtus to be carried out of his
presence.
The latter, however, soon returned, and renewed his invectives.
Alexander giving loose to his indignation, stabbed ilie \fteran ; but
was so immediately shocked with what he had done, that he was
about to kill himself on the spot, and was only prevented by his
friends.
4. Demosthenes was only seven years old when his father died,
and his guardians, proving unfaithful to their trust, squandered his
property, and neglected his education. He was therefore indebted
to his own industry and application, for the discipline of >iis mind.
By unwearied eflTorts, and by overcoming the greatest obstacles,
such as weakness of the lungs, difficulty of pronunciatit m, and un-
couth habits of body, he became the greatest orator in the world.
That he might devote himself the more closely to his studies, he con-
116 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD VIII.
fined himself to a retired cave, and shaved half of his head, so thai
he could not decently appear in public.
His abilities as an orator soon placed him at the head of the go-
vernment, and in this capacity he roused and animated his country-
men against the ambitious designs of Philip. He also opposed Alex-
ander, and made every effort to save his country. When the gene-
rals of Alexander approached Athens, he fled for safety to the temple
of Neptune, and there took poison to prevent himself from falling
into their hands, in his GOth year, B. C. 322.
5. Aristotle possessed one of the keenest and most inventive ori-
ginal intellects ever known. His writings treat of almost every branch
of knowledge in his time ; — moral and natural philosophy, metaphy-
sics, mechanics, grammar, criticism, and politics, all occupied his pen.
His eloquence also was I'emarkable. He was moderate in his meals,
slept little, and was indefatigably industrious. That he might noi
oversleep himself, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always with
one hand out of the bed, holding in it a ball of brass, which, by its
falling into a basin of the same metal, awaked him.
Though educated in the school of Plato, he differed from his mas-
ter', and at length formed a new school. He taught in the Lyceum. He
had a deformed countenance, but his genius was an ample compensa-
tion for all his personal defects. As he expired, he is said to have ut-
tered the following sentiment. " I entered this world in impurity, I
have lived in anxiety, I depart in perturbation. Cause of causes,
pity me I" If he lived in scepticism, as is affinned, he hardly died
in it. His death occurred in his 63d year.
6. Euclid was a mathematician of Alexandria. He flourished about
300 years B, C. He distinguished himself by his writings on music
and geometry, but particularly by 15 books on the elements of mathe-
matics, which consist of problems and theorems, with demonstrations.
His elements have gone through innumerable editions. He was
greatly respected by antiquity, and his school, which he established
at Alexandria, became the most famous in the world, for mathe-
matics.
7. Theocritus flourished at Syracuse in Sicily, 282 years B. C. He
distinguished himself by his poetical compositions, of which 30 Idy-
lia, and some epigrams, are extant, written in the Doric dialect, and
admired for their beauty, elegance, and simplicity.
He excelled in pastorals. He clothes his peasants with all the rusti-
city of nature, though sometimes speaking on exalted subjects. It is
said he wrote some invectives against Hiero, king of Syracuse, who
ordered him to be strangled.
8. Zeno was a native of Cyprus. In early life he followed commer-
cial pursuits ; but having been shipwrecked, to divert his melancholy,
lie took up a book to read. The book was written by Xenophon, and
so captivated was he, that from this time he devoted himself to plii-
losophy.
Becoming perfect in every branch of knowledge, he at length
opened a school in Athens, and delivered his instructions in a porch,
ia Greek called stoa. He was austere in his manners, but his life was
146— 80 B. c. 117
an example of moderation and sobriety. He taught philosopiiy 48
years, and died in his 98th year, B. C. 204. A stranger lo diseases and
indisposition, virtue was his chief good.
9. Archimedes was born at Syracuse. At the siege, by Marcellus,
he constructed machines which sunk some of the Roman sliips, and
others he set on (u-e with burning glasses. These ghisses are supposed
to have been reflectors made of metal, and capable of producing their
eflcct at the distance of a bow shot.
He was killed at the taking of tiie place, 208 B. C. by a soldier, who
was ignorant of his character, and while the philosopher was enga-
ged in his studies. Some of his works are extant.
PERIOD IX.
The pei'iod of the civil icar between Marius and S'l/lla,
extending fro7n the destruction of Carthage, 146 years
B. C. to tJte first campaign of Julius Casar, 80 years
B. a
ROME.
Sect. 1. This period, as well as that which follows, pro-
perly begins with the affairs of the Romans — a people,
already possessing vast power and resources, and destined to
become in a short time, the conquerors of the whole civilized
portion of the human family.
Following the course of their victories, we next light upon
their final conquest and destruction of Carthage, the most
formidable rival Rome ever possessed. That city fell under
tiie hands of the conquerors 146 years B. C. The war, of
which this was the result, had commenced four years before.
The Romans were the aggressors, having invaded Africa at
a favourable juncture, when the Carthaginians were engaged
in a war with another power.
Carthage fell, notwithstanding the desperate eObrts of its
inhabitants, and was converted into a pile of rains, with the
extinction of the Carthaginian name.
§ Wlien the indications of Roman liostility appeared, the Cartha-
ginians, who had sulfered so severely in the last war, recoiled at the
idea of anoth.er contest with the conquering Romans. They therefore
sent a deputation to Rome to settle the matter pacifically, if possible.
The Senate gave no decisive answer.
A second deputation followed, but it sought in vain to avert tlie
threatened evil. The demands made upon the Carthaginians were
in the highest degree disgraceful to Rome. They were commanded
lis ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX.
to promise implicit obedience, and to send 300 hostages as a seci i.y
for tlieir future good conduct. The promise was given, ana the
Carthaginians yielded up their children, as the required hostages.
Tliey were liext ordered to give up all their arms ; this order was
also obeyed: and to consummate their degradation and the cruelty of
the Romanes, they were required to quit their beloved city, and allow
it to be levelled to the ground. The Carthaginians, as might have
been expected, were fired with indignation, and resolved unani-
mously that if they could not saA-e their capital, they would perish
With it.
Despoiled, however, of their arms, they could at first effect but
little, although they exerted every nerve, in raeeiing the foe. Their
women cut off their long fine hair to be twisted into cords for bows;
they brought out all their gold and silver vessels to be converted into
arms, for these were the only metals they had left.
The Romans were astonished at the resistance thcj^ experienced ;
many times were they repulsed from the walls, and many were the
soldiers slain in the various attacks. Indeed, it is tliought by some,
that Carthage would not finally have been taken, had not one of her
own officers basely gone over to the enemy. The affairs of the
Carthaginians declined from that time.
Scipio J]]milianus cut off their supplies of food, and blocked up
the haven. The persevering citizens cut out a new passage into the
sea. He next attacked and cut to pieces the army they had station-
ed without the walls, killing 70,000 men, and taking 10,000 prison-
ers. After this he broke through the walls, and entered the city,
pulling or burning down houses and temples, and public buildings,
with indiscriminate fury.
Asdrubal, the Carthaginian general, delivered himself and citadel
to the conquerors ; but his wife and children, with numbers of the
citizens, set fire to the temples, and rushing into llum, perished in
the flames. So completely was this once beautiful city destroyed,
that the place on which it stood cannot be discovered ; it was burning
17 days, and was 24 miles in circumference.
All the cities which befriended Carthage, shared her fate ; and the
Romans gave away the lands to their friends.
2. Soon after the ruin of Carthage, viz. 137 years B. G.
the Numantines, a people of Spain, overcame the Romans in
battle : but three years after this defeat, Numanlin, tlie finest
and largest city in Spain, was taken by the Ilomans, and
he inhabitants, to escape falUng irto the hands of these cruel
conquerors, set fire to their city, and all of them perished in
the llames. Thus Spain became a province of Rome 134
3'eais B, C.
§ Previously to the defeat of the Romans by the Numantines, there
had been a war between tlie Romans and Spain, which lasted 9 years.
Fabius, who was sent to manage this war, gained a victory over ouo
146— so B. c 119
o*" the leaders of the Spanish forces, who was obliged to retire into
Lusitania.
The reverse wliich theRomans met with in the contest with Numan-
tia, was highly dif^graceful to thcni. Tliirty thousand of their num-
ber were conquered by 4000 Nuniantines. The consul, Manciiuis, was
recalled, and Scipio was sent into Spain, who restored the discipline
of the troops. He soon defeated tlie Nuniantines, Avho, being reduced
to the last extremity, perished as above described.
3. Rome at this time, (133 B. C.) was beginninir to be
greatly disturbed by internal dissensions. Attains, king of
Pergamns, having, by his last will, made the Romans his
heirs, Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the people, proposed
that the money should be divided among the poor. This
caused a great disturbance, during which Gracchus was
kUled.
About twelve years afterwards, Caius Gracchus, brother to
Tiberius, having opposed the senate, and become popular and
powerful, exposed himself to the resentment of the nobles,
who marked him out for destiiiction. In consequence of some
riots, tlie consul Opimius pursued him so closely, that to avoid
falling into his hands, he accomplished his own death, by the
assistance of a servant.
§ The Gracchi were sons of Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Afri-
canus, the conqueror of Hannibal. She was left a widow with tAvelve
children. Tlie following circumstance places her character in a very
favourable light. A lady once came to visit her, who prided herself
much on her jewels, and after shewing them to Cornelia, asked to
see hers in return. Cornelia waited till her sons came home from
school, and then prcsf ntiiig them to her guest, said, " Behold, madam,
these are my jewels.-'
The interference of Tiberius, her elder son, in behalf of the poor,
had given great offence to the rich. At a public meeting he chanced
to put his hand to his head, and those who wished his downfall im-
mediately said that he was desirous of a crown, and in the uproar
that ensued, he lost his life.
At his death, the populace placed his younger brother at their
head. Caius Gracchus was only 21 at this time, and had lived a life
of great retirement, yet he did much good, and caused many useful
acts to be passed. He was temperate and simple in his food, and of
an active and industrious disposition. His love and respect for his
mother were remarkable. At her request he withdrew a law he much
desired to have passed : and so much was lie esteemed, that a statue
was erected to the memory of his mother, with this inscription,
Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi," a tribute honourable to both
parent and children.
The tumults attending the attempts of the Gracchi to remove the
corruptions of the higher orders at their expense, were a prelude to
120 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IX.
Jhose civil disorders, which now rapidly followed to the end oi the
commonwealth.
4. The Romans, though corrupt at home, still displayed
their valour abroad. Besides some small states which tliey
had acquired on the north and east, they defeated Jugurtha,
king of Numidia, about this time. The war with him com-
menced 111 years B. C, and was finished under Marius 108
B. C. The consequence to Jugurtha was the loss of his king-
dom and life.
After an engagement in which 90,000 of the Numidian
army were slain, he was betrayed and made prisoner, and
the senate finally condemned him to be starved to death in
a dungeon. Jugurtha's own conduct occasioned his calamity,
though the senate of Rome acted with singular cruelty.
In this war Metellus the consul was leader at first, but
Marius found means to supplant him, and to succeed in
command.
§ Jugurtha, who was grandson of the famous Massinissa, that
sided against Hannibal, sought to usurp the crown of Numidia, by
destroying his cousins, the sons of the late king. He succeeded in
murdering the elder brother ; and the younger, applying for aid to
Rome, failed of success, since Jugurtha bribed the senate, who de-
creed to him the sovereignty of half the kingdom.
He then made war upon his cousin, and finally put him also to
death. The displeasure of the Roman people being excited by this
conduct, the senate were constrained to summon him to Rome, to
answer for his perfidy. He accordingly went thitlter, and pleading
his own cause in person, he again, by bribery, secured the favomr of
/.he senate.
A repetition of his base conduct in reference to his cousin, drew
upon him, however, the vengeance of the Romans. Metellus was
sent against him ; and in tlie space of two years, Jugurtha was over-
thrown in several battles, so that he was forced to negociate a peace.
The negociation, however, was soon laid aside.
Metellus had very much broken the strength of the Numidian
king, before Marius succeeded to the command. Having by his arts
ODtained the consulship, Marius enjoyed the reputation of putting an
end to the war. This man was the glory and the scourge of Rome.
He was born of poor parents, and inured from infancy to penury
and toil. His manners were as rude as his countenance was forbid-
ding.
He was thus prepared, however, to become a great general. His
stature was extraordinary, his strength incomparable, and his bravery
undaunted. When he entered the country of Jugurtha, he quickly
made himself master of the cities that yet remained to the latter.
Bocchus, king of Mauritania, at first assisted this prince, but fear-
ing at length for his own crown, and understand inf^ ihni the Rmnanc
146—80 B. c. 121
would be satisfied with the delivery of Jngiirtha into their hands, he
resorted to this treacherous measure, and the Numidian, dragged in
chains to Rome, (;\'i)crlenced the fate above recorded.
5. After a short war with the Teutoiies and Cimbri, of
whom several huiuUed tliousands were slain under Marius,
the Romans fell into a contention with the allied states of
Italy. This was called the Social War, and was entered into
on the part of the states, with a view to obtain the rights (/
citizenrihip, 9i years B. C,
This war ended in an allowance of those rights, to such of
the allies as shoidd return to their allegiance. It cost the
lives of 300,000 of the flower of Italy, and was conducted by
the ablest generals, on both sides.
6. Following this was the commencement of the Mithridatic
War, 89 years B. C. Sylla, who had distinguished himself in
the social war, was appointed to the command of the expe-
dition against Mithridates, to the great disappointment of Ma-
rius. This measure was the foundation of those dreadful
dissensions by which Rome became soon distracted.
Within the space of three years, Sylla g-reatly humbled the
power of Mithridates, and at the expiration of that time re-
turned to Rome, burning with revenge against his enemies, —
Marhis and his accomplices.
§ Mithridates was a powerful and warlike monarch, whose dominion
at this time extended over Ca])padocia, Bitliynia, Thrace, Macedon,
and all Greece. Me was able to bring 250,000 infantrj^ into the field,
and 50,000 horse. He had also a vast number of armed chariots,
and in liis port 400 ships of war.
The Romans desired to attack him, and they wanted no other pre
tence, than his having invaded some of those states that were under
the protection of Rome. Sylla entered with spn-it on the war, and
soon had an oppotuiiity to acquire glory by his arms.
This general who now bcg;ui to take the lead in the commonwealth,
belonged to one of tiie most illustrious families in Rome. His person
was elegant, his air noble, his manners easy and apparently sincere ;
he loved pleasure, but glory still more ; and fond of popularity, he de-
sired to please all the world. He rose by degrees into office, and
soon eclipsed every other commander. On this account he received
the present appointment, in opposition to the claims of Marias.
In the course of the war, wliich had now commenced in earnest,
Mithridates having caused 150,000 Roiuans, who were in his domin-
ions, to be slain in cold blood, next sent his general Archelaus to op-
pose Sylla. Archelaus, however, was defeated near Athens, with the
loss of an incredible number of his forces.
Another battle followed, by which the Roman general recovered
all tiie countries that had been usurped by Mithridates ; so that both
122 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD IX.
{)arties desired a cessation of arms, Mitliridates on account of his
osses, and Sylla on account of his designs against Marius.
7. Before much prog-ress was made in the Mithridatic war,
the contention between Marius and Sylla had begun, 88 years
B. C. Sylla having been recalled from Asia, refused to obey
the mandate of the senate, and found his anny well disposed
to support him. They required their leader to march them
to Rome. He accordingly led them on, and they entered the
city sword in hand.
Marius and his partisans, after some resistance, fled fi'om the
city, and Sylla ruled for a time in triumph. He soon returned,
however, into Asia, to finish the war he had undertaken. In
the mean time, the party of Marius recovered strength, and he
returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those of Cinna, his
zealous partizan, laid siege to Rome. The city he compelled
to absolute submission.
After putting to death all whom they considered their ene-
mies, they assumed the consulship. But Marius, in a fit of
debauch, died a few days after ; and Ciima at no great inter •
val followed, having been privately assassinated.
§ After Sylla had entered Rome in arms, his object, with the exeep)--
tion of a few vindictive measures, seemed to be to give peace to the city,
and it was not until he had effected this object, as he supposed, that
he departed upon his expediton against Mithridates. By confining
his efforts solely against Marius, he had, however, overlooked a for-
midable rising opponent in Cornelius Cinna.
This man, who was of noble extraction, ambitious, bold, and enter
prising, had sufficient influence to raise an army with a view to con-
tend against the supporters of Sylla. Just at this juncture, Marius,
having escaped a thousand perils during his absence, returned, with
his son, to the gates of Rome. An army of veterans and slaves, the
latter of whom he had promised liberty, flocked to his standard, and
burning with revenge, he entered Rome, having previously received
the submission of the senate.
Tragical occurrences followed ; for senators of the first rank were
butchered in the streets, and every personal enemy which Marius or
Cinna had, that could be found, was put to death. In a month Mari-
us died, having satisfied his two prevailing passions of ambition and
revenge ; and while Cinna was preparing to meet Sylla in arms, he
perished in a mutiny of his own soldiers, by an unknown hand.
8. Sylla soon returned to Italy, victorious over his foreign
enemy, and joined by Cethegus, Pompey, and other leaders,
gave battle to those Romans who had been opposed to him,
and entirely defeated them. Rome now for the first time re-
ceived a native master. A most dreadful massacre and pro*
146—80 B. c. 123
scription followed, in which Sylla designed to exterminate
every enemy he hud in Italy.
§ The army opposed to Sylla M'as headed by young Marius, son of
Caius, and although it was more numerous than that of Sylla, it was
less united and disciplined. Several misfortunes, however, happen-
in.'? to the forces of Mariu.'j, they soon yielded.
A large body of the Samnites, who, at this time, were in the interest
of Marius, had carri(-d the war to the gate of Rome. They were on the
point of success, when Sylla met them, and a most obstinate contest
ensued. Sylla found himself victorious. On the field of battle 50,000
of the vanquished and the victors lay promiscuously in death. Sylla
now became undisputed master of his country, and entered Rome at
the head of his army.
But he entered it to accomplish the purposes of the direst revenge.
A long list of senators, and Roman knights, together with an unnum
bered multitude of the citizens, he caused to be put to death. This
work of destruction he extended throughout the principal towns of
Italy. He permitted his soldiers to revenge their private injuries,
and thus almost indiscriminate massacres took place.
0. Such violence, however, could be supported only by an
increase of power. Accordingly Sylla invested himself with
the Dictatorship, thus designing to give an air of justice to his
monstrous oppressions. This dictatorship commenced 82 years
B. C, and lasted not quite three years. Rome was now be-
ginning to settle into a despotism, having passed through all
the forms of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. From
this time, though nominally a republic for a number of years,
it never freed itself from the yoke of despotism.
Sylla, as perpetual dictator, was Avithout a rival in authority,
and absolute master of the government. Every thing was
done as he exacted. The least opposition aroused his ven-
geance. The peo})le saw nothing before them but the pros-
pect of hopeless slavery, for, while they were amused with the
show of their former government, Sylla took care that none
but his own creatures should be elected to any office.
It was at this crisis, however, that, contrary to all expecta-
tion, Sylla laid dovv'n the dictatorship. The step was unac-
countable, and the reasons of it have ever remained hidden
from mankind.
§ He retired in safety. Of all that great multitude Avhich he had so
often insult(!d and terrified, none were found hardy enough to reproach
or accuse him, except one young man who pursued hiiu, with bitter
invectives, to his own door.
Sylla, without re])lying to so low an adversary, turning to those
who followed, observed, " That this fellow's insolence would, for the
124 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD IX.
future, prevent any man's laying do^vn an office of such supreme
authority."
Retiring into the country, in order to enjoy the pleasures of tran-
quillity and social happiness, if such a wretch could enjoy either, he
did not long survive his abdication, dying of a most filthy disease — a
loathsome and mortifying object to human ambition.
A little before his death he made his own epitaph, the tenor of
which was, " that no man had ever exceeded him in doing good to his
friends, or injuries to his enemies."
SYRIA.
LO. The affairs of Syria, under the Seleucidee, or succes
Bors of Seleucus, to the end of this period, were in a very uii-
prosperous state. A succession of massacres and usurpations
took place, till the time of Tigranes, king of Armenia, whom
the Syrians invited to reign over them, 85 years B. C. Indeed
Syria existed in independence but a few years after the pre-
sent period, having been made a province of Rome soon after
the commencement of the next succeeding period, viz. 64
years B. C.
§ The following are the names of some of the Seleucidae of the pre-
sent era. The first was Demetrius Nicator, or the conqueror, who
reigned five years, but was then confined to his palace for a long
time. He aftertVards recovered his dominions, and reigned four
years.
After him Tryphon usurped the sceptre, and reigned four years.
He was at length killed by his own soldiers.
Antiochus Sidetes, the second son of Demetrius Soter, next ascend-
ed the throne of his ancestors. He made war against Jerusalem, and
obliged it to capitulate, but he granted the Jews a peace upon reason-
able conditions.
In attempting to recover all the provinces that belonged to the Sy-
rian empire, of which Parthia was one, he made war against Phraates,
king of Parthia, but being obliged to separate his troops and put
them into winter quarters, the inhabitants of the country resolved on
their destruction, and massacred them all in one day. Including at-
tendants, they amounted to 400,000 persons.
After this prince were Seleucus V. Antiochus Gryphus, who reign-
ed 29 years, Antiochus IX. who was slain by a son of Gryphus; and
one or two others whose names need not be mentioned.
The Syrians having suffered so long, and so severely, under the
turbulent princes of the race of Seleucus, resolved to exclude them
from the throne. This they accomplished by sending an embassy to
Tigranes, and inviting him to accept of the sovereignty.
Tigranes complied with their request, and swayed the Syrian
sceptre 18 years in perfect peace. Engaging afterwards in a war with
the Romans, Lucullus the consul defeated him, and took the city of
Tigranocerta, 69 years B. C.
146—80 B. c. l2o
After this, Antioclnis Asiaticus, a son of one of tlie former kings of
Syriii, was acknowiedjxed asking by Lucullus, and reigned peace-
ably for tlie space of four years ; but at the expiration of that time
he was driven from the throne by Porapey, and Syria was reduced
to a Roman province.
JEWS.
1 1 . Pursuing the history of the Jews under the Maccabees
It appears!, that the brothers of Judas Maccabteus availed
theniseh'es of their advantages with perseverance and suc-
cess. By their exertions they estabhshed the independence cf
their coiuitry, and changed its repubhcan government to a vi-
gorous monarchy.
John Hyrcanus, son of Sunon Maccabeeus, uniting in his
person tiie oiBces of high priest and generahssimo of the
army, subdued the enemies of his country, ceased to pay ho-
mage to the kings of Syria, firmly established his govern-
ment, and is celebrated for his many valuable qualities, 135
B. C. He reigned 28 years.
His sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings ;
and the high-priesthood remained in his family, though not
in the person of the monarch. His descendants are distin-
guished in the history of the Jewish nation, by the appella-
tion of the Asmoiiean dynasty, which continued about 126
years, "^riie independence of Judea was, however, drawing
near to its close, an event which will be noticed in the suc-
ceeding period.
§ Concerning Ilrycanus it may be further recorded, that he seized
on several of the defenceless cities of Syria, and thus accomplished
a complete deliverance of his nation from the oppression of Syria.
He also made some conquests, both in Arabia and Phoenicia, turned
his victorious arms against the Samaritans, and subdued Idumea. At
the time of his death he had raised his nation to a considerable de-
gree of wealth, prosperity, and happiness.
Of Aristobulus, one of the sons that reigned after Hyrcanus, it is
recorded that he caused his brother Antigonns to be killed on suspi-
cion of disloyalty ; that his mother claiming a right to the sove-
reignty by virtue of Hyrcanus' will, was barbarously starved to
death, — and that her other sons were kept in close confinement.
This tyrannical persecutor a.'jsumed tlie royal diadem, which had
not been worn by any of his predecessors, and effected the conquest
of Iturea. His successes, however, were soon interrupted by sick-
ness ; and the deep remorse he felt on account of the treatment of his
mother, produced a vomiiing of blood, which speedily closed hv*
wicked life and reign.
1.8
126 ANCIENT HISTORY— , PERIOD IX.
EGYPT.
12. Egypt, during- this period, continued under the rule
of the Ptolemsean dynasty. Tlie nation increased in mag-
nificence and consequence during the reigns of the Ptolemies.
Their reigns, however, were disturbed by many plots and in-
surrections, which arose between the different states over
which the princes had dominion.
These states Avere so numerous, as at one time to include
33,333 well peopled cities.
§ Of the first Ptolemy in this period, viz. Physcon, we remark, that
he was so called on account of his corpulency ; but the name which
he assumed was EA'ergetes, or the Benefactor. This was changed by
his subjects into Kakergetes, or the Evil Doer, for he was the most
cruel, Visicked, and despicable of the Ptolemies who swayed the Egyp-
tian sceptre.
He murdered the child of his wife Cleopatra in his mother's arms.
He caused all persons to be put to death who had lamented the fate
of the young prince, and gave free permission to the foreVjners who
composed his guard, to plunder and massacre the inhabitants of
Alexandria. That wealthy city was accordingly stript of its inhabi-
tants, and repeopled by strangers whom he had invited thither.
These, and many other enormities, rank him among the most bru-
tal of mankind. Ptolemy Lathyrus shcceeded Physcon. His mother,
Cleopatra, however, contrived to dethrone him, and to place his bro-
tlier Alexander on the throne. The latter retained the title of king
18 years. After his death, Lathyrus re-assumed the government.
To Lathyrus a most inhuman action is attributed, in liis war with
the Jews, on a certain occasion. Having taken up his quarters after
a victorious battle, in the neighbouring villages of Judea, he caused
all the female and infant inhabitants to be murdered, and their muti-
lated limbs to be put into boiling caldrons, as if he designed to make
a repast for his army. He wished to inspire the Jews with terror by
representing their enemies as cannibals.
PARTHIA.
13. Parlhia continued, during this period, to be governed
by the Arsacidae, or descendants of Arsaces. This empire,
which was greatly extended at one time, and which under
Mithridates I. enjoyed the height of its grandeur, was soon
afterwards consideralily aliridged. The principal sovereigns
during this peroid, were Phraates II. Artabanus II. and Mi-
diridates 11.
§ Phraates H. when preparmg to mvade Syria at a certain time,
found liini.-elf under the necessity of fighting the Scythians, whom
he had called to his assistance against Antiochus, and to whom he
refused to pay the promised sum, on account of their not arriving
before the defeat of the Syrians,
146—80 B. c. 127
III order to strengthen liis army he enlisted all the Greek merce-
naries, wiio, following Antiuchus, were prisoners ; but these Greeks
having been treated with cruelty during their captivity, resolved to
have revenge ; and in the first engagement deserted to the Scythians,
and in conjunction with them attacked the Parthians, cut their army
to pieces, killed the king, and ravaged their country. In tliis battle
the Chinese also assisted the Scj'thians, which is their first appear-
ance abroad, which history records. They had previously been con-
fined to their own country in their wars and transactions.
Distinguished Characters in Period IX.
1 . Polybius, a learned historian, a\;!io wrote the history of the
Greeks and Romans.
2. ApoUodorus, a Greek grammarian.
3. Lucilius, an early Roman poet.
4. Marins, a celebrated Roman general and consul.
5. Sylla, an able general, eminent for his success and cm
elty in war.
6. John Hyrcanus, a liberator of the Jews, and father of the
Asmonean dynasty.
§ 1. Polybius was a native of Arcadia, in Greece. He was initiated
in tlie duties, and made acquainted with the qualifications of a states-
7nan, by his father, the instructer of Philopoeuien. He fought against
the Romans in the war of Perseus, but was taken and brought pri-
soner to Rome, where he was befriended by the younger Scipio.
Polj'bius acquired an intimacy with the powerful Romans, and
was prv;sent at tlie taking of Carthage and Numantia. After the death
of Scipio, he retired to Megalopolis, where he died in his 82d year,
about 124 years B. C. He wrote a universal history in Greek, divi-
ded into 40 books, wliieh began with the first Punic war, and finished
with tlie conquest of Macedonia, by Paulus.
The greatest part of this valuable history is lost. Five books, and
numerous fragments, remain. It is highly authentic aiiil accurate.
2. ApoUodorus flourished about 115 years B. C. He wrote a his-
tory of Athens, besides other works. But of all his compositions no-
thing is extant, except his Bibliotheca, a valuable work, divided into
three books.
3. Lucilius was a Roman knight, born at Aurunca,and distinguished
by his virtuous and inoffensive character. He is considered as the
first great satirical writer among the Romans, and indeed as the
founder of satire. He Avas superior to his poetical predecessors at
Rome ; he wrote with great roughness and inelegance, but with much
facility, and he gained many admirers.
Blackwell says, that he was " a writer of such keennes of temper
and flowing wit, as fitted him to strike out a new road. iie\'er trod by
poet before." Some, however, admired him beyond his real merits.
Of 30 satires which he wrote, nothing but a few verses remains. He
died at Naples m the 46th year of his age.
128 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
4. Marius was born of obscure and illiterate parents, but became
one of the most powerful and cruel tyrants, that Rome ever beheld
during her consular government. He became seven times consuL
He destroyed the Ambrones, Teutones, and Cimbri, who were pre-
paring to invade Italy, and raised a civil war, to oppose the power ol
Sylla, as has been narrated in this History. He died B. C. 86, after
he had filled all Rome with blood.
Among the instances which are mentioned of his firmness, this
may be recorded. A swelling in the leg obliged him to apply to
a physician, who urged the necessity of cutting it off. Marius gave
it, and saw the operation performed without a distortion of the face,
and without a groan. The physician asked the other, and Marius
gave it with equal composure.
5. Sylla was the inveterate enemy of Marius, between wh*m, as
we have seen, the most bloody wars were waged. He was descended
from a noble family, but was poor in early life. He afterwards be-
came immensely rich. He first entered the army under Marius, as
quajstor, in Numidia. He afterwards had the administration of the
Mithridatic war.
In his wars with Blarius, Sylla acted the tyrant to a terrible ex-
tent, and t\ie streets of Rome he filled with devastation and blood.
As perpetual dictator, he exercised the most absolute authority ; but
at length abdicated and died at Puteoli of a most loathsome disease,
in his 60th year, 78 B. C. Mankind have never understood the cause
of his abdication. He and Marius both sought in their last sickness
to drown the stings of conscience by continual intoxication.
6. John Hyrcanus was prince and high-priest of the Jews, after
his father. He restored his nation to independence, from the power
of Antiochus, king of Syria, and died 106 years B. C. He was illus-
trious by his virtues, as well as by being the father of a race of princes.
He was succeeded on the throne of Judea by a son of the same name.
PERIOD X.
TTie period of RomunLiteratnre^ extending from the first
campaign of Julius Cccsar, SQ years B. C to the nativitt/
of Jesus Christy or the commencement of the Christian era.
ROME.
Sect. I. Rome, at the commencement of this period, had
greatly extended its dominions, and was fast becoming a uni*
versal empire. Abroad the Romans triumphed — but at home
their affairs -were in a melancholy and distracted state. The
form of public liberty remained, but the reality had principally*
departed. The civil dissensions of Marius and Sylla had pro*
trated many of their most valuable mstitutions.
80 B. c. 129
IJefore these dissensions were brought to a close, a man be-
gan to appear on the stage, who was destined to destroy the
last remnant of the Hberties of his country. This man was
.lulius Ca'sar. In his lirst military enterprise, 80 years B. C,
in the siege of IMytilene, under Thermus, the ])ra;tor of Asia,
Ins bravery and talents were rewarded with a civic crown.
Soon after this he returned to Rome to prosecute his studies,
and for a time refused all interference in the feuds which were
then prevailing. Before he had finished his studies, however,
he raised troops to repress the incursions of Mithridates, and
was successful in saving or rescuing several of the eastern
provinces from liis grasp.
§ From this time liis ambitious views were too apparent, and in seek-
ing office and popularity, he was but too successful. Ho had escaped
with difficulty the proscriptions of Sylla, who was persuaded to let
him live, though tliat tyrant dreaded Caesar's aljililies.
Caesar was descended from one of the first families in Rome, and
Iiad married a daujxhter of Cinna. His powerful name and connex-
ions he strengthened, by arts of tlie most consummate policy and ad-
dress. His ])owcis of mind were of the highest order, and he excelled
in whatever branch of pursuit he engaged.
He was in person slender, tall, and delicate, and was reputed to be
the handsomest man in Rome. He had a habit of running his finger
under the nicely adjusted cxiris of his head, when he appeared in pub-
lic assemblies : this led Cicero to remark, " that one would hardly
imagine that under such a fine exterior, there was hatching the de-
.struction of the liberties of Rome."'
Of his feats in war, and the important part lie acted in the common'
wealth, we shall have occasion to speak, in following the order of
events.
2. After tlie death of Sylla, contention broke out anew;
for the terror of his power had created a short interval of a
dreadful repose.
Catulus and Lepidus settled their difficulties only by arms —
and the War of Sertorious,and the Servile AVar ensued. These,
liowever, were safely terminated after a few years. The war
of Sertorius commenced 77 years B. C. The Servile War
commenced 73 years B. C.
§ Lepidus, who was consul, wishing to anmd all the acts of Sylla,
was opposed by his colleague Catulus. To carry his jjoint he found
It necessary to use force, and accordingly he raised an army in his
government of Gaul, with which he approached, in hostile array, to-
wards Rome.
Catulus, to whom Pompey and his forces were joined, met him at
t he Milvian Bridge, two miles from Rome, and gave him battle. Le-
130 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
pidus was entirely defeated, and escaping into Sardinia, soon died of
grief. His party, liowever, did not expire witii hiai.
A more dangerous enemy still remained in Spain. This was Ser-
torius, a veteran soldier, who had been bred inider Marius, his equal
m courage — his superior in virtue. Banished from Rome by Sylla,
he had found a refuge in Spain, whither all, who fled from Sylla's
cruelty, resorted to him. Having gained the affections of its warlike
inhabitants, he resisted, during eight years, the Roman power.
Metellus, and afterwards Pompey, were sent to bring liim to sub-
mission, but he often came off victorious, and was even threatening
to invade Italy, when he was suddenly destroyed by the treachery
of one of his lieutenants. The revolted provinces of Spain quickly
submitted to Pompey.
The Servile War took its rise from a few gladiators, who broke
from their fencing-school at Capua, and having drawn a number of
slaves after them, overthrew the force that was sent against them,
and from this success, their number soon increased to an army of
40,000 men.
With this strength, and headed by Spartacus, their general, they
sustained a vigorous war of three years in the very heart of Italy,
and even talked of attacking Rome ; but Crassus, havi'.ig assembled
all the forces in the neighbourhood of the capital, destroyed the
greatest part of them, and among them Spartacus, fighting bravely
to the last.
3. The War whicli had been carried on against Mithrida-
tes, and which Sylla had suspended by means of a peace,
was renewed about this time, 72 years B. C. This was one
of the most important wars which the Romans ever waged.
Mithridates defeated the successor of Sylla, and contracting
an alliance Avith Tigranes, king of Armenia, began to be quite
formidable to the power of Rome.
LucuUus, however, an experienced general, was sent against
him, and defeated him in several engagements, with immense
loss. Tigranes also felt the weight of the Roman arm ; and
both, doubtless, would have been obliged soon to pue for peace,
had not LucuHus, by means of intrigue, been deposed from
liis command, and Glabrio appointed in his stead.
After this, Mithridates met with success again, till Pompey
was appointed to take the command against this powerful
enemy of Rome. Under the auspices of this great general,
the Roman arms were completely victorious, and the wai
terminated about G3 years B. C, wnth the death of Mithri-
dates.
§ Mithridates was the undaunted enemy of Rome during 25 years.
His resources in wealth and soldiers were great, and his bravery and
lalciits were equal to his resources. The Roman general with whom
80 B. c. 131
he had finally to contend, was an antagonist worthy of him, in every
respect. Pompey had already become a favourite hero of the Ro-
man people.
He had generally boon successful in his military enterprises, and
in the commission wiiich he had recently received of managing the
war against the pirates of the Mediterranean, he had shewn equal
intrepidity and skill. Pleased witli his success, the people had en-
trusted to him tlie sole management of the Mithridatic war, with an
almost unlimited authority.
His power would have rendered him extremely dangerous to the
liberties of his country, had he been an enemy to those liberties. But
though highly ambitious, he was desirous rather of glory tlian of do-
minion. He wislied to be the first man in the state, and for this rea-
son entered into a contest with Crassus for the favour of the people,
as he afterwards fought against Csesar, in behalf of the republic.
In the Mithridatic war he manifested his qualities as a general.
He first proposed terms of accommodation to Mithridates. But
these were refused ; and the king, collecting an army from the wrecks
of his former power, was about to carry the war into Armenia. In
this project, however, he was disappointed, and was obliged to flee.
Pompey, nevertheless, overtook him before he had time to pass the
Euphrates. It was then night, but being compelled to engage, it is
said the moon, shining from behind the Roman army, lengthened
their shadows so mucli, that the archers of Mithridates shot their ar-
rows at these, mistaking the shadow for the substance.
He was overthrown with great loss ; but he broke through the Ro-
man army with a few hundred horse, and escaped. Here, after wan-
dering through the forests several days, leading his horse, and sub-
sisting on fruits which were found in his way, he met with a few
thousand of his troops that had survived the engagement, who con-
ducted him to one of his magazines, containing the treasures deposi-
ted to support the war.
After this he sought aid from several princes ; but though he failed
in this attempt, and though he was betrayed by his unnatural son, he
still aimed at great designs, and even in the heart of Asia, he pro-
jected the invasion of the Roman empire. Upon being apprized of
his intentions, a mutiny ensued, which was promoted by his son.
Being obliged to take refuge in his palace, he sent to his son for
leave to depart, with olT(;rs of the remnant of his kingdom to him.
The monster, however, denied this request, and sternly conveyed a
message to the old man, intimating that death was now all that he
could expect.
This instance of filial ingratitude aggravated all his other calami-
ties ; and he sought fur his wives, children, and himself, a voluntary
death. They all readily consented to die with their monarch, rather
than to undergo the horrors of a Roman captivity.
4. After defeating Mithridates, Pompey made very nume-
rous and extensive conquests, setting up and deposing kings
at his pleasure. He at lengtli marched against Jerusalem,
132 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
and after besieging it tliree months, took it — 12,000 of ita
defenders having lost their hves. He then returned to Rome,
enjoying the most splendid triumph that ever entered its
gates, 61 years B, C.
§ Darius, king of Media, and Antiochus, king of Syria, were compel-
led to submit to tlie clemency of Pompey, while Phraates, king of
Parthia, was obliged to retire, and send to entreat peace. From
thence, extending his conquest over the Thurseans and Arabians, he
''educed all Syria and Pontus into Roman provinces.
In his conquest of Jerusalem after gratifying his curiosity with the
holy things of the place, he restored Hyrcanus to the priesthood and
government, and took Aristobulus with him to grace his triumph.
This triumph lasted two days. In it were exposed the names of 15
conquered kingdoms, 800 cities taken, 29 cities repeopled, and 1000
castles brought to acknowledge the empire of Rome.
The treasures that were brought home amounted to near 20,000,000
of our money {$ ;) and the trophies and other splendours of the pro-
cession, were sucli, that the spectators seemed lost in the magnificent
profusion. The glory, rather than the real prosperity of Rome, was
increased by these victories. While Pompey and the Roman arms
were triumphant abroad, the city was near its ruin, by means of a
conspiracy in its very bosom.
5. Sergius Catiline, a patrician by birth, at this time, (B. C.
64) plotted the downfall of his country. His object was to
rise on its ruins to wealth and power ; and accordingly asso-
ciating with him a number of ambitious, profligate characters
like himself, he hoped to throw Rome and all Italy into a state
of tumult and insurrection, and to destroy the lives of the most
distinguished of the citizens.
But the vigilance of Cicero, who was consul, frustrated this
horrible project. Taking the necessary precautions, he secured
the conspirators that were in Rome, and ordered them to exe
cution, according to law. Catiline, who had fled, soon raised
an army, and coming to battle with the forces of the republic,
he was overthrown, and himself and his whole army were
given to the sword.
Cicero, by his abilities, patriotism, and zeal for the public
good, w^as raised to the most enviable height of glory and re-
nown.
6. Pompey, after his triumphal entrance into Rome, sought
to be the first man in the republic. His contention was more
particularly with Crassus, who, on account of his wealth,
possessed an influence at this time next to that of Pompey.
80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 133
Ceesar, who was also aspiring after the same distinction, sought
to accomplish his object by uniting these rivals.
This union he brought to pass, and thus he avoided making
himself an enemy to either of them, and enjoyed the favour
of both. From a regard to tiicir mutual friend, Pompey and
(.'rassus agreed to a partition of power with Caesar, and thu.^
was formed the First Triumvirate, B. C. 59.
Cffisar was chosen consul. He increased his popularity, by
a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened
his interest with Pompey, by giving him his daughter in
marriage. The coalition between Pompe}^, Crassus, and
(^'aesar, constituted a power distinct from the senate or the peo-
ple, and yet dependent on both. It was exceedingly detri-
mental to the pulilic liberties.
7. Having divided the empire between them, these three
individuals prepared for their respective destinations. Ceesar.
however, previousl}^ to his departure, had the address to pro-
cure the banishment of Cicero from Rome, and thus removed
one of the greatest obstacles to his career of ambition. He ac-
complished this object by means of his partizans, particu-
larly Clodius, the tribune, 58 years B. C.
The pretext for this base act, was the illegality of certain
measures pursued in the suppression of Catiline's conspiracy.
Through the interest of Pompey, liowever, Cicero was at
length recalled from exile, Avith distinguished honour.
^ Cicero continued to be the watchful guardian of the few remaining
liberties of his country. He was the greatest man of the Romans, if
not of all antiquity. His virtues were as conspicuous as his talents.
He appeared, liowever, to have one foible, and that was vanity. He
desired to unite in his character incompatible qualities ; and to be
thought not only the greatest orator, but the greatest jester iu
Rome.
In his zeal for the public good, Caesar Ijad reason to fear him. To
procure his banishment from the city, he favoured the designs of
Clodius, who was Cicero's inveterate enemy, and in this he was
joined by Pompey. Clodius, as tribune, caused a law to be passed,
importing that any who had condemned a Roman citizen unheard,
should himself be banished. This was designed to have a bearing
on Cicero, in regard to his proceedings against Catiline.
Being impeached on this law, Cicero was banished 400 miles from
Italy, his houses were ordered to be demolished, and his goods set
\ip for sale. In vain did he protest against the iniquitous sentence ;
the people had ungratefully forgotten their benefactor, and sixteen
montiis did he spend in solitude and grief. He bore his exile wiili
Uie greatest impatience. m
134 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
Pompey, who had concurred in the banishment of Cicero, at
length saw his mistake in the growing reputation and power of his
rival, Caesar. To prop his own sinldng fortunes, he needed the aid of
Cicero, and interceding in his favour, procured his recall to Rome,
57 B. C.
8. Caesar, who had the government of Transalpine Gaul
and Illyria, nobly sustained the mihtaiy glory of his country,
ill the wars which he waged on its account. In Gaul. Ger-
many, and Britain, he spread the terror of his arms. His
landing on the British isles, and his success in subduing the
savage and hardy natives, is a memorable event in history.
His invasion of Britain took place 55 years B. C; and hi.s
subjugation of a considerable part of the country was eflocted
at two different times, in the course of one year, 54 B. C. But
the urgency of affairs at home, delayed the progress of his
arms in Britain.
§ Cffisar, in the first year of his government, subdued the Helvetii,
■who had left their own country, and attempted to settle tiiemselves
in tlie more inviting regions of the Roman provinces. Two hundred
thousand of their number perished. The Germans, with Ariovistu.s
at their head, were next cut off. The Belgoe, Nervii, the Celtic
Gauls, the Suevi, and other warlike nations, were all successively
brouglit under suljjection.
At length, urged by the desire of conquest, he invaded Britain.
But upon approaching the shores, he found them covered with men
to oppose his landing, and it was not without a severe struggle, that
the natives were put to flight. Having obtained other advantages
over them, and bound them to obedience, he passed over to the conti-
nent during winter quarters, meditating a return in the spring.
The absence of the conqueror inspired the Britons, naturally fond
of liberty, with a resolution to renounce the Roman power. But in
a second expedition, Cfesar so intimidated them with repeated victo-
ries, that they no longer resisted hi the plains, but fled to the forests.
Here, however, they were unsafe, and soon yielded to the necessity
of suing for a peace.
In the course of nine years this ambitious general and waster of
hum^u life conquered, together with Britain, all that country which
exteuQS from the INIediterranean to the German sea. It is said that
he took 800 cities ; subdued 300 different states ; overcame 3,000,000
men, I,0OO,0(X) of whom fell on the field of battle, and the remainder
made prisoners of war. Notwithstanding the plaudits of the world,
how little glory was there in all this I
9. The death of Crassus, which occurred in an expedition
against the Parthians, 53 years B. C, put an end to the
Triumvirate. After this event, Ceesar and Pompey, whose
union was far from being sincere, began each to entertain the
idea of supreme, undivided dominion. . Both were extremely
so B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 135
powerful ; but Cccsar had superior talents, and an invincible
army devoted to his interests. The main body of the people
were also in favour of Caesar who had won them by his libe-
rahty.
The strength of Pompcy lay in the favour of the consuls,
and the good wishes of the Roman senate ; and several legions
were also at his coiinnand. In attitudes so imposing, and
with resources so vast, it is not surprising that, in tliose dege-
nerate times, each should be encouraged to expect the posses-
sion of supreme power.
The contest for superiority was not long a contest of plans
and feelings merely — it soon became a contest of blows. The
result of this terrible civil war was disastrous in the extreme
to Pompey and the republic. At Pharsalia, in Tliessaly,
Caesar and Pompey met in battle, in which Pompey was en-
tirely defeated, with the loss of 15,000 men killed, and 24,000
taken prisoners, 48 yems B. C. Being soon after in the power
of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, to whom he had fled for protec-
tion, he Avas basely murdered.
§ Near the expiration of the term of his government, Ceesar applied
to the senate to be continued in his authority. This apphcation the
senate refused. Cnesur then deterrauied to appeal to arms for what
he clioso to consider as his right. Having, by the sanction of an
oath, engaged the services of his army in his favour, he began to draw
towards the confines of Italy, and passing the Alps with his third
legion, stopped at Ravenna, from whence he wrote a letter to the
consuls, declaring that lie was ready to resign all command, if Pom-
pej'' would show equal submission.
But the senate being devoted to Pompey, was determined to de-
prive Cfesar of his command, and consequently passed a decree, by
which he was to be considered an enemy to the commonwealth, if
he did not disband liis army within a limited time.
Caesar, nothing at all intimidated or deterred from his project,
marched his army to the Rubicon, a small river which formed the
boundary between Italy and Gaul. This boundary the Roman.s
considered as sacred, and not to be passed with impunity, since they
had solemnly devoted to tlie infernal gods, and branded with sacri-
lege and parricide, any person who should presume to pass it, with
an a;iny, a legion, or even a single cohort.
At this spot, he f(>r a moment hesitated, as if profoundly impressed
with the fearful consequences which must result from the step he was
about to take. Ilis misgivinjjs, however, subsiding, he said to one of
his generals, " the die is cast," and putting spurs to his horse, he
plunged in, and with liis soldiers soon gained the opposite shore.
Terror and indignation seized the citizens of Rome, as the news
of this transaction reached their eai-s. Pompey was not ii4 sufficient
136 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
force to meet the enemy, and accordingly quitted tlie city, and led his
soldiers to Capua, where he had two legions. From that place he
passed over at length into Macedonia, followed by the consuls, and a
large body of the senators. At the same time, he caused levies to be
raised over both Italy and Greece.
In two months, Caesar having made himself master of all Italy,
entered Rome in triumph, to the great joy of most of the people, lie
secured to himself the supreme authority and the public treasures ,
and having made profession of respect for the citizens and liberties
of Rome, and adjusted the concerns of the city, he left it in a few
days, and set out to take the field against his enemies.
The lieutenants of Pompey havitig possession of Spain, Cassar
marched directly thither, leading his army again over the lofty Alps.
In the course of 40 days he subdued the whole coinitry, and return-
ed victorious to Rome, where, during his absence, he had been nomi-
nated dictator. He was soon after chosen consul also. His dictator-
ship he relinquished at the expiration of eleven days.
In the meantime, Pompey's preparations were such as became the
crisis which was approaching. He had received from the sovereigns
of the East very considerable supplies, as well as the assurances of their
friendship. He was master of nine Italian legions, and liad a fleet of
500 large ships, under the conduct of an experienced commander.
The nobles and most distinguished citizens of Rome, flocked daily
around his standard ; and he had at one time above 200 senators in
his camp, among whom were the great names of Cicero and Cato.
Pompey's party glorying in their numbers and strength, were confi-
dent of success.
Caesar, with a courage bordering on rashness, nnmediately sought
his rival, and desired to bring him to an engagement. Near Dyrra-
chium the opposing armies were so situated that it became necessary
to fight. The result was by no means decisive, though it was favoura-
ble on the whole to Pompey, who afterwards led his troops to Phar-
salia.
Previously to this encounter, a circumstance took place, displaying
th-e lofty spirit of Cajsar. For the purpose of liastening the arrival
of a reinforcement, he conceived the design of passing over to Brun-
dusium in the night, by embarking in a fishcrman-s boat at the mouth
of the river Apsus. This he accordingly did witli great secrecy,
having disguised himself in the habit of a slave.
When they had rowed off a considerable way, the wind suddenly
changed against them — the sea began to rise in billows, and the storm
increased to an alarming degree. The fisherman, who had rowed
all night with extreme labour, was often inclined to put back, but
was dissuaded by his passenger. At length, however, he conceived
liimself unable to proceed, and yet he was too distant from land to
hope for making good his return.
In this moment of despair he was about 1o give up the oar, and
commit himself to the mercy of the waves, when Cpesar discovering
himself, commanded him to row boldly — " Fear nothing," cried he,
" you carry Caesar and his fortune." The fisherman was encouraged
80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 137
to proceed, but the wind finally forced them to make for land, and
return.
Soon after the affair at Dyrrachium, the hostile armies found them-
selves on the plains of Pharsalia. Ca3sar invited and provoked a
battle, by all the arts in his power. Pompey had secured an advan-
tageous situation, unA it was by the artifice of decamping and indu-
cing the enemy to follow him, that Caesar drew him from it.
When Ca?sar perceived the effect of his stratagem, with joy in his
countenance he informed his soldiers that the hour was come which,
was to crown their glory, and terminate their fatigues. His forces,
however, were much exceeded bj^ those of Pompey, who led an
army of 45,000 footmen, and 7000 horse, while the troops of Caesar
did not number more tJian 23,000 men, only 1000 of whom were
cavalry. But they were better disciplined than those of Pompey.
Awful was the moment of meeting. The armies were both Roman,
mingled indeed witli foreigners, and the first in the world — the leaders
were consummately brave, and the interest at stake was the dominion
of Rome. Every heart was fired and every arm nerved. The generals
both addressed their armies previously to the engagement, and urged
them to sustain the reputation of their ancient bravery.
The battle commenced on the part of Caesar. But the cavalry of
Pompey were too numerous for tlieir adversaries. Caesar's men were
forced to retire. Their general had foreseen this result, and had made
the requisite disposition of his forces. Six cohorts in reserve, who
had been ordered to discharge their javelins at the faces of Pompey's
cavalry, were, at this crisis, brought up to the engagement. The sin-
gle circumstance of the manner of their fighting determined the fate
of the battle. Pompey's cavalry, who consisted of the younger part
of the Roman nobility, valued themselves upon their beauty, and
dreaded a scar in the liice, more than a wound in the body. They
were therefore frightened from the field by the unusual mode of at-
tack, and thus the day was lost to Pompey and the republic.
The loss of Ca?sar was inconsideralile, 200 men only being slain.
His cleTiiency towards his vanquished enemies deserves to be noticed.
Most of the prisoners he incorporated with the rest of his army, and
to the senators, and Roman knights, who fell into !his hands, he gave
liberty to retire wliithcrsoevcr they pleased. The letters which Pom-
pey had received from several persons v/ho wished to be thought neu-
tral, Caesar committed to the flames without reading them, as Pom-
pey had done upon a former occasion.
Caesar followed up his victory witli the greatest energy, and after
Pompey's flight in.«tantly pursued him. He did not however over-
take him alive. Pompey had hvvn destined to suffer the extremity ot
misery. His foil was from the sunmiit of power to the most abject
dependence, and it was as sudden as it was terrible. Escaping from
the field of battle, and wandering along the beautiful vale of Tempe,
in the greatest agony of mind, he finally found the means of sailing
to Lesbos, where he had left his wife Cornelia.
' Their meeting was tender and distressing to the last degree. The
news of her reverse of fortune had caused Cornelia to faint, and for
M2
138 ANCIENT HISTORY- — PERIOD X*
a considerable time life appeared to be extinguished. At length re-
covering herself, she ran quite through the city to the sea-side. Pom-
pey received her without speaking a word, and for some time sup-
ported her in his arms, with silent anguish. When words found
their way, the tenderest expressions of affection and grief were mu-
tually uttered.
But it became necessary to flee, and sailing to the coast of Egypt,
they sought the protection of Ptolemy, whose father had formerly
found in Pompey a benefactor. The mmisters of the king wishing
to court the favour of Csisar, basely proposed to receive and then
murder their guest, as he approached the shore. This diabolical coun-
sel prevailing, Achillas, and Septimius, the latter by birth a Roman,
were appointed to carry it into execution.
Accordingly, in the very sight of Cornelia, as Pompey arose to go
ashore, supporting himself upon his freedman's arm, Septimius stab-
bed him in the back ; when the warrior, perceiving what would be his
fate, silently resigned himself to it, at the same time muffling his face
with his robe.
The freed man of Pompey, after the people had retired, found the
means of burning the body of his master, from which the head had
been separated, and over the tomb the following inscription was
afterwards placed : " He whose merits deserve a temple, can now
scarcely find a grave." Caesar soon reached Egypt ; but the head of
Pompey, wdiich was immediately presented to liim, and from which
he turned his face in horror, informed him, that he had now nothing
to fear from a man who had so lately contended with him for the em-
pire of the world.
10. War was Caesar's element. He found an occasion of
gratifying his ruling passion in Egypt. In a contest between
Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra, he interposed in behalf of
the latter, and at length brought Egypt under the Roman
voke, 48 B. C In two years after, he subdued Pharnaces,
king of Pontus.
§ Cleopatra, thougli sister to Ptolemy, was nevertheless married to
him, and both jointly held the throne. The ambition of Cleopatra
prompted her to aspire after undivided authority. Tlie charms of
her person were unequalled, and conquering even the conqueror of
the world, they engaged him in a war which was alike ea.sy and de-
sirable. After the reduction of Egypt, Cajsar, forgetful of the re-
etpect due to his character, abandoned himself to pleasure in the com-
pany of Cleopatra.
From such a course, however, he soon broke off, for hearing of the
revolt of Pharnaces, son of Mithridatcs, who had seized upon Chal-
cis and Armenia, he bent his way tlnther. In the battle of Zela, he
signally chastised the offending monarch. "I came, I saw, I conquer-
ed!-' is the expressive language in which Ids report was conveyed to
the Roman senate.
11. Leaving" the scene of conquest in the East, Cecsar has-
80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 139
iPiicJ to Rome, wliere his presence was greatly needed. An-
tony, who acted as liis deputy, had created disturbances which
( 'cesar only coukl ijuell. Italy was divided, and the party of
Pompey was yet extremely formidable. Caesar, however, soon
restored tranquillity to Rome.
But at this tiuie the two sons of Pompey, with Cato and
Scipio, were in arms in Africa, assisted by Juba, king of Mau-
ritania; thither Ca\-ar hastened, and at Thepsus, meeting them
in battle, overthrew Jiem with little or no loss on his side.
Scipio, in attemjiting to escape into Spain, fell among the
enemy, and was slain. Cato, confining himself in Utica, at
first thought of resisting the victorious Caesar, but finding hia
followers irresolute, he deUberately put an end to his own life.
This event finishing the war in Africa, Caesar returned in
triumph to Rome, 45 years B. C. By an vuiparalleled display
of magnificence and by unbounded liberality, he courted and
obtained the favour of the great body of the people, xilmost
every honour and title was conferred npon him. He was
styled fiither of his country, was created perpetual dictator,
received the title of emperor, and his person was declared
pacred.
§ The story of Cato is deeply tragical. This extraordinary man dis-
laycd at once the /irmiiess and tlie depravity of his nature. Wlieii
le found it in vain to attempt to animate liis soldiers against Crcsar.
lie resolved to die. After supping clieerfull}', lie came into his bed-
chamber, where \\c laid lumself down, and witli deep attention, read
Fome time Plato's Dialogue on the immortality of the soid.
Perceiving soon tliat his sword had been removed from the head of
his bed, he made inquiries respecting it of his domestics; but while
he was like to obt.iiu no satisfaction from them, his son, wlio had
caused it to be taken away, entered with tears, and besought him, in
the most humble and alTectionate manner, to change his resolution j
but receiving a stcn-n reprimand, he desisted from his persuasions.
His sword being ;* length handed to him, his tranquillity returned,
and he cried out, " Wow am I master of myself." He then took up
the book again, which he read twice over, and fell into a profound
Bleep. Upon waking, he made some inquiry of one of his freedmen,
respecting his friends, and then shutting himself up in the room
alone, he stabbed himself; but the wound not being immediately mor-
tal, with a most ferocious resolution, he tore out his own bowels, and
died as he had lived, a stoic. By this deed he has blackened his cha-
racter, to all futuriiy. •
12. The state of affairs in Spain called Caesar again into
that country, 45 years B. C. Two of the sons of Pompey
were in arms, and it was not without severe fighting thaJ
E
140 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X.
Caesar subdued the remnant of his enemies in Spain. He re
turned to Rome to receive new demonstrations of t)ie ahnosl
slavish homage of its citizens.
Finding himself in peace, he turned his attention more than
ever to the improvement of the empire. He aflected great
moderation in the enjoyment of his power, though he was evi-
dently eager of its acquisition. He however turned it to a
good account. He made no discriminations between his
friends and foes : he was liberal alike to both. He adorned
the city with magnificent buildings, undertook to level several
mountains in Italy, and to drain the Pontine marshes, impro-
ved the navigation of the Tiber, reformed the calendar, and
meditated distant conquests.
13. His brilliant course, however, was destined shortly to
end. He was suspected of aiming at royalty ; and though
many of the people felt greatly obliged l^y his clemency and
munificence, yet they detested the name of king. This cir-
cumstance urged 6U of the senators, who were actuated by
the love of liberty, though some of them seem to have been
impelled also by private resentment, to league together Avith
a view to deprive him of his life. This they accomplished in
the senate house on the ides (15th) of March, in the 56th year
of his age, 44 B. C.
§ Caesar enjoyed all the power of a monarch ; and though he might,
in the first instance, have ambitiously sought it, yet it was conferred
or allowed by the free consent of the people. But the name of king
was not to be endured. The particular occasion of envy or alarm
among the friends of libcrtj^, was the neglect, on the part of Coesar, of
rising from liis seat, when tlie senate was conferring upon him some
special honours.
From that time it began to he rumoured that he was about to take
the title of king. Whether such was his purpose cannot now be de-
termined, tliough it cannot be well conceived why lie should desire
that einpty honour, when he possessed the reality. The conspiracy
which was formed against him, was headed by Brutus and Cassius,
the one his friend— the other his enemy. Brutus owed his life to
the clemency of Caesar, whom the latter spared at the battle of Phar-
salia ; and he was not destitute of a strong personal attachment to
the dictator.
The conspiracy which had been formed, happened in some way
or other to be known by two or three individuals ; but the means ta-
ken to apprize C<icsar of it, failed. As he proceeded to the senate, on
the day agreed upon by tlie conspirators, a slave hastened to carry
him information, but could not come near him for tiie crowd. Arte-
oiidorusj a great philosopher, wlio had discovered the whole plot,de-
80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 141
livered him a memorial, but Cresar gave it, with other papers, to one
of liis secretaries, without reading it.
As soon as he had talvcn liis place, the conspirators came near him
under pretence of saluting him ; and Cimber, who was one of them,
pretending to sue for his brotlier's })ardon, approacned in a suppliant
posture, and so near as to take hold of the bottom of his robe, which
prevented C?es.nr from rising.
'I'his was the signal agreed on. Casca, who was behind, stabbed
him, though slightly, in the shoulder. Caesar instantly turned round
and wounded him in the arm. However, the conspirators were now
all in action, and sm-rounded him. He received a second stab in the
breast, while Cassius wounded him in the face. Still he defended
liimself with great vigour, rushing among them, and throwing dowTi
such as opposed him, till seeing Brutus who had struck a dagger in
liis thigh., he yielded himself to his fate, first exclaiming to his friend,
in a subdued and languishing tone, " And you, too, my son !"
I le fell, covered with his robe, before him, and pierced with 23
wounds.
The character of a despot and conqueror, as such, is to be detest-
ed. Cajsar enslaved his fountry, and waded to dominion through
rivers of blood. His elevation cost the lives of 1,C00,000 human be-
ings. We may be permitted to express our abhorrence of such con-
duct, and to regret that transcendant talents (for such he possessed)
ehould have been perverted to so base a purpose.
The darkness of this picture is however relieved by some lines of
light — if it were not so, Caesar woidd have been a monster. Besides
the splendid endowments of his genius, he was distinguished by
liberality, clemencj', and modesty. He always spared a vanquished
enemy ; and perhaps no despot, in his personal feelings and private
character, was ever more amiable. How much then is it to be laments
ed, that such qualities should have been united to an insatiable am-
bition !
14. The death of Caesar produced an unheard of crisis in
luinian affairs. There was no longer any tyrant, yet liberty
was extinct ; for the causes which dcstroj'ed it kept it from
reviving. The senate and people mutually distrusted each
other. There was a very general feeliug of sorrow and in-
dignation arnong the latter at the murder of Ca;sar, nor could
the senate at all mitigate or repress it.
Mark Antony. ?. man of consmnniate military talents, but
profligate in the extreme, exposed the bleeding body of Caesar
iu the forum. This sight, together with the bloody robe, pro-
duced an electric effect on the multitude, which was height-
ed to an excessive degree, by means of an artful and inflam-
matory harangue delivered by Antony on the occasion. The
conspirators were obliged to flee the city in order to save their
lives.
142 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
At this juncture, (43 B. C.) a second triumvirate was form-
ed, consisting of Antony, already mentioned, Lepidus, who
was immensely rich, and Octavius, afterwards surnamed Au-
gustus, wlio was Caesar's grand nephew and adopted heir.
This was a most bloody triumvirate. As they divided the
supreme authority among themselves, by concert, they stipu-
lated that all tlieir respective enemies should l)e destroyed,
though those might happen to be the best friends of each as-
sociate who was reciuired to sacrifice them.
§ Lepidus gave up his brother Paulus to the vengeance of one of his
colleagues. Antony permitted the proscription of his uncle Lucius j
and Augustus, to his eternal infamy, sacrificed the great Cicero.
Three hundred senators, and 2000 Roman knights, besides multitudes
of worthy citizens, were included in this horrible proscription.
1 5. The conspirators were not suffered long to escape the
vengeance of the friends of Ctesar. Octavius and Antony
now marched against them in Thrace, where they had a for-
midable army of 100,000 men, comnianded l\y Brutus and
Cassius. An engagement took place at Philippi, 42 years
B. C, which decided the fate of the empire. It was won by
Octavius and Antony, or rather by Antony alone, for Octa-
vius was destitute not only of military talents, but even of
personal bravery.
The death-l)low was now given to Roman liberty. The
republican party was entirely subdued, and Brutus and Cas-
sius, its leaders, escaped the hands of their enemies, only by a
voluntary death.
§ The loss of the battle at Philippi bj^ the republicans, was occasion-
ed principally through the hasty despair of Cassius. Brutus, on his
part, had been victorious, — Cassius had suffered a severe loss, but
would have been relieved by Brutus, had he not ordered himself to
be killed in the meantime, in consequence of havinij mistaken a body
of Brutus's cavalry, who was approaching him, for that of the enemy.
When Brutus was informed of the defeat and death of Cassius, he
seemed hardly able to restrain the excess of his grief for a man, wliom
lie called " the last of the Romans." He bathed the dead body with
his tears. Antony offered him battle on the ensuing day ; but it was
the policy of Brutus to delay, and even to attempt to starve his cne-
mjs he probably might have done it.
The soldiers of Brutus, however, urged a battle, nor would they
submit to a refusal. After a respite of a few days, Brutus took the
field. He fouglit Avith the resolution to conquer, but some unhappy
movement of a part of his troops turned the fortune of the day, and
all was lost. He followed the fate of Cassius.
Retiring out of the way of the enemy, with Strato, his master ia
80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 143
oratory, he requested the latter to put an end to his hfe. After much
eohcitation Strato rchictantly assented, and averting his face, pre-
sented the sword's point to Brutus, who threw himself upon it, and
immediately expired.
Octavius being sick at this time, took no part in the battle of Phi-
lippi Indeed his presence, had it been afforded, would have been of
little service to the combatants, since he possessed neither skill nor
**ourage. He had, however, gained a large share of popularity with
the Roman peoi)lo, partly on account of his name, and his relation-
ship to Cccsar, and partly on account of his personal appearance, and
accomplishments. These were in the highest degree prepossessing.
He was destined, as will soon appear, to be m.uch more successful
than the other Triumviri, and even at length to place himself at the
head of the empire.
16. The power of the Triumviri being established upon
the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think of en-
joying the homage to which they had aspired. Lepidus, how-
ever, was soon deposed and banished. Antony took his way
to the East, where, at Athens, he spent some time in philoso-
phic retirement, and afterwards passed from kingdom to king-
dom, attended by a crowd of sovereigns, exacting contribu-
tions, and gi\ing away crowns with capricious insolence.
While Octavius, with consummate art, was increasing his fa-
voiu- with the people by his munificence, and contriving the
means of attaining to supreme power.
§ It may be necessary to observe here, that there were properly
four individuals at this period, who were the masters of the Roman
empire. Some time after the formation of the second triumvirate,
Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey the Great, was admitted to a share
of the authority and possessions of the state, in connexion with the
triumviri.
An occasion of war soon occurring, Octavius had the good fortune
to deft^at Pompey in a naval engagement, through the skill and in-
trepidity of Agrippa, his friend and associate in war. This event oc-
curred 32 years U. C. Augustus had now no competitor for the em-
pire of the >vorld, save Mark Antony.
17. Antony having summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt,
to answer for her disaffection to tlie Roman cause, was caught
in the toils of love by the artifices of the beautiful cjueen. In
his infatuation he forgot ambition and empire, in devotion to
the object of his guilty passion. Octavius saw in this mad-
ness the presage of his ruin.
On Cleopatra, her lover had lavished the provinces of tlie
empire, for which he was declared a public enemy, and as for
her sake he had divorced Octavia, the sister of Octavius, the
144 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
latter embraced the opportunity, which he had eagerly de-
sired, of declaring war against him.
An immense armament, principally naval, (the land for-
ces being merely spectators,) came to an engagement near
Actium, on the coast of Epirus, 31 years B. C. The conflict
was decisive. Cleopatra, who attended Antony, deserted him
with her galleys, in the midst of the engagement.
Such was his infatuation, that he immediately followed
her, leaving his fleet, which after a contest of some hours,
yielded to tlie squadron of Octavius. The conqueror pursued
the fugitives to Egypt ; and the infamous Cleopatra proffered
terms to Octavius, including the surrender of her kingdom
and the abandonment of Antony.
After an mv uccessful attempt at resistance, Antony antici-
pated his doom by falling on his sword. Cleopatra also soon
after saw fit to fiiistrate the design of Octavius, which was to
carry her in chains to Rome as an ornament to his triumph,
by seeking a voluntary death.
Octavius was now left without a rival, with the government
of Rome in his hands. Egypt, which had existed a kingdom
from immemorial ages, from this time became a province of
Rome, 30 years B. C.
§ The story of Cleopatra will be briefly told under the history of
Egypt for this period. Antony, her lover, had few superiors in war,
and he was the idol of his army. He was, however, profligate in the
extreme, and his infatuated conduct in relation to the Egyptian
queen, while it showed the native strength and tenderness of his pas-
sions, has imprinted an indelible stain on his character as a hero.
His weakness in this respect was the cause of his ruin, and prevented
the acquisition of universal empire, which he might perhaps have
otherwise obtained.
In the struggle between Antony and Octavius, the strength of the
East and o-f the West were arrayed against each other. Antony's force
composed a body of 100,000 foot, and 12,000 horse ; while his fleet
amounted to 500 ships of war. The army of Octavius mustered but
80,000 foot, but equalled his adversary in the number of his cavalry ;
while his fleet was only half as large as Antony's ; but the shipa
were better built and better manned.
The fortune of tlie day in llie battle of Actium, was determined by
the flight of Cleopatra with 60 galleys. Yet with this diminution of
the fleet, and with the abandonment of it l,>y Antony himself, it fought
with the utmost oljstinacy for several hours, till partly by the con-
duct of Agrippa, and partly by the promises of Octavius, it submitted
to the conqueror. The land forces of Antony soon followed the ex-
ample of the navy, anl yielded to Octavius without striking a blow.
80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 145
18. The Roman empire had now become the largest
which the world luid ever seen : and Octavius, now named
Augustus, holding the principal offices of the state, was, in
effect, the absolute master of the lives and fortunes of the Ro
man people. During a long administration he almost effaced
the memory of his former cruelties, and seemed to consult
only the good of his subjects.
His reign constituted the era of Roman taste and genius,
under the auspices of Meca?nas, his chief minister, who was
tlie most eminent patron of letters recorded in histor3^
Seventeen years Ijefore the close of his life and reign, ac-
according to the true computation, (not the vulgar era,) our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ was born in Judea — an
event more important than any other that ever took place in
our world.
§ AugusUis pursued a pacific course, and restored order to the state
During the period of his administration of the government, the tem-
ple of Janus, which was shut only at the prevalence of general peace,
was closed for the first time since the commencement of the second
Punic war, and only the third tiniefromlhebuildingofRome. Itwas
precisely at this happy and singular crisis of human affairs, that the
liirih of our blessed Saviour happened.
The administration of Augustus was however fatal to liberty ;
though that circumstance itself tended to general tranquillity', since
the corruption of manners required the most absolute restraint. By
masterly strokes of policy, he united all intenists and reconciled all
differences. He disguised his new des[)otism. under names familiar
and allowed by that constitution which he had destroyed.
lie claimed to himself the title of emperor, to preserve authority
over the army ; he caused himself to lie created tribune, to manage
the people ; and prince of the senate, to govern that body. After he
liad fixed himself in the government, he long hesitated whether he
should restore to Rome its liberty, or retain his present situation. The
examples, and the differing fortunes of Sylla and Caesar, were before
him, and operated on his hopes and fears.
Disclosing his feelings to Agrippa, who had assisted him in gaining
the empire, and to Meca^nas, liis principal minister and adviser, the
former suggested the wisdom of his resigning it — the latter dissuaded
him from taking such a step. The opinion of Meca?nas, as it was on
the whole more agreeable to Augustus, was followed, and perhaps
mankind have little reason to regret it, considering what was the
awful corruption of the times.
Through the counsels of this great minister, Augustus fostered
learning and the arts to the highest degree, and specimens of human
intellect then appeared, which have rarely been equalled among man-
kind. Genius enjoyed all the rewards and all the consideration that
it could claim.
M
146 ANCIENT HISTORY — PERIOD X.
The authority which Augustus usurped, he, from pohcy, accepted
only for ahmited period, sometimes for ten, and sometimes for only
five years ; but at the expiration of the term, it was regularly be-
stowed upon him again.
His situation, which was above all equality, generated virtues to
which, in all probability, he was naturally a stranger. He sometimes
condescended to plead before the proper tribunals, for those he de-
sired to protect, for he suffered the laws to have their proper course.
One of his veteran soldiers entreated liis protection in a law-suit,
Augustus, taking little notice of his request, desired him apply to an
advocate. "Ah!" replied the soldier, "it was not by proxy that I
served yoii at the battle of Actium."
This reply p'eased Augustus so much, that he pleaded his cause in
person, and gained it for him.
He was so aftable, that he returned the salutations of the meanest
person. One day a person presented him with a petition, but with
so much awe, that Augustus was displeased v/ith his meanness,
" What ! friend," cried he, " you seem as if you were offering some-
thing to an elephant, and not to a rnan : — be bolder."
A part of his long reign of more than 40 years belongs to modern
history, but we may here speak of it as entire. During the whole of
it he cultivated the arts of peace. The wars which were carried on
in the distant provinces aimed rather at enforcing submission, than
Ht extending dominion. He was however successful in almost all of
them. The defeat of his general. Varus, in Germany, was the most
serious disaster which he experienced. The choicest troops of the
empire constituted the army of Varus, and they were entirely cut off
in the forests of that country.
In his domestic life, Augustus was less happy and fortunate, than
as master of the Roman people. His wife, Livia, was an imperious
woman, and controlled him at her pleasure. Her son, Tiberius, who
at length succeeded to the empire, possessed a suspicious and obsti-
nate temper, and gave him samuch uneasiness, that he banished him
for five years at a distance from Rome. But his daughter, Julia, by
his former Avife, afflicted him more than all the rest, through her ex-
cessive lewdnes? The very court where her father presided, was
not exem.pt from ncr debaucheries.
Augustus lost a favourite son, who, it is supposed, v/as taken off by
poison, lest he should supplant Tiberius. The emperor was often
heard to exclaim, " How happy should I have been had I never had
a wife or children !" He died during an absence from Rome, at Nola,
of adysentery, in the76th year of his age, after reigning 41 years, 14 A. C.
19. Little is to be said, separately, of the history of other
nations during this period, as ihey were mostly swallowed up
in the Roman empire. We can notice only two or three, and
these are very mnch blended with the Roman history, being
included in the number of the Roman provinces before the
end of the present period. First, Judea comes under review.
80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 147
JUDEA.
The Jews at this time were ruled by the sacerdotal and
royal family of the Maccabees, under the title of the As-
nionean dynasty, but they were in the last stages of their
independent existence. When Pompey came to Jerusalem
to settle the affairs of Judea, he restored Hyrcanus with the
title of Prince of the Jews, and conferred the government of the
countr}^ on Antipater, an Tdiimean proselyte, G3 years B. C.
§ 111 the civil wars between C2esar and Pompey, the former sent
Aristobulus, whom Pompey had carried captive to Rome, into Judea,
to engage the Jews in his (Caesar's) cause, but he was poisoned by his
enemies. At the same tnne Pompey ordered his son Alexander to
be beiieaded.
20. After one other revolution in the person of Hyrcanus,
tl'.e famil}^ of the Herodians was seated on the throne of Ju-
dea. Herod, called the Great, son of Antipater, w^as declared
king of that country, by a decree of the Roman senate, 37
years B. C His reign was splendid, but distinguished by a
singular degree of prolligacy.
§ Sometime after his estabhsliment on the throne, Herod, in order
to please Mariamne, the daughter of Hyrcanus, whom he had married,
appointed her brother, Aristobulus, High Priest ; but perceiving that
lie was much beloved by the Jews, he caused him to be drowned
while bathing. After the battle of Actium he went to Rhodes to
meet Augustus, who confirmed his title of king of Judea. Upon his
return he condemned to death his wife, Mariamne, and her mother,
Alexandra.
From this hour his life was a continual scene of misery and fero-
city. At the instigation of his third son, he sentenced to death Aris-
tobulus and Alexander, his children by IMariamne, and the next year
Antipater himself experienced the same fate. His last moments also
were stained with the l)lood of the children of Bethlehem and the
neighbourhood, whom he ordered to be slain, in the hope that the
infant Jesus Christ would fall among them.
EGYPT.
21. The fiimily of the Lagidic, continued to rule Egypt.
Alexander H. was on the throne at the commencement of tliis
period. Cleopatra was the last sovereign. The intermediate
sovereigns were Ptolemy Auleles, Berenice, and Ptolemy
Dionysius, who reigned for a time jointly with Cleopatra.
With the death of this queen ended the family of the La-
gidiie, after having ruled in Egypt about 294 years. Egypt
was now reduced to a Roman province, and governed by a
PraHor sent thither from Rome, 30 years B. C,
148 ANCIENT HISTORY PERIOD X.
^ Ptolemy Dionyshis was 13 years old at the time of his fatlier's
death, by whose will he was nominated to the succession, on condi-
tion of his marrying his sister Cleopatra, then 17 years of age. The
Romans were appointed guardians of these children. Cleopatra
married her brother, and they reigned jointly, till, dissatisfied with
the Roman ministry, she retired to Syria and Palestine, where she
raised an army, and advanced under the waUs of Pelusium, to give
battle to the ministers of her husband.
At this moment, as we have before learned, Pompey,variqui.shed at
Pharsalia, took refuge in Alexandria, and was assassinated by order
of Ptolemy. Julius Caesar, pursuing his rival, arrived soon after-
wards, and endeavoured to compromise the differences between the
king and the queen. For a short time they were reconciled ; but
Ptoleni)', renewing the Avar not long afterwards, was defeated and
drowned in the Nile.
Cleopatra then married her youngest brother, a boy of eleven years
of age, and already affianced to his sister Arsinoe. Him, liowever,
she soon poisoned, 43 B. C. ; and assumed the sole government. After
the arrival of Mark Antony in Egypt, and his captivatiou by Cleo-
patra, her character became still more remarkable for corrui>
tion. The beauties of her person were incomparable ; and in polite
learning, in brilliancy of wit, and m tunefulness of voice in lier con-
versation, she was as irresistible as in her personal charms. These
qualities, joined to an extreme profligacy of manners, rendered her
one of the most dangerous foes to virtue that ever lived.
When summoned to present lierself before Antony for the first
time, her appearance was so splendid and fascinating, that the Ro-
man warrior rather adored than judged her. Every decoration was
employed to heighten the most consummate loveliness of features, and
gracefulness of motion. Holding Antony in the chains of a base
passion, she ruled him at her pleasure.
The profusion of riches displayed at her feasts was astonishing.
Antony holding the wealth of })lundered provinces, with his utmost
•efforts could not equal tlie queen in the sumptuousness of her enter-
taimnents. It was at one of these feasts that the incident mentioned
by Pliny occurred.
Cleopatra, having laid a considerable wager that she could expend
more than 50,000/. upon one repast, caused one of the pearls that she
wore in her ears, which was valued at the above named sum, to be
dissolved in an acid, and tlien swallowed it. Slie was then preparing
to melt the otlier in a similar manner, but some one liad the address
to divert her from her design.
After the bat'lc of Actium, Octavius used every effort to secure the
person of tlie queen, .-lud to eff('ct the death of Antony, by her means.
lie promised her his protection and friendsliip if she Avould kill him.
This she peremptorily refused to do, but consented to deliver his
person and the kingdom of Egypt into tlie enemy's hand.
Antony, who had before meanly sought his life of Octavius, open-
ing his eyes to his danger, and to the perfidy of Cleopatra, at first
made some faint and ineffectual attempt at resistance, and then in liis
80. B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 149
fin-y attempted to a\cnge himself of tlie queen. She, however,
ehuied liis purpose l)y taking flisht to a monument, which she liad
erected for her safety, and gave out a report that she had killed her •
self.
Upon this news, Antony forgot his resentment — his former affec-
tion rushed into his heart, and his cup of calamity was full. He
resolved to follow her example, and die a Roman death. At the mo-
nunt he had Mien upon his sword, the news of the queen's death
was conlradictcd, and Antony, weltering in his blood, and stil
breathing, consented to be carried to see the queen.
After being pulled up to the top of the monumert where Cleopa-
tra was, by means of ropes let down and fastened t.* him, a scene of
anguish and aftcctiou was presented whicli can scticely be conceived.
Suffice it to say, he died in her arms, bedewed ^^ith her tear.s, and
almost stifled with her caresses.
The queen, though at length taken by Octavius, and apparently
secured by the strict guard v/hich he placed over her, found an op-
portunity of poisoning herself by means of an asp, which she applied
to her arm, the sting of which instantly threw her into a fatal lethargy.
In such a miserable end were these victims of guilt involved.
PARTHIA.
22. Under tlie Arsacida^, Parthi a continued to enjoy some
ronsequence dining this period. Its principal sovereigns
were Pliraates III. Orodes I. and Pluaates IV.
§ Orodes I. was no sooner on the throne, than he was attacked by
Crassus, the Roman consul, to whom Syria was allotted in the par-
tition of the provinces of the empire between him, Ca>sar, and Pom-
pey, 53 B. C. The Parthia:i armies were commanded by S\irena, a
general of extraordinary wisdom and valour. Crassus being led by
the king of Edessa into a barren country, his army was completely
defeated, and himself taken and killed.
Orodes, jealous of Surcna's glory, caused him to be put to death soon
after, and entrusted the command of his army to Pacorus, his own
Kon, who made great conquests in several countries, but who was
soon after defeated and killed by Ventidias, the Roman general.
Orodes, overwhelmed with grief, became insane ; but having recovered
in so nu; degree, he associated his eldest son Pliraates his partner in
Ihe throne.
The infamous wretch first attempted to jioison his father, but that
only curing him of the dropsy, he stifled the old man in bed, and
murdered all his brothers. AVhen Augustus came into Asia, he
obliged Pliraates to restore the ensigns taken from Crassus, and after-
M'ards from Antony, and to deliver four of his sons as hostages.
Divine Providence punished him in a remarkable manner, as he
was killed by a conspiracy of his concubine and his own son,
13 A. C.
Disluiffuishcd CJiaracters in Period X.
1. Lucretius, a Roman didactic poet.
N2
150 ANCIENt HISTORY PERIOD X.
2. Julius Caesar, a successful warrior and elegant writer.
3. Cicero, the prince of Roman orators and philosophers.
4. Catullus, a Roman epigrammatic poet.
5. Sallust, the first philosophical Roman historian.
6. Varro, the most learned of the Romans.
7. Cornelius Nepos, an eminent Roman historian.
8. Virgil, the prince of Roman poets.
9. Horace, the greatest of the Roman l3"ric poets,
§ 1. Lucretius was early sent to Athens, where he studied philo-
sophy. He embraced the tenets of Epicurus. In his poem of the
Nature of Things, he is the advocate of atheism and impiety, and
earnestly endeavours to establish the mortality of the soul. His mas-
terly genius and unaffected elegance are, however, every where con-
spicuous.
He wrote Latin better than any man ever did before him, and had
he lived in the polished age of Augustus, he would have been no
mean rival of Virgil. He wrote his poem while he laboured under
a delirium, occasioned by a philtre, administered by means of the jea-
lousy of his wife or mistress. He died, some say he destroyed him
self, in liis 44th year, about 54 B. C.
2. Julius CcEsar was the son of Caius Cfesar, who was descended
from Julius, the son of iEneas ; in his 16th year he lost his father;
and Sylla, aware of his ambition, endeavoured to remove him ; his
friends, however, interceded, and obtained his life ; but Sylla warned
them to be upon their guard against that loose-girt boy, alluding to
Caesar's manner of wearing his tunic, or coat, loosely girded ; " for in
him," said he, " are many Mariuses."
He procured many friends by his eloquence, and obtained the office
of high priest; after passing through different dignities, he was sent
governor into Spain ; and, upon his return, being elected consul, he
entered into an agreement with Pompey and Crassus, that nothing
should be done in the state without their joint conciu-rcnce. After his
consulsliip, he had the province of Gaul assigned him ; which, with
wonderful conduct and bravery, he subdued in 10 y^ars, carrying the
terror of his arms also into Germany and Britain, till then unknown
to the Romans.
Pompey now became jealous of his power, and induced the senate
to order him to lay down his conunand ; upon which, he crossed the
river Rubicon, the boundary of his province, and led his army to-
\vards Rome, Pompey and all the friends of liberty fleeing before
him.
Having subdued Italy in sixty days, Caesar entered Rome, and
seized upon the money in tlie public treasury : he then went to
Sjiain, where he conquered the partisans of Pompey under Petreius,
Afranius, and Varro; and, at his return, was created dictator, and
soon after consul. Leaving Rome, and going in search of Pompey,
the two hostile generals engaged on the plains of Pliarsalia ; the army
of Caesar amounted only to 23,000 men, while that of Pompey
80 B. C. — CHRISTIAN ERA. 151
ninounted to 45,000 ; but the superior generalship of the former pre-
vailed, and lie was victorious.
Making a generous use of his victory, he followed Pompey into
Egyj)t, wiiere he heard of his nuirder, and making the country tri-
butary to his power, lie hastened to suppress the remainder of Pom-
pcy's party in Africa and Spain. Triumphing over all his enemies^
he was created perpetual dictator, received the names of imperator
and father of his country, and governed the people with justice. His
engrossing all the powers of the state, and ruling with absolute au-
thority, created general disgust ; a conspiracy was therefore formed
against him, by more than sixty senators, the chief of whom were
Brutus and Cassius. He was stabbed in the senate house, on the 15tli
of March, B. C. 44, in the 56th year of his age ; he at first attempt-
ed to make some resistance, but seeing Brutus, his intimate friend,
among the conspirators, he submitted to his fate, and covered with
23 wounds, fell at the foot of Pompey's statue.
Caesar is perhaps the most distinguished character in history. His
talents in war and literature were equally great. Amidst his military
enterprises he found time to be the author of many works, none of
■u'hich remain except seven books of commentaries, or memoirs of his
wars; these are much admired for their elegance, as well as correct-
ness of stj-le. He spoke in public with the same spirit with which
lie fought, and had he devoted himself to the bar, would doubtless
have rivalled Cicero.
3. Marcus Tullius Cicero was the father of Latin eloquence, and
the greatest orator that Rome ever produced. He was the son of a
Koman knight, and having displayed promising abilities, his fiither
procured for him tlie most celebrated masters of his time. He served
one campaign under Sylla, and returning to Rome, appeared as a
pleader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius, and his superior
eloquence, soon raised him to notice.
Hav.ing passed through the lower honours of the state, he was
made consul in his 43d year. Catiline, a profligate noble, with many
dissolute and desperate Romans, conspired against their country ; but
all their projects were baflled by his extreme vigilance ; Catiline was
defeated in the field ; and Cicero, at Rome, punished the rest of the
conspirators with death.
He received the thanks of the people, and was styled the father of
his country and the second founder of Rome ; but his refusal to
agree to the arbitrary measures of Caesar and Pompey, caused him
lobe exiled ; he did not bear his banishment with fortitude ; and was
overjoyed when, after 16 month's absence, he was restored witli ho-
nour to his country. After much hesitation, he espoused the cause of
Pompey against Caesar ; and when the latter was victorious at Phar-
salia, Cicero was reconciled to him, and treated with great humani-
ty ; but as a true repul)lican, he approved of Caesar's murder, and
thus incurred the hatred of Antony, who wished to succeed in
power.
Octavius, afterwards called Augustus Caesar, Antony, and Lepidiis,
having formed a third triumvirate, agreed on a proscription of Uieir
l55i ANCIENT HISTORY—PERIOD X.
enemies ; Octavius struggled two days to preserve Cicero from the
rengeance of Antony, but at last gave him up ; in his attempt to
ascape, he was overtaken by a party of soldiers, who cut off his head
and right hand, and brought them to Antony ; this happened B. C.
43, in the 64th year of his age.
He is to be admired, not only as a great statesman, but as an ora-
tor, a man of genius, and a scholar, in which united character, he
stands unriwalled ; his conduct was not always that of a patriot, and
he is frequently accused of timidity.
4. Catullus was a poet of Verona, whose compositions are the off-
spring of a luxuriant imagination. He directed liis satire against
Caesar, whose only revenge was to invite the poet, and hospitably en-
tertain him at his table. Catullus was the first Roman v/ho imitated
with success the Greek writers, and introduced their numbers among
llie Latins.
Though the pages of the poet are occasionally disfigm-cd with in-
delicate expressions, the whole is written wifli great purity of style.
He died in the 48th year of his age, B. C. 40.
5. Sallust was educated at Rome, and made himself known as a
magistrate, in the office of qufestor and consul. He was a man of
depraved and licentious manners. He married Terentia, the divorced
wife of Cicero, and hence the immortal hatred between the historian
and orator.
Of his Roman history little remains ; but his narrative of the Ca
tilinarian conspiracy, and tlie wars of Jugurtha, are extant.
His descriptions, harangues, &c. are animated and correct, and the
aiuhor is greatly commended for the vigour of his sentences. He
died in his 51st year, 35 B. C.
6. Varro wrote 300 volumes, which are all lost, except a treatise,
De Re Rustica, and another De Lingua Latina. The latter he wrote
in his 80th year, and dedicated to Cicero. In the civil wars, he was
taken by Caesar and proscribed, but escaped. His erudition and ex-
lent of information were matter of wonder to Cicero and St. Augus-
tine. He di(!d in his 88th year, B. C. 28.
7. Cornelius Nepos enjoyed the patronage of Augustus. He was
the intimate friend of Cicero and Atticus. He possessed a most deli
cate taste and lively disposition. He composed several works, but bis
lives of illustrious Greeks are all tliat remain. He has ever been ad-
mired for the clearness and precision of his style, and the delicacy
of his expressions. He died 25 j'ears B. C.
8. Virgil was born at Andes, a village near Mantua, about 70 years
B. C. Having lost his farms in the distribution of lands to the sol-
diers of Augustus, after the battle of Philippi, he repaired to Rome,
where he obtained an order for the restitution of his property through
tlie interest of Mec<nnas. When he sliowed this order to the centu-
rion who was in possession, he nearly killed Virgil, and the latter
escaped only by swimming across a river.
Virgil, in liis Bucolics, or Pastorals, celebrates the praises of hi.s
illustrious patrons. He undertook his Georgics in order to promote
80 B. C. CHRISTIAN ERA. 153
llie siiuly of agriculture ; and the design of the ^Eneid is thought to
have been to reconcile the Komans to a monarchical government.
By his talents and virtues he acquired the friendship of tlie empe-
ror Augustus, and the most celebrated personages of his time. He
died at Brundusium, in the 51st year of his age, B. C. 19, leaving his
immense possessions to iiis friends, and was buried in the neigh-
bourhood of Naples, where his tomb is still to be seen.
9. Horace was born atVenusia; his father, although poor, took
him to Rome when a boy, and educated him with great care. At
the age of twenty, he went to Athens to study philosophy, and then,
with tiie rank of military tribune, attended Brutus to the civil wars.
In the battle of Philippi he saved himself by flight, and returned to
Rome.
Finding his father dead, and his fortune ruined, he applied himself
to writing verses; and his talents soon recojmnended him to the
protection of Virgil, IMeeaenas, and Augustus, with whom he after-
wards lived on terms of the greatest intimacy and friendship. He
died in the 57ih year of his age, B. C. 8.
GENERAL VIEWS
OF THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELI-
GION, MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERA-
TURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, SOCIETY, &c. OF ANCIENT
NATIONS.
ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD.
Tlie few notices which the Bible has transmitted to us, respecting
the Antediluvian world, bein^ mostly confined to the moral history
of its inhabitants, leave us greatly in the dark in respect to its phy-
sical and geographical facts, the state of the arts, political institutions,
and similar subjects. We are here chiefly guided by analogy, and
conjecture.
Sect. 1. Surface of the Earth. — The earth's surface, there,
is reason to behove, at that period, differed somewhat from its
pi-esent state. Concerning this subject, however, there are dif-
ferent opinions. We inchne to that whicli supposes that there
were not those inequalities in the surface of the earth whicli
now appear — at least in so great a degree, and that it was
thus more uniformly adapted to the purposes of culture, and
to the support of its inhabitants.
§ The opinion of Dr. Burnet, that the primitive earth was no more
than a crust investing the water contained in the abyss, is somewliat
plausible. This crust breaking into innumerable pieces, at the time
of the deluge, would naturally sink down amidst tlie mass of waters,
to various deptlis, and thus cause the mountains and valleys which
now exist.
The convulsions occasioned Dy that terrible event, would be likely
to disfigure the earth's surface in a measure, and render it less plea-
sant as the abode of human beings. Indeed the mouulains and liills,
(1)0 valleys and plains, in many instances, appear as if they had been
shaped and fasliioned by some '-war of the elements." Their form
and appearance are precisely such, as we sliould coi^jecture would be
produced from the force of tlie retiring waters, in vast eddies and
whirlpools.
2. The Seasons. The seasons might have Ix^en diHerent
from what they are at ])resent. Conjecture has assigned to
tlie Antediluvian world but one season, and that an " eternal
ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 155
spring." This would be the fact, if, as some philosophers
suppose, the plane of the earth's orbit was then coincident
with that of the equator. They now make a cont>iderable
nngle with each other, and this alteration is concluded to
have taken place at the time of the deluge. Besides, the va-
riety of the seasons is never mentioned in scripture, till after
the tlood.
§ On this supposition an ingenious, but fanciful French writer,*
htis accounted lor the production of the deluge itself. He imagines,
that in consequence of this cliange, whatever miglit be its cause, the
vast masses of ice which had collected for ages in the cold regions of
the globe, being acted upon more immediately by the heat of the sun,
suddenly melted, and overflowed the earth.
3. Population and Longevity. Nothing can be deter-
mined with certainty respecting the extent of population.
Some imagine that it was very great, far exceeding what it is
at present. This is inferred from the surprising length of men's
lives, and from the muiierous generations that were then con-
temporary. But from various circiniistances, the probability is.
that it was much smaller, and that mankind were not widely
diffused over the earth.
§ If any thing on this subject may be ascertained or fairly conjec-
tured, from the discoveries of geology, the opinion of Cuvicr, a great
adept in that science, is probably correct, viz. that previously to the
last considerable convulsion of our globe, the human race inhabited
only some narrow districts. It is well known that while shells, fos-
sils, and the bones of animals, have been found in the earth's surface,
in great abundance, thus exhibiting the ruins of the deluge, few or
no human remains have been discovered, under such circumstances.
If these latter exist, they must be in some circumscribed parts of
the earth, such as Asia or Africa, where the labours of the geologist
have not been so particularly bestowed, or they may lie buried under
some mass of waters. Of course the population of the antediluvian
world must have been mostly confined to those quarters of the globe,
or to one of them.
The longevity of the antediluvians was remarkable. The contrast,
ui this respect, of that age of the world and the present times is so
great, as to liave given rise to many conjectures assigning the cause
or causes of their longevity. We need not interest ourselves in these
conjectures, as nothing can be known with certainty, except it may
be remarked, tltat the air immediately after tlie flood was most likely
nnich contaminated and rendered unwholesome.
How far this circumstance should have afiectcd the pristine con-
stitution of the human body, thus shortening the life of man in suc-
cessive ages, down to the present common standard, is left to the cu-
♦ St Pierre.
156 GENERAL VIEWS.
rious to inquire. If there were no physical causes of this change,
God could have effected it without them. It is his own record that
tlie life of man was abridged.
4. Religion. In regard to the religious rites of the prime-
val race of men, it can only be affirmed, tliat they offered sa-
crifices, both of animals and of the fruits of the earth. The
Sabbath, we know, was instituted inmiediaiely after the crea
tion, and it is not likely that its observance was ever wholly
discontinued.
§ The descendants of Seth, the son of Adam, were for some tmio
distinguished by their worship of God and observation of religious
rites, while those of Cain were notorious for their irreligion and pro
fligacy. These lived separately till intercourses by marriage Avere
formed between them ; and then the pure reHgion and morals of the
descendants of Seth were corrupted, and the whole world became
alienated from God.
5. Arts and Sciences. These must have been cultivated
in a degree, and in some of their branches might have been
more than we are aware. If we consider that human life
was several hundred years in extent, there was space for vast
improvements in those arts and sciences that weie once disco
vered. It is much to be doubted, however, w^iether many of
tiiem were known.
The last generation of Cain's line found out the art of
working metal ; and music seems to have been invented about
the same time. A knowledge of agriculture, architecture, and
perhaps of astronomy, was possessed.
§ Some suppose that man, in the infancy of the world, was aided by
inspiration ; but even if left to the ordinary operation of his faculties,
he might have been no stranger to knowledge and mental improve-
ment. Still, from the difficulty of originating knowledge, and from
the vices of the antediluvians — their probable devotion to gross sen-
sual pleasures, they seem not to have been as extensively acquainted
with the more intellectual objects of human pursuit, as their descend-
ants were a few ages after the flood.
We have some accounts, though not from an authentic source, of
discoveries made in astronomy by the posterity of Seth. These dis-
coveries, it is said, were engraved on two pillars, the one of brick,
and the other of stone. The latter, it is affirmed, existed after the
deluge, and remained entire in the time of Josephus, that is, nearly a
century after Christ. If this were a fact, it is singular that no other
memorial of their intellect should have appeared. It is here given,
however, as it is found on historic record.
6. Government. On the topic of government, there is
hardly a foundation for conjecture. The most probable, is
Uie patriarchal form of government ; that ^ the government
ANTEDILLVIAN WORLD. 167
which was held by the heads of separate families. A num-
ber of ihe^e mi^ht perhaps combine, and place them-
e 'Ives iiader the direction of some common ancestor. This
is the most natural form of government, and indeed no men-
lion is made in the Bible of kingly authority until after the
deluge.
§ Still, as some suppose, this form of government might have been
set aside by tyranny and oppression ; and the change would proba-
bly take place, much sooner among the descendants cf Cain, than
those of Setli. It is thought that alter the union of the families of
Cain and Seth, all mankind constituted but one nation, divided into
several disorderly associations, and living in « ^tate of anarchy, which
C'«"cumstances would have hastened the progress of wickedness.
7. Co7imiercc. The intercourse of the antediluvians might
liave been easy, because they probably lived contiguous to each
other. Yet it is evident that they had no idea of navigation,
for had vessels been in use, some families might have escaped
the disasters of the flood, besides that of Noah.
§ It is likely that there was not that necessity for commerce, as there
has been since. For this opinion, reasons might be given, but tha
•subject is not sufficiently important .
Ass7jria, {including Babylonia.)
8. Extent and Cities. Assyria generally comprehended
the territory lying between Armenia, Babylon, Mesopotamia,
and Media. The Assyrian dominion, at times, extended over
many parts of Asia; its capital was Nineveh, on the Tigris,
built by Ashur. The coimtry is now called Gurdistan.
§ Nineveh was built on a very spacious plain. It was 15 miles in
length, 9 broad, and 47 in circumference, according to Diodorus
Siculus and Strabo. On the walls, Avhich were 100 feet high, three
chariots could pass together ; they were defended hy 1500 towers,
each 200 feet liigh. From the numlx^r of infants which it contained,
as mentioned in the book of Jonah, it is computed that the inhabitants
amounted to more thr.n 600,000 at that time.
. Its situation is indicated, as some suppose, by vestiges on the Tigris,
opposite Mosul, retaining the name of Nino.
Babylonia, which was afterwards united to Assyria, was
made up principally of Mesopotamia, the modern Diarbec. Its
capita], Babylon, at length the capital of the whole empire,
was bisected by the Euphrates, from N. to S., and formed a
square, whose sides subtended the four cardinal points. The
city stood on a large plain. Its walls were in thickness 8?
feet, in height 350 feet, and in compass 60 mile-s. These
were drawn about the city in an exact square.
158 GENERAL VIEWS.
§ As a more particular description of Babylon, it may be stated, that
on each side of this great square were 25 gates of solid brass. Be-
tween every two of these gates were three towers ; four others were
at the corners ; and three more between those on the corners and the
gate on either side.
The other parts of the city, some of whicli we will describe, cor-
responded with the magnitude of the walls. The strerts, bridge, quays,
the lake, ditches, canals, palaces, and hanging gardens, and above all,
the temple of Belus, were so many wonders. From the 25 gatea
ran as many streets, in straight lines, so that the wliole number of
streets was 50, crossing each otlier at right angles. There were also
four half streets, round the four sides of the city, next the walls, each
of them 200 feet wide ; the rest being about 150 feet.
The whole city was thus cut into 676 squares, each of which was
two and a quarter miles in circumference. Round these squares, on
every side towards the street, stood stately houses three or four stories
high, witli large spaces between them, and the areas within the squares
filled up with yards, gardens, and pleasure grounds.
The celebrated hanging gardens were composed of several large
terraces, one above the other. The ascent from terrace to terrace
was by stairs ten feet wide, and the whole pile was sustained by vast
arches, strengthened by a massy wall of great thickness. On the tops
of the arches were first laid prodigiously large flat stones. Over these
was a layer of reeds mixed with bitumen, upon which were two tiers
of bricks, closely cemented together with plaster. Tlie whole wa.s
covered with thick sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the
garden. This mould was so deep that the largest trees might take
root in it, and covered with these and other plants, and every variety
of flowers; nothing could be conceived more grand and picturesque.
The temple of Belus, at its foundation, consisted of a square, each
side of which was a furlong in length ; it consisted of eight towers,
built one above another, decreasing gradually to the top, and was a
furlong in height.
9. Government and Laws. The government both of
Assyria and Bab^ionia was strictly despotic, and its sceptre
hereditary. The \vhole centered in tiie person of the king ;
all decrees issued from his mouth ; he even afTccted the power,
and claimed the worship which belonged only to the divinity.
§ The great conquerors of the East always courted retirement, as
being too glorious to be beheld by vulgar eyes. Thus they contrived
to keep in subjection a number of nations of different languages and
manners, to a person who must have been a stranger to almost all of
them. They adminstered their government by officers of various de-
scriptions, civil and military.
Of the three classes of cfficers, the first had the charge of the vir-
gins, and were expected to judge of all matters relating to the connu-
bial state ; the second took cognizance of theft ; and the third of all
other crimes.
The laws (if the empire were in general vague and uncer-
ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 159
tain, depending wholly upon the will of the sovereign ; but
one was fixed and irrevocable, which obhged all, especially the
poorer sort of people, to marry.
§ Their punishments were unfixed and arbitrary, according to the
disposition of ihe sovereign. We read of beheading, cutting to pieces,
turning the criminal's house into a dunghill, and burning in a fiery
furnace.
10. Religion. The Chaldeans, properly so called, were
both the priests and the literati of the country. They were
devoted to tlie business of religion, and pretended to skill in
the prediction of future events. They dealt in charms, incan-
tations, and explanations of dreams, and of the extraordinary
phenomena of nature. They built temjiles to the stars, as be-
ing the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by wor-
shipping them, they expected to obtain the good will of the
deity. From this they descended, by a natural process, to the
worship of objects on earth, as the representatives, or favour-
ites of the stars, or of the deity, through them. Thus idola-
try arose not long after the flood, among the earliest of nations
- — the people left on the plains of Shinar, subsequently to the
dispersion at Babel.
§ It is evident tliat this was the origin of image worship, since the
names of the principal gods of the heathen in general, are those of the
sun, moon, and five primary planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury
and Venus.
The norrid custom of sacrificing human victims to conci-
liate their gods, was first practised by the Babylonians, and
from them it was communicated to the superstitious of the sur-
rounding nations.
§ There are traces of their ancient cruelty to be discerned in the
worship and rites of the Assyrian goddess "of Hierapolis, to whom
parents, without remorse, sacrificed their children, by throwing them
down a precipice in her temple.
11. Omionis. The principal and most singidar of their
customs, was the manner in which they disposed of their
women in man iage. No man had any power over his own
daughters, l^ut as soon as they were marriageable, they were
put up to auction ; and the price obtained for the more beau-
tiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely.
§ The consequence of this practice was, that all their young women
were disposed of in marriage — the beautiful for their charms, the
homely for their wealth.
Another singular custom was their festival called Sacca,
160 GENERAL VIEWS.
During this festival, which lasted five days, the servants com'
manded their masters, one of them being, for the time, con-
stituted chief over the house, and wearing a kind of royal
garment, called Zogana.
§ They had other extraordinary customs, but some of these are too
mdecent to be named. In general, they were the most sensual and
abandoned people on the face of the earth.
12. Learning. The Babylonians were famed for learning,
particularly the Chaldeans, who were their j^riests, philoso-
phers, astronomers, soothsayers, &c. As in many other coun-
tries after them, they were divided into several sects, distin-
guished by their peculiar characteristics.
They were the first who cultivated astronomy, discovered
the exact motions of the planets, and pretended to understand
the uifluence these had over things below, and from that to be
able to foretel future events. The latter was embodied into a
kind of science, called astrology.
§ From this origin of astrology, fortune telling, and similar arts,
we perceive at once their opposition to religion and rectitude.
The learning of the Chaldeans was not acquired after the manner
of the Greeks, but by tradition from father to son. The only busi-
ness of the learned was to apply themselves to the instructions they
received. They never departed from early principles, and hence
made no great advances in the sciences.
13. The Arts. The Babylonians, properly so called, ap-
pUed themselves to tlie useful arts. Their immense buildings,
which could not have been erected without much skill in ge-
ometry, prove that they must have been good mathematicians
and mechanics.
They never attained to any superior excellence in painting
and statuary. Music and poetry were probably but little at-
tended to ; and in physic they had no regular science.
§ They exposed tlieir sick in the streets, to be cured by any who,
passing by them, saw fit to prescribe for their diseases.
The Babylonians were great architects, ingenious in casting metals
and in their manufactures— particularly in their manufactures of
embroideries, magnificent carpets, and fine linen. So superb Avere
some of their articles of dress, that we read, in the Roman history, of
Cato selling a Babylonian mantle, which had been left him by inhe-
ritance, as being what he was ashamed to wear. And it is said that
at Rome more than 6000/. had been paid for a suit of Babylonian
hangings.
China.
14. Geography. China, in ancient times, included nearly
the same territory that it does at present, so far as we can now
CHINA. 161
ascertain^ The Greelcs and Romans, through whom most
of our acfjuaintance with antiquity is derived, had no imme-
diate Jviiowledge of that country ; only they mention Serica,
and another nation of northern Sina?, as constituting its west-
erly provinces.
As, however, the Chinese are not at all given to foreign
conquests, and liave for many centuries remained the same
people in their government and institutions, we may conclude
that the ancient territory was the same, or nearly the same, as
tlieir modern. It is not our design to state its boundaries or
extent, except to say, that it constituted a considerable portion
of eastern Asia, and was separated from Tartary, on the north,
by its prodigious stone wall of 1500 miles in length.
§ But few general views of this country in other respects can be
here given, since we have been presented, in this work, with only a
small portion of its civil history ; and since from the unchangeable
character of the people, these views will answer for an interesthig
article in modern history.
15. Government. The original plan ci the Chinese go-
vernment was patriarchal. Obedience to the father of each
family was enforced in the most rigorous manner, and the
emperor was considered as the father of the whole. Every fa-
ther was absolute in his own family, and might inflict any
punishment short of death ; and every mandarin of a district
had the power of life and death over all its members, though
the emperor's approbation was requisite to the execution of a
capital sentence.
§ Since the invasion of the Tartars, as we shall hereafter learn, the
government is called an absolute monarchy, tliough its great funda-
mental principles from the beginning have been preserved.
10. Relis^ion. The ancient Chinese adored a supreme be-
ing, under the name of Changti, or Tien; they also wor-
shipped subaltern spirits, supposed to preside over kingdoms,
provinces, cities, rivers, and mountains. Their worship was
by prayer and thanksgiving, without any mixture of idola-
trous })ractices.
§ There are now different sects, whose characteristics belong to
the details of modern history.
17. The i^ciences and Arts. The Chinese understood
some of the sciences, but seemed to make no progress in them
from age to age. Of mathematics, astronomy, and physics,
they appear to have been quite ignorant for so civilized a peo-
02
162 GENERAL VIEWS.
pie. The knowledg^e of medicine was very limited among
them,
In the arts, at an early age, they attained to a certain point
of advancement, which they never exceeded. It is affirmed
that they manufactured glass 200 years before the Christian
era ; that they knew gunpowder from time immemorial ,
and that they invented piinting in the time of Julius Caesar;
but these and other inventions were in a very imperfect state,
and have remained so to this day. In agriculture, however,
and a few other arts, they seem, from a very early period, to
have been highly distinguished.
§ On the whole, coiisiderincr their ancient state, and knowing fho
agreement of their present state with it, no people whatever appear
to have been so singular and mysterious, and possessed of such a
mixture of wisdom and imbecility.
Egypt.
§ A little before the Cliristian era, Egypt was one of the most dis-
tinguished countries of the ancient world, and enjoyed, from the ear-
liest times, a large share of relebrlt)', on account of its learning and
its magnificent public works. In commercial importance, at the
time first spoken of, it was much superior to contemporary nations.
IS. Situation., Name, and Division. Egypt was an ex-
tensive country, bounded on the east by Arabia and the Red
Sea, and by Lylna on the w est, and was properly a long val-
ley, following the course of the Nile from S. to N.
The ancient name was Mitzraim, and is now retained in
that of Mesr, under the Turks.
Egypt was divided into three principal parts, distinguished
by the appellations of the Upper Egypt, or Thebais ; the Mid-
dle Egypt, or Heptanomis ; and the Lower Egypt, which in-
cludes the Delta.
19. Cities. There were many cities in this country, whosa
niins attest their almost unparalleled magnificence. Among
these were Thebes, Memphis, Arsinoe, Heliopolis, and Alex-
andria, besides many oth(!rs.
§ Thebes was situated in Upper Egypt, on both sides of the Nile.
It was called by the Greeks, Diospolis, and was one of the most il-
lustrious cities in the world. It is distinguislicd in lionier liy the epi-
thet of Ilecatompylos, or having a 100 gales. In the time of its splen-
dour, it could send into the field, by each of its gates, 200 chariots,
and 2000 fighting men.
Its extent is said to have been 52 miles ; and so great was its wealth,
that after it had been plundered by the Persians, 30O talents of gold
and 2300 of silver, were found among the remains of the pillage.
EGYPT. 1C3
Tlic ruins of this astonishing city occupy a circumference of 27
miles on cillier side of the Nile, and contain several villages, the chief
of which is Luxor. Habon, on the western side, contains many stu-
pendous monuaicnts. Thebes was severely treated by Cambyses, by
Ptolemy Philopater, and under Augustus, for its rebellion. In the
adjacent mouiuains arc hewn sepulchres of the ancient kings.
A remarkable feature of these ruins is their size. Every thing i?
colossal. The smallest pillars of the temples are between 7 and 8
feet in diameter, and some of the largest are 11. Obelisks, Sphinxes,
and other momunents of huge dimensions, in different poshions, as-
tonish the modern traveller, as he gazes on these wonders of human
power and art.
Memphis, supposed to have been founded by Menes, the first Egyp-
tian king, was for several ages the metropolis of the whole kingdom.
It contained manj^ beautiful temples, the most splendid of which is
said to have been that of the god Apis. This city stood on the western
bankof the Nile, 15 miles south of the Delta.
Strabo saw its palaces in ruins. Vestiges of it were appai'ent in the
fifteenth century, b\it are no longer in being. The Nile may have co-
vered them.
Alexandria was reckoned next to Rome for the grandeur of it?
buildings, and richness of its materials. It stood on the western side
of the Delta, and was built by Alexander the Great, 332 B. C. It was
the capital of Eower Egypt, and the metropolis under the Ptolemies.
The ancients assert that it was built in the form of a Macedonian
cloak, and occupied about 15 miles. The royal palace constituted a
fifth part of the city.
Alexandria rose to the first rank in the ancient world, as the great
mart for exchange between the east and west. Its commercial ad-
vantages continued for a number of ages. It was further distinguished
by scliools for philosophy, physic, theology, astronomy, and genera'
learning.
20. Monuments and Works of Art. Many of these are
magnificent Leyond conception, and show to what a high state
of improvetiient the inhabitants, at a remote period, had car-
ried the arts. Tliey still excite the admiiation of every tra-
veller.
Besides the cities that have been named, the most celebra-
ted of these works of ancient grandeur, are Lake Moeris, the
Labyrinth the Catacombs, or Mummy Pits, and the Pyra-
mids.
§ The lake Moeris has been affirmed to be the most wonderful of
all the works of the kings of Egypt, the pyramids not excepted. The
ancients described it as measuring 3G00 stadia in circumference; but
modern travellers assure us that its breadth docs not exceed half a
league ; that it is about a day's journey in lensth, and that its circum-
ference is about 12 or 15 leagues, which will be found sufficientlj'
164 GENERAL VIEWS.
prodigious, wlien we consider that it was performed by human la-
bour.
This lake, in the deepest part, has fifty fathoms of water, and is
fed from the Nile, by means of a channel cut for that purpose. It
was built by a king of the name of Moeris, whose object was to cor-
rect the irregularity of supply in the waters of the river, receiving
its superabundance, or making up its deficiency.
The Labyrinth was an enormous structure of marble, built partly
under the ground. It was designed as a pantheon of all the Egyptian
deities, and as a place for the assembly of the magistracy of the whole
nation. It contained no less than 3000 chambers, 1500 of which were
subterraneous, and set apart for the sepulchre of the kings who built
the labyrinth, or for the abodes of the sacred crocodiles.
These were never shewn to strangers ; but Herodotus informs us
that he viewed every room in the upper part, in which he found suf-
ficient to fill him with astonishment. Innumerable exits by difl'erent
passages, and infinite returns, afforded him a thousand occasions of
wonder. The highest decorations in polished columns and exquisite
sculptures, were every where seen.
The Catacombs were subterraneous galleries of prodigious extent,
appropriated to the reception of the dead. These sepulchres of the
ancient kings are hewn in free-stone rock, and apparently formed
upon one general plan, though diflfering in the construction of their
respective parts. These contain the orenerations that are gone. Some
of the embalmed bodies are perfectly preserved, though they have
been dead 3000 years.
The Pyramids were deservedly classed by the ancients among the
wonders of the world. There are said to be twenty of them in differ-
ent parts of the country ; but there are three superior to the rest in
size and magnificence. These are on the western side of the Nile, in
the neighbourhood of the ancient Memphis.
The largest of them is 481 feet in height, measured perpendicularly,
and the area of its basis comprehends eleven English acres of ground.
This is a size which would exceed all belief, had it not been actually
and repeatedly measured by modern travellers. It has steps entirely
round it, made with polished stones, so large that the breadth and
depth of every step is one single stone. The smallest stone is 30 feel
in length. The number of steps amounts to 208.
These works are proved, by modern researches, to have been royal
sepulchres, but their foundation is lost in antiquity. Tliey are sup-
posed, however, to have been erected between one and two thousand
years B. C. It is asserted by Pliny and Diodorus, that no less than
360,000 men were employed in erecting the largest pyramid. It is
said also tiiat twenty years were spent in the work.
21. Government and Laws. The Egyptians were
among the earliest nations, if not the very earhcst. who had
regular estal)hshccl governments nnd civil regulations. Their
govcrnnient was a despotic, hereditary nionarcliy, yet so mo-
dified by prescribed usages, as to promote the puljhc v^elfare.
EGYPT. 165
§ Their monaichs were restricted to a certain mode of living, and
even tlieir time seems to liave been portioned out, and set apart for
particidar employments, by the sacred Egyptian books. They were
confined to exactness, not only in public transactions, but in their
private life. They could neither batlie, take the air, nor converse
witii their queens but at certain times. Tlie choice of their provisions
was not left to themselves, but their tables were furnished with the
most simple food, (generally veal or goose,) and their allowance of
wine was extremely moderate.
These restraints were entirely acceptable to the Egyptian monarchs,
and during the period in winch they prevailed, the country greatly
flourished, and was filled with works of incomparable magnificence
In the administration of public affairs, each nome, or pro-
vince, had its respective governor, who ordered all things with-
in his jurisdiction. The lands were divided into three parts,
of which one was allotted to the maintenance of the priests,
and to religious uses ; the second was appropriated to the
king, for defraying the charges of his wars, &c ; and the
third part was designed for the soldiers. The husband-
men, taking the lands at an easy rent from the king, priests,
and soldiers, devoted the whole of their attention to agricul-
ture ; and the son continually succeeded the father in his oc-
cupation. They thus became the most famous for tillage of
any in the world.
22. Mythology. The boasted laws of the Egyptians sink
m our estimation, from the influence which a knowledge of
Llieir base idolatry and superstitions produces in the reflecting
mind. They had a vast number of gods of different ranks,
but their two principal ones were Osiris and Isis, supposed to
have been the sun and moon. From Egypt the stream of
idolatry flowed over the nations.
§ The idolatry of this people was so gross, that exclusive of the
v/orship tliey paid their pretended gods, they actually bestowed di-
vine lionours on animals, insects, birds, and even vegetables, as
leeks and onions. Tlieir sacred animals were, during their lives, kept
in consecrated enclosures; fed with most delicate ibod, washed and
anointed with frequency, and their burial, after death, attended with
the heaviest expense. We are credibly informed that in the reign
of Ptolemy, the Apis dying of old age at Memphis, his keeper ex-
pended in his funeral, about 13,000Z. above all his substance.
23. Education. In the education of their children, the
Kgy[)tians exercised great care, and the children aa ere brought
up with the strictest frugality. The priest instructed them in
ozithmetic, geometry, and other branches of useful literature ;
166 GENERAL VIEWS.
aiid their fathers, or nearest relations, taught them as early as
possible, their paternal art or profession.
24. Domestic Habits, Manners, and Customs. The
wsual drink of the people was the water of the Nile, which
was very palatable and fattening. They used ajpo a superior
l>everage made of barley, so that we are possibly indebted to
them for the first invention of beer. Cleanhness was a particu-
lar characteristic of this people, who scoured their drinking
vessels every day.
§ As great singularities among them, we may notice the inconsistent
employments of the men and women ; the former being engaged in
spinning and domestic concerns, while the latter were employed in
trade and business; the kneading of dough Avith their feet; the tem-
pering of mortar with their hands; and the promiscuous residence of
men and beasts in the same apartment
At their principal feasts, it was a very singular custom to bring in
the coffin of a friend after supper, with the image of a dead man
carved in wood and painted, which was carried to all the company
with this strange admonition : " Look upon this, and be merry; for
such as this now appears, thou shalt be, when thou art dead."
25. Literature and Arts. Egypt was the parent of
learning and philosophy. According to the scriptures, Moses
was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. Geometry
is generally believed to have been found out in Egypt, in con-
sequence of the measurement of those lands that were annu-
ally overflowed by the Nile. The science, however, was most
probably but little extended by them.
§ Arithmetic, astronomy, and a kind of algebra, were also cultivated
in Egypt ; and it is certain this nation first adjusted the length of the
year to the annual revolution of the sun, by adding to their twelve
months of thirty da}^s each, five additional days and six hours. Medi-
cine and the art of embalming were early cultivated among them,
particularly the latter. They were very famous also in magic.
In architecture, painting, sculpture, «S:c. they must have made great
proficiency, as is evident from the astonishing works of art which
yet remain.
26. Trade. Egypt early engaged in commerce, as its
6-ituation was peculiarly favourable for that object. We read
in scripture that the Midianites and Ishmaelites traded thither,
BO early as the time of Jacob. It is certain also that Solomon
estiiblished a very considerable trade in those parts.
27. Language. The Egyptian language is one of the
most ancient in the w orld, and probably an original tongue.
It is, in some measure, preserved in the Coptic, even to this
time, though that language is but little understood.
HEBREWS. 16T
THE HEBREWS.
28. Country. The country in which this ancient and di-
vinely favoured people lived was Palestine. It extended from
Coelo-Syria, to Arabia Petrea ; on the west it had the Medi-
terranean, and on the east Arabia Deserta. Its territory was
very limited.
The country of the Hebrews is also called by several other names,
as the Land of Canaan, the Holy Land, Judea, &c. ; and the people
themselves were variously called, as the People of God, Israelites,
Jews ; the last more commonly in the latter period of their history.
Upon the entrance of the Israelites into Palestine, it was
divided into twelve different portions, whicli were assigned to
the twelve several tribes into which they were separated.
29. Remains of ancieitt Woi'ks. Among these are Ja-
cob's Well ; the Pools of Solomon, Gihon, and Bethesda ; and
the Sepulchral Monuments.
§ Jacob's well is highly venerated by Christian travellers on ac-
count of its antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid rock, about 3.5
yards in depth, and three in diameter, and is at present covered with
a stone vault.
The Pools of Solomon, supposed to have been made by order of
that monarch, appear to have been a work of immense cost and labour.
They are three in a row, and disposed in such a manner, that the
water of the uppermost may fall into the second, and of the second
into the third. They are of equal breadth, viz. about 90 paces ; their
length varies, the longest being 220. They are all walled and plas-
tered, and contain a large quantity of water.
The Pools of Gihon and Bethesda are similar vvorks, and may be
ranked among the most stately ruins.
The Sepulchral Monuments are scattered all over the country.
The most magnificent pieces of antiquity of this kind are the royal
sepulchres witliout the walls of Jerusalem. They are all hewn out of
the solid marble rock, and contain several spacious and elaborate
apartments.
30. Cities. Of these there were not many that were large.
Jerusalem, the metropolis of the country, and the centre of the
Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, and indeed no place
on the globe has been more celebrated, taking into view its
sacred associations. Hebron, Gaza, and Ascalon. were also
noted.
Jerusalem was built on several hills, the largest of which
was Mount Zion ; it formed the southern part of the city.
On the east of the second, or lower city, was mount Moriah,
on which stood the magnificent temple of Icing Solomon.
168 GENERAL VIEWS,
§ Jerusalem, when enlarged by David, Solomon, and other kings,
became a most renowiied city, and as such is mentioned by the Greek
historian, Herodotus, under the name of Cadytis. The city with its
temple was destroyed by the Chaldeans, about 600 years B. C. The
second temple, which had begun to decay, was rebuilt by Herod tlio
Great.
The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, was A. D. 70. Under Adri-
an, a new city, altogether Roman, and called JEYia, was built, but
there was an alteration of its site. Zion, the principal quarter of the
ancient city, was not comprised within the new city. It subsists at
present, but in a deplorable condition, inhabited by a motley group
of Turks, Jews, and Christians.
Hebron was a place of high antiquity, and the sepulchre of Abra-
ham and his family. In the time of the crusades, it bore the name of
St. Abraham : and the Arabs, who ahvays respect their primitive
names, call it Cabr-Ibrahim, or the Tomb of Abraham.
Gaza and Ascalon, on the coast, preserve tlieir names, as also
others. Gaza was remarkably strong, and surrounded with walls and
towers, after the Philistine manner. It was taken by Caleb, but soon
after regained by the ancient inhabitants, who kept possession ot it
to the time of Samson. It passed into various hands, till finally il
was pillaged by Alexander, and a second time destroyed by the Mao-
cabees.
Ascalon was also a maritime tOAvn of great strength, but was soon
reduced, after the death of Joshua, by the tribe of Judah. It was once
adorned with several magnificent edifices ; but it is now dwindled
into an inconsiderable village.
31. Religion. Tlie history of the rehgion of this people,
which was called Judaism, is the history of tme rehgion in the
ancient world. It is now eclipsed by the radiance of the
Gospel, which has come into its room, abrogated what waa
ritual in it, and confirmed its great general principles and
truths.
§ Religion flourished variously among the people, according to the
piety or irreligion of their priests, leading men, or sovereigns. In ge-
neral, though they had a succession of Avise and holy prophets, the
nation, as such, was peculiarly obstinate and rebellious, and continu-
ally inclined to forsake the worship of God, and to fall into the idola-
trous practices of its heathen neighbours.
On this account repeated and severe judgments were sent among
them. Tliey were visited, at various times, with all the ministers of
divine vengeance — they were conquered, pillaged, and carried into
captivity, and soon after the Christian era, ceased to exist indepen-
dently, and were scattered among all nations.
They are now known, particularly the tribes of Judah and Benja-
min, wherever they are dispersed, as the descendants of Abraham,
preserving still their national name and peculiarities. Concerning
the other ten tribes we have no certain knowledge of their separate
HEBREWS. 169
existence, at this day. Propliecy has been remarkably fulfilled in the
case of this peopie.
The gi'eat general truths of religion were revealed to this
people, and to them alone of all the nations of the earth. The
iDeing, perfections, and government of God, the moral law,
prescribing the duties man owes to God, to his fellow men.
and to himself, the awards of eternity, with a thousand par
ticidar precepts of a spiritual kind, were exphcitly declared to
this nation.
The peculiarities of their ritual worship rendered them
also a most favoured community. By these they were de-
eigned to be preserved a people distinct from all the rest of
the world, to be kept from idolatry, and to be prepared for the
great salvation, which was to he accomplished not only for
tliem, but for all nations, in " the fulness of the time."
§ The peculiar rites of Judaism were admirably adapted to honour
their Creator, and to render themselves completely happy. Its sacri-
fices were at once calculated to convince them of their sins, and to
shadow forth the vicarious sacrifice of the Son of God.
32. Government. The government of this people wap pro-
perly a Theocracy, as being under the immediate direction of
God. In this they were distinguished from all other nations.
He was considered as the sole dictator of every important
transaction, and supreme monarch of the Israelites.
33. Manners and Customs. The most interesting of
these related to the rite of circumcision, to their diet, diver-
sions, high places, mourning for the dead, and bmials.
§ The rite of circumcision has distinguished them as a people,
from the beginning. It was always accompanied with great feasting,
and other demonstrations of joy. At this time the child was named
in the presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and
wine were distributed.
Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been extremely plain.
Bread, water, and vinegar, were in common use. Honey was es-
teemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was reckoned ex
cellent for food.
Their diversions seem to have consisted chiefly in social repasts,
music, and dancing. The two latter partook of a religious character.
Games were never introduced into tlicir commonwealth.
Their high places were of two sorts; those where they burned in-
cense and offered sacrifices to the true God ; and those where they
committed various abominable idolatries.
Their mourning for the death of friends was expressed by rending
their garments, tearing their hair, heaping dirt or ashes upon their
170 GENERAL VIEWS.
heads, wearing sackcloth next their skin, and lying upon the bare
groinid.
As to their burials, it is known that they denied sepulture to none
but such as were guihy of suicide, and not even to these, but till after
sunset. From the pains which the patriarchs took to provide a place
of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is evident they con-
sidered it a heavy calamity, to be denied a burial, and a favour to be
interred among their ancestors. Their sepulchres were on their own
lands, and, where practicable, cut into a rock.
34. Learning. The Israelites excelled in the knowledge
of theology, and they had places of public mstruction called
the schools of the prophets. Tiiey seem to have had but Utile
knowledge of astronomy.
Their language was the Hebrew, the genius of w^hich is
pure, primitive, and natural ; and it is highly probable that
they had the art of writing very early. The materials on
which they wrote were tables of stone ; but mention is made
also of rolls, w^iich were doubtless more in use. These rolls
are supposed to have been made of skin, or some other pliable
substance. \
35. Arts. The arts in which the Israelites made the
greatest proficiency were those of war, husbandry, poetry, and
music.
§ Their situation made them a warlike people, surrounded as they
were by enemies. Their arms of offence were broad crooked swords,
javelins, slings, bows and arrows, and two-edged swords. Their
arms of defence were shields, helmets, coats of mail, breast plates,
and targets.
Their attention was much confined to their lands and domestic
avocations, and few trades or manufactures vvere carried on among
them before the reign of Solomon, except such as were absolutely ne-
cessary. After Solomon's time, pride and luxmy increased with great
rapidity. Tiie causes of a change from great economy and simplicity,
to their opposites, were laid indeed in the reign of David.
Poetry is said to be the only fine art in which they were peculiarly
excellent ; and in that they are inimitable. Their inspired produc-
tions, in poetry, if not in prose, as to native energy and felicity, are
unrivalled.
36. Commerce. With respect to commerce, it appears tlial
they received rich stuffs, linen, gold, (fcc. from Tyre, in ex-
change for their corn, balm, and other excellent commodi-
ties ; but they were totally ignorant of navigation. Solomon
employed foreign sailors in the ships which lie sent to foreigu
countries.
Canaanites.
§ The country of the Canaanites has been already described, as it
GREECE. 171
was the same with that of the Hebrews, who, some time after they
left Egypt, drove out the ancient inhabitants of the Land of Canaaiu
37. Customs; Manners, Arts, and Sciences. Tii these, aa
well as in language, they may be supposed to have ditlered
widely from each other, accordiug to their different situations.
It is easy to discern the dillbrent classes of merchants, artifi-
cers, soldiers, shepherds, and husbandmen.
§ Those who resided on the sea-coasts were merchants, in which
capacity tliey will be considered wlien spoken of as Plioenicians
Those who resided in fix'cd abodes and walled places, cultivated the
land. Shepherds and soldiers led a more wandering life. As to war,
they were by no means deficient in courage, craft, or policy.
38. Religion. Their religion seems to have been undefiled
to the days of Aliraham, when Melchisedek among them was
a priest of the jMost High God ; but after this period they
must have degenerated apace. They compelled their chil-
dren to pass through fire to Moloch, and their wickedness be-
came extreme.
Greece.
39. Appearance and Face of the Country. This country,
rendered illustrious by the intellectual elevation of its inhabi-
tants, was a res^ion of enchanting beauty. Its mountains
and valleys, lakes and rivers, sufficiently diversified the sur-
face, while their grandeur or their softness imparted an inef-
fable chann to every prospect. It enjoyed a delightful cli-
tnatc and exuberant soil.
§ The classical reader need not to be reminded, that among a
thousand other spots endeared to association, were Pindus and Par-
nassus, the seats of the muses ; Athens, filled with the monuments of
art and genius ; woody Arcadia, sacred to Pan, and the haunt of shep-
herds ; and Thcssaly with its fields of pleasure, where
" The smooth Pencus from its glassy flood
Reficcts purpureal Tempe's pleasant scene."
40. tSitifation, Extent, and Division. Greece occupied a
large peninsula between the south of Italy and Asia Minor,
about 400 miles long and 150 broad. It had Epirus and
Macedonia on the north, the Mediterranean on the south, and
the Ionian and vEgean seas washed, the one its western, and
the other its erstern borders.
§ In subseffucnt times, Epirus and Macedonia were considered aa
parts of Greece, and then the northern boundary was constituted by
Elyricum, Moesia, and Thrace.
Greece consisted of two principal divisions — Greece, pro-
perly so called, and Peloponnesus.
172 GENERAL VIEWS.
§ Greece proper included the following States ; 1. Attica. 2. Bceo-
tia. 3. Acarnania. 4. iEtolia. 5. Locris. 6. Doris. 7. Phocis. 8. Thes-
sal>. 9. Epirus. 10. Macedonia.
Peloponaesiis included the following states; 1. Achaia. 2. Elis.
3. Arcadia. 4. Messenia. 5. Laconia. 6. Argolis.
Connected with Greece were many islands in the seas
wliich surrounded it, the principal of which singly, or in clus-
ters, were Euboea, Lemnos, the Cyclades, Crete, Cythera, Za-
cynthus, Cephalonia, Corcyra, Tenedos, Lesbos, &cio, Samos,
and Patmos.
41. Names. Greece was called Hellas by the natives, and
its inhabitants Hellenes. From their different tribes they were
denominated by the poets, Achivi, Danai, Argivi, Pelasgi,
lones, Dores, and ^Eoles.
42. Interesting Localities. Almost every considerable
place in Greece is marked by some circumstance in its natu-
ral features, or by some achievem.ent or event in its history,
w^hich connects it in the minds of scholars with the most de-
lightful associations. Several of these localities may be
grouped together, as below.
§ Peloponnesus took its name from Pelop», who reigned there.
Mycenae \vas the city of Agamemnon. At Nemea. aames were insti-
tuted in honour of Hercules, for killing the Neaieun lion. In Epidau-
rus, ^sculapius was worshipped. Lerna gave name to the Le'nasan
Hydra, a monster destroyed by Hercules.
Amyclaj abounded in trees, and was honoureii with a splendid
temple of Apollo. Helos was a place which the Spartans took, redu-
cing the inhabitants to slavery, and hence all their slaves were called
Helotes. Near TaBnarus, the most southern point of Europe, was a
cave through which Hercules is fabled to have dragged Cerberus from
the infernal regions. On the mountain Taygetus, the Spartan women
celebrated the orgies of Bacchus.
Elis, was famous for its horses. At Olympia, the Olympic games
were celebrated in honour of Jupiter— they date from B. C. 776, and
form the epoch of Grecian chronology. Corinth was famous for its
brass, a mixture of copper with some small quantity of gold and
silver.
Arcadia was the country of musicians and shepherds, and sacred
to Pan, the rural deity. Mercury was born on mount Cyllenc. Her-
cules destroyed the harpies of the river and lake Stymplialus. At the
Isthmus, games were celebrated in honour of Neptune.
Eleusis was famous for the celebration of the mysteries of Ceres,
in which secrecy was enjoined to the votaries, and the breach of it
punished witli deatli. In Attica were mount Hymettus, celebrated for
its honey, and mount PciUelicus, for its quarries of marl)le. The Boeo-
tians were reckoned characteristically dull, though there were some
pplciidid exceptions.
GREECE. 173
ChcBfortea was the birth-place of Phitarch, and remarkable for the
defeat of the allied stales of Greece, by Philip, which ruined that ce-
lebrated nation. Not far from this, was the cave of Trophonius, where
oracles were delivered, and wliich rendered such as entered it me-
lancholy for the rest of ihcir lives. Thcspia was sacred to the IMuses.
Tanagra was infamous for its cock-fighting exhibitions. At Deiium
stood a temple of Apollo; and the moimtain of Helicon, and the
fountain Aganippe, were consecrated to tlie Nine.
Phocis, the Greeks conjectured, was not only the centre of Greece
but of the whole earth. Delplii was rendered illustrious for the tern
pie and oracle of Apollo, whose responses were alwa)'s delivered by
a priestess. Parnassus, and the foimlain of Castalia at its foot, were
the haunts of the Muses. Anticyra was famous for the production ol
hellebore, once reputed a specific in maniacal cases.
Narix was the native place of Ajax. Thermopylae was a famous
pass, justly reckoned the key of Greece, and is immortalized from the
self-devotion of Leonidas. Where narrowest, there was room only
for a single carriage, a ridge of impassable mountains being on the
west, and the sea on the east, with d?ep and dangerous morasses.
The J^^tolians constituted the best cavalry in Greece. Naupactus
was so called from the number of ships built there, but its site is now
overflowed by the sea. Acarnania was famous for its horses. On the
promontory Lcucate, "Avas the rock from which disappointed lover?
sought either death or a cure, by leaping into the sea.
Through the lake of Acherusia ran the river Acheron, and into the
latter flows the Cocytus, both of which, on account of their mviddi-
nesp, were feigned by the poets to be rivers of hell. In the interior ot
Eplrus, was the most ancient oracle of Greece, the grove, or vocal
oaks of Dodona, sacred to Jupiter.
Chaonia received its name from Chaon, the companion of llelenus,
the son of Priam, who was inadvertently killed in hunting. Pindus
was holy to Apollo and tlie Nine. The Acroceraunian mountains
were so called from their tops being struck willi tlnmder.
The vale of Tempo was reckoned the most delicious spot on earth,
five miles in length, but in general very narrow. It had mount Olym-
pus at the north, and Ossa at the south. These motmtains, with Peli-
on, according to story, were piled one upon another, ly tlie giants in
their v/ar with the gods, to scale heaven. The celebrated spear of
Achilles, v/liich none but himself coidd wield, was cut down on Peli-
on ; Thcssaly was renowned for excelleut horses.
Larissa was the city of Achilles, lleraclea was so called from Her-
cules, Avho is said to have consumed himself in a burning pile, on the
top of (Eta, near this place. Othrys was the abode of ilie Centam's.
On the banks of Amphrysus, A])oIlo used to feed the flocks of Admc-
tus. Pierus, towards the confines of ?,Iacedonia, was sacred to the
Muses. 'J'he women of Thcssaly are said to have possessed remark-
able skill in magic.
Athos was a mountain through which Xerxes caused a canal to be
rut for the passage of his army. Several towns stood upon it whose
inhabitants were remarkable for their longevity. Stagira was the
P2
1.74 GENERAL VIEWS.
birth place of Aristotle, whence he is called the Stagirite. ApoUonia
was a place where learning was much cultivated. Strymon was the
river along the banks of which Orpheus is imagined to have lament-
ed his lost Eurydice.
In the island Corcyra were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous,
which produced fruit twice a year. Ithaca was the residence of Ulys-
ses. Cicero compares it to a nest in a rock. The Slropliades were a
cluster of islands fabled to be infested by harpies. The inhabitants
of ^gina were famed for being the first people that coined money.
Delos was the birtli place of Apollo and Diana. It was said to be
a floating island. Paros was the birth place of Phidias and Praxi-
teles, and celebrated, moreover, for the finest marble. Naxos was fruit-
ful in vines, and therefore sacred to Bacchus. Crete was celebrated
for its hundred cities, and for the laws of Minos established there.
The Cretans were celebrated archers.
Rliodes was famous for its brazen colossus, or image of the sun,
about 105 feet high. The metal which composed it loaded 900 camels
Patmos was the island to which the apostle John was banished, and
v/here he wrote the book of revelation. Scio was famous for its wine
and earthen wares. Lemnos was sacred to Vulcan. In the forum of
its principal town was tlie statue of an ox, made by Myron, the back
of which, at the winter solstice, was overshadowed by mount Athos,
though 80 miles distant.
43. Cities. Of these there were several, the capitals of the
tUffereiit states of which Greece was composed, as Athens,
Sparta, Corinth, Tliebes, Ar^os, and others. But of these,
Athens and Sparta were by far the most renowned.
Athens, the capital of Attica, was so called from Athenae,
one of the names of the goddess Minerva, the protectress of
the city. It was called by the ancients, for its glory in the arts
and sciences, the learned city, the eye of Greece, the school of
the world.
It was situated in a large plain, about five miles from the
sea, having in the midst of it, a motmt. In its most flourish-
ing state, according to Dio Chrysostom, it was 2.5 miles in cir-
cumference. It was divided into the upper city or citadel, and
the lower city. Both contained 440,000 inhabitants, the fax
greater part of whom were slaves.
§ The citadel was built on the rocky mount already mentioned. It
'.vas called the Acropolis, or the upper city. Wlien from tlie increase
of its inhabitants, the lower grounds were occupied by buildings,
those constituted the lower city.
Tlic upper city was 16 miles in circumference, and was surround-
ed by a strong wall, beautified by 9 gates, to one of which, called the
^rand entrance, the Athenians ascended by steps, covered with white
marble.
UREECE- 175
Tlie lower city contained all the buildings that surrounded the ci-
tadel, and was encompassed with strong walls.
In the ciLodel were several magnificent edifices, the chief of
which were the temple of Neptune, and the beautiful temple
of IMinerva, called Parthenon. These still continue. The lat-
ter is justly es^teemcd one of the noblest remains of antiqi'ity.
It is 229 feet long-, 101 broad, and 69 high.
In the lower city, the most magnificent structure of Athens,
and scarcely paralleled in the ancient world, was the temple
of Jupiter Olympus. It was supported on marble columns,
and was half a mile in circuit.
In both portions of Athens there were many other splendid
structures, and monuments without number, some of the
proudest efforts of art and genius that the world ever beheld.
§ Athens had three harbours on the Saronic gulf, whiclnvere joined
to tlie city b}' two walls, called the long walls. The length of one
of those was five miles, that of the other nearly the same.
There were several Gymnasia, or places of exercise, in and near
Athens, the principal of which were the Academy, the Lyceum, and
the Cynosarges.
A Gymnasium was a large edifice designed to accommodate many
thousands of people together, with places for the exercises of the
youtli, and with apartments for philosophers, rhetoricians, &c. to de-
liver their lectures. A garden and sacred grove were attached to this
edifice.
Sparta, called also liaccda-mon, was built upon the banks
of the river Eurotas, and at the foot of mount Taygetus. It
was the capital of the province of Laconia. It was of a circu-
lar form, and about 6 miles in circumference. The houses
were not built close together, but divided into different villa-
ges, according to the ancient manner of the Greeks. It was
destitute of walls, till it fell under the dominion of tyiants,
after the time of Alexander. The bravery of its citizens was
its defence.
§ Spartawas divided into different villages, according to the ancient
manner of the Greeks. Of lliese villages there Avere five, built round
an eminence at diflVrrnt distances, each of which was occupied by
one of the five tribes of Sparta.
The prevailing manners were hostile to external splendour, and
therefore the lioiisrs of tlie Spartans were destitute of ornaments. The
great Square, or forinn, however, in which several streets terminated,
was embellished willi temples and statues. It also contained the pub-
lic edifices, in which the assemblies of the various bodies of magistrates
were held.
Sparta was also adorned with a large number of monumentSj in
176 GENERAL VIEWS.
honour of the gods and ancient heroes. Religious respect was shown
to the memory of Hercules, Tyndarus, Castor, Pollux, Leoniilas, «Scc.
In the environs of the city were courses for horse and foot raises, and
places of exercises for youth shaded by beautiful plane trees. Indeed,
Sparta was surrounded, to a great extent, with vineyards, olive and
plane trees, gardens, and summer houses.
Corinth, the capital of Achaia, was seated on the Istlimus,
which separates Peloponnesus from Attica. It lay between
two seas, and had two ports, one on each coast. Its citadel
stood on the peak of a hill called Acrocorinthus. This city
was one of the best peopled and most wealthy in G reece. It
was destroyed by Muinmins, the Roman general, during the
Achaean league. Corinth was partly reliiiilt by Julius Caesar.
§ The neat order of the pillars which are used at this day, in the
decoration of all fine buildings, took from this city the name of Co-
rinthian pillars. Its citizens made high pretensions to politeness,
philosophy, and learning.
Corinth enjoyed its liberty, and immense traffic, till B. C. 146, when
it was taken and burned by the Romans. It was then deemed the
strongest city in the world, and was a distinguished seat of opulence
and the fine arts. Since that period it has been often burned, plun-
dered, and subjugated, till of late, under the tyranny of the Turks, it
was so decayed, that the population did not exceed 1500 souls, one
half Mahometans, and the otlier half Christians.
Thebes, the capital of BcEotia, was situated on the river
Ismenus. It had seven gates, with walls about seven miles
in circumference. It was demolished by Alexander, and re-
built by Cassander. Under Epaminondas, the Thebans be-
came masters of Greece ; but in Strabo's time (15 or 20 years
A. C.) Thebes was only an inconsiderable village.
§ In the dreadful period of its demolition by Alexander, 6000 of it?
inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 sold for slaves. Tlie house in
which the great lyric poet Pindar was born and educated, was ordered
to be spared, and all the rest to be destroyed.
41. Government. In general the government of Greece
partook of a republican character, though it varied at different
periods, and was in lixct different in the several states. In some
of them it exhibited the features of monarchy or aristocracy.
They frequently entered into leagues and confederacies with
each other, and in this respect bore some faint rcsembiance to
the present government of the United States of America.
But on this article we are under the necessity of speaking of
the respective states of Greece, chiefly Athens and Sparta,
who were, in general, so superior to the rest.
GREECE. 177
Government of Athens.
§ The government of Athens was at first monarchical, but after the
death of Codrus, it became in a degree democratic.
Classes of the inhabitants. The Athenians were divided
into three classes, citizens or fieemen, foreigners or sojourners,
and slaves. Citizens were the privileged class, who held ex-
clusively the offices of government. The privileges of citizen •
ship were obtained with difficulty, and deemed of great value
They were conferred only by an assembly of the people, except
where they were inherited by those whose parents were citizens.
§ The citizens of Athens were divided into ten tribes; but they were
not hmited to the city, a part of them residing in the small boroughs
of Attica. These tribes were named after certain ancient heroes ;
each tribe was again subdivided into three parts, and each of these
into 30 families.
Sojourners were persons who came from a foreign country,
and settled with their families in Attica. They were per
mitted to exercise trades in the city, and were protected by the
government, but had no vote in the assembly, nor could they
be raised to any office.
§ In some -instances, when they had rendered important services,
they were adopted into the class of citizens.
Slaves or servants were distinguished into two sorts. The
first consisted of free born citizens who, through poverty, were
forced to serve for wages. These could either change their
masters or release themselves when able to procure a subsist-
ence. The second sort were wholly at the disposal of their
masters, and in general placed beyond the hope of procuring
tlieir own freedom, or leaving it as a legacy to their childj'en.
§ Sometimes slaves obtained their freedom by fighting for the re-
public, or purchased it by means of their savings.
Magistrates. The Athenian magistrates were divided into
three sorts, distinguished by the different methods of their
election. Those were, 1. the Chirotoneti, chosen by the people
in a lawful assembly, in which they voted by holding up their
hands. 2. The Cleroti, first approved l)y the people, and then
dravvni by lot. 3. The Ereti, extraordinary officers appointed
by particular tribes, to take care of any business.
§ The poorer citizens were eligible to office ; yet it was seldom that
any but the most distinguished persons, were actually appointed as
magistrates. The candidates were required to give an account of
their past life in the public forum.
Magistrates, while in oflice, were liable to be tried on an accusation
of neglect of duty ; and after their term of ofl!ice had expired, they
178 GENERAL VIEWS.
were obliged to render an account of their conduct. During thirty
days, any man who chose might bring a complaint of mal-adminis-
tration.
The usual governinent of Athens was carried on by the
Archons, the Senate of 500, and assemblies of tlie people.
The Archons held the supreme executive power. They
were elected annually, and by the second metliod above
named, viz. l>y lot. They wore garlands of myrtle, were pro-
tected from violence and insult, and were exempted from
certain taxes.
§ The archons were nine in number. The first was called archon, by
way of eminence. He decided on causes between married persons,
also concerning wills, divorces, and legacies. He was the general
guardian of orphans. Some other important concerns were assigned
to him.
The second archon was styled Basileus, and wore a crown. The
third archon was called Polemarch. The six remaining archons
were named Thesmothetaj. Their respective duties need not be de-
scribed. Suffice it to say, that the concern of the arclions, as such,
was the execution of laws and the general sui)erintcndence of the
republic. Subordinate magistrates regulated minor details in the
police.
The Senate of five hundred Avas elected annually by lot,
from the diderent tribes. The business of this body was to
consider all proposals intended to come before the people, and
to see tbat nothing improper should be submitted.
§ The power of this senate was considerable. Tliey debated aA
measures of public interest and welfare, examined ihe acounts of
magistrates, took care of the fleet, and could punish for offences not
prohibited by any law.
Assemblies of the people were convened for tlie pinpose of
consulting on what was most beneficial to the commonwealth.
The right of attending them was enjoyed by all the freemen
of Athens. Strangers, slaves, women, and persons who had
received an infamous punishment, were excluded. They
were lield four times every 35 days, and also in cases of pecu-
liar emergency.
§ The smallest number of which an assembly could legally consist
was 6000 citizens. The assemblies decided respecting peace or war;
received ambassadors; confirmed or abrogated laws; nommated to
almost every important office, &c.
Here was the field in whicli the good or the bad influence of the
orators of Athens was exerted ; in wliich tlu ir talents were elicited,
and their fame acquired ; in wliich Pericles "thundered," iEschincs
charmed, and Demosthenes ruled the hearts of men.
There were also other bodies of men occasionally concerned
GREECE. 179
in the government of Athens, as various courts, particularly
that celebrated one called Areopa2:ns.
The name of this court was taken from the place where it was hold,
viz. Mars' Hill. It was in the greatest repute throughout Greece
for the wisdom and justice of its proceedings. It took cognizance of
crimes, abuses, and innovations either in religion or government, it
inspected the laws and public manners.
'J'he strictest projjriety of conduct was required of the members
Expulsion followed any act of gross immorality. To laugh during
the sitting of the court, was thought a very blameable levity.
There was an absurd peculiarity in the government of
Athens, which should not be omitted. It was ostracism, a
kind of popular judgment so call from ostrakon, a shell, or tile,
on which votes were written.
§ The following was the process in this condemnation. The people
being assembled, each citizen writing on a shell the name of the
individual most obnoxious to him without the allegation of a crmie,
carried it to a certain part of the market place fixed for this pur])0se.
and deposited it there. These shells were numbered in gross by the
archons. If they did riot amount to 6000, the ostracism was void.
If they amounted to this number, the archons, laying every name by
itself, pronounced liim, whose name was written by the major part,
banished for ten years, with leave to enjoy his estate. Hence it was
that so many eminent citizens suffered from the ingratitude or the
spleen of the Atlienians.
Government of Sparta.
Classes of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of Sparta
consisted of citizens and slaves, or Helots. The citizens were
divided into two classes, the Homoii, and the Ilypomiones.
The privileges of these varied ; the former were ehgible to
office ; the latter consisting of the poorer citizens, the freed-
men and their sons, were allowed only to vote at the elections.
The slaves, or Helots, were much more numerous than the
citizens. Their services were similar to those of servants
in general, though less severe than those of servants elsewhere
m Greece.
Kings. The republic of Sparta had two magistrates, called
kings, but they differed from those of most other nations.
They formed a check upon each other, and their power
otherwise was very limited.
§ Every montli they took an oath that they would rule according to
the laws; one of thom command(!d the army, while the otlier usually
remaujcd at homo to administer the laws. As first citizens of the
state, they presidetl in the senate, but their peculiar prerogative waa
to superintend the religion of the stale.
180 GENERAL VIEWS. -
Senate. This body consisted, together with the two kings,
of twenty-eight members, who were above sixty years of age,
and elected to the office for Ufe, and on account of their virtue.
Their duty was to consider all questions respecting peace or
war, and other important affairs of the republic.
Ephori. The Ephori were five magistrates, elected annu-
ally by the citizens, to inspect the education of the youth, and
the administration of justice.
Assemblies. The public assemblies were held to decide on
matters laid before them by the Senate. There were two of
these bodies ; one was called the general assembly, attended
l)y all the freemen of Laconia ; the other, the lesser assembly,
composed of the Spartans alone, who exceeded thirty years of
age.
It is to be noticed, that tlie kings, as well as the other magistrates^
ronstituted a portion of these bodies.
Government of the other States of Greece.
Like Athens and Sparta, the government of the other
sovereignties of Greece was, for the most part, repubhcaa.
In some of them there was a preponderance of aristocracy, in
others of democracy. Thebes was more nearly a monarchy.
§ Many of the sovereigns of Thebes were celebrated for their mis-
fortunes, such as Laius, CEdipus, Polynices, «S;c.
Pertaining to the government of the Greeks, as a confede-
rated body, was the Amphictyonic Council. This was an as-
sembly composed, at first, of a few states in the northern parta
of Greece, but afterwards of twelve states, the object of which
was the decision of all diderences between cities, and to try
Buch offences as openly violated the laws of nations.
§ The number of deputies usually sent to this council wfis two from
each state. It met twice a year. The vernal assembly was held al
Delphi, and the autumnal at Tliermopylae.
45. Military Affairs. The armies of the different states
of Greece consisted, for the most part, of citizens, whom the
laws of their country obliged at a certain age to appear in
arms, at the summons of tbe magistrate. \
§ The main body of the Grecian armies was composed of infantry.
The rest rode in chariots, upon horseback, or upon elephants.
The Greek arms were at first made of brass, and the boots,
and some other parts, of tin. Iron became afterwards the
chief material. The defensive arms were a helmet, a breast
GREECE. 181
plale, and a plate for the back, greaves to defend the leg's,
guards for the hands, a sort of belt which covered a part of
the body in front, and a shield.
The offensive arms were the spear, or pike, the sw^ord, the
pole axe, a club of wood or iron, the bow and arrow, darts or
javelins, and slings.
§ The Greeks, however brave in the- field, were very inefficient in
undertaking the siege of walled towns. Their armies were generally
the militia of the country, called out to temporary service.
The severest punishments were inflicted by the Lacedaemonians
on deserters, or cowards, who fled from battle. They forfeited all the
privileges and honours of citizens ; it was a disgrace to intermarry
with them ; they might be beaten by any who met them, without
the liberty of self-defence ; and they wore some distinguishing dress
as a mark of infamy.
Archilochus, the poet, was banished Sparta for writing an epigram,
in which he jestingly related the loss of his shield.
46. Naval Affairs. The Greek ships consisted chiefly of
three sorts : ships of war, those of burthen, and those of pas-
sage.
§ Ships of passage were used as transports ; ships of burthen served
as tenders, and were usually of a roimd form ; ships of war contained
the men and the w^eapons by which the naval engagement was car-
ried on, and were distinguished by the several orders or banks of
oars which they possessed. These were not fixed in a vertical line
over each other, but back of each other, ascending gradually in the
form of stairs.
47. Religion. The Greeks, who w^rc heathens, wor-
shipped great numbers of gods and demi-gods, whom they
divided into three classes : — celestial, marine, and infernal.
They were all subject to Jupiter, who was considered the
fiither of gods and men. The above classes are according to
their degrees of dignity.
§ The gods of Greece arc described by the poets according to tradi-
tion, and with such embellishments as poetic genius could invent.
As the Greeks had no sacred books, these fictions, sanctioned also by
the priests and legislators, were the only authority for the popular
belief.
The account we here give of the mythology of the Greeks is to be
regarded as a description only of their principal deities, and under the
forms in which the poets, sculptors, and painters, represented them.
If this article should appear to be somewhat particular, compared
with the others respecting Greece, it is because the mythology of this
country is the same nearly Avith that of the whole ancient world, and
is necessary to be known in reading the Grecian and Roman classics.
The celestial deities were Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury
182 GENERAL VIEWS.
Bacchus, Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Venus, Diana, Ceres, and
Vesta.
Jupiter was the son of Saturn and Cybele; and born at the same
birth with Juno, on mount Ida in Crete. He deposed his father, and
divided the world between himself and his l)rethren, Neptune and
Pluto. Neptune had the jurisdiction of the sea, and Pluto that of the
infernal regions. The sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to
himself
One of his great exploits was the conquest of the Titans, or giants,
who heaped mountains upon mountains to scale heaven. Jupiter
was guilty of indulging the basest lusts, although he is generally re-
presented as the father of men and gods, as shaking heaven with his
nod, and governing all things, except the Fates, by his power as su-
preme. His altars were never defiled with human sacrifices.
He is generally represented as a majestic personage, seated on a
throne, with a sceptre in one hand, and thunderbolts in the other,
and at his feet an eagle with expanded wings.
Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and born in the island
of Delos He presided over music, medicine, poetry, divination, the
fine art;;, and archery. For his offence in killing the Cyclops, he was
banished from heaven, and obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to
Admetus, king of Thessaly, in which employment he remained nine
years.
His adventures on earth are represented as extraordinary. Among
others he flayed Marsyas alive for contending with him in music ; he
caused Midas to receive a pair of ass's ears for preferring Pan's mu-
sic to his ; he turned into a voilet the beautiful boy Hyacinthus, whom
he accidentally killed with a quoit j and his mistress Daphne he me-
tamorphosed into a laurel. "
He is represented as a tall, beardless youth, with rays round his
head ; sometimes he holds a lyre in his hand, sometimes he has a
bow, with a quiver of arrows at his back.
Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the god of war,
ai>d patron of all that is bloody, cruel, and furious. The horse, the
wolf, the magpie, and the vulture, were offered to him. He had his
temples in all nations, as well as among the Greeks and Romans.
Diu'ing the Trojan war Mars was wounded by Diomedes, and hastily
retreating to heaven, complained to Jupiter, that Minerva had direct-
ed the weapon of his antagonist.
He is represented as an old man, armed and standing in a chariot,
drawn by two horses, called Flight and Terror ; his sister Bellona,
was his charioteer. Discord goes before him in a tattered garment
with a torch, and Anger and Clamour follow.
Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Maia, was the messenger of the
gods, the patron of travellers, shepherds, orators, merchants, thieves?,
and dishonest persons. His exploits abundantly support this charac-
ter. Mercury was doubtless some enlightened person in a remote
age, wlio, on account of his actions or services was worshipped after
his death. His Greek name, Hermes, signifies to interpret or explain,
and he appears to have taught men the arts of civilization.
Bacchus.
Vulcan.
Juno.
Venus.
Diana.
GREECE. 183
He is represented as a naked youth, standing on tiptoe, having a
^vinged cap on liis head, and winged sandals on his feet ; in one hand
he held a rod, and in tlie other a purse.
Bacchus was tlie son of Jupiter and Semele, and the god of wine.
His festivals were celebrated by persons of both sexes, who dressed
themselves in skins, and ran alx.nit the hills and country shouting,
and accompanying their siiouts with drums, fifes, and flutes. Tliese
solemnities were attended with disgusting scenes of drunkenness and
debauchery. The fir, yew, and fig tree, the ivy and vine, were sacred
to him.
Bacchus is depicted as a corpulent and ruddy youth, crowned with
ivy and vine leaves; liolding in his hand a small javelin bound with
vine leaves ; his chariot is drawn by lions.
Vulcan, the god of fire, and ])atron of those who wrought in the
metallic arts, was the son of .lupiter and Juno. He was kicked out
of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to deliver his mother from a
chain by which she was suspeud'^d. He continued to descend nine
days and nights, and lighted on the island of Lemnos, but was crip-
pled ever after.
Vulcan was the artificer of heaven ; he forged the thunderbolts of
Jupiter, also the arms of gods and demi-gods. Though deformed,
squalid, and sooty, he is made the husband of Venus and father of
Cupid.
Vulcan is represented as working at a forge. One hand raising a
hammer ready to strike, the other holding a thunderbolt with pin-
cers on an anvil. An eagle waits to carry it to Jupiter when
finished.
Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister and wife of
Jupiter. She was born at Argos, or as some report, in Samos. In
her cliaracter she was haughty, jealous, and inexorable, though the
ancients held her in great veneration, inasmuch as she presided over
power, empire, and riches, and was the special protectress of mar-
riage and child birth.
She was lofty, graceful, and magnificent in her face, figure, and
motion, and of all the pagan divinities her worship was the most so-
lemn and general.
She is represented seated on a throne, or in a chariot drawn by
peacocks, with a diadem or fillet adorned witli jewels on her head,
and a golden sceptre in her hand. Iris, displaying the rich colours of
the rainbow, is her usual attendant.
Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, sprang completely armed from
the liead of Jupiter. She was the most accomplished of all the god-
desses, and the only divinity that seemed equal to Jupiter. She was
a henificent goddess, and instructed in shipbuilding, navigation, spin-
ning, and weaving. Her worship was universally established, but
Athens claimed lier ])articular attention.
Slie is represented as a majestic female, of commanding aspect,
armed with a helmet, breastplate, shield, and spear. By her side, or
on her crest, is an owl, the bird wliich is sacred to her.
Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter of Jupi-
184 GENERAL VIEWS.
(er and Dione, or as some say, she sprung from the froth of the sea.
She was licentious in a high degree, and her worship was celebrated
with the most disgraceful ceremonies. The most beautiful of her
temples were those of Paphos, Cnidus, Cythera, and Idalia. The
island of Cyprus was her favourite residence.
She is represented as a beautiful woman, elegantly attired, and girt
about the waist with a cestus, or girdle, that had the power of inspi-
ring love.
Diana was the queen of the woods and the goddess of hunting.
She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and had for her attendants
80 nymphs, all of whom abjured the rites of marriage. Among
plants, the poppy and dittany were sacred to her.
She is represented as a tall, majestic woman, lightly clad, with a
crescent on her forehead, a bow in her hand, a quiver on her shoul-
ders, her legs bare, and buskins on her feet.
Ceres the goddess of corn and harvest, was the daughter of Sa-
turn and Cybele, and the first who taught to cultivate the earth. She
was a beneficent goddess, but led a licentious life. To her honour the
Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated.
She is represented as a majestic and beautiful woman, crowned
with ears of corn ; in one hand she held poppies and ears of corn,
and in the other a lighted torch.
Vesta was the goddess of fire, and guardian of houses and hearths.
She ever remained a virgin, and received the first oblations in sacri-
fice.
She was represented in a long, flowing robe, a veil on her head, a
lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the other.
The marine deities were Neptune, and liis wife Amphi-
trite, Oceanus and his wife Thetys, Triton, Proteus, Nereus,
and his sister and consort Doris, &c.
Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was second in rank among the
gods, and reigned over the sea. Conspiring against Jupiter, he was
defeated, banished from heaven, and for one year made subject to
Laomedon, king of Troy, where he assisted to build the walls of that
city.
Neptune is represented seated in a chariot made of a shell and
drawn by dolphins and sea horses, surrounded by tritons, nymphs,
and sea monsters. On his head he wears a crown, and in his hand
holds a trident, or sceptre, with three prongs.
Oceanus, a sea god, was the son of Ccclum and Vesta. He was
called the father, not only of rivers, but of animals. He and his wife
Thetys arc said to have had 3000 sons.
Triton, also a sea god, was the son of Neptune and Amphitrite ;
he was his father's companion and trumpeter.
Half of him resembles a man ; the other part is like a fish ; his two
feet are like the fore feet of a horse; his tail is cleft and crooked like
a half moon ; and his hair resembles wild parsley.
Nereus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of fifty daugh-
ters by his wife Doris, who were called Nereids,
Ceres.
Vesta.
Neptune.
Oceanus.
Triton.
Pluto.
Furies.
Charon.
Fates.
Cupid.
Graces.
GREECE. IgS
Proteus, fhe son of Oceanus, a god of the sea, could foretell future
events, and change himself into any shape.
Tlie infernal deities were Pluto and liis consort Proserpine,
Plutus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, and the three judges, Mi-
nos, iEacus, and Rliadanianthus.
§ Pluto, who exercised dominion over hell, M-as the brother of Ju-
piter. Tlie goddesses all refusing to marry him on account of his de-
formity and gloomy disposition, he seized Proserpine, the daughter
of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a passage through the earth, carried hei to
his residence, married, and made her queen of hell. No tcanples were
raised to his honour.
He is represented seated on a throne of sulphur, from beneath
which flow the rivers Lethe, Phlegellion, Cocytus, and Acheron. His
countenance is stern ; on his head is a radiated crown ; in one hand a
sceptre with two teeth, called a bident, and in the other, two keys
_ Plutus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches. He was lame, blind,
mjudicious, and timorous.
Charon was the ferryman of hell, an old man with \vhite hair a
long beard and garments, deformed with filth, in speech morose and
ill-tempered. Every ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. '
None could enter Charon's boat without a regular burial ; without
this, they wandered a hundred years, amidst the mud and slime of
the shore. By him departed souls were ferried over the four rivers ot
hell, and carried to Pluto's palace.
The Furies were three in number, Alecto, Tisiphone, and Mcgara.
They liave the faces of women, their looks are full of terror, they
hold lighted torches in tlieir hands, and snakes lasli their necks and
shoulders. Their office is to observe and punish the crimes of bad
men, and torment tlie consciences of secret offenders.
• Tlie Fates were tliree daughters of Jupiter by Themis. Their
names were Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. They decided on the
fortunes of mankind. Clotho drew the thread of life, Lachesis turned
the w^heel, and Atropos cut it with lier scissors.
Minos, iEacus, and Rhadnmanthus, were the three judges of the
souls of the dead. They assigned various punishments to the wick-
ed, adapted to tlieir crimes; to the good they gave a place in the de-
lightful realms of Elysium.
There were many other divinities of various characters and
descriptions : as, Cupid, tlie god of love; the Muses, who pre-
sided over poetry, music, dancing, and the hberal arts ; tlie
Graces, &c.
§ Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful winged
boy, with a bow and arrows, and often with a bandage over his eyts.
Sometimes he is bestriding tlie back of a lion, playing on a lyre ;
sometimes he appears mounted on a dolphin ; at otliers,'^breakina the
winged thunderboh of Jove, or amusing himself with cliildish diver-
sions.
The Muses were the daughters of Jupiter by Mnemosyne. They
were nine in number viz.
Q2
186 GENERAL VIEWS.
1st. Calliope, who presides over eloquence and heroic or epic poo-
try, such as Homer's Iliad.
2d. Clio, who presides over history.
3d. Erato, the muse ol elegiac or lyric poetry.
4th. Euterpe, presiding over music.
5th. Melpomene, the inventress and muse of tragedy.
6th. Polyhymnia, tlie muse of singing and rhetoric.
7th. Terpsichore, who presides over dancing.
8th. Thalia, the muse of pastoral or comic poetry.
9th. Urania, who presides over hymns and sacred subjects, and is
the muse of astronomy.
The Graces were the daughters of Bacchus and Venus, and three
in number. They were supposed to give to beauty its attractions, and
to render even homeliness pleasing.
They are usually represented as young and blooming virgins,
fightly clad, and holding each other by the hand, to show the mutual
affection that subsisted between them.
Besides these, there were rural deities, as Pan, Sylvanus,
Priapus, Aristseus, Termhius, and others. There were also
the Sirens, Gorgons, Harpies, Dryads, Naiads, Nereids, Tri-
tons, Lares, Penates, Fauns, Satyrs, Pales, and a vast number
of Nymphs.
§ Pan was the principal among the inferior deities, and was the god
of hunters, shepherds, and country people generally.
Sylvanus was next to Pan, and presided over woods. Priapus pre-
sided over gardens. Aristseus invented the art of extracting oil from
olives, and found the use of honey. Terminus was considered as
watching over the boundaries of lands.
The Sirens were three fabulous persons, who were said to have the
faces of women, and the lower parts of their bodies like fish. They
had such melodious voices, that mariners were often allured by them
to their own destruction.
The Gorgons, three sisters, had the power of transforming those
into stones who looked at them.
Tne Harpies are said to have beenwingedmonsters which had the
face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, claws on the hands
and feet, and the ears of a bear.
The Dryads were nymphs who presided over the woods.
The Naiads were nymphs of springs and fo\uitains.
The Nereids were nymphs of the sea, and daughters of Nereus and
Doris.
The Tritons were sea gods, wilh their upper parts like a man, and
their lower parts resembling a fish.
The Lares and Penates v/cre inferior deities who presided over
houses and families.
The Fauns and Satyrs w^ere rural demi-gods, the one attending on
Pan, and the other on Bacchus.
Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures.
The Nymphs were celestial and terrestrial j the former guided the
Calliope.
Clio.
Erato.
Euterpe.
Melpomene. Polyhymnia.
Terpsichore.
Urania.
Thalia.
GREECE. 187
heavenly bodies, the latter presided over the woods. They are repre-
sented as beautiful creatures, inhabiting every forest and glen.
The worship of these divinities was conducted by priests
dressed in costly habits, who offered sacrifices of animals,
fruits, perfumes, &c. These sacrifices were sometimes ap-
companied by prayers, music, dancing, &c. Human victims
Avere occasionally sacrificed.
§ The Greeks derived their religion principally from Egj'pt ; but
by degrees the legitiators, poets, and priests, extended it, till the
multitude of gods was almost innumerable. Thirty thousand ob-
jects of worship have been enumerated among them. These deities
were supposed frequently to mingle in the affairs of men, and are re •
presented as being stained with almost every vice.
Temples were erected, festivals instituted, games celebrated, and
sacrifiees offered, with more or less pomp to all these gods, as also to
tlie souls of departed heroes.
The religion of the common people consisted chiefly in the exter-
nal honours paid to their gods, and an attendance upon sacrifices and
ceremonies, thougli these were performed with great reverence.
With respect to a future state of existence, the philosophers seem to
have been in doubt. The poets inculcated a belief in Tartarus, or
Hell, and Elysium, or Paradise. Women were not encouraged with
any hope of immortality.
Of Hell they have drawn a picture in the most gloomy
and horrific colours, where men who have been remarkable
for wickedness are tortured with a variety of miseries adapted
to their crimes.
The prospect of Elysium is described by Homer, Hesiod,
Pindar, and others, as beautiful and inviting in the highest
degree. In that delight ftil region, there is no inclement
weather, but soft Avinds blow from the ocean to refresh the
inhabitants, who live without care or anxiety ; there reigns
perpetual sunshine and serenity of sky ; and the f rtile earth
produces thrice in a year delicious fruits for their sustenance.
With the religion of the Greeks were connected their tem-
ples, oracles, games, &c.
The principal temples of tlie Greeks were those of Diana,
at Ephesus, of Apollo, in the city of Miletus, of Ceres and Pro-
serpine, at Eleusis, and that of Olympian Jove, at Athens.
These were all bitilt of marble, and adorned with the finest
ornaments. The most celebrated Grecian temple, however,
was that of Apollo at Dclphos, which was revered and resort-
ed to by all the siurounding nations,
§ Statues of the gods, to whom these structures were dedicated,
were erected in or near the centre of the building, and enclosed by a
188 GENERAL VIEWS.
railing. Sacrifices of various kinds were made before these statues
the ceremonies of which were generally conducted by the priests.
Temples among the heathen most probably owe their origni to
the superstitious reverence paid by the ancients to the memory of
their deceased friends and benefactors. As most of their gods were
eminent men, who were consecrated after death ; so the first heathen
temples, we naturally infer, were stately monuments erected in ho-
nour of the dead.
Oracles were consulted by the Greeks on all important oc-
casions, and their determinations were held sacred and invio-
lable. There were certain temples, in which future events
were made known to those who devoutly sought to know the
will of superior powers. Certain priests or priestesses commu-
nicated this supposed will.
§ Well have they been called lying oracles, in comparison with
the clear predictions of the prophets of Jehovali in the scriptures
The most celebrated oracles were those of Apollo, at Delphi and De
los, the oracle of Jupiter, at Dodona, and that of Trophonius.
The public and solemn games in Greece were the Olym-
pic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian — four in number. The
contests at these games were running, leaping, throwing the
quoit, boxing, and Nvresthng. Horse races and chariot races
were also in repute. Besides these, there were contests in
wliich musicians, poets, artists, and philosopliers, engaged for
victory.
These occasions drew together people from all parts of
Greece, and even strangers from foreign countries. The ut-
most emulation obtained to secure the prizes, which were
wreaths of various evergreens ; and the highest honours and
respect were shown towards the victors. Their praises were
universally celebrated. The effect of these games on the
national spirit was remarkable.
§ The Olympic Games were instituted by Hercules in honour of
Jupiter Olympius, 1222 years B. C, and renewed after a long period,
first by Lycurgus, 884 B. C, and next by Coroebus, 776 B. C. The
last period is the era of the first Olympiad. An Olympiad was the
space (which was four years,) intervening between one celebration
and another— the Greek method of computing time. The victors
were crowned with olive.
The Pythian Games were celebrated every fifth year, in the second
year of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honour of Apollo. The vic-
tors were crowned with laurel. The exercises were nearly the same
as at the Olympic.
The Nemean Games, which were mstituted by Hercules, were ce-
lebrated every third year at the town of Nemea, with the usual ex
ercises. The victors were crowned with parsley.
GREECE. 189
The Isthmian Gamos were celebrated near tlie Isthmus of Corinth,
whence Ihey derived tlu'ir name. Tlicir occurrence was every third,
and afterwards every fifth year. The victors were crowned witli gar-
hinds of pine leaves.
48. Literature. In literature, Greece was the glory of
the whole eartli. No nation, ancient or modern, has ever
surpassed tlte Greeks in literary taste and genius. Since
their tmie, great advances have indeed been made in the sci-
ences, strictly so called, and in some branches of polite learn-
ing ; yet in cliastc and beautiful composition, in hveliness of
fancy, in sweetness of periods, in the various forms of intel-
lectual effort under the names of poetry, oratory, and history,
they are still uinivalled, in mere human productions.
§ The Greeks derived a part of their learning from Egypt and
PiKBnicia, but tliey originated much of it, and liere consists then pe-
culiar gkrry. The praise of invention belongs to them, and even of
perfection in some departments.
Cadmus taught them the alphabet 1519 years B. C. It then con-
tained but 16 letters, and the motliod of writing was from left to
right, and from right to left alternately. This circumstance essenti-
ally contributed to the rapid advances made by the Greeks in civili-
zation and knowledge.
Poetry, in Greece, was extremely ancient. It was cultivated
even before the introduction of letters. In the various forma
under which it is usually arranged, there are specimens of
surpassing excellence, and names that can never be forgotten.
§ In epic poetry, we find the sublime Homer, and the moral Ilesi-
od. In lyric poetry, shine the gay Anacreon, the sweet Sappho, and
the fanciful and daring Pindar.
In the drama we meet the names of the wild ^Eschylus, the pa-
thetic Euripides, the pure and grand Sophocles, and the delicate Me-
nander. In pastoral poetry, we read of the easy Bion and the ele-
gant Moschus ; and every classical scholar knows, that Theocritus is
only another name for simplicity and nature.
Oratory was greatly cultivated among the Greeks, parti-
cularly in Athens, whose institutions were rather more free
than was elsewhere the case in Greece. It became an object
of attention soon after the Persian invasion, about 480 years
B. C It was cultivated with singidar success— was bold and
vehement at first, but afterAvards more refined and elegant.
§ Here Pericles awed, by the majesty of his expressions ; Thucy-
dides, who was an orator, as well as a historian, arrested the thoughts
of others, by the force of his own. Here Isocrates soothed the ear by
harmony of periods, and Demosthenes flaslied conviction and im-
pelled to action, by the united energy of liis gesture, voice, and ar-
guments.
190 GENERAL VIEWS.
History, after those earlier ages in which poetry was the
vehicle of recorded events, was cultivated with an interest and
success demanded by its importance. The Greeks possessed
several most disting-uished historians.
§ Such were Herodotus, who was characterized by a simple and
elegant style and engaging manner ; Thucydides, whose reflections
were profound, and fidelity unequalled ; Xenophon, who combined
simplicity of style with sagacity of observation.
Philosophy among the Greeks, was divided into various
schools or sects. The professors of philosophy arose from the
early Rhapsodists — men who recited the poems of Homer and
others at the public games, commenting at tlie same time
upon them, and who, having established schools, were digni-
fied by the name of sophists, or teachers of wisdom. The
Grecian philosophy, was, however, merely speculative, and
seldom based upon facts.
§ The principal sects of philosophy in Greece were the Ionic, the
most ancient, founded by Thales ; the Italian, by Pythagoras ; the
Socratic, by Socrates; the Cynic, by Antisthenes; the Academic, by
Plato ; the Peripatetic, by Aristotle ; the Sceptical, by Pyrrho ; the
Stoic, by Zeno ; the Epicurean, by Epicurus.
These sects were distinguished by certain peculiarities of doctrine,
as for instance, the Italian taught the transmigration of souls ; the
Socratic insisted on the excellence of virtue; the Cynic condemned
all knowledge, society, and the arts of life ; the Academic dealt ia
ideal forms, and mystical theogony ; the Peripatetic exhibited the
model of a perfect logic; the Sceptical inculcated universal doubt; the
Stoic decried all weakness, and made insensibility a virtue ; and the
Epicurean pointed to pleasure as the supreme good.
The Peripatetic sect, or the school of Aristotle, has exerted the
greatest influence over the human mind. It reigned in the schools
through 1600 years.
The principle of all things was a subject of special research by the
philosophers of Greece. It may be curious to know their opinions
on this topic.
Anaximenes, taught that this principle consisted of - - Water.
Thales, - - Water.
Anaxagoras, Infinite air.
Archelaus, Matter and Spirit.
Ileraclitus, _ . - - Fire.
Democritus, .._ Atoms.
Pythagoras, - - - - Unity.
pliito, -_._--- God, Idea, and matter.
Aristotle, ----- Matter, Form, and Privation.
Zeno,- - God and Matter, (the only things without beginning.)
Epicurus, Matter and empty Space.
The seven wise men of Greece, who are found in the ranks of phi
GREECE. 191
io?ophy, were Tliales, of Miletus; Solon, of Athens ; Bias, of Priene;
Chilo, of Laceda?mon ; Cleobulus, of Lindos ; Pittacus, of Mitylene ;
and Periander, of Corinth.
49. The arts. Greece, in the age of Pericles, about 430
B. C, abounded in architects, sculptors, and painters. It was
then in the zenith of its glory in literatnre, as well as the arts.
Indeed this was tiie taste of the public mind, until after the
death of Alexander. Even to this day, Greece, particularly
Athens, is the instructress of the world in those monuments
of its arts and genius that yet remain.
In the useful and necessary arts of life, the Greeks never
made any great improvement. Agriculture, manufactures,
and commerce, were left for other nations to perfect. But in
the fine arts, appropriately so called, Greece was superior to all
ancient nations, and probably not excelled by any modern.
Indeed, we may say that the Greeks carried architecture,
sculpture, and painting, to perfection.
§ This people invented that system of architecture, which is univer-
sally considered the most finished and perfect.
The Greek architecture consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric,
the Ionic, and the (.^orinthian. The Doric possessed a masculine
grandeur, and sublime plainness. The Ionic was marked with
gracefulness and elegance. The Corinthian affected the highest mag-
nificence and ornament, by uniting the characteristics of all the orders.
In sculpture, ihe Greeks excelled no less than in architecture.
Specimens of their art in this respect are perfect models. The Dying
Gladiator, the Venus, and the Laocoon, of the Greek sculptors, have
an imperishable fiune.
In painting, though very few specimens have descended down to
us, they are supposed also greatly to have excelled. The works of
Zeuxis, Apelles, Parrhasius, Protogens, and Timanthes, which have
perished, were highly extolled by ithe writers of antiquity.
In music, the Greeks appear to have been less conspicuous than
several modern nations.
50. Private and domestic LAfe. The dress of the Greeks,
as well as of otlier ancient nations, differed much from that of
most modern nations.
The men wore an inner garment called tunic, over which
they threw a mantle ; theu" shoes, or sandals, were fastened
under the soles of their feet with thongs or ropes.
The women, particularly in Athens, wore a white tunic,
which was closely Ijound w ith a broad sash, and descended in
waving folds down to the heels ; also a shorter robe, confined
round the waist with a ribbon, bordered at the bottom with
192 GENERAL VIEWS.
Stripes of various colours ; over this they sometimes put on a
robe, which was worn gathered up hke a scarf.
In the earlier ages of Greece, its inhabitants used no cover-
ing on their heads ; but in after times tliey wore hats, that
v/ere tied under the chin. Women, however, always had
their heads covered.
§ The Athenians wore in their hair golden grasshoppers, as em-
blems of the antiquity of their nation, intimating that they were sprung
from the earth.
In Sparta, the kings, magistrates, and citizens, were but little distin-
guished by external appearance. The military costume was of a red
colour.
The Greeks, in general, set a high value on scarlet colour, and a
etill greater on purple.
The meals of the Greeks were usually four in number :
Breakfast was taken about the rising of the sun ; the next
meal at mid-day ; then came tlie afternoon repast ; and lastly
the supper, which was the principal meal, as it was taken aftei
the business of the day.
5 At Sparta they ate together at public tables, and the chief part of
their food consisted of black broth.
In the earliest ages, convivial entertainments were generally acl9
of public devotion, but afterwards we find them in use in private iife<
There were also political feasts, in which a whole city, tribe, oi
other subdivision, met together.
Water and wine were used for drinking. Perfumed wines were
introduced at the tables of the rich. Every thing capable of sustain-
ing life was used as food. The Greeks generally were very fond offish.
Hot baths were very numerous, and bathing in them, and anoint-
ing the body, with a change of clean clothes, were usual in preparing
for a feast. When guests were invited, men and women were never
invited together.
Seats, on which persons sat upright, were employed ; but, as luxury
prevailed, couches were introduced, on which the guests reclined
while feasting.
The marriages among the Greeks were lawful only as the
consent of parents or other relatives could be obtained. This
institution was greatly encouro ged in all parts of Greece. Want
of esteem, and sometimes the infliction of punishment, attended
the failure of entering into the connubial state.
§ Polygamy was allowed only after times of great calamity, such as
war or pestilence. Socrates married a second Avife on this account.
Violations of the marriage contract, though the punishment was se-
vere, were often committed.
The Grecian women seldom or never appeared in strange company,
but were confined to the remote parts of the house, into which no male
PHOSNICIANS. 193
visitants were admitted. When they went abroad, they wore veils
to conceal their faced. It was disreputable, however, to appear much
abroad.
In some parts of Greece, parents might expose their children, in
certain cases. Cliiklren were required to maintain their parents in
old age ; but by the laws of Solon, if a person did not bring up his
children to some useful employment, they were to be exempted from
such an obligation.
The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many ce
remonies, showing that they considered the duties belonging
to the dead to be of the highest importance. In their view, it
was the most awful of all imprecations, to wish that a person
might die without the honours of a funeral.
Phoenicians.
51. Country. Phcenicia was little more than a naiTow slip
of ground situated between mount Libanus and the sea. It
had Syria on the north and east, Judea on the south, and the
Mediterranean on the west.
52. Cities and Remains. Sidon was the capital, and a
maritime town of considerable extent, and provided with au
excellent harbour. It was distinguished by a high degree of
opiUence and refinement.
Tyrus, called the daughter of Sidon, was built upon an
island south of Sidon, and 25 miles distant. It was ornament-
ed with many magnificent buildings.
§ Sidon is often mentioned by Homer, but Tyrus never. Tyrus
Was joined by Alexander to the main land, and time has consolidated
liis work.
The walls of Tyre were 150 feet high, with a proportionate breadth.
Old TjTC, on the continent, was destroyed by the Assyrians. It was
new Tyre that Alexander took after a siege of seven months. A few
fishermen's huts are among its ruins.
Other principal, cities were Aradus, Tripoli, Byblus, Sarepta, and
Berytus.
Some vestiges of the splendour of this ancient land are still
in existence. The ruins of Sidon exhibit many fine columns
and other fragments of marble.
§ A double column of granite, consisting of one entire block, 80
feet long, has been noticed among the ruins of Tyre.
53. Navigation and Colonies. The Phoenicians, con-
fined between the sea and movmtains, acquired power and
aggrandizement by navigation. Their navigators were fa-
mous for their skill and intrepidity. They engrossed the
commerce of the western hemispliere.
194 GENERAL VIEWS.
They formed establishments on both sides of the Mediter-
ranean, and even on those of the western ocean. In the time
of Abraham, they were known to be a commercial and enter-
prising people.
§ Carthage, Utica, Gades, &c. were colonies founded by the inha-
bitants of Tyre.
54. Sciences, Arts, and Manufactures. From the earliest
periods, the Phoenicians were addicted to philosophy. The
sciences of arithmetic and astronomy were invented or im-
proved by them, and they are known to hnve introduced let-
ters into Greece.
§ Before the time of the Trojan war, Moschiis, a Sidonian, ex-
plained the doctrine of Atoms. In latter ages, we read of some emi-
nent philosophers ; among them was Boethius, Antipater, Diodatus,
and Apollonius.
In manufactures they were skilled. Glass, purple, and fine
linen, were products of their own invention.
In architecture they were so versed, that Solomon sought
their aid in erecting his magnificent temple.
55. Religion. As the Phoenicians were so nearly connect-
ed with tlie immediate descendants of Noah, they were pro-
bably instructed in the worship of the true God ; but they be-
came at length inunersed in idolatry and superstition.
The principal objects of their mistaken adcration were Beelsmen,
or the sun, Baal, Astarte, the " queen of heaven," Hercules, Adonis,
and the Patfeci, certain small statues, Avhich being venerated as the
tutelar gods of sea-faring men. were always carried about in the
prows of their vessels.
One of these idolatrous objects Milton describes in mellifluous
verse.
" With these in troop
Came Ashtoreth, whom the Phoenicians call'd
Astarte, queen of heaven, with crescent horns ;
To whose bright image, nightly by the moon
Sidonian virgins paid their vows and songs."
Lydians.
56. Qountry. The country of the Lydians had Mysia on
file north, and Caria on the south. It constituted an inte-
resting portion of Asia Minor.
§ The inhabitants on the coast, who were lonians divided into
twelve small states, gave their name to a dialect of the Greek lan-
guage— Ionic.
57. Cities. The principal cities were Ephesus, illustrious
in classic and in christian antiquity ; Sardis, the ancient me-
ROMANS. 195
tropolis ; Philadelphia, in which were celebrated the common
feasts of all i^sia ; and a few others.
§ Ephesus was fanioiis for the temple of Diana, one of tlie seven
wonders of the Avorld, completed 220 years after its foundation. This
temple was 425 iVet in length, and 200 in breadth. The roof was sup-
ported b)- 127 colunms 60 fcft high, placed there by so many kings.
The rich offerings brought into it were immense.
This temple was burnt on the night that Alexander was born.
Erostratus perpetrated fliis villany merely to eternize his name. It
rose, however, from its ruins, with augmented splendom-.
Ephesus was famous also as the place where a flourishing christian
church was planted by the apostle Paul ; and it now stands a monu-
ment of the fulfilment of our Saviour's threatenmg: " Thy candle-
stick shall be removed out of his place."
The city is now a mass of ruins. The whole contains only 40 or
50 Turkish families, who live in cottages of dirt. Not a single family
here exists to invoke the name of Jesus. Says Gibbon, " The deso-
lation is complete. Tlie temple of Diana, or the church of Mary, will
equally elude the search of the curious traveller."
58. Cliaracter. The Lydians, under Croesus, and some of
his predecessors, were a very warlike people ; but after the
introduction of the Persian luxuries, they became indolent, vo-
luptuous, and cfl'eniinate.
59. Customs. They are said to be the first people that in-
troduced the coinage of gold and silver to facilitate trade ; the
first that sold by retail ; that kept taverns and eating houses ;
and invented public games, which were therefore called ludi
by the Romans.
Romans.
GO. Country — its name., situation, and division. The
country of this renowned people, from their having ruled over
a great f)art of the civilized world, becomes an interesting ob-
ject to the scliolar or reader. They inhabited that part of
Europe which is now called Italy, and their beginning was at
Rome, its capital. From the latter they were denominated
Romans.
§ Italy had other names, as Hcsperia, Ausonia, CEnotria, and Sa-
turnia.
It had the Alps on the north, the Tyrrhene sea on the
west, the Adriatic on the east, and the Grecian sea on the
south.
The whole territory was divided into Cisalpine Gaul, Italy
Proper, and Magna Grax-ia.
^ Its principal districts were Cisalpine Gaul, Etruria, Umbria, Pi-
196 GENERAL VIEWS.
cenum, Latium, Campania, Samnium, the Hirpini, Apulia, Calabri^^
Lucania, and the Brutii.
61. Interesti)ig localities of Italy. Italy as well as Greece
furnishes many recollections of this kind, that are so pleasing
to the student of antiquity.
§ Andes, near Mantua, was the birth-place of Virgil, Comumthatof
the younger Pliny, Verona of Catullus, and Patavium of Livy. Ra-
venna was the residence of the emperors of the west when driven
from Rome. The river Po is famous for the death of Phaeton, who,
as the poets mention, was thrown down into it by the thunder-bolts
of Jupiter.
Padusa, one of the mouths of the Po, was said to abound in swans.
Rubicon was a mountain torrent, Avhich it was forbidden to pass with
an armed force, under dreadful imprecations. Tlie inhabitants of
Etruria were famous for their skill in augury, early civilization, and
resolution, and were conquered by the Romans, only after much
bloodshed.
Circeii was the residence of the fabled enchantress Circe. Tusculum
was the villa of Cicero. Capua was celebrated for its wealth, volup-
tuousness, and soft climate. Near the promontory of Cumee was the
residence of the Sibyl. At Nola, east of Naples, bells were fii-st in-
vented. The eruption of Vesuvius, A. C. 79, overwhelmed the cities
of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae,and destroyed the life of Pliny.
The city of Arpi was founded by Diomedes. Venusia was the
birth-place of Horace. The coimtry of Apulia was celebrated for its
wool. Brundusium was the port for passing from Italy to Greece.
Rudiae was the birth-place of Ennius. Tarentum was founded by the
Lacedesmonians.
Paestum in Lucania was famous for its roses. On the coast was
Metapontum, the school of Pythagoras. Thurium was also called
Sybaris, from the effeminacy of its inhabitants. Petilia was built
by Philoctetes, after the Trojan war.
Sicily was famous in antiquity for the birth of Ceres, the rape of
Proserpine, the giant Enceladus, mount ^Etna, and the Cyclops, with
the whirlpool Charybdis, opposite to Scylla on the Italian coast, ob-
jects of terror to mariners. Sicily was the storehouse of Italy.
Mount Eryx was celebrated for its temple of Venus. The plains of
Enna, where Proserpine was carried away by Pluto, abounded in
honey.
Lipara was famous for its fruits : its raisins are still in high repute.
Vulcan had forges here. Sardinia was called by the Greeks, Ichnu-
fla, from its resemblance to the print of a foot. It was famous for
wormwood and bitter herbs, and its air was unwholesome. Corsica
was celebrated for its box and yew trees. TJrciniiun, founded by a
son of Ajax, is now Ajaccio, and celebrated in modern times as the
birth-place of Napoleon Buonaparte.
62. Capital of Italy^ and tSeat of the Roman Empire.
The great city of Italy and the Romans was Rome. Her©
R( MANS. 197
was the beginning of this celebrated people. The city was
small and mean at fust, but in the course of ages became
magnificent be)'ond conception.
The city was built on seven hills, Mount Palatmus, Capi-
tolhius, Gluirilinu.s. Viminalis, Esquilinus, Coelius, and Aven-
tinus. The Palatine hill was the residence of the kings and
emperors. On mount Capitohnus, were the Capitol and
Tarpeian rock.
STlie seven hills on which Rome was built are not very distinctlj'
marked, particularly now that the rubbish of so many ruined buildings
has, in the course of more than 2500 years, filled up the spaces be-
tween them. In any place the ground is about 20 feet deep above
the old pavement. The summit of the Capitoline hill is only about
120 feet above the level of the Tiber.
In the times of the republic were built the most magnificent aque-
ducts, which conveyed water from a vast distance for the service of
the city, and some of which supply modern Rome; whilst the vast
ruins of others excite wonder and astonishment. The Circus INIaxi-
inns was of an oval shape, and afforded accommodation for 150,000
people to see the chariot races and other games.
The ruins of the theatres of Pompey and INIarcellus still remain.
The Coliseum, built by Vespasian and Titus, for shows of gladiators
and wild beasts, was capable of containing 100,000 people, and its
magnificent rcniuias are still the most remarkable object at Rome,
The Pantheon or Temple of all the gods, was built by Agrippa,
in the time of Augustus, and its solid construction promises it a dura-
tion for many centuries yet to come.
The columns of Trajan and Antoninus excite th^ admiration of all
beholders. Baths of immense number and extent were made chiefly
in the times of the emperors, and the ruins of those of Titus, and Ca-
racalla, still rem-iin. The vast tomb of Adrian is now the castle of
St. Angelo. The catacombs are very extensive, but it is uncertain for
what purpose they were used. Several vast tombs still remain, one
of which was used as a fortress in the middle ages. The triumphal
arches of Severus, Titus, and Constantine, still adorn the ancient
Fonim.
The extent of the walls is stated by Phny to have been 13 miles 200
paces. A somewhat larger space was enclosed by Aurelian. Tho
modern city encloses also within the walls, the Vatican hill. More
than three fourths of the space within the walls are now covered
with vineyards, and the modern city is built chiefly in the ancient
Campus Martins. Every where are seen magnificent ruins. Egyp-
tian obelisks, Mocks of oriental granite, ancient and modern buildings,
which still render Rome the most interesting city of the whole earth.
The principal public place in the city was the Forum. — This was
a large open space of oblong shape, where the people held their as-
semblies, justice was administered, and public concerns were trans-
acted. It was surrounded in its whole extent with arched porticoes.
B2
198 GENERAL VIEWS.
\vhich included spacious halls, where courts of justice sat and decided
the affairs of individuals.
The Campus Martins was a large plain without the city, along the
river Tiber, where tlie athletic exercises and sports of the Roman
youth were practised. It was adorned with many noble structures,
and monuments commemorating the deeds of their ancestors.
63. Political Stale. Tlie political state, or government
among the Romans, varied very much during the successive
periods of their existence. At first it was a monarchy : next
it became a republic with a preponderance of aristrocratic
power, w hich gradually gave w^ay to the influence of the people.
A state almost of anarchy followed, which soon settled down
into a despotism. That portion of history which we call ancient,
includes and ends with the commencement of Roman des-
potism under Augustus.
The kings of Rome were not absolute or hereditary, but
limited and elective. They could neither enact laws, nor
make w^ar or peace, without the concurrence of the senate
and people.
§ They wore a golden crown, and carried an ivory sceptre. They
.«!at in a curule cliair, which Avas made or adorned with ivory, and
they were attended with twelve lictors, carrying fasces, which were
bundles of rods with an axe placed in the middle. They convened
the senate, assembled the people, conducted the army, and ap-
pointed the qurestors or treasurers of the public money.
The Roman people were divided into four classes. 1. The
Senate or Patrician order. 2. The Ecjuestrian order or knights.
3. The Plebeians or mass of the people. 4. The Slaves.
The Senate was composed of 100 old men, and afterwards
of 200 or more, who were the council of the king. By them
most of the business of the state was transacted. They were
called Patres, that is, Fathers. The Patrician lamilies were
descended from these fathers. They constituted not an he-
reditary nobiUty, but were accounted noble, because the mem-
bers had filled high oflfices.
§ For some centuries, the senate consisted of 300 members, and in
the time of Julius Cnesar, of 900. Augustus reduced the number to
000. They were first chosen by the kings, afterwards by the consuls,
and last by the censors. Tliey were distinguished by a particidar
dress, and had separate seats at the public spectacles.
In their ofiicial character, this body was usually assembled three
times a month, but was frequently called together on other days for
special business. A senatus consultum was a decree passed by a
major jty of the senate, and approved by the tribunes of tlie people.
The Knights were not originally a separate order, but coa-
ROMANS. 199
sistcd of siicli citizens as could maintain a horse for the Avars.
They seem to have become a separate order at some period
under the kingS; but afterwards the knights were chosen by
the censors, and presented with a horse and a gold ring, at
the public expei\^e.
§The knights formed the public revenues. Every year on the 15th
July, they went in procession from the Temple of Honour or of Mars,
without the city, to tlie capitol, on horseback, bearing wreaths of olive
in their hands. A certain proi erty (3,229 pounds) was required as
a qualification to be made a knight.
The Plebeians, or mass of the people, were the remainder
of the Roman citizens after the Patricians and Equites or
knights. They were called Plebs or Populus. Those who
lived in the country were Plebs rustica, and were considered
the most respectable. The Plebs urbana consisted chiefly of
mechanics, or poorer citizens who followed no trade, and partly
maintained themselves from the largesses of corn, (fcc, distri-
buted among them.
§ The whole body of the people was at first divided into tribes three
in number, and each tribe was subdivided in ten curisc or wards.
Other divisions Avere afterwards made. To the three tribes, Servuis
TuUius added a fourth. Augustus afterwards divided Rome into 14
wards.
Besides his addition of a fourth tribe, Servius made a division of
the people into six classes, and each class into several centuries or
portions of citizens, so called, because they were required to furnish,
support and equip 100 men in Avar. These six classes were formed
according to their property ; the first composed of the richest citizens,
and the 6th, whicli Avas the most numerous, of the poorest. The
centuries amounted to 193.
The slaves constituted a large portion of the poptilation of
Rome. Their lives Avere at the disposal of their masters.
They were not oidy employed in domestic services, but in
various trades and manufactures. They Avcre sometimcf?
highly educated, and instructed in the liberal arts and profes-
sions, as that of physic.
§ They Avere considered as mere property, and publicly sold in a
market-place — often chained by the leg. If capitally convicted, their
punishment Avas crucifixion.
During the Saturnalia, or Feast of Saturn, slaA'es Avere alloAved great
freedom, and masters at that time AA'ould Avait upon them at table ;
the same license Avas i^ermitted on the Ides of August.
Slaves might be set free by various forms of law. Slaves thus
emancipated had the names of Liberti and Libertini. Their children
were not equally honourable Avith other citizens ; but their grand-
200 GENERAL VIEWS.
cliildren were reckoned Ingenui, or in every respect on an equality
witli them.
With a view to connect together the different orders, it waa
provided by Roniukis, that each plebeian should choose a pa-
trician to be h-is patron, whose chent the plebeian was called.
§ The patron was to protect his client, to give him his advice and
forward his interest. The chent was to be ready to assist his patron
on all occasions. In elections, the clients exerted themselves on be-
half of their patrons.
The Romans had usually three names, the Preenomen,
Nomen, and Cognomen, as in Piiblius Cornelius Scipio.
§ Publins is the name of the individual, to distinguish him from
another of the same family, as Cains Lucius, &c. Cornelius shows
that he was of a certain family, the gens Cornelia ; and Scipio, that
he was of a division of the family, the Scipios being one out of many,
into which the whole stock of the gens Cornelia was divided.
The Roman citizens were not merely the inhabitants of
Rome and its environs, but the freedom of the city was granted
to other parts of Italy, and afterwards to foreign cities and
tov\'ns in the empire, whose inhabitants, by this means, en-
joyed the same rights as the Romans.
The power of the people in Rome was expressed in their
public assemblies. The name given to these assemblies, in
their transactions, was Comitia. The Comitia were summoned
by some magistrate, to pass laws, to elect magistrates, to de-
cide conceining peace and war, and to try persons guilty of
certain heinous offences.
§ There were three kinds of Comitia, the Curiata, the Centurlata,
and the Tributa. The Comitia Curiata consisted of an assembly of
the resident Roman citizens, who were divided into thirty curiae, a
majority of which decided all matters of importance that were laid
before them.
The Comitia Centuriata were the principal assembly of the peo-
ple. They elected Consuls, Preetors, Censors, and sometimes a Pro-
consul, also the Decemviri, the military Tribunes, and a priest call-
ed Rex Sacrorum. They gave their votes, divided into the centuries
of their classes, according to the census. The place of their meet-
ing was the Campus Martins, and all Roman citizens, though residing
in the country, as well as city, had a right to act, in their several
centuries.
The Comitia Tributa were an assembly of tlie people in which
they voted, as they were separated into tribes, according to their
wards. At these comitia were created subordinate magistrates, fis
iEdiles, Tribunes of the people, Quasstors, &C. The laws, called
Plebiscita, were passed at these assemblies.
Persons who souglit olFices and preferment were called candldati,
ROMANS. 201
from a white garment which they wore. They canvassed the people
and solicited their votes.
After the time of Augustus, the comitia fall into disuse. The for-
malities were observed, but these were soon after dropped, and the
annual magistrates were either chosen by the senate or nominated by
the emperors.
Tlie Roman magistrates were elective, and divided into
ordinary, extraordinary, and provincial. The ordinary magis-
trates, who were stated, and always in the republic, were the
consuls, censors, tribunes, aediles, and quaestors. The extra-
ordinary, who were temporary magistrates, were the dictator,
the deceinvirs, the military tribunes, and the interrex. The
provincial magistrates, who were appointed to the government
of the provinces, were at first praitors, afterwards pro-consuls
and pro-pra.'tors, to whom were joined quaestors and lieu-
tenants.
§ Consuls, after the banishment of the kings, were put in the room
of the latter, to perform the duties of royalty. They were two in
number, and hel ' tlieir office for one year. At first they had nearly
the same badges of authority, except the crown. The eligible age to
be made consul was forty-three, but extraordinary circumstances
might justify an earlier age.
The Tribunes of the people were officers whose duty it was to
guard and protect the plebeians in their rights, when the patricians
became oppressive. Their power was contracted at first, but at length
became very great. Unprincipled men in this office often converted
the public assemblies into scenes of violence and blood.
The censors were appointed to take an account of the number and
fortunes of the people. Their power at first was limited, but after-
wards, became so great, that it w'as deemed the most honourable
office in the state. There were two censors elected every five years,
and they continued in office only one year and a half.
The Praetors, whose rank was next to that of the consuls, and
whose place when vacant they supplied, were appointed to adminis-
ter justice and convoke assemblies of the senate and people. They
also presided at certain public games. There was at first but one
praetor, but afterwards several.
The Pro-consuls and Pro-praetors usually governed the provinces
of the empire. To them were joined quaestors and lifniteaants. They
had the highest rank within their province. Tiie power of the pro-
consuls and pro-praitors was much the same, the former being sent to
the larger provinces.
The iEdiles were so named from their having a particular care
of the aedes or buildings, as the temples, baths, aqueducts, theatres,
&c. They were distinguished into C'urule and Plebeian aediles. The
curule aediles superintended the ])ublic games, and occupied a more
honourable place in the senate than the plebeian aediles, who w^ere
assistants to the tribunes.
202 GENERAL VIEWS
The Quaestors were appointed for the manageme'it of the public
revenues. At first they were two in numlier, but afterwards, as the
empire extended, they amounted to many. Two of them, the city
quaestors, remained at Rome, and tlie rest, who were military and
proviunial quaestors, accompanied tlie army and provided for the
payment of the soldiers, or attended the consuls or praetors into their
provinces, and regulated the tribute.
The Dictators were magistrates, with absolute power, appointed on
extraordinary occasions, or in cases of imminent danger. The terra
of their office was six months.
Their power w.is supreme in peace and war. They could raise and
disband armies, and decide matters, without consulting the senate
and people. The consuls submitted to their commands. As a check
to their power, they were liable to be called to an account for the
abuse of it, after it was resigned.
The Decemviri were ten men appointed, on particular occasions,
to collect and promulgate laws, &c. They were chosen for one year,
but had interest s-.ifficient to be reappointed for another. They pro-
posed the laws (.•; the twelve tables.
The Military Tribunes had consular power in public affairs; they
mediated between the patricians and plebeians, at a time when they
could not agree in the election of consuls.
An interrex was appointed to hold the elections at Rome, when the
consuls or dictatoro were absent.
64. Religion,. The gods of the Romans were nearly the
saiiie as those of Greece. The priests of their rehgion did
not form a distinct order of the state ; but were selected from
the most honourable citizens for that oflice. They were of
two kinds — those that were common to all the gods ; and
those that were appointed to some one divinity in particular.
Of the former, the principal were the pontifices, the au-
gures, the haru;- pices, the quindecem-viri, and septem-viri.
These were all subordinate to the pontifex maximus, or high
priest.
■5 The pontifices were judges in sacred things, and prescribed what
was to be done in cases where there was no law. The pontifex maxi-
mus was the supreme arbiter. The pontifices were 15 in number.
Tl-.e augures, who were the same in number, were expected to pre-
dict future events, and to determine whether any action would be
fortunate or not. They divined in various ways.— among others
by the flight, cliirping, or feeding of birds. They had great authori-
ty in the state, as notliing important in peace or war could be deter-
iniiied Avithout them.
The haruspices were required to inspect the beasts offered In sacri-
fice, and by them to obtain omens with respect to the future.
The quindecem-viri were 15 officers who kei)t the sibylline books,
in which was written tlie future history of Rome. I'hese were said
to have been procured from a woman of extraordinary appeajrance io
ROMANS. 203
the time of Tarquin the Proud, and were kept in a stone chest nndc
the Capitol. The quindeceni-viri consulted these books in times of
great calamity, to provide what should be done, and thus the popular
fear was assuaged.
The septem-viri were seven priests who presided at sacred feasts,
games, or processions.
As an iiistauce of tlie kind of priests that were appropria-
ted to particular deities, we may mention the Vestal Virgins.
These were consecrated to the worship of Vesta.
§ The Vestal Virgins guarded perpetually the sacred fire of Vesta.
They were obliged to observe strict chastity on pain of death. For
ten years they learned the sacred rites, for ten years they performed
them, and other ten years they spent in teaching others ; and after
that they might marry, if they could.
65. MUitarij Affairs. The Romans weie a nation of
soldiers, and all their institutions had a tendency towards the
encouragement of a military spirit. It was l)y discipline, skill,
and valour, that they conquered the world.
It was the duty of every citizen to be a soldier, should hia
country call for his services, from the age of 17 to 46.
Those afiected by disease, or exercising public functions, were
exempted. For 350 years from the building of R»ome, no pay
was allowed to those who served in the arm3^
§ No man could be appointed to any honourable magistracy, with-
out having been ten years in the army. After Latium and the states
of Italy were subdued or admitted into alliance, troops were raised
among them in the same manner as at Rome.
About the time of Marius, a very great change took place
in the mode of enlisting and supporting the armies. The
infantry after that time, consisted of the poorer citizens, and
mercenary soldiers from every part of Italy. The cavalry no
longer consisted of Roman knights, but of horsemen, raised
in Italy and in the provinces, serving for hire.
The Roman legion was a correct display of military ar-
rangement and discipline. Each legion, when full, contained
6000 men di\ ided into 10 cohorts or battalions, with other
Bubdivisions. Each legion had a wing of 300 liorse attached.
It is to be noticed, however, that the numbers of the legion
varied at different periods, from 3000 to 10,000 and 11,000.
The dependence of the Romans was on the strength of
their infantry.
§ Tlieir defensive arms consisted of a helmet, a shield four feet
long and two broad, a coat of mail, and greaves for the thighs. Their
weapons of assault were two long javelins or pila, and a sword.
204 GENERAL VIEWS.
The pilum was a long heavy spear, and a terrible weapon in the
hand of a Roman. No defensive armour or covering could resist itg
force, when propelled so as to reach its object. Its length was about
six feet, and its head consisted of a triangular point of steel 18 inches
long. The distance from which it was commonly thrown, varied
from ten to six yards. When the pila were discharged, the Roman
soldiers rushed upon the enemy with their swords.
The Roman sword was a short two-edged blade of fine temper,
adapted to the purpose of striking or thrusting. The latter was deem-
ed the most efficacious.
The legions were usually drawn up in three lines. The first was
called hastati, and consisted chiefly of young men. The second line
was called principes, consisting of men of middle age ; and the third
line triarii, consisting of veterans of tried valour.
Besides these heavy armed legionaries, there were light-armed
troops, who were chiefly employed in using slings, bows and arrows,
and throwing light javelins. They advanced before the rest of the
army, and annoyed the enemy as much as possible.
When the army approached the enemy, the light-armed troops
discharged their arrows and slings, and as they drew nearer, threw
their darts rapidly, and retreated through intervals between the
ranks, or by the flanks, and rallied in the rear. The hastati thea
threw their long javelins, and commenced an attack with their swords.
WTien repulsed or fatigued, they retired leisurely into the ranks ol
the principes, or behind them, if necessary. The triarii were a body
in reserve. If unable to drive back the enemy, a retreat was all that
could be hoped for.
In besieging a town, the method of the Romans, and in-
deed of all ancient nation.s, differed much from that of <he
moderns, since the use of cannons, and was inferior to the
latter.
Tlie principal engines of attack among the Romans were
the catapultse, which discharged heavy stones ; the balistae,
which discharged arrows, and the aries or battering ram,
which was the most effective as applied against the wall.
§ The aries was along beam, like the mast of a ship, armed at one
end, with iron in the form of a ram's head. It was suspended in such
a manner, that 100 men, who were frequently changed, by violently
thrusting it back and forth, could break almost any wall, that it could
be made to reach.
To protect the soldiers in this work, various contrivances were
adopted, such as slicds called testudincs, or tortoises^ from their re-
semblance to the sliell of that fish, and sheds called vineae, con-
structed of wood and hurdles, and covered with earth and raw hides,
so that they could not be set on fire.
The form of a Roman camp of two legions, was a square
of nearly 700 yards on each side, with tents and quarters, laid
Olympic Games, — Chariot Race. P. 188.
Olympic Games, — Boxing. P. 188.
Battering Ram. P. 204.
ROMANS. 205
out in the most regular order. A rampart of 12 feet high
Furrounded this square, and it was enclosed by a deep and
broad ditch.
§ This was the rfToct of caution, an excellent feature of Roman disi*-
pline. No circumstances as to fatigue, or the absence of danger,
could induce tho legions of Rome to neglect a regular encampment.
When their camps were to be left, nothing could exceed the celerity
of their movements. Each soldier loading himself with his provi-
sions and utensils, a weight of 60 pounds, besides his very heavy
armour, would march by regular step, 20 miles in the space of six
Jiours.
The Roman soldiers were among the best in the world. From the
constant practice of athletic exercises, they were inured from infancy
to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that species of life which a sol-
dier leads in actual warfare. Their bravery and knowledge in the
art of war were not exceeded, if they were equalled, by any nation ot
antiquity.
The rewards of soldiers who had distinguished themselves
were various kinds of •rowns, ornaments of the persons and
arms, and donations in money or lands. But the highest
object of Roman ambition was the honour of a triumph. Tbio
was a grand, solemn procession through the city to i]ie capi-
tol; granted to the victorious general and his army by a decree
of tlie senate, or by the people.
§ The procession which constituted a triiunph, marched from the
Camj)us Martins tiirough the most public streets to the capitol. Mu-
siciansof various kinds led the way ; oxen, with gilt horns and ribbons,
intended for sacrifice, followed, with priests in their dresses of cere-
mony. Then tho standards taken from the enemy, the arms, spoils,
&c. were carried in procession. The captives followed in chains.
At length came the general in a robe of purple and gold, with a
crown of laurel on his head, and other personal brilliant decorations.
He stood in a gilded chariot adorned with ivory, drawn by four milk-
white horses. His friends and relations accompanied him, and the
principal officers were on horseback beside his chariot. His victori-
ous army, crowned with laurel, and singing songs of victory, came last.
An ovation was a triumph also, but accompanied with less splen-
dour.
66, Fleets. The Roman ships were extremely small
compared with modern vessels. They were quickly con-
structed and quickly riianned. Sailors and rowers were hired
to navigate. Soldiers AWre put on board to fight.
§Tlie success of the Romans at sea was owing rather to the valour
of their men, than to their skill as mariners. Their object in sea-
battles, was to api)roach the enemy as quickly as possible, fasten the
ships together, and fight hand to hand.
Until the first Funic war, the Romans were wholly ignorant of the
206 GENEJIAL VIEWS.
naval military art. A Carthaginian galley was the first model. So
little skill was required in building their ships, that we find them on
one occasion, fitting out, and sending to sea, a fleet within 45 days
after the trees were cut down.
The size of the ships was reckoned by the number of banks of oars,
placed in benches on the sides of the ship, called triremes, quadri-
remes, &c.
67. Agricidiure. In the earliest and best ages of their
existence, the Roman people were much given to agriculture.
Except that they were frequently interrupted by war, they
might be considered as an agricultural people. They were
at once soldiers and farmers.
Many of them residing out of the city, and yet denizens of
Home, were called from the plough to the army. This was
the case with several of their most distinguished men and
generals, as Q. Cincinnatus, M. Curius, Cato the Censor, and
Scipio Africanus.
The pursuits of agriculture were however abandoned, after
the acquisition of wealth by foreign conquests and commerce.
Menials and slaves tilled the ground, and the people aban-
doned themselves to every species of luxury and sensuality.
§ The attention of the early Romans to husbandry was partly the
eflfect of necessity. The lands having been divided into equal and
m'nute portions, each one v/as obliged t(^ labour for a subsistence.
The greater number of the farmers visited the city only on every
ninth day, which was the market day. They went there for the pur-
poses of barter, the procuring of necessaries, and the examination of
the new laws which were posted on the capitol and in the market-
place, some days previously to their adoption by the people.
We may obtain a better conception of the agricultural turn of this
people, from knowing a few of their common maxims on this subject,
than from any description. Those maxims were such as the fol-
lowing :
1. He is a thriftless farmer that buys any thing which his farm can
produce.
2. He is no husbandman who does any work in the day time, that
can be done in the night, except in stormy weather.
3. He is worse who does on work days, what he may do on holy-
days ; and
4. He is the worst of all who in a clear sky works within doors,
rather than in the field.
08. Amusements and Public Spectacles. The drama,
though the government was long unfriendly to it, became an
amusement of the Roman people. Comedies were the most
popular, and very few Roman tragedies remain.
ROMANS. 207
On the stage, pantomimes were much in use, and rope
dancers occasionally diversified the entertainment.
§ Rude plays, made up v.ith music, dancing, and buflfoonery, were
iu uric in the earlier periods of tlie republic ; but the first regular play
was written by Li\ius Andronicus, in the year of the cily 512.
The comic actors wore a low-heeled shoe called soccus; the tragic
actors wore a mask, a flowing robe, and a high-heeled shoe called co-
llnirnus. Only temporary theatres were used at first.
The senate correctly judging that theatrical amusements were inju-
rious to the public morals, so late as tlie year of the city 599, ordered
a theatre, building under the direction of the censors, to be pulled
down. Pompey the Great, was the first who built a theatre of hewn
stone, and the remains of this vast edifice still continue, and are used
by the present Romans for the baiting of bulls.
There were various public games, connected however witli
the religion of the Romans, which were sources of much licen-
tious entertainment. Those of the Circus Maximus were
most frequented. The shows exhibited in that place were
chariot and horse-races ; contests of strengtli and agility ;
mock-fights on horseback ; combats of wild beasts, and of
men with wild beasts ; representations of horse and foot bat-
tles : and mimic naval fights.
§ The ferocious taste of the Romans was much gratified with the
combats of wild beasts, and of men with the latter. Criminals were
condemned to fight vv'jth wild beasts ; others did so for hire, or from
native ferocity of character.
For the amusement of the people, lions, leopards, bears, elephants,
and all kinds of wild boosts, Avere sent from Africa and the provinces.
Pompey, on one occasion, treated the people with the spectacle of
500 lions, which were despatched in five days.
■^riie gladiatonal shows, however, had superior attractions
for the Romans. It is painful to observe this most distin-
guished people finding their chief pleasure in the combats,
wounds, and death of multitudes of their fellow-creatures.
Yet not only tlie populace, but the knights, senators, and
Roman ladies of distinction, eagerlj'^ crowded to the sight.
§ The first gladiatorial shows were exhibited about the year of the
city 490, by two brothers called Bruti, at the funeral of their father.
Afterwards they were exhibited by the magistrates at regular periods,
and at length they became the chief means of obtaining favour with
the people. They were not entirely abolished till the reign of Theo-
dosius the Great.
Incredible numbers of captives, &c. Avere destroyed on these occa-
sions. Trajan exliibitcd games for 123 days, when 10,000 wild beasts
were killed, and 10,000 gladiators fought. During the reign of Clau-
dius was exhibited the spectacle of 19,000 men slaughtering one ano-
ther on a certain lake, for the amusement of the Roman populace.
208 GENERAL VIEWS.
Gladiators consisted chiefly of slaves, captives, and condemned
malefactors ; but sometimes free-born citizens became gladiators for
hire. Even persons of noble birth were induced to display their
skill and courage before the people, in these combats.
There were various sorts of armour, and various modes of fighting.
One mode was the use of the net. With that a gladiator would en-
tangle his opponent, by casting it over his head; and suddenly
drawing it together, could despatch him with his dart. If he missed
his aim, he betook himself to flight, preparing his net for a second
cast, while his opponent in the pursuit endeavoured to despatch him,
before ho could have an opportunity.
Amphitheatres were erected for the convenience of the spectators.
The most celebrated was the Coliseum already mentioned. Large
coverings were drawn over the amphitheatres, as a screen from the
heat cf the sun, or from rain.
69. Education. The system of education among the
Romans, when in their most intellectual state, that is, about
the time of Cicero, was much to be admired. The utmost
attention was bestowed on the early formation of the mind
and character.
The Roman matrons themselves nursed their children.
Next to the care bestowed upon their morals, a remarkable
degree of attention seems to have been given to the language
of children. The attainment of a jjure and correct expression
was a great object. The honours of the state were the prize
of eloquence. The politeness which characterized the Romans
shewed itself particularly in their speech and gesture.
§ The education of the Romans at first suited their rude state of soci-
ety and their simple manner of life. But upon their intercourse with
the Greeks, a more liberal form of education was adopted. Public
schools were opened for the reception of youth of both sexes. In
literature and the accomplishments of polished life they were alike
instructed.
From the earliest dawn of reason a course of disr-ipline was pur-
sued by some matron of the family ; and as children grew towards
manhood, they were habituated to all the atiiletic exercises that
could impart ability or grace, and fit them for the profession of arms.
At the a^e of 17 they were invested with the manly robe, and young
men of family were placed under tlie protection of some senator of
distinguished reputation in jurisprudence. Allliongli he was not con-
sidered a preceptor, yet under his auspices they were initiated mto
public business.
Eloquence and the military art were the surest roads to prefern>ent.
These accordingly were made commanding objects of pursuit with
the Roman youth. Eloquence was taught as a science at public
schools.
From the care which the Romans bestowed upon the education of
ROMANS. 209
their youth, both male and female, arose the large number of great
men and eniin(?nt women wliich Rome has produced, and the vir-
tues* witli wliicli tiiey were adorned, during the brilliant era of the
republic. Happj', could their liistory be closed at that epoch ; but the
tide of luxury at'icrwards swept away the most valuable of their in-
stitutions.
70. Literature. Previously to their imercouise witli
Greece, the Romans, though a sensible and energetic, were
a rude and illiterate people. Their language for a long tim
was in a very imperfect state. The very i^v; fragments of
sentences which have come down to us from an early peiiod,_
such as are found in the " Fratres Arvales," and " Leges Re-
giie," show a great dilference between the language tlien in
use, and that which was employed during the age of Au-
gustus.
After successive improvements, the Romans became re-
nowned in literature during the last named period. The mas-
ter-pieces of Greece, kindled the fire of emulation. Roman
literature, in the Augustan era, was inferior to that of the
Greeks, only because it was necessarily less original and more
imitative than theirs. In some respects the Romans improved
upon their models. Poetry, histor}^, oratory, philosophy, and
the various kinds of fine writing, were cultivated with great
success.
§ The dawning of Roman literature appeared in the writings of
Livius Andronicus, Plantirs, Ennius, Ca;cilius, and Terence. Tliesc
writers improved and polished the language, partly by original com-
positions, and partly by translations from the Greek.
Poetry among the Romans, as with most other nations,
appears to have been the earliest intellectual eflbrt. Of this we
have an instance in the Fescennine verses, mentioned by
liivy, which are ;iupposed to have been a rude poetical dia-
logue. This doubtless proved to be the germ of the stage.
Other species of poetry naturally followed.
§ The names that adorned the Roman drama were Livius Andro-
nicus ; Ennius, wiio more especially improved it ; Plautus, who
wrote with strengUi and spirit ; Cajcilius, who is reckoned the best
of the Roman dramatists ; Terence, who excels in simplicity and pu-
rity ; Accius, and Pacuvius, who though rough in style shewed
strength of genius. All these except the two last were comic wri-
ters.
The lyric poetry of the Romans owns the names of Catullus, the
earliest in this kind of poetry ; and Horace, the greatest among the
Romans, if not of antiquity, though he is highly to be censured on
account of his occasional iudeiicacy.
132
210 m.Nr.iiAr, Vikw«.
Ill clcpinc poolry, Propcrtins, niid 'ribiillns poiirod tlioir londorand
«'I»i|.^nnl flrniiis, iinil Ovid iitlcrcd the lnii<:;ii!iL;(' of nnliirn mid paHsion.
The Ivv'ii Inst cspcciidly olTcml uii llu' bcdic of iiiDiids.
Of siiliric pnclry, l.iicilliiis is snid to hr the inventor : Iforncc nlso
oxeelled in tins species of poetic composition. Sonw; otlii-r iianios
lunont^ tlie Konians, in(; dislni^nislied iis siiln'ists, imt tlicy belong to
H siilisetpient eni.
In dnluelie poetry, I.iicretins is a t^reiit name; imd of ei^ic poetry
Viryil IS prmce amoni; tlie Komiins. Homer amitn;,' tlie (Jreeks, and
Virt;d anion;.^ tlie Homims, have come(h)\vn tons with almost ccpial
renown.
History \vii« ciihivated hy llieKoiH.iiis with miiili succcpH,
|vnliciiliiily diiiiiif; llio AugiiHlan njje.
§ Tlie most eminent of their historians wen; Salhist, who exrelh'd
in the |)hiloso|)|iy of lustory ; ("n'sar, w lio wrote with |)nri1y and siiii-
plieity ; l>nt especially l,iv\-, whose jiid/Miient, ])eis|)iciiity, copious-
1H<9!I, and eliH|iience, place juiii at the head ol Ikomaii historical wri-
ten?.
Ointnry was u IbvonriU^ study nt. I'onie, ;i.^ it led to the
liighent lioiKHirsof llic stivte. The iimsi distiiii;iiishcd sctm-
toiH nie Hiiid to hiivo oxorciscd their l,'ileiils in puhhc spoalc-
ijig', ill Ixdiidfor iho poor luid o|)|)ressed. The chjiraclerislics
ol Kiuiiaii elo(pieiiee wen; seriousness, copitmsue.ss, and ma-
jesty.
§ ,T. (~?ii'sar, Ilortensins, and parliciilarly Cicero, di^tinmiished lliem-
Belves as pnhiie speaker.s. Of Ca'sar il is said that " lie spoke with
tlie same force with wliicli lie foimlit." Iloilcnsius was eclipsed
only by Cicero. And Cicero is the rival of Demosthenes in fame.
iMiiloso|iliy iimde its (irsi appearance at Woine, in (he in-
(riv.d helwceii the war with Perseus, and (hi; third l?unic.
war. Il was derived rmiii (ireiviv The various isyiHteins of
the (heck philosophy, had their respective part i.-Jaiis at Uoino.
§ A few IiMrned Acluraiis, bamshcd from their comilry, and arrivinir
«l llalv,<lill\ised a (aste for philosophy, polite learniiii.;, and the edu-
cation of youth, Keariii", foreimi mimnrrs with foreign studies, the
wnale hamshed (he Creek ])hilosophers from IJome. Hut (he Allie-
nimi emhassv arrivin<r soon after, hrouidit thither Carneades and
<'ritolaus, who revivi-d the taste for (he (Jreek pliiloso|ihy.
'I"he svsleiu of the Stoics was at first mor(> ticuerally received, as
this comporicil with the national ctiaracler. Anion); (lie lioiiian sto-
icM, were Scipio, l,;vlius, inul iheyouuLicr (^a(o.
'I'he philosophy of Aristotle was little known in i{oiiii' till the time
of Cicero. Cralippus and 'ryranuiou then taujViit his system with
great repu(a(ioii.
The Old ami New Acadcmv had each its advocates luid discijiles
Marcus llnitiis, mid Terentius VaiTO, were oruameiits of the fornicr-
Of till) New Academy, Cicero iiiusl be ouusidcrcd as llic i>riucipnl
KOMi\NS. 211
pupporler, though his design seems to have been rather to ilhisfrate
the (ircek pliilf)S(iphy in general. He was the greatest of theKonian
pliilosoplic Ts, if not on the wliole the greatest man of all antiiiiiity.
Witii the indoduction of hixurj^, the philosophy of Epicnrns be-
came fasliionable. The poet Horace was a devotee to this system, as
also Lucrctins, and many others, who very liberally indulged their
appetites, and tanght otiiers to indulge them.
Pliysics, or luituial pliilosopliy, seems to have been little
cultivated by the Romans or by the Greeks before tiieni.
^'arro is the only name conspicuous in this department, in the
annals of antiquity.
In some instances, splendid libraries were attached to the
{galleries of some afllucnt ])atricians, who patronized learning.
These libraries were open to the inspection of the learned and
curious, and contributed greatly to the advancement of know-
ledge at I?omc.
§ Among these, the library of Lucullus was remarkable, not only
for the number and variety of the books, and specimens of art, but for
the liberal use to whicli it was devoted.
71, Arts. The Romans are not to be compared with the
Greeks, as to native taste and inventive genius, as the fine
arts are concerned. They admired and imitated the master-
[)ieces of Greece. But in execution, for the most part, they fell
Kliort of their models. By help derived from Grecian genius,
ihey have, however, left many wonderful specimens in the
arts, particularly in architcctiue.
§ Tlieir conquest of Greece secured to them as spoils the noble
productions of Greece in painting and statuary. With these the
wealthy Roman citizens adorned the city, its temples, and porticoes,
and their own private dwellings.
The names of few Koman artists occur. Vitruvius wrote the only
hook on architecture that is now extant. He shews that lie was a
master of his ])rofession. In great and magnificent works, Rome haa
jnanifested her unbounded wealth and luxiu-y.
Jn the mechanic arts some inventions occur, and a degree
of perfection was attained among the Romans of ancient his-
tory. These however have been greatly extended and im
proved in more recent ages; and many comforts which Ave
enjoy, derived from a knowledge of mechanism, were un-
known to tliis people.
§ Such conveniences as glass windows and chimneys in houses,
not to mention many others, the Romans did not possess : though
their ingenuity su[)|)lied the want, in part, by various expedients.
72. Dniin'slic Life ami Alnnncrs. The houses and furni-
lure of the early Romans were entirely plain in their con-
212 GENERAL VIEWS.
slmction. When luxury commenced in Rome, this plainness
was laid aside, and the decorations of art were assumed in a
degree. At this latter period, and before luxury reached its
utmost bounds, each house contained one spacious hall, in
which the family assembled, and which served all the pur-
poses of society.
§ Towards the close of the repiibUc, however, various apartments
were constructed for the reception and entertainment of company,
and in the time of the emperors, their embeUishment was carried to
the highest point of perfection. The eating rooms were remarkable
for their grandeur.
The tables were originally made of ordinary wood, square, and on
four feet ; but the form was afterwards changed to circular, or oval,
supported on a single carved pedestal, and they were richly inlaid
with ivory, gold, or silver, sometimes with the addition of precious
stones.
We read of a single table formed of a kind of wood, called citron
wood, with which we are unacquainted, that cost upwards of eight
thousand pounds sterling. A canopy was suspended over the table,
to guard it, as it is said, from dirt of the ceiling. This, however it
may have added to the decoration of the apartments, does not convey
a very favourable idea of the cleanliness of the Romans.
Originally, the Roman villa was nothing r.iore tlian a farm-house
of a very humble description ; but at length the word lost its original
signification, and was used to denote the abode of luxury and opu-
lence. We have fortunately a complete and beautiful description of
one, and that his own, in the works of Pliny the younger. They
were very numerous about Rome, and very magnificent.
The meals of the earlier Romans were very simple and
frugal. The articles of food, and the furniture of tlie table,
were coarse. But afterwards they became costly and luxuri-
ous to the highest degree. The epicurism of the later Romans
was enormous.
At first they sat npright on benches, but at last adopted
the habit of reposing on couches. Their principal meal was
their supper, taken a little before four o'clock, P. M. Their
breakfast was not a regular meal ; it was taken by each one
separately and without order ; and their dinner was a very
slight repast. Their supper was their last regular meal,
lliough it was sometimes followed by a collation, called com-
missatio.
§The diet of the earlier Romans consisted of milk and vegetables,
with a coarse kind of pudding which served in the room of bread.
They rarely indulged in meat, and wine was almost unknown to
them. Thoy banished epicures from among them.
The change which took place in the latter days of the republic,
ROMANS. 213
and in the beginning of the empire, was very striking. Notwithstand-
ing sumptuary bnA s, epicurism advanced willi great rapidity, till
finally it reached such a height, that viands were esteemed only m
proportion to their cost.
Thus, Maltese cranes, peacocks, and rare singing birds, although
hardly eatable, were esteemed great delicacies, and their tongues and
brains still greater ; oysters from the coast of Britain were more
prized than their own, though the former would never have been
eaten fresh ; and we are told of a singular sur-muUet, which had
reached a size somewhat larger than common, having been sold for
a sum equivalent to fifty guineas.
The Romans used wine of the most costly kinds at their feasts.
The age of it was often very great. We read of some that was 200
years old. The Grecian wines wei-e in greater estimation than even
llie Italian. They used also mead, metheglin, and other fermented
liijuors. Such was their depravity, they contrived that even water
sliould contribute to inebriate them.
Gluttony was indulged to such a disgusting excess, that emetics
were used to enable the stomach, already gorged with a full meal, to
bear a further load. This doubtless was not a universal practice,
neither, however, was it confined to a few individual instances.
The services of the tables were at first only of earthen-ware, or
wood. The use of plate was then almost unknown. At a later peri-
od plate became so general, that it was as common, as it had been
previously rare, and in the time of the emperors, it was frequently
of gold.
The couches on which they lay down at supper were somewhat
similar to the modern sofa. The ladies at first did not adopt this
practice, and the indulgence was never extended to young people of
either sex.
Each couch could accommodate three or four, but seldom five
persons, who laid in a reclining postm'e, on the left arm, having
the shoulders elevated with cushions, and the limbs extended be-
hind whoever was next ; so that the liead of tlie one was opposite
to the breast of the other, and in serving themselves, they made use
only of the right hand. I'here were m;uiy olhei' singular customs
observed at their suppers, which we have not time to enumerate.
Daily Bathino; was practised by the Roman people, both m
warm and cold water. Vast quantities of water were brought
to Rome, for this and other purposes, by means of a(iiieducts.
These atiueducts were magnificent works, as also the baths
both public and private which were erected.
§ The use of linen, which was unknown to the Romans, has ren-
dered this practice for a long time obsolete in Italy ; but in the times
of whicli we speak, it was ne(;essary for the purposes of cleanliness
as well as luxury. The remains of some of the baths, are the most
astonishing works of Roman grandeur and magnificence.
Bathing commenced witli warm and ended with cold water. On
214 GENERAL VIEWS.
leaving the bath the people were anointed with scented oils, and
went immediately to supper.
The Dress of the Romans consisted chiefly of the toga and
the tunica. The toga or gown worn by the citizens only, was
loose and flowing, and covered the whole body : it was made
of wool, had no sleeves, and was disposed in graceful folds,
with a view to improve the appearance of the wearer.
The toga virilis, or manly gown, was assumed by young
men at the age of seventeen.
The tunica or tunic, was a white woollen vest, which came
down a httle below the knees before, and to the middle of the
leg behind, and was fastened about the waist by a girdle,
which also served as a purse.
§ Women wore a tunic as well as the men, but witli this difference,
at first, that it reached down to the feet of the women, and had
sleeves. Afterwards the men wore the tunic in the same manner.
Hats and Caps, though known, were worn only on journeys or at
the public games. In the city they usually went bare headed, or co-
vered themselves with the corner of the toga.
Ladies of distinction had many waiting maids, who were appro-
priated to particular services ; and the duties of the toilet, though not
perhaps so well understood as in modern times, were as assiduously
attended to.
Jewels, bracelets, rings, and various expensive ornaments, were
worn in great profusion. The convenience of pins was not known,
nor were glass mirrors, though there were substitutes for them.
Pure woven silk and linen were little known and used till the time
of the emperors, and not at all known during nearly the Avhole peri-
od of the republic.
Marriage was an institution higlily countenanced among
the Romans. Severe laws were at times enacted to restrain
cehbacy, though neve'r with much eflect. Fathers of large
families were particularly respected. Marriages with foreign-
ers were strictly forbidden. The vahdity of the transaction
depended on the legal age of the parties, and the consent of
parents.
§ Boys were considered marriageable at fourteen ; girls at twelve.
A marriage was never solemnized witliout consulting the auspices,
and offering sacrifices to the gods ; particularly to Juno ; and the ani-
mals immolated on the occasion, were deprived of their gall, in allu-
sion to the absence of every thing bitter and malignant in the pro-
posed union. Tlie mode of marriage and tlie jnultitude of ceremo-
nies attending it cannot here be described.
Marriage, among tlie Romans, was not indissoluble. A husband
might repudiate bis wife; for several reasons, besides that of having
violated her conjugal faith. But to the honour of the Romans, more
ROMANS. 215
than four cerUuries elapsed without any suit among tliem for divorce,
or complaint of adultery. Afterwards divorces became very frequent,
and for the most frivolous causes.
Fathers at Rome were generally invested with the power of life
and death over tlicir children. Exposure of infants was at lirst some-
what frequent, but at length nearly ceased. The adoption of children
by married persons who were childless was very common, on ac-
count of the i)rivileges connected with having children, whether by
issue or adoption.
The funeral rites of the Romans were solemn and impres-
sive. During tlie greater part of the commonwealth, the dead
body was buried. Towards the close, the practice of burning
the dead was generally introduced, till it became universal.
After the introduction of Christianity into the empire, it fell
into disuse.
§ It was a received opinion among the ancients, that the manes of
the deceased were propitiated by blood. It was on this account their
custom to slaughter, on the tomb of the deceased, those animals to
which, while he was living, he was most attached ; and in the more
barbarous ages, men were the victims of this horrid superstition.
" Arms, trappings, horses, by the hearse were led
In long array — the achievements oflhe dead.
Then piniun'd, with their hands behind, appear
The unhappy captives, marching in the rear,
Appointed ollerings in the victor's name,
To sprinkle with their blood, the funeral flame."
Dryden's Virgil.
Many of the Roman sepulchres still exist in the gardens of their
villas or by the public roads, (for inhumation was not allowed with-
in the walls,) with their various monumental inscriptions.
722 Foreign Commerce. The foreign commerce of the
Romans appears very unimportant, compared with the exten-
pive mercantile transactions of oiu" own times. Their trade,
if we except the corn received on accotmt of government from
Sicily and the Levant, consisted of little else, than articles of
mere luxury. Their purchases were made in bullion, as they
had no exportal)le mantifactures of their own. This circum-
stance necessarily restricted their commercial dealings.
§ They traded, it is true, not only to the ports of the Mediterrane-
an, but to the East Indies, and occasionally even to England ; but the
interests of commerce were little understood, and less a[)preciated.
Traffic was dishonourable, and they who engaged in it were held in
contempt. The consequence was, that it was relinquished to slaves
and freemen, who teldom possessed the means to conduct it on an
extensive scale.
Their merchant ships were large, if they reached the burthen of
fifty tons.
216 GENERAL VIEWS.
Syria.
73. Situation and Cities. Syria lay on the east coast
of the Mecliteiranean below Cilicia. The coast was called
Phoenicia, and below it was Palestine. On the south it had
Arabia and the Euphrates.
Its towns and noticeable places were Antioch, Daphne,
Seleucia, Damascus, Heliopolis. and Palmyra, or Tadmor.
Antiocli at one time, was inferior only to Rome and Alexandria
in greatness and population. It is now almost depopulated, though
its strong Avails on both sides of the Orontes, remain.
Daphne was a place consecrated to luxury, and enchanting from
its cool fountains and shady groves of laurel, cypress, &c. Milton
compares the garden of Eden to it —
— " Nor that sweet grove
"Of Daphne by Orontes." —
Seleucia was on the sea near the mouth of the Orontes. — The bard
again speaks of
" The roj'al towers
Of great Seleucia, built by Grecian kings."
Damascus was the capital of the Phoenicia of Libanus. Its fertile
and irriguous valley has ever been famous among the orientals.
Heliopolis, under the name of Baalbeck, has the remains of a mag-
nificent temple dedicated to the sun. The Avhole edifice, and parti-
cularly the roof, glittered with gold.
Palmyra gave the name of Palmyrene to a vast plain, which was
united to the desert of Arabia. The bibJe and Joseiihus inform us it
was founded by Solomon. It maintained a great commerce between
two divisions of the ancient hemisphere. The remains of lofty edi-
fices manifest its former magnificence, and attract the curious and
astonished traveller.
74. Character of the ancient Syrians. The ancient
Syrians were miserable idolaters.
An instance of their worship is thus described by the poet before
named.
' Tammuz came next behind,
Whose annual wound in Lebanon allur'd
The Syrian damsels to lament his fate.
In am'rous ditties all a summer's day :
While smooth Adonis from his native rock
Ran purple to the sea, sui)posed with blood
Of Tammuz yearly wounded."
They were also somewhat of an efTeminate race, and re ■
markable for hidinir themselves from the sun, in caves, on the
decease of their relatives.
75. Language. The Syrian language became a distinct
tongue, so early as the time of Jacob. It was spoken not
only in Syria, but also in Mesopotamia, Chaldeea, and Assy-
PERSIA. 217
rla. After the Babylonish captivity, it was introduced into
Palestine.
§ The Syriac is an easy and elegant, though not a very copious
tongue. It abounds in many Greek words.
Carthage.
7G. Extent. Carthage has been briefly described in tlie
body of this work. It may only be stated here that with its
ports, it comprehended an enclosure of 23 miles. It had a cita
del named Byrsa, on an eminence.
§ Its military prowess was at its height, under Hamilcar and Hanni-
bal. The city was destroyed by the second Scipio, B. C. 147. It
then burned incessantly during 17 days. It was rebuilt by Roman
colonies. Its decay may be traced from the seventh century, when
It fell into the hands of the Saracens.
77. Government and Character of the People. The
Carthaginians were governed as a republic, and had two
persons yearly chosen among them with regal authority.
They were very superstitious as a people, and generally
offered human victims to their gods. They also bore the
character of being faithless and treacherous, and the proverb,
Punic faith, is well known.
Paj'thia.
78. Situation, cf*c. Parthia had Hyrcania on the north ;
Aria on the east ; Carmania on the south ; and Media on the
west. It was a healthy country, but sterile. The people
were governed l)y an absolute monarch.
§ The ancient Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who
being expelled from their native land, took up their abode in this part
of 'Asia. They were a strong and warlike people, and accustomed
from their infancy to the exercises of horsemanship and archery.
The peculiar custom of discharging their arrows while they were
retiring full speed, has been greatly celebrated by the ancients.
Their flight was more formida'ole than their attack.
They totally neglected agriculture, trade and navigation, and their
morals were dreadfully depraved. Their religious principles were
much the same as those of the Persians. Their sovereigns affected
to be gods.
Persia.
79. Ext 672 1 and Situation. Ancient Persia extended
about 2800 miles in length from the Hellespont to the mouth
of the river Indus ; and about 2000 miles in breadth, from
Pontus to the mouth of the Arabian gulf
80. Govei-nment. The government of Persia was an ab-
T
218 GENERAL VIEWS.
solute monarchy. The crown was hereditary, and generally
bestowed on the eldest of the deceased king's legitimate chil-
dren.
§ The kings of Persia received almost divine honours from their
6 objects. No one could approach the seat of majesty without pros-
trating himself, or remain in the presence, without holding his hands
within his sleeves. Death was the consequence of violating this
ceremony.
Herodotus mentions that Xerxes being once in great danger by
sea, many of his attendants sti-ove who should first leap overboard to
lighten the vessel, and sacrifice themselves for the preservation of
their prince.
The royal palace at Persepolis was extremely magnificent. Tlie
roofs and sides of the apartments were entirely covered with ivory,
silver, gold, or amber. The throne was of fine gold and adorned
with precious stones. The royal bed was also of gold, and two cof-
fers were placed by it, both containing 8,000 talents.
The Persian monarchs, for the most part, lived only to gratify their
sensual appetites. All the delicacies and rarities of the world were
sought for tlieir table. Cicero informs us, that the revenues of whole
provinces were lavished on the attire of their favorite concubines, one
city being compelled to supply them with ornaments for their hair,
another for their necks, &c.
81. Education. The Persians are said to have paid
more particular regard to the education of their children, than
any other nation. A son was nevei' admitted into the pre-
sence of his father, till he had arrived at the age of five
years, lest, if he should die before that period, his parents
might be too heavily afflicted by his loss.
§ At the age of five, learned masters taught the children of the better
families, in learning and moral virtues, taking with them the utmost
pains, and bestowing upon them the greatest care.
82. Punis/wieiits. The punishments in general were se-
vere, as cutting off the right hand, decapitation, pressing to
death between two large stones, &.c.
§ The most severe punishment known in Persia, was the inhuinan
one of fastening the culprit between two boats, in such a manner that
he was unable to move, though his head, hands and feet were left
imcovered. His face, exposed to the rays of the sun, was smeared
with honey, which invited innumerable swarms of flies and wasps to
torment him, while the worms that bred in his excrements devoured
his bowels ; and the executioners compelled him, by thrusting sharp
iron instrument into his eyes, to receive nourirfluuent for the express
purpose of prolonging his excruciating agonies. One victim is r&>
corded to have lived 17 days under this complication of torments.
83. Military Art. The Persians were all trained to mili-
tary exercise, but more particularly to the use of the bow.
MYTHOLOGY. 211^
Tliey never fought in the night, nor used any stratagem in-
dependent of their own valour.
§ When they designed to make war upon any nation, they had tlie
singular custom of sending heralds to demand of them earth and
water, thereby commanding them to acknowledge the king of Persia,
as sovereign lord of their country.
84. Rclig-ion. Their religion was in a degree idolatrous,
though less so than that of the nations around them. They
professed to worship the one all-wise and omnipotent God
though they held fire to he holy, and the purest symbol of
the divine nature. In connexion with this, they had a super-
stitious regard of the sun. They honoured also other elements,
as the earth, the air, and water.
§ The Persians are supposed to have been originally instructed
in the worship of the true God by llieir progenitor Elam, but soon
to have fallen into the heresy of Zabiisni. Fi'om this they are
thought to have been recovered, and to have afterwards engaged in
superstitious acts of reverence to the celestial bodies.
In ancient times, they were destitute of temples, but erected altars
for the preservation of their sacred fires, on the tops of mountains.
At length Zoroaster persuaded them, for the sake of convenience,
to build over each, a pyreum or fire-temple. This Zoroaster is sup-
posed by some to have been a native of Persia, and a restorer of the
religion of the Masi.
MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS.
1. All the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were
heathens and idolaters. Their system of religion was called
Polytheism, as acknowledging a plurality of gods. They
worshipped divinities by various representations, called idols.
Forsaking the service of the only living and true God, as
made known at first by traditionary, and afterwards by wa"itten
revelation, they paid that homage which is due to him, to
those that are by nature no God.
2. Besides angels, as presiding over paiticular kingdoms, —
the heavenly bodies, men, beasts, birds, fishcvS, virtues, vices,
diseases, and evil demons, were esteemed deities, and had tem-
ples built for their worship.
Among the Egyptians, tlie principal deities were Osiris and Isis,
supposed to be tlie sun and moon. The people however liestowed
divine honours on animals, birds, insects, and even vegetables, as Iceka
and onions. The poet Juvenal intimates that their religious exercises
were not greatly esteemed l)y the Romans. In fact, they exceeded
all tlie other ancients m tliese absurdities, and were extremely de-
based by their vile superstitions.
220 GENERAL VIEWS.
The Babylonians and Arabians adored the heavenly bodies. They
supposed that the angels resided in the stars, and governed the world
under the supreme deity. Among the later Babylonians, Belus be-
came their Jupiter, to whom a magnificent temple was erected in
Babylon.
The Canaanites and Syrians worshipped Baal, Tammuz, Magog,
and Astarte. Moloch was the Saturn of the Phcpnicians and Car-
thaginians. To him, human victims, particularly children, were im-
molated. Baal-peor was the idol of the IMoabites — his rights were
detestable and cruel. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistines ; his
figure was compounded of a man and a fish.
In the mythology of the Scythians, the god of war was their
favourite divinitj^, and to him were consecrated groves of oaks of
extraordinary size. Horses were sacrificed, and every hundredth
man taken in battle.
In the mythology of the Celts, the Druids had the direction of theo-
logical concerns. Their rites were performed in groves, and they paid
superstitious reverence to the misletoe. Human victims were often
offered; colossal images of wicker-work, filled with human criminals,
were consumed by fire.
The Persians in their religion rejected, for the most part, the com-
plicated popular system of polytheism. They believed in one su-
preme God who formed and governed all things. They, however,
preserved the sacred fire, as it was called, which was kindled by con
secrated sun-beams. Their rites at first were plain and simple, and
their priests were called magi. These tenets of their primitive reli-
gion gradually degenerated into Zabiism, or the adoration of celestial
bodies.
The mythology of the ancient Hindoos resembles, in some of its
features, that of the Egyptians, Persians, and Scythians. It is a
strange mixture of a few truths with many Avild fables. It divides
the world into ten parts, setting over each a guardian spirit. The
deity Brahma is made the creating power, Vishnu is the preserver
and pervader, and Narayda, the mover on the waters.
3. The multitude of gods as an object of faith, is preposter-
ous and wicked ; but the elegant forms and agreeable fictions
that mythology furnishes, are admirably adapted to the pur-
poses of poetry, statuary, and painting. The imagination
revels in a region fairy and enchanting.
§ The theology of Pagan antiquity, according to Scscvola and Var-
ro, was of three sorts. The first of these may well he called fabulous,
as treating of the theology and genealogy of their deities, in Avhich
they relate sucli things as are infinitely unworthy of tlie divinity,
ascribing to them, thefts, murders, adulteries, and all manner of
crimes.
This kind of theology is condemned by the Aviser sort of heathens
as trifling and scandalous. The writers of this sort of theology were
Sanchoniathon the Phoenician; and Orpheus, Hesiud, Pherecydes,
&c., amojig the Greeks.
MYTHOLOGY. 221
Tlie second kind called physic or natural, was studied and taught
by tlie pliilosopluTS, who rejecting tlie multiplicity of gods introduced
by the poets, brought their tlieology to a more natural and rational
form. Tiiey siijtposed that there was but one supreme God, which
thej'' connnonly make to be the sun, at least an emblem of him ; but
at too great a distance to mind the affairs of the world, and therefore
devised certain demons, which tliey considered as mediators between
the supreme God and man.
The speculations of the philosophers related to the doctrines of these
demons, to tlieir nature, tlieir office, and regard to men. Writers o.
tliis class were Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics.
The third kind of tlieology called politic or civil, was instituted by
legislators, statesmen, and politicians. Tlie first among the Romans
was Nmna Pompilius. This part of the Pagan system chiefly re-
spected their gods, temples, altars, sacrifices, and rites of worship,
and was properly their idolatrj', the care of which belonged to the
priests. The wiiole was enjoined on the common people, to keep
them in obedience to tlie civil state.
4. In liie fictions of niytliology, particularly those of Greece
and Rome, many things are allegorical and mystical, the
true sense of which, though not accommodated to the vul-
gar apprehension, the refmccl and liberal may explain. This
suggests one use to be derived from the study of the Pagan sys-
tems of religion. We learn tlie religious views of antiquity.
Another use of it is, tiiat tlie classic authors cannot be
read WMth advantage without a knowledge of mythology ; and
the classic authors, it is not to be doubted, are the best
models of fine writing extant, and are necessary to improve
the taste. Connected with this also is the fact, that a know
ledge of mythology can alone enable us to understand and be-
come acquainted with anti(iue statues, medals, paintings, &c.
§ The gods of ancient paganism were some mundane, and others
supermundane. The mundane are tliose who were supposed to fab-
ricate the world, and the supermundane are those who produce
essences, intellects, and souls. Hence they are distinguished into
three orders. Of the mundane gods likewise, some are tlie causes of
the existence of tlie world ; others animate it ; others again harmo-
nize it, thus composed of different natures; and lastly, others guard
and preserve it when harmoniously arranged.
Since also these orders are four, and each consists of tilings first,
middle, and last, it is necessary tliat the governors of these should be
twelve. Hence Jupiter, Neptune and Vulcan fabricate the world. Ce-
res, Juno and Diana animate it; Mercury, Venus and Apollo harmo-
nize it ; and lastly, Vesta, Minerva and Mars preside over it with a
puardian power.
But the truth of this may be seen in statues as in enigmas. For
Apollo in marble holds in his liands a lyre j Minerva is invested wiUi
222 GENERAL VIEWS.
arms; and Venus is naked, since harmony produces beauty and
beauty is not concealed in subjects of sensible perception.
As these gods primarily possess the world, it is necessary to con-
sider the other mundane gods as subsisting in them, as Bacchus in
Jupiter, ^Esculapius in Apollo, and the Graces in Venus. We may
also behold the spheres with which they are connected, viz. Vesta
with the earth, Neptune with water, Juno with air, and Vulcan with
fire. But Apollo and Diana are assumed for the sun and moon; the
sphere of Saturn is attributed to Ceres ; ether to Minerva; and heaven
IS common to them all.
The above are a few instances of the real sense of the fictions of
mythology. Many of the philosophers in these fictions concealed
their better knowledge, often conveying lessons of wisdom under the
veil of allegory. The geiuiine Pagan creed, as given by a heathen
philosopher, Maximus Tyrius, is the following :
" There is one God, the king and father of all things, and many
gods, sons of God, ruling together with him. This the Greek says,
and the barbarian says, the inhabitant of the continent, and he that
dwells near the sea ; and if you even proceed to the utmost shores of
the ocean, there too there are gods, rising very near to some, and
setting very near to others." By the rising and setting gods he means
the stars, which according to the Pagan theology, are divine animals,
oo-operating with the first cause in the government of the world.
5. A survey of the lieathen mythology presents httle to
view but absurdity, and the various forms in which human
corruption is exhibited. The people at large, whatever the
philosophers understood by these " phantasms and monsters,"
received them as literal truths, till it became dangerous to
shake the faith of communities, or disturlj the public religion.
§ In this state of tilings continued the gentile world, until the light
of the gospel was sent among them. Those were times of ignorance.
The people were unacquainted with the true God and the worship
of him — with the Messiah and salvation by him.
The moral world at present is gloriously illuminated. The Bible
has scattered the dark shades of spiritual and intellectual night. We
behold " one God and one Mediator between God and men," seated
uijon the throne of the universe ; possessed of boundless wisdom,
power, purity, goodness ; tlie Creator, tlie Preserver, the Ruler, and
the Redeemer of his creatures ; ever present in all parts of his crea-
tion, ever providing for its general happiness.
DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, &C. 223
Discoveries, Inventions, and Improvements of Early
Ages.
Sect. 1. The little that can be gathered concerning the
state of society, and the progress in inventions and improve-
ments before the flood, has already been exhibited. In the
account of individual nations, something also has been said
concerning their intellectual culture and useful works of ait.
A few particulars may be added on these topics, with a view
to illustrate more fully the advancement of society in the states
of antit[uity. Special reference v. ill here be had to mecha-
nic inventions, respecting which, less has been said hitherto,
than on the subject of the fine arts and general literature.
.Sufficient evidence exists, that mankind at a remote period of an-
tiquity, must have made considerable progress in the arts of Hfe. The
circumstances under which Egypt is presented to us by Moses, in
the book of Genesis, indicate that its inliabitants were at that time a
cuhivated people. No doubt, the progress of invention in their very
favourable situation was quite rapid. From them, even the Israelites,
at the early period in which Moses wrote, must have learned much
in respect to the useful arts. The same was tlie case with the Ba-
bylonians, Phoenicians, and other nations. Still, though some arts
liave been lost during the lapse of ages, antiquity cannot compare
witli modern times in the necessaries, comforts, and luxuries of life.
2. At first, necessity, and afterwards convenience, urged
the cultivation of the arts. The useful arts are the product
of necessity. The higher branches of knowledge are the
fruit of comparative ease and leisure.
Among, the earliest arts, is the construction of huts, and
of weapons, adapted to war and hunting.
Astronomy is among the earliest of the sciences, and is said
to have originated with the Chaldeans, probably, through the
influence of superstition. The occupation of the Chaldeans,
many of whom were shepherds, watching their flocks by
night, w'as favourable for the observation of the heavenly
bodies.
Geometry was found out by the Egyptians. They were
led to the cultivation of this science, by having occasion to
measure the lands annually disturbed by the overflowing of
the Nile.
Medicine was among the early sciences. The simplest
means of cure answer for rude nations. JMore complex means
are required for cultivated nations, who have more complex
diseases.
224 ANCIENT HISTORY.
Agriculture is not practised till the tribes of men become
stationary, and hold property in the soil. The acquirement,
protection, and recognition of property, generally, is the first
step from a savage towards a civilized life. The first property
consisted of sheep, goats, and oxen ; and the care of these
was the earliest and simplest occupation of husbandmen. In
this stage of husbandry, all the country was open and com-
mon to any occupier ; but as soon as any man could call a
spot his own, and could secure to his family the produce of it,
its cultivation w^ould be a great object. Hence, arose the art
and science of agriculture, properly so called.
§ Agriculture flourished less in Greece than in Rome. The Romans
were remarkably versed in the knowledge of this useful branch of
human pursuit. Their greatest citizens and warriors were, by turns,
cultivators of the soil. The Israelites before them, and the Egyp-
tians also, were devoted to this employment. The moderns, however,
it is believed, have made the greatest proficiency in agriculture, as they
have in most of the sciences and practical arts of life. This is the
natural effect of time, of prolonged study, and multiplied experi-
ments. In many of the fine arts, the ancients are still our masters.
Architecture was an elegant art, in which antiquity excelled.
Tlie necessary and useful were all that was first sought in
buildings. Luxury aimed at ornament. Hence, arose the
five beautiful orders of architecture, viz. the Tuscan, the Do
ric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Composite. The Greekb
perfected this art.
3. But we may properly notice a few of the minuter divi-
sions of ancient art and contrivance. Among these were the
following :
Enibalnibig. — The ancients had an imperfect knowledge
of the mode of preserving those bodies that were subject to
decay. They relied principally on brine, honey, or a covering
of wax ; but each of these was defective, and far inferior to
that by spiiitsof wine, which combines the advantage of pre-
venting putrefaction, with that of perfect transparency. The
more scientific modern process, employed in anatomical prepa-
rations, was wholly imknown. The Egyptians, however,
were fomoug for embalming dead bodies.
§ The method of preventing corruption by means of brine, was
the most ancient, as it was the most apparent, and the easiest of
execution. It has been supposed to have originated in Persia, and
Dion Cassius says, that when Pharnaces sent tiin body of his father,
Mithridates, to Pompey, he had it placed in briue j but it seems pro
DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, (fec. 225
bable, thai in the East, nitre was more frequently employed for this
purpose than common salt.
The custom of preserving dead bodies in honey, was also employ-
ed at a very early period. The remains of several Spartans, who
died in foreign countries, were thus prepared for transmission to
their native home. The body of Alexander the Great, is also said,
by some authors, to have been thus deposited, although we are told
by others, that it was embalmed in the manner of the Egyptians.
In the East, dead bodies were sometimes covered over with wax,
and tliis practice, which was early introduced into Europe, gave riee
to that of wrapping the remains of persons of distinction in waxed
cloths, which has continued down even to the present day.
The Egyptian method of embalming, consisted in first extracting
the brain through the nostrils, and injecting some viscous unguent
in their stead ; then opening the belly, and taking out the intestines,
the cavity being washed with palm wine, impregnated with spices,
and filled with myrrh and other aromatics ; this done, the body was
laid in nitre during seventy days, at the end of which, it was taken
out, cleansed, and swathed in fine linen, which was gummed, and
ornamented with various painted hieroglyphics, expressive of the de-
ceased's character and rank. This was done only for persons of the
highest distinction. Less expensive methods were used for others.
Roads and Street Pavements. — The public accommoda-
tions of the most splendid capitals of antiquity, were few in
comparison with those of modern large towns. The streets
of ancient Rome were only partially paved, during its most
brilliant era, and are described by authors of that period as
being filled with dirt. A few other cities are supposed to
liave been paved, but this is a matter of doubt.
Though the Greeks and Romans were indifferent to their
streets, yet they paid particular attention to their great public
roads. These, in some instances, were magnificent works.
'J' ravelling, however, was not generally rapid in those times.
§ There was no part (»f the Roman policy which so effectually pro-
moted the good of mankind, or which has transmitted such exalted
ideas of the imperial grandeur, as the number and magnificence of
the roads. Though constructed principally for military purposes,
they were of vast utility to the districts which they traversed, and
proved the most efficacious means of promoting the comfort and
civilization of the conquered people. Occasionally, there were in-
stances of extraordinary celerity in travelling. We are informed
by Pliny, that 'I'iberius travelled two hundred miles in a day and
night, on being despatched by Augustus to console his sick brother,
Germanicus. But the ordinary rate of travelling, even on their ex-
celleni roads, was slow in comparison of wdiat it is at present.
Cicero speaks of a messenger coming from Home, to his government
of Cilicia, in Asia Minor, in forty-seven days : hcu tarn longe! as
the orator exclaims, on finding himself so far removed from the
226 ANCIENT HISTORY.
scene of his glory and exertions. To convey letters from Rome to
the neighbourhood of Gibraltar, required, according to Pollio, forty
days.
Mode of convey'uig Intelligence. — The oldest method of
communicating tlie news, with which we are acquainted, was
by means of public criers. Another mode was to post up a
written advertisement against a column in some public place.
§ Public criers among the Greeks and Romans were under the su-
perintendence of the police, and were generally employed by indi-
viduals, in the same manner as they still are in the country towns ol
England. The mode of posting was resorted to by the Roman
government, to promulgate its edicts, and even, it is supposed, for
imparting more trivial information of general import. Historians
appear to have collected materials from them ; nor is it improbable,
that copies were taken by individuals and dispersed about the city,
or sent to their friends in the provinces.
Glass. — The origin of the art of making glass, like that
of many other valuable inventions, is probably due to chance.
It is said to have been discovered in Syria. From ancient au-
thors, it is supposed not to have been made in Rome, before
the reign of Tiberius.
§ Pliny mentions that glass was first accidentally discovered by
some travellers while dressing their food by the ri\er Belus, in Syria.
Being obliged to make a fire on the ground, where there was a great
quantity of the herb kali, that plant burning to ashes, its salts incor-
porated with the sand, and thus became vitrified. The accident be-
coming known, the inhabitants of the neighbouring city of Sidon,
availed themselves of it, and soon brought the art into use. It seems
to be a corroboration of this account, that tlie most ancient glass-
houses, with wliich we are acquainted, were erected in Tyre. Pre-
viously to the time of Tiberius, the Romans imported glass from the
East, and vessels of glass were among their most costly pieces of
household furniUire.
Mirrors. — There is reason to believe, that artificial mirrors
were made almost as soon as the ingenuity of man was ex-
erted on mechanical objects, and as every solid body capable
of receiving a fine polish, would suit tbis purpose, we find,
tliat the oldest mirrors mentioned in histor}-, were of metal.
Silver, however, afterwards came into use, and the greatest
number of ancient mirrors was made of that metal, as it is the
most fit of tlie unmixed metals for this purpose. Inferior mir-
rors were also made, some of a mixture of co]>pcr and tin, and
bset ; some of obsidian stone, and others of other substances.
Glass minors were most probably unknown to the ancients.
§ Metal mirrors are spoken of in the Bible, under the term looking-
gla-ss, as incorrectly translated.
DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, &C. 227
At Rome, as the satirists declare, no young woman was withoul a
silver mirror.
Tlie date of the invention of glass mirrors is somewhat a matter
of dispute. From Pliny, it is thought, that they were attempted in
the glass-house? of Tyre, but it does not appear that the experiments
he speaks of, wliatever they were, met with success ; and moreover,
it is certain, that tliough glass was used by tlie Komans, their mir-
rors were alludt d to among articles of plate.
Linen. — Linen, it is supposed, was fn?t manufactured in
Egypt. It is certain, that it was first obtained, and Europe
was for a long lime supplied, from that country ; and that the
invention was very ancient appears from the fact, that mum-
mies are generally found swathed in linen. The Greeks,
however, were unacquainted with it, and it was not until
the second century of the Christian era, that it was first intro-
duced into Rome. Before that period, the tunic or under gar-
ment of the Romans was made of wool.
Woollen. — The oiigin of the arts of spinning and weaving
is lost in the obsciuity of fable. The Egy{)tians ascribe the
invention to their Isis, and the Hindoos trace it to the remo-
test period of their fabulous history ; but this applies only to
cotton and flax ; for in those countries wool is not produced.
Yarro says, that the sheep was introduced into Greece by Her-
cules, and it is probable, that the first attempts to manufac-
ture wool in Europe, were made by the Atlienians. The
chief seat of the Roman manufacture was at Padua, whose
workmen are to this day highly celebrated.
§ Sheep came originally from Africa, but in that country, the ani-
mal bears hair instead of wool ; and it is only in colder countries
that its covering gradually acquires a woolly texture. It was long,
most probably, before sheep became domesticated in the northern
countries, whose inhabitants, living in immense woods, were con-
tented, for ages, with their fine furs. It was only till a late period of
ancient history, that the people of the north of Europe employed
artificial means of clothing.
Among botli the Greeks and Romans, spinning was the chief em-
ployment of the women. In weaving, the machinery, though perhaps
rude in its construction, was, in principle, siiuilur lo that still in use.
The process of fulling and preparing the dotli, ^('ems to have re-
sembled the modern practice in every essential point, except that of
shearing tlie nap, witli which tlie ancients do not appear to have been
acquainted.
Di/eing. — Few arts can lay claim to greater antiquity
than that of dyeing, and still fewer attained, in ancient times,
so great a degree of perfection. It certainly preceded paint-
228 ANCIENT HISTORY.
ing, and appears to have been known in the earliest ages of
the Jews, Babylonians, and Egyptians, who selected and ap-
plied colours for stuffs, cotton, linen, and silk, with the greatest
judgment and dexterity. These were extracted from the ani-
mal, vegetable, and mineral kingdom ; and without confining
themselves to cloth or silk, they dyed equally well, leather,
ivory, tortoise-shell, the hair of animals, wood, earth, wax,
and even imparted a permanent colour to marble.
Steel. — The invention of steel is of very great antiquity.
Although we do not find any distinct mention of it in the Old
Testament, still, it is clear, that it was known to the Greeks, in
the time of Homer, and received from them several names, the
most common of which was stomoma. Chalybs, was also a
name given to steel, from the Chalybes, a people inhabiting the
southern shore of the Euxme, between Cholcis and Paph-
lagonia, a country which was renowned for its works of iron
and steel.
§ The steel of the ancients was capable 0/ being hammered, and
was not near so brittle as the hardest with which we are acquainted.
These, and many other inventions and discoveries, which cannot
here be described, characterized ancient times ; but modern ages have
added greatly to the number, and improved many of those which
were before known.
OUTLINES
OF
ANCIENT AND MODERN
HISTORY,
ON A NEW PLAN,
EMBRACING
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS,
AND
GENERAL VIEWS
OF THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION. MILITARY
AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS,
AND SOCIETY, OF ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS.
BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS,
ACCOMPANIED BY A SERIES OF Q.UESTIONS,
AND ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRA VINOS.
TWO VOLUMES IN ONE.
VOL. IL
KIOHEHN HISTOn'Sr.
H A 11 T F O II D :
PUBLISHED BY EDAVARD HOPKINS.
SOLD BY WILLIAM D. TICKNOR, BOSTON' — J. I!. BUTLER, NORTHAMPTON A. S.
BECKWITH & CO., PROVIDENCE — II. HOWE & CO., A. II. MALTBY, AND S.
BABCOCK, NEW-I1AVE\— .\. & J. WHITE; LEAVITT, LORD & CO., AND ROE
LOCKWOOD, NEW-YORK— O. STEH.E AND W. C. LITTLE, ALBA \ Y— BENNETT
& BRIGHT, UTICA HOYT PORTER & CO., ROCHESTER MACK & ANDRUS,
ITHACA HOGAN & THOMPSON, PH I LADE LP 1 1 1 A CUSHING & SO ^ S, BALTI-
MORE—S. BABCOCK & CO. AND J. J. Mc'CARTER, CHARLESTON— AND LUKE
LOOMIS, PITTSBURG.
1835.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835,
By Edward Hopkins,
In the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut.
PREFACE.
Modern History presents so wide and varied a field,
that a volume of the ordinary size is scarcely adequate to the
purpose, of pointing out all even of the more striking objects
which such a field contains. Indeed, comparatively little can
be hoped to be achieved in a very condensed narrative of the
events of modern ages, on the common plan. It would be
apt to become a barren outline, or dry abstract, with little to
interest or instruct the mind of the reader, and this, almost
from the necessity of the case. The conciseness whicli is
studied would preclude all minute relation, and with that the
chief charm of history. The character of many publications
of this class, otherwise very valuable, has suffered from such
a cause. By the use of two sizes of type, this inconvenience
is remedied in a degree, if there be sufficient skill in the e <e-
cution ; and a considerable space within a given compass, is
thus allowed, for lively and entertaining matter not essen-
tially connected with the leading facts or frame-work of
liistory. The latter, necessarily dry in themselves, and having
few attractions for common minds, but very important (o
every one who would obtain a correct idea of the course rf
events, may be all confined to the larger type : and thus,
while a very brief epitome of history is presented in that
part, the reader is at the same time, by means of the smaller
type, made acquainted with details which will enliven the
nan'ative, and the better impress the more material facts on
his mind. This is one great advantage of reading history on
the plan of the present work — a plan which has of Lite been
adopted with much success ; — though the work possesses other
peculiarities, which, whether they are happy or not, the
PREFACE.
reader, it is believed, will not fail to perceive. The'autboi
would only add, that in preparing this outline of history, he
has consulted a large number of valuable authors, from
whom he has taken whatever was suited to his purposes, in
many instances with little variation even in language, though
he has generally endeavoured to maintain a homogeneous
style and manner — that he has exercised much care in select-
ing the materials and topics, and in connecting and arranging
them — that he has aimed at scrupulous fidelity in the state-
ment of facts, and impartiality in estimating their value —
and that he has occasionally interwoven in the narrative such
moral remarks, and attempted throughout to exhibit such a
spirit, as to render history not merely an agreeable exercise
to the understanding, but an impressive lesson to the heart.
CONTENTS.
Introduction,
General Remarks,
.
f
General Division.
Ten periods,
Period L
9
History of the Roman Empire,
: ,- • •
10
Jiidea,
• .
41
Partliia,
, .
44
Persia, . :
: : : •
45
China,
•
46
Distinguished Characters,
Period JI.
47
History of the Roman Empire, contmued, , . ,
61
Persia, continued, :
'. '. i .
ee
China, continued.
'. '. '.
67
Disdnguislied Characters,
Period in.
67
History of the Roman Empire, continued, : : ;
63
Kingdom of Italy,
.
76
Persia, continued,
• • « •
78
China, continued.
• • . •
78
Spain,
• • • •
79
France,
• .
80
England,
•
81
Distinguished Characters,
Period IV.
83
History of the Arabs or Saracens,
•
84
Eastern or Greek Empire,
•
89
Kingdom of Italy, continued.
90
Spain, continued,
• ■ •
92
Prance, continued, .
•
92
Distinguished Characters,
Period V.
96
History of the New Western Empire,
.
93
France, continued, .
•
102
Italy, continued,
• • •
105
Spain, continued;
.
106
Germany,
• * ♦ .
107
England, continued,
• • • •
111
Eastern Empire, continued,
. • .
119
Ciiina, continued,
•
120
Saracens, continued,
120
Distinguished Characters,
Period FT.
122
Crusades, . :
• •
125
History of France, continued, .
.
143
England, continued,
....
146
Germany, continued,
.
IM
Eiastorn Empire, continued, , . ,
157
Saracens, continued,
....
IW
China, continued,
• . . •
IM
Dtstinguished Characters,
.
111
Period Vn.
Hiitoiy of the Turkish Empire,
Italian Slates, continuecl,
France, continued, .
England, continued,
Germany, continued,
China, continued, .
Distinguished Characters,
Period Vm
History of the Turkish Empire, continued, .
Italian States, continued, . .
France, continued, . .
England, continued, . .
Germany, continued, . .
Spain, continued, . . .
Holland, , : . :
America, ....
Distinguished Characters,
Period IX.
History of France, continued, .
Great Britain, conthiued,' , .
Germany, continued, . .
Spain, continued,
Turkish Empire, continued,
British Colonies in Nortli America,
Russia,
Sweden,
Distinguished Cliaracters,
Period X.
History af Sweden, continued, .
Pnissi:i,
Germany, continued,
Poland,
Russia, continued, .
England, continued,
France, continued,
Italian Stiites, continued,
S|iain, continued,
Netherlands, contiiuied,
Turkish Empire, continued,
China, continued,
Persia, couiinueJ,
India, . .
United States,
South Americet, .
Disdnguished Characters,
General Views.
Feudal System, .... ....
Chivalry, .....•• t >
Romances, . ....••••
Pilgrimages, . : : : : ^ : _ . • •
Manners and Character of the Gothic or ScandinaTiDn nntinim . .
Learning and Arts, ........
Discoveries and Inventions, .......
Incidents and Curious Purt'culars, ......
Present state of several Nations in Agriculture^ Road% ConTcyaooefB, IntereonrBe,
E>lucation, Trade, Manufactures, &c .....
Christian Church, ...•.••
360
363
376
377
378
381
394
400
404
413
MODERN HISTORY.
INTRODUCTION.
Sec. 1. Writers who have divided History into Ancient
and Modern, are not agreed as to the most convenient sepa-
rating Hne between them. Some liave taken the subversion
of the Western Empire of the Romans as the dividing
period ; and others the establishment of the New Empire of
the West^ under Charlemagne. We however agree with a
third, and jjrobably a more numerous class, who adopt the
commencement of the Christian Era as the line of separa-
tion. In this there is an evident propriety.
2. It is the epoch from which civilized nations reckon time,
both backwards to the beginning of creation, and forwards to
the end of the world. Add to this, the event (the birth of
Christ) that forms this era, is the most important of events.
It has had a commanding influence upon all subsequent his-
tory. It has altered the aspect of all human affairs, and
it will alter them more and more, as Christianity becomes ex-
tended. Tiie state of the civilized world was also singular.
A change had taken place in the establishment of a mighty
despotism, which was destined to oppress the nations, through
many successive generations.
§ The period from which we commence Modern History, cannot
be contemplated with too deep an interest. It was a remarkable era
in Divine Providence. "The fullness of the time was come" — the
ancient order of things was drawing to a close, and new scenes in
the moral world, were henceforth to (je presented to the view of mar.
kind. It is therefore associated with our most solemn thoughts of
the dispensations of the Supreme Being towards his creatures. It
is the period whence we dale the commencement of the spiritual re-
novation of the world.
The state of the world, in a political point of view, also deserves
consideration. The principal nations were reduced under one head.
Wars and dissentions, of long continuance and infinite ferocity, ha-
nng terminated in one most formidable power, the whole earth en-
joyed an unheard of calm. Mankind, for a short time, tasted the
sweets of peace, though in servitude. One man was master of
8 MODERN HISTORY.
the lives and fortunes of all the rest, and therefore even the spirit ol
conquest could scarcely desire more.
3. The authenticity and the abundance of the materials
of modern history, will be hailed with peculiar satisfaction by
the inquirer after truth. A considerable portion of ancient
history is plunged into darkness and uncertainty, from a va-
riety of causes. And the scantiness, in some instances, of
the materials from which it is drawn, is often perplexing
But both the ecclesiastical and civil records of modern histo-
•y, illustrate, with desirable fullness, the state of the times.
Jt must be owned, however, that the rage of the barbarians
who subverted the Roman Empire, has deprived us of some
means of information which we should otherwise have pos-
sessed. But it is wonderful, after all, that so many monu-
ments of the earlier periods of modern history, have come
down to us.
§ Tlie causes that have operated to render some portions of an-
cient history obscure, are such as the lapse of numerous ages; a se-
ries of great revolutions, in consequence of which the memory of
• many events was lost ; the fury of barbarians, by which numerous
monuments of early times have been destroyed ; and more than all
the rest, the designed or accidental destruction of libraries.
Some noble collections of books perished before the Christian era,
particularly the celebrated library of Alexandria. This library was
founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 284 years B. C, and con-
sisted of a vast collection of records, histories, poems, and other
works. The number of volumes w^as reckoned at 400.000, and they
might have been as many as were in all the world beside. Before
the art of printing, books were comparatively scarce ; and of some,
there might have been no other copies than those contained in this
library. It perished in the flames of Alexandria, when Julius Caesar
took that city.
In later ages, large libraries have been destroyed, particularly the
same library at Alexandria after it was revived, and collections had
been made during several centuries. In the latter instance 700,000
volumes perished. But books by this time had been mucli more
multiplied, and though numerous destructions took place, many have
survived the wrecks of ages.
GENERAL DIVISION.
Modern History may be divided into ten periods. They have
each their peculiar characteristic, by which they may be always re-
membered, and by which distinct views of the subject are designed
to be imparted to the mind.
Period I, will extend from the Nativity of Jesus Clirist,
INTRODUCTION. 9
to the reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. 0. This
is the period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians.
Period II, will extend from the reign of Constantine the
Great, 306 years A. C, to the Extinction of the Western
Empire, 476 years A. C. This is the period of the Nor-
thern Invasions.
Period III, will extend from the Extinction of the Wes-
tern Empire, 476 years A. C, to the Flight of Mahomet,
622 years A. C. This is the period of the Justinian Code,
and the Wars of Belisarius.
Period IV, will extend from the Flight of Mahomet, 622
years A. C, to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800
years A. C. This is the period of the Establishment of the
Saracen Dominion.
Period V, will extend from the Crowning of Charle-
magne at Rome, 800 years A. C, to the First Crusade, x J95
years A. C. This is the period of the New Western Em,-
pire.
Period VI, will extend from the First Crusade, 1095
years A. C, to the Founding of the Turkish Empire. 1299
years A. C. This is the period of the Crusades.
Period VII, will extend from the Founding of the Tur-
kish Empire, 1299 years A. C, to the Taking of Constanti-
nople, 1453 years A. C. This is the period of the Papal
iSchis?7i.
Period VIII, will extend from the Taking of Constan-
tinople, 1453 years A. C, to the Edict of Nantes, (Nantzf)
1598 years A. C. This is the period of the Peformation.
Period IX, will extend from the Edict of Nantes, 1598
years A. C, to the Death of Charles XII, of Sweden, 1718
years A. C. This is the period of the English Com,mon-
iDealth.
Period X, will extend from the Death of Charles XII,
of Sweden, 1718 years A. C, to the final Restoration of the
Bourbons, 1815 years A. C. This is the period of the Ame-
rican and French Revolutions.
10 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
PERIOD I.
The period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians, extend
ing from the Nativity of Jesits Christ, to the Reign
of Constantine the Great, 306 A. C.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Sec. 1. The great event with which this period properly
commences, is the Birth of Jesus Christ. It belongs to
the Roman History, only from the fact that Judea, the coun-
try of Our Saviour, was held in subjection to Rome. It is
strictly an event of the Jewish History, and is hereafter to be
more fully noticed under that head.
Here it maybe mentioned only, that the Birtliof Jesus oc-
curred, according to the common reckoning, in the 31 st year of
the reign of Augustus, 752 years after the building of Rome,
and in the 195th Olympiad, under the consulship of Cains Ju-
lius Caesar. It is the general opinion of the learned, how-
ever, that our Saviour was born four years earlier than this
date, viz. in the 27th of Augustus, and that the common
reckoning or era is a mistake.
According to this opinion, Jesus, in the year 1, A. C, (the
vulgar date) was really four years old.
§ It is a circumstance worthy of remark, that the temple of Janus,
at Rome, which was always open in time of war, and shut only du-
ring peace, was shut at the period of our Saviour's birth, and that,
for the third instance only, during the space of more than 700 years.
2. Rome had been an empire in the more proper sense of
the word, from the beginning of the reign of Augustus. At
the time of the nativity of Christ, the empire was at the me-
ridian of its splendour, or perhaps a little past it. Most of the
nations had bowed to the Roman yoke ; and luxury and the
arts poured in upon the queen of cities.
It had been for some years the most powerful dominion of
the ancient world, and continued thus to be for several suc-
ceeding centuries. The times, however, were degenerate,
and the real strength of the Roman empire, if it had not be-
gun to diminish at this epoch, was certainly not greater than
during the last days of the repubhc. A few nations after-
wards were added to its sway, but these rather weakened than
augmented the power of Rome. The wide extent of its do-
ROMAN EMPIRE. H
minions, we shall hereafter see, was one of the causes of its
decline and downfall.
But the pomp and glory of so great a monarchy, continu-
ed long- after the seeds of weakness and decay were sown.
Distant nations admired and dreaded the splendid spectacle.
Ambassadors from every region daily arrived at Rome, to do ho-
mage to her greatness, or to seek her friendship and assistance.
3. Augustus, who first established a despotism over the
Roman people, died 14 years after the 1)1 rth of Christ. The
events which took place between the birth of Christ and the
death of Augustus, pertaining to the Romans, were neither
many nor important.
During this interval, Augustus adopted Tiberius, and fi-
nally associated him in the empire. Archelaus, king of Ju-
dea, was deposed, and that country became strictl}^ a Roman
province. Germanicus, grandson of Augustus, successfully
commanded in Pannonia, and Q,. Varus was signally defeat-
ed by the Germans, with the loss of three Roman legions.
4. Luxury and the arts having enervated the Roman peo-
ple, and the former civil wars and the consequent calamities
having paved the way for a different order of things, in the
quiet establishment of despotism under Augustus, their fate
from this time was fixed. He found no difficulty in riveting
thek chains, and for long ages, a series of despots, most of
them monsters of vice and cruelty, ruled with a rod of iron,
this once liberty-loving people, and mistress of nations.
§ Amidst the refinements and elegancies of modern times, con-
nected with our ideas of the progressive improvement of society, we
are perhaps inclined to overlook and undervalue the ages of antiqui-
ty. Many seem to forget what scenes of brightness and grandeur
have illumined the nations before us, and how mournfully those
scenes arc departed.
The pensive, contemplative mind, however, does justice to such a
subject ; and no instance of human greatness of old, strikes such a
'nind more forcibly, than that of the proud empire of Rome, under
tier Cffisars. The memorial is both pleasant and mournful to the
soul. The mixture of misery with its splendour, renders it, if any
thing, more touching and impressive.
5. Tiberius, who liad been named in the will of Augus-
tus as his successor, immediately assumed the government,
14 years A. C. He was the son of Augustus's wife, Livia,
ay a former husband, and had distinguished himself in war.
During the first eight or nine years of his reign, he put on
12 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
the appearance of justice and moderation, practising the most
consummate dissimulation. His vicious and tyrannical dispo'^i-
tion was indulged during this time in a very covert manner ; but
afterwards it was openly manifested, and carried to a most ter-
rible extreme. His cruelties and debaucheries were enormous.
The first objects of his suspicions were Agrippa Posthu-
mus, a grandson of Augustus, whom he ordered to be execu-
ted in compliance with the pretended will of that emperor ;
and the accomplished Germanicus, his nephew and distin-
guished general, whom he caused to be secretly poisoned. The
Roman people indulged in unbounded sorrow, upon the death
of Germanicus.
Afterwards, when he gave a loose to his passions, the best
blood in Rome flowed. By means of Sejanus, a Roman
knight whom he took into his confidence, and who exceeded
even Tiberius in dissimulation, he exercised the most shock-
ing cruelties towards his subjects. Sejanus first fell a victim
to his crimes, in attempting to assume the government him
self; and a few years after Tiberius was strangled or poison
ed by one of his oflficers.
§ From the 12th year of his reign, Tiberius was persuaded by Se
janus to abandon Rome, and to retire to the island of Caprea, as »
more convenient place for the indulgence of his indolence and de-
baucheries. His gloomy and cruel disposition also followed him
there, and by means of this base minion, he perpetrated all manner
of crimes.
At this time he was 67 years old, and the unpleasantness of his
person comported with the deformity of his mind. He was quite
bald in front ; his face was disgustingly ulcerated, and covered over
with plasters ; his body was bent forward, while its unnatural tallness
and leanness increased its ugliness. He now gave himselj' up to every
excess. He spent whole nights in eating and drinking, and he ap-
pointed two of his table companions to the first posts of the empire, for
no other merit, than that of having sat up with him two days and two
nights, without interruption. These he called his friends of all hours.
His libidinous indulgences were still more detestable, and the most
eminent women of Rome were obliged to sacrifice to him their virtue
and honour.
His jealousy, which fastened on persons of the highest distinction,
induced him to condemn them to death on the slightest pretences.
Indeed to such an extent were legalized murders carried, that he be-
gan to grow weary of particular executions, and therefore gave or-
ders that all the accused should be put to death together, without
further examination. The whole city of Rome was filled vdth
slaughter and mourning. The place of execution was a horrible scene ;
ROMAN EMPIRE. '13
dead bodies putrifying lay heaped on each other, while even the friends
of the wretched convicts were denied the satisfaction of weeping.
In putting to death sixteen out of twenty senators wlioni he had
chosen for liis council, he uttered a sentiment never to be forgot-
ten in the records of human cruelty. " Let them hale me, so long
as they obey me." This monster often satisfied his eyes, with the
tortures of the wretches who were put to death before him ; and in
the days of Suetonius, the rock was still shown from which he or-
dered such as displeased him to be thrown headlong.
He died in the .seventy-eighth year of liis age, and twenty-third
of his reign. 37 A. C.
G. At this time the Romans were arrived at the highest
pitcli of cfleniiiiacy and vice. The wealtli of ahnost every
nation in the empire, liavinij long circulated through the
city, brought with it the luxuries peculiar to each country.
Rome was one vast mass of pollution, and sensuality. It
was thought a refinement upon pleasure to make it unnatu-
ral. Abating their genius, there never was a more detesta-
ble people, than the Romans at this epoch, and indeed, du-
ring the continuance of the empire. Cruelty and lust were
essential ingredients in the Roman character.
§ It was a burst of joj', says Chateaubriand, which Tiberius was
unable to repress, on finding the Roman people and senate sunk
below even the baseness of his own heart.
Again, according to this writer, death formed an essential part of
tiie festivities of the Romans. It was introduced as a contrast, and
for the purpose of giving a zest to the pleasures of hfe. Gladiators,
courtezans, and musicians, were procured to enliven entertainments.
A Roman on quitting a iiaunt of infamous pleasure, went to enjoy
the spectacle of a wild beast devouring human victims, and quaffing
their blood.
7. Cahgula had been adopted by Tiberius foi' his heir and
successor in the empire. He was the son of Germanicus,
and grand-nephew of Tiberius, and so called from Caliga.
a short buslcin wliich he wore, in imitation of tlie common
sentiiiels. He commenced his reign immediately on the
death of Tiljerius, 37 years A. C. and at liis accession, was
\ popidar from the virtues of his father.
He connnenccd his reign with a show of clemency and
* moderation. He restored some of the forms of the republic
• which his predecessor had entirely disregarded, and he abol-
' iahed arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But t)a*anni-
cal by nature, in less than eight months he acted out liis
real disposition, in cruelties, extortions, and impieties, which
' surpassed even those of Tiberius.
2
14 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I.
Joining absurdity and extravagance to vice, he became
supremely contemptible, as well as detestable. Indeed, his
follies and absurdities were peculiar to himself, so that accord-
ing to an idea of Seneca, he was one of those productions oi
nature, in which there was the greatest possible combination
of vice and power. He died by assassination, in the fourth
year of his reign and 29th of his age. A. C. 41.
§ Among the cruelties of this imperial monster, were his murder
of Gemellus his kinsman, of Sileniis his father-in-law, of Grecinus
a senator of noted integrity, who refused to witness falsely against
Silenus ; afterwards, his killing many of the senate, and then citing
them to appear as if they had killed themselves ; indeed, the sacri-
fice of crowds of victims to his avarice, or suspicion.
He condemned many persons of the highest quality to dig in the
mines, and to repair the high-ways, for ridicuhng his profusion
He cast great numbers of old and infirm men, and poor decrepid
housekeepers, to wild beasts, in order to free the state from such un-
serviceable citizens. He frequently had men racked before him
while he sat at table, ironically pitying their misfortunes, and blam-
ing their executioner. And as the height of insane cruelty, he once
expressed the wish " that all the Roman people had but one neck,
that he might dispatch them at a single blow."
His impieties, and the depravation of his appetites, made him
still more a disgrace to human nature. He claimed divine honours,
and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to be offered to him-
self, as a God. He caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter and
some other gods to be struck off, and iiis own to be put in their
places. He emploj'ed many inventions to imitate thunder, ana
would frequently defy Jupiter, crying out in a sentence of Homer
" Do you conquer me or I will conquer you." Scarcely any lady
of quality in Rome escaped his depraved solicitations. He com-
mitted incest with his three sisters, two of whom he prostituted to
his vile companions, and then banished them, as adulteresses and
conspiritors against his person.
His follies and prodigality completed the infamy of his charac-
ter. The luxuries of the former emperors were trifling, compared
to his. He invented dishes of immense value, and had even jewels
dissolved among his sauces. He sometimes had services of pure
gold, instead of meat, presented before his guests ; observing, "that a
man should be an economist or an empercu-."
For his favorite horse Incitatus, he built a stable of marble, and
a manger of ivory ; and appointed it a house, furniture, and a
kitchen, in order to a respectful entertainment of its visitors. Some-
times indeed, the emperor invited Incitatus to his ovv^n table ; and It
is said tliat he would have appointed it to the consulship, had he
r»ot been prevented by death.
Tliese and a thousand other follies, particularly the building of a
bridge three miles and a half across an arm of the sea in a ridicu-
TIOTMAN EMPIRE. 15
}oiis mannc?r, and which the first storm annihilated, constituted such
a drain upon tlie public resources, as became exceedingly oppressive,
df a fortune of £18,000,000 sterling left by Tiberius, none remained
in a space little beyond one year. He of course put in practice all
kinds of rapine and extortion. Professor Heeren remarks, that
" he was more pernicious to the state by his insane prodigality,
than by his savage cruelty."
Against such awretch, wenaturally look for treason and conspiracies.
After several attempts, his death was at length accomplished by Cassius
Cherea. tribune of the praetorian bands, who was an ardent lover of
freedom. Leagued with a number of conspn^ators, he met the em-
peror in a little vaulted gallery that led to one of his baths, and
struck him to the ground, crying out, " tyrant, think upon this."
He was inmied lately dispatched by the other conspirators, who
rushed in and pierced him with thirty wounds.
8. A temporary confusion followed the death of Caligula,
and ill this crisis of affairs, the senate attempted to restore
the lepublic. But the spirit of Roman liberty had lied ; the
populace, and in general the army, opposed the design.
Claudius at this juncture, having been accidentally found
in a lurking place, to which he had repaired through fear,
some of the praetorian guards proclaimed him emperor, at
the moment he expected nothing but death ; 41 A. C.
Claudius was the uncle of Caligula, and grand son of Mark
Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus.
Claudius was a man below mediocrity in understanding
and education ; and his capacity for business was even con-
temptible. He became almost of course infamous for his vi-
ces, and the dupe of his associates and even of his domestics.
Many were the cruelties committed during his reign, though
ihey seem to have been suggested principally l)y his wicked
directors, among whom was the notorious Messalina, his wife.
§ The stupidity of Claudius was siicli, that he was alike indifferent,
whatever was done, and often was he .so operated upon by his fears,
that he would consent to any act however unjust. His own family
on one pretence or another was almost exterminated, and great num-
bers of otliers fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of IVIcssalina and her
minions, who ruled him at will. Tiie historian, Suetonius, assures
us, that there were no less than thirty-five Senators and above three
hundred knights, executed in Ins reign.
One enterprise of importance marked his reign, and that
was his expedition into Britain, 43 A. C He imdertook to
reduce the island, and after visiting it in person, left his gene-
rals, Plautius ai>d Vespasian, to prosecute a war, which waa
carried on for several years with various success. The Silure*
16' MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I.
or inhabitants of South Wales, under their king, Caractacus,
(Caradoc,) made a spirited resistance, though without avail in
the end. Their king wals led captive to Rome.
Messahna advanced in boldaess as in profligacy, but her
excesses became the occasion of her destruction. The em-
peror was persuaded to j)ut lier to deai.h for her shameless in-
lidehty to him. Afterwards he married Agrippina, the daugh-
ter of his brother Germanicus, who had poisoned her former
husband, and who at length poisoned him.
Making every effort to secure the succession to tlie empire
to her son Domitius Aenobar!)us. (culled Nero,) she prevail-
ed on Claudius to adopi him, and then effecting tlie death of
her husband, she opened the way to the throne for one, who
was destined to exceed in wickedness, if that were possible,
any that went before him. Claudius was put to deatli in the
fifteenth year of his reign and sixty-thu'd of his age.
§ Among the illustrious sufferers iu the rcigu of Claudius, were
Petus and his faithful Arria, whose story ought not lo he passed over.
Cecina Petus associated in the revolt of Caniillu^, had endeavoured
to escape into Dalmatia. Being apprehended, h ' was conveyed in
a ship to Rome. Arria, who had been long the partner of his affee-»
tions and misfortunes, entreated his keepers, to be taken in the same
•/essel.
" It is usual," said she, " to grant a man of his quality a few slaves
to dress, and undress, and attend him ; but I will perform all these
ofnces, and save you the trouble of a more numerous retinue." Her
fidelity, however, could not prevail. She therelbre hired a fisher-
.nan's bark, and thus kept company with the ship in which her hus-
band was conveyed, through the voyage.
They had an only son, equally beautiful and virtuous. This youth
died at the time his father was confined to his bed, by a dangerous
disorder. However, the affectionate Arria concealed her son's deatli,
and in her visits to her husband, manifested her usual cheerfulness.
Being asked how her son did, she replied that he was calm, and only
left her husband's chamber to give vent to her tears.
When Petus was condemned to die liy his own hands, Arria
used every art to inspire him with resolution ; and at length finding
him continue timid and wavering, she took thepoinard, and stabbing
herself in his presence, presented it to him saying, " it gives me no
pain, my Petus."
9. Rome at this era contained nearly seven millions inhabi-
ta,nts, a number so prodigious that nothing but the best evi-
dence could prevent our doubt of its accuracy. Corruption
and luxury were excessive. The Roman miUtary spirit,
ROMAN EMPIRE. I7
though nmoh relaxed, still continued to awe mankind, by the
terror of its nn-ne.
10. Nero ClaiKlius, (the name he assumed,) the son of
AgripjDina, succeeded to tlie empire (54 A. C.) under favora-
ble circumstances, and like his predecessors, for a short time,
promised to govern with moderation and justice. So well
did he conceal his innate depravity, that scarcely any sus-
pected that his viitues were feigned.
The care of h's education had been entrusted to Seneca,
the famous philosoplier, though he seemed not to have pro-
fited under his instructer any otherwise than to become af-
fected and pedantic. Wliile, however, he w^as controled by
Seneca, and Burrhuss captain of the praetorian guards, a wor-
thy and experienced oiTicer, Nero appeared just and humane ;
but he could not long restrain the feelings of his base nature.
At t!ie expiration of five years, he broke over all the bounds
of decency and moderation, and pursued a course of conduct
exceeding in puerility, levity, ferocity, and tyrarmy, what-
ever had been done before him. He became one of the most
odious characters recorded in histor}^. His flagitiousness was
manifested in the murder of bis mother, his wife Octavia,
his tutor Seneca, and Lucan the poet, and Burrbuss his bene-
factor ; in extirpating many of the principal families of
Rome on suspicion of treason ; in sotting the city on fire,
charging the crime on the christians, and then punishing
them with unheard of tortures; and in unnumbered other
acts in which he outraged reason, and nature itself.
His meanness and puerility almost surpass behef, and
Rome contained not another so despicable a wretch in the
char;icter of an actor, musician or gladiator. At length hav-
ing become an object of perfect hatred and contempt, a re-
bellion of his subjects headed i)y Vindcx, an illustrious Gaul,
and Galba who commanded in Spain, crushed this imperial
monster, in the thirtieth year of his age, after a reign of four-
teen years, A. C. 69. Too cowardly to kill himself, he died
by the hand of a slave, just as he was on the point of being
taken, and delivered up to public justice.
§ The burning of Rome I.)y Nero was an act of mere wantonness.
Some one Isappening to say in Iiis presence, that the world might be
burnt when he was dead, "Nay," replied Nero, "let it be burnt
while I am living." Accordingly, as most historians report, he set it
On fire, and standing upon a hisjh tower, he indulged the pleasure ol
- 2*
18 MODERN HISTORY.^ — PERIOD I.
fancying it a representation of the burning c r Troy. The confla-
gration continued nine days, and a great pan of tlie city was con-
sumed.
A conspiracy formed against him by Piso, but which was prema-
turely discovered, opened a train of suspicions, that ahnost turned
Rome into a field of blood. All who were implicated or suspected
of being so, he executed without mercy. It was at this time that
Seneca and Lucan suffered.
No master was secure from the vengeance of his slaves, nor even
parents from the baser attempts of their children. Not only
throughotit Rome, but the whole surrounding country, bodies of sol-
diers were seen in pursuit (^f tlie suspected and the guilty ; whole
crowds of wretches loaded with chains, were led every day to the
gates of the palace, to wait their sentence from the tyrant's own lips,
who always presided at the tortures in person, attended by Tigelli-
nus, one of the most abandoned men in Rome, but now his principal
minister.
" The principal leason why the despotism of Nero and his pre-
decessors was so quietly borne by the nation, lay in the fact, that a
great part of them \vere fed by the emperors. From the monthly
distributio-n of corn of the times of the republic, there now sprang
up the extraordinary coriQ-iaria (gifts in corn or money) and vi-
cerationes (distributions of raw flesh.) The times of tyranny
were generally the golden days of the rabble."
During the reip:ii of Nero, the Britons, under their tjueen
Boadicea revolted, and defeated the Romans with tlie loss of
70,000 men. The latter, however, avenged this loss at length
by the slaughter of 80,000 Britons, which completely broke
the British spirit and power.
A war was also carried on against the Parthians, under
the conduct of Coi])ulo, who obtained many victories over
fhem. About this time also, ()7 A. C, the Jews, who had
revolted under the tyranny of Florus the Roman governor,
were massacred in great numbers.
11. Galba, who was associated with Vindex, in the in-
surrection which issued in tiie destruction of Nero, succeeded
the latter in the empire {)8 A. C. Yindex, at the comnumce-
ment of his revolt, generously proclaimed Galba emperor,
and after the death of Nero, both the senate and the legions?
under his command, sanctioned this measure.
Before his elevation mankind thought well of Galba. His
descent was illustrious. His reputation as a commander
tood high, and no stain was cast on his courage or virtue.
Compared with his predecessors, he was certainly a respecta-
ble emperor. In seeking to accomplish two important ob
ROMAN EMPIRE 19
jects, viz.. the punishment of the enormous vices then preva-
lent, and the replenishing of the treasury, he was unduly
severe ; and as he was natuially parsimonious, he became
an object of contempt and ridicule.
§ It was impolitic in Galba, to think of making the Roman people
pass at once from the extreme of luxury to that of sobriety and
economy. The state was too much corrupted to admit of such an
immediate and total change. Tlie emperor's intentions, however,
sliould have shielded him from reproach ; and had he not suffered
his assistants to abuse his confidence, and had he been a little more
e(|ual, moderate, and conciliatory in his administration, he would
have been as well thought of when an emperor, as he was when a
private person.
It is mentioned as an instance of his severity, that upon some dis-
respectful treatment of liim from a certain body of his subjects, he
ordered a l)ody of horse attending him to ride in among them, and
thus killed 7000 of them, and afterwards decimated tlie survivors.
His parsimony is indicated by the follov/ing circumstances. He
once groaned upon having an expensive soup served up for him at
his table. To a steward for his fidelity he presented a plate of
beans. And a famous player upon llie liute, named Canus, having
greatly delighted him, he drew out liis purse and gave him five-
pence, telling him it was private and not public money. His popu-
larity sunk by such ill-timed parsimony. Through his love of
money, some notorious villains purchased their safety.
Galba reigned only seven months. He perished in the
seventy-third year of his age, in conseqxience of the attempt
of Otlio, one of his generals, to obtain the throne. Otho ex-
pected to be adopted by Galba for his successor ; Ijut the
emperor, discarding ail favouritism, sought the good of the
empire by nominating tlie virtuous Pioo. Otho consequent-
ly had recourse to arms, and thus accomplished the death both
of Gal!)a and Piso.
12. Otlio was now raised to tite throne, having received
from the senate the titles usually given to the emperors, 69
A. C. He began his reign with several signal acts of mercy
and of justice. The character of this prince, an unusual oc-
rurrence, was improved by advancement; in a private station
he, was all that was detestable : but as an emperor he ap-
[M.'arcd courageous, benevol(;nt, and humane.
The good course, however, which he had marked out for
himself, was soon terminated. He reigned only ninety-five?
days. Vitellius, who had been proclaimed emperor l)y his
army in Germany, gave Otho battle at a place near Mantua,
20 MODERN HISTORV. PERIOD I.
where the army of the latter was defeated, and he in a fit of
despair ended his life l)y his own hand, 69 A. G.
§ Otho was descended from the ancient kings of Etruria.
It has been observed that the last moments of Otlw's hfe were
those of a philosopher. He comforted his soldiers who lamented
his fortune, and he expressed his concern for their safety, when they
earnestly solicited to pay him the last friendly offices before he stab-
bed himself; and he observed that it was better for one man to die,
than that all should be involved in ruin for his obstinacj'.
No circumstance, however, can excuse the crime of suicide, a
vice which was awfully prevalent among the Romans.
13. Vitellius, upon his success, assumed the goverumenl
69 A. C, hut he retained it only eight months. This wretch
was not more given to cruelty, than to tlie infamous indul-
gence of his appetites. Like Nero, he abandoned himself to
every species of flagitiousness and excess.
He perished justly. Vespasian, who at this time com-
manded the Roman army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor
by his legions. Entering Ital}^, a great part of the coimtry
submiltted to his arms, and even ViteHius meanly capitu-
lated to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. 1^1118
act of cowardice rousmg the indignation of the people, he
was compelled to oppose Vespasian by force, but without
effect. One of the generals of the coiujueror took possession
of Rome ; and Vitellius, falling into the hands of a party of
the enemy, was ignominiously put to death.
§ Instances of the cruel di.-<position of this emperor are the follow-
ing. Going to visit one of his associates who was in a violent fever,
he mingled poison with his water, and delivered it to him with his
own hands, in order to obtain his possessions. He never pardoned
money-lenders who presumed to demand payment of his forme
debts; but taking awaj' their lives he both cancelled their claims
and succeeded to tlieir estate.
A Roman knight being dragged away to execution, and crying
out that he had made the emperor his heir, Vitellius demimded to
see the will, where finding himself joint inheritor witii another, he
ordered both to be executed, that he miglit enjoy the legacy alone.
Gluttony, however, was his predominant vice. In order to be able
to renew his meals at pleasure, he brought himself to au lial)it of
vomiting. His entertainments were prodigiously expensive ; but
oftener to others, than to himself. It has been remarked that had
he reigned long, the whole empire would not have been sufficient to
maintain his table.
In one particular dish, did this imperial glutton out-do all the for-
mer profusion of the most luxurious Romans. This was of .such
magnitude as to be called the shield of Minerva, and was filled with
ROMAN EMPIRE. 21
a medley, made from the air-bladders of the fish called scarri, (he
brains of pheasants and woodcocks, the tongues of the most costly
birds, and tlie spawn of lampreys brought from the Carpathian sea.
14. Vespasian, having been declared emperor, by the
unanimous consent of the senate and the army, 70 A. C.
was received with the greatest joy on his arrival at Rome.
Though of mean descent, he deserved the pm-ple, and reign-
ed during ten years, Avith great popularity. He was distin-
guished by clemency, alFability, and a simple, frugal mode of
life. His frugality, hoAvevcr, bordered upon avarice, A\hich
was the principal defect of his character.
In his administration of government, he acted under the.
fonns of the republic, and even restored the senate to its de-
liberative rights. The famous war against the Jews, was
terminated during the reign of Vespasian, by the arms of his
son Titus. After this, the empire was in profound peace, and
the emperor, having associated Titus in the government, soon
departed this hfe, to the universal regret of the Roman peo-
ple, in the 70th year of his age, 79 A. C.
§ It was some time before Vespasian could give security and
peace to the empire. When this object was effected, he began to
cbrrect the abuses Avhlch had grown up under the tyranny of his
predecessors. He restrained the licentiousness of the army — degra-
<!ed such senators as were unworthy of their station — abridged the
ledious processes in the courts of justice — re-edified such parts of
the city as had suffered in the late commotions — and extended his
paternal care over all parts of the empire.
Vespasian was liberal in the encouragement of learning and the
arts. He was particularly kind to .Tosephus, the Jewish historian.
Quintillian and Pliny, who flourished in his reign, were highly es-
teemed by him ; and indeed the professors of every liberal art or
science, were sure to experience his bounty.
He died liy disease, a death quite unusual with the masters of
Rome. Taken with an indisposition at Campania, which from the
beginning he declared would be fatal, he cried out in the spirit of pa-
ganism, "Metlunks I am going to be a god." AVhen brought to the
last extremity, and perceivmg that he was about to expire, he decla-
red that an emperor ought to die standing: and therefore raising him-
self upon his feet, he breathed his last in the arms of his supporters.
15. Titus succeeded to the empire upon the death of his
father. 79 A. C. His character is celebrated as that of a
highly humane, just and generous prince. He so devoted
himself to acts of beneficence, that recollecting one evening
that he had done none during the day, he exclaimed, "O, my
friends, I have lost a day !" His reign was a short, but pros
^2 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
perous and happy one. He died in his 41st year, having,-
reigned but little more than two years. His brother Domi-
tian was suspected as being the author of his death.
§ Before he came to the throne, his character was thought not to
be "unexceptionable ; but whatever vices he had indulged in, he
seems to have abandoned upon tliat event. It is related as an in-
stance of the government of his passions, that he relinquished the
hand of liis beloved Berenice, sister to king Agrippa, a woman ol
the greatest beauty, and the most refined allurements. Knowing
that the connection with her was disagreeable to the Roman people,
he conquered his affections, and sent her away, notwithstanding
their mutual affection, and all her arts.
He was so tender of the lives of his subjects, that he took upon
him the office of Higli Priest, in order to keep his hands undefiled
with blood. He so little regarded such as censured or abused him,
that he was heard to say, " When I do nothing worthy of censure,
wliy should I be displeased at it ?"
During his reign, Rome was three days on fire, without intermis-
sion ; and this was followed by a plague, in which 10,000 persons
were buried in a day. Titus, from his own resources, repaired the
devastations of the city, and in all respects acted as a father to his
people in their calamities. About this time the towns of Campania
\vere destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. Upon this occasion
Pliny, the naturalist, lost his life, by venturing too near the volcano.
When Titus was taken ill, he retired into t^he country of the Sa-
bines, to his father's house. There his indisposition was increased
by a burning fever. Modestly lifting his eyes to heaven, though
with a spirit which christianitj'- cannot approve, and without th^
hope it inspires, he complained of the severity of his fate, which
was about to remove him from the world, where he had been em-
ployed in making a grateful people happy.
Domitian has incurred the suspicion of hastening his brother's
end, by ordering him to be placed, during his agojiy, in a tub full of
snow, where he expired.
1.5-2 Domitian, upon the death of his brother, assumed the
purple, 81 A. C. The beginning of his reign promised acoa-
tinuance of their happiness to the Roman people. But the
scene soon changed, and Domitian became a most execrable
villain and tyrant. He condemned to death many of the
most illustrious Romans, and witnessed, Avith the most fero-
cious pleasure, the agonies of his victims. He caused him-
self to oe styled God and Lord, in all the papers that were
presented to him. Though not destitute of learning himself,
he banislted the philosophers from Rome.
His reign was an era of prodis^ality and luxury, as well as
of inhumanity and baseness. The people were loaded witb
ROMAN EMPIRE. 23
insupportable taxes, to furnish spectacles and games for their
amusement. His leisure was spent in the most degrading
pursuits. One of the most constant occupations of his pri-
vate hours, was the catching and killing of i''es.
In his reign occurred the second great persecution of the
christians, (that under Nero being tlie first) in which 40,000
of that profession were destroyed.
His general, Agricola, met with signal success in the ex-
pedition against Britain, though Domitian derived liO renown,
but rather disgrace from it, in consequence of his ungrateful
treatment of Agricola. After a reign of 15 years, he was
assassinated at the instigation of his wife.
^ To the senate and nobility, Domitian was particularly hostile,
frequently threatening to extirpate them all. He delighted to ex-
pose them both to terror and ridicule. He once assembled the au-
gust body of the senate, to know in what vessel a turbot might be
most conveniently dressed.
At another time, inviting them to a public entertainment, he received
them all very formally at the entrance of his palace, and introduced
them into a large gloomy hall, hung with black, and lighted with a
few glimmering tapers. All around nothing was to be seen t)ut cof-
fins, with the name of each of tlie senators written upon ihem, and
other frightful objects, and instruments of execution.
While the company beheld all these preparations with silent
agony, on a sudden, a number of men burst into the room, clothed
in black, with drawn swords and flaming torches, and after they
had for some time terrified the guests, a message from the emperor,
gave thf" company leave to retire.
His death had been predicted by the astrologers. This circum-
stance save him the most tormenting inquietude. His jealousies
increasing with a sense of his guilt, he was afraid by day and by
night ; and in proportion to his fears, he became more cruel. His
stern air and fiery visage, directed and added poignancy to the tor-
tures of his enemies. The gallery in which he was accustomed to
walk, he ordered to be set round Avitli a ])el!ucid stone, which served
as a mirror, to reflect the persons of all such as approached him from
beliind. But hap]iily all iiis ])recautions Mere unavailing.
"The fall of Domitian," says Heeren, "confirms the result of uni-
' versal experience, that a tyrant has little to fear from the people,
out so much the more from individuals, whose throats are in dan-
ger."
His wife Domitia, having accidently discovered that her name
was on the li.st of those whom he intended to put to death, at once
concerted measures to secure her safety by the destruction of the
emperor. Engaging some of the officers of his household, and others
who were also on the proscribed list, to enter into her plan, she had
the good fortune soon to learn, that he was dispatched at midnight
24 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
in one of the most secret recesses of his palace, whither he had re-
tired to rest.
The twelve Ccesars, as they have been denominated in
history, ended with Domitian. In this niuuber, however.
JuHus Cfesai is included, although Augustus w^as the first
emperor strictly so called, and Nero was the last emperor of
the Augustan family,
16. Nerva was elected emperor by the senate, upon the
death of Domitian, 96 A. C. He was the first Roman
emperor of foreign extraction, (being a native of Crete), and
chosen on account of his virtues. His advanced age and the
clemency of his die^position, with perhaps a want of energ}'^,
unfitted him to stem the torrent of corruption, and to cure
the disorders of the empire. He however, adopted the ex-
cellent Trajan as his succes;-or, and thus rendered a service
to mankind which his adnnnistration otherwise could nevei
have accomplished. He died 98 A. C. in the seventy-se-
cond year of his age, having reigned sixteen months.
§ During his short reign, Nerva made several good laws and regu-
lations, and in every respect conducted himself like an indulgent fa-
ther to his people. No statues would he permit to be erected to
his memory, and he converted into money, such of Domitian's as
had been spared by the senate. He sold many rich robes, and
much of tlie splendid furnitxire of the palace, and retrenclied seve-
ral unreasonable expenses at court, yet he was not at all avaricious
of money.
The following is a striking instance of his lenity. He had so-
: lemnly sworn that no senator of Rome should be put to death by
his cnuiraand, during his reign, from any cause Avhatever.
This oatli he observed with such sanctity, that when two sena-
tors had conspired his deatli, he sent for them, and carried them
with him to the public tlieatre. There presenting each a dagger,
he desired tliem to strike, as he was determined not to ward off the
blow.
17. Trajan, now in the possession of the throne, 9S A. (\
was a native of Seville in Spain. He proved to be one of
Rome's l)est sovereigns, splendid, warlike, munificent, cour-
teous, and modest. The few vices he possessed were scarcely
noticed amidst the blaze of his virtues, and the fame of his
exploits. Tliis, perhaps, is an instance of human infirnuty
in the estimation of character, since no vice should pass ur;-
condemned. Tt is a matter of deep regret, that liis equit}',
so visible in other respects, should be implicated by his con-
duct towards the Christians, whom he suflfered to be mo-
ROMAN EMPIRE. 36
tested. The third great persecution of them took place during
his re'igw.
The boundaries of the empire were greatly enlarged by
the victories of Trajan, in Dacia and the East. They never
were so extensive, either before or after his time. The em-
•.pire, however, was not improved l^y these conquests ; it soon
lost them, for the conquered countries immediately re-appeared
in arms, and ai length effected their independence.
Learning and learned men were signally encouraged by the
emperor's liberality. His public works are also much cele-
brated. By his direction, the column still to be seen un-
.der the name of Trajan's column, was erected. It is one of
the most remarkable monuments of ancient Rome. He died
rafter a reign of nineteen years, at ihe age of sixty-three,
lis A. C.
§ It was a characteristic of Trajan, that he so little feared his
enemies, tliat he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had any.
Being once told that his favorite. Sura, was false to him ; Trajan,
to show how much he relied upon his fidelity, Avent in his ordinary
manner to sup with him. There he commanded Sura's surgeon to
.-be brought, Avhom he ordered to take off the hair about his eye-
brows. He then made the barber shave his beard, after which, he
went unconcerned into the bath as usual. The next day, when
Sura's accusers were renewing their complaints ; Trajan informed
them how he had spent the night, remarking, that "if Sura, had any
designs against his life, he had then the fairest opportunity."
The first war in which the emperor was engaged, Avas with the
.Dacians, who, in the reign of Domitian, had committed numerous
ravages upon the provinces. Trajan, suddenly appearing in arms
on the frontiers of their country, awed them at once into a treaty of
peace. As, however, this was soon after violated, he entered the
hostile territory, and obtained a complete victory, though with a
prodigious .slaughter of liis troops ; and Dacia became a Roman
province. At his return to Rome he entered the city in triumph ;
and tlie rejoicings for his victories lasted for the space of one hundred
and twenty daj's,
'i'vajan aferwards turned his arms eastward and speedily reduced
Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Assyria, and took Ctesiphon, the capi-
tal of the Parthian empire. At length, sailing down the Persiaji
gulpli, he entered the Indian ocean, conquering even the Indies ;
part of which he annexed to the Roman empire. This enterprise,
which, at one time, he intended to pursue to the confines of the
■ earth, he was obliged to relinquish on account of the inconveniences
. pf increasing age.
Preparing to return to his capital in a style of unparalleled mag-
,*a'.ficencej he was unable from infirmity to reach home ; and he died
3
2b MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
in the city of Seleucia, having refused to nominate a successor, le<5t
he should adopt a person that was unworthy.
It may serve to show liow highly Trajan was esteemed bj'' his
subjects, that it was the practice, during two hundred years in
blessing his successors, to wish them " the fortune of Augustus, and
the goodness of Trajan."
18. Adrian succeeded Trajan 118 years A. C. The
wife of Trajan forged a will in tlie emperor's name, declar-
ing Adrian iiis successor. Tliis designation was supported
by the army, and Adrian ventured to assume the govern-
ment. This emperor was a nephew of Trajan, and in most
respects worthy of being his successor. He chose to cultivate
rather the arts of peace than war, and judging that the hmits
of the empire were too extensive, he abandoned all the con-
quests of Trajan, and bounded the eastern provinces by the
river Euphrates. He was, however, remarkably expert in
military discipline.
During an expedition of thirteen years, he visited in per-
son all the provinces of his empire, and dispensed wherever
he went the blessings of peace, justice, and order. In his ca-
pacity as a sovereign, he rendered important services to his
subjects — in private life, however, it is said that his virtues
were mingled with an alloy of vices, arising chiefly from ir-
resolution. He indulged in vanity, envy, and detraction, in a
degree which was too manifest to be paUiated in a person of
his exalted station. His virtues, however, were predominant,
and Rome had few better emperors. His general knowledge,
and hi? taste in tlie arts, were highly honourable in a sovereign.
He died in the seventy-second year of his age, A. C. 138.
§ Among his exploits, it is known that when he came to Britain,
lie built a wall of wood and earth, between the modern towns oi
Carlisle and Newcastle, eighty miles in length, to protect the Britons
from the incursions of the Caledonians. In a war with the Jews,
he killed in battle five hundred and eighty thousand of that people
w!io had become rebellious, and built a city on the ruins of Jerusa-
ein which he called Aelia Capitolina. In performing his long
marches with his army, Adrian generally travelled on foot, and went
without any covering on his liead.
His cliaracter was'in many respects extraordinary, and none of
the Roman emperors excelled him in variety of endowments. He was
highly skilful in all the exercises both of body and mind. He was an
author, orator, matliematician, musician and painter. His memory
was so retentive, that he recollected every incident of his life, and
he know all the soldiers of his army by name.
He was the first emperor who wore a long beard, a fashion which
ROMAN EMPIRE. 27
he adopted to hide the warts on his face. His successor followed
his example for the sake of ornament.
Though Adrian aimed at universal reputation, he strictly attended
to the duties of his station. Through his cares he began to fail in
health and strength, and adopting for his successor Titus Antoninus,
he sought the repose which lie needed. His bodily infirmities how-
ever, daily increased, and his pain becoming nearly insupportable,
he vehemently desired death. Antoninus with difficulty persuaded
him to sustain life, though the emperor frequently cried out in his
agonies, " How miserable a thing is it to seek death, and not to find
it." Alas ! how pointed is the moral, that no station, however ex-
alted, can exempt one from the infirmities of life and the sting of
death. As he was expiring, the emperor repeated the following
lines, as translated into English.
O fleeting spirit, wand'ring lire,
Tliat long has wanned my tender breast,
Wilt thou no more my frame inspire 1
No more a pleasing cheerful guest 1
Whither, ah ! whitlier art thou flying 1
To what dark, undiscovered shore ?
Thou scemcst all trembling, shivering, dying,
And wit and humour are no more.
tjis reign was a prosperous one of twenty-two years. He died 139
A. Caged seventy-two.
19. Titus AiUoninns, stirnamed Pius, liaving been adopt-
ed by Adrian, succeeded to the emjDire 138 A. C. His vir-
tues were an ornament to human nature, and conferred innu-
merable blessings on mankind. He preferred peace to con-
quest, and yet whenever war became necessary, he carried
it on with vigour anti success. He was conspicuous for jus-
tice and clemency, and his love of the religion of his country.
His reign was marked by few events, as the reigns of
peaceable monarchs usually are. The most remarkable for-
eign occurrences were the enlargement of the province of
Britain by the conciuests of Urbicus, and the suppression of
some forminable rebellions in Germany, Dacia, and the East.
He died at the age of seventy-foiu", having reigned twenty-
two years. A. C. 161.
§ Such was the munificenco of Antoninus, that in cases of famine
or inundation, he supplied with his own money the wants of the
sufferers. Such were his humanity and love of peace, that when
told of conquering heroes, he s:iid witii Scipio, that "he preferred
the life and preservation of one subject to the death of an hundred
enemies !" His regard of the christians was extraordinary for a
heathen emperor. He declared that " if any should proceed to dis-
turb Ihpin on account of their religion, such should undergo the
same punishment which was intended against the accused." A de-
28 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
gree of persecution nevertheless took place, contrary to the prin6i'
pies of the emperor.
He was a distinguished rewarder of learned men, whom he invi-
ted from all parts of the world, and raised to wealth and honour,'
Among the rest, he sent for Apollonius the famous stoic philosopher,
to instruct his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius, whom he had previous-
ly married to his daughter.
Apollonius being arrived st Rome, the emperor desired his atten-
dance : but the pliilosopher arrogantly answered that it was the
scholar's duty to wait upon tlie master, and not the master's to wait
upon the scholar. To this reply, Antoninus only returned with a
smile, " that it was surprising how Apollonius, who made no difficul-'
ty in coming from Greece to Rome, should think it so hard to walk
from one part of Rome to the other," and immediately sent Marcus'
Aurelius to him.
In the midst of his labours in rendering his subjects happy, he was
seized with a lingering illness, which terminated in death in the
seventy-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign.
20. Marcus Aurelius Antonmus, the adopted son of Pius,
now came to the throne, 161 A. C. His name before was
Annius Veins, and he. together with Lucius Verus, his bro-
thel, had been designated by Adrian to succeed to the govern^
ment, whenever Antoninus Pius should decease. Pius con-'
firmed the adoption of Marcus, without once naming Lucius
Verus. Marcus, however, upon assuming the empire, admit-
ted his brother as a partner in the administration.
They were perfectly opposite in character; Marcus Aurelius
being as much distinguished for his energy and virtue, as"
Verus was for imbecility, meanness, and vice. Aurelius was
in every respect equal to his predecessor, and was even more
conspicuous for his attachment to philosophy. This, as the
stoics professed it, he has admirably taught and illustrated in-
his Meditations.
In the wars which were carried on during this joint reign,
the worthless Verus brought disgrace upon the Roman name,
wherever he commanded. Tlie Partliians, however, were
repulsed by the legions of the empire, and a rebellion of the
Germans was subdued.
After the death of Verus, which happily soon took place,
AureUus directed all his energies for tlie improvement and-
happiness of his empire. For purposes of beneficence he
visited the remotest corners of the Roman world. He died
at length in Pannonia, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and'
nineteenth of his reign, A. C. 180.
ROMAN EMPIRE. HH
It wa? an infelicity of the otherwise admirable reign of
Avu'elius, that t'-e christians at one time were violently perse-
cuted. The fuiiilical Pagan priests were, however, the im-
mediate instruments in this persecution, inasmuch as they
ascribed to the christians the various calamities which the
empire endured, under the excesses of Yerus, the attacks of
the Ijarbarians, and the devastations occasioned by eartii-
qtialce-^, famines, pestilences, and inundations.
§ Aurelins loved retirement and philosophical contemplati(»n, ard
improved for mental cultivaiicjn and enjoyment, all the leisure K*-
coidd command. That, however, was far less than his wishes do
tated. The disturbances in the empire called him frequently into
the field, and until the dealii of his colleague, he suffered no small
inquietude on his account. He was, however, successful in his mili-
tary excursions.
One deliverance which he and his army experienced on a certain
occasion, borders on the miraculous. In a contest with the barba-
rians beyond the Danube, tlie Roman legions unexpectedly, through
the artifice of tiie enemy, found themselves inclosed in a place where
they could neither fight, nor retreat. In this situation they became
at length totally disheartened, from their long continued fatigue, t!ie
excessive heat of the place, and their violent thirst.
In these suffering circumstances, while sorrow and despair were
depicted on every brow, Aurelius ran through the ranks, and used
every effort to rekindle their hopes and courage. But all was in
vain. At this crisis, and just as the barbarians were ready to follow
them, we are told that tlie solemn prayers of a christian legion,
then serving among them, produced sucli a shower of rain as instant-
ly revived the fainting arm}'. From the same clouds, was discharged
such a terrible storm of hail with thunder against tne enemy, as dis-
mayed tliem, and made them an easy prey to the refreshed and in-
Fpirited Romans.
These circumstances arc related by pagan as well as Christian
writers, only with this difference, that the latter ascribe the victory
to tlieir own pi^ayers. the former to the prayers of their emperor.
Aurelius, however, it seems, wtis favourably impressed in regard to
the christians, since he immediately relaxed the persecution against
therii.
Some other particulars will be related respecting Aurelius, in our
biographical sketches.
Upon tlie death of Aurelius the empire evidently declined.
The em[ierors who succeeded were generally a Aveak or
\^iciou3 race. The colossal si.ze of the empire caused it to
sink by its own weight. Enemies on its borders oppressed
it from without, and tumults and factions paralized it within ;
patriotism and genius were l^ecoming rare, and corruption
pervaded all orders of the community.
3*
SfJ MODERN HISTORY. — lERIGD I.
At the period of Trajan's death, the < mpire comprehend
ed the greater part of Britain, all Spain, France, the Ne-
therlands, Italy, part of Germany, Egypt, Barbary, Bile-
dulgerid, Turkey in Europe and in Asia, and Persia. At
the demise of Aurehus, it was a Uttle diminished in size, but
still too large to be preserved entire, amidst the profligacy of
he times.
21. Commodus, the son of Aurelius, had been nominated
by his father to succeed him, and he accordingly now mounted
the throne, 180 A. C. He had nothing but tlie merits of his
father to commend him to the Roman people. He inherited
tlie disposition of his infamous mother, Faustina, rather than
of Aurelius. Tlie change from the reign of the father to
the son was indeed a most gloomy one. It is a singular fact,
that the most detestable of all the emperors was the son of
the best.
Commiodus was given to low vices and )nean pursuits--^
was fond of the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the
hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers and gla-
diators. His administration of the government was entirely
weak, contemptible, and tyrannical. He perished by assas-
sination, in the thirty-second year of his age, and the thiy-
teenih year of his reign, 193 A. C.
§ It had been happy for hniisclf and mankhid, had Commodus cul-'
rivaled his mind, as he did his body, (for he was wonderfully expert
in all corporeal exercises :) but he was averse to every rational and
liberal pursuit. He spent the day in feasting, and the night in the
vilest debaucheries.
His cruelty combined with avarice and levity, cannot be loo strong-
ly held up for the detestation of mankind. If any person desired
to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining with Commodus for a
sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in such a manner
as he chose. He commanded a person to be thrown among wild
beasts, for reading the life of Caligula in Suetonius. He would
sometimes, in a frolic, cut off men's noses, under a pretence of shav-
ing their beards ; yet he was himself so jealous of mankind, that he
was obliged to be his own barber ; or as some liave said, he used to
burn his beard, after the example of Dionysius, the tyrant.
In imitating Hercules with his club and lion's skin, he would lu-
rioiisly fall upon a company of beggars in the streets, and beat them
to death ; having first dressed them up like giants and monsters, and
giving them sponges to throw at him, instead of stones.
In such a manner did this wretch spend his time, while the trou-
bles-of his empire were daily increasing, and its strength and terrJ'-
ROMAN EMPrHE. 31
tories were diminishing by frequent warferes on the frontiers. He
narrowly escaped destruction several times, from his personal exas-
perated foes. But he was destined at length justly to fall. Hia
favourite concubine, Marcia, who accidentally discovered the em-
peror's determination to put her to death, with other conspirators,
found the means of destroying him, partly by poison and partly by
strangling.
22. Perlinax, who had been fixed upon by the conspirators
as the successor of Conniiodiis, was jo}'fully proclaimed by
the praetorian guards, 1 93 A. C. Originally he w^as the son
of an e)]franchised slave, but rose to esteem by his virtues
and military talents. Applying himself to the correction of
abuses with too unsparing and rash a hand, he alienated the
affections of a corrupted people, and was deposed and mur-
dered by the same guards that had placed him on the throne,
after a reign of only three months, aged sixty-eight years.
The loss which the empire felt in tlie death of such a man
is greater than can be well conceived.
23. Didius Julianus, next succeeded to the empire 193 A.
C, having purchased it of the prstorian guards, who put it
up to the highest bidder. At the same time, several com-
manders in the distant provinces, were each proclaimed by
their respective forces. These, however, lost their hves ex-
cept Septimius Severus, who marched to Rome and seized
the govermnent. Didius was hereupon deposed and put to
death by the senate in the fifth month of his reign.
§ Didius presents a striking instance of the cupiditj^ of the hu-
man mind for power, and of tlie infelicities that attend it. He was
a man of consular rank, and the richest citizen of Rome. Hearing
tlio singular proclamation of the praetorian guards, and charmed
With tlie prospect of unbounded dominion, he hastened to the camp,
and bid the largest price for the empire. He gave to each soldier
( 10,000 in number) the sum of G250 drachmas, which amounts to
nearly 9,000,000 dollars, in the whole.
From this period he was exposed to disappointment, mortifica-
tion, insult, and danger. Indulging his ease and his avaricious dis-
position, he soon offended those who made him emperor. He was
contemptuously treated at lu>me, while two or more generals in the
provinces abroad, disclaimed his autiiority. Upon the approach of
Severus, he could raise no forces to meet him. He was nearly dis-
tracted by the midtiplicity of counsels, and finally his perplexity
and distress became extreme and overwhelming.
Tlie senate, at this crisis, perceiving his timidity and irresolution,-
i\?solved to abandon him, and to proclaim Severus. His death then)
\Vas no longer problematical; and- though he persisted that he had'
32 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
a riglit to enjoy his purchase for the natural period of his hfe, as he
had been guilty of no crime, all did not avail. The executioners,
obliging him to stretch his neck forward according to custom, im-
mediately struck off his head.
24. Septimiiis Sevems was now at the head of the Roman
world, 193 A. C. He was an African by birth, and possessed
a restless activity with an unbounded share of ambition.
He was endowed with a hardihood and decision of character,
which fitted him for any enterprise. His military talents
were conspicuous, and the credit of the Roman arms w^as
sustained dining his reign. In his administration of govern-
ment he was generally wise and equitable, though highly
despotic.
In his expedition into England, he built a stone wall ex-
tending from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, nearly on
a parallel with that of Adrian. Severus died at York in
England, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after a reign of
eighteen years, 211 A. C. He left the empire to his two
sons Caracalla and Geta, whose dispositions gave the em-
peror the greatest inquietude.
§ The first act of Severus, even before he entered Rome, was to
degrade the pra?torian soldiers, wliose irregularity had already be-
come too conspicuous. These he stript of their title, and banished
one hundred miles from the city. He soon after engaged ni a terri-
ble conflict with Niger, his competitor in the East, wnom he finally
conquered on the plains of Issus. Albinus also, his other competi-
tor, wlio commanded in Britain, was soon after conquered in battle^
in one of the severest engagements recorded in the Roman history.
It was fought in Gaul, and lasted from morning till night, without'
any apparent advantage on cither side. It was decided at length by
a body of reserve, in favour of Severus.
His activity and love of conquest led him into the East, where he
signalised his arms, and whence he returned in triumph to Rome.
Having escaped a conspiracy formed by Plautian, to whom he had
committed his domestic policy, he spent a considerable time in visit-
ing the cities of Itah^ ; and finally in affording protection to all parts
of his empire, he made an expedition into Britain. Tlie wall which
he here built was eight feet broad and twelve feet high, planted with
towers at a mile's distance from each other, and communicating by
pipes of brass in the wall, which conveyed intelligence from one
garrison to another with incredible dispatch.
Having given peace to the island, and secured it against tlie irrup-
tions of "the Caledonians, he began to feci the effects of age and
fatigue; but he was more broken down by the irreclaimable life of
Caracalla. Calling for the urn in which his ashes Avere to be en-
dosed, he moralized on his melancholy condition in the following
ROMAN empire; 33*
rfeiriark. " Little urn," said he, "thou shalt now contain what the
\Vorld could not contain." It is recorded that he hastened his death
by purposely loading his stomacli with food, in his weak state.
25. Caracalla and Geta were now established on the
throne, 211 A. C. Their association in the empu-e created
a mutual enmity, and indeed they were very unlike in native
character. Caracalla was fierce and cruel to an extreme
degree. Geta w^as mild and merciful. The former resolv-
ing to reign alone, seized an opportunity to murder Geta in
the arms of liis mother. During his reign of six years, he
committed a continued series of atrocities. He was taken off
by assassination, 217 A. C.
Within this short period the empire was e\ery day declin-
ing ; the soldiers were entirely masters of every election ;
and both discipline in the army, and subordination in the
^ate, were almost destroyed.
§ The worst qualities of the worst emperors centered in this impe-
rial wretch. He slew his friend Lsetius, his own wife Plautina, and"
Papinian, the renowned civilian, for refusing to write in vindication
of his cruelty — that upright man answering the emperor's request
6y observing, " that it was much easier to commit a parricide than'
to defend it."
He commanded all the governors to be slain, whom his brother
had appointed, and destroyed not less than 2000 of his adherents.
Upon a certain occasion, he ordered his soldiers to fall upon a crowd-
ed audience in the theatre, only for discounienancing a charioteer,
whom he happened to favour.
As might be expected, he was harrassed with awful terrors. He
feared the day of his death, and that day was fast approaching. One
Martial, a centurion of the guards, was prevailed upon by a higher
officer, Macrinus, to give the emperor his death-wound, on a con-
venient occasion, which was readily seized, and thus the world was
freed from a monster, who was not only infinitely unfit to govern
an empire, but was unworthy to live.
26. Macrinus, who instigated Caracalla's death, was pro-
claimed emperor, 217 A. C. Little is recorded respecting,
him. He Avas a person of obscure birth, and was deemed
severe by the soldiery, who had now become so licentious,
that they could scarcely bear the gentlest corrections. liis
attempts at discipline, together with the artifices of the grand-
mother of Heliogabalus, alienated from him the alTections of
the army, and he lost his life in the struggle to retain his
power, after a reign of only fourteen montlis, 218 A. C.
37. Heliogabalus was, by the army, raised to tiie throne
34 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
when only fourteen years of age. The appointment of tho
army, as usual, influenced the decisions of the senate and
citizens of Rome. This emperor proved to be another mon-
ster of wickedness of the same rank witli Nero, Commodus,
and Caracalla. He lived to be only eighteen years of age,
and yet lived long enough to hasten the fall of the empire,
and to cover his name witii eternal infamy. He was mur-
dered in the fourth year of his reign, 222 A. C.
§ Heliogabalus was a natural son of Caracalla, a beautiful youth,
and loved by the army. Surrounded by flatterers, he .soon yielded
himself to their directions. His short life was but a tissue of effe-
minacy, lust, folly, and extravagance. Some parts of his conduct
were too indecent here to be described.
In four years he married six wives, and divorced them all. He
even assumed the dress and circumstances of a woman, and marri-
ed one of his officers. After thai he took for husband, one Hierocles,
a slave, whom he suffered to beat him severely when guilty of any
excess, all which he endured with great patience, saying, that it was
the duty of a wife to submit to her husband.
His prodigality and epicurism were boundless. His supper
generally cost six thousand crowns, and often sixty thousand. He
always dressed in cloth of gold and purple, enriched with pi-ecious
stones, and never twice put on the same habit. Whenever he took
horse, all the way between his apartment and the place of mount-
ing, was covered with gold and silver dust strewn at his approach.
His cruelties were equal to his licentiousness. He often invited
the most common of the people to share in his feasts, and made
them sit down on large bellows full of wind, which by sudden ex-
haustion, threw the guests on the ground, and left them a prey to
wild beasts. It is even said he endeavored to foretel the secrets of
futurity, by inspecting the entrails of young men sacrificed ; and
that he chose for this horrid i)urpose, the most beautiful youths
throughout Italy.
These are a few of the thousand excesses, follies, and atrocities of
a mad and vicious boy, who, with the possession of unlimited rule,
could do as he pleased.
Being persuaded by his grandmother Maesa, he adopted Alexan-
der his coiisin-german as his successor ; but indignant that the af-
fections of his army were bestowed upon the latter, he meditated
revenge. His soldiers, however, perceiving his intention, took an
o])portunity to secure his person, and having dispatched him, treated
his body with the greatest indignity, and consigned it at length to
the Tyber.
28. Alexander Severus was declared emperor 222 A. C.
He was a prince of a kind, beneficent, and energetic charac-
ter, and highly accomplished in learning and the arts. Every
way calculated to make his Gubjects happy, he was greatly
ROMAN EMPIRE. 35
honoured and esteemed by them. He was conspicuous also for
his military talents, and for the defeat of the Persians and
others during his reign. He thus restored the empire to its
former limits : but this exertion of its remaining strength,
rather hastened than delayed its decline.
He was cut off by a mutiny among his own soldiers in the
fourteenth year of his reign, and the twenty -ninth of his age,
at the instigation of Maximinus, his successor, 235 A. C.
§ As a specimen of his virtuous character we may mention, that
he ever loved good men, and severely reproved the lewd and infa-
mous. His remark is in point, when he decided a contest between
the clu-istians and a company of cooks and vinters, about a piece of
ground, which the one claimed as a place of public worship, and the
other for exercising their respective trades. " It is better that God
be worshiped there in any manner, than that the place should be put
.0 the uses of drunkenness or debauchery."
At the age of sixteen, when he ascended the throne, he had all
the premature wisdom of age. His judgment was solid, and his
talents were various. He was an excellent mathematician, geometri-
cian, and musician. His taste in painting, sculpture and poetry was
admirable.
The first part of his reign was spent in a reformation of the abu-
ses of his predecessors ; particularly in restoring the senators to their
rank and influence. His first expedition, in the tenth year of his
reign, was against th" ^arthians and Persians, whom lie opposed
with a powerful army. In one decisive engagement, he routed the
Persians with great slaughter. About the same time, several of his
generals obtained signal victories, over various nations then at war
with the empire.
His manner of living was like that of the meanest sentinel ; when-
ever he dined or supped, he sat with his tent open, that all men might
be witnesses of his abstemiousness. He was at one time instructed
by the famous Origen in the principles of Cln'istianity ; though it
dues not appear that he embraced that religion.
29. ^laximinus, wlio was accessary to tlie murder of Severus,
ascended the throne upon this event. 23.5 A. C. He was the
won of a Tlu-acian shepherd, and is represented by historians
as a man of gigantic stature and Herculean strengtii. He was
full eight feet in height, and perfectly symmetrical in form.
He rose by degrees into power ; but though meritorious
before his elevation, as a sovereign he was brutal and ferocious.
He warred with the Germans, and wasted their country to
the extent of four hundred and fifty miles, converting it al-
most into a desert. His cruelties soon aroused the Roman
people against him, and he was finally assassinated by his
own soldiers in his tent, after a reign of three years, 238 A. C
36 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD I.
During the period of his power, the two Gordians, father
and son were proclaimed emperors, but these soon perislied
The senate then proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus, who
survived Maximinus. These measures were dictated by the
anxiety which the Romans felt, to free themselves from that
tyrant.
§ Maximinus is said to have delighted in acts of the greatest bar-
barity, and no less than four hundred persons lost their lives, on the
false suspicion of a conspiracy against his life. He caused to be re-
moved from his sight or assassinated, many noble Romans, who, as
he suspected, despised him, on account of liLs mean origin.
Wlien he was apprised of the acts of the senate, appomting
others to the supreme power, he raved and howled like a wild beast,
and almost destroyed jiimself by beating his head against the walls
of his palace. His fury, however, at length gave way to a spirit
of revenge ; but his bloody machinations were soon stopped. His
guards having been corrupted, murdered him while sleeping in his
tent, as he was too formidable an object to be attacked while awake.
Owing to his size, his strength was prodigious. He alone could
draw a full loaded wagon. With a blow of his fist he could break
the teeth in a horse's mouth, and with a kick of hs foot could break
.its thigh. His voracity was proportioned to his size and strength.
He generally ate forty pounds of flesh every dr-'-, and drank six
gallons of wine.
The Praetorian soldiers who were enemies to Pupienus and
Balbinus, soon embraced an opportunity of despatching them
• both, and accidentally meeting Gordian, grandson to one of
the former Gordians, they proclaimed him emperor. The
.senate and people had been too long controlled by the army,
: on the subject of nominating the emperors, to withhold their
consent in the present instance.
30. Gordian accordingly assumed the empire 238 years
A. C. He was no more than sixteen years old at (his time,
and was a prince of very considerable merit. The Gothg,
and also the Persians, who had invaded the confines of the
emjiire on different sides, were repulsed by his arms.
Towards the latter part of his reign, Philip, an Arabian,
was cliosen praetorian pra^fect, under whose administration the
j)eople began to be discontented. This state of things Philip
fostered, till the odium against the emperor so far increased,
that the prefect ventured to order his execution, with a
view to his own preferment, an object which he accomplish-
ed. Gordian's reign was a period of nearly six years.
§ Gordian was a man so fond of learning, that he "had collected
G2.000 books in his private library.
ROMAN EMPIRE. 37
31. Philip having- acquired the empire 214 A. C, by the
murder of his benefactor, reigned five years, and then was
liim?elf assassinated, while marching against Decius.
§ Pliilip was an Arabian by birth, and received, in the manner of
his death, a righteous retribution, on account of his own nefarious
conduct in gaining the sceptre.
32. Decius, whom Philip had appointed to command a
revolted army, had been proclaimed before the emperor's
death. Upon that event he began to assume the functions of
government 249 A. C. His activity and wisdom would have
stayed the progress of decay in the empire, if any human
means could effect that object. But the tendency to this
state of things was irretrievable and fatal.
The profligacy and luxury of the times, the disputes be-
tween the Pagans and Christians, and the beginning irrup-
tions of the barbarous nations from without, were enfeebling
the empire beyond remedy.
Decius reigned but two years and six months, having been
cut off, in a war with the Goths, by the treachery of Gallus,
his general.
33. Gallus, raised to the tlirone 2.51 A. C, by that part of
the army which survived a defeat he had himself occasioned,
reigned but two years and four months. He was a vicious
sovereign, and during his reign the empire suffered incalcula-
ble misery. He perished in a civil war, in which Aemilianus.
his general, opposed him, and was victorious.
§ It was in the time of Galhis, that a dreadful pestilence spread
over the earth, threatening almost to depopulate it.
34. Valerian, a commander of one of the armies of the em-
pire, succeeded to the throne 254 A. C, contrary to the ex-
j:>ectations of Aemilianus. In a war with the Persians, having
been taken prisoner, he suffered unheard of hardships and in-
sult, and at length was put to death in the most cruel manner.
§ Sapor, the Persian king, happened to secure the person of Vale-
rian. We are told that he always used the emperor as a footstool
for mounting his horse, and that he often observed, "such an attitude
was the best statue that could be erected in honour of his victory."
The manner of Valerian's death is almost too liorrid to be men-
tioned. His eyes were first plucked out, and afterwards he was flay-
ed alive, when his skin was dyed red, and exposed in a temple. He
was seven years a prisoner.
85. Gallienus. son of Valerian, was chosen emperor 260
4
38 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD T.
A. C. He promised to avenge the insults and death of his
father ; but after his elevation, he thought only of his own
base pleasures, while the empire Avas attacked without, and
distracted within. Thirty pretenders Avere at one time con-
tending for the dominion of the state. Gallienus suffered a
violent death.
36. Upon the death of Gallienus, Flavius Claudius was
invested with the purple, 268 A. C, agreeably to the wishes
of the army, and the whole Roman people. He was an ac-
tive, wise, and good prince ; but unhappily his reign was
short, being less than two years. He died a natural death,
which was more frequently the lot of the virtuous, than of the
profligate emperors.
§ Clandius opposed with success the Goths, Heriih, &c. who had
invaded the empire on the north, in one instance destroying an army
of 300,000 men ; and he hkewise overthrew the Germans, who had
reared tlie standard of revoU. His energy stayed, for a short time,
tl)e decUne of the empire.
37. The army made choice of Aurelian as emperor, 270
A. C. His parentage was obscure, but he was esteemed the
most valiant commander of his age. After his elevation, his
time was passed in repressing the irruptions of the barbarians,
and particularly in carrying on a war with Zenobia, a prin-
cess of Palmyra, commonly styled the Queen of the East,
whom he conquered, and brought captive to Rome. With
gi'eat courage and military talents, he was cruel. He fell in
a conspiracy which was raised against him by some of his
subjects.
§ His strength was said to be so great, that in one single engage-
ment, he killed 40 of the enemy with his own hand, and above 900
at different times. The degeneracy of his people seemed almost to
justify his severities, in punishing offenders ; but it is said that when
he was about to sign certain edicts against the christians, who were
an inoffensive people, he was deterred from the act, by a thunder-bolt,
which fell so near his person, that his escape v/as thought to be mi-
raculous.
38. Several months elapsed before a new emperor was
elected. At length Tacitus was prevailed upon to take the
reins of government, 275 A. C He was a man of great me-
rit, but unfortunately, to the empire, he died of a fever after a
reign of only six months, at the age of 75.
39. His successor was Probus, thougli a minority in the
ROMAN EMPIRE. 39
army chose Florian, a brother of Tacitus. Florian enjoyed
this distinction but two months ; for upon the estabUshment
of Probus in the empire, he sought a vohmtary death.
Probus possessed uncommon activity, courage, and integri-
ty, and was constantly engaged in war with the barbarians,
and in suppressing the numerous factions whicli arose in his
dominions. Ollending his soldiers by obUging them to drain
an extensive fen in Sirmium, his native place, he wa«3 slain
in a conspiracy which thev had fonned asrainst him, 282
A. C. "^
§ Probus was born of noble parentage, and was early distinguish-
ed by his excellent qualities. He was frequently the first man that,
in besieging towns, scaled the walls, or that burst into the enemy's
camp.
His energy and virtue, great as they were, could scarcely present
a sufficient barrier to the tide of calamities that rushed upon the em-
pire. In a war. however, with the Germans in Gaul, lie slew 400,000
men ; and at various times repulsed many other enemies, particular-
ly tlie Sarniatians, Goths and Blemii. The last were a people who
had left the forests of Ethiopia, and possessed themselves of Arabia
and Judea.
Among those of his subjects who had rebelled against him, was
Bonosus, who was remarkable as given to intoxication. The rebel
being overcome, hanged himself in despair. Probus seeing him im-
mediately after this event, pointed to his body, and with great hu-
mour observed, '• There hangs, not a man, but a bottle."
40. Cams, prretorian prefect to the deceased emperor, was
chosen by the army to succeed hun 2S2 A. C He associated
with him in command, his two sons, Carinus and Numerion.
Carus, and his son Numerian, Avere worthy of the empire,
but Carinus was given to vice. Their reign, however, was
only of two years' continuance. Carus was smitten by a
flash of lightning, in his tent, and his sons were killed soon
after — Numerian by an act of treachery, Carinus in a con-
test with Diocletian, who had been chosen emperor.
§ Numerian was so affected by the death of his father, that through
excess of weeping, he brought on a disorder in Ins eyes, in conse-
quence of Avhich he was obliged to be carried in a close litter. In
this situation he was luurdered by his ambitious father-in-law, Aper,
who was soon cut off by the hand of Diocletian.
41. Diocletian began his reign in 2S4 A. C, and two years
afterwards, associated with himself in the empire his general
Maximian. Under their united auspices, the enemies of
Rome were fieijuently repulsed. At the expiration of about
40 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I.
eight years from that time, they took two colleagues, Galerius
and Constantiiis ; and bestowed upon each tlie title of Caesar.
This state of things was novel. There was a four fold
division of the government, with two emperors and two Cae-
sars at its head, each having a nominal supremacy. Diocle-
tian, however, was the master spirit that moved and controlled
the whole. In this state, the government was administered
a few years, when strange to relate the two emperors resigned
their authority into the hands of the two Ceesars, and retired
into private life 304 A. C.
Diocletian seems to have been sincere in his abdication, as
he contentedly spent eight oi' nine years in rural privacy, and
in cultivating his garden. Maximian soon began to be dis-
contented, and made several attemjjts, but in vain, to jesume
his former powers. His intrigues in Britain, where Constan-
tine and his son Constantine resided, cost him his life. Di-
ocletian died about 312 A. C. Maximian jierished 310 A. C
§ Diocletian's parentage was mean. Accord iiig to some he was the
son of a scrivener; and according to other.;, of a slave. When
elected to the empire he was forty years old, and owed his exalta-
tion entirely to his merit, having passed through the various grada-
tions of office, witn sagacity, courage, and success. He chose Ga-
lerius for his associate, giving him the title of Caisar, with a view
to secure his aid in opposing Narses, the king of Persia and Parthia,
who had invaded Mesopotamia. In tliis enterprise they met with sig-
nal success. Other enemies they subdued, except tlie northern na-
tions, who, though repulsed and slaugjrtered in incredible numbers,
were ever ready to embrace fresh opportunities of renewing liostilities.
Diocletian, after his abdicatit)n of the empire, retired to his native
country, Dalmatia, where he built a magnificent palace for his ac-
commodation, near tiie town of Salona. Here he led a secure and
quiet life. When some of his friends attempted to persuade him to
resume the empire, he replied, " that if they knew his present hap-
piness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it."
Maximian was a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, and was adopt-
ed by Diocletian as emperor, on account of his courage and
fidelity. He defeated many enemies of his country, though his
arms in Britain were unsuccessful. He adopted Constantius as
Caesar, with a view to oppose the claims of Carausius, a principal
commander in Britain, who had proclaimed himself emperor.
42. When Diocletian and iMaximiaii resigned their |)'>wcr,
Constantius and Galerius were universally acknowledged
304 A. C. Constantius governed the western parts of the
empire. Galerius the eastern. They took in with them two
partners, so that the empire was again under the guidance of
JUDEA. 41
four persons, all inve?ted with supreme authority; each having
his distinct department. Severus and Maximian were the
persons who were created Caesars.
Constantius was a worthy character, Galerius was the re-
verse. Constantius died at York, in Britain, 306 A. C, leav-
ing his son Constantine as his successor. Galerius died four
years afterwards of an extraordinary incurable disease. He
had instigated Diocletian to persecute the christians.
§ The western parts of the empire, or the dominion of Constantius,
consisted of Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with
Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Germany. The eastern parts, or the do-
minion of Galerius, consisted of Illyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Ma-
cedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the lesser Asia, together
with Egypt, Syria, Judea, and all other oriental countries.
An anecdote of the following kind is related of Constantius : —
when he was persuaded to displace all the christian officers of his
household ; though lie would not suffer the christians to be injured,
he sent away in disgrace the few that complied, alleging, "tliat
those who were not true to their God, would never be faithful to
Iheir prince."
43. From the commencement to the close of the present
period, persecutions of (he christians more or less prevailed
in the empire. At times, this unotfending class of the Ro-
man subjects suilered in an extreme degree, from the edicts
of the emperors. Historians have usually reckoned ten ge-
neral persecutions of the christians. The names of the em-
perors, under whom tbese persecutions v.ere experienced,
were the following : — Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Antoninus,
Severus, IVIaximiiius, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and Dio-
cletian.
Most of these emperors persecuted the christians from
xTialignity, and for the gratification of their cruel dispositions.
Others did it, (though their conduct was indefensible,) from
ignorance or prejudice, aided l)y the spirit of the age, and
the common corruption of om- nature.
§ As this period is named from the persecutions which tiie pro-
fessors of Christianity endured under the Roman emperors, it
might seem proper here, to enter into some details on this subject.
But a few of these will be included in an article on ecclesiastical
history, to be embodied in the present volume.
JUDEA.
44. Judea, already under the sway of Rome, became a
province of the empire G A. C. upon the banishment of Ar-
4*
42 ' MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
chelaus, eldest son of Herod tlie Great. It was at the com-
mencement of this period, that the birth of our blessed Saviour
Jesus Clnist, as before noticed m the Roman history, took
place. Herod, in addition to all his other crimes shed the
blood of the children of Bethlehem, in the hope that the in-
fant Jesus would foil among- them. He died miserably, soon
after this transaction.
(j In the reign of Herod, the sceptre, agreeably to ancient prophecy,
having departed from Judah, by the control which the Romans had.
over the government, Jesus CJn'ist was born in the year of the world
4000. This has already been explained. We use, however, the
vulgar era (4004) and assign the subsequent events according to that
calculation. The mistake supposed to be made by the ancient chro-
nologors has been too far sanctioned by Time, to benov/ remedied.
His birth, which was announced by angels to the shepherds of
Bethlehem, and which brought the eastern magi to worship him,
exceedingly troubled Herod and the principal Jews, who became
apprehensive of new wars and commotions. After finding out the
place of his nativity, (viz. Bethlehem,) Herod determined on his
death, by destroying all the children of tliat place and of its vicinity,
" from two years old and under."
The providence of God, however, had removed the lioly child be-
yond his reach, inasmuch as his parents had fled with him, in the
mean time, into Egypt. Herod's death soon occurring, they return-
ed from Egypt, and dwelt in Nazareth, a city of Galilee.
It IS not our design to detail events here, which more properly be-
long to ecclesiastical history. We would only say, that after a labo-
rious and useful life, in the third year of his ministry, and in the
thirty-third of his age, Jesus Clirist expiated human transgression,
by his death on the cross. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, the
Roman gf)ve.rnor, upon a false accusation brought against him by his
own countiymen, the Jews.
This glorious personage, who was " God manifest in the flesh,"
rame into the world to save his people from their sins. In his hu-
man nature lie was lineally descended from David, though the fami-
ly at liie period of his birlh. had become obscure and reduced to
poverty. 'I'he effects of his appearance in tlie world were from the
beginning, decisive. The holy system which he taught, considering
the hostility of man to truth and piety, was ditTused with great rapi-
dity, under the ministry of the apostles. Reformation- of moral
character was its aim, object and result. Its effects have ever been
great, and such they will be to the end of time.
The civil afiiiirs of the Jews, from the commencement of
this era to the destruction of Jerusalem Ijy Titus Vespasian,
are too unimportant to be particularly described. A brief
summary of them follows.
§ Archelaus, under whom Judea became in form a Roman pro-
JUDEA. 43
vince, possessed only a totrarcliy, or the fourth part of the kingdom
of Jewry. The rest of llic country was divided into three more te-
trarehics, whicli were those of Gahlee and Pctra^a possessed hy Herod
Antipatas ; that of Ilura;a possessed by Pliilip, another son of Herod ;
and that of Abilene possessed by Eysanias, who beins afterwards
banished into Gaul, had his province go\'erned b}- Pontius Pilate.
The successor of Archehuis was Herofl II. named Antipas, who
married his brother Piiilip's wife. This was the incestuous marriage
on account of which John the Baptist reproved Herod, as mentioned
in the New Testament. It was in the time of this Herod that our
Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, occurred.
Herod 11. was succeeded by his son Herod the Great. Caligula,
the emperor of Rome, at that time invested him with the tetrarchy
of his uncle Philip, and conferred on him the title of king. The
other tetrarchies fell to his possession shortly afterwards. It Avas
this Herod who caused the apostle .fames to be martyred, the apostle
Peter to be imprisoned, and was himself smitten by an angel and
devoured by worms.
His son Agrippa Minor, succeeded, and was the last king of Jew-
ry. It was before him, that the apostle Paul pleaded in defence of
die gospel.
45. Durino; the reign of AgTip[)a Minor, Jerusalem was
rtttacked by Titus (Vespasian) 70 A. D. The cause of this
attack originated in the commotions and insurrections of the
Jews, which were frequent aliout this time. This miserable
people had sufl'ered greatly, from tlie injustice and extortion
practised u\)on them by the agents of the Roman govern-
ment, and they consequently rose in rebellion.
A signal A'engeance fell upon their heads. Jerusalem was'
beseiged, and one million of people are said to have perished
on the occasion. To such distress were the Jews reduced by
famine, that mothers murdered their children for food. The
people suflTered greatly in other parts of Judea ; and though
numbers remained in their native land, vast multitudes were
dispersed over the face of the earth, on which they have ever
since been wanderers.
The reader of the Bible will see in these events, a re-
markable fulfilment of the predictions of the ancient prophets
and of our Saviour ; and he will also learn the evil and dan-
ger of despising divine admonitions, and abusing religious
privileges. The Jews are to this day a witness of the tiTith
of scripture.
§ Nero, who was emperor when the war with the Jews commenc-
ed, entrusted the management of it to his general, Vespasian, who,
accompanied by his son Titus, and a powerlul army, arrived in Sy-
44 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
ria, 67 A. C. Vespasian soon after being chosen emperor, left orderS
witli his son Titus, to continue the war, while he himself set out for
Rome.
Titus prosecuted the enterprise with diligence, and besieging
Jerusalem, he toolc it within a few months, after an obstinate resist-
ance on the pai't of its inliabitants. Twice, during tlie siege, Titus
offered them very favourable terms, but so infatuated were they, that
they not only refused his offers, but insulted at length his messenger,
Flavins Josephus, in the most wanton and virulent manner.
After this conduct, there remained no more mercy for the Jews.
Titus caused the hands of those who had voluntarily sought shelter
in the Roman camp, to be cut off, and sent them back to the city,
and others lie crucified in the sight of their countrymen. Famine,
in the mean time, was performing its dreadful work within the
walls. When Titus entered the city he gave it up to be plundered
by the soldiers, and most of its inhabitants were put to the sword.
In pursuance of this general order, the city was destroyed to its
foundations, and even tlie ruins of the temple were demolished.
Josephus says that the number of prisoners taken during the whole
time of the war was ninery-seven thousand ; and the number killed
in the city during tl\e same period, amounted, as before stated, to
one million. The Jews, who remained in the country, now paid
tribute to the Romans, and were entirely subject to their laws.
46. After this event .Terusalem was partially rebuilt, and itj
1 IS the inhabitants attempted again to re!>el,biit were speedily
overcome. Adrian, the emperor, incensed at the conduct of
this stubborn people, resolved to level their city with the earth,
that is to say, those new buildings. erected by the Jews, and
to sow salt in the ground, on which the place had stood
Thus was fulfilled a propliecy of our Saviour, who fore-
told, that neither in the city nor in the temple, should one
stone be left upon another. This therefore may be called
the final destruction of Jerusalem, which took place 47 years
after that of Titus.
Adrian, however, soon built the city over anew, and called
it Aelia Capitolina. It was a short lived change, for when
the empress Helena, the mother of (Jonstantine the Great,
visited the city, she found it in a forlorn and ruinous state.
PARTHIA.
47. ThePARTniAN empire at the beginning of this period,
continued under the sway of the first branch of the Arsaci-
dse. Phraates IV. then possessed the throne. Three sove-
reigns succeeded him, when after short reigns, the second
branch of the x\rsacidai commenced.
«- PERSIA. 45
Verones I. was the hist of the three sovereigns of the first branch.
He had been dispatchctl from Rome, where he was a hostage, to
reign over the Parthiaiis, who liad hivited him to be their king ;
but affecting the Roman dress and manners he incurred the dislike
of liis people, and was driven from the throne, to make room for
Artabanus, of the royal family of Media.
48. The second braiicli of the ArsacidcE commenced 18
years A. C. under Artabanus III. It lasted nearly two
hundred years under thirteen sovereigns. The Romans oc-
casionally defeated the Parthians and made them tributary,
but could never keep them long under the yoke. To the his-
tory of the Parthian kings, we attach very little importance.
The empire was at length restored to the Persians after they
had been subject to the prhices of Parti lia for the space of
four hundred and seventy-five years.
§ Artabanus V, the last of this branch, having refused to give his
daughter in marriage to the emperor Caracalla, the Romans entered
Parlhia and destroyed many cities ; but Macrinus, the successor of
Caracalla, after a hard fought battle, concluded a peace with the
Parthians. Artabanus was killed in battle by Artaxares, a Persian,
who, revolting from the Parthians, restored the empire to Persia.
The subsecjuent details belong to the Persian history.
PERSIA.
49. After the Persians had been subject to the Parthians
during foiu' hundred and seventy-five years, from the time
that they passed from under the Macedonian yoke, Artax-
ares, an ignoble but courageous Persian, excited a revolt
among his countrymen, which terminated in the restoration
of the Persian empire. 223 A. C.
Artaxares having accomplished his design, and ascended
tlie throne, assumed the pompous title of king of knigs, and
asserted his right to all the provhices of the ancient empire,
which were now under the authority of the Romans. War
therefore ensued between these two powers, and the Per-
sians were terribly defeated in a single battle by Alexander
Severus. They soon however regained the ground they had
lost.
Artaxares was followed by a series of princes, the most
conspicuous of whom during this period was Sapores I. who
was his immediate successor. The dynasty which Artaxares
founded, is known in history under the name of Sassanidte,
iVoin Sassan, his father.
46 MODERN HISTORY.- — PERIOD I.
§ Of Sapores, it is recorded that he conquered several cities in Syria
and Mesopotamia, from the Romans, whicli liowever were recov-
ered by tlie yomigest Gordian ; that in 258 he captured Antioch,
penetrating into Cappadocia, and besieging Ca?sara, which being
taken through treachery, ahiiost all the inhabitants were slain, and
the city reduced to ashes. The next year tlie emperor Valerian
having advanced into the east, was taken prisoner, and treated M'ith
the greatest cruelty, as has already been described. Sapores, after
considerable reverse of fortune, having become odious to his subjects
for his cruelties, was assassinated by the Satraps.
Hormisdas II. was the last prince of this period. He enjoyed a
peaceful reign. After his death, the lords of the country' seized his
son and conlined him in a tower, because he threatened to cause tiiem
all to be flayed alive, for not rising in token of obedience to him
at a royal banquet, on a day when he returned from hunting. The
queen being pregnant, the magi, by placing the crown upon her
own person, affected to crown the prince, who, they persuaded
themselves, would be born of her.
CHINA.
50. In the history of China, the fifth dynasty which com-
menced about 200 years before the christian era, terminated
during the present period, viz. in tlie year 221 A. C. It is
called the dynasty of Han, and lasted four hundred and
twenty-four years, under twenty-five emperors The head of
this dynasty was Lien-pang, a soldier, who, overcoming" the
last emperor, and ascending the throne, took the name of
Kao-Tsou.
§ Kao-Tsou reigned with clemency and moderation. In his
reign, paper, ink, and hair pencils, still used in Ciiina instead of pen's,
were invented. He was one of the few emperors wlio governed for
themselves. Under the rest, the euiuichs obtained great authority.
Vuti, one of the princes of tlii.s family, was a great encourager ol
learning, and ordered tlie morality of Confucius to be taught in the
public schools. He fell under the power of a strong delusion, in
endeavouring to discover a liquor which would make him immor-
tal.
The sixth dynasty began 221 A. C. ; and ended 265
A. C. It is called the dynasty of Heoti-Han, and lasted forty-
lour years. China at this time was divided into three empires,
under three branches of the dynasty of Ifan. The various
parts terminated at difTerent periods, although the whole be-
came reunited at length unrler the seventh dynasty in 265.
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 47
Distinguished Characters in Period I.
1. Livy, the prince of Roman historians.
2. Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet.
3. Tibuliusj a famous elegiac poet of Rome.
4. Strabo, a celebrated geographer and historian.
5. Seneca, a Roman moralist and philosopher.
6. Lucan, a Roman epic poet.
7. Pliny, (the elder) the earliest writer on natural history
whose works are extant.
8. Q,uintilian, an eminent Roman advocate and rhetori-
cian.
9. Tacitus, an eminent philosophic historian.
10. Plutarch, the principal l)iographer of antiquity.
11. Juvenal, an eminent satirical poet.
12. M.Antoninus, a Roman emperor and philosophical wri-
ter.
13. Tertullian, ) , i r^i • *• •. i i
14 O "o- > learned Ghristian writers, commonly cal-
1 -." ^, '^ . ' ( led fathers.
15. Cyprian, )
§ 1. Livy was a native of Padua, but passed the greatest part of his
life at Naples and Rome, particularly at the court of Augustus. Of
his life not much is known, yet his fame was so universally spread,
even in his life time, tnat an inhabitant of Gades, now Cadiz, travel-
led all the way to Rome, merely to see the man whose writings had
given him so much pleasure. Livy died at Padua in his sixty-se-
venth year, A. C. 17.
This writer is principally known by his history of the Roman em-
pire. It originally consisted of 140 books, of which only 35 are ex-
tant. In this work he is alwajs great— clear, spirited, bold, and
masterly in description. The high rank wliich he holds among his-
torians will probably never be disputed. He often copied from his
contemporaries and predecessors, and especially from Polybius.
2. Ovid was born at Sulmo, on the 20th ol" March, about 43 years
B. C. His father intended him for tlu; bar; but though his pro-
gress in the study of eloquence was great, yet nothing could divert
him from paying his court to the muses. Kvorj^ thing he wrote
was expressed in poetical munbors. His name soon became known,
and the great genius(;s of the age honoured him with their notice, and
some of them with their correspondence. Augustus also patronized
him with the utmost liberality.
The days of his prosperity were not many. For some cause,
which is not ascertained, thcemperor banished him to a place named
Tomos on the Euxinc Sea. Here he spent the remainder of his life,
and he spent it in unmanly repining and impatience. He offered
the most abject flattery to Augustus, but both he and his successor
48 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
Tiberius were inexorable. Ovid died in the 7th or 8th year of his
banishment.
The poems which he left behind him have, the most of them, sur-
vi^-ed to the present time. They are characterized by sweetness and
elegance, though often debased by indelicacy of expression. Ovid
every where paints nature with the hand of a master. His Fasti, a
part of which is lost, are thought to be the best written of all his
poems. It is known that the poems of Ovid were favourites with the
great English bard, John Milton.
3. TibuUus was a Roman Knight. He at first engaged in the
toils of war ; but dissatisfied with such a life, he afterwards gave
himself up to literary ease, and to the pleasures of an enervating Ita-
lian climate. His favorite study was the writing of love verses. In
these elegant trifles he shewed himself an accomplished poet. Four
books of elegies are all that remain of his compositions. They are
so beautiful in language, and so pure in sentiment, that Tibullus is
deservedly ranked as the prince of elegiac poets.
4. Strabo was a native of Amasia, and died 25 years A.. C. His
geographical work, divided into 17 books, is the only coiuposition of
his remaining. This is justly considered an elegant, classical, and
learned work. It is written in Greek, and contains an account of
the most celebrated places and countries of the world. Strabo tra-
velled through most of the regions he has described, in quest of ac-
ciu'ate information. Among his books which have been lost, are
historical commentaries.
5. Seneca (Lucius Annasus) was born at Cordova, in Spain. He
became early distinguished for uncommon abilities, and acquired at
the bar, the reputation of an eloquent pleader ; but he relinquished
this road to fame, and became a candidate for public employments.
He obtained the office of quaestor, but by a shameful indiscretion,
having incurred the displeasure of Caligula, he was banished to the
island of Corsica. In five years he was recalled by the empress
Agrippina, to superintend the education ol' lier son Nero, which of-
fice he discharged with honor.
Nero becoming impatient of the restraint, which his preceptor im-
posed upon liis vicious inclinations, pretended tliat Seneca had con-
spired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to Seneca to
acquaint him that he must die ; permitting him to choose the manner
of his death. The philosoplier received the mandate with cheerful-
ness, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened. The
blood however flowed slowly — poison and the warm bath were
tlierefore resorted to : but being without efiect, he was at last smotli-
ercd in the vapour of a stove. His death took place in his seventy-
second year, 65 A. C.
6. Lucan was a native of Corduba, and nephew of Seneca. He
early went to Rome, where his rising talents procured liim the favour
of Nero. He had the imprudence, however, to enter into a poetical
contest with his imperial patron, and obtaining an easy victory, a?
might have been expected, he ever afterwards was an object of the
emperor's hatred. The insults to which the poet was continually
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 49
Exposed, provoked his resentment to sucli a degree, that he joined
Piso in his conspiracy against that monster. The discovery of the
plot, of course, consigned him to death. He died a young man, be-
ing only in his 26th year.
Of his works, his Pharfalia only remains. This poem celebrates
the wars of Ca;sar and Pompey, and is nnfinislied. It has been va-
riously estimated. The moral grandeur of its sentiments has been
generally acknowledged, L)ut some think him more of an orator than
a poet.
7. Pliny (the elder) was born at Verona, of a noble family. He
was distinguished in civil life, as well in scientific pursuits. To hi.s
public duties he attended througli the day, but the night he devoted
to study. He lost no time by idleness or dissipation. Every mo-
ment tliat could be spared from business was occupied in the cultiva-
tion of iiis mind. He turned his attention more particularly to Nature.
His work on Natural History, comprised in 37 books, is full of
erudition. It takes in a wide range of topics, and is written in an
interesting and sprightly manner, although the style possesses not
the graces of the Augnstan age. He wrote one hundred and sixty
volumes of remarks and annotations on the various authors whom
he had read, l)ut these have not reached us.
His love of knowledge cost him his life. An eruption of Vesu-
vius happening at the time when he lay at Misenum, where he com-
manded a tleet, he was induced to approach the mountain, for the
purpose of making his observations on tlie interesting phenomenon.
While thus occupied, he was overtaken by the buniing lava which
poured from the volcano, and sutTocated and scorched, he soon per-
ished. This memorable event happened in the 79th year of the Chris-
tian era.
8. Quintilian was a native of Spain. After twenty years labo-
rious employment in teacliing rlietoric, and in pleading at the bar at
Rome, he retired to enjoy the fruits of his labours and industry.
Here he dedicated his time to the study of literature, and to com-
position. His success as an author, and the favours of the emperor
Domitian, afforded him a high delight. But no situation is perfect-
ly happy — tlie death of his wife and two sons, filled him with almost
inconsolal)lc grief. He died 95 A. C.
His Institutions, in 12 books, is the most perfect system of ora-
tory extant. In this work, he delineates that which goes to consti-
inle a perfect orator, together witli all the preparation necessary.
Tliis work remained undiscovered until the fifteenth century.
9. Tacitus was the son of a Roman knight, and born in the reign
<»f Nero. His genius and talents procured him tlie favour of several
emperors in succession, and he was raised at last to tlie consular
dignity. He was not destitute of distinction as an orator, but he is
eiiiefiy known to mankind as an historian. A peculiar friendship
existed between him and Piiu}', tliough the one was sternly partial
i to a republican government, and the other was a great admirer of
imperial power.
The compositions of Tacitus were contained in thirty books, of
5
50 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I.
which there now remain only twenty-one. Of these, his Annals in-
clude sixteen, and his History of the Roman Emperors five. Taci-
tus has many excellencies of style. Its most striking characteristic,
perhaps, is conciseness. He has great force and depth of thought,
and is candid and impartial in his statements. In his biographical
sketches, he displays an uncommon knowledge of human nature.
The History of the Reign of Tiberius, is his masterpiece. Some
have complained of him as being obscure.
10. Plutarch was a native of Cha^ronea. He died at an advanced
age, in his native place, about the 140th year A. C. Having travel-
led in quest of knowledge tln-ough Egypt and Greece, he retired to
Rome, where he opened a school, with great reputation. Trajan,
who admired his abilities, honoured him with the office of consul,
and with the government of Illyricum.
After the death of his imperial patron, he removed from Rome to
Chaeronea ; in which delightful retirement, he composed the great-
est part of his works. His Lives of Illustrious Men, is the most
esteemed of his productions. Hisp'recision and fidelity are remark-
able. In his style, he is energetic and animated ; though distin-
guished neither for purity nor elegance. Sometimes he is too cir-
cumstantial ; yet, on the whole, he has been pronounced to be the
most entertaining and instructive of all tlie writers of ancient history.
il. Juvenal was born at Aquimnu, in Italy, and died in the reign
of Trajan, 128 A. C, at an advanced age. He came early io Rome,
where he applied himself at first to declamation, and afterwards to
the writing of satires.
Sixteen of tliese pieces are extant. In them, he is an animated,
.severe, and bold reprover of vice, and displays also much humour.
He, however, defeats his object, in a great measure, by the gross-
ness and indecency of his manner. His correctness in delineation
is the result of experience and age. He has been called, with some
reason perhaps, the last of the Roman poets.
12. M. Antoninus, whose history has been given before, was born
at Rome, in the 12lFt year of the christian era, and died on an ex-
pedition against the Marcomanni, in the nineteenth year of his reign.
He was a prince of great talents and virtue. His death was regret-
ted by mankind as a public loss, and tlie greatest honour was paid
to his memory. According to the superstition of the times, he was
ranked among the gods, and in almost every house his statue was
found.
His book of Meditations has been mucli admired by scholars and
philosopliers.
13. 'J'ertnllian lived at Carthage, and flom-ished in tlie reigns of
Severus and (^aracalla. He was originally a pagan, but afterwards
embraced Christianity, and became one of its ablest defenders. His
writings evince that he possessed a lively imagination, fervid elo-
quence, strenglli of reasoning, and a considerable acquaintance with
style. His Apology for the Christians, and liis Prescriptions, are the
best esteemed of liis innn(;rous works. The historian Gibbon, calls
him the "stern" Tertullian.
ROMAN EMPIRE. 51
14. Origen was born at Alexandria, about tlie year 185, and died
in 254, having been presbyter of that city. He wrote in Greek. He
was mucli celebrated for his parts and learning. He was endowed
with imaffected humility and modesty, and was extremely rigid in
following the christian rules. In the sixty-ninth year of his age, he
suficred martyrdom. His works are many, and include a number
of homilies, commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, and different trea-
tises, besides his Hcxa{)la. This last work first gave the hint for
the compilation of our polyglot Bibles. Mosheim calls him the lu-
minary of the christian world, during the age in which he lived ;
but observes, that he failed in justness of judgment, and was given to
the Platonic philosophy.
15. Cyprian was a native and a bishop of Carthage. He was
born about the beginning of the third century, of heathen parents,
but became a convert to Christianity, and was a principal father of
the church. To be more devoted to purity and study, he is said to
have ab;'.ndoned his wife ; and, as a proof of his charity, he dis-
tributed his goods to the poor. He wrote eighty-one letters, besides
several treatises, and rendered his works valuable, by the informa-
lion he conveys respecting the discipline of the ancient church.
He was beheaded as a martyr, at Carthage, September 14, 258
A. C. Moshiem speaks of him as possessing the most eminent abili-
ties and flowing eloquence, i)ut rather too attentive to the ornaments
jf rhetoric.
PERIOD II.
TJie period of the Norlhcni Invasions, exteridhig.froni the
Reign of Constantine the Great, 300 years A. C. to
the Extinciion. of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Sec. 1. The empire of Rome, as has ah'cady appeared,
had been for several years imder the sway of a number
of masters, on all of whom tiie burden of government
c(nuilly devolved. At the time when Constantine was pro-
claimed in Britain 306 A. C. upon the death of his father
Constaiitius, tlie two Caesars, Severus and Maximin, had
already l)een proclaimed 305 A. C. — Maxcntius, son ofMax-
unian, had about the same time, 300 A. C, declared himself.
The next year Licinias was created emperor by Galerius,
>vho had never willingly owned Constantine. These were
Constantino's conipetitors, and in the course of a few years
lie hved to see them either destroyed in various ways, or
overcome in battle, and himself remaining the sole master of
the Roman world.
52^ MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD II.
Constantine has been styled the first christian eiriperor.
Whatever may have been his real character, as far as religion is
concerned, it is certain that he stopped the persecutions of the
christians — that he publicly favoured Christianity — defend-
ed it against its enemies, and tolerated the profession of it in the
empire. Indeed, under his auspices it became tlie religion
of the state, and that great change in the Roman govern-
ment took place, which, from a persecuting, made it a protect-
ing power. For the inliuence whicii Ciu-istianity exerted
over tiie public conduct of this emperor, a cause has beeji as-
signed, possessing a miraculous character, viz. : his seeing a
pillar of light in the heavens in the form of a cross, bearing
the inscription — " By this conquer."
Whether this were a real sight, or a mere insaginatiou, it is
asserted in the records of the times, as an undoubted fact ;
and if it were such, we may readily account for the part
which Constantine acted, even should we b(; forced to doubt
the integrity of his religious principles.
§ The first exploits of Constantine were directed -atjainst the Franks,,
who had then overrun Gaul. It was in 311 or 312, Vv'hen he was
marching against IMaxentius, and reflecting on tho mutabiUty of the
world, and the opinions whicli then divided the attention of man-
kind, that he saw the piihir of light mentioned above. Tliis was in
the latter part of the day, and on the following night, Jesus Christ
is said to have appeared to him vi'ith the same sign.
In consequence of these appearances, the emperor caused a roj'ai
standard to be made, hearing a figure similar to that he had seen,
and commanded that it should be Carried before him in his wars.
Soon espousing tlie cause of Christianity, he entered Italy, and ad-
vancing towards the gates of Rome, he attacked and defeated Max-
entius, who. in attemining an escape, was drowned in tlie Tiber.
The next day Constantine was received into the city as a deliverer.
In 314, a war was kindled between Constantine and Licinius, but
it soon ended in a peace. Nine years afterwards, hostilities broke
out again, when Licinius after two defeats was obliged to abdicate,
leaving the government to Constantine alone.
2. The administration of Constantine varied very much,
in the dillerent periods of his life. It was far more com-
mendable at the beginning, than it at length became. His
natural tem|)er was severe and cruel, and the latter pan ot
his reign was marked by several acts of intolerant zeal, and
sanguinary rigour. In protecting and countenancing the
Christian religion he deserves our approliation, although it
must be acknowledsred that hcbroufj-htit into too close an al-
Conversion of Constantine. P. 52.
St. Bernard preaching to the Crusaders. P. 134.
ROMAN EMPIRE. 6^
liance wi'.ii (lie civil power, to consist with its higliest pros-
perity.
§ The cliaraclc ■ f Constantine has been the subject of extravagant
eulogy, or violent censure, according as friends or foes have been
concerned in drawing it. We shall do well perhaps to strike the
balance between the different representations — the prejudices of the
cotemporary pagans against it we should little regard, nor should
we think too much of the panegyric which was resorted to for its
vindication, by the professed Christians of his day. It was a highly
mixed character which he possessed.
This emperor was the author of an essential change in tlie
Roman affairs, in another respect besides that of religion. In
transferring the seat of tlic empire from Rome to Constantino-
ple, he airected its condition during the remainder of its ex-
istence. This step accelerated the destruction of the decay-
ing fabric. His motives in this project cannot be accurately
determined — whether they had reference to ideas of poHcy
and advantage, or purely to resentment on account of affronts
received at Rome Whatever they were, his own reputation
and the pul)Iic interests were injured.
The eiliict of this measure, though not immediately felt,
was at length fatal. After the government was apportioned
among the emperor's sons, there was such a division of the
forces of the empire, that the northern barbarians, who
fought with superior numbers, and had been hitherto re-
pidsed, now began to prevail and to encroach on the pro-
vinces.
In an expedition against the Persians, Constantine died at
Nicomedia, in the thirtieth year of his reign, and sixty-third
of his age.
§ The new seat of empire is said to have been pointed out in the
following manner-— Constantine had made choice of a situation at
Chalcedon, in Asia Minor ; hut it seems, in laying out the ground-
plot, an eagle caught up the line and flew with it over to Byzantium,
a city wliicli lay upon the opposite side of the IJosphorus.
Here, therefore, it was deemed expedient to fix the seat of empire;
and Constantine, after having built a capitol, an amphitheatre,
many cliurchesand other pu!)lic works, and many magnificent edi-
fices, and after having dedicated the city to the God of martyrs, re-
paired thither, with liis wliole court.
From this period to the reigns of Ilonorius and Arcadius.
when the empire was divided into two distinct sovereignties^
the histories of Rome and Constantinople are necessarilv
blended.
5*
54 MODERN HISTORY.^ — lERIOD I.
3. The Roman world had long been cDmposv- lof discord
ant parts, and the work of corruption and dissolation was ai
this time making a rapid progress. The immense mass was
kept together for a period longer, only by the vigorous exer-
tion of despotism. The fabric naturally tottered to its fall,
when the Pagan principles of religion, which constituted an
essential part of its foundation, were removed. The arm of
power then supplied the props that npheld it, and this, more
emphatically than was ever the case Ijefore.
§ The Roman armies at this era, were debased by the intermixture
of Scj^thians, Goths, Germans, and other barbarous tribes ; and Con-
stantine, from a timid pohcy of guarding against mutinies of the
troops, reduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5000 and
upwards, to 1000 or 1500.
4. Before his death, Conslaiitine had settled the empire on
five princes — his three sons and two nephews. His sons were
Constantine II., Constans, and ( 'onstantius II. The nephews,
who were Cccsars, were named Dalmatius, and Annibalianus.
Their sovereignty ccmmmenced 337 A. C.
Immediately upon the accesssion of these princes, Con-
stantius contrived to destroy the two Caesars, with five others
of his cousins and two of his uncles. Soon after this. Con-
stantine entered into a contention with Constans, and was
killed ; and Constans in a few years perished in atten)pting
to quell a revolt among his subjects. Constantius, therefore,
remained in the })ossession of the whole empire. He reigned
twenty-four yeciis in misfortune and dishonour.
§ Domestic broils, and insurrections of the troops,had left the west-
ern frontiers of tlie empire exposed to the barbarians. The Franks,
Saxons, A) emanni, and .Sarmatians had devastated the fine countries
on the Rhine, and tlie Persians had kept up a succession of wars in
the eastern provinces. At first Constantius obliged the Persians to
retire ; but he was afterwards overcome in nine signal battles.
His cousin Juhan. he created Ca3sar, but afterwards regarding liin^
with jealous}'^, and hearing that he was proclaimed emperor. Con-
stantius marched against him. but died on the road. He had reach-
ed his 45th year. In pcu-son he was diminutive, but capable of
exertion when occasion required ; he was tempcrate,but extremely
uxorious ; and in a word, inherited the defects without the abilities
of his father. He was much engaged in theological controversy,
but his religious principles or character cannot inspire us with any
great respect.
5. Julian, commonly called the apostate, on account of his
relapsing into paganism from a Christian education, was
ROMAN EMPIRE. 05
acknowledged by the senate, 361 A. C. His army had pre-
viously proclaimed him emperor, much against his will ; but
the insult he received from Constantius, who exacted submis-
sion to himself as the supreme head, determined him to assert
his claims by force of arms. After due preparation and
vigorous efforts, he was happily released from this necessity,
by the death of Constantius.
Julian had already restored the glory of the Roman arms
by repres.-ing the invasions of tlie barbarians. He was noj
without several noble traits, and was fitted by knowledge ana
energy to govern a great people. His enmity against the
holy religion of Jesus, was deservedly his greatest defect.
To this lie added bigotry in favour of paganism, supersti-
tion, and no small share of a foolish credulity. He was ad-
dicted to the studies of magic and astrology.
He immediately began the reformation of abuses of various
kinds, but declared in favour of paganism, re-opened the tem-
ples, and without directly persecuting, did much to injure
(Jhristians and their cause. In 363, he attempted to rebuild
the temple at Jerusalem ; but certain miraculous appearances,
it is said, prevented the execution of his design. During the
^arne year, in a war with the Persians, while pursuing a vic-
torious course, and in a successful engagement, he received a
mortal wound. He had reigned but three years, and lived
thirty-one.
§ The ciianiiig and the niaUr e of Juhan, appeared, in treating the
Christians with contcnipt. lie removed tliem, as visionaries, from
all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit of
the laws to decide tho;ir difierences, because their religion forbade
a contentions spirit; andthry were debarred the studies of literature
and philosophy, as this would subject them to the perusal of pagan
authors.
Julian, like many others opposed to Christianity, employed wit
and ridicule against this relifjion ; for he was an author as well as a
warrior, it is said in ai)ology for him, that he used tliese weapon
in self-defence — that he was first lampooned by the Christians.
However tiiat may bo, religion is a subject too .sacred to be treated
in tliat manner. One of his works against the Christians, was Mi-
sophog-on, or beard hater.
liis Caesars is the most famous of his compositions, being a satire
upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius Caisar to Constantine.
This philosophical fable, according to Gibbon, is "one of the most
agreeable and instructive jiroductions of ancient wit.''
His last raonients were spent in conversation with a philosopher
5^ MODERN nrSTORT. PERIOD II.
on the immortality of the soul — he expressed his expectation cf
being united with heaven, and with the stars,* which was one of
his astrological vagaries, and he breathed his last without indicating
the least sorrow for his fate, or the suddenness of his death.
His attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, was made with a
view to furnish a specious argument against prophecy, and of course
the truth of revelation. The prodigies on the occasion, which prevent-
ed the completion of the wor]<, are attested by contemporary writers,
such as Ammianus Marcel! inus, and Gregory Naziar.zen. This
article of history lias been tlie subject of much dispute. But whether
Xve allow or not that the prodigies, such as earthquakes and balls of
fire, happened, to the annoyance of the workmen and to the destruc-
tion of tlieir commenced work, it is evident that something prevented
the work, for the temple was never rebuilt, and thus our Saviour's
prophecy remains as yet unsuspected. " Jerusalem is to be trodden
down of the Gentiles till the time of the Gentiles is fulfilled."
6. Oil tlie death of Julian, the race of Constantiiis Clorus
became extinct, and the Roman world was without a bead,
and without an heir. In tliis situation, the army finally fixed
on Jovian, a Pannonian, and the emperor's first domestic, as
his successor, 363 A. G. Jovian made peace with the Per-
sians, by the cession of five provinces ; for on Julian's death
tlie army was brought to the brink of destruction, and by
such a sacrifice only could he save it and himself.
This emperor applied himself to restore tranquillity to the
Church. He displayed the banner of the cross, and reversed
the edicts of Julian respecting Christianity. His reign, which
continued only seven months, was mild and equitable. He
died suddenly at the age of thirty-three years.
5 While Jovian was on his march to secnre the palace of Constan-
tinople, his wife with an imperial train hastened to meet him, car-
rying with her their infant son. The moment of embracing her
husband seemed to be at hand : but the distressing news of his death
which was immediately communicated to her, most cruelly disap-
pointed her hopes. He had died the night before, as some report, by
sutTocation from tlie vapour of charcoal.
7. Valentinian I., after a delay of a few days was elected
emperor by the army. 364 A. C. One month after, he asso-
ciated his brother Valens, in the empire, and gave him the
eastern provinces. From this period, the division of the em-
pire into Eastern and Western, became fixed and permanent.
* This was in agreement with tlie doctrine of Pythagoras and Plato, which
seems to exclude any personal or conscious immortality.
ROMAN EMPIRE. ST
The empire, however, was still considered as one body. On
the East, the Persians were making inroads. The West
was continually invaded by the northern barbarians. The
latter were repelled by the emperor in many successful bat-
des. He favoured the Christian religion, and his domestic
administration was equitable and wise. His temper, howe-
ver, was violent. He died on an expedition against the Ale-
manni, 367 A. C.
§ It is said that the barbarians against whom he had last taken
arms, had piovoi<ed him beyond all endurance, so that when ih.eir
ambassadors came to sue for mercy, his anger was raised to such a
height, and his tones and gestures wore so violent, that he ruptured
a blood vessel, and expired on the spot.
In the East, Yalens held a weak and inefficient sceptre.
Engaged in the Arian heresy M'hich he favoured, he threw
the provinces into confusion and contention, and at the same
lime exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians,
who came under the profession of friends and allies. He
died in 378 A. C.
These were the Goths who emigrated from Scandinavia,
and who, together with several other barbarous nations, will
soon be described in this account of the Roman empire, since
they are so intimately connected with its destiny.
§ In 376, Valens permitted vast hordes of the Goths, who had been
driven out of their couiUiy by the Uims, to settle in Thrace. Here,
however, they soon plundered the very country conceded to them as
an asylum. The emperor luistened to oppose them, but he was de-
feated in the famous battle of Adrianople, two thirds of his army
having been cut to pieces.
Being himself womided, he was carried into a cottage, where on
llie same day he was burnt alive by the barbarians, who set fire to
the cottage, without knowing that it contained the emperor of the
East.
8. Gratian, a son of Yalentinian, succeeded his father,
367 A. C. He soon became possessor of the whole en)pire, by
■the death of Valens. Upon this event, he took Theodosius
as his associate, on whom he conferred the eastern provin-
ces. He began to reign in his 17th year, and died at the
age of 24 years. He was a well disposed prince, but defi-
cient in energy of character.
§ Gratian undertook to destroy the remains of paganism ; but
Rome, at the time, happening to be afllicted by a severe famine, the
favourers of that superstition ascribed Uie calamity to the wrath of;
$S MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II.
the gods. A general dissatisfaction ensued, and Maxinius, who
commanded in Britain* taking advantage of this state of things, cau-
sed himself to be proclaimed emperor. Gratian marching into Gaul
to oppose him, Avas deserted by his soldiers, and killed at Lyons, 371
A. C.
9. Valentinian II. was the successor of his bi other Gra-
tian. Being dispossessed by Maximus, he took refuge with
Theodosius, who was then reigning in the East, and whe
restored him to the throne. From that time he ruled with
justice. After wearing the crown for several years, he was
strangled by a Gaul named Arhogastus, who had assumed'
9,n authority over his sovereign, 392 A. C. The tyrant Eu-
genius, whom the Gaul caused to be proclaimed on this oc-
casion, was defeated and put to. death by Theodosius.
10. In the East, after the death of Valens, Theodosius
succeeded to the throne, 379 A. C He was deservedly sur-
named the Great. The barbarians he repelled with success,
and he secured the prosperity of his people by wise and salu-
tary laws. It was during his reign, that Christianity obtain-
ed the entire ascendency over paganism, as the religion of
the Roman people.
After the death of Valentinian IT., the whole empire came
into possession of Theodosius ; and he was the last who reign-
ed over both the East and West. Previously to his decease,
he divided the empire between his two sons, a.ssigning the
West to Honorius, and the East to Arcadius. From this
era they became two distinct empires, and will be treated of
separately.
§ Theodosius the Great, was the son of Count Tlieodosius, a very
able general, who had been beheaded by the order of Gratian. To
9,tone for his injustice, Gratian chose the Count's son as his colleague,
and gave him the East for his portion. A few days after his elec-
tion, he gained a signal victory over the Goths, who immediately
sued for peace.
In the year 390, Theodosius cruelly punished the inhabitants of
Thessalonica. who had killed tlieir governor on a certain occasion;
by sending iiis soldiers against the place, and putting 7000 to the
sword. Such, however, was the hifluence of St. Ambrose, that he
obliged the emperor, by a public penance, to expiate his crime.
In religion, Theodosius espoused the orthodox party. His faith
is said to have been confirmed by an argument adapted to the mean-"
est capacity. lie had conferred on Arcadius, his eldest son, the ti-
tle of Augustus ; and tlie two {)rinces were seated on a throne to re-
ceive tlic homage of their subjects. Among others who offered theis
ROMAN EMPIRE. 5$
homage, was Ampliilocliiiis, bisliop of Icenium. He, however, ap-
proached Theodosius alone with reverence, the son he accosted with
familiarity.
The monarch, offended by the conduct of the bishop, gave orders
that he should be thrust from his presence; but while the guards
were engaged in this act, the good bishop exclaimed, "Siicli is the
treatment, O emperor! which the king of heaven has prepared for
those impious men who affect to worship the Father, but refuse to
acknowledge the co-equal dignity of his divine Son."
This declaration had the effect of propitiating tlie emperor, and
fixing his mind more strongly than before, in the faith.
11. The Roman empire had now become excessively
weakened by its unwieldly extent, and had aUeady suffered
much from the incursions of its barbarous neighbours. It
was, however, destmed to suffer far more in the end, from the
last named source. Tts separation into two empires, favoured
the projects of the barbarians, who, from this pciiod, poured in
like a torrent upon these cullivated regions. The Western
empire in a few years was coni|)Ietely overwhelmed.
A short accotnit of the barl^arous nations, wdio acted so con-
spicuous a part in this tiagedy, seems to be demanded in this
place.
The Huns were a fierce and savage nation, at first in-
habiting the vast deserts which border China on the north.
A part of them, owing, it is said, to civil wars, retired to the
westward, and settled to tlse north of the Caspian sea, near
the source of the r'wev Ural.
§Froin thence, 376 A. C. advancing towards the Pakis Mfcotis
(sea of Asof ) under Balamir, their chief, they subdued the Alains,
and forced such of them as were capable of bearing arms to join
them; tlie remainder tliey put to death. Vv'ith this accession of
strengtli and numbers, they fell upon the Ostrogoths and Visogoths,
and liaving driven them away from their country, took possession
of it themselves. This was a region extending from the Tanais U)
the Dar.uijo. Their subsequent history, we shall find identified witli
the Roman affairs.
The Alains inhabited the north of Asiatic Sarmatia, and
were known to the Romans in the time of Pompey. Under
the first emperors, they several times invaded the frontier
provinces.
§ Those of them who escaped the arms of tlie Huns, pushed their
way towards Pannonia, whence advancing still further to the west,
thej'' united with the Suevi and the Vandals, and continuing iheii
migrations, they finally settled in lAisitania, now Portugal, where in
477. they were conquered by the Visogoths.
!60 MODERN HISTORY- PERIOD II.
The Vandals issued from Scandinavia, now Sweden, and
crossing the Baltic, first settled in a part of Germany. On
account of increasing numbers, they again emigrated, and
taking their course eastward, possessed themselves of the
country towards the Tanais, whence they made several in-
cursions upon the Roman provinces.
§ They at length formed a jimction with the Siievi and Alains, and
marched into Spain, apart of which they settled, and called after their
name, Vandalusia or Andalusia. Their history downward, is pursued
in that of the Romans.
The Goths came originally from ScaiKiinavia. They first
settled in Pomerania, whence advancing towards the east.
they took up their abode to the north of the lake Aloeotis.
Here they were div'ided into Visogoths, or Goths of the West,
and Ostrogoths, or Goths of the East.
§ Being overcome by the Huns, they were forced to abandon their
last settlement, and a part of them took refuge in Pannonia, where
they remained till they formed the new kingdom of Italy, hereafter
to be mentioned.
The Heruh also, originated in Scandinavia. They first emi-
grated towards the East, and settled on the borders of the
lake MiEOtis. They afterward returned towards the West.
§ It is said that coming to the ocean, they embarked for Thitle, one
of the Shetland islands, or,, as others suppose, what is now called
Iceland, where they finally settfed. As we shall soon learn, the first
sovereign of the new kingdom of Italy was a chief of the lleruli.
The Gepidse were another Scandinavian tribe. They
first planted themselves on the Vistida, whence they advan-
ced east towards the Tanais.
§ Here being subdued by Attila, the Hun, they served under him
in liis expedition to Gaul. U[)(>n liis death, they shook off the yoke.
They were finally destroyed by the Lombards.
The Suevi were a warlike rmtion of Gei-mnny, inhabiting
that part of it in which Berlin is now situated. They were
great wanderers, and often changed their habitations.
§ In 40G. they entered Gaul witli the Alains and Vandals, wilii
whom they passed into Spain, in a part of which '.hey established a
monarchy. This was aftervv'ards destroyed by the Visogoths.
'^rhe Burgundians first inhabited what now constitutes the
)<ingdom of Prussia. From tliis country they were afterwards
CApelled by the Gepidse. They frequently crossed the Rliine,
and invaded Gaul, and brought trouble on the empire.
There were other minor tribes of barbarians, of which no
particular account need be here given. They were such as
ROMAN EMPIRE. 61
the Bulgari, Alemanni, Venetli, &c. Other rude nations also,
who followed in the train of these conquerors, "wall be noticed
at the proper time.
12. In the Western Empire, Honorius, who held the sceptre
by the appointment of his father, Tlieodosius, proved him-
self a degenerate son. Stilicho, a famous warrior, had been
appointed guardian or minister to Honorius, during the mino-
rity of the latter ; and it was owing to the vigour of the min-
ister, and not at all to the merits of the emperor, that the
barbarians of the north were repelled for such a length of time.
Alaric, king of the Goths, had penetrated into Italy, but
was defeated by Stilicho near Pollentia, 403 A. C. But this
able general, having, through the baseness of the emperor,
been afterwards beheaded, 408 A. C, Alaric again advanced
and beseiged Rome. The promise of a large sum of gold
delayed his purposes of vengeance. As, however, it was ne-
ver fuKilled, Alaric took the city, and committed some part of
it to the flames, 410 A. C.
The pillage lasted six da3^s, and multitudes of its inhabi-
tants were massacred. During the space of more than six
hundred years, Rome had not been violated by the presence
of a foreign enemy ; and even long before, as w' ell as during
that period, her power had been feared abroad.
§ Tlie weakness of Honorius, among other causes, encouraged the
attack of the barbarians upon the empire. From the wilds of Scan-
dinavia, that northern hive, as it has been fitly called, as well as from
the east, they issued in almost incredible numbers. Previously to
their descent upon Italy, the Goths, under Alaric, had spread their
devastations quite to the borders of the eastern capital, and through
the classic fields of Greece.
Stilicho made a stand against the invaders. AMiile they beseiged
Asta, where the forces of Honorius had taken refuge, Stilicho cut
his way through the Gothic camp under the walls of that place, and
thus rescued the emperor. The Goths afterwards pitching iheir
camp in the vicinity of Pollentia, were suddenly attacked by Stilicho,
and several thousands of them were slain. Amoii>j the captives was
the wife of Alaric, who was compelled to implore the clemency of
the victor. The Goths, however, were but partially checked in con-
sequence of this victory.
Stilicho might, perhaps, have delayed for some time the fall of the
empire, but iiis plans were frustrated by the machinations of his. ri-
vals, and he fell a victim to the suspicions of the ungrateful emperor,
408 A. C.
Alaric had long stood in a menacing attitude, and now prepared
to complete his designs upon Italy. About this time, vast nmnbers
U
62 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II.
of Gotlis pouring down upon Germany, forced the nations whom
they dispossessed, to fall upon Italy. These joined their arms to
those of Alaric, Avho made an attack on Rome.
He met with success ; and this great city, which liad so long been
the terror of the world, was sacked, plundered and partially burnt,
410 A. C, by the savage tribes of Germany and Scythia. The popu-
lation of Rome, at this time, might amount to 1,200,000 men ; but
the nobles were wholly sunk in luxury and effeminacy, and the
populace had become exceedingly debased, by the manimiission of
slaves or the influx of foreigners. They were nothing more than
the shadow of their ancestors in bravery and spirit. Hence the suc-
cess of the arms of the barbarian.
The catastrophe which Rome experienced, was hastened also by
famine. War had prevented the cultivation of the lands, and the
ports being blocked up, the citizens were reduced to the greatest ex-
tremities— human flesh Avas publicly sold.
Treachery completed the work. The Salarian gate was opened
at midnight, by some of the Romans themselves, and the enemy
rushed in. The scene was dreadful ; for although the conqueror, in
his magnanimity had given orders that none except the armed
should be killed, great numbers of citizens were put to death, and
larger numbers still, were reduced from aflluence to want and cap
tivity. Though tlie city was pillaged and set on fire, it is thoughi
that few, comparativ'ely, of its magnificent edifices were destroyed.
Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, luit
death suddenly put an end to his ambitious projects. He
died after a short illness. Honorius, instead of improving
this opportunity to recover his lost provinces, entered into a
treaty with Ataulfus, Alaric's successor, gave hirn in mar-
riage his sister, Placidia, and ceded to him a portion of Spain.
By these and other acts, Honorius suflined the empire, by
degrees, to pass from the dominion of the Romans. Ho-
norius continued to reign till the year 422.
13. Valentinian HI. was crowned two years after the
death of Honorius, 424 A. C. He w^as the son of Constnn-
tius, a general of Honorius, and during seven months, an as-
sociate with him in the government. In 439, the emperor
/ost his dominions in Africa, by the revolt of Count Boniface,
who delivered that part of the empire to the Yandals.
§ Aetius, a general of Valentinian, being jealous of Boniface, by
means of his artifices drew the latter into a revolt, and was em-
ployed on the part of the empire to punish him on this account.
Boniface defeated the first army that was sent against him ; but dis-
trusting his strength to cope singly with his enemies, he was in-
duced to call in the assistance of Genseric, king of tlie Vandals. The
hieasure. however, was ruinous to his cause.
HUMAN EMPIRE. 63
The Vandal having thus obtained a footing in Africa, wi;ich he
greatly desired, could not be prevailed on afterwards, by the offer of
large ?ums of money, to retreat. Although the compact between
the two generals was, that they should divide Africa between them,
Genseric occupied the whole country, except three cities, and these
ne soon took.
Shutting up Boniface in Carthage, he compelled him, at the ex
piralion of a year, to surrender; and the Roman general experienced
Ihe mortification of beholding all Africa, which he had once saved,
ravaged in the most wanton manner by the barbarians whose assist-
ance he had invited. The kingdcm which Genseric thus establisli-
ed, did not last quite a century.
The other provinces of the empire were protected against
the invasion of the barbarians, by Aetius. The Huns, at this
time, had begun to make their ravages in the empire. Under
Attila, their leader, in 445, they first overran Illyricum,
Thrace, Dacia, and Ma;sia,and laid the Romans under tribute.
Soon afterwards, with an army of 500,000 men, Attila in-
vaded Gaul, and threatened the destruction of the em-
pire. The forces of the Romans, under Aetius, met him in
l)attle, on the plains of Chalons, and defeating him, with the
loss of 160.000 men, checked his progress for a time.
Not long after, however, he invaded Italy, and Valentin-
ian being shut up in Rome, by the arms of the barbarian,
was compelled to purchase a peace. Attila dying suddenly,
in the midst of his successes, the empire of the West was
saved from imiDediate destruction.
§ The march of the Huns was extremely desolating. To their
leader, Attila, the victims of his ambition have given the expressive
appellation of "Tiie Scourge of God." He first invaded the East,
wliicii he ravaged at pleasure; its emperor, Theodosius, iieing dis-
posed rather to conciliate his favour by a tribute, than to attempt
his expulsion by force of arms. Disdaining so mean spirited an
enemy, lie turned to the West ; where his appearance has already
been described. His body was secreily buried, enclosed in three
coflins, tlie first of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron.
Tlie men wlio dug liis grave were put to death, lest they should re-
veal llie place of his burial.
Aetius, whose military talents had been so serviceable to
the empire, soon fell a victim to the jealousy of the eunuch
Heraciius, anrl Valentinian stabbed him witli his own hand.
The next year the emperor himself was assassinated.
14. Maximus II. wlio had instigated the murder of Val-
entinian, was proclaimed, 455 A. C. He married Eudoxia,
64 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II,
the widow of his predecessor, to whom lie imprudently re-
vealed his guilt in the assassination of the emperor. To re-
venge this deed, she called in tlie assistance of Genseric,
king of the Vandals. Upon his arrival, Maximus fled, but
he met the vengeance of his people, who stoned him to death
on account of his cowardice.
§ Maximus was a Roman senator of the Ancian family, and was in-
cited to the destruction of Valentinian, by the dishonour which the
latter had cast upon his wife. However respectable Maximus was
in private life, his abilities were inadequate to stay the fall of the em-
pire, had he been longer contirmed.
Eiidoxia had reason to repent of her imprudence. The
call upon Genseric for aid, well comported with his private^
sinister aims. After he had landed in Italy, with an army
of Moors and Vandals, he took Rome, delivered it up to pil-
lage during several days, destroyed many of the monument?
of ancient genius, and conveyed the empress and her two
daughters back with him in triumph to Carthage.
15. From the death of Maximus, 455 A. G. there was a
succession of eight empeiors, during twenty years ; at the
expiration of which, as we shall soon learn, the empire ter-
mmated. Little more than their names can be mentioned
below.
§ Avitus was acknowledged in Gaul by his troops. Having crea-
ted Ricimer, a Roman senator, general of his armies, the latter soop
entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor; and Avitus, at first
arrested and deposed, at last died while on the road to Italy, 457
A. C. Ricimer, though an able commander, was a savage and tur-
bulent demagogue.
Majoriaa was proclaimed after the deposition of Avitus. He
made an unsuccessful attempt against the kingdom of t!ie Vandals
in Africa. This emperor published several wise laws for the refor-
mation of abuses, but the reputation which he acquired for wisdom
and virtue, excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who deposed and slew
him, 461 A. C.
Severus HI. was created emperor by Ricimer, who governed un-
der his name. Ricimer, after the expiration of four years, found it
convenient to poison the nominal master of himself and the empire.
Athemius was called to the empire by the united suffrages of
the senate, the army, and the people, in 4C)7. To attach Ricimer to
his interest, who was become extremely formidable, he gave him,
his daughter in marriage. Ricimer, however, soon having a dif-
ference with his father-in-law, besieged and pillaucd Rome. Du-
ring this transaction the emperor was murdered.
Olybrius, who was sent with an army by Leo, emperor of thp
ROMAN EMPIRE. 66
East, to protect Athemius against Ricimer, was seduced by the lat-
ter and proclaimed emperor, but died three months after, 472.
Glycerus, an obscure soldier, favoured by a Burgundian prince,
assumed the title of emperor at Ravenna; but Leo had conferred it
on Julius Nepos, wlio look Glycerus prisoner, and caused him to be
consecrated bishop of Salona, 473.
Julius Nepos was proclaimed at Rome 474. The next year, Ores-
tes, a Panuonian, wliom he sent into Gaul, revolted, and besieged the
emperor in Ravenna. Nepos escape<l into Dalmatia, where at the
end of five years he was assassinated.
Augustulus son of Orestes was made emperor by his father.
After a reign of eleven months, he was taken prisoner by Odoacer
king of the Heruli, and sent into Campania, where he lived hi a
private station.
1(». Tu the Eastern Empire, after its final separation from
i'.he West, in the time of Theodosius, 395 A. C., there were
i.ransactions wliich deserve our notice. Theodosius, as we
have seen, assigned the East to his son Arcadius. This
piince was then eighteen years of age, and he proved to be
both weak and dissolute. He sulFered liimseH'to be governed
by favourites, and at length l)y Eudoxia, his empress, wlio
made it her great object to plunder the revenues of the state.
17. Thedosius II. son of Arcadius, succeeded to the em-
pire 408. He has tlie reputation of having been a prince of
mild disposition, and piety of conduct, but otherwise desti-
tute of those qualities that are essential to a sovereign. But
his deficiencies were supplied by the genius and address of
nis sister, Pulcheria, who aided in the administration of the
the government. The latter part of his life was greatly dis-
turl)ed by the invasions of the Barbarians.
§ Pulcheria, whose talents for government were extraordinary,
sought to strengthen her influence and power, by securing for her
brother a companion in marriage, who, as she ho[)ed, would ever be
grateful to her benefactress. The person on whom her choice, as
well as that of Theodosius, fell, was the beautiful and learned Athe-
nais.
Chance had made her known to Pulcheria. She was the daughter
of an Athenian pliiiosopher, who had taken the greatest care of her
education. Sucli was Ids conviction of her entire accomplishment
in every respect, 'that in the disposition of his properly, he left his
two sons the whole of it, except one hundred pieces of gold, with
the declaration lliat " her own good fortune would be sufficient for
her."
With a view to obtain her just sliarc of the inheritance from lier
brothers, after slie had tried t!ie forinsof law in vain, the Athenian
maiden came to claim the interference and protection of Pulcheria,
6*
66 MODERN HISTORY.^PERIOU II.
at Constantinople. Her sense and merit highly pleased the pi-incesg,
and i:i connection with her charms, won the heart of Theouosius.
In 431 she embraced Cliristianity, and was baptised by the name of
Eudocia, and the same year was imited to the emperor in marriage.
She treated her brothers with singular magnanimity, raising them
to the rank of consuls and prfefects, and though she at length lost
the affections of Theodosius on an imputation of infidelity, and
chose to retire to Jerusalem, she ever protested that she was wholly
nnocent. She died about 460, ten years after the death of her
husband.
18. Mai'cian, a native of Thrace, was called to the llirone
by Pulclieria 450, whose hand also he received in marriage.
After a reign of seven years, he departed this life, while pre-
paring for a war against Genseric, king of the Vandals.
§ Marcian possessed some eminent qualities, as is evinced by his
reply to Attila when the latter claimed the annual tribute, consented
to by Theodosius. " I have," said he, " gold for my friends, and
iron for my enemies."
19. Leo I., also a native of Thrace, was called to the em-
pire on the death of Marcian 457 A. C. He reigned till
nearly the period of the destruction of the Western empire.
He had some domestic enemies, who gave him trouble; though
he finally crushed Asper, through whose influence he had
been raised to the throne, and who at length revolted against
his mastei'. During the latter part of his reign, his domi-
nions were much ravaged by the Goths. He died a natural
death, at an advanced age, 474 A. C.
§ liBo Tst has been greatly praised by some historians, and cen-
sured by others. An instance of his temperate firmness m resisting
the oppression of his patron Asper, is recorded as follows: —
Asper had presumed to reproach him with a breach of promise,
in regard to a certain appointment. "It is not proper," said he, in-
solently shaking the purple, "that the man who is invested with
this garment, sliould Ix! guilty of a falsehood." "Nor is it proper,'-
retorted Leo, " that a prince should be compelled to resign liis own
judgment and the public interest, to the pleasure of a subject."
PERSIA.
20. Of Persia, daring this period, we have only to say in
general, tliat it was governed successively by eight princes, of
whom Sapores II. was the most distinguished ; that at the
begitming, and towards the conclusion of the period, the na-
tion wnrrcd against the Romans; but that through the inter-
mediate space, the most profound peace subsisted between the
CHINA. 67
two powers. A few particulars respecting some of the Per-
sian sovereigns, will appear below.
§ Saporcs, II., who was crowned before his b;rth, in ihe person of
his mother, began to persecute the Christians of nis dominions in 326.
In a few years after, he endeavoured to recover the five provinces
yielded by liis grandfather, Narses, to the Romans, but was terribly
defeated Ijy Constantius. After this event, he gained a celebrated
battle at Sirigate, in Mesopotamia, andtook several cities.
In the war with Julian, in 303, he was pursued into the very
Iieart of his dominions, but was delivered by the death of that em-
peror. He died in 390, after a reign of seventy years. His charac-
ter was a compound of pride and ferocity. He cruelly persecuted
the Christians, during forty years.
Saporcs III., was a wise prince ; he lived at peace with the Ro-
mans, and died lamented. Under Isdigartes I., a persecution of the
Christians commenced, wliicli continued fifty years, during his reign
and that of some of his successors.
CHINA.
21. During this period, the seventh dynasty of the empe-
rors of China terminated ; as also the eighth, a little after the
conclusion of the period.
Under the first of these, the empire, which had been divi-
ded into three, became united. It continued one hundred and
fifty-five years, under fifteen emperors. It is called the di-
nasty of Tcin-ou-ti. The eighth was the dynasty of Song.
It began under a revolted general, 420 A. C, and lasted fifty-
nine years, under eight emperors,
§ One of the sovereigns of the 8th dynasty, whose name Avas Venti,
was killed by his own son, and the ])arricide fell by the hands of
his brother. The latter made himsrif many enemies by the freedom
of his speech, for whicli, in the end, lie lost his life. One of his
wives, whom he had ofTended by calling her old, stifled Inm in his
bed.
Distinguished Characters in Period II.
1. Lactantius, an elegant writer, and an al^le defender of
Christianity : sometimes called the Christian Cicero.
2. Ossian, a Caledonian bard.
3. Eusebius, an eminent ecclesiastical historian.
4. Eutropius, a Latin historian and sophist.
5. Julian, a Ronvin emperor, an acute, but malignant in-
fidel philosopher.
G. Basil, the Great, an eminent father in the church.
08 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IT.
7. Greenery Nazianzen, a theological and polemical \\ riter.
8. Claudian, an elegant Latin poet.
9. St. Chrysostom, and I Learned and eloquent ministers
10. St. Augustine, '\ and writers.
§ 1. Lactantiiis proved the truth of the Christian religion, and ex-
posed the absurdities of paganism. He was the most eloquent of
the ecclesiastical Latin writers of his age. His principal works.
are his treatises concerning the Divine Wrath, and the Works of
God, and his Divine Institutions. The last, in seven books, is written
with uncommon elegance and purity. As a theologian, he had
some errors. He died in 325.
2. Ossian was a rude Caledonian. He is supposed to have flou-
rished in the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal.
He wrote in Gaelic ; and the poems that go by his name, translated
by Macpherson, are marked by a simple and sublime wildness. If
they are really Ossian's, he must be considered as the first of the poets
of this period. There is, however, strong ground of doubt, in respect
to the authenticity of these poems, as a whole.
3. Eusebius died in 333 A. C. He was bishop of Caesarea, and
enjoyed the favour of Constantine. He opposed Arius, although he
held to a certain disparity and subordination in the Godhead. He
was a man of immense readUig, and was greatly versed in ecclesi-
astical history and sacred erudition. He distinguislied himself by
his writings, which consisted of an ecclesiastical history, the life of
Constantine, evangelical pi-eparations, and many other treatises,
most of which are now lost.
4. Eutropius lived in the age of Julian, under whom he was a
soldier in the war against Persia. He is supposed to have been a
Roman Senator. He wrote several works ; but none of them re-
main except his Roman History. This was an epitome of the trans-
actions of Rome, from tlie age of Romulus to the reign of Valens.
It is characterised by conciseness and precision, but not by elegance.
5. Julian, as has been already narrated, was elevated to the throne,
301 A. C. He then, although he had been educated according to the
principles of the Gospel, publicly disavowed its truths, and offered
solemn .sacrifices to all the Gods of Ancient Rome. This change of
religious opinion, was attributed to the austere maimer with which
he was instructed in Christianity; thougli others at^cribe it to his in-
tercourse with the philosophers of Athens, and their influence over
his mind. From tliis circumstance, the appellation of apostate, has
been attached to him. Some of Ids writings have been preserved,
in which he has shown great powers of ridicule in a bad cause. But
we need not repeat the particulars that have already been given, res-
[jecting his ciiaracter and writing.s.
6. Basil, snrnamed the Great, was bishop of Ciiesarea. He was
persecuted by Valens, for refusing to embrace A.rianism. Accord-
inof to Mosheim, "in point of genius, controversial «kill, and a rich
and flowing elotjucnce, he was surpassed l)y very I'evv oCJus contem-
poraries." He died in 379.
ROMAN EMPIRE. 69
7. Gregory Nazianzen, was siirnamed the divine. He was patri-
irch of Constantinople, but the right to that station being disputed,
he abandoned it. His birtli occurred in 32 1, and his death in 389.
He held an honourable place among the theological and political wri-
ters of the times. His writings compare well with those of the Gre-
cian orators, in elo(pience and variety. His sermons are better
adapted to philosophers than common hearers, but are, nevertheless,
not wanting in seriousness and devotion. He most ably defended
(he orthodox faith concerning the Trinity.
8. Claudian was a native of Alexandria, in Egypt, and flourished
in the age of Honorius and Arcadius. His style is not corrupted by
the false taste of the age. But although he wrote elegant verses,
lie depicted no powerful passions, and exhibited no commanding
genius. His matter was meagre, but his language was pure, his ex-
pressions happy, and his numbers melodious. His best compositions
are his poems on Rufinus and Eutropius.
9. St. Chrysostom, John, was so called on account of his extraor-
dinary eloquence. He was born at Antioch, of a noble family, about
354, consecrated bishop of Constantinople in 398, and died in 407.
His works are voluminous. He was an elegant preaclier, and pos-
sessed a noble genius. On account of his severity in opposing the
corruption of the times, he procured himself many enemies. He was
go great a disciplinarian, that he even recommended to private be-
lievers, though very injudiciously, the use of outward violence, in re-
sisting the wickedness of men.
10. St. Augustine was bishop of Hippo, in Africa. He led an aus-
tere life, and died in his seventy-sixth year, 430 A. C. He distinguish-
ed himself by his writings, and his reputation is great, even to this
day. He was characterised by a sublime genius, an unintermitted
pursuit of truth, an indefatigable application, an invincible patience,
a sincere piety, and a subtle and lively wit. The solidity and ac-
curacy of his judgment, were not, however, proportionable to his
eminent talents in other respects.
Augustine's book concerning the City of God, has been pronounced
to be " a work extremely rich and ample in point of matter, and fill-
ed with tlie most profound and diversified erudition." In all his
writings, this father displayed an extensive acquaintance with Pla-
to's philosophy.
PERIOD III.
The period of the Justinian Code, and of the Wars of
Bclisarius ; extending from the Extijiction of the
Western Empire, 476 years A. C, to the flight of
Mahomet, 622 years A. C.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
The dark ages, as they have been commonly called, crramenced
70 MODERN HISTOR.Y. PERIOD III.
with Ihis period. The human intellect, and the state of society, ha(J
i''v some time previous, been retrograde. But upon the conquest of
ilie Western Empire by the barbarians, the darkness became more
especially obvious, and we shall find it prevailing^ over the nations,
'.liough with some intervals of light, nearly 1000 years. It is believ-
ed, however, that mankind have been apt to overrate, in some res-
pects, the infelicities of the dark ages, and to forget, that after all,
strong proofs were at times afl"orded, of intellectual vigour, and of the
high enjoyment of life. A few men of distinguished abilities ap-
peared during the present period, though, in general, the age is not
to be compared with several that preceded it.
Sec. 1. We have now to record the melancholy extinction
of the Western Empire of the Romans — an empire, the most
powerful that has ever existed. This event occurred, 476
A. C. upon tlie taking of Rome by Odoacer, prince of the
Heruli. Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, was at that time
on tiie throne. Odoacer, having- subdued Italy, and taken
its capital, spared the life of Augustulus, upon condition of
his resigning tlie empire.
§ The empire having been long beset on every side by barbarians,
great numbers of them were admitted into the Roman legions, to
jjrotect it against the rest. These, in the reign of Augustulus, having
revolted, demanded a third part of the lands of Italy, as a settlement
for themselves and families. This being refused, they advanced to
Rome, under Odoacer, and as conquerors, held the country.
Odoacer was an officer of the emperor's guards, at the head of the
barbarians wlio had enlisted in the armies. Wiien he had secured
Rome, Augustulus, who was a feeble youth, was directed to express
his resignation to the senate, while that body, in an epistle to Zeno,
emperor of the East, disclaimed the necessity of continuing the im-
perial succession in Italy, since, in the submissive language of adula-
tion, they observed, "the majesty of the monarc!i of Constantinople,
was sufficient to defend both the East and the West :" at tlie same
lime they begged the favour, that the emperor would invest Odoacer
with the title of patrician, and the administration of the diocese of
Italy. Their request was granted, and to Augustulus, w^as assigned
a splendid income, to support him in a private station.
Thus the Western Empire of Rome jiassed from tlie hands
of its ancient masters, into the possession of the barbarians,
who had so long harassed it by their invasions. As an em-
pire, it had existed more than five hundred years, computing
the time from the battle of Actium. The whole [leriod of
its duration, from the building of (he city, was more than
twelve hundred years.
The ruin of tlie Roman empire, was the result of its great
extent, connected with its moral corruption. The perfections
ROMAN EMPIKE. 71
of God are concerned in accomplishing, b}^ natural causes,
the extinction of enormously guilty nations. Rome, having
become a mass of luxury, weakness, and profligac}^, fell, at
last, an easy prey to the barbarous tribes that poured in upon
its dominions.
§ The Northern invaders did not originate the catastrophe which
Rome experienced ; tliey scarcely hastened it. As much of crime
and barbarism a^ they brousrlit witli them, they became, upon their
settlement in the south of l']urn[)e, as reputable, at least, as the na-
tive citizens themselves. Without the agency of these invaders,
darkness and barbarism would have visited the Roman world, from
the operation of causes within its own bosom ; especially from the
extreme profligacy and irrelision which prevailed among all classes.
While the Roman empire in the 'West, thus fell into ruins, the sis-
ter empire in the East, which appealed to be in a similar situation,
not only continued to stand, but even existed for the space of nearly
one thousand years more, though in comparative imbecility and de-
pression. It existed, notwithstanding it suffered all the internal
evils which ])roduce the ruin of a state, and was shaken by all the
storms, which burst upon the nations, during the middle ages.
This phenomenon, which has not a parallel in the history of the
world, may, in some measure, be explained from the almost impreg
nable site of its capital alone, in connexion with the despotism,
which sometimes remains the last support of fdlen nations.
We shall continue the portion of its history belonging to this
period, before we bring into view the new state of things, consequent
on the occupation of Italy and the West by the barbarians. The
recent kingdom which they loundcd, deserves a separate account.
2. The Eastern Empire of the Romans, sometimes called
the Greek Empire, and the Empire of Constantinople, was
at this time. (474 A. C.) under the sway of Zcno. son-in-law
to Leo. He was odious, on account of his debauchery ; and
after having once fled from his throne, and been restored to it.
and engaged in the 3upi)ression of several conspiracies, he
met with a miserable end, being buried alive. He reigned
about seventeen years.
§ Leo TI., son of Zeno, and grandson to Leo I., Avas designed for the
empire ; but beinsr of tender ajre when his ffrandfathcr died, Zeno
was made regent.' But the death of the child, the same year, left
Zcno in the possession of the throne. The intrigues of the empress
Verina, his mother-in-law, embiUered his life, and distracted his
reign. Slic aided one or two of the conspiracies that were carried
on against him.
He came to his end by an awful act of Ariadne, his wife. She
loved him not, and profiting by an epileptic fit, to which the emperor
was subject, caused him to be precipitately interred. When the
t2 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III.
sepulchre was opened, a few days after, it was found that Zeno had
devoured the flesh off his own arms.
3. Anastasius, an officer of the palace, marrying the widow
of Zeno, was raised to the throne, 491 A. C. He was old
at this time, but reigned about twenty-seven years. The
beginning of his reign was auspicious, but it was otherwise
in the end. He died a natural deatli, in his eightieth year.
4. Justin 1., the Thracian, ascended the thione after the
death of Anastasius. He governed with great prudence. In
526, he sent the celebrated Belisarius against the Persians,
wIjo had broken the truce subsisting between the two em-
pires. The emperor, however, died before the conclusion of
the war, having reigned about nine years.
§ Justin was the son of a ploughman, and rose by his talents to
the first military dignities, before he was chosen emperor. He was
so illiterate, however, as to be unable to write his own name, and
secured respect, only by the good sense which he manifested in the
choice of his counsellors.
5. Justinian I., nephew of Justin, assumed the reins of
government, 527 A. C. His personal character was far from
inspiring respect ; but his reign was successful, and he was
extremely fortunate in his generals and counsellors. The
exploits of his generals, and the production of the code of
laws that goes by his name, of which the learned Trebonian
was the author, form an era in history.
Towards the brave and noble Belisarius, the warrior who
at first fought his battles, the emperor was ungrateful in the
extreme. This great general, by his arms and policy, pre-
served his master on his throne, when his expulsion from it
was hkely to be effected, by the civil factions which raged at
Constantinople. He also defeated the Persians in three san-
guinary battles, in different years ; destroyed the kingdom of
the Yandals in Africa, and recovered that province to the em-
pire; and wrested Itfuy from its Gothic sovereign, restoring it
for a short space of time, to the authority of its ancient masters.
Italy, however, was once more subdued by the Gotlis.
From this time the fortunes of Belisarius began to change.
He was compelled to evacuate Italy, having been more than
once recalled, through the emperor's meanness and jealousy.
On his linal return to Constantinople, his long services were
repaid witli disgrace, and he was superseded in the command
-jf the armies, by the eunuch Narses.
ROMAN EMPIRE. 73
§ Belisarius, more than any other general during the later periods
of the empire, revived the fainting glory of Rome. On the plains
of Dara, he defeated the Persians, with great slaughter; and his eon-
duct, in the sedition of Constantinople, secured the esteem of the
emperor. When Justinian, by favouring a certain faction,* had near-
ly involved himself in destruction, and was about to seek his safety
in flight, Hehsarius, amidst the uprpar and confusion which pre-
vailed, came to the aid of his master. A corps of three thousand
veteran troops he led against the populace of Constantinople, and it
is computed that no less tlian thirty thousand persons perished in
the carnage. So signal a chastisemc ut had the effect of overawing
the infuriated and divided citizens ; and the games of the circus, out
of which the contention arose, were, during several years, interdicted.
The war which Belisarius carried on against the Vandals, in Africa,
was marked by signal success; but no particulars need to be rciated,
except that Belisarius was recalled by the jealousy of Justinian, and
that his victories and prompt obedience, secured liim the honours of
a triumph.
In the war against the Gothic power in Italy, 537 A. C. Justinian was
equally fortunate through the exploits of his illustrious lieutenant,
and equally mean in his conduct towards this hero. The Gothic
forces were obliged to retire before the Roman army, upon its land-
ing in Sicily and Italy. Resistance was made, but in vain. The fame
of Belisarius, iiad inspired even the degenerate Romans with courage.
Long before this general readied Rome, the Gothic king had
abandoned it ; and though the policy was singular, the latter did it
with a view to Avrest the city from the hands of Belisarius, at some
future time. In the course of a few jnonths, Vitiges, the Gothic
king, advanced towards Rome, at the head of one hundred thousand
warriors. The inconsiderable army of Belisarius, however, per-
formed prodigies of valour, and not only defended Rome, during a
long siege, but, with the aid of some reinforcements from the East,
obliged the Gothic king to retire, first to Ravenna, and at last to sur-
render all the towns and villages of Italy.
This wiis no sooner effected, than the jealousy of Justinian re-
manded his lieuten;mt to Constantinople ; nor was the latter allowed
the honour of a second triumph. But tliough the conduct of the
emperor towards him was utterly despicable, the admiration of the
people was an ample indemnity.
Tiie valour of Belisarius, at this era, saved the East ; but there is
no time to recount his achievements. Sufiice it to say, that the
necessity of the emperor, induced him again to appoint Belisarius
to the command of Italy, inasmuch as it had been nearly overrun.
* There were two dictions in Constantinople, which were distinguished by a
diversit}' of colour. The support of one or other of these, became necessary, to
every candidate for civil or ecclesiastical honors. The greens were attached to
the family or sect of Anastasius : the lihies were devoted to orthodoxy, and
Justinian. The latter, the emperor favoured during five years, thougli their
tumults endangered equally his own safety, and tiie peace of t!ie city.
7
74 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III.
during this interval, by the arms of the brave and virtuous Totila.
No sooner, however, had he a prospect of driving the Gothic king
from Italy, than he was called off to some less important warfare,
which was intended as a disgrace to him.
The declining years of tlie life of this hero, were passed in Con-
stantinople ; but even at that late period, they were crowned by a
victory, in which he saved the ungratefnl .lustiniiui and his capital
from, the ravages of the Bulgarians. The unnatural suspicions of
ihe emperor followed him to the grave; for even in extreme old
age, he suffered in his property and comforts, for a time, from the
false imptitation of conspiracy.
Nai'ses, who was able in cotiiicil, was also successful in
war. He had the honour of completing the conquest of Ita-
ly, by defeating Tolila, in a decisive engagement, in which
the Gothic king was slain. Under the title of duke, Narses,
gaining some other victories, governed Italy with ability foi
thirteen years.
.Tustinian died in his eighty-third year. He would be but
little thought of by mankind, were it not for those illustrious
men who fought his battles, and presided in his councils. He
had the sagacity to perceive their merits, and happy would it
Jiave been, had he possessed the magnanimity to reward them.
His vices were meanness, vanity, caprice, and tyranny : his
v'irtues were chastity, temperance, vigilance, and studiousness.
v'v'e pretend not to determine which preponderated.
Imposing as was Ins reign, he lived in a miserable age.
His sulijects wei'e continually atllicted by war, pestilence, and
famine. The empire shone out with a degree of brilliancy
under his auspices, but after bis death it shone no more. Its
history, so far as it is necessary to notice it, is henceforth
made up, more than ever, of disasters, miseries, and crimes.
6. Upon the death of Justinian, his nephew, Justin II.
ascended the throne, .565 A. C. He was a man of weak in-
lellect, and was governed by his consort, Sophia, though his
L'ltentions appear to have been good. The troubles and cala-
(nities which befel his family and empire, threw him into an
incurable frenzy. In consequence of this event, Tiberius, his
son-in-law, was associated in the empire. It was soon after Jiis
eievaiiua, that the Lombards established themselves in Italy.
In his reign, not only was Italy lost again to the empire,
but Africa desolated, and the East ravaged by the Persians.
5 The advice whiclv .lustin gave to Tiberius, upon tlie introduction
of the latter to the empire, was worthy of any prince. " Love. '
ROMAN EMPIRE. <0
said he, "the people as yourself; cultivate the affections, and main-
tain the discipline ol the army ; protect the fortunes of the rich,
and relieve the necessities of the poor." The last four years of his
life were passed in tranquiUity. He reigned nine years alone, and
four in connexion with Tiberius.
7. Tiberius, who assumed the name of Constantine, was
sole possessor of the throne in 578. His reign was short,
but it was rendered glorious by his defeat of the Persians.
He was accounted a just, humane, temperate, and brave
prince.
§ On his death-bed, Tiberius bestowed his diadem on his son-in-law,
Maurice, who had proved himself an excellent general.
8. Maurice, a native of Cappadocia, ascended the throne
582 A. C. He reigned twenty 3'ears, m almost continual
turbulence. He chose his predecessors for his model, nor
was he destitute of sense and courage, in whatever he under-
took for the welfare of his subjects. Avarice is said to have
been his great failing ; but it is more probable, that his rigid
\nrtue and economy were not duly appreciated in those cor-
aij)t times.
In 602, he obliged his army to take up their winter quar-
ters beyond the Danube, upon which a revolt ensued, and
Pliocas, being proclaimed emperor, advanced to Constantino-
ple. Mainice and his children were cruelly slain.
§ After Maurice fell into the hands of Phocas, the jealous and cruel
rebel caused the emperor to be dragged from his sanctuary at Chal-
cedon, and his five sons to be mur.'lered, one after the other, before
Ills eyes. Maurice bore this agonizing sight with such firmness and
resion:ition, that he repeated, witli streaming tears, at every wound,
the words of David, "Thou art just, O Lord ! in all thy judgments."
Wlien a nurse generously concealed a royal infant, and otlered her
own to the executioner, Maurice was too rigidly honest not to reveal
the deception. The tragic scene was closed with the execution of
the emperor himself, who fell on the dead bodies of his children.
Whatsufl'erings have not princes and their families been often called
to sustain — sufferings far surpassing the common lot of men !
9. Phocas seated himself on the throne 602 A. C. His
character was despicable. His empire was ravaged by the
Persians, and numerous seditions arose to disturb his peace.
At kist, Heraclius, governor of Africa, sent his son against
him with a fleet, whicli quickly arrived at Constantinople.
Tlie emperor, forsaken by liis people, on whom he had inflict-
ed all manner of cruelties, was soon beheaded, and his body
was treated v.iih the greatest indignity.
76 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III.
§ The cruelty of Phocas towards the family of his predecessor
knew no bounds. He finally caused the innocent empress, Constan-
tina, and her three daughters, to be executed on the same spot where
her husband and sons had suffered, three years before.
10. Heraclius I., was crowned 610 A. C. His reign ex-
tended several years into the next succeeding period. The
Persians ravaged his empire ; but terribly defeating them in
six succcGsive campaigns, he brought them to a peace. He
reigned more tlian thirty years.
During the last part of his reign, the foundation was laid of the
caliphate of the Saracens, under the impostor Mahomet, whose his-
tory will claim our attention at the beginning of the next period.
KINGDOM OF ITALY.
11. The kingdom wliich was estabUshed on the ruins of
the Western Empire of the Romans, is sometimes called the
KINGDOM OF ITALY. That couutry was held and governed,
for the most part, by its northern conquerors, through the
space of nearly three hundred years. During this time,
however, there were several transfers of the sovereignt}^, from
one of the barbarous tribes to another. The Heruli, who
conquered the country in 476, held it till 493. It then passed
from their hands into the possession of the Goths, or Ostro-
goths, who held it till the year 568, when the Lombards seiz-
ed and conquered the country. They were masters of the
greatest portion of it, a little more than two centuries. The
period of which we treat, will carry the history of Italy only
through a part of the above named space of time.
12. The kingdom of the Heruli in Italy, was of short con-
tinuance. Odoacer, their king, reigned thirteen years without
opposition ; but at the conclusion of that period, Theodoric,
king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, and
after a struggle of four years, defeated and slew Odoacer,
usurping his dominions, 493 A. C.
§ In the year 489, Theodoric twice overcame Odoacer in battle ; but
being betrayed by one of his general officers, he retired to Pavia,
where he was besieged by Odoacer. In his distress, Theodoric called
in the assistance of the Visogoths, and gained a third victory in 490.
Odoacer, shutting himself up in Ravenna, vigorously defended the
place for three years. He was at last forced to enter into a treaty
with Theodoric, and obtained a stipulation that 1 's life should be
spared. The Gothic monarch, however, perfidiously caused him tc
be assassinated.
KINGDOM OF ITALY. 77
]2i The kingdom of the Ostrogoths (eastern Goths)
began, 493. Tlieodoric, (commonly surnamed the great,)
their king, was now acknowledged the sovereign of the coun-
try, and fixed his residence at Ravenna. He was an Arian
in principle, but protected the Catholics. He reigned about
thirty-three years. His administration of government showed
him to be an able prince. The people were probably bene-
fitted by a change of masters.
§ Theodoric, at the age of six years, was given as a liostage to Leo
I. and remained thirteen years at ('onstantinople. He succeeded
his father in Pannonia in 475. His success in his invasion of
Italy, has already been mentioned. After a few years, hisdominions
consisted not only of Italy, and Sicily, but also of Dalmalia,
N'oricum, the two lJlioetia.s, Pannonia, and Provence. The latter
[)art of liis reign was tarnished by cruelty and suspicion. In
the indulgence of these propensities, he put to death the celebrated
Hoethius.
13. The successors of Theodoric, in the Gothic kingdom
of Italy, were seven in number. It was during the reign of
several of these monarchs, that the events already related re-
specting the invasion and conquest of Italy by Belisarius and
Narses, occurred. The best known of the Gothic kings of
this country are Theodotus, Vitiges, and Totila. After the
death of Theias, the last of them, the Goths endeavoured,
under several leader-, to re-er^tablisli their dominions, but
were subdued by the eunuch, Narses, who administered the
government as duke, till 567 A. C.
14. The kingdom of the Lombards followed, in 568
A. C. Alboin, king of this people, was invited into Italy by
Narses, to avenge the insult he received from the emperor,
Justin II., in his recall. Alboin penetrated into Italy, and
was proclaimed its king at the date above nientiuned. He
reigned but a short time.
§ His end was tragical, its it perhaps deserved to be. Having killed
Cuiiiniund, king of the GepidLe, in a single combat, he married Ro-
semond, that king-s beautiful daugliter, and made a drinking cup of
her father's skull, out of which he obliged his queen to drink. She
dissembled her indignant feeiin;;s, but applied to two officers for re-
venge. One of them had been alfronted by the king, and the other
she knew was enamoured of her person. These slie admitted into
the chamber where the king slept, who was immediately murdered,
while she contrived to effect her escape to Kavenna.
15. During the remainder of the present period, there
were four kin-js, the successors of Alboin, but none of them
7*
78 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD HI,
were distinguished. An anarchy, of ten year's continuance
look place after the death of one of the kings, during which
Italy was governed by thirty dukes.
§ Autharis, one of the kings, after his accession, in 584, confirmed
the dukes in their autliority, on condition of their paying him half
of their revenues, and serving under his command in times of war,
with troops levied within their respective jurisdictions. This is con-
idered by some, as the origin of the feudal system.
PERSIA.
1(3. Severi kings in succession, swayed the sceptre of
Persia during this period. Of these, Chosroes II., the great,
was the most conspicuous. During much of the time, the
Persians were at war witii tlie Romans. Sanguinary battles
were fought, and provinces were taken and retaken. The
Romans at last penetrated into Persia.
§ Chosroes II. was a warrior. He repeatedly overcame the Roman
generals, and was as often, perhaps, overcome. In one instance,
however, he cut to pieces an army of 50,000. The Greek histo-
rians, who probably exaggerate the matter, represent him as a fe-
rocious monster. He doubtless had the vices of liis predecessors,
but surpassed them in great qualities. He reigned nearly fifty years.
Chosroes HI., son of Hormisdas, possessed the hateful character
of a parricide. He caused his father to be beaten to death. He re-
ceived, however, a terrible retribution, in the treatment he expe-
rienced from his own son. Siroes, the eldest of his sons, liaving re-
volted, and secured the kingdom, slew all his brothers in his father's
presence, cast the latter into a prison, where he caused him to expire
in insuflerable torture, by being incessantly pricked with the points
of arrows.
Soon after the expiration of the present period, Persia was
invaded by the Saracens, and it was not long before it be-
came a ])art of the empire of the Caliphs.
CHINA.
17. In the history of China during this period, we find
four dynasties of its emperors, from the 9th to tlie 12th in-
clusive. Ti^ey were of short continuance, and included the
reigns of seventeen sovereigns. Several of these appear to
have been wise and virtuous men. In the reign of Yang-ti,
in 605, many canals were cut through the empire, by which
several rivers were united, and great facility given to com-
merce.
§ One of the sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty, is said to have had a
v-ery solid, penetrating mind. He loved his people, and did every
SPAIN. 70
thing in his power to promote their happiness. He built public
granaries, which were every year filled with rice and corn, bj'^ the
opulent, to be distributed among the poor in times of scarcity. He
improved their music and eloquence. Against corrupt judges, he
was always inexorable ; and excluded from all public employments,
tliose whose rank, in life did not render them respectable.
SPAIN.
Before the Empire of the "West was finally subverted by the
Northern Barbarians, some of the nations which once constituted it,
had been lost to the empire. This was tiie case, particularly, with
Spain and Britain. Italy, the seat of the empire, and according to
the best accounts, France, may date their separate existence, only
from the annihilation of the Roman power. After that event, these
several nations, and indet^d all the rest of western Europe, were de-
tached f:iom one anotlier, and held by the native inhabitants, or go-
verned liy different tribes of the barbarians of the north. VVe must
therefore consider them in their separate sovereignties, according to
the eras in whicli they began to exist independently. We begin
with Spain.
IS. SfaiNj wliile constituting a portion of the Roman
empire, was invaded by the Suevi, the Alains, and the Van-
dals, about 40(i years A. C, and mostly subdued by these bar-
jjarous tribes. ExpeUing the Romans, they divided the
country, a part of vvhicli, viz. Yandalasia, or Andalusia, still
benr.s tlie name of one of these tribes, (the Yandals.)
The Alains. in 418, were mostly exterminated by the Os-
tiogoths. The Suevi remained in the possession of the coun-
try, under a succession of their kings, till the year 585. The
Vandals had early, viz. in 427, passed into Africa, and settled
there, upon the invitation of Count Boniface.
The Visogoths, who entered Spain in 531, conquered the
greatest part of the country i^y tlie year 585, and erected a
monarchy, which existed till 712, when they were subdued by
the Saracens, or Moors.
§ Spain was anciently called Hesperia or Western, on account of its
situation, as being the extreme west known to the ancients. It was
called also Iberia, from the river Iber, now the Ebro. The name
Hispania, or Spain, is said to be derived from a Piioenician word,
Sphavisa, which me.-^ns, abounding vvilli rabbits; these animals, ac-
cording to Sfral)o, being very numerous in Spain.
Its original inhabitants were Celtes, of the same race with those
of France, and who passed over from that country into Spain. The
I'ertility of the soil, induced the Phcenicians, wiio were the earliest
naviiiators, to open a trade v.ith Spain, and they built the city of
( 'ades. now Cadiz. This was about 'JOO vears B. C.
8l) MODERN HISTORY. PKRIOI) HI.
This country has been often conquered, both hi ancient and more
modern times. About 500 years B. C, it was in part subjugated by
the Carthaginians, who held their conquest three centuries. The
Romans then succeeded as masters, in whose power it remained six
hundred years. From tlie Romans, as we have already learned, it
was wrested by the northern barbarians. These, as we shall see, in
the next Period, are destined to be displaced by the followers of
Mahomet.
It is deemed unnecessary to detail any events under the kings oi
the barbarous tribes who governed Spain, as they possess scarcely
any interest. Euric may he considered as the founder of the Gothic
monarchy of this country.
FRANCE.
19. France, anciently called Gaul, immediately previous
to the dissolution of the Roman Empire of the West, vv^as di-
vided between the Romans, Visogoths, Franks, and Burgun-
dians. A few years after that event, viz. 581 A. C, Ciovis,
Icing of the Franks, obtained, by degrees, possession of the
country. He is therefore considered the true founder of the
French monarchy, as before him, the Franks held only a few
provinces on the right bank of the Rhine. From this people,
ancient Gaul, obtained the name of France. The kings who
have reigned in France, seem to be divided into four dynas-
ties, v'vA. the Merovingian, the Carloviiigian, the Capetian, and
the Bourbon. The race of which we are now speaking, the
first in oi'der. derived its name from MerovcEUS, the grand-
father of Clovis, who reigned over that portion of the Franks,
who had obtained, in some former age, a settlement in the
country. The Merovingian dynasty continued till 7^'-t.
§ The FranlvS were supposed to have been of German origin, and
to have inhaliited the country between the Rhine and the Weser,
which now forms part of Holland and Westphalia. Some believe
them to have consisted of a mixed multitude of various tribes, living
beyond ilie Rhine, who, when Germany was invaded by the Romans,
imited in defence of their common liberty, and styled themselves
Franks, i. e. free men. Of the clans into which they were divided,
thoSalii, and Ansuarii, were the most considerable. Between the
y>?ars 234 and 254. they made an irruption into Gaul, but were sig-
nally overthrown by the Romans under Aureiian, then a military
iribime. They finally obtained a footing in that country, about the
year 284 A. C.
Succeed ing this event, they had many conlontions with the Romans,
in which they often conquered, and were, ofteiior, perhaps, defeated.
By t!ie time, however, hi whicli the emperor (^onstans reigned, they
were generally at peace with the Romans, and several of ih^m en-
ENGLAND. 81
joyed places of distinction in the armies and at court. The petty
sovereigns who preceded Clovis, were Pharamond, wlio made the last
settlement of the Franks in Gaid, Clod io,Merov(rus, and Childeric I.
Clovis made many conquests : first over the Romans in the battle
of Soissons : ^hen over the king of Thnringia, wlio had inv.-xled his
dominions ; afterwards over the Germans in the battle of Tolbiac ;
and finally over the Visogoths under Alaric, when he subdued all the
south of Gaul. In his contest witli the Germans, 496 A. C, he in-
voked the God of Clotilda, a Christian princess, ^vhom he had mar-
ried three years before. In consequence of his victory, he became
professedly a believer, and together witli three thousand of his sub-
jects, was baptised on Christmas-day, the same year.
About thirteen years afterwards, he cruelly murdered most of his
relatives, which shewed how little influence Christianity had over
him. Clovis made Paris the seat of his kingdom. He died, 511.
Clovis was followed by a scries of obscure kings, through
tlie remainder of this period. They need not, tlierefore, be
mentiuned particularly. They were, in general, weak and
wicked, and plunged the nation into deeper barbarism than
i( was under during the Roman dominion.
ENGLAND.
20. England, whose ancient name was Britain, had been
abandoned by the Romans fifty years, when the Empire of the
West was subverted. In the mean time, the inhabitants, who
weve left defenceless, sulfered from the encroachments of their
northern neighbours, the Picts and Scots, and in their distress,
solicited several of the warlike tribes of the continent, for assist-
ance. The Jutes first arrived for that purpose. These were
soon followed by the Angles and Saxons, in 451, from the
shores of the Baltic. The object was soon accomplished, for
which the Britons had invited them into their country. Their
enemy was repulsed ; but they found a more formidable ene-
my in tlieir protectors themselves.
The Saxons, procuring large reinforcements from German}',
turned their arms against the Britons, and took possession of
the country. It was not, however, without a long nnd severe
sfruggle, of nearly one lumdred and fifty years, that this con-
quest was achieved. The result was, the establishment of
seven distinct states, or sovereignties, which were governed,
more than two hundred years, by their respective kings.
These states are usually called the Heptarchy.
§ The island of Britain, before it was known to the Romans, was
inliabited by a very rude and uncivilized people. They were either
82 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III.
naked, or clothed only with the skins of beasts, having their bodies
painted with various colom's. Hence is supposed to be the origin
of the name, Britain, wliich is derived from a British word, brit, sig-
nilying painted. The name England was given to the country, from
the Angles, a tribe of those continental nations, who conquered it in
tlie fiftli and sixth centuries.
Tlie island was originally settled, in all probability, by a colony
from Gaul, v/ho were called Celtes or Gaels, the remains of whom
are chiefly in Wales, in the highlands of Scotland, and in the north
of Ireland. The period of their settlement is quite uncertain. The
Phoenicians, indeed, traded very early with the inhabitants of Corn-
wall, for copper and tin, but they were unacquainted with the inte-
rior of the country. Tiie Romans have given us the earliest authen-
tic information respecting it. This commences with the first inva-
sion by Julius Crcsar, 55 B. C.
Caesar began the dominion of the Romans in Britain ; but the
island was subdued, only by degrees, under the Roman leaders who
succeeded him. Forty-three years A. C, it was again invaded by
the emperor Claudius, whose general, Ostorius, defeated ("aractacus,
king of the Britons, took him jirisoner, and sent him to Rome, in 51.
In the reign of Nero, 61 A. C, Suetonius defeated Boadicea, queen of
the Iceni, (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk,) slaying 80,OCO men
in a single battle. Boadicea, however, had previously obtained
several victories over the Romans, by her gallant conduct. She com-
mitted suicide, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror.
Agricola, who governed Britain in the reigns of Titus, Vespasian,
and Domitian, formed a regular plan for suliduing the whole island,
and rendering the acquisition advantageous to the conquerors. Foj
this purpose he penetrated into Caledonia, (Scotland,) defeated the
natives in various encoimters, and established a chain of forts be-
tween the Friths of Clyde and Forth.
Subdirng most of the island, he soon diffused among the Britons a
knowledoe of the arts of peace. He introduced among them, laws
and government ; taught them to value the conveniences of life,
and reconciled them to the language and manners of their masters.
To protect the southern inhabitants against the Scots, Adrian, in
121, built a wall in the north part of Britain, between the river
Tyne, and tlie Frith of Solway. This was afterwards strengtlieiKnl
with new fortifications, by Severus, in 208. From this period, till
the abandonment of Britain by the Romans, in 426, the inhabitants
enjoyed miinterrupted tranquillity.
As has been already mentioned, the Romanized I?ritons, when left by
their masters, were thrown into a defenceless state. Their long peace
had somewhat enervated them, and they were unable to resist the
attacks of their barbarous neighbours on fiie north. It was Vorti-
gern, one of their kings, who invited the CJerman tribes to his pro-
Tection. The latter gladly availed themselves of the opportunity to
visit a country long known tf) them in their piratical voyages to its
coasts. Ilengist and Ilorsa, two brothers, were t.lieir leaders on this
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 83
Dccasion, and with only IGOO warriors, in conjunclion with the
Soutii Dritons, they conipeUed the Scots to retire to tlieir mountains.
After the SaxcMis, from being tiie protectors, had become the con-
querors of Britain, and founded tiie Heptarcliy, liistory records
nothing that is very interesting respecting them, until tlie time of
Egbert the Great, who became sole king of England, in 827. We
may ttierefore pass over the English history, until that period, only
remarking that the Saxons, wlio were partially acquainted with
christianitj' before, were more fully converted to the faith, by the
labours of the monk Augustin, in 597.
Dlsling7iished Characters in Psriod Til
1. Procliis, a learned PLitonist antl unbeliever
2. Boetiiiiis, a Roman poet, and Platonic philospher.
3. Procopius, a Roman historian — sometimes denominated
the last of the classic writers.
4. Cassiodorus, the hi-^torian of Ravenna, and tutor to
Theodoric, the Gothic king.
5. Belisarius, an heroic and successful general of Jus-
tinian.
6. Gild as, the most ancient British writer extant.
1. Proclus was born at Constantinople, in 410, and died in 485
A. C. He was a pliilospher among the later Platonists. In the
chair of the academy, he taught pliilosophy with great reputation.
Such was his industry, that frequently, in the same day, he pro-
nounced five lessons, and composed seven hundred lines. " His sa-
gacious mind," says Gibbon, " explored the deepest questions ol
morals and metapliysics, and he ventured to urge eighteen argu-
ments against the Christian doctrine of the creation of the world."
This, as might have been expected, proved to be labour hi vain.
'J'he foundations of truth can bo overturned by no human sagacity,
Iiowevcr great.
2. Boethius, who was distinguished both as a poetic and prose
writer, was descended from one of the noblest families of Rome.
In consequence of having remonstrated, with great spirit, against the
tyranuy of Tlieodoric, he was beheaded in prison, by the command
of that king, in 521. Boethius wrote many philosopliical works,,
the greater part according to the manner of the logicians; but his
ethic composition, concerning the "Consolation of Philosophy."
is his chief performance, and has always been justly admired,
both in re?peft to the matter and the style. Mr. Harris, in liis
"Hermes," observes, tiiat, "with Boethius, tlie last remains of Ro-
man dignity may be said to have sunk in the western world :" and
Mosheim testifies, that he " shone with tlie brightest lustre, as a
philosopher, an orator, a poei, and a divine; ami, both in elegance
and subtilty of genius, had no ofjual in the sixth century.'*
3. Procopius belonged to Ca?sarea, in Palestine, and flourished in
534. He was secretary to Belisarius, whom he greatly celebrated
84 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV.
in his History of the Reisn of Justinian. This history is dividet
into eiglit bool'Cs ; two of \\'hich give an account of the Persian war,
two of the Vandals, and four of the Goths, to the year 553 : which
was afterwards continued in five boolis, by Agalthias, till 559. The
historian is thought to be too severe upon the emperor, though his
performance, in other respects, has a high character. Some con-
sider him as the last of the Roman classic authors.
4. Cassiodorus was a man of eminence, in many respects, and.
called, by way of distinction, " the senator." He united the states-
man and author in his character. He was born in Italy, about 463,
and died at near one hundred years of age. His writings relate
chiefly to history, theology, and criticism. He was inferior in abili-
ties to Boethius, but still was very respectable.
5. Belisarias was truly a Roman in spirit, and the greatest gene-
ral of his age. His life and exploits have been already told us, as
particularly as this work will admit. In a degenerate and effemi-
nate age, he put forth an energy, and acquired a fame in war, which
wonld bear a comparison with the first leaders of the most favoured
days of the republic. He was, however, as distinguished by his
misfortunes as he was by his victories, owing to the ingratitude of
Justinian; and he spent his last days, it is said, under the frown of
his master, and, as some report, in actual want.
6. Gildas was a native of Vv^ales. He was surnaraed, The Wise.
As the most ancient of the British writers, he deserves a notice
here. His famous " Epistle," was written A. C. 560, and is a most
severe censure of the depravity of the Britons at that time. He
lias some things well calculated to invite the attention of the learned.
PERIOD IV.
TJie Period of the esiahlisJiment of the t^aracen Domi-
nion ; extending from the flight of Mahomet, 622 years
A. C. to the croiDnins^ of Charlemagne, at Rome, 800
years A. C.
ARABS OR SARACENS.
During this period, the darkness in Europe very much increased, and
the times exhibited a melancholy contrast to the former splendid
eras of Grecian and Roman refinement and literature. But while
the human mind sunk in Europe, it rose in the East, under thf^
auspices of the Saracens, where it was for a short time displayed,
not only in the energies of a warlike superstition, but, at length, in
the cultivation of the arts and learning. The history of this people is
connected with a remarkable change in the aspect of human affairs.
Sec. 1. The Arabs, in all ages, have lived as wander-
ers, in a stale of independence, and have never been sub-
dued by any of the great conquerors of the world, though al-
most always at war with then* neighbours. They derive
ARABS OR SARACENS. 85
liieir origin from Ishmael, and, before the time of Mahomet,
they professed a reUgion which was a mixture of idolatry and
Judaism.
The name Saracen, which was at length applied to most
of the Arabian nations, is derived from a tribe that occupied
the north-western part of the country. This people, before
the time already referred to, had forsaken their deserts, and
made themselves useful or formidable (according as their ser-
vices were purchased or neglected) to the respective empires
of Rome and Persia.
Mecca, on the Red Sea, in 569, gave birth to Mahomet,
(or Mohommed.) their pretended prophet. In 609, when he
was about 40 years old, he began to concert a system of mea-
sures, the issue of which, was the establishment of a new re-
ligion in the world, and of an empire, which, spreading over
many countries, lasted more than six centuries. The reli-
gion still remains.
His impostures were not, at first, well received. The citi-
zens of Mecca, even, opposed them. Forsaking his native
city, where his life was in jeopardy, lie fled to Medina, at the
epoch called by the Mahometans, the hegira, or flight, Avhich
was in the year 622, and the 54th year of Mahomet's age.
By the aid of his disciples at Medina, he returned to Mecca
as a con(iueror, and making numerous proselytes, he soon
became inaster of Arabia and Syria, was saluted king in 627,
and, in the midst of his successes, died suddenly in 632. He
left two branches of his family, who became powerful caliphs
of Persia and Egypt.
§ As Mahomet will be spoken of again, as one of the distinguished
characters of this period, it will be ininecessary to add many par-
ticulars here, respecting either his life, or the religion of which he
was the founder. Some historians are of the opinion, that he at-
tempted only an inconsiderable change in the creed of his coun-
trymen, and that the mighty revolution whieli followed his efforts,
was, in respect to Arabia, almost wholly political.
In his flight, tliis bold leader gained Medina with much difficulty,
but being well received, he made it the place of his future residence.
FJesidos those who tied with him, and shared his fate, he was soon
followed and joined by many of the principal citizens of Meccii.
Amongst his followers were Amrou, the future conqueror of Egypt ;
Saad, who afterwards overran Persia; Obeidah, whose fortune it
was to subdue Syria and Palestine ; and the very celebrated Kal^d
Kben al Walid.
8
86 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV.
Though IMahomet met with some reverses at first, he was no
sooner aided by such men as Amrou and Kaled, than he overthrew
whatever opposed him. After the submission of Arabia to his arms,
tlie Arabs and Greelcs were brouglit into contact ; and the former
were prepared to encroach on tlie remnant of the Roman empire.
Mahomet owed liis success, in part, to several moral causes, origi-
nating in the state of society ; such as the corruption of the true re-
ligion, the ignorance of mankind, and the prevailing licentiousness
of the times — also to the nature of his doctrines, which, among other
things, promising a sensual heaven, were suited to the depravity of
the heart, and the taste of the voluptuous Asiatics ; and, not least of
all, to powerful political revolutions. It happened the same year in
which Mahomet left Mecca, that a destructive war, as already men-
tioned, took place between the Eastern empire and Persia. Hera-
clius, the emperor, in six campaigns, penetrated to the heart of the
Persian dominions, almost destroying that power, and greatly weak-
ening his own. Neither of them, therefore, were in a condition to
resist the torrent of Arabian fanaticism. Such was the prospect of
Mahometanism, when its author met his fate.
The followers of this impostor, term their religion Islam,
and themselves Musslemen, or Moslems, i. e. true believers. •
The book containing their creed, which was produced by
Mahomet, in successive portions, and which he pretended te
derive from the angel Gabriel, is culled the Koran. Theij
priests are called moolahs or imans. IMahomet propagated
his religion by the sword, and taught, that to profess any
other religion, was a just cause of hatred, and even of murder.
2. The successors of Mahomet, in the dominion which he
established, are called Cahphs, a word which means suc-
cessors, or ^dcars. The first caliph was Abu-beker, the fa-
ther of one of the wives of Mahomet. It is said tha' the im-
postor, on his death-bed, appointed AH, his son-in-law, as hii:'
successor, but the influence of Abu-beker with the army was
sucli, that he, by tliis means, secured the caliphate.
Thus the foundation was laid for a mighty contention,
and over the body of Mahomet arose that schism, which, at
this distant period, weakens the power of Mahometanism, and
may eventually terminate its very existence. The sects are
two, and tlie ground of dispute is the right of succession t,o
?.Iahomet. Their names are Sheas or Shiites, and the Son-
nites. The Sheas, who believe in Ali, as the true successor,
are chiefly Persians. The Sonnites, who believe in Abu-
beker, consist of the inhabitants of East Persia, Arabia, Tur-
ARABS OR SARACENS. 87
key, &c. The Sonnites receive the Koran only, whereas the
Sheas adopt the traditions also.
In respect to conquest, Abu-beker pursued the course of
Mahomet, and, with the aid of his general, Kaled, obtained
an important victory over the emperor Heraclius, and en-
larged the Saracen dominion. He died in the third year of
his reign, having betjueathed the sceptre to Omar.
§ When llie sceptre was offered to Omar, he modestly observed,
"that lie had no occasion for the place." " But the place has occa-
sion for 3^011," replied Abu-beker. He died, praying that the God of
Mahomet would ratify his choice. It was so far regarded by Ali,
his rival, that the latter treated him with the respect due to a consti-
tuted superior.
Omar commenced his reign in 633. In one campaign he
wrested from the Greek empire, Syria, Phojnicia, Mesopo-
tamia, and Chaldea. In the next campaign, the whole em-
pire of Persia was brought under the Mahometan yoke.
Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia, were at the same time con-
quered by the generals of Omar.
} Amrnu, one of his generals, by the order of Omar, destroyed the
famous library at Alexandria, consisting of 700,000 volume^. The
order of Omar betrayed liie ignorance of a savage, and the illibera-
lity of a fanatic. "If," said he to Amrou, " these writings agree
with tlie Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved: if
they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Omar
was finally assassinated.
Othman succeeded Omar, in 645. He added Bactriana,
and a part of Tartary, to tlie Saracen empire. Upon the
death of Othman, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was elect-
ed to the calipliate. His name is still revered in the east, and
by none of the caliphs was he excelled, either in virtue or
courage. After a sli irt but glorious reign of five years, he
was assassinated by a Mahometan enthusiast, or reformer. He
iuid removed the seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Cuja, on
the Euphrates.
§Ali married Fatema, the daughter of Mahomet, hut Ayesha, the
widow of the prophet, and daughter of Abu-beker, bore an immortal
iiatred against the husljand and posterity of Fatema. In a battle
\i^liich Ali fought with a superior number of rebels, who were ani-
mated by tlie counsels of Ayesha, he was entirely victorious.
Ayesha, it is said, had seventy men, who held the bridle of her
camel, successively killed or wounded ; and the cage or litter in
wliich she sat, was stuck throughout with javelins and darts.
3. Within less than half a century, the Saracens reared a
88 MODERN HISTORY, — PERIOD IV.
powerful empire, and were formidable to all the nations
around them. In 100 years, their dominion extended from
India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia
Minor, Arabia, and other regions in the east, as also Egypt,
North Africa, and Spain.
Of the race of Omar, already mentioned, there were nine-
teen cahphs who reigned in succession ; after which, began
the dynasty of the Abassidee, descended from Abbas, the
uncle of Mahomet. Almansor, second caliph of this race,
built Bagdad, and made it the seat of the Saracen dominion,
in 762 A. C. He introduced the culture of the arts and sci-
ences among the Saracens.
§ It was during the reign of Almansor, that Abu Hanifa, the
founder of the first of the four sects of the oonnites, died in prison af
Bagdad. He had been confined tliere for refusing to be made a
judge, declaring that he had rather be punished b}' men than by
God. Being asked why he declined the office, he replied, " If I
speak the truth, I am unfit ; but if I tell a lie, a li.ir is not fit to be a
judge." It is said that he read over the Koran 7( iiO times, while he
was in prison.
Haroun al Raschid, a caliph who ascended tiie tluone in
785 A. C.j and was contemporary with Charlemagne, was a'
famous prince, and celebrated patron of letters. His reign is
regarded as the Augustan age of Saracen literature. Many
of our proverbs and romances are to be referred to this period.
Al Raschid was also a brave and victorious sovereign, and
distinguished by equity and benevolence. He died in about
809 A. C.
The sciences to whicli the Arabians chiefly devoted their
attention, were medicine, geome'^-y, and astronomy. Poetry,
and works of fiction, especially the One Thousand and One
Nights, were the products of tliat period. Literature was cid-
tivated also in Africa and Spain, under the auspices of 4he
Saracens.
§ Soon after Al Raschid's accession to the Caliphate, he invaded
and ravaged a part of the Greek empire, with an army of 135,000
men. Having taken the city of Heraclea, he reduced it to ashes;
after which copquest he made himself master of several other places.
He then attacked the Lsland of Cyprus, whose inhabitants suffered
extremely from the invasion. The Greek emperor was so intimi-
dated by this success, that he immediately made peace with the
caliph, accompanied with a tribute.
Several interesting anecdotes are related of this caliph, two of
vVhich follow. Being once in Eg>pt, he saitl to his courtiers,
EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 89
The king <!" Ihis country formerly boasted himself to be God; in
consequcii; e, tlierefore, of such pride, I will confer the government
of it on the mean •t of my slaves."
As he was marc, i in if one day at the head of his troops, a woman
came to him to compluin that some of the soldiers had pillaged her
house. Me said, " woman, iiast thou not read in tlie Koran, that
princes, when they passed with their armies through places, de-
stroyed them 7" " True," replied she, " but then it is also written in
the same book, that the houses of those princes shall be desolate on
account of their acts of injustice." This fearless repartee, was so
well liked by the caliph, tliat he forthwith ordered that restitution
should be made.
EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE.
4. The Eastern Empire, which liad alone survived the
ruin of the Roman world, retained a portion of its ancient
splendour. Tt was destined, however, soon to lose several
valuable provinces, as has already appeared, in relating the
victorious career of the Saracens. The conquests Avhich
HeracUus I. made in Persia, were wrested from him by that
enthusiastic and wairing jwople. They next deprived the
empire of its Syrian and African dependencies.
During these events, several emperors successively filled
the throne of Constantinople, after Heraclius. But very
little need be said concerning any of them. It was in the
reign of Constanline III., Pagonatus, that the Saracens, G72
A. C. besieged Constantinople for five months, but were
obliged to retire. They returned for seven years in succes-
sion, but were every time defeated by Callinicus, who in-
vented an inextinguishable fire, by which he destroyed their
ships.
§ The Greek, or liquid fire, was made prlncipallyofnaptha, or liquid
biiunien. mixed with some sulphur and pitch, extracted from green
firs. Water, instead of extinguishing, quickened this powerful
agent of destruction. It could be damped only by sand, wine, or
vinegar. It was a period of lour lunuired years, before the secret of
its composition was obtained from the Greeks. The Mahometans at
length discovered and stole it. It continued to be used in w^ar, down
to the middle of the fourteenth century, wlien gunpowder was in-
troduced.
Justinian II., who succeeded Constantine in GS5, was a
second Nero, or Caligula. He ordered, at one time, a general
slaughter of the hihabitants of Constantinople, but lie was de-
throned the same day, and sent into exile with inutiiated
S*
^
MODERN HISTORY. I'KRIOD IV.
features He recovered his throne by i he assi lance of the'
Bulgarians, and exacted a dreadful vengeance on his ene-
mies. He was at last beheaded. Some of the emperors who
followed during the remainder of this period, were, Leo HI.,
Constantine IV., Leo IV., and Constantine V. The first three
of these were strongly opposed to images, as used in churches.
§ The mother of the last Constantine, was regent during her son's
minority. Her name was Irene, and she proved herself a monster
of wickedness. She obliged the sons of Constantine IV. to receive
the priesthood, and afterwards ordered them to be murdered. She
was singularly cruel towards her own son, who, for attempting to
govern by himself when of age, was, bj'- her orders, scourged and
confined in the interior of the palace. In 790, he was restored to
liberty by the people, when he, in his turn, imprisoned his mother.
Two years after, she was apparently reconciled to Constantine,
and by encouraging him in his vices, obtained an unhappy ascend-
ency over him. Being rendered odious to his sirbjects, especially
in consequence of repudiating his queen and marrying one of her
women, by the advice of Irene, an insurrection took place. This
was as she expected ; and afforded a pretext for her cruel machina-
tions. Being left with the army in By thinia, she despatched several
officers to depose her son.
Arriving at Constantinople without being suspected of such a
design, they put onl the emperor's eyes in so barbarous a manner,
that he died, three days afterwards, in the most excruciating pain.
Irene then remained in possession of the empire for five years ; and
in order to confirm lier authority, she made overtures of marriage to
Charlemagne, king of France. Her design, however, being di-
vulged, a revolt ensued, in which Nicephorus, great treasurer of the
empire, being lead(T, Avas proclaimed, and Irene deposed.
Having thus obtained the purple, and secured the riches of Irene,
Nicephorus banished her to the isle of Lesbos, where the want of a
decent provision obliged her to earn a scanty subsistence by the la-
bours of the distaff. Here this miserable woman died of vexation,
having enjoyed her ill-gotten power but six years after the murder
of her son.
KINGDOM OF ITALY.
5. The Kingdom of Italy, which was formed as
already related, continued until nearly the close of the pre-
sent period, viz. 77d A. C. It had been fifty years under
the sway of the Lombard kings. During the remainder of
its existence, (viz. 150 years,) seventeen kings reigned over
the country. The principal of these were Cunibert, Luit-
pian-d, Rachisius, Astolphus, and Desiderius or Didier.
Luitprand possessed the greatest talents of all the Lombard
KINGDOM OF ITALY. 91
kings. Under Didier the kingdom of Italy came to an end.
He was defeated by Charlemagne, his father-in-law, and
Italy was afterwards incorporated into the new empire of the
West.
§ A few particulars concerning these kings, are as follows. Under
CunibcTt, Italy was invaded by the duke of Brescia, and they met
in battle on the banks of the Adda. Before the battle, a deacon of Pa-
via, named Zeno, who bore a great likeness to Cunibert, offered to
take his armour and supply his place at the head of the army.
Zeno was consequently killed, and Cunibert obtained a signal vic-
tory, and afterwards enjoyed a peaceable and happy reign.
Luitprand availed himself of an opportunity, soon after the com-
mencement of his reign, to add to his dominions by conquest. His
first efforts were directed against Raveima, which was betrayed into
his hands. He afterwards took several other cities. The next year,
however, Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, reconquered a great part
of his dominions, with the help of the Venetians, whom Pope Gre-
gory II. excited against Luitprand.
The king, resolving to avenge himself on the Pope, became re-
conciled to Eutychius, and they both advanced towards Rome. The
Pope, however, met the king, and appeased him by his eloquence.
In two successive instances, in his attempts upon tlie Pope and Rome,
he was diverted from his design.
Rachisius, in 749, five years after the commencement of his
reign, under the pretence of some infractions of u treaty with the
people of Rome, besieged a city which belonged to the Pope. Rut
the Pope had such influence with him when they met, that the king
was persuaded to renounce the world, and retire to the abbey of
Monte Cassino. His queen and daughter, at the same time, founded
a monastery of nuns, near that abbey, whither they retired and took
the veil.
Astolphus took Ravenna, and seized upon all the dependencies of
that principality, not far from the year 7.50, but soon lost them, by
the intervention of Pepin, king of France, who made war upon him.
lie died in 756, of a fall from his horse.
Didier, meditating the conquest of Ravenna, sought the protec-
tion of the French King, by marrjing one of his daughters to
Charlemagne, and the other to his brother Carloman. A dilTcrence,
however, having arisen between Charlemagne and his fathcr-m-law,
the French monarch divorced his wife. Didier highly resented this
act.
Applying to the Pope to favour liis projects, and failing in the at-
tempt, he attacked the papal territory, and endeavoured to seize on
the person of the Roman pontiff'. Charlemairnc, however, coming
seasonably to his assistance, met the Lombard king in battle, and
taking pos.scssion of his .sovereignty, sent the royal family to be con-
fined in monasteries in P'rance. The French king thus put an end
fo tlie Lombard dominion in Italy, and was himself declared, by lh6
Pope, king of Italy, and patrician of Rome.
92 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV,
SPAIN.
6. Spain continued under the dominion of the Visogotba
till the year 712. It was then conquered by the Saracens,
who invaded the country from Mauritania, in Africa, whence
they were called Moors. A small part of the north of Spain,
never fell under the dominion of that people. Pelagius, the
successor of the Gothic sovereigns, founded there the httle
kingdom of Asturias, in 718 ; and Garcias Ximenes, that of
Navarre, in 758.
§ The Saracens, in their descent upon Spahi, easily overran the
country. They had lately founded, in Africa, the empire of Mo-
rocco, which was governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Waled
Almarnsor. Muza sent his general, Tariff, into Spain, who attack-
ing Don Rodrigo, or Roderic, the Gothic king, in a decisive battle,
overcame and slew liim. The conquerors succeeded to the sove-
reignty. Abdallah, son of Muza, married the widow of Roderic, and
thus the tw^o nations formed a perfect union.
7. Spain, in this manner conquered by the Saracens, w^as
allotted to governors dependent on the Anceroy of Africa, till
Abdalrahman, the last heir of the family of the Omiades,
formed it into an independent kingdom, and fixed his resi-
dence at Cordova. Tliis was about the year 756 A. C.
It may be remarked here, that all that part of the kingdom
of Spain which was under the dominion of the Moors, em-
braced the religion of their conquerors ; but the two northern
provinces above named, remained true to the Christian faith.
Abdalrahman, at Cordova, laid the foundation of a flour-
isliing empire, which lasted for a considerable period. He
greatly encouraged learning, and thus vied with Haroun Al
Raschid at j^agdad, as a patron of letters. Cordova l^ecame
renowned as one of the most enliglitened spots in Europe,
under several succeeding reigns.
§ The part of Spain which remained independent of tlie Moorish
yoke, presents little that is important in its history. We may there-
fore pass it over with the remark, that its Christian sovereigns be-
came rather strengthened than weakened in their power from time
to time.
FRANCE.
8. In France, the weak race of the Merovingian kings
contiiuied to hold the sovereignty, till the year 751 A. C.
On the death of one of them, viz. Dagobert II., (638) who
left two infant sons, the government, during their minority,
was assumed by their chief ollicers, termed Mayors of the
FRANCE.
9d
Palace. Under the management of these ambitious men,
die kings of France enjoyed little more than the name.
In the time of Thierry, grandson of Dagobert II., the ce-
lebrated Pepin d'Heristel was mayor of the palace. He re-
stricted Thierry, nominally the sovereign of the two great
divisions of the Frank monarchy, (Austrasia and Neustria)
to a small domain, and ruled France during thiity years with
great wisdom.
The son of Pepin, whose name was Charles Martel, was
still more celebrated than his father. Under three kings, he
governed France witli signal abiUty, having succeeded to the
office of mayor of the Paliace.
§ After his fatlier Pepin's death, Charles was confined by his mo-
ther-in-hiw, in prison. But escaping thence, he was proclaimed duke
of Austrasia, and took possession of the sovereign authority over all
the kingdom. He made war several times on Cliilderic, his first
nominal sovereign, and finally secured him as a prisoner.
9. Charles was victorious over all his domestic foes, and
his arms kept in awe the neighbouring nations, whom he fre-
quently defeated. But the most signal service which he ren-
dered to France, to Emope, and to mankind at large, was
his victory over the Saracens, in 733 A. C. These destroying
fanatics threatened all Euro}3cwith subjugation to the Maho-
metan dominion and religion ; and, but for their providential
ilefeat by Charles Martel, might have been, to this day, ihe
masters of the civihzed world.
§ The Saracens penetrated into France from Spain. They were led
by Abderame, a consummate general, who commanded in the name-
of tite caliph, and who soon defeated the duke of Aquitain. After
tliis victory, his desperate bands were about to overrun the king-
dom. Here, however, the genius and bravery of Charles rescued
the nation from destruction. He brouglit tliem to a general action
between Poiclicrs and Tours, and notwithstanding their bravery
and numl)ers, lie succeeded in defeating tlicm with immense slaugh-
ter. They afterwards rallied in the vicinity of Narbonne, but were
again defeated, and at last driven out of the French territory.
By this event, the terror with wiiicii the Saracens had inspired
Europe was greatly diminislied, and Cliarles obtained for liimself
the surname of Martel, or the Hammer.
After the death of Tliierry IV., Charles, without placing
another king on the throne, continued to govern as before,
with the title of duke of France. After several more victo-
ries over his enemies, Charles dying, bequeathed the govern-
?nent of France, as an undisputed inheritance, to his two sons
94 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV.
Pepin le Bref, and Cailoman. As maj'ors of the palace, the
one governed Austrasia, and the other Neustria and Burgun-
dy. The nominal sovereign, at this time, was Childeric III.,
a weak and insignificant prince. The sole administration
devolved at length on Pepin, as Carloman renounced the world
and became a monk. Pepin, whose talents were powerful,
e-ind whose turn of mind was warlike, governed with great
efficiency, and conquered several of the neighbouring tribes.
In the year 751, he assembled a parliament at Soissons,
where he was proclaimed king of France, having first obtain-
ed the sanction of Pope Zachary. Childeric was confined in
a convent, and thus ended the Merovingian race of kings.
The Carlovingian now succeeded.
§ Pepin was called Le Bref, or the short, on account of tlie lowness
of his stature, his height being only four and a half feet. Soon after
he was crowned, lie marched against the revolted Saxons, whom he
defeated ; and pursuing his brother Grippo into Aquitain, he united
Septimia, now Languedoc, to the crown. His brother, who was a
turbulent spirit, and gave him disquiet, at length perished. Tepin
was thus left to pursue without molestation his useful designs.
10. Having been crowned the second time, by Pope Ste-
phen II., in return for tliis service, Pepin marched against the
Lombards, who had invaded the principality of Ravenna, and
tlireatened Rome itself. The Lombards were spared, only
by the surrender of Ravenna, which Pepin bestowed on the
Holy See. Thus commenced the temporal authority of tlie
popes.
The Saracens, who still possessed a part of the south of
France, were forced by his arms from the countiy, and thus
the limits of his dominions were extended in that quarter.
After a splendid and successful reign, he died of a dropsy in
the chest, at the age of fift3'-three or fifty -four years, 768 A. C.
§ It is related of this monarch, that his diminutive size was compen-
sated by an uncommon strength of body. Having been told that
several of his courtiers had secretly ridiculed his personal appear-
ance, he invited them, on the next day, to attend the spectacle of a
fight betv/een a lion and a bull. When the two combatants were let
loose, the lion leaped on his adversary, and the bull was in danger
of instant destruction. " Is there any among you," exclaimed the
king to the courtiers that surrounded him, " who has sufficient re-
solution to oblige the lion to let go his hold ?" No one spake.
"Mine, then, shall be the task," said Pepin, elevating his voice ; and
leaping into the amphitheatre with a drawn sword, he approaclied
the lion, and with a single blow separated the head from tlie body.
11. The dominions of Pepin were, at hi.s death, divided
FRANCE. 95
't)etween his two sons Charles and Cailoman. The latter
dying two years afterwards, Charles came into possession of
the whole kingdom. The exploits and poUcy of this prince,
procured for him the title of Great, which was incorporated
with his name, Charlemagne,* as he is known in history. He
excelled all the sovereigns of his age, both as a warrior and
statesman, although he is said to have been extremely illite-
rate. With a great reputation for talent, he has, however
descended to us as being deficient in several moral quaUties,
particularly in humanity.
His cruelty was exercised chiefly upon the Saxons, with
whom he was engaged in war during thirty years. Tlieir
bravery and love of freedom gave him intinite trouble. They
revoked no less than six times, and were as often reduced by
force of arms. As a means of subduing their bold and fero-
cious character, he attempted to convert them to Christianity ;
but their obstinacy induced him to resort to compulsory pro
cesses for this end. Several thousands of them were but-
chered on their refusal to receive Christian baptism.
Besides his success against the Saxons, Charlemagne put
an end to the kingdom of tlie Lombards in Italy, as has al-
ready/ been narrated ; he successfully encountered the arms
of the Saracens : defeated numerous barbarous tribes, and ex-
tended his empire bc3'^ond the Danube.
§ Notwithstanding the siiort stature of his father. Charlemagne is
said to have been seven feet in height, and of a robust constitution.
He was no less signalized for activity and vigour of mind. His su-
pervision of his dominions was m.ost strict and vigilant. He heard
and saw every thing for himself. He discoimtenanced luxury, en-
couraged industry, and sought to elevate the social and intellectua.
fliaractor of his subjects.
When he saw any of liis courtiers sumptuously dressed, he would
invite them to a hunting party, in the course of wliich he led them
into tlie wilds and forests. On their return, he would not permit
tlieni to ciiange their garments which the thorns liad torn. Afte"
showing tlicm his uninjured .sheepskin cloak, as a contrast to their
tattered vestments, he would say, by way of advice or reproach,
'■ Leave silks and finery to women ; the dress of a man is for use,
not for sliow."
In lus wars, Charleinagnc met with scarcely a disaster. The only
considerable reverse that he ever experienced, was wlion he was re-
crossing the Pyrenees, after conquering Navarre, and a part of Ar-
ragon. The rear of liis army was then cut to pieces by the Gascons,
In the plains of Roncevaux. On this occasion, liis nephew, the cele-
♦ Charlenia^'ne — Charles the Great,
'96 MODERN HISTORY, PERIOD IV.
brated champion Roland, lost his hfe — an event which laid the foun
dation of the " Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto.
As the reign of Charlemagne extends several years into
the following period, we shall resmne it, at the commence-
ment of that period, with a sketch, in the biographical de-
partment, of his more private history and character.
Distinguished Characters in Period IV.
1. Mahomet, an Arabian impostor, and founder of the re
ligion which is called by his name.
2. Adhelme, a British theological writer.
3. Bede, a venerable English historian.
4. Clmrles Martel, the father of a race of kings, and con
queror of the Saracens.
5. John Damascenus, a Christian writer, strongly tinctured
with the Aristotleian philosophy.
5 From the paucity of great men during this period, genius and
learning must have been at a low ebb indeed, and the human mind
greatly debased and neglected.
1. Mahomet, as has already been stated, was born at Mecca, in 560
A. C. The tribe from which he descended, was that of the Koras-
hites, the most noble in Arabia. His immediate ancestors seem,
however, to have been undistinguished ; and though liis natural ta-
lents were gi'eat, it is certain that his education was inconsiderable.
lie acquired knowledge, but not from books. Intercourse with man-
kind had sharpened his faculties, and given him an insight into tlie
human lieart
The steps he took in propagating his religion have already been
detailed in part. It may be added, that the main arguments v/hicli
IMahomet employed to persuade men to embrace this imposture, were
promises and threats, which he knew would work easiest on the
minds of the multitude. His promises related chiefly to paradise,
and to the sensual delights to be enjoyed in that region of pure wa-
ters, shady groves, and exquisite fruits. Such a heaven ^vas very
taking with the Arabians, whose bodily temperament, habits, and
bLU-ning climate, led them to contemplate images of this sort with ex-
cessive pleasure.
On the other hand, his threats were peculiarly terrific to this peo-
ple. The punishment attending a rejection of his religion, he made
to consist of evils, that seemed most insufferable to their feelings.
The reprobates would be permitted to drink nothing but putrid and
boiling water, nin- breathe any, save exceedingly liot winds ; they
would dwell forever in contimud fire, intensely burning, and be sur-
■■ rounded with a black, hot, salt smoke, as with a coverlid, &c. ; and.
to fill the measure of tlieir fears, by joining the present Avith the fii-
■turclife, he threatened most grievous pimishments in this world.
As it was one of the impostor's dogmas, that his religion m-ight be
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 97
(iefendeJ and propagated by the sword, he invented the doctrine of
a rigid fate, to reconcile the minds of the timid, and add ardour to
the brave, under the exigencies of war. He taught tliat those who
were slain in battle, though they had tarried at home in their houses,
must, nevertheless, have died at that very moment, — the time of
every man's life being before appointed by God, in that unqualified
sense ; that is, without reference to means.
jMahomet was distinguished for the beauty of his person. He had
a commanding presence, a majestic aspect, piercing eyes, a flowing
heard, and his whole countenance depicted the strong emotions of
uis mind. His memory was retentive, his Avit easy, and his judg-
ment clear and decisive. In his intercourse with society, he observed
the forms of that grave and ceremonious politeness, so common to
his countr_v. His natural temper may not have been worse than that
of many others; but the imposture which he forced upon mankind,
was an instance of most daring impiety and wickedness.
Mahomet persisted in his religious fraud, or fanaticism, to the last.
On his death bed he had asserted, that the angel of death was not
allowed to take his soul, till he had respectfully asked the permission
of the prophet. The request being granted, Mahomet fell into the
agony of dissolution ; he fainted with the violence of pain, but re-
covering his spirits in a degree, he raised his eyes upwards, and look-
ing steadfast]}^, uttered with a faltering voice, the last broken, tliough
articulate words, " O God ! — pardon my sins. — Yes, — I come — among
my fellow-citizens on high ;" and in this manner expired.
2. Adhelme was the first bishop of Sherbourne, (England.) He
is said to have been nephew to Ina, king of the West Saxons. The
period of his death was 709. He composed several poems concern-
ing the Christian life, but his fancy was quite inditferent. He wrote
in Latin, and is reported to be tlie earliest Englishman who wrote in
tliat tongue. A translator of his writings, speaks of him as pro-
foundly versed in Greek, Latin, and Saxon.
3. Bede, who was surnamed the Venerable, was an English monk.
ll'm birth place was Wearmouth, in the bishopric of Durham, where
He v/asborn in 673 or 673. He is celebrated as a writer on Eccle-
siafetical histor}^ In his youth he studied with great diligence, and
soon became eminent for learning. Such was his fame, that he was
frequently consulted on various subjects, bj^ scholars from different
parts of tlic country.
He published his excellent Ecclesiastical history of England, in
731, when he was about fifty-nine years of age. He wrote other
works, particularly an epistle to llie bishop of York, which exhibits
a more curious picture of the state of the church at that time, than
is elsewhere to be found. Tliat epistle was the last of Bede's wri-
tings. His last sickness, was a consumiUifin, ending in an asthma,
whicli he supported witli great firmness. During his weaknr^s, he
never remitted the duties of his place, being employed the wtiole of
tiie time in instructing the monks. He appears to have been a
person of geiuiine piety. His death was in 735.
4. Charles IMartel was the son of Pepin d'Heristel, and duke of
9
TO MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV.
Austrasia. He succeeded his father as Mayor of the Palace, as has
before been stated. That he was a man of great capacity, appears
from the record of his exploits. As the progenitor of the Carlo-
vingian race of kings, and conqueror of the Saracens, when they
were upon the point of overrunning all Europe, he is entitled to a
very respectful notice in the page of history. Divine Providence
seems to have raised him up for a great purpose, in checking the
conquering career of the followers of the false prophet. The pro-
digious number of 375,000 Saracens, he is said to have defeated and
slain. He died in 741.
5. John Damascenus flourished in the eighth century, dying about
the year 750. His birth-place was Damascus. He was liberally
educated, and early made great progress in literature. He succeed-
ed his father, as counsellor of state to the Saracen Caliph of Damas-
cus. Becoming zealous for the forms of religion, and warmly es-
pousing the cause of images, he greatly offended Leo Isauricus, the
Eastern emperor.
There is a wild legend of the times, that the emperor caused the
hand of Damascenus to be cut off, and that it was miraculously re- .
placed by the kind interposition of the Virgin Mary. After a while,
he is said to have retired from public affairs, and spent the remain-
der of his life in solitude. In this situation he wrote books of divini-
ty, of which he left many behind him. He is not generally thouglit
to have been an evangelical writer. Mosheim says that he surpassed
all his contemporaries among the Greeks and Orientals, but was su-
perstitious, and absorbed in a vain philosophy.
PERIOD V.
The Period of the Neio Wester?!, Efnpire; extending from
the Crowning of Charlemagne^ 800 A. C, to the First
Crusade, 1095 years A. C.
NEW WESTERN EMPIRE.
Sec. 1. Tlie New Western Empire, so called, includedthe
dominions of Charlemagne, or the conntries of which he ^\-as
acknowledged as the sovereign, in 800 A. C It wfis at (his
period that the title of Emperor of the West, was conferred
upon him. He was established in that august sovereignt)^,
b}^ being cro\vned at Rome, by Pope Leo III.
It is thought by some, that had he chosen Rome as the
seat of his government, and at death transmitted an undivi-
ded dominion to his successor, the fallen empire of the Ro-
NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 99
inans might have once more been restored to prosperity and
greatness. But Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and divi-
ded, even in his Ufe-time, his dominions among his children.
The countries, included under tlie title of the New Western
Empire, were principally France, Burgundy, Germany. Ita-
ly, and a part of Spain. The Empire, as such, continued
hut a short time. One country after another separated from
it under the successors of Charlemagne, and Germany, at last,
became the sole seat or representative of the Empire. Be-
fore the expiration of the present Period, the structure reared
by the French monarch, was dissolved. After pursuing the
lew details of the empire as a body, we shall resume our
narrative of the individual countries, in their separate or in-
dependent state.
§ The occasion and the manner of the crowning of Charlemagne,
were as follows :
He was wont to pass annually, from the Pyrenees into Germany,
and tlience into Italy. In approaching Rome for the last time, the
Pope despatched a messenger to meet him with the keys of the Con-
fession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city of Rome. From
this union of religious and military attributes, it was evident that
Charlemagne was on the eve of becoming emperor.
Accordingly, on Christmas day, which was then the day of the
new year, being present at the service of the mass, and on his knees
before the altar, the Pope came suddenly behind him, and placed on
his head the Crown of the Caesars. This act was followed by loud
acclamations among the populace. An august title, which had lain
dormant for .several centuries, was thus revived, but it did not restore
Rome to its ancient splendour, for reasons which were given above.
(Jharlemagne lived nearly 14 years after he became Emperor of
the West. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the 72d year of his age,
and the 4Gth of his reign.
2. Charlemagne was succeeded, 814 A.C., by Iiis son, Louis
the Debonaire, or the Mild. Of the lawful children of Charle-
maijne, Louis alone survived his father, and all the imperial
dominions came of course into his liands. except Italy, which
the emperor had settled on Bernard, one of his grandsons.
The reign of Louis was highly calamitous. In 817, he
associated his eldest son, Lothaire, in the empire, and gave
Aquitain to Pepin, his second son, and Bavaria to Louis, his
third.
A disagreement occm-ring between liouis and Bernard,
king of Italy, the latter was subdued, and had hi'^ eyes pur
out, in con3e> |:ience of which lie died three days after. The
100 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V,
murder of his nephew affected Louis with such a degree of
remorse, that he performed pubhc penance on account of the
crime.
The children of Louis greatly eml)ittered, and even short-
ened his hfe. First quarreUing among themseh^es, they then
attacked their father ; and as he was alternately subdued
and restored, his spirits were at length broken, and he died
after an inglorious and turbulent reign, 840 A. C.
§ Louis had a son by a second wife, named Charles, who, as will
soon appear, became king of France upon the death of his father.—
As a second partition of the empire was made, in order to give a
share to this younger son, the other brothers were highly distiflfect-
ed. This was one occasion of their contention.
When Louis found his end approaching, lie set aside for Lothairc,
a sword and a golden sceptre, the emblems of the empire he intend-
ed for him, on condition, however, that he should abide by the parti-
tion in favour of Charles. As he did not make any mention of his
son, Louis of Bavaria, (Pepin had already deceased,) it was intimated
to the old king, that as a christian, he ought n(^t to leave the world,
without bestowing upon Louis his pardon, riie dying monarch
shook his hoaiy locks, and pointing to them with emotion, replied,
"I pardon him, but you may tell him, that it ^\ : s he who has brought
down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave."
3. Charles, surnamcd the Bald, succeeded Louis the mild,
in a part of his original dominions, 840 A. C. Soon after
his accession, followed the terrible battle of Fontena)^, between
the three brothers now left, viz. Lothaire, Louis and Charles,
in which Cbarles and Louis were victorious. Lothaire, as
the appointed emperor, had wislied to obtain the possession of
all his father's territories, and refused to allow the partition in
favour of Charles. But being overcome in the battle of Fon-
tenay, he was obliged to relinquish his pretensions, and to
accede to such a division of the empire, as his brothers now
made among themselves.
Lothaire, who preserved the title of emperor, had, assigned
to him, Italy, and several of the southern provinces of France.
Louis had the whole of Germany. France, including Neus-
tria and A(juitain, fell to the lot of Ciiarles. Thus the line
Empire of the West, founded by Charlemagne, was lost to
the house of France, by the separation of Germany from
that house. Instead of remaining hereditary, the crown be-
came elective, ;iftcr it had passed, as it did finally, into the
hands of tlie Germans.
§ The IniUle of Fonlenay was fought '.vifli the greatest obstinacy.
NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 101
Historians agree in stating that 100,000 men perished on that occa-
sion. Lothaire fled to tiie Saxons, yet hxid lus plans in sucli a man-
ner as to obtain from his brothers a portion of the empire.
In the reign of Charles, France Avas plundered by the Normans,
who had begmi their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne.
But their progress wa^j then inconsiderable. In 843, however, they
sailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another fleet en-
tered tlie Loire, and laid waste the country in its vicinity ; the ma-
rauders not only securing great quantities of spoil, but carrying
men, women and children into captivity.. In 845, they entered the
Seine again with a fleet, and advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled,
and the city was burnt. With another fleet they approached to Bor-
deaux, and pillaged it. Charles, instead of repressing the incursions
of these barbarians with his arms, purchased their forbearance with
money.
(1.) Lothaire, the emperor, died in 855. Before his death,
he divided his dominions among his throe sons. Louis II.
was the son who succeeded him with the title of emperor.
He was a brave and virtuous sovereign, and died 875.
(2.) Louis, to whom Germany was assigned, was a power-
ful monarch, and rendered himself formidable to his neigh-
bours. He died 876. Upon this event, Charles marched
with a large army to seize his dominions, but he was soon
defeated by his nephew Carloman, the son of Louis II., ha-
ving been lirst crowned emperor by the Pope.
(3.) Charles, on the death of Louis II., son of Lothaire,
(875) assumed the eiTipire, or, as is said, purchased it from
pope John VIII., on condition of holding it as a vassal to the
Holy See. This prince, after contending for the space of two
years, with the possessors of the other portions of the empire,
with various success, died of poison. 877 A. C. His reign
must be pronounced, on the v.hole, to liave been a weak and
inglorious one.
He was the first of the French monarchs, wlioniade dig-
nities and titles hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the
Carlo\ingian kings, the grandees obtained great power, and
commanded a formidable vassalage. They chose to reside
on their territorial possessions, and refused to take any inter-
est in the general concerns of the country. Intrenched in
their castles and fortresses, they defied the power of tlw; go-
vernment, while the country was disturbed and desolated by
thf'ir feuds.
The Empire of tlic AS'est being now efi^ec'aially disinem-
102 MOD£RN HISTORY. — PERIOD V.
bered, tholigh there were afterwards temporary junctions of
its different parts, we may properly resume our narrative of
the several countries in their separate state. As the power
which formed this empire emanated from France, it is natural
to speak of this first. Indeed, we have been under the neces
sity of noticing it already more than the rest. Germany, not
having had a political existence before the era of Charlemagne,
will be new on the list of nations.
FRANCE.
4. Louis IT., the Stammerer, succeeded Charles, as
king of France, 877 A. C. Nothing of importance occurred
during his reign, which was a short one, of only nineteen
months. His two sons, Louis III., and Carloman, became
joint possessors of the throne upon his death. Their reign
was short, but it was characterized by union, vigour, and a
degree of success against their enemies, the Normans. They
died, the one in 882, and the other in S84.
§ Their deaths were each accidental. Louis, in pursuhig a young
female wlio fled from him, struck his head against the door, and
was killed by the blow. Carloman, who survived him but a short
time, in hiinting a wild boar, was wounded by a spear which one of
his attendants launched against the animal. To save the attendant
from the blame tliat might be attached to the act, Carloman report-
ed that lie had been wounded by the wild boar. Though he lived
several days, he persevered in keeping the cause of his death a
secret.
5. Charles, surnamed the Fat, was chosen by the peers ot
France to fill the vacant tluone, 885. He was brother and
successor to Louis II., the German, and son of the Louis, to
whom Germany was originally assigned. For a short time,
France and Germany were again under the same sway. At
the expiration of two years, howevei', Charles was deposed
on account of his cowardice, and the imperial dignity was
transferred to Germany.
Tbe lioltiiity then elected Eudes, count of Paris, to fill
the throne. 887, till Charles, a younger brother of Louis III.,
and Carloman, should attain to the age of manhood. Upon
ihe death of Eudes, Charles, who was surnamed the Simple,
was introduced to the soveieignty, 898, but he was deposed
oy Robert, the brother of Eudes, in 922. Robert was suc-
ceeded by Ralrho. or Rodolj)h, duke of Burgundy, the year
after.
FRANCE. 103
§ Charles the Simple, died in prison, 929. He was a weak mo-
narch, and despised by liis nobles. It is said, however, that in bat-
tle, he killed the vaUant Robert with his own hand. lJp*in the death
of Charles, Rodolph was in quiet possession of the throne.
It was dnring the reign of Charles that the Normans invaded
Neustria, which was ceded to them in 911. To Rollo, their chief,
tlie king gave his daughter, Giselle, in marriage. From this people
ihe country was called Normandy, and it is from this race of war-
riors, that we shall trace the future conquerors of England.
6. Louis IV., the son of Charles the Simple, was called to
the throne of France, in 936. He was surnamed Outremer,
or Transmarine, on account of having been brought up in
England. During his reign, and that of his successor, Lo-
thaire, Hugh the Great, the most powerful lord of France,
directed, for the most part, the government. The same situ-
ation was held by his son, Hugh Capet, under Louis V., the
successor of Lothaire. When Louis died, Hugh, like another
Pepin, placed himself on the throne of France.
§ The corruption of these times, and the peculiar uncertainty and
infelicity attending the condition of kings, are manifest, from the
fact, that both Lothaire and Louis were poisoned by their queens.
7. Hugh Capet, the head of the third dynasty of kings
in France, called the Capetian, began to reign in 987 A. C.
He was crowned at Rheims, on the third of July. His
administration was marked Avitli ability. He enacted several
salutary laws and ordinances, and established his residence
in Paris, which had been deserted by his predecessors during
more than two hundred years. He delegated a portion of
the supreme authority to his son Robert, near the beginning
of his reign.
§ The true heir to the crown, was Charles of Lorrain, uncle to
Louis V. Attempting to secure his rights l)y force, he was at last
l)elrayed and conlined in prison, where he soon died.
Hugh, either through modesty, or the fear of exciting the jea-
lousy of his iiol)les, never assumed the insignia of royalty. He al-
ways, even on great and solemn occasions, appeared in a plain dress
and simple style.
S. Robert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded his father in
996. Marrying a cousin in the fourth degree, Rertha, who
was the dani;!it(M- of the king of Rtn-gundy, his marriage was
amiulled, himst'lf exconununicated, and his kingdom put
under an interdict by the pope. This was the first instance
of such an exercise of (ho papal authority in France. The
distress and confusion that ensued, obliged Robert, much
104 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
against his inclinations, to dismiss Bertha, and to expiate his
offence by a solemn penance.
He soon after married Constantia of Toulouse, who proved
to be a vexatious partner, and cruel queen.
§ The superstition of the times was seen in the affair of the Pope's
interdict. The mass was no longer celebrated ; the sacrament re-
fused to the sick ; and the dead left without bia-ial. There were no
longer any regulations of police ; and, as all dreaded to approach an
excommunicated person, the king was abandoned. He commanded,
however, the services of two faithful domestics, who passed through
the fire whatever he had touched, and threw to the dogs the refuse
of the table.
The king, in his second marriage, was extremely unhappy. Con-
stantia continually tormented him. She caused the king's favourite,
grand master of the palace, to be assassinated. She sowed discord
between the sons of Robert. And her intolerance in religion was
such, that she ordered thousands of a certain sect of heretics to be
burned at the stake.
It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that in the province of Lan-
guedoc, where these cruelties were particularly exercised, the pro-
testant faith has since constantly predominated over Catholicism.
Robert is said to have been the first of the French kings who, accord-
ing to the superstitions of the vulgar, received the supernatural gift of
curing scrofulous affections, thence denominated the king's evil, by
touching tlie sick, and pronouncing these words, " The king touches
thee, and may God cure thee."
9. On the death of the king, his two sons, Henry and Ro-
bert, both aspired to the tbrone. It belonged to Henry, but
the infamous Constantia had contrived to create an interest in
favour of Robert. After some bloodshed, Henry was invested
with the sovereign authority, 1031 A. C. He was an ac-
tive sovereign, who knew how to maintain, and even extend
Ins dominion, but he was not always judicious in his en-
terprises.
§ He subdued several of his rc'iellious nobles, defeated an armyot
a younger brother who had claimed an inheritance in the monarchy,
and espoused, for a time, the cause of William of Normandy, against
the Norman grandees. He, however, soon attacked the latter — a
rash step, whicli laid the foundation of long and disastrous wars.
About the commencement of Henry's roign, a dreadful famine
desolated not only France, but tlie rest of Europe. The dead were
disinterred to serve as food for the living. The passengers were
intercepted on the high ways, and carried into the woods to be
devoured by the famishing peasantry. In one place, human flesh
was publicly exposed for sale ; and in another, an innkeeper massa-
cred the poor during the night, so as to furnish his table for gucua
ITALV. 105
on the following day. The season was such that corn could not be
raised, and the want of pasture occasioned the death of cattle.
10. Henry left tiie crown to his son Philip I., then seven
years oltl, 1060 A. C, under the regency of Baldwin, count
of Flanders. Philip was rather a spectator than an actor in
tlie political events of his reign. He lived beyond the com-
mencement of the first crusade, having swayed the sceptre
during forty-eight years. His principal war ^vas with Wil-
liam of Normandy, noAV become king of England. From
this date commenced a long hostility between the English
and French monarchies.
ITALY.
11. In the division of the Western Empire among the sons
of Louis tlie Debonaire, Italy, as we have seen, was assign-
ed to Lothaire, with the title of emperor. His successor, as
we have also seen, was Louis II., his son, who died in 875.
The succeeding year, Charles the Bald, king of France, was
proclaimed king of Italy by a diet at Pavia. But he retain-
ed this sovereignty only two years, his death occurring in 877.
Italy was afterwards ravaged by contending tyrants ; but
in 964, Otho, the Great, reunited it to the dominions of the
German empire. A series of wars, ho\vever, continued dur-
ing at least two centuries, occasioned by the invasions of the
Normans, and the claims of the emperors, till Italy was di-
vided into several independent states. These wars are too
unimportant and uninteresting to be noticed in this, or the
following period. Italy, therefore, once the mistress of the
world, must, for a time, be left out of the records of nations,
except as her afiairs shall be incidentally noticed in the his-
tory of Germany. Her independent sovereignties, formed at
diflerent times, as Naples, the estates of the Church, Tusca
ny, Parma, Lombardy, the Genoese, and the Venetian territo-
ries, may, in some suljsequent period, be duly noticed.
§ A transaction, in which Otho II., the second German emperor
after Italy was re-unitcd to tlic empire, was engaged, may be here re-
lated. Several cities of Italy look occasion to throw off their alle-
giance to the emperor. Otho, hearing rj" it, soon entered Italy with
an army, and adopted the following most cruel method to punish
the authors of the tumults.
He invited the nolilcs of Rome to a grand entertainment in the
Vatican palace and when the guests had placed themselves at the
106 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
table, he forbade them, under pain of death, to speak or move at
what they should hear or see. Instantly they were surrounded by
armed men, and while they sat trembling, the emperor composedly
ordered the names of those concerned in the late disturbances to be
read over, and the guilty to be put to death in the rnidst of the hall.
After the bloody mandate was executed, he was all smiles and com-
plaisance to the other guests, during the entertainment.
It may be recorded here, that it was during the present
period, the foundation of the temporal power of the popes
was laid. In 1080, Matilda, countess of Tuscany, bequeath-
ed a large portion of her dominions to pope Gregory tlie VII.
From that time the popes possessed great power in the states
of Europe. Although the (urij^ei'ors (German) asserted their
sovereignty over Italy and the popedom, and claimed the
absolute right of electing the pope ; yet it was with a con-
stant resistance on the part of the Romans, and a general
repugnance of the popes, w^hen once established.
SPAIN.
12. The empire of Charlemagne, in Spain, comprised but
a small part of that country. Indeed, all that the Christians,
(including the native Spaniards and the French,) possessed,
constituted only about a fourth of the kingdom, viz., Asturia,
part of Castile and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Cata-
lonia and Navarre were sulidued by Charlemagne, but his
successors seem to have taken no interest in the conquest ; it
probably soon reverted back to the Christians of Spain. All
the remainder of the Peninsula, including Poitugal, was oc-
cupied by the Moors.
Cordova, a luxurious and magnificent cily, was the
Moorish capital. It was a great school for the sciences, and
the resort of the learned from all parts of the world. In the
tenth century, their dominions were divided among a num-
ber of petty sovereigns, who were constantly at war with
one another. Had the Christians availed themselves of this
state of things, they might perhaps have then regained the
whole kingdom ; but they were unhappily contending among
themselves, and it was sometimes the case, that (he Christian
princes formed alliances with the Moors against one ano-
ther.
§ Taste and the sciences flourished in Cordova, and tlic south of
Spain, when the rest of Europe had become involved in barbarism
GERMANY. 107
and ignorance. Cordova, as the seat of government, enjoyed a
splendid period of two hundred years, reckoning from the middle of
the eightli, to the middle of tlie tentli century. During that period,
the Moorish portion of Spain boasted of a series of able princes,
who gained the palm over all the nations of the West, both in arts
and arms.
It was only after the Moorish princes became luxurious and effe-
minate, that the natioa was divided into a nmnber of petty states,
the principal of which, were Toledo, Cordova, Valentia, and Seville.
To add to the divided state of Spain, both among the Moors and
Christians, the country abounded with independent lords, who were
warriors and champions by profession, making it their business to
decide the quarrels of princes, or to volunteer their service and tliat
of their vassals and attendants, on such occasions. Of this descrip-
tion of persons, termed knights-errant, the most distinguished was
Rodrigo the Cid, who undertook to conquer the kingdom of New
Castile, for his sovereign, Alphonso, king of Old Castile. Of the
passion for knight eirantry, however, it is proposed to speak in some
other place.
The contentions among, the petty kingdoms of Spain need
not detain us here, nor will it be expedient to dwell on tlie
subsequent history of Spain, until the expulsion of the Moors,
and the union of the whole country under one head, towards
the conclusion of the fifteenth century.
GERMANY.
13. Germany was known in ancient times, but it possess-
ed no political importance till the era of Charlemagne. Pre-
viously, it was a rude and uncivilized country, and iluctuating
in its government. Charlemagne may therefore be consider-
ed the reviver, if not the founder of the German empire.
As a component part of his sovereignty, it has been already
noticed so far down as the termination of the short reign, or
rather usurpation, of Charles the Bald, of France, in 877. At
that period, or perhaps a few years subsequent, it may be con-
sidered as having been effectuall}- separated from France; and
of all the dominions of Charlemagne, it has alone descended
as an empire, and the representative of the sway which he
once held over the nations of the West. The emperor of
Gfermany is to this day, nominally at least, regarded as suc-
cessor to the Emperors of Rome.
§ Germany, is said to be compounded of the Celtic word g-er,
brave, and man, signifying a warlike people. In ancient times, it
comprehended all the country from the Baltic to Helvetia, and from
108 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
thf Rhine to the Vistula. The primitive inhabitants were most pro-
bably the Celts. But our information respecting Germany is scanty
till the period of the Roman conquests in that country. Some ages
before that time, the Goths, or Teutones, had migrated from the
eastern part of Europe, along the Euxine, and established them-
selves on the shores of the Baltic, in Belgica, in the north of France,
and the south of England ; driving the original inhabitants into the
northern and western regions.*
When Rome was in the zenith of its power, Germany seems to
have been divided into a number of independent principalities ; but
the inhabitants frequently united in the defence of their common li-
berty, and many bloody battles established their reputation for bra-
\'ery, before they sunk under the power and policy of their in-
vaders. At length, however, their country was reduced to a state
of provincial subjection to the masters of the world ; and upon the
decline of the Western Empire of Rome, Germany became a prey to
the Franks, and a considerable part of it remained under the do-
minion of earls and marquisses, till Charlemagne extended his
power, both military and civil, over the whole empire.
14. The successor of Charles the Bald, was Charles III,
called the Fat, after an interregnum of three years, 881 A. C.
France was also under his sway at the same time, but he
was soon afterwards deposed, and reduced to the greatest ex-
tremities.
15. In 887, Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, and
nephew of Charles III., was jiroclaimed emperor of Germany.
In the course of his reign, he defeated the Normans, took
Rome, and was crowned there by the pope. His son Louis
HI., became his successor in 899, when only seven years oi
age. He was the last emperor descended in the male line from
Charlemagne.
§ The reign of Louis is said to have been so much agitated by di-
visions between the lords and the bishops, that the young emperor
died of grief.
Frnm the death of Louis, the empire became strictly elect-
ive, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of
the bishops and grandees had alwa^^s been asked.
16. Conrad, duke of Franconia, was elected to fill the
vacant throne in 912. He reigned seven years, during whicli
time he quelled several revolts, and purchased peace of the
barbarous Hungarians
§ The German grandees, who assembled at Worms, first offered
the imperial diadem to Otho, duke of Saxony ; but he declining it
♦ Webster's Elements, &c.
GERMANY. 109
on account of his advaiurcd age, persuaded them to appiy the invi-
tation to Conrad. The latter was of imperial descent by his mother,
who was a daughter of Arnold. During his reign, the affairs ol
Germany were conducted with great prudence.
17. LJpoii the deatli of Conrad, the imperial dignity was
bestowed on Henry I., surnanied the Fowler. This prince
possessed great abilities, and introdnced order and good go-
vernment among his people. He built and embellished cities,
reduced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, and con-
t|uered several tribes, as the Hungarians, Danes, Sclavonians,
Bohemians, &c. He added Lorrain to his dominions.
§ Great as Henry was as a statesman, he manifested considerable
zeal in propagating the Christian faith. A portion of the Vandals
whom, he subdued, were, under his auspices, converted to this religion.
He maintained no correspondence with the See of Rome, inasmucli
as he had been consecrated by his own bishops.
IS. His son Otho I., the great, was elected emperor, 936.
He carried on the system of his father, in repressing the usur-
pations, of the lords. The conquest of Bohemia he began in
938, and finished in 950. In 961 he expelled Berenger II.
and his son, Adalbert, from Italy, and caused himself to be
crowned at Milan. The next year he was crowned by Pope
John XII, and from that time he may be justly styled the
emperor of the llojiians. John afterwards revolted against
him, but was soon deposed.
Otho was the greatest prince of his time. After an active
and commendable reign of thirty years, he died of an apo-
plectic disorder, in 972. His remains were interred in the
cathedral church of Magdebourg, where his tomb may be
still distinguislicd 1)y a Latin inscription.
§ Otho owed his ascendancj^ in Italy to llie disorders and crimes of
the Papacy. Being invited into that country by the Pope and the
Italian states, while they were contending with Berenger, he defeat-
ed the lattei*, and in return for the honours which the Pope conferred
upon him, he confirmed the donations made to the Holy See by
Pepin, Chai-lemagne, and Louis the Debonairc.
§ Tiie treachery of the Pope, (John XII.) obliged the emperor, in
two or throe successive instances, to visit Italy to compose tlie di.s-
ordors tliat took place. The last time, he executed exemplary ven-
geance on his enemies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling
together the Laleran Council, he created a new Pope, and obtained
from the assembled bishops, a solemn acknowledgment of the abso-
lute right of the emperor to elect to the |)apac3^ to give the investi-
ture of the crown of Italy, and to nominate to ail vacant bishoprics.
The power of parental affection is strikingly exhibited in the fol-
10
110 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V.
lowing incident of Otho's life. Ludolphus, his son, liad engaged in
an unnatural revolt, wliich produced some serious hostilities, and
occasioned the destruction of the city of Ratisbon ; but after some
time, the prince was made sensible of his error, and seized an op-
portunity while the emperor was hunting, to throw himself at his
feet, and implore Ins clemency. " Have pity," said he, " upon your
misguided child, who returns, like the prodigal son, to his father. If
you permit him to live after having deserved death, he will as-
suredly repent of his folly and ingratitude, and the residue of his
life shall be spent in the faithful discharge of filial duty." To this af-
fecting appeal, Olho couid reply only by a flood of tears and a pa-
ternal embrace ; but when his agitation subsided, he assured the
penitent of his warmest favour, and generously pardoned all his
adherents.
19. Otho 11., surnamed the Sanguinary, succeeded his
father m 973, during whose reign, and that of several others,
nothing of importance occurred. The names of the sovereigns
who followed, down to Henry IV., are Otho III., St. Henry,
Conrad II., and Henry III. The}'^ occupied a period of about
eighty-three years.
20. Henry IV., the Great, succeeded his father at the age
of six years, in 1056. He maintained a perpetual struggle
with the popes, who insisted, that only the cardinals should
elect the bishop of Rome. It was the lot of this emperor to
experience a large share of papal insolence and tyranny.
After a spirited contest with Pope Gregory VII., during
which, the pope was twice his prisoner, and the emperor as
often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell, at last, the
victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. At the instigation of
Pope Urban II., the two sons of the emperor, Conrad and
Henry, rebelled against their father, and to such an extremity
was he reduced, through their barbarity and the pope's act of
excommunication, tliat he could scarcely obtain the means of
subsiscence.
His sufferings were terminated by death soon after the ex-
piration of the present period, viz. in 1106, he having lived
sixty-four years, and reigned forty-eight. Henry, in his
youth, was vicious to an uncommon extent, and gave up
himself freely to the indulgence of his passions. Misfortune,
afterwards, abated his sensual excesses, if it did not tliorough-
ly reform his character. He lived to acknowledge, that " the
hand of the Lord had touched him." On the whole, he was
ENGLi SD. Ill
endowed with many excellent qualities — courage, clemency,
liberality, and, finally, with contrition and resignation.
§ Tlie msoleiit treatment he received from the Pope, appears from
the following. On one occasion, he set out for Italy, with his wife
and infant, in order to humble himself at the foot of his holiness.
On his arrival at the place where the Pope was, he was admitted
within the outer gate, and informed that he must expect no favour
until he should have fasted three days, standing from morning to
evening, barefooted amid the snow, and then implored forgiveness
for his offences. This penance was literally performed, notwith-
standing the fatigue of the journey, and on the fourth day he re-
ceived an absolution.
The liberality of Henry's disposition, was such, that he is said to
have entertained the sick, the lame, and the blind, at his own table,
and even to have loilged them in his own apartment, that he might
be at hand to minister to their necessities.
ENGLAND.
Saxon Kings. — Norman Family.
21. England, which had been divided into seven distinct
i-overeignties during more than two centuries, became one
entire kingdom, in 827 A. C. This change was effected by
the prudence and valour of Egbert, prince of the West Sax-
ons, who inhabited that part of the heptarchy, which was
called Wesscx and Sussex.
The occasion which offered for the conquest and union of
the heptarchy, arose from the fact, that Egbert alone remain-
ed of the descendants of the Saxon conquerors of Britain ;
he, therefore, naturally looked to the dominion of the several
states, as a sort of right ; nor did he hesitate to claim it, also,
with his sword. Success attended his undertaking, and four
hundred years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain,
were they united into one powerful kingdom.
22 The English, who were so iiappily united under Eg-
bert, enjoyed tlieir prosperity but a short period. The pirati-
cal Danes, or Normans, who had molested the EngUsh coasts
for fifty years, now became still more troublesome. During
tlie life of Egbert, they twice attempted an invasion, but were
repvilsed with much slaughter.
The death of Egbert, and (he character of his successor,
Ethelwolf, a prince of a very yielding disposition, encouraged
the Danes to multiply theii- depredations. They were often
112 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
defeated, but could not be expelled. By his will, Ethehvolf
divided England between his two eldest sons — Ethelbakl
and Ethelbert. Alfred, afterwards so illustrious, was a young-
er son.
§ It was Ethehvolf who, through faciUty of disposition, not only
granted to the priesthood a perpetual right to tithes, but exempted
it from all services and imposts.
The reign of Ethelbald and Ethelbert was short, — com-
mencing in 857, and ending in 866. To Ethelred, a third
brother, the sceptre was bequeathed. He died bravely, in
battle against the Danes, and then the immortal Alfred suc-
ceeded, in 872.
23. This prince, who was only twenty-two years of age,
when he ascended the tlu'one, found his kingdom in a most
miserable condition. It was scourged and afflicted by an-
archy, domestic barbarism, and foreign ai^grossion. By his
efforts, however, he succeeded in raising it to an eminence
and happiness, surpassing what might hn . e 1 leen expected at
that peri.od. His talents, virtues, and cliuiacter, were of the
highest order, and have justly endeared his name and
memory to the bosom of every Englishman. The institu-
tions which he founded are, to this day, the glory of the Bri-
tish realm.
He patronised learning and the arts — encouraged manu-
factures and commerce — appropriated a seventh of his reve-
nue to restore the ruined cities, castles, palaces, monasteries —
founded or revived the university of Oxford — divided Eng-
land into counties and hundreds — took a survey of the coun-
try, and formed a code of laws, which, though now lost, is
generally deemed the origin of the common law.
§The wisdom of his civil institutions may be seen in his division
of the country. This plan was resorted to with a view to restore
the order which the violence and rapacity of the Danes had sub-
verted. Besides a division into counties and hundreds, there were
the smaller divisions of tithings. Ten householders formed a tith-
ing, who were answerable for each other's conduct, and over
whom a headborougli was appointed to preside. Every man was
registered in some tithing, and none could change his habitation,
without a certificate from th(!headborougb.
In the decision of differences, tlie headborough, also called tith-
ing-man, summoned his tithing to assist him. Tii affairs of great
moment, or in controversies between the members (*f different tith-
ings, the cause was brought before the court ot the hundred, which
ENGLAND. 113
was assembled every four weeks. Here we may trace the origin of
juries. Twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial justice, tried the
cause in this court. The county court, which met twice a year,
fuid consisted of the freeholders of the county, was superior to that
of the hundred, from which it received appeals. Here disputes be-
tween the inhabitants of different hundreds were settled. The ulti-
mate appeal from these several courts, lay to the king in council.
The leio^n of Alfred was signalized by his contest with the
Danes. Within the space of one year, he defeated them in
eight battles ; but a new irruption of their countrymen, forced
him to solicit a peace, w^hich these pirates frequently inter-
rupted by fresh hostilities. At this juncture, Alfred w^as com-
pelled to secure his person by retreating into an obscure part
of the country. Here he continued, disguised in the habit
of a peasant, for many months, until the disorders in the Da-
nish army offered a fair opportunity for attacking them. This
he embraced with great effect. Instead of cutting them off en-
tirely, as he might have done, he incorporated many of them
with his English subjects. It was after these exploits, that he
turned his attention,' as already mentioned, to the internal
improvements of his kingdom. He died in the full vigour
of his age and faculties, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine
years, and w^as justly sinnamed the Great.
§ Alfred having perceived the remissness of the enemy, from whose
pursuit he had secreted himself, ventured at length to quit his retire-
ment. With a few of his retainers, he had made some sudden and par-
tial attacks on the Danes ; but before he attempted to assemble his
subjects generally in arms, he was determined to explore the state of
the enemy. His skill as a harper procured him admission into their
camp. Having been introduced to Gulhrum, their prince, he played
before him in hi»tent. Here he witnessed ttieir supineness.
Encouraged by what he had seen, he sent private emissaries to
the most considerable of his friends, and sunnnoned them to meet
him with their r(!lainers, at a certain place. The English crowded
around the standard of a monarch whom they so fondly loved, and
before their ardour could cool, he led them victoriously against the
enemies of their country.
24. Edward, surnamed the Elder, succeeded his father Al-
fred, in 901. lie lived in a stormy jieriod, being continually
molested by the Nortluuubriun Danes ; yet he was generally
successful in his wars, and his administration of government
uas honourable to his character. He reigned twenty-four
years.
^ Elhelwald, a younger son of Alfred, inherited his father's passion
114 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
for letters, and lived a private life — a happy turn and destiny lor
the son of a prince.
25. Athelstan, a natural son of Edward, succeeded him,
925. He was an able and popular sovereign, and opposed
with success the Northumbrian Danes, Welsh, Scots, &,c.
He encouraged navigation, by conferring the rank of thane,
or gentleman, on every merchant who had made three voy-
ages to the Mediterranean on his own account. His reign
was of sixteen years continuance.
§ He effected the laudable design of translating the Scriptures into
the Saxon tongue, wliich appears to have been the earliest version
of that book into the language of Britain.
26. Edmund, a legitimate son of Edward, next ascended
the throne, 941. He reigned about five years, having perish-
ed by the hand of Leolf, a notorious robber.
Edred, a brother of Edmund, became his successor, 046.
In this prince, was the singular mixture of courage and su-
perstition. His courage he manifested in reducing to obe-
dience the North nmlnian Danes — his superstition, in becom-
ing the dupe of the famous Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury.
He abandoned his conscience to this deceiver.
§ Dunstan invented several marvellous legendsof his conflicts with
tlie devil — pretended piety, but possessed an inordinate ambition —
and was at List canonized as a saint.
27. Edwy, a nephew of Edred, now filled the throne of
the Saxon kings of England, 955. By marrjang within the
degrees of affinity prohibited by the canon law, he and his
beautiful princess Elgiva, l)oth became objects of monkish per-
secution.
§ Archbisiiop Odo, with a band of soldiers, seized Elgiva, burned
her face with a hot iron, and forcibly carried her into Ireland.
WTiea afterwards she attempted to return to the arms of her hus-
band, she was secured by this detestable ecclesiastic, and Ijy his
order so mutilated, that slie died in a few days in tlie sharpest torment.
28. Edgar, the younger brother of Edwy, succeeded to the
ihrone, 959. His reign lasted sixteen years. His private
character was detestable, on accotint of his licentiousness ; but
energy and success distinguisbed his public administrations.
He promoted the inhuman and fanatical Dunstan to the arch-
liishopric of Canterbury, and paying that prelate a forced ho-
mage, he was able to carry into effect his vn rious plans of go-
vernment.
§ Edgar obtained bis wife Elfrida, in the following manner. She
ENGLAND. 115
was a daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, and the greatest beauty
of the EngHsh court. Edgar designing to marry her if her charm's
were found answerable to report, sent his favourite, Athelwold, to
visit her, and bring him an account of her person.
The courtier's fidelity was overcome by the beauty of Elfrida,
and witli a view to secure her for himself, he gave an unfavoura-
ble account to the king, at the same time intimating that she would
on the whole be an advantageous match for himself, on account of
her riches and birth. The king forwarded his favourite's views, and
he obtained the hand of the fair damsel.
The truth, however, soon came to the cars of the king, and inform-
ing Athohvold that he would like to bo introduced to Elfrida, and
the courtier bemg afraid to decline the honour, he had an opportu-
nity, of witnessing with his own eyes, the lo\'cliness of her person.
Athohvold, in the mean time, had been obliged, in the hope of saving
his wife, to reveal the whole transaction to her, and besought her to
disguise her beauty on the occasion.
She, however, resenting the artifice by which she had lost a crown,
purposely sought to captivate the king by a displa}'' of her person,
and easily succeeded. Edgar soon alter embraced an opportimity
in hunting, of stabbing Athelwold, and reaped the fruit of his
crime in the possession of the enchanting fair one.
29. The reign of Edward, son of Edgar, l)y his first wife,
was short and uninteresting. He perished by assassination,
wliich was instigated by liis step-mother Elfrida, 978.
Etheb-cd II., son of Edgar, by Elfrida, was placed on the
throne at the age of eleven. His surname was Unready, the
reproachful epithet of his weakness. His hatred of the Danes,
wlio again molested England, was so great, that he ordered
ci massacre of all those of that people wlto had been retained
as mercenaries in his army. This barbarous mandate v/as
strictly executed.
• The Danes at home, however, resolved on vengeance, and
accordingly under Sweyn, their king, they invaded and rava-
ged the country. London was saved from destruction, only
by the payment of a tribute. The weak Ethclred fleeing to
Normandy, tiie English nobility were ashamed of theii- prince,
and in despair of relief, offered the kingdom to Sweyn.
The Dane, however, died soon afterwards, and Elhelred
was restored ; but Canute, the son of Sweyn, asserted his
claims to the crown by force of arms. He was opj)osed by
Ednumd, son of Ethebed, with various success.
In the mean time, Ethehed died, after a long and inglorious
reign, and Edmund succeeded to the government. 1016. In
116 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD V.
the war which he carried on with Canute, he was obhged, af.
length, to divide his kingdom with the latter. But he sur-
vived this treaty only a month, having been cut off by the
treachery of his brother-in-law, Edric.
§ Edmund was surnamed Ironside, from his strength and valour j
but though he put forth every effort, he could not save his realm.
He left two children, who, however, never succeeded to the throne.
Canute became sole monarch, upon the death of Edmund,
in 1017, and proved to be tlie most powerfid sovereign of his
time. He was surnamed the Great, and possessed eminent
abilities. He was terrible in his resentments, but an impar-
tial dispenser of justice.
§ In the distribution of justice, he made no distinction between the
Danes and Englisli ; he restored the Saxon customs, and gradually
incorporated the victors v/ith the vanquished. His mind was affected
with religious considerations towards the close of life, and he became
alarmed in view of the crimes he had committed, (for he had put
many of his subjects to death without cause,) but his piety was of
that superstitiQus kind, which displayed itself in building churches
and endowing monasteries, the great virtues of those ages.
30. Of the three sons whom Canute left, two ruled in suc-
cession over England, viz. — Harold, surnamed Harefoot, from
his speed in running, who reigned only four years, and Ilar-
dicanute, who reigned but a fev/ montlis.
Upon the death of the latter, the English freed themselves
from the Danish yoke, and restored the Saxon line in Ed-
ward, a younger son of Ethelred, 1041. He was entitled tlie
Confessor, and reigned twenty-five years without merit of
any kind, unless it were his ability to conciliate the esteem
of the monks. Having no children, and wishing to defeat
the views of Harold, the son of tlie Earl of Godwin, an as-
j)irant to the throne, he appointed his kinsman, William, Duke
of Normandy, his successor. Edward was the last of the
Saxon kings of England.
§ Edward united all the laws of England in one body, called the
(Common Law. lie was the first king of England, who pretended
to cure the king's evil by his touch, a practice which was continued
till the Hanover succession.
31. On the death of Edward, Harold actually took posses-
sion of the throne, but William determined to secure it as his
rightful inheritance, ills prcjiarations were very formidable,
and he was aided in this romantic age, by many sovereign
ENGLAND.
117
princes, and a vast body of nobility from the different king-
doms on tlie continent.
With an army of 60,000 men, he set sail for the English
coast. Harold, with nearly the same number of soldiers, met
him, and was defeated and slain in the field of Hastings.
The English army was nearly destroyed, while the Normans
lost about 15.000 men. AVilliam, from this time styled the
Conqueror, soon assumed the prerogatives of sovereignty,
1066 A. C. The princes of the Norman family ruled till the
time of Henry II.
William's administration of government was marked with
ability, and in general, with success. In consequence of the
discontent often manifested by his Englisli subjects, he began
to treat them too much as a comjuered people, and tbe natural
tyranny of his disposition increased by the commotions in
which tins policy ij^volved him. Hence his measures \vere
frequently arbitrary and cruel.
He alienated the minds of the conquered, by conferring on
his Norman followers, all the important places in the govern-
ment ; by causing the Norman language to be the vehicle of
the church service, and also of judicial proceedings ; by re-
serving to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game
throughout the kingdom, and by depopulating a tract ot
country about thirty miles round, in order to form a forest.
§ He was tlie author of several other regulations of an inauspicious
nature, some of which were greatly vexatious to the people, lie
introduced the feudal system ; sul^slituted the murderous practice (>f
simple combat for the trial by jury ; compelled the people to rake
uplheir fires, and put out their lights at the sound of the curfew
bell ; and he made it a greater crime to destroy an animal, than to
murder a man. One useful act of his reign, was a sui-vey of all the
lands and estates of the kingdom, with an estimate of their value, an
enumeration of every class of inhabitants who lived on them, and
other important specifications. This record is called the Doomsday-
book, which is still in being.
The children of William brought on him no small share
of trouble. His eldest son Robert, attempted to wrest from
him the sovereignty of jMaiiie, and his foreign subjects nssist-
M the rebel. The king led against them an army of the
Ensjlish, and during the batde was on the point of being kill-
ed in a rencoimter with his son. Soon after, while waging
a war with Philip I. of France, who had aided in the rebel-
lion, he was accidentally killed by a fall from his horse, 10S7.
118 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
He reigned nearly twenty-one years over England, and be-
queathed the sceptre to his second son William.
William was eminent as a .^atesman and warrior, and was
at times capable of generous em.otions ; but the prominent
traits of his character were very unamiable. His pride, arri-
bition, austerity, and cruelty, both inflicted sulTcrings on hia
people, and robbed his own mind of peace. In his adminis-
tration, though he was sometimes politic, he erred on the side
of severity.
§ The person of William, was such as befitted a sovereign, espe-
cially in a rude and warlike age. He was tall, majestic, and well
proportioned. His strength was so great that scarcely any other
person could bend his bow, or wield his arms. He was, however,
near being overcome by the prowess of his son Robert, on a certain
occasion.
While contending with the forces of that rebel, he happened to
engage with him in person. They were mutually unknown to each
other, as they were concealed by their armour. Both being vigo-
rous and resolute, a tierce combat ensued. Robert at length wound-
ed and dismounted his father, nor did he discover who liis antago-
nist was, till at that instant, in his cry for assistance, William's voice
was recognized by his son.
Struck with remorse and horror, the young prince threw himself
at his father's feet, and implored forgiveness, at the same time assist-
ing him to mount his own horse. William was implacable at first,
but reflecting on his son's generosity, he soon became reconciled to
him, and invited him into England.
32. William XL, suruamcd Rufus, from his red hair, ascend-
ed the throne in 1087. He was destitute of the few virtues
of his father, and inherited all his vices. Perfidy, tyranny,
and cruelt}', were the chief ingredients of his character. Af-
ter the defeat of one conspiracy at the beginning, his reigli
was a series of despotic acts, which conferred neither peace
nor honour on his country. After a reign of thirteen years,
he was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, with an ar-
row, while hunting in the New Forest.
§ Tyrrel, from fear of the consequences, fled to France. The body
of William, after several days, was found by the country people,
and conveyed in a cart to A\ in Chester, wJiere it was interred. The
person who carried the corpse; of the king to interment, was named
Purkis, and it is remarkable, that some of his dccendants, are known,
at this very dav, to reside near the same spot.
The chief monuments that perpetuate the name of Rufus, are the
Tow2r, Westminister Hall, and London Bridge.
EASTERN EMPIRE. 119
EASTERN EMPIRE.
33. The Eastern, or GreekEmpire, during the present
period, was ruled by thirty-nine emperors, most of them fol-
lowing in succession, tliough in a few instances, two or more
ruled at the same time, and jointly. None of them were very
distinguished, though a very few were respectable sovereigns.
In general they were a weak or vicious race, yet scarcely too
de2^raded to be rulers of the degenerate Romans. A few
names will appear below.
This people, compared with what they had been, were low ;
yet still they were on an equality, at least, with the first na-
tions of Europe, at that time. Their degeneracy was rather
in moral and intellectual qualities, than in external show and
consequence. There remained among them much of ancient
wealth and splendour.
§ In the 10th century, the provuices that still acknowledged the au-
thority of tlie successors of Constanline, had been cast inlo a new
form by the institution of the themes, or military governments. 01
these, there were twenty-nine, viz. twelve in Europe, and seventeen in
Asia; l)ut tlieir orijiin is obscure. The victories of a few of the em-
perors had enlarged the boundaries of the Roman name ; but in \he
eleventh century the prospect was darkened. The relics of Italy
were swept away by the Norman adventurers, and the Turks had
removed many of the Asiatic props of the empire. Still the spa-
cious provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, were obedient to
their sceptre, and they possessed Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete, Avith
the fifty islands of the ^gean Sea.
The subjects of the Byzantine empire, were more dexterous than
other nations, and in the support and restoration of the arts, their
patient and peaceful temper, and refined taste, are highly to be com-
mended. The first demand of the public revenue was the pomp
and pleasure of the emperors. The coasts and islands of Asia and
Europe, were covered witli their magnificent villas. Tiie great pa-
lace, the centre of imperial residence, was decorated and enlarged
by the wealth of successive sovereigns ; and the long series of apart-
ments were adorned with a profusion of gold, silver, and precious
stones.
Of the numerous emperors of this period, whose reigns in general
must have been short, the following only can be noticed.
Basil I., who ascended in 867, was from an obscure family, but
proved himself wortliy of his elevation. He defeated the Saracens
in tlie east, and m Italy, but could not prevent thera from ravaging
the Peloponnesus.
An incident of this emperor's reign is the following. His son, Leo,
had Deen imprisoned on a false accusation of an attempt to assa^-
120 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V.
siiiale the emperor. Frequent intercessions were made bji those
who beheved in the son's innocence, to have him released, till the
emperor in his impatience, forbade Leo's name to be mentioned in his
houring. It happened, however, one day, that a parrot which had often
heard a regret expressed for the unhappy prince, on a sudden broke
out with, " Alas, pot)r Leo !" in the emperor's presence. Basil, struck
with the sounds, was so moved that lie consented to his son's libera-
tion.
Nicephorus Phocas possessed the reputation both of a hero and
saint. His saintship, however, was only a pretence. He proved his
claim to heroism in his wars with the Saracens. He invaded Asia,
and overran Mesopotamia. His vices, especially his avarice, render-
ed him odious ta his subjects. He was assassinated by John Zime-
sees, who succeeded him in the empire, and who afterwards met
v.'ith the same fate.
Basil n. marched against the kingdom of Bavaria, and finally de-
stroyed it. On this occasion, it is related of him, that having taken
a great number of prisoners, he divided them into companies of an
hundred each, caused all their eyes to be put out, and ordered them
to be conducted to their king by a man who had one eye left. This
horrible spectacle so affected the king of Bulgaria, that he fainted
away, and died two days afterwards.
CHINA.
34. The thirteenth dynasty of the emperors of China tei-
niinated during the present period, which inchided also live
other dynasties. The number of emperors was thirty-three.
Some of them were very wise men. In the reign of Tai-
tsong, of the tliirteenth dynasty, Christianity was introduced
into a small part of China.
§ Tai-tsong was one of the greatest of the Chinese princes. Ht
was wise, frugal, and afflible. His ministers attempted to excite in
him apprehensions from his too great familiarity with his subjects ;
but he replied, " I consider myself in the empire as a father in his
family. I carry all my people in my bosom, as if they were ray
children. What then have I to fear ?"
Chwang-tsong, of the fifteenth dynasty, from a general, stepped to
tlie throne. As emperor, he preserved his martial habits, lived very
frugally, and slept on the bare ground with a bell about his neck to
prevent his sleeping too long. He was devout, and all his prayers
were offered for the good of his subjects. Block printing was in-
vented among the Chinese during his reign.
SARACENS.
35. At the commencement of the present period, the Sa-
racens were flourishing in science and the arts. Their mi-
litary distinction was perhaps on the wane. Nearly forty
SARACENS. 121
,^yeais had elapsed since the seat of their empire was trans-
ferred to Bagdad, and Arabia, in consequence, had lost much
of its importance. Many of the chiefs of the interior provin-
ces became independent, and withdrew themselves from the
civil jurisdiction of the caliph.
§ It is supposed, that the Saracens, had thej'- acknowledged only
one head, might have established and perpetuated an immense em-
pire. But after the extension of their conquests, they were broken
up into separate states. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had, at
an early period, tlieir own sovereigns, who, though they paid a reli-
gious respect to the caliph of Bagdad, awarded him no temporal
submission. Divided among themselves, they were destined ere
long to fall.
36. The principal military expedition of the African Sara-
cens in this period, was the invasion of Sicily, and the project-
ed con(iuest of Ital}*. They actually laid siege to Rome, which
was strenuously defended by Pope Leo IV. They were en-
tirely repulsed, having their ships dispersed by a storm, and
their army cut to pieces, S4S.
37. The house of Abbas, which now enjoyed the caliphate,
furnished twenty-two caliphs during this period. These reign-
ed in succession, and Bagdad continued to be the seat of their
power. In the year 1055, however, Bagdad was taken by the
Turlcs, and the caliphs, from that time, instead of being tem-
poral monarchs, became only the supreme pontiff's of the Ma-
Irometan faith.
At the time of the first crusade, in the beginning of the
next period. Arabia was governed by a Turkish sultan, as
were Persin. and the greater jwrtion of lesser Asia.
§ We can notice only one or two of the caliphs of Bagdad. Adad-
odawla v»'as deemed a great prince. He was magnanimous, liberal,
[trudent, and learned ; but he was also insatiably ambitious. A re-
mark which he made when at the point of death, is a melancholy
comment on human greatness. Willi a faiiltcring tongue, he cried,
" Vvliat have all my riches and prosperity availed me ? My power
and authority are now at an end."
Mahmud (ta^ui, was a famous conqueror. He invaded and con-
piercd a part of India. The following striking anecdote is related
of him by historians. A poor inan, who had complained to him
that one of his soldiers had driven himself and family out of his
house in the night, was told to inform the prince if that occurrence
should take place again. The poor man had occasion to inform the
prince, who went to tlie house, and causing the lights to be extin ■
guished, cut the intruder in pieces. The prince then commanded
The llambeaux to be lighted, and after closely inspecting the corpse,
.11
123 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
offered thanks to God, and asked for some refreshment. This being
afforded, he ate heartily of the mean fare.
Being interrogated by his host respecting the reason of his con-
duct, he replied, " Ever since your complaint, my mind has been
harassed with the thought, that none but one of my own sons would
commit such an act of audacity. I had resolved to show him rro
lenity, and commanded the lights to be put out, that the sight of
him might not affect me ; but on seeing that the criminal was not
my son. I returned thanks to the Almighty."
Distinguished Cltaractei^s in Period V.
1. Charlemagne, a piiccessful warrior and able sovereign
2. Photius, a learned Clnistian writer and philosopher.
3. Erigena, a Scotch philosopher and learned divine.
4. Alfred, a wise, learned, and virtuous prince.
5. Al Razi, an eminent Arabian scholar, and physician.
6. Avicenna, an Arabian philosopher and physician.
7. Suidas, a Greek lexicographer.
§ 1. Charlemagne, of whom some account has already been given,
was king of France, by succession, and emperor of the west, by
conquest, in 800. He laid the foundation of the dynasty of the
Western Fraidvs. Tliough his empire did not hold together, long
after his death, his successors in the several states of which it had
been composed, reigned several centuries, in tlic line of the Franks,
Indeed, this was the case, till the house of Austria was founded.
Charlemagne was in many respects an admirable sovereign. Ho
excelled in war ; and although he was so illiterate that he could
not spell his name, he was great in the cabinet, and patronised
learning. He invhed into France, Jiterary and scientific men from
Ital}'', and from the Britannic Isles. The latter, in those dark ages,
preserved more of the light of learning, than any of the western
kingdoms.
His private character has been much eulogized, though it is ac-
knowledged that he was sometimes rigid and cruel. He was simple
in his manners and dress, and opposed to parade and luxury. Eco-
nomy, industry, and plainness, characterised him in a domestic state.
His daughters Were assiduously employed in spinning and house-
wifery, and his sons were trained by himself in all manly exercises.
Except when he held his general assemljlics, his dress, table and at-
tendants were like those of a private person.
He was a man of almost incredible activity. Instead of confiding
in the reports of others, he personally saw that his orders wera ex-
ecuted. The condition of his subjects was constantly in his view.
In one place, he ordered the repairs of a highway; in another, the
construction of a bridge ; and in another, he afforded the necessary
aid to agriculture and commerce. Each of the provinces partook
in its turn of his benefits.
Charlemagne founded several seminaries of learning ; but the
DrSTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 123
derkness of ihe times could scarcely be alleviated by all his eiforts.
He suppressed mendicity, and established a fixed and invariable
price for com- The meanest of his subjects were thus enabled to
provide against their wants, and all complaints on this head were
banished. After rearing a splendid empire, he departed this life at
the age of seventy-one years.
2. Photius was patriarch of Constantinople in the ninth century,
and the greatest man of the age in which he lived. He possessed
the patriarchate only ten years, during which, he was exposed to a
most turbulent opposition and cabal. He was at last deposed, and
died in a monastery. He deserves a high rauik in point of erudi-
tion. He was the author of a commentary on the ancient ^vrilers,
a collection of the canons of the church, epistles, &c. These are
yet valuable on several accounts. In commenting on the scriptures,
although he followed reason, rather than authority, he is not on the
whole a model fit to be taken. He explained with ability the cate-
gories of Aristotle. He died in 886.
3. Erigena, John Scotus, was born at A\-r, in Scotland, according
to some authorities, and was very learned, in a very barbarous age.
He was employed by king Alfred to promote learning and the liberal
arts. For this purpose he Mas appointed to preside at Oxford, over
the studies of geometry and astronomy in particular. He spent
three years in this siuiation ; but some disputes and disturbances
arising at Oxford, he left that place and retired to a monastery at
Malmsbury. Tliere he opened a school, but his harshness and se-
verity to his scholars so provoked them, that they stabbed him with
ihe iron bodkins they then wrote with, in such a manner, that he
died, 8S3. Mosheim speaks of Erigena as an eminent philosopher
and learned divine, and as manifesting uncommon sagacity and
genius. He wrote a book on Predestination, and translated into
Latin four pieces of Dionysius, the Areopagite, and was the author
of some other works.
4. Alfred, so justly surnamed the Great, was bom in 849, as is
supposed, at Wantage, in Berkshire. He succeeded to the crown on
the deaiJi of his brother Ethelred in 871 ; but he had scarcely time
to attend to the funeral of his brother, l»efore he was obliged to
fight for his kingdom and life, with the piratical Danes. His mili-
tary exploits, with several other things, have been above related. The
particulars which may with propriety be added, are the following.
Alfred was both a wise and a pious prince. His qualities were
most happily blended together, so that no one encroached on ano-
ther. He reconciled a most diligent attention to business, with the
purest and warmest devotion — the severest justice with the most ex-
emplary lenity — the brightest capacity and inclination for science
with the most shining talents for action. He was equally a warrior
and a legislator. He united with rich mental endowments, every
personal grace and accomplishment.
Tlie darkness and superstitions of the age, were too powerful for
his efforts and mstituiions. He could not expel them to any great
124 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V.
extent. Yet he did considerable to elevate the character of his-
countrymen, and he aimed at much more. In addition to the schools-
and seminaries of learning which he founded, he afforded the attrac-
tive influence of his own example.
His time he usually divided into three equal portions — one was-
employed in exercise or the refection of the body — another in tlit
despatch of business — and a third in study and devotion. He con-
veyed his instructions to the people in parables, stories, &c. couch-
ed in poetry; as he considered these best adapted to their capa-
city. He translated the Fables of Jilsop, the liistories of Orosius
and Beda, and Boethius on the Consolation of Piiilosophy. In tb.ese
various literary engageinents, he sought the good of his people, as
well as his own personal, intellectual improvement.
5. Al Razi, a name not perhaps well known in European literature,
was famous in the Arabian annals; and the Aral^ians at this era
were the most enlightened of the nations. This person is said tO'
have been extremely well versed in all kinds of ancient learning;
though he excelled most in physic, and is styled the Phcenix of the
age. He applied himself to the study of philosop'iy with such suc-
cess, that he made a wonderful piogress in every branch <.C it, and
composed a great number of books upon physical nnd philosophical
subjects. He composed 12 books on alchemy, in which he asgerted
the possibility of a transmutarion of metals, and was the first writer
on the small-pox.
He is said to have contracted webs in his eyes by tlie immoderate
eating of beans ; and towards the close of his life, lost both of them
by cataracts. He would not permit an occulist, v.^ho came to couch
him, to perform the operation, because he could not tell of how
many little coats the eye consisted ; saying at the same time, that he
was not very desirous of recovering his sight, as he had already seen
enough of the world to make him abhor it. He died about the year 935.
6. Avicenna, who is much celebrated among his countrymen, the
Mahometans, was born i!i the year 980, and died in 1036. The num-
ber of his books, including Jiis smaller tracts, is computed at near
one hundred, the majority of which are either lost, or unknown
in Europe. At the age of ten years, he had made great progress in
classical literature. It is said that he read over Aristotle's metaphy-
sics 40 times, got it by heart, but could not understand it. Acciden-
tally meeting with a book wliich treated of the objects of metaphy-
sics, he perceived what Aristotle meant, and out of joy at the disco-
very, gave alms to the poor.
7. Suidas flourished between 975 and 1025. His native cor.ntry
is not known. He is tlie author of a very useful Greek Lexicon
The work contains much historical and geographical information.
No particulars seem to have been recorded respecting his life, either
by himself or by others. He is known only by his bonk.
THE CRUSADES. 125
PERIOD VI.
The period of I he Crvsades ; extending from the First
Crusade^ 1095 years A. C, to the founding of the
Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C.
During this period, we have Rianifold proofs of tlie darkness of
the limes, with a singular mixture of a spirit of adventure, and lofty
daring. The age was peculiarly characterised by the crusades, the
passion for pilgrimages, the exploits of chivalry, and the production
of romances. Barbarism and turbulence extensively prevailed, while
the lights of science were few and dim. In England, however, there
was the early dawn of literature.
THE CRUSADES.
Sect. 1. In giving an account of the Crusades, we include
a portion of the history of the principal Einopean nations. For
this rca?0Ti, less of the separate history of those nations will
appear during this period, than would otherwise be introdu-
ced. The Crusades were comnion to all Christendo)n, and
all felt a deep interest in them. The other peculiarities of the
times, as pilgrimages, chivalry, the feudal system, (fee. since
they belonged to the established customs and institutions of
Europe, will be unfolded in the General Views. In the Cru-
sades, the political and military liistory of a great part of the
world is carried on for a long time.
2. The Crusades were wars undertaken principally dining
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, by the Christian nations
of Europe, on account of religion. They were termeil Cru-
sades, from the cross which was the badge of the combatants.
The object of these wars was the deliverance of Palestine,
and particularly the tomb of Jesus Christ front the dominion
of the Tiuks or Mahometans.
The Turks, or Turcomans, a race of Tartars, having, in
1055, taken Bagdad, and thus overturned the empire of the
caliphs, canteinto the possession of the coimtries which these
caliphs had governed, and the caliphs themselves, instead of
temporal monarchs, became sovereign jiontifis of the Mahome-
tan faith. Palestine, and particularly Jerusalem, were of course
imder the sway of the Turks, and the seat of their religion*
11*
126 MODERN HISTORY. — -PilllOD VI.
Tn tliis situation of things, the resoi: of pi' ^rims to the
tomb of our Saviour was attended with much difficulty and
danger. While the Saracens held possession of the country,
the pilgrims were permitted to have free access to the holy
cit)^ : but its new masters, tlie Turks, were a more wild and
ferocious people. They insulted and robbed those fanatical
devotees — a circumstance, in such an age, of sufficient im-
portance to arouse all Europe for the deliverance of Jerusalem
from the infidels. The Roman pontiffs were the principal
instigators of these desperate adventures.
§ In an age of religious enthusiasm, and in an unenlightened state
of society, it is not surprising that Judea should have been an object
of veneration, or superstitious regard to the Christian world. Here
the great events recorded in the sacred scriptures transpired — the
chosen ])eople of God subsisted Ihrougli many generations — unnum-
bered miracles vv'cre performed — the IMosaic and Christian dispen-
sations were set up — even God's own Son, the ?ilessiah, lived, suffer-
ed, and died. Here prophets and apostles had preached, and writ-
ten, and shed their blood in testimony of the truth, and every tenant-
ed part, especially the Holy City, was marked by some divine inter-
position or manifestation, most dear to the lover of piety.
A country so hallowed, is capable, even now, of exciting tiie most
delightful associations; and though we are in no danger of attempt-
ing any thing like a crusade, yet nothing relating to such a land can
be contemplated without deep emotion. AVhat sensations then must
have been excited in a deeph* enthusiastic and superstitious age '
And much as we smile at their lolly, how easily can we account for
t!ie ardour which was displayed b)^ imlettered minds and fanatical
tempers, on the subject of the crusades ! Connected also, as was a
pilgrimage to the holy land, with the idea of merit, and merit even
sufficient to purchase salvation, nothing can be conceived more cal-
culated to arouse every honourable and indignant feeling, than the
obstructions in the way of such a devotion. It was a hardship not
to 1)e endured, that the Christian disciple should be prevented from
approaching and musing over, with a sort of adoration, tlie sepul-
chre in which his blessed Redeemer was laid.
25Tljere were five* expeditions of the kind here spoken
of, which, during nearly two centuries, drained from I^urope
most of its Ufe-blood and treasures. All western Europe be-
came involved in these destructive wars, but the French en
lered upon them with more enthusiasm tlian any other na-
tion.
The first crusade was preached by Peter, commonly styled
♦ Some reckon a larger number.
THE CRUSADES. 127
the hermit. After havmg sufficiently excited Christendom by
his rude eloquence, he found vast multitudes ready to engage
m the hazardous undertaking. The popes, however, had
for some time contemplated the same design, and Urban II.,
the reigning pontiflj availed himself of this opportunity of
executing his splendid project of arming the whole of Chris-
tendom against the Mahometans, through the instrumentality
of Peter. Two general councils were called and held on the
subject, one at Placcntia and the other at Clermont, and were
attended by many thousands. The pope himself harangued
the multitude, and offered to all who would engage in the ser-
vice, plenary indulgence, and full absolution of sins.
Peter, Avho possessed none of the necessary qualities of a
military leader, was placed at the head of this motley crowd
of all ages, conditions, and character, amounting to eighty
thousand men. They commenced their march towards the
East, in the spring of 1096, and were soon followed by an
addition of two hundred thousand persons of the same pro-
miscuous description. They were any thing rather tlian a
regularly appointed army, or efficient military force. Their
progress was marked by outrages ; not more than one third
of them reached the scene of action ; and those who did,
were nearly all cut off in battle on the plain of Nice.
§ Peter the Hermit, was a native of Amiens, in Picardy, (France.)
He seems to have been the (ir.st effectual mover of this mighty, and
It may be properly added, mad project. His own pilgrimage to tlie
(onib of our Saviour, had madcliini acquainted with the dangers and
vexations to which pilgrims were exposed in Asia, and became the
occasion or cause of the enterprise in which he embarked. Fired
with a sense of his own wrongs, and tliose of liis fellow pilgrims,
he sought the gratification of revenge, or at least, the means of
l)reventing the recurrence of those evils, in future. For this purpose
lie travelled from city to city, and from kingdom to kingdom, repre-
senting with a rude but pathetic eloquence, the grievances of the
j)ilgrims, and urging the necessity of making a common efTorl against
the common enemy of Ciiristians and their religion. On this sub-
ject he exhorted all whom lie met, and hesitated not to call on no-
l)les as well as their vassals — the rich as well as the poor.
His applications of this kind were aided by his personal appear-
ance. He was a monk, and exhibited all the austerity of that cha-
racter. He was an enthusiast, and displayed more than an enthu-
siast's madness. He travelled liare headed, arid with naked arms
and legs, having only a part of his body covered with a coarse gar-
ment. He seemed wasted with fasting, and exhausted with anxiety
1"28 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI,
and toil. He bore aloft in his hand a ponderous crucifix, to which
he pointed with the most animated gestures ; nor did he restrain his
prayers, whatever his situation might be, but poured his whole soul
in loud and prolonged supplications in the streets and highways.
The body of enthusiasts who crowded around him was immense^
Princes, noblemen, artisans, peasants, monks, and even women, ma-
nifested equal anxiety to bend their steps to the East, and expel the
infidel hordes from the consecrated land. To the vicious and aban-
doned in character— to the ambitious and disorderly — to robbers, in-
cendiaries, murderers, and other offenders, a fit opportunity was pre-*
sented of procuring the pardon of their sins, and at the same time
of indulging in unbounded lust and rapine.
As Malmsbury curiously observes, "the report of the council of
Clermont, wafted a cheering gale over the minds of Christians.
Tliere was no nation so remote, no people so retired, as did not re-
spond to the papal wishes. This ardent love not only inspired the
continental provinces, but the most distant islands and savage coun-
tries. The Welshman left his lumting ; the Scotch his fellowship
\vith vermin ; tlie Dane his drinking party ; the Norwegian his raw
fish." Robert of Normandy, after mentioning in general terms the
contributions of men which France and England made to the holy
war, thus singularly mixes other nations :
" Of Normandy, of Denmavk, of Norway, of Bretagne,
Of Wales, and of Ireland, of Gasi-.ony, and of Spain,
Of Provenco, and of Saxony, and of Allemagne,
Of Scotland, and of Greece, of Rome and Aquitain "
At this time, " every wonderful event in the natural world was
regarded as an indication of the divine will. Meteors and stars
pointed at and fell on tlie road to Jerusalem. The skies were in-
volved in perpetual storms, and the blaze and terror of anxious and
disordered nature showed the terrific harmony of heaven with the
sanguinary fury of earth. Man fully responded to the supposed
calls of God. The moral fabric of Europe was convulsed ; the re-
lations and charities of life were broken ;■ society appeared to be
dissolved. Persons of every age, rank, and degree, assumed the
cross. The prohibition of women from undertaking this journey
was passed over in contemptuous silence. They separated them-
selves from their iuisbands where men wanted faith, or resolved to
follow them with their helpless infmts. Monks, not waiting for the
permission of their superiors, threw aside their black mourning
gowns, and issued from their cloisters full of the spirit of holy war-
riors. Tliey who had devoted themselves to a solitary life, mistook
tlie impulses of passion for divine revelations, and thought that hea-.
ven had annulled their oaths of retirement. A stamp of virtue was
fixed upon every one who embraced the cause; and many were
urged to tlie semblance of religion, by shame, reproach, and iiishion.
When families divided, nature and fanaticism contended for the
mastery. A wife consented to the departure of her husband, on his
vowing to return at tlie end of three years. Another in whom feai
THE CRUSADES. 129'
was stronger than hope, Avas lost in violence of grief. The husband
wore the semblance of indifference, unmoved by the tears of his wife
and the kisses of his children, though his heart reproached him for
the sternness of his countenance. On the otlier hand, fathers led
tlieir sons to the place of meeting — women blessed the moment of
separation from their husbands, or if they lamented, it was from
the cause tliey were not perniitted lo sliare the iionours and perils of
tiie expedition. In some instances, tiie poor rustic shod his oxen
like horses, and placed his whole family in a cart, where it \vas
amusing to hear the children, on the aijproach to any large town or
castle, inquiring if the object before tliem was Jerusalem."
Such was the disordered rabble that attempted the conquest of
Palestine, and such the circumstances under which the expedition
commenced. Only a small part of the vast multitude ever reached
Asia. From the beginning they were illy provided with necessaries,
and therefore had recourse to acts of rapine. Their progress, so de-
structive to the countries through which they passed, was frequently
arrested by cullision with their inliabitants. The Jews of Germa-
ny were the iirst sufferers ; but it was in Hungary and Bulgaria
especially, that the outrages committed by the Crusaders were visit-
ed upon their own heads. When they arrived at Constantinople,
the emperor, Alexius Commenus, to whom they behaved themselves
with the utmost insolence and folly, Avas not slow to rid himself of
his troublesome guests. For this purpose he furnihsed them with
every aid which they required, and lent his ships to transport them
across the Bosphorus.
'l'l;ey thence pursued their march, but the Sultan Solyman meet-
ing them on the plains of Nice, their numbers were too much redu-
ced to offer him an}^ thing else than an easy victory. Of their bones,
Solyman erected a pyramid near the citj'', as a monument of his own
Ibrtune, and of their headlong counsels.
3. A new host, which was tlto most valuable part of this
expedition, arrived in the mean time, at Constantinople, as a
general rendezvous. The commanders were experienced
generals and men of renown. Among tliem, were Godfrey
of Bouillon, by some called commander in chief; Baldwin
bis brotber: Robert, duke of Normandy; Hugh, count of A-'cr-
mandois ; Raymond, count of Tboulouse ; Bohemond, prince
of Tarentvnn ; and Tancrcd, his cousin. These and other
warlike princes and captains, inspired by religious enthu-
siasm, or military ardour, pledged tliemsclves to redeem the
holy sepulchre from the inCidcls. The troops, when reviewed
in the neighbourhood of Nice, amoimted to 100,000 horse,
and 600,000 foot, including women and servants.
Alexius, the eastern emperor, did not suffer them to remain
long at Constantinople ; but after sccicing to obtain an as--
130' MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
cendency over them as a supeiior ally, he had the address to,
accelerate their departure. They at length met the Sara-
cens, whom they overpowered by numbers. Having twice
defeated the enemy, they took, after immense difficulty, losses,
and delay, the cities of Nice, Edessa, and Antioch.
§ Constantinople, at the period when the crusaders met there, was
the largest and most beautiful city of Europe. The most tTiat re-
mained of ancient elegance in manners and in arts, was included in
that emporium. It was the mart of the world, and the seat of em-
pire. 1'hougli the Greeks were degenerate, yet such was the splen-
dour of their capital.
The hardy warriors of the north, beheld with amazement, these
scenes of magnificence and wealth, whilst they despised the effemi-
nate manners and unwarlike character of the people. On the other
hand, the accomplished inhabitants of Constantinople, looked upon
the northern warriors as barbarians. They speak of them as illit-
erate, fierce, and savage, and as nearly resembling their ancestors,
the Goths and Vandals, who overturned the Roman empire. They
treated their guests sometimes with respect, but oflener with the
most hateful duplicity.
The gold and artifices of the emperor were employed not without
effect — most of the leaders of the Croises taking the oath of fealty
to him as their liege lord. He was not averse to the destruction of
his enemy, the Turk ; but the numbers and bravery of the warriors
of the north, filled his bosom with jealousy. On various pretences,
many of them were cut off in his own territories, and they experi-
enced several alternatives of peace and war in the country of the
Greeks.
The characters of the celebrated leaders of the Croises, on this oc-
casion, may require a passing notice. Godfrey was endowed by na-
ture with her choicest gifts. He possessed all the knowledge of the
times; and the gentlest manners were united with the firmest spirit.
He was capable of the grandest enterprises ; his deportment was
moral, and his piety was fervent. To sum up his character, in
arms he was a hero— in his closet a saint.
The qualities of Baldwin were not so conspicuous. He was brave
indeed, but he was ambitious; and his courage was stained with sel-
fishness, cruelty, and injustice. Hugh, who was brother of the
French king, called to his side the armed pilgrims from Flanders,
and England, and a part of France. He was a brave and accom-
plished cavalier, but undevout, and of a proud deportment. Robert,
who was a son of William the Conqueror, entered upon the holy
war with a furious and precipitate passion. He was eloquent and
skilful, but imprudent, yielding, and voluptuous.
Bohemond posessed neither religion nor probity ; yet to the eye of-
the vulgar, he was one of the most devoted soldiers of Christ. He
was intriguing, rapacious and versatile. Tancred was a comparat
THE CRUSADES. 181
' lively pure and brilliant spirit. He was bold and generous, and would
have been humane to all mankind, had it not been for the spirit of
the age. Raymond was inexorable in his hatred of the Musselmans ;
pride, selfishness, and avarice tarnisiied his character.
The soldier pilgrims all convened on the plains of Nice.
"There the wild Crusaders form,
There assembled Europe stands,
Heaven they deem awakes the storm,
Hell the paynims' blood demands."
The details of the siege and capture of Nice, and the subsequent
operations against Edessa and Antioch, cannot be narrated. Suffice
it to say, that Nice fell by means of the policy of Alexius, who had
joined the Franks or crusaders. While the latter, who had with
much difficulty and loss, effected some breaches in the wall, were
about to storm anew the repairs, the emperor snatched the victory
from their grasp, by secretly proposing more favourable terms to the
besieged, than could be expected from an enemy that would enter
the city sword in hand. The soldiers clamoured; while the Latin
generals, thinking of greater objects, dissembled their disgust, and
endeavoured by fair persuasions to stifle tlie anger of their troops.
Tlie conquest of Edessa, beyond the Euphrates, was achieved by
a few ambitious and courageous soldiers, who had separated for a
time from the main body of the Franks, under the command of
Baldwin and Tancred.
Before Antioch could be reached, some fighting was necessary, and
the Cliristians triumphed — much fatigue was to be borne, and liere
many of them sunk. The horr;)rs of the way, and the heat of a
Phrvizi'iii summer, were fatal to multitudes. Five hundred perished
in one day. 3Iothers, no longer able to afford sustenance to tlieir
infants, exposed their breasts to the swords of- the soldiers. Manj"
of the horses perished : the baggage was then placed on the backs
of goats, liogs, and dogs. When the crusaders came to a country of
streams, they threw themselves v/ithout caution into the first river
that presented itself, and nature could not support the transition
from want to satiety.
The siege of Antioch was protracted, nor was this M'holly sur-
prising, considering the state of defence in which the city was
i)laced ; as well as on the other hand, the unskilful operations of the
Croises, the famine in their camp, the numerous desertions from
among them, and the relaxation of their morals. The Latin chiefs
put forth prodigious efforts of valour; hut the city was finally taken
• by strata<rem. A traitor delivered it into the hands of tlie Franks,
and 10,000 Turks were massacred. When the thirst of blood was
slaked, the assassins turned robbers, and became as mercenary as
• they had been merciless. They seized all the wealth of tlie place,
and exchanged their fierceness for the more civilized vices of de-
bauchery and hypocrisy. While they rioted in unbounded indul
gence, they gave God thanks.
The taking of Ai-.tioch was very soon followed by a set battle
132 MODERN HISTORV. PERIOD VI.
with the Musselmans ; for the hosts of the Moslem world pitched
their tents round the fallen capital. The excesses of the crusaders
were followed by famine in its every horrid form ; and had not
some superstitious frauds been practised, by which their zeal and
courage were re-excited, they would have slu-unk from a contest
with the formidable army which now opposed tliem under the ex-
citements of religion ; however, they met it, and triumphed in the
affray.
4. The Croises {Dursued their successes, and after various
desertions and delays they penetrated to Jerusalem. This
venerable city, which had been so often destroyed and rebuilt,
was taken by storm after a siege of six weeks, and the whole
of its inhabitants, both Mahometans and Jews, were barba-
rously put to the sword, 1099 A. C. The crusaders were by
this time reduced to a very inconsiderable number. Of the
700.000 that appeared before Nice, 40,000 only encamped
around Jerusalem. Of these, only 21,500 were soldiers. In-
cluding the rabble of Peter, the possession of Nice, Edessa,
and Antioch, had cost the lives of more than 850,000 Euro-
peans.
§ The victories of the Crusaders were gained v^ith difficuhy.
After the capture of Antioch, their embarrassments were not a
■few. Alexius had acted a cowardly and perfidious part. Hugh,
count of Vermandois, soon abandoned the holy cause, and returned
10 France. The march of the Christian forces was purposely
delayed several months, by the commanders, although the soldiers
were impatient to proceed to Jerusalem. This delay, however, was
attended by the most serious evils. Discord prevailed among the
princes — rapine and theft among the people. A pestilence spread
throughout their hosts, which, in a few months, destroyed more
than one hundred thousand ]}ersons. in tb.e mean time, several
v/ars of ambition were waged, in the neighbouring provinces. The
forces which attacked the town of PJarra, were so \n'ged bj' famine,
tliat many of tlie soldiers turned cannibals, and devoured the flesli
of their enemies, whom they massacred with the utmost cruelty.
At length, the Christian warriors set their faces towards the lioly
city. When it came in view, every heart glowed with rapuire —
every eye was suffused with tears. The joy of a moment oui-
w( ighed years of sorrow. In tlieir heated imaginations, the sepul-
chre was redeemed, and the cross triumphed over the crescent. But
tiio anticipation of success was much easier than the reality. Tlie
most strenuous exertions were necessary, and the enthusiasm and
valour of the Christians were carried to the greatest height. After
several alternations of partial victory and defeat, the walls of the
sacred city were carried, and all Jerusalem was in possession of the
champions of the cross. The blood of the Saracens attested the
ferocity of the victory, and the price at which theii- conquest was,
THE CRUSADES. 133
obtained. Ten thousand of the vanquished were butchered in the
mosque of Omar alone, to whicli they had fled as a sacred asylum.
In this place, the croises are said to have ridden in the blood of the
Saracens up to the knees of their horses. Ten thousand, or accord-
ing to some, a much larger number, Averc massicred in the streets.
The Christians committed these dreadful deeds from priociple rather
than from passion. It was a horrid principle indeed ; but intoler-
ance was unhappily the spirit of the age.
5. With considerable foresight, the conquerors of Jerusalem
established a Christian kingdom in the heart of Palestine.
An e.vtension of territory was indispensable to the security of
the city from the Mussulman hordes that surrounded it. At
the head of this kingdom, Godfrey, the most Avorthy of the
lieroes of Christendom, was placed by the suffrages of the
Christians. He reigned however but one year, during which
time he defeated the sultan with an immense army at Asca-
lon. At the expiration of the year, he was compelled to give
up his kingdom to the pope's legate. Several kings reigned
after him, but their history need not be told.
An impolitic act of the crusaders, by which their power was
weakened, was, at length, the division of Syria and Palestine
into four separate states. Having accomplished their object,
they began to return to Europe ; but in proportion as they
withdrew, the Turks recovered their strength. The crusa-
ders, who remained in Asia, found themselves so surrounded
by foes, that they were at last obliged to solicit aid from Chris-
tendom.
§ The fruits of this first crusade ill repaid its immense loss and ex-
pense, and were comprised within the small territory of Jerusalem,
the dominion of which was bounded by the term of eighty years.
The holy war, nevertheless, continued to be recommended by
the pope and the clergy with unabated earnestness. It was still re-
presented to be the cause of the Son of God, an engagement i:i which
was the most meritorious of all acts, and insured salvation, whether
m the success or defeat.
6. The aid which was needed in the East was soon afford-
ed. Europe sent forth a second crusade in 1147. St. Ber-
nard, who was the great oracle of the age, had the iniluence
10 excite Louis VH. of France, and Conrad UI. of Germany,
to undertake the defence of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Three-
hundred thousand of their subjects assumed the cross. The
issue of this enterprise was disastrous in the extreme.
Manuel, the emperor of the Greeks, gave intelligence of their
plans to the Turkish sultan, and provided them with treache-
12
134 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
rolls guides. The army of Conrad, which took the lead, fell
first into the snare. Those who did not perish by hunger in
the deserts, fell into the jaws of the Musselmans. Only a
tenth part secured their retreat to the army of Louis. Louis,
also duped by the Grecian emperor, advanced through the
same country to a similar fate. In the defile of a mountain near
Laodicea, his army was totally defeated.
At Jerusalem, these unfortunate monarchs met to lament
tneir sad reverses of fortune. The feeble remains of the mighty
armies which they had led, were joined to the Christian pow
ers of Syria, and a fruitless siege of Damascus was the final
effort of the second crusade.
§ A few particulars may be given respecting the preacher of the se-
cond crusade. St. Bernard, by the superiority of his talents, and also
of his consideration in the eyes of Europe, was far more capable than
Peter the Hermit, of exciting enthusiastic emotions. His ardent and
religious mind soon disdained the follies of youth ; and casting off the
desire of celebrity as a writer of poetry and songs, he wandered in the
regions of spiritual reverie, or trod the rough and thorny paths of
polemical theology.
At the age of 23, he embraced the monastic life, and soon after-
wards founded the monastery of Clairvaux, in Champaigne. His
miraculous eloquence separated sons from their fathers, and husbands
from their wives. His earnestness and self-denial in religion, gained
him the reverence of his contemporaries, and in disputes he was
appealed to as an incorruptible judge. Such was his austerity,
that happening once to fix his eyes on a female face, he immediatel}'
reflected that this was a temptation, and running to a pond he leap-
ed up to liis neck into the water, which was of an icy coldness, to
punish iiimself and vanquish the enemy.
Such a man was the fit tool of the pope, Eugenius HI., who order-
ed him to travel through France and Germany, and to preach a
plenary indulgence to those who would, under the banners of their
kings, bend their wa}'' towards the holy land. As Peter had repre-
sented the scandal of suffering the sacred places to remain in the
hands of the infidels, the eloquent Bernard tliundered from the pul-
pit the disgrace of allowing a land, which had been recovered from
pollution, to sink into it again. This voice raised armies and depo-
pulated cities. According to his own ex]:)ression, " the towns were
deserted, or, the only people that were in them were widows and
orphans, whose husbands and fathers were yet living."
7. Th(i state of the holy land between the second and
third crusades deserves a passing notice. A feeble sway was
held by most of the chiefs of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The
death of Baldwin IIL, however, was lamented as a public
calamity. His successors were Almeric, Baldwin IV., and
THE CRUSADES. 135
Guy de Lusij^nan. The miseries of war were often expe-
rienced from their Musselman enemies. It was during this
period, that the celebrated Saladin, nephew of tlie Sultan of
Egypt, attained the height of his glory, and became lord of that
country. He formed the design of recovering Palestine from
tlie Christians.
8. The occasion of the third crusade was, the success of Sa-
ladin against the Latins in Jerusalem. He had previously
subdued Tiberias, and received the submission of Acre, Jaffa,
and some other places. Jerusalem offered an obstinate resist-
ance, but in vain. The city was taken after a siege of a few
days, and Guy de Lusignan was made prisoner, 1187 A. C,
The conqueror treated the inhabitants with singular clemency.
The infidels were iiow once more estabhshed in the city of the
piophets.
§ The conquered Latins, on being obliged to leave Jerusalem, con-
sumed four days in weeping over and embracing the holy sepiilchre.
The women entreated the conqueror to release to them their fathers,
husbands, and brothers. With courteous clemency Saladin released
all the prisoners whom they requested, and loaded them with pre-
sents.
9. The concjuests effected by the infidels, filled Europe with
grief, and almost with despair. The losses occasioned by the
former crusades, had rather dismayed the pul)lic mind. Small
masses of men continued indeed to move towards the East,
but it required a degree of management and much exhorta-
tion to wake up a general interest in fovour of a third crusade.
Pope Clement HI. at length prevailed on three sovereigns to
engage in the holy enterprise. These were Philip Augustus,
of France, Richard I., surnamed the Lion-hearted, and Fre-
derick Barbarossa, of Germany.
Tlie forces of Philip and Richard are computed at one hun-
dred thousand sokhers ; it does not appear how many follow-
ed the standard of Frederick. The latter, in passing through
the Greek empire, was prudent and humane, although the
haughtiness and duplicity of the emperor Isaac Angelus, sub-
jected him to much inconvenience. The Germans defeated
the Turks in a general engagement, and took Iconium. But
unfortunately, their sovereign lost his life in consequence of
bathing in the river Calycadnus. After the death of Barba-
rossa. his army dwindled to a small number.
136 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
The English and French, for a short time, proceeded har
moniously in the career of victory. They took Acre, a place
of great strength. Soon, however, the bitter feelings of mi-
litary envy and national hatred began to be excited, the con-
sequence of which was, that the French monarch returned
home, leaving a portion of his army under the command of
Richard. Left alone to sustain the contest, Plantagenet dis-
played all the heroism of chivalry. He found himself at the
head of nearly thirty thousand French, German, and English
soldiers. With this force he defeated the illustrious Saladin,
near the plains of Ascalon. Political disturbances in England,
made Richard solicitous to return thither, especially, as his
ranks were now thinned by disease and famine. With this
object in view, he concluded a favourable treaty with his ene-
my, and attempted to return to his dominions. In passing
through Germany, however, unaccompanied by his troops, he
was seized by the order of the duke of Austria, and made
prisoner. It was not until after a long captivity, and the pay-
ment of an immense ransom, that he w;i- restored to his na-
tive land. Not long after the departure of Richard, Saladin
paid the debt of nature.
§ In the treaty which was formed between Richard and Saladin,
the Christian monarch, and the sultan of Egypt, interchanged ex-
pressions of esteem. The grasping of each other's hands, was the
only and sufficient pledge of fidelity. A truce was agreed upon for
three years and eight months ; the fort of Ascalon was lo be destroy-
ed ; but Jaffa and Tyre, with the country between them, wei-e to be
surrendered to the Christians.
In leaving Palestine, Richard, with his queen, eriibarked in a ship;
but the violence of a tempest dispersed his fleet, and so shat-
tered the vessel he was in, that it became impossible for him to
reach England in that way. He then made for Germany ; but his
person was endangered as he travelled the country, since the fact of
his being there became known to some of his enemies. After va-
rious escapes, he arrived at a town near Vienna. Two individuals
only were with him, one of whom was a boy, who understood the
German language.
The party were too harassed to proceed. The German boy was
sent to the market-place to purchase provisions. Through the libe-
rality of his master, he was so neatly and elegantly dressed, that the
people could not but notice him. The consequence was that he was
questioned, and giving unsatisfactory answers, he was seized and
scourged. Being at length tiireatened willi the filting out of hisi
tongue, if he did not tell tlie truth, he wasobligrJ leluctantly to dis-
close the secret of the real quality of his master.
THE CRUSADES. 137
Richard was immediately secured, and thoiigli at first treated
with respect, was soon confined in prison. Being sold at length to
Jie emperor, Henry VI. removed him to a castle in the Tyrol. But
the strongest walls are not suflicieutly secure for the fears of a ty-
rant. Armed men were sent into his chamber, and commanded to
watch him with the utmost strictness.
Here, sometimes, the royal captive calmed his angry soul, by sing-
ing the warlike deeds of the heroes of romance. At other times, he
diverted melancholy by the composition of poems. Occasionally,
ho forgot his misfortunes, and the apparent negligence of his friends.
His native hilarity conquered the bitterness of his spirit; he laugh-
ed at the frequent intoxication of his gaolers, he sported the keen-
ness of his wit, and in the boisterousncss of his merriment, displayed
his personal strength and agility.
At tlie request of his mother, the queen Eleanora, the Pope inter-
fered for Ids release ; and, after a trial on some pretended crime, it
was concluded to ransom the English monarch, as though he had
been a prisoner of war, the English people paying about 150,000
marks of silver to the German emperor.
10. By the energy of Richard, Palestine was saved from
becoming a Mussuhnan colony ; and so much of the sea coast
was in tlie hands of the Cinistians, and so enfeebled was the
enemy, tliat it was safe to comnicnce liostilities, whenever
Europe should again pour forth her religious and military fa-
natics. This event was not long delayed, notwithstanding
the infinite losses and sufferings, which had hitherto resulted
from the crusades.
A fourth crusade was fitted out in 1202, by Baldwin, count
of Flanders, who collected an army of the Flemish and
French, professedly to attack the Mahometans, though it
seems to have found another enemy. Like the other crusa-
ders, he made the eastern Christians first feel the effect of
European adventure and military enthusiasm. Indeed, his
ellbrts ended here ; for, arriving at Constantinople, at a time
when there was a dispute for the succession, his interference
afforded the occasion of plundering the city, and securing the
possession of the imperial throne of the East. The Venetians
lent their vessels for the enterprise, and participated in it.
§ Some historians reckon a crusade anterior to the war carried on
by Baldwin, denominating his the fifth. There were expeditions
from Germany in tlie intermediate time ; but it may be doubtful
whether they deserve the name of a distinct crusade. Indeed, there
were so many different expeditions, some public and others private,
that the designation of a certain number of separate crusades, seems
somewhat arbitrary. According to tliu common accounts, we have
12*
138 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
assigned the name of the fourth crusade, to the expedition of whi h
the count of Flanders was the leader.
The third crusade was created by the ordinary influence of pa^ al
power and royal authority ; but the fourth sprang from genuijie
fanaticism. Fulk, who was worthy of companionship with Ber-
nard, became a preacher distinguished by the vehemence with which
he declaimed against certain vices of the age. Witli his celebrity,
ncreased his desire to be generally useful to mankind. The natu-
ral consequence in that superstitious age, was, that he turned his
eye towards tlie east, and assumed the cross. The copious matter
of his sermons was the war with the infidels. Around the man
of God, all classes thronged, and thousands were eager to assume
the insignia of holy warriors. Nor was Pope Innocent III. inactive
in the cause, having required the various temporal and spiritual
chiefs of Christendom to take up arms for the defence of Palestine,
or at least to send him considerable succours of men and monej^
Application having been made to the Venetians for the loan of
their ships, and the Venetians themselves desiring to embark in the
enterprise, the croises at length set sail for Constantinople. That
proud city, once the sister and rival of Rome, was fallen so low,
that the aid of the western barbarians was invoked by a claimant to
the throne of the CcEsars. In his behalf, war against the Greek em-
pire was resolved on, and Constantinople was made the point of
attack. The particulars of the assault need not be given, but it is
a striking account drawn up b}' an old writer, tliat when tlie inva-
ders, at the distance of three leagues, beheld the city, " the magni-
tude mvl splendour of Constantinople awed the courage of the
bravest ; and not without reason, for never since the creation of the
world, had so bold an enterprise been undertaken by so small a
force." The Greeks made a display of numbers and strength, but
the nerves and soul of war were not in them. The partisans of the
usurper, Alexius, made only a feeble defence, and soon abandoned
the city to its fate. The city was captured, and the young Alexius
sat on the tlirone.
After one or two revolutions in the government, the allied army
of French and Venetians, who had been paid the tribute which they
required, and had been kept in the vicinity of Constantinople, deter-
mined to seize the city on their own account. This, after a severe
struggle, was effected ; and a severe struggle it ought to have been
on the part of the invaders, when only 20,000 men captured the
largest city in the world. Tlicre Avere 400,000 men capable of bear-
ing arms in Constantinople. The excesses of the barbarians were
enormous. To their eternal ijifamy, they destroyed most of the re-
mains of the noble monuments of genius, in the sculpture and sta-
tuary of the Pasan world. lu no conquered city, it is thought, was
there ever obtained so much booty. One historian remarks, that the
gold and silver, the silk, the gems, and precious stones, and alJ
those tilings which are accounted riches, were found in more abun-
dance than all the Latin world could furnish."
THE CRUSADES. 139
11. Baldwin, as the reward of his success against the capi-
tal of the East, was invested with tiie Roman purpit', 1204
But he was detiwoned and murdered, alter a reigu of a few
months. The Imperial dominions were shared among the
principal leaders ; the Venetians obtained the Isle of ( 'andi.i,
;is their portion. By the acquisition of Constantinople, the
injuries of the crusaders were avenged; and, for the present
they looiced for no other conquest. The dominion of the La-
tins, however, lasted but fifty-seven years. Few events on
the page of history have been equally curious and interesting,
with the estabUshment of this people in the city of Constan-
line.
12. In the former part of the thirteenth century, succeed-
ing the crusade against the Greek empire, several expeditions
were fitted out against the Musselmans. In these, the Ger-
mans, Hungarians, French, English, and Italians, ^vere prin-
cipally concerned. Their object seems to have been, not so
much Palestine, as Egypt. Success crowned their eflbrts at
first, and one of the expeditions, under the duke of Austria,
captured Damietta, an event which filled the Musselman em-
pire with alarm ; but the mortality of the country, and the
leturn of many of the European soldiers, with other causes,
finally rendered the acquisitions of the crusaders, in that coun-
try, of no avail, and the unbelievers still retained their power.
13. The fifth and last of these extraordinary expeditions
against the infidel world, was led by Louis IX. of France
There had been previously a few smaller adventures, espe-
cially by the English, who had the good fortune to redeem
t!ie holy sepulclne. But it was soon lost, and the fears of the
Cluistian world were in a degree aroused. It was, however,
obvious that the crusading spirit in Europe had at length be-
gun to languish, and it would at this crisis have entirely died
away, had not Louis felt the strong stirrings of fanaticism and
chivalry. He kejit it alive a few years, after which, this folly
of a dark and barbarous age was heard of no more.
The warlike heroism and religious devotion of the French
monarch, commanded the reverence of mankind. Indeed, in
many respects, he was an amiable and estimable prince, though
deeply imbued with the unworthy superstition of the times.
His elTorts preserved to the Christians, for a time, the land of
Paleslii>e, which was in danger, not from the Saracens, but
140 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV.
from the Tartars. This fierce people were then pouring over
tlie face of Asia.
Louis spent three years in preparation, when he set out for
Palestine, with his queen, three brothers, and a powerful train
of French knights, 1248 A. C. He had greatly encouraged
the fainting hearts of the Christians in Palestine, by the men
and troops he had sent thither before his own departure. The
invasion of Egypt was his first object. Here, he lost one half
of his army by sickness, was defeated in battle, and fell a
prisoner into the hands of his enemy.
After ransoming himself and his followers, he proceeded to
the Holy Land, in which he continued a considerable time.
On bis return, to France, he devoted himself, wisely, to the
regular cares of government, during thirteen years, and would
j)robably have long continued useful and happy, had not the
mad spirit of crusading seized him again. In obedience to
its dictates, he embarked on a crusade against the Moors in
Africa. In this adventure, he and the greater part of his
army perished, in consequence of a pestilence. Louis has
been honoured with the title of saint.
§ History records, that on the subject of crusading, the mind ol
Louis was influenced by the following circumstance. Agreeably to
the temper of the times, he had vowed, whilst afflicted by a severe
illness, that in case of recovery he would travel to the holy land.
In the delirium of his fever he had beheld an engagement between
the Christians and the Saracens ; the infidels were victorious, and
ilie brave king of a valiant nation fancied himself called upon to
avenge the defeat.
The following incident indicated the king's zeal for a crusade.
One night, during the Cliristnias festival, Louis caused magnificent
crosses, fabricated by goldsmiths, to be sewn on the new dresses,
which, as usual upon such occasions, had been bestowed upon the
courtiers. The next day the cavaliers were surprised at the religious
ornaments that had been affixed to their cloaks ; piety and loyalty
combined to prevent them from renouncing the honours which had
been thrust upon them, and the good king obtained the title of the
liimter for pilgrims and fisher of men.
Louis could have adopted the lines of a French rhymer of the
tiiirteenth century.
" Lo, now the fruitful hour at hand !
To thee the precious boon is given,
For Paynims waste the holy fanil,
And spoil the heritage of heaven.
Shall we such faithless works hehold,
With craven courage slack and cold 1
How else, hut to the Giver's praise,
May we devote our wealth and tinys.
THE CRUSADES. 141
The French, on landing in Egypt, captured Damietta ; but the
rashness of the Count d'Artois was the means of checking
them in the career of victory. Sad reverses soon ensued, and
though Louis defended himself with the greatest bravery, he was
obliged to yield to the enemy. Being taken prisoner with his army,
he offered for his own ransom tlie city of Damietta, and for the de-
liverance of his soldiers 500,000 livres. One fifth part of the latter
was remitted through the generosity of the sultan.
In Louis' second expedition against the infidels, he was joined by
the English ; so that his force amounted to sixty thousand men.
His fleet being driven into Sardinia, a change was made in the de-
sign of the pilgrim hero, and an attack upon the Musselman Moors
of Africa was fixed upon. Pestilence, however, prevented t!ie me-
ditated blow, and the great stay of the crusades fell.
The English portion of the forces, which had not reached Africa,
when the death of Louis took place, made their way to Palestine,
under the conduct of Prince Edward. Feats of arms were per-
formed; but the Turks were fast overunning the lioly land, and
with the capture of Acre, by that adventurous people, was connected
tiie final loss of a country, on which the eyes of fanatical Europe
had been fastened for more than two hundred years.
14. Amono- the causes of the dechne and cessation of the
fanatical mihtary spirit of Europe, may be enumerated the
following, viz. the decrease of the moral influence of the popes,
and the increase of their tyranny, which the people were loth
to bear — the avarice of the popes and priests, in conveiting to
their Qwn purposes the funds which were raised to support tiie
holy wars — tjie consequent unwillingness of the people to be
taxed — the scandal which was cast on the crusades, when
many of the soldiers of the cross were diverted from their re-
ligious purj)ose, to promote the secular objects of the court of
Rome — and most of all, the increasing conviction on the part
of the people, that no lasting conquest of Palestine could be
made by the sovereigns of Europe. These causes were too
powerful even for the deep darkness and superstition of the
age, ambition, love of military achievement, and desire of
plunder.
15. Various opinions have been formed and maintained
respecting the tendency and effects of the crusades. By some,
they are thought to have benefitted Europe on the whole —
by others, they are supposed to have been positively disatlvan-
tageous. We incline to the latter opinion. They who look
upon the crusades in a favourable light in resjject to their con
sequences, nevertheless admit, that they were innncdiately
142 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI,
distressing and pernicious. It is in the final result that they
imagine the crusades to have been beneficial on the whole.
In the final result, it has been maintained that they improved
the poUtical condition, the manners and customs, the naviga-
tion and commerce, the literature, and the religion of Europe,
That there was a very gradua,l amelioiation of the wes-
tern nations in the above particulars, is admitted. But this
was a state of things, which it is natural to believe, time
might have produced, aided as it was by other causes. In
deed, from the nature of the convulsions which attended, or ra-
ther constituted the crusades, it is certain that they must have
tended to retmd the progress of society, learning, and religion,
so far as they produced any effect. That they were not pro-
ductive of any good, in any shape, it would be haz-ardous to
assert. But providence can overrule the greatest evil, so that
it shall be less evil than it would otherwise be ; and our point
is made out, if the evil flowing from the crusades overbalan-
ces the good, in quality or amount.
Let any one who doubts this, reflect that the crusades
were the oflspring of a dark and ignorant age — that they
were kindled by the false fires of fanaticism and superstition,
and moreover, were perverted, if so base a project could be
perverted, by ambition, love of military renown, and a savage;
desire of plunder. They agitated, convulsed, and distressed
Fiinope, and every family in Europe, for two centuries. They
drained that portion of the globe of men and money, to an in-
supportable degree. IMie bones of two milHons of Europeans
were entombed in Asia, or whitened her plains. The trea-
sures that were expended aie past computation. Under the
sacred name of religion, every crime and every folly was me-
ditated and committed. The path of the fanatical warriors
of the west was every where marked with blood. They were
loo stupid and too superstitious to regard with complacency
or with a desire of imitation, those superior modes of life and
specimens of genius which they met with in their excursions
Tiito the East. They even laid their sacrilegious hands on the
monuments of ancient art, which chance or bravery [wt into
their power, and in the rej)eated conflagrations of Constanti-
nople, they rejoiced to see, in many instances, the destruction
of those works, the remains of which the \Aorld has since
been proud to own.
FRANCE. 143
Tliey err, who count it glorious to subdue
By conquest far and wide, to over-run
Large countries, and in lield great battles wii;,
Great cities by assaults : what do these worthies,
But rob and spoil, burn, slaughter and enslave
Peaceable nations. • ♦ ♦ ♦
" A view of the heroic ages of Christianity," says an interesting
historian, "in regard to their grand and general results, is a useful
and important, though a melancholy employment. The Crusades
retarded the march of civilization, thickened the clouds of ignorance
and superstition, and encouraged intolerance, cruelty and fierceness.
Heligion lost its mildness and chafity ; and war its mitigating quali-
ties of honour and courtesy. Such were the bitter fruits of the Ho-
ly Wars. We can follow with sympathy, both the deluded fanatic,
and the noble adventurer in arms, in their wanderings and marches
through foreign regions, braving the most frightful dangers, patient
in toil, invincible in military spirit. So visionary was the object, so
apparently remote from sellish relations, that their fanaticism wears
a character of generous virtue. The picture, however, becomes
darkened, and nature recoils with horror from their cruelties, and
with shame from their habitual folly and senselessness."
FRANCE.
16. In 1108 the throne of France was ascended by Louis
VI., siirnained the faf. son of Philip I. He carried on a war
with Henr\' I. of England, Ijiit was not successful. The
English defeated his army at the battle of Brennevdlle, 1119
A. C He was an accomplished and energetic sovereign.
§ In Louis' flight after the battle, an Englishman seized his horse's
bridle, exclaiming, "the king is taken." "The king is never taken,"
said Louis, "not even in a game of chess," and then struck his ene-
my dead at his feet.
17. Louis VII., the young, succeeded his father in 1137.
The extent of his reign was 46 years. He quarrelled with
the Pope about the nomination of an archliLihop, and had
his kingdom put under an interdict. He was very unsuc-
cessfully engaged in tiie holy wais,^ and in consequence of
having divorced his queen, heiress of the great dutchy of
Guienne, who soon married Henry Plantagenet, (afterwards
Henry II. of England) he lost one fifth part of the French
monarchy, including the provinces before held by the En-
glish.
§ Louis was educated in an Abbej'', and the Abbeys at this period
produced several distinguisiied men, among whom were Suger, his
minister, a man of great political sagacity; St. Bernard, whose agen-
144 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
cy in the second criisade has already appeared ; and Abelard, whose
story remains to be told.
In conformity to the spirit of the age, and his own education, Louis
made several pilgrimages, and among others visited the tomb of Tho-
mas a Becket, at Canterbury. In one of these pilgrimages he died.
His tomb, in the abbey of Barbeau, was opened in 1556, by Charles
IX., and the body found in a high state of preservation. On the fin
gers were several gold rings, which, h8f\'ing been taken off, were
worn by Charles, together with a gold chain, v/hich was found in
the tomb.
18. The son of Louis, Philip IL, surnamed Augustus^
ascended the throne in 1180. His reign was a long one also,
being 43 years. Since the days of Charlemagne, France
had seen no sovereign so ambitious and enterprising in war,
as Philip. The most signal events of his reign, were his
expulsion of the Jews from France ; his engagement in the
third crusade, with Richard Coeur de Lion ; his invasion ol
Normandy during Richard's absence ; his victory over Otho
IV., emperor of Germany ; and the ofier of the crown of
England to him for his son Louis, by the English barons
§ His engagement in the third crusade has already appeared. On
the return of Richard to England, a disastrous war ensued between
him and Philip, the English king determining to punish him for
seizing Normandy. Richard, dying during the prosecution of this
war, was succeeded by his brother .Tohn, whose pretensions to tlie
crown of England were, however, disputed by his nephew, Arthur,
aided by Philip. Arthur having been made prisoner, and put to
death by his inliuman uncle, the latter was summoned by Philip, to
appear in his quality as duke of Normandy, before a tribunal of his
peers. On his refusal, Philip attacked and subdued several of the
French provinces that were then held by the English, and united
Normandy to the crown of France, 300 years after it had been detach-
ed from it by the incapacity of Charles the simple.
From the reign of Philip, may be dated the Inquisition,
which was fiiat established in France, whence it found its
way into Italy, Spain, and Portugal.
19. Louis VIII., surnamed the Lion, mounted the throne
of his father in 1223, and died in 1226. He was a man of
valour, and hence his surname. He took all the possessions
of the English on the continent, as far as the Garonne. His
character was that of a persecutor.
§ Louis prosecuted a barbarous crusade against certain sectaries in
Languedoc and Gasconv, who presumed to attack the dogmas oi
the Church of Rome. At the siege of Avignon, he was poi.soned
by the count of Cliampaign.
FRANCE. 145
20. Louis IX., styled Saint. Louis, became king at the age
of twelve years, in 1226, under the regency of his mother.
Louis possessed many excellent qualities — was pious, upright,
and benevolent. His single fault was fanaticism ; tliough in
every thing he did, the j)urity of his motive was conspicuous.
He conlerred a considerable benefit on liis country, notwith-
standing the errors into which his fanatical spirit led him.
With Henry HI. of England, he waged a successful war.
§ An account has been given of the two crusades in which he was
so unfortunately engaged, and in the last of which he perished.
Henry III. demanded the provinces which, it seems, Louis' father
had promised to restore. A tender was made of Poitou, and of the
best part of Normandy ; but this did not satisfy Henry, who resolv-
ed to try the issue of a battle, in wJiich he was defeated.
21. Phihp HI., surnamed the Bold, succeeded his father in
1270. His surname, it is thought, was not well deserved.
He was the dupe of the artifices of his courtiers, and had no
])redominnnt trait, except a passion for amassing wealth. He
brought back from Africa the miserable remains of his
father's army. He died on his return from an expedition
against Peter HL, of Arragon, who had usurped the kingdon\
of Sicily, and through whose instigation, eight thousand
Frenchmen were massacred in that island.
§ Charles of Anjou, uncle of Philip, had lately become king of
Sicily, and acted the tyrant towards its inhabitants. By a deed of
cruelty towards a brother of the wife of Peter, he made the latter
his enemy. Peter, in revenge, excited the Sicilians to revolt and
murder. All the French of the island were, by a previous concert,
butchered in cool blood, on tbe evening of EaSterda3^ Philip un-
dertook to avenge this massacre, but the general failure of the ex-
pedition, afflicted the French king so nuicli, that he fell into a de-
cay, of which he died.
22. Philip IV., the Fair, ascended the throne of his an-
cestors, in 12S5. He was remarkable for his personal beautj'^
and accomplishments. His disposition, however, was sin-
gularly contrasted with his features and form. He was am-
bitious, deceitful, perfidious and cruel. Refusing to obey the
summons of the Roman pontili', Boniface VIII., to march
against the Saracens, he was excommunicated, and his king-
dom laid under an interdict. A severe contest ensued, the
result of which was the humiliation of the Pope, and even-
tually his d(;ath. *
In 1314, Philip suppressed the order of the Knights Tenip-
13
J46 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VI,
lars, from a desire, it was thought, to obtain their immense
wealth.
^ The haughty Boniface, in a bull, had declared, that " the Vicar of
Christ is vested with full authority over the kings and kingdoms of
the earth." Philip, in return for the indignity put upon him, de-
nounced Boniface as an impostor, heretic, and simoniac, and declar-
ed the see of Rome vacant. He contrived also, by means of a trusty-
agent, to seize the person of the pope. The persons concerned in
the transaction, caused his holiness to ride on a horse without sad-
dle or bridle, with his face turned towards his tail. He was, how-
ever, rescued at length ; but the loss of his immense treasures,
while he was detained from his palace, threw him into a frenzy
that killed him.
ENGLAND.
23. Norman faraily, Planta genets. The throne of Eng-
land, on the death of Rufus, was secured by his yoimger
brother, Henry I., surnanied Beauclerc, or the Scholar, ] 100.
The rightful heir was Robert, an older brother ; but as he
was absent on a ciusade, Henry availed himself of so favouia-
ble an opportunity to fill the vacant throne.
T?obcrt, who was duke of Normandy, soon arrived in Eng-
land to claim his right ; but he was prevailed upon to forego
it, by the offer of a sum of money. Still, Henry was not
satisfied, but ere long invaded Normandy ; and at last defeat-
ed Robert, brought him prisoner to England, caused his
eyes to be burned out, and confined him for life, in a castle
in Wales.
The injustice with which he had treated Robert, seems to
have been visited upon him by the hand of Providence, in
the calamities of his after life; particularly in the death of his
only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy
to England.
Henry was one of the most accomplished of the Englisli
sovereigns — brave, affable, and learned ; but his conduct in
many instances, shewed that he was wanting in moderation.
j)urity, and gratitude.
§ Henry married a Saxon princess, Matilda great jirand-daughter
of Edmund Ironside, and thus tmited the Saxon and iS'orman olood.
This circumstance endeared him to the English, and procured tiieir
support.
The story of the death of Henry's son, whose name was William,
is briefly the following. The captain and seamen of the vessel in
ENGLAND. 147
which he set sail for Eiiglan-J, becoming intoxicated, carelessly struck
her upon a rock. She foundered immediately, but Wili-iam was
saved by being put into a long-boat. He had already got near of
the wreck, when hearing the cries of his natural sister, the countess
of Perche, he ordered tlie seamen to row back, in hopes of saving
her. But the numbers who then crowded in, soon sunk the boat ;
and tlie prince with all his retinue perished.
The effect of the news on Henry was melancholy indeed. He
fainted away, and during the remainder of his life, was never known
to smile.
24. Henry's cousin, Stephen, earl of Blois, was crowned
king of England, 1135. His popularity enabled him to usurp
the throne, when of right it belonged to the empress Matilda,
or Maud, and her son Henry.
§ Matilda first married Henry V., emperor of Germany — afterwards
Henry Plantugenet, earl of Anjou. By the latter she had several
children, of whom Henry was the oldest.
In behalf of Matilda, the earl of Gloucester, natural bro-
tlier of the empress, took up arms against Stephen, defeated
Jiim in the battle of Lincoln, and made him prisoner. But
■ihe fortune of war soon turned against Gloucester. He was
defeated in the battle of Winchester, and taken prisoner,
t)ut was exchanged for the king.
Four years after this event, young prince Henry, son of
Maud, invaded England ; but the great men on both sides,
fearing tiie consequences of a battle, compelled the rival
princes to a negociation. The succession was secured to
Henry, after the death of Stephen. This event taking place
the next year, Henry became king.
Stephen was well calculated to be an efficient sovereign ;
out he reigned under imfavourable circumstances, and his
elevation brought suflering on himself and his people. Dur-
ing his whole reign, England was rent with civil broils.
§ From the beginning, Stephen dreaded Robert, earl of Glouces-
ter, a man of honour and abilities, and zealously attached to Maud.
He took, indeed, the oath of fealty to Stephen ; but he took it with
the reserve, that tiie king should never invade any of his rights or
dignities. Tiiis was an example for others ; and many of the cler-
gy and nobility, as the price of submission, required the right of
fortifying their castles. England was soon filled witli fortresses,
Knd tlie power of the aristocracy rose to a formidable height.
25. Henry II. succeeded to the throne in 1154. He was
the first of the Pkintagenets who 1\iclded the sceptre, till
the time of llexirv IV. In him was mingled the blood
14S MODERN HISTORY.- -PERIOD VI.
of the Saxon kings of England, and of the Norman family
He was the most powerful monarch of Christendom. His do
minions were more extensive than those of any of his pre-
decessors, as, in addition to England, he owned by inheritance
and by marriage, nearly one half of France, and afterwards
claimed Ireland by conquest.
Happy in the affections of his people, he had the prospect
of a prosperous reign ; but though England owed her first
permanent improvements in arts, laws, government, and civil
Uberty, to his measures, he was personally subjected to many
calamities. A most serious misfortune, was his contention
with Thomas a Bccket, archbishop of Canterbury. This
arrogant ecclesiastic, a man of great talents and greater am-
bition, availed himself of the authority of his station, to ex-
alt the spiritual power above the crown ; and when the king
undertook the reformation of the clergy, and to limit their
prerogatives, he inet\\'ith the most determined opposition from
Becket. In the course of the contention, flie ecclesiastic was
killed. The horror excited in Henry's inind by this event,
aided by the agitation into which England was thrown, led
him to perform the most humiliating penance at the tomb of
the saint.
§ Becket was first promoted by the king, to the dignity of clian-
ceUor of England, to which station his talents and learning entitled
him. Henry afterwards appointed him to fill tlie high place of me-
tropolitan, falsely snpposing that from his gay and splendid turn, he
would not be attached to ecclesiastical privileges. But no sooner was
he in his new situation, than he affected personally the greatest aus-
terity, and recited continually, prayers and pious lectures, maintain-
ing his ancient pomp only in his retinue and attendants. In all tiiis,
his determination to exalt the spiritual power, was visible to sagacious
observers.
That power was already too great. The ecclesiastics of that age
had renounced all immediate subjection to the magistrate ; and as
many of them were of low character, they committed the most de-
testable crimes with impunity. They were charged even with the
foulest murders. Tlie attempts of the king to put this order of men
into a better state, resulted in what are called the (Constitutions of
Clarendon. These were the decisions of a general council of the
nobility and prelates at Clarendon, in which, the limits between the
civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, are distinctly marl^ed, and wliich,
by the king's influence, were framed so as to favour his prerogatives.
The clergy, generally, ptofessed to submit to thrsi; decisions, but
Tieckei stood aloof: and though at Icnsth he took oiifli to observe
Uiem, it was by no means in good faith. He repented of his tempo-
ENGLAND. 149
'ar^' subjection, and endeavoured to influeijce the other bishops to
loliow his steps. Henry, however, made him feel the royal power,
by \hc confiscation of liis property on some pretence. This act,
Becket resented, by excommunicating the Icing's chief ministers, and
abrogating the constitutions of Clarendon. On some further instance
uf his arrogance, the king was so veliemerUly agitated, that he ex-
claimed, almost in reproaches, agijiinst his servants, whose " want of
zeal." lie said, "left him exposed to the machinations of that un-
grateful and imperious prelate." Four knights of his household,
taking tliese passionate expressions to be a hint for the primate'
death, instantly agreed among themselves, to avenge their prince's
quarrel ; and pursuing Becket, found him, slenderly attended, in the
qathedral of St. Benedict, arid there, before the altar, clove his head
with many blows.
Nothing could exceed the consternation of the king upon this
event, and with a view to avert the resentment of the pope, he sub-
mitted to the most humiliating treatment, even to the scourging of
his naked body, by the monks.
Endless were the panegyrics on the virtues of Becket ; and the
miracles wrought by his relics, were more numerous, more ridicu-
lous, and more impudently attested, than those which ever filled the
legend of any confessor or martyr. He was canonized ; a jubilee
W£is established for celebrating his merits ; and innumerable pilgrim-
ages were made to his tomb. In one year, 100,000 pilgrims are said
to have resorted thither.
An important event in the reign of Henry, was the con-
quest of Ireland. He seized the oppoitunity of making war
on the island, when one of its petty chiefs, expelled by his
sovereign, sought his protection. Henry's arms were success-
ful, and the island was formally annexed to the English crown,
in 1172. From that time, however, for some centuries, there
was little intercourse between the kingdoms ; nor was the
island ever considered as fully subdued, till the reign of Eli-
zabeth, and of her successor, James I.
§ The Irish were an early civilized people, and among tlie first of
the nations of the West, who emltraced the Christian religion. But
by the frequent invasions of the Danes, and their own domestic com-
motions, they were replunged into barbarism, for many ages. In the
twelfth century, the kingdom was divided into five separate sove-
reignties, but these were subdivided among a vast number of petty
chiefs.
Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sheriffs in each,
and introduced the laws of England into a part of it ; the rest of
the kingdom being regulated by their ancient laws, till the reign of
Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English laws were
extended to the whole kingdom.
Henry, much as he accomflished for the welfare of his
13*
150 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
realm, was seldom exempt from calamity for a long time to
gether. His last years were particularly unhappy. Tlit,
fault, however, was in. a great measure his own. His illicit
passion for Rosamond, whose extraordinary beauty made
her the theme of many a ballad and romance, excited the
resentment of his queen Eleanora, through whoee means,
three of his sons rebelled against him. Europe beheld with
astonishment these sons, scarcely beyond the age of boy-
hood, engaged in a series of efforts to wrest the sceptre from
so potent a prince as Henry. They were, however, aided
by the king of France. The contest began in Henry's French
territories. He soon crushed his enemies there ; then return-
ing to England, and obtaining a victory over the Scots, who
had embraced the cause of the young princes, he immediate-
ly restored tranquillity to the country. He was not suffered
long to rest ; his unnatural sons, though leniently treated, re-
volted again, joined by John, his fourth and favourite son,
Henry, distracted with care, and overcome with the ingrati-
tude of his children, died of a Ijroken heart, in the fifty-
eighth year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his reign.
§ Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, died suddenly while en-
gaged in tlieir rebellion. The force of parental affection, is remark-
ably exemplified in Henry's death, and, to the honour of the king,
deserves notice. When the son was seized with a fever, he was
conscious of his approaching dissolution, and sent a message to his
father, with a humble confession of his faults, and entreated the
favour of a visit. The king was not very distant, but apprehensive
that his sickness was feigned, durst not trust himself in his hands.
But when he received intelligence of his death, he was overcome
with grief; he fainted away, accused his own hard-heartedncss, and
lamented th;it he had deprived his son of the opportunity of pour-
ing out his soul in the bosom of an affectionate and reconciled father.
His son Richard associated iiis youngest brother, John, in the last
insurrection. Wiien the unhappy father heard this, already sinking
in cares and sorrows, he broke out into expressions of the utmost
despair ; cursed the day of iiis birth, and loaded his ungrateful chil-
dren with maledictions which, he never v/(ni Id recall.
Henry 1 L, was one of the ablest of the English kings. His
reign was also highly beneficial to his subjects. He was en-
dowed with a natvrml sensibility, which his long experience
of the ingratitude of man never impaired. But his licentious-
ness was too apparent, and his enmities too (kuable. His
person was of a middle statvn-e, strong and well proportioned,
his covuitenance engaging, and his elocution easy.
ENGLAND; 15]
26. Richard I., the Lion-hearted, succeeded his father in
1189. He possessed a most heroic nature, and rivalled the
heroes of Greece, in warUke enterprises. His disposition was
open and generous, but at the same time, ambitious, haughty,
and cruel. He spent most of liis reign in the niad project of
the crusades, which have already been described, and particu-
larly the part which was acted by this chivalric king. After
an absence of nine year^, he reached England, but died within
a few months, having first pardoned his traitorous brother
John, and attempted to avenge the wrongs he had received
from Philip of France. His foreign and distant wars exhaust-
ed the resources of his country.
27. .John, smnamed Lackland, succeeded his brother upon
the decease of the latter. His reign commenced in 1199, and
continued to 1210 A. C. It was nmrked with the most dis-
gusting tyianny and crime.
§ He received hi,s siirname from the loss of his territories in France,
of whicli he was stripped by the French king. The latter supported
the pretensions of Arthur, Joluii's nephew, whom John finally mur-
dered.
Early in his reign, he made the pope his enemy, by ap-
propriating to his own purposes, some of the treasures of the
church, and he met with the full extent of the papal ven-
geance. At first obstinate, he was finally intimidated into
submission. His kingdom was put under an interdict, him-
self excommunicated, and after several personal concessions,
he engaged to hold Jiis kingdom tributary to the Holy See.
By this conduct he incurred the deep hatred and contempt
of his people.
§ So greatly did the court of Rome triumph over him, that ,To!ui did
homage to Pandulf, tlie pope's legate, in the most abject manner,
and paid part of the tribute which he owed for his l<.ingdoni, while
the legate, in the haughtiness of sacerdotal power, trampled on the
money, as an earnest of the subjection of the kingdom.
The subjects of John, treated with such indignity, and even
sold, felt it neoesstay to vindicate their rights. The barons,
nnder the command of Langton, the primate, assembled. Mid
Itinding themselves by an oath, to a concert of measures, de-
manded from the king a ratiikation of a charter of privileges,
granted by Henry 1. The king was highly exasperated and
refused the demand, till resort was had to the sword. Desert-
ed by liis people, he was obliged most reluctantly to yield a
152 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
compliance. At Runnyrnede, wliere he met liis barons, he
signed, on the 19th of June, 1215, that famous deed called
Magna Charta, (the Great Charter.) which has had so pro-
pitious an effect on the liberty of Englishmen. It secured
important rights to all classes of Lis subjects, though some ot
its stipulations, from the change of manners and institutions,
appear at this day trivial or ridiculous.
§ The charter consisted of fourteen specifications, of which, two or
three, the most huporlant, were— that no aids or subsidies should be
allowed to be levied from the subjects, unless in a few special cases,
without the consent of the great council — that no person shall be
tried on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful witnesses—
and that no person shall be tried or punished, but by the judgment ol
his peers and the law of the land.
John granted at the same time, the Charter of the Forest, which
abolished the royal privilege of killing game over all the kingdom,
and restored to the lawful proprietors their woods, which they
were allowed to enclose for their own private purposes.
The king, forced into these measures against his will, medi-
tated a dreadful revenge against his barons, by the aid of fo-
reign mercenaries, and began to lay his own realm waste
with fire and sword. But, at a critical time, when Louis, the
eldest son of Philip of France, had arrived in England, to
assist the barons, with the expectation of receiving the crown
liimself, John suddenly died. Louis was obliged to return to
Prance, and the succession was settled on Henry, the son of
John, a boy of nine years of age.
§ In the person of John, the English were scourged with a tyrant,
more odious and capricious than any other of their sovereigns, be-
fore or since. To tyranny, he a<ldcd cowardice, levity, licentious-
ness, ingratitude, and treachery. His vices were, however, made,
providentially, the occasion of great blessings to his subjects, in the
enjoyment of a portion of liberty, which they wrested from his
weakness.
28. Henry TIL began his reign in 1216, the earl of Pem-
broke being appointed protector during the king's minority
His disposition, which was easy and fickle, led him and his
subjects into mimerous diflicuities and disasters. The weak-
ness of liis understanding scarcely preserved him frrtni con-
tempt, and joining profusion with oppressive exactions, and
lavishing his favours on foreigners, he displeased both the no-
bility and the populace. His reign was as unhappy as it was
protracted, being marked with many bloody contentions.
ENGLAND. 153
§ Henry, though in general a mild and merciful prince, j t- 1 violated
the great charter in confiscating the estates of some of the obnoxious
nobles, without a trial by their peers. When remonstrated with on
the subject, he replied, " Why should I observe this charter, which
is neglected by all my grandees, both prelates and nobility ?" to
which it was justly returned, " You ought, sir, to set them the ex-
ample."
Henry's imprudent measures encouraged Simon de Llont-
fort, earl of Leicester, to attempt to wrest the sceptre from
the feeble hand which held it. He succeeded in part ; and
as tlie consequence of a battle, he took both the king and his
son Edward, prisoners. But through the interference of tlie
parUament, which Leicester sunnnoned, he deemed it prudent
to release the prince, who was no sooner set at liberty, than he
took the field against the usurper, and gained over him the
famous battle of Evesham. In this battle Leicester was kill-
ed, and the gallant Edward enjoyed the happiness of repla-
cing his father on the throne.
§ Leicester had assumed the character of regent, after having com-
pelled the king to resign the regal power. In the parliament which
was called, he summoned two knights from each shire, and deputies
from the principal boroughs. From this era, is dated the commence-
ment of the House of Commons. Deputies representing the boroughs,
had not before constituted a portion of the national council.
In the battle which took place between Prince Edward and Lei-
cester, the rebels, who still retained the old king, had purposely pla-
ced him in the front of the battle. Being clad in armour, and there-
by not known by his friends, he received a wound, and was in dan-
ger of his life ; but crying out " I am Henry of Winchester, your
king," he was rescued from impending death.
Edward, afterwards, sought and revived the glory of the
English name, in the land of Palestine ; but the kingdom
suffered most severely in the mean time, under the imbecile
reign of the aged monarch ; the barons oppressing the com-
mon people, and the populace of London returning to their
accustomed licentiousness. The death of Henry, after a
reign of more than 55 years, left the kingdom in more vigor-
ous hands.
29. Edward L, (Longshanks) was crowned in 1272. His
first object was to correct the disorders which the civil com-
motions had introduced. In this work, he let loose the whole
rigour of his justice on the Jews, who had been accused of
adulterating the public coin. Multitudes of them lost their
Uvesj or their property and homes.
l54 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
Edward's next project was the conquest of Wales. He in-
vaded tlie country with a force too great to be resisted ; and
after killing Llewellyn, the Welsh prince, and the flower of
his warriors, he received the submission of the Welsh nobih-
ty, 1283. From this period Wales has been united to Eng-
land, and the English laws established throughout the princi-
pality.
§ It is said that Edward, in order to conciliate the Welsh, gave
them for a prince, his own son, who was born in their country. The
title of Prince of Wales, has ever since descended to the eldest son?
of the English kings.
The Welsh, inhabiting the western part of the island of Great
Britain, were the descendants of tliat portion of the ancient Tiritons,
who had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, and preserved
their liberty, laws, manners, and language. The occasion of Ed-
ward's attack upon this people, was their prince's refusal to perfc-ni
the customary homage to the English crown.
The next project of Edward, was the conquest of Scotland.
Great success attended his arms at diiferent times, but he was
never able to eflect a total and final conquest of that part of
the island. As the history of England and Scotland is so in-
timately connected, a brief account of the latter, to the time
at which we are now arrived, will be in place below, and
Avill supersede the necessity of a separate narrative.
§ The northern part of the island was anciently called Caledonia,
from a word which is said to have signified a forest, or mountainous
country. Subsequently, and at an early period, it received the name
of Scotia, or Scotland ; and then it derived it from the Scots, who
originally lived in the north of Ireland. The name Scot, is probably
the same as Scuth, or Scythian — the people being emigrants from
the Baltic countries.
The history of Scotland, before the reign of Malcom III., is otj-
scure, and in a degree uncertain. This prince, by the defeat of Mac-
beth, the murderer of his father Duncan, succeeded to the throne in
1057. A war which took place between him and William the Con-
queror, was equally disastrons to both kingdoms. He prolonged the
contest with Rufus, the son of William, with credit to his bravery ;
while to the virtues of his queen, Margaret, his kingdom, in its do-
mestic policy, owed a degree of civilization scarcely known in those
untutored ages.
Under his successors, Alexander I., a spirited prince, and David
I., a most excellent sovereign, Scotland successfully defended itself
against the English, and, under the latter king, onquered the whole
earldom of Northumberland ; Init the defeat of William I., (the Li-
V)n) WLus disastrous to the kingdom, since he vas taken prisoner by
Henry II.. and, as the price of his release, was compelled to do ho-
ENGLAND. 155
mage for his whole kingdom. This obligation, however, Richard I.
generously discharged.
Alexander III., dying without male issue, in 1285, Bruce and Bali-
ol, descendants of David I., by the female line, were competitor? for
the crown. Edward was chosen umpire of the contest, and on thi.s
ground, arrogated to himself the feudal sovereigntj' of the kingdom.
He took possession of the country, and adjudged the crown to Bali-
ol, on tlie condition of his doing homage to him, as liege lord. Ba-
liol, however, soon renounced his allegiance, but was compelled at
lengtli by the English monarch, to abdicate the throne; the latter
liaving defeated him with great slaughter, in the battle of Dunbar.
The war commenced by Edward against the Scots, did
not terminate during his life time. It continued 70 years,
and involved both countries in all the miseries of bloodshed.
Ed»%'ard twice defeated the '-cots and took possession of their
country, and twice they le-asserted their liberties ; once under
the heroic but unfortimate William Wallace, and once under
the gallant and more fortunate Robert Bruce, the Scottish
king. As Edward was preparing to invade Scotland the
third time, with an immense army, he suddenly sickened and
died, at Carlisle, in the 35t'^ year of his reign, and the 69th
of his age. He was removed for interment to Westminster
A.bl)ey.*
§ The conduct of Wallace was a remarkable instance of heroism.
A few patriots, only, joined him at first, but his successes finally
brought large numbers to his standard. While Edward was absent,
and engaged in war on the continent, Wallace attacked his troops in
a desjjerate engagement at Stirling, and obtained a complete victory.
Tiie disaffection of the Scotcli nobles, wlio envied Wallace his dis-
tinction as governor of the country, under Baliol, again exposed them
to the attack of the English. Edward, in person, defeated them
with an immense loss, in tlie battle of Falkirk. After a fruitless re-
sistance, the Scots submitied to Edward; and the heroic Wallace,
eventually betrayed, and carried in cluiins to London, was condemn-
ed as a rebel, and infamously executed on Tower-hill, to the lasting
dishonoiir of the English king.
Hohert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who was tiie competitor of
Baliol, redeemed the honour of his country. Resenting its liumili-
ation, he set up the standard of war. The genius of the nation then
roused itself Bruce was .solemnly crowned at Scone, 1306, and fu-
riously attacking the English, who were dispersed in tlieir quarters,
he again expelled them tlie kingdom. It was immediately after,
that Edward died, on his way to Scotland.
* The tomb of this king was opened in 1774, when iaa body was found un*
cousuiucd.
156 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
Edward was an able prince, and excelled both as a warrior
and statesman. The wisdom of his pohtical measures is es-
jiecially conspicuous. In moral qualities, however, he was
tar from being an example fit for imitation. Ambition, a
spirit of revenge, and an unfeeling heart, too plainly charac-
terized him.
Under his reign, the Constitution of England gradually
advanced. He passed a statute which declared that no tax
or impost should be levied without the consent of lords and
commons. He ratified magna-charta on several occasions ;
and henceforward this fundamental law began to be regard-
ed as sacred and inviolable, while parliaments have been held
in regular succession.
GERMANY.
30. Germany, during this period, enjoyed but little tran
quiliity. The contest between the Empire and the Papal
See, continued under a succession of emperors and popes^
but ended commonly in favour of the latter. The treat-
ment which some of the emperors received from the popes,
was extremely humiliating. Frederick I., (Barbarossa) a
prince of high spirit, after indignantly denying the suprema-
cy of Alexander HI., and lefusing the customary homage,
was finally compelled to kiss the feet of his Holiness, and ap-
pease him by a large cession of territory. Henry VI., while
doing homage on his knees, had his imperial crown kicked
oM' by pope Celestinus, who, however, made some amends
for this indignity, by the gift of Naples and Sicily. Henry
had expelled the Normans from these places, and they now
became appendages of the empire, 1194.
The claims of the popes upon the empire, rose to such a
height, that in the begining of the thirteenth century, In-
nocent HI., established the powers of the popedom on a settled
l)asis, and obtained a positive acknowledgment of tbe papal
supremacy, or the right irreversibly to confer the crown of
the empire.
Tt was a consequence of the contentions between the im-
perial and papal powers, to divide the states of Italy, several
of which belonged to the empire, into two violent factions,
by which Italy was so long devastated. These were known
EASTERN EMPIRE. 157
iby the name of the Guelphs,* and GhibeUines, the former
«ia\niaining the cause of the popes, the latter that of the
emperors. Frederic II., carried on an opposition to four suc-
cessive popes ; but though he was excommunicated and de-
posed, lie kept possession of his throne, and exercised liis
authority witii a commendable firmness. On his death, 1250,
the empire began to wane, and confusion and anarchy pre-
vailed till the election of Rodolph of Hapsburgh, in 1273.
§ During the latter part of the period above referred to, there was
a nominal sovereign, viz.. Alphonso X., king of Castile, who was
elected emperor, but who, detained at home, neglected the affairs of
Germany.
No laws were then observed ; no order was maintained ; but
murder, theft, and rapine, were committed with impunitj-, and the
constitutions of the empire were totally neglected. Sanguinary
wars resulted from the feuds of private noblemen ; bishops and
clergymen, forgetful of their sacred character, embrucd their hands
in blood, for the augmentation of their benefices; commerce was
almost annihilated ; and travelling could not be performed with any
safety.
In the history of Germany, during the present period, few other
occurrences are worthy of notice. The following anecdote may be
worth recording. One of the favourites of Ilenry VI., observed to
him that he fatigued himself too much with giving audience, which
frequently interfered with his regular meals. Henry replied, " that
although a private man was at liberty to eat when he pleased, a
prince ought not to sit down to table, till he had discussed the affairs
of his people."
The reign of Lotliarhis was rendered remarkable, by some ex-
cessive heats in Germany, which withered the corn and fruits of
the earth, dried up the most considerable rivers, and occasioned a
dreadful mortality among the cattle.
EASTERN EMPIRE.
31. The affairs of the Eastern Empire were, in part, nar-
rated in the history of the crusades. Little, therefore, needs
be added to this record, in respect (o the present period. The
outward splendour of the empire was yet considerable, but the
l)rogre33 of decay was obvious. The Greeks manifested
their cunning, and sometimes their treachery, in their treat-
ment of the crusaders. The emperors, though on many ac-
* The family now on the thronn of Great Britain bear the surname pf
Gyeiph, and arc descenJed from the Guelphs here spoken of.
u
158 MODERN HIST02.Y. — ^PERIOD v'l.
counts they wished success to the crusaders, yet dreaded their
power, and between these two passions, the soldiers of the
cross became the dupes and the victims of their pohcy. The
weakness of the empire was seen, when Constantinople, its
capital, was taken by a handful of French and Venetian
crusaders, and held in subjection nearly sixty years.
Within tlie limits of the present period, about nine ernpe-
I'ors sat on the throne of the East, besides the five French or
Latin emperors who reigned at Constantinople. During the
reign of the latter, four Greek emperors reigned at Nice, over
the remainder of the empire.
It was under Michael PaUeologtss, 1261, that Constantino-
ple was recovered by the Greeks from its Latin conquerors.
When the former and ancient sovereigns of the city deter-
mined to retake the seat of the empire, Pala;ologus was found
possessed of the requisite ambition. Favoured by circumstan-
ces, and skilful in the application of means, he accomplished
the object ; and the second seat of the venerable Roman do-
minion was destined yet longer, to be held by the successors
of the great Constantine.
§ The designs of Palaeologiis were promoted by the Genoese, the
rivals of tlie Venetians. The Latins had been gradually driven
from their last possessions in Thrace ; and at a lime when the bra-
vest of the Frencli and Venetians were absent from the city, a
general of Paloeologus advanced in the night to its gates. He suc-
ceeded in entering it, partly by a subterranean passage into the
centre of the city. Baldwin, the Latin emperor, in dismay, escap-
ing to the sea-siiore, was conveyed to Italy, and spent the remainder
of his life in vainly attempting to rouse the Catholic powers to
join in his restoration.
No names besides Paloeologus are much distinguished, except
tliose of Alexis Comnenus, and his son Jolm Alexis. The one was
an able and politic sovereign, as his management of tlie crusaders
abundantly evinced. The other, with talent, united moral worth,
and seemed liy his virtues to revive the age of Marcus Antoninus.
The lamentable end of a cruel usurper named Andronicus, is worth
recording, as it shews how much the Avicked, in death, sometimes
feel that they need the divine mercy. The butcheries of Androni-
cus had wearied the patience of the citizens of Constantinople.
They rose en-masse against him, headed by Isaac Angelus. In their
rage the populace tore from him successively his teeth, his hair, an
eye, and a hand ; and being suspended for three days, every person
who could reach the public enemy, inflicted on him some mark of
ingenious or brutal cruelty, till at length two Italians, out of mercy
or rage, plunping their swords into his body, released him from al
SARACEKS. 159
human punishment. During this long and excruciating torture,
" Lord have mercy on me," and " Why wilt thou break a bruised
reed !" were the only words that escaped his mouth. Our pity for
Uie man, seems almost to absorb our hatred of the tyrant.
SARACENS.
32. The empire of the Saracens, before the conchision of
this period, was destined to be no more. Their history is
partly invoh'ed in the details of the crusades. The ener-
gies of fanatic Europe, were exerted against the follo\vers of
the prophet, with some intervals, nearly two centuries, and
terrible was the destruction of life on both sides. The king-
dom of Jerusalem, under christian sovereigns, which origi-
nated from the crusades, lasted not quite a century and a
half. The Saracens, on recovering this domain, held it, how-
ever, but a short time. In a few years after, the Tartars from
tfre east swept over the regions which the Saracens had con-
quered, and blotted out their name from the list of empires.
This event occurred 1258 years A. C. From the close of
our last period to the termination of their dominion, ten ca-
liphs of the house of Abbas, reigned at Bagdad. The last
of the caliphs was Mostasem, who was put to death at the
time the city was captured. The Tartars were led by Ha-
laku, their general, who after a few assaults, took Bagdad,
which contained immense riches, and gave it up seven days
to be pillaged b}' his troops.
A few particulars may be noticed concerning some of the
caliphs.
§ Of one, named Mohammed, it is said, that he quitted life with such
extreme regret, that when about dying, he ordered his troops, his
court, and all his treasures, to pass before him, as it were in a view ;
and after he had considered all these objects, observed, " how is it
possible that a power so formidable as mine, is not able to diminish
;lie weigiit of my disorder one single grain, nor to proloiii: my life
only for a moment." lie then concluded his reflection with the fol-
lowing remarkable words. " Unhappy is the person who spends
his time in amassing those things which he nuist leave, and does
not make the principal object of regard, that Being in whom al]
things are to be found."
The reign of Al IVIoktafi must have been remarkable for justice.
This the following anecdote may prove. A man convicted of ca-
lumny, was sent by him to prison. One of his nobles otfered to give
him two thousand pieces of gold coin for his release, to which the
160 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD VI.
caliph replied, " put another man, guilty of the same crime, m my
power, and I will give you ten thousand ; for I am extremely anxious •
to clear my dominions of these pests of society."
The later caliphs, in the decline of the Saracen empire, were not
the warlike sovereigns that their predecessors had been. They
thought only of securing their ease and pleasure. Mostasem, above
spoken of, exceeded all the caliphs in ostenlation and pride. When
he appeared m public, he usuaUy wore a veil, the more effectually
to attract the respect of the people, whom he considered as un-
worth'y to look at him. On those occasions, notliin;/ could exceed
the eagerness of the multitude to see him, by crowding the streets,
and hiring the windows and balconies, at the most exorbitant prices.
The manner of his death was degrading and distressing in the ex-
treme, and Hulaki designed it as a punishment of his pride
Through the same streets, and exposed lo the view of the same po
pulace, the cruel Tartar caused the wretched caliph to be dragged
confined in a leather bag, till he expired.
CHINA.
33. In the history of China, the present period indudes a
part both of the nineteenth and twentieth of the dynasties ol
her emperors. The whole of the nineteen tli comprised se-
venteen emperors. It w as during this period that the cele-
brated Genghis Khan, and his successors, established their
dominion in China. Heading the Mogul Tartars, who inha-
bited a desert and inhospitable region, Genghis Khan, in
1209, entered China, poured over the northern provinces, and'
compelled them to submit to his authority. Kublay, his son,
called by the Chinese, Houpilay, entered on his father's con-
quests in this country, and reigned for a time over the
northern provinces.
Li-tsong, and his three sons and a nephew, in succession,
were the last sovereigns of the nineteenth dynasty, and reigned
over the southern pait of the empiie. It is said that Kublay
(more probably a descendant of his) brought the Avhole of the
(»untry into subjection in 1280, and that with the nineteentli
dynasty, ended, in fact, the Chinese dominion until the year
1357
Kublay had the wisdom and prudence to govern the
Chinese according to their ancient laws and customs. This'
procedure, together with the general excellence of his charac-
ter, entirely reconciled the people to the Tartar sway, so far
as they were brought under it.
§ The Mogul Tartars, who conquered China, were a wandering-
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 161
race, and i;i von to arms. The extent and rapidity of their con-
quests haw rarely been equalled in history. In the beginning of the
thirteenth centu. • . Genghis Khan overran, besides China, already
mentioned, India, itrsia. and Asiatic Russia. Batoucan, one of his
sons, ravaged the vvestciu nations to the frontiers of Germany. But
Genghis and his sons were not the only conquerors who arose from
among this people. From the vast tract of country inhabited by the
Tartars, have sprung the concjuerors who produced all the great re-
volutions in Asia. Besides tlie personages just named, the Turks,
wlio are a race of Tartars, overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs.
Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered Persia, and a great part of India, in
the tenth century. After Genghis, as we shall hereafter see, Tamer-
lane, the scourge of the Turks, subdued a great part of Asia, and
Baber, a remote descendant of Tamerlane, conquered all the region
between Samarcand and Agr;i, in the empire of the IMogul. The
desceiulanls of those conquerors now reign in India, Persia, and
China.
Distinguished characters in Period VI.
1. Alx'larcl, a scholastic divine.
2. Walter de Mapes, a poet, the Anacreoii of the twelfth
century.
3. Avcrroes, an Arabian pliilosophcr and physician.
4. Genghis Khan, a Mogul, conqueror of Asia.
5. IMattliew Paris, an early English historian.
6. Th. Aquinas, a celebrated teacher of School Divinity.
7. Roger Bacon, an eminent Enghsh philosopher.
§ 1. Abelard, was born in Brittany, 1079, and became celebrated for
his learning and misfortunes. He was one of the most eminent di-
vines of tlie twelfth century, though his conduct ill agreed with his
sacred profession. He was criminally vain of his personal and
mental accomplishments, but his most notorious failings relate to
his conduct towards Heloise. "With the most consummate art, he
gained t!ie favours of that beautiful and accomplished female, to
their mutual dishontjur. They were soon afterwards married in
private, to pacify her uncle and family, though she never would
acknov/ledge the miion, inasmuch as she preferred the name of a
mistress, to tliat of a wife. Their subsequent conduct eventually ex-
cited the indignation of her friends to such a degree, that they
hired certain ruffians to maim his person in the most shameful
manner.
In the oratory of the Paraclete which Abelard built, the unfor-
tunate Heloise finally fourid a refuge, where slie spent her days
with her sister nuns. She retained lier affection for Abelard, though
lie returned it with a coldness and indifference, whicli cannot but
excite our indignation. Whilst he languished during the decline oi
life, under tlie unmanly vengeance of the uncle of Heloise, he forgot
that she, once virtuous, had sacrificed her name, honour, and hap-
14*
162 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VI.
piness, to his passion. Tlie poem of Pope, ia which he celcbrateis"
the loves of Abelard and Heloise, is a brilhant, but corrupting pro-
duction, and not even the bard can soften the features of deformity,
wliich mark, the cliaracter of Abelard in this particular.
The writings of Abelard, are mostly on subjects of theology or
logic.
2. Walter de Mapes, was chaplain to Henry II. Under king John
he was made canon of Salisbury, precentor of Lincoln, and arch-
deacon of Oxford. He wrote in Latin, and in a satirical style.
Some of his verses are still read and admired for their sprightliness.
He imitated the gay humour of Anacreon. He was a facetious
companion.
3. Averroes was born at Corduba, where his father was judge un-
der the emperor of Morocco. His knowledge of law, divinity, math-
ematics, and astrology, was very extensive, and to this was added
the theory, rather than the practice, of medicine. After being pro-
fessor in the university of Morocco, he was called away to succeed
his father in the office of Judge in Corduba, and soon after, he was
invested with the same powers in Morocco and ^Mauritania.
His authority and talents procured him enemies, who envied and
calumniated him, and through their eftbrts he was, for a time, sus-
pended and degraded, on a charge of heresy. He was, however,
restored at length t(j all his honours. He die<l at Morocco, 1208.
In his private life, Averroes was regular, and devoted much of his
time to philosophical pursuits. He Avas particularly fond of Aristo-
tle, on whose works he wrote commentaries. His medical works
are scarce, and above mediocrity ; and of liis numerous verses on
amorous and light subjects, very few remain.
4. Genghis Khan, was son of a khan of the Moguls, and born
1163. He began to reign at the age of 13, but on account of a re-
volt of his subjects, he fled for safet}^ to Aventi-Khan, a Tartar
prince, whom he supported on his throne, and whose daughter he
married. But the jealousy of Aventi obliged him to escape a se-
cond time, and being pursued by Aventi and his son, he defeated
them both, and their army revolting to him, he soon increased it.
From this occurrence, lie became a renowned conqueror. In the
space of 2S years lie subdued the greater part of Asia, and render-
ed himself as famous for his skill in government, as for the valour
of his arms. He died in 1227, leaving his vast dominions, which
extended 1800 leagues in length, and 1000 in breadtli, properly divi-
<ied among his four sons.
5. Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, was a universal scholar,
and in that dark age, confessedly possessed great and astonishing
erudition. He is chiefly celebrated as a historian, thougli not un-
known as an orator and poet. His abilities and well knov.m integri-
ty, fitted him for the work in which he so zealously engaged, of re-
forming the monasteries, and re-establishing the ancient purity of
church discipline, even in opposition to the papal power. His great
production was "Ilistoria Major," in two parts, from the creation to
WiUiam the Conqueror, and from the Conqueror to the year 1250.
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 163
With Henry HI. he was famUiarly acquainted ; yet his account of
the reiun of that prince, seems not to be at all tinged with flattery,
or sullied with any violation of historic truth.
6. Th. Aquinas, called the angelical doctor, was of a noble family,
descended from the kings of Arragon and Sicily. His inclination to
embrace an ecclesiastical life, was strongly opposed by his mother.
She even confined him two years in her castle. But escaping from
her custody, he found the means of improving himself by study, and
it was not long before he appeared at Paris, reading public lectures
to an applauding audience. On his return to Italy, he became di-
vinity professor to several universities, and at last settled at Naples,
where he led a chaste and devout life.
Gregory X. invited him to the Council of Lyons, to read the book
which he had written against the Greeks, but he died on the way to
join the pontiff, near Tcrracina, 7th March, 1274, in his 50th yeai*.
Aquinas left a vast number of works, mostly upon theological sub-
jects, which prove him to have been a man of extensive eruditior^.
There is, however, in his writings, very little of sound, useful, or ex-
perimental views of religious truth.
7. Roger Bacon was born in 1214, near Ilchester, of a respectable
family, and became a monk of the Franciscan order. A strong, in-
quisitive mind, soon raised liim to consequence ; and as he was libe-
raUy supported in his pursuits by Jiis friends, he made a most rapid
advancement in science and philosophy. His attainments becoming
far above the comprehensions of his age, he was suspected and accu-
sed of magic. The monks of his order, actuated by jealousy and
envy, contrived to have his works rejected from their library, and to
prevent him from reading lectures to the students. He was finally
imprisoned, and during 10 years was left to pursue his studies in so-
litary confinement. Within this period, he composed his "0])us
IMajus," or his Great Work. After beins released from prison by
ihe interference of his friends, he spent the remainder of his life in
academical repose, at Oxford. He died at the age of 80 years.
To the comprehensive mind of Roger Bacon, many of the disco-
veries, which have been made by the genius and toil of later ages,
were known. His knowledge of mathematics and natural philoso-
phy, was profound. He discovered the error in the calendar, and
Ins plan for correcting it was adopted by Gregory XIII. He wa<?
acquainted with the structure of an air pump, with the laws of op
tics, and witli the power of glasses. His acquaintance with chemi.s-
irr was extensive. He gave such a description of gunpov,\-;er, that
it is evident he was its inventor. In his writings, which amounted
to above eighty treatises, some of which are published, and some
preserved in maiuiscript, in the libraries of Eiu'ope, he uses an ele-
gant and nervous style, and was always accurate in his observationg
on nature.
164 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII.
PERIOD VII.
Tlie period of the Papal Schism ; extending fr'om the
founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C.,to
the taking of Constantinople, 1453 years A. C.
TURKISH EMPIRE.
Sect. 1. The Empire of the Turks, claims the notice of
history, from the important consequences connected \vith its
eventual establishment, on the ruin of the Grecian sovereign-
ty. The power of this peo{)le is felt on the soil of classical
antiquity, and until Lately, it extended itself over nearly the
whole of it, in the south east of Europe. Their establishment
as a separate empire, is an event which t«ok place in 1299
A. C, under Ottoman or Othman, the first Sultan.
§ The Turks derive their origin from the Avares, a tribe of the
Huns who dwelt in (Ireat Tartary, till forced by the Huns of the
south, to abandon their country, when they divided into several bo-
dies, each of which taking a different direction, settled, some around
the Caspian Sea, some in Pannonia, and others in Asia Minor.
The last colony, known under tlie name of the Seljukide Turks,
founded an empire in Asia Minor, about the year 1070, and their
chief took the title of Sultan of Iconium, a town of Lycaonia, wliere
lie fixed his residence. In 1294, this empire was destroyed by the
Moguls, and the emirs or governors of most of the provinces became
independent. The Turks embraced Mahometanism long beforeahe
time of Othman, as we gatlier from the history of the Crusades.
Othman was an emir under the last sultan of Iconium.
Forming- the scheme of raising a new empire from that whicti
was just overthrown, he engaged the assistance of several other
emirs, and seized Iconiinn. He soon fixed the seat of his
government at Byrsa, the cliief town of Bythinia, and as-
sumed the title of Sultan. From tliis time the Turks were
known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty.
By degrees, they encroached on the borders of the Greek
empire, and were prevented from subverting it at an early
stage, only by the necessity of defending tiiemselves against
the victorious Tamerlane. Their principal sovereigns, during
this period, after Othman, were Orchan, Amurat I.,Bajazet I.,
Mahomet I., and Amurat II.
§ In the reign of Orchan, the Turks crossed tlie Hellespont on
rafts, took Galiipoli, the key of Europe, penetrated into Thrace, and
ITALIAN STATES. 165
.aid the foundation of the Turkish power in Europe. Orchaii ere-"
ated the order of Janizaries, tiuiugh as tliey were more completely or-
ganized by his successor, Amurat, this institution is generally attri-
buted to the latter.
Bajazot I., the successor of Amurat, purposed to besiege the capi-
tal of the Greek empire in fonn, but he was suddenly forced to de-
fend himself against Tamerlane. Tamerlane, or Timer-bek, was a
prince of the Usbec Tartars, and a descendant from Gengiskan.
Having conquered Persia and most of the East, he was invited by tlie
enemies of Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power. He
gladly accepted tlie invitation, and having met the Turk, he totally
defeated him, and made him prisoner. The battle of Angoria, where
the chieftains fought, is a famous one in history. Nearly 1,000,000
of men were engaged in this battle, and 300,000 were slain. The
victorious career of the Turks was suspended by this event. Baja-
zet was shut up in an iron cage, in which he destroyed himself
Under Amurat II., the Turks resumed the project of taking Con-
.stantiiiople, but did not succeed. This prince had devoted himself
to retirement and study, but some violation of a treaty, led him into
a war with the Poles, in which he was signally victorious. He left'
his dominions to his son .Mahomet II., surnamed the Gieat, known
in history as the final subverter of tlie Eastern empire.
ITALIAN STATiES.
2. Italy, in the separate States of which it consisted'
during this period, and siihse(iiiently, appears again on the
page of history. The principal states were Venice, Florence,
Xaple.<, Sicily, the possessions of the Church, Genoa, Par-
ma, and a few others. Most of these sovereignties had been
previously founded, but they existed in their most flourishing'
condition, daring the present period.
3. Venice had become considerable in the ninth century.
Afterward, in the year 1084, the eastern emperor, Alexius,
confirmed to the Venetians, Istria, Dalmatia, and Croatia,
which had been conquered by their arms. They subdued'
also V^erano, Padua, and other Italian States, in 1405. On
the death of the king (jf Epirus, they acquired that Island'
in addition. The Venetians, for a long time, were the prin-
cipal merchants of the world, but their trade was greatly
diminished by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, in'
1497. During the latter part of this period, in consequence
of their wars with the Turks, they lost many of their pos-
sessions.
§ The following incident in the Venetian history, deserves a par-
ticular notice. Ziani, the thirly-niiitlx doge, or chief magistrate oC
166 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII.
the republic, was involved in a war with Frederic Barbarossa, from
whose persecution the Pope had retired to Venice. The Venetians
dispatched embassadors to the emperor, who answered them in a
rage, that if their doge did not instantly deliver up the Pope, bound
hand and foot, he would be terribly revenged, — would bring his army
before their city, and fix his victorious standard in their market
place, which should float in the blood of its citizens.
The embassadors returned with this awful message, and it wa?
agreed to equip a fleet with all expedition, and prepare for repelling
the emperor's meditated vengeance. While the Venetians were thus
employed, Otho, the Emperor's son, entered the gulf with seventy-
five gallies, and was making sail to the city. The doge, with haste,
met this fleet, with the few ships which were fit to put to sea, and in
a dreadful battle took and destroyed forty-eight of the enemy's ves-
sels, and returned in triumph to Venice. From this time was con-
tinued the ceremony of marrying the sea. The Pope going out to
meet the victorious doge, presented him with a ring, saying, " Take,
Ziani, this ring, and give it to the sea, as a testimony of your do-
minion. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony,
that posterity may know your valour has purchased the prerogative,
and subjected this element, even as a husband subjecteth his wife."
4. Florence, whicli was the capital of Tuscany, early rose
into notice. It became a republic in the thirteenth century.
and maintained its independence during two or three centu-
ries. It was distinguished, by the revival of Grecian litera-
ture, and tlte cultivation of the arts, in the fifteenth century.
Before the close of this period, the family of the Mediciy
arose, and shed a splendour on the republic of letters.
5. Naples, just before the beginning of the present era, wa?
entered by Charles, duke of Anjou, who became its king, as
well as of Sicily. These countries were frequently united in
one government, and as often separated from each other.
They were the seat of long wars between the French and
Germans on the one part, and the Spaniards on the other.
But the latter at length obtained possession of the kingdoms.
6. The Estates of the Cliurch, which include the middle
portions of Italy, were, during the present period, greatly in-
volved in controversies. The rival claims for superiority be-
tween the popes and emperors, still continued. Henry \II.,
the successor of Albert, triumphantly fought his way to Rome,
where, in a solenm manner, lie received the crown, and im-
posed a tribute on the states of the Church. He was sud-
denly destroyed, it wa? supposed, by papal vengeance.
It was in his time, that tbe remarkable event took place, by
which the seat of the popedom was changed from Rome to
Doge of Venice espousing the sea. P. 166.
Tell, shooting the apple from his son's head. P. 180.
FRANCE. 1G7
Avignon. This was done by pope Clement V., 1309, on ac-
count of being so much molested by the imperial fixction. In
the absence of this pope from Rome, Nicholas Rienzi, a man
of mean parentage, but of great abilities, aspired to the su-
preme authority, in 1347. He retained the dominion of this
portion of Italy, for a year ; but was afterwards sacrificed to
the fury of the people. In the year 1377, the holy see was
removed back to Rome, by pope Gregory IX. xlfter his
death, the citizens of Avignon and Rome contended for the
freedom of election. Three separate factions of the French
and Italian cardinals, having elected three separate popes, the
emperor Sigismund judged this division of tlie Church to be
a fit occasion for his interference, to reconcile all differences,
and establish his own supremacy.
In 1414, he sunniioned a general council at Constance,
and ended the dispute by deposing all the three pontill's, and
naming a fourth, Martin Colonna. Historians call this di-
vision of the papacy, the great schism of the west.
7. Genoa, the ancient Liguria, became a republic in 953.
The Genoese were afterwards involved in civil commotions,
which so weakened them, that they were obliged to shelter
themselves under the protection of the duke of Milan. They
continuuU}' revolted to the French, and returned again to
subjection to the Milanese, till, in the next succeeding period,
Andrevv^ Doria restored liberty to his native coimtry.
§ Tlic Genoese, next to the Venetians, were, for 200 years, the most
commercial people in Europe. The city of Genoa, was afterwards
relebratcd as the birth place of the great Columbus.
FRANCE.
Capetian Race. Branch of Valois.
8. The successor of Philip the Fair, on the throne of
France, was Louis X. surnamed Hutin, (tlie wrangler,)
1314. He was a prince of a weak and irresolute character.
and reigned but a few months. A son, born after his death,
was acknowledged, but lived only four days. Upon this
event, Philip V. the Long, Ijrotlier of Louis, succeeded to the
throne. His was a short reign of five years.
§ Philip V. was notorious for his persecution of the Jews, and, in
general, of all foreigners who resided within his dominion, and re-
168 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VTI,
fused to embrace Christianity. The Jews were accused of having
poisoned the wells and springs of water.
9. Philip leaving no other than female issue, was succeed-
ed, 1322, by his brother, Charles IV., the Fair. His reign
was unfortunately short, for he was a wise and upright
prince. He left no son behind him.
§ According to the Salic law, no female succeeds to the French
throne.
10. The throne now devolved on Philip VI. of Valois,
cousin to the late king, 1328. Edward HI. of England,
however, claimed it in right of his mother, Isabella, who
was a daughter of Philip the Fair. He enforced his claim
by arms; but Philip being acknowledged and supported by
the French nation, retained the sceptre, notwithstanding the
loss of the famous battle of Cressy, and the capture of Ca-
lais. In the celebrated wars which these rival pretensions
created, the English were at first victorious.
Philip was vain, obstinate, and of a limited capacity, and
died after a reign of twenty-two years.
§ In the midst of his losses, Philip Vi^as gratified with the cession of
the province of Dauphine ; the condition of which was, that the
eldest son, the presumptive heir of the crown, should be st)ded Dau-
phin, and bear tlie arms of the province.
It was in the reign of this prince, that a general plague, surpass-
ing in its horrors whatever besides the remotest history can furnish,
ravaged, in the space of eighteen months, not only France, but
every part of the known world. It broke out in the northern pro-
vinces of China, and swept over Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the
places through which it passed, it cut down two thirds of the inhab-
itants. This calamity had been preceded by terrific earthquakes,
which swallowed up whole cities.
ILIohn II., surnamed the Good, succeeded his father, 1350.
He was a most imfortunatc prince. Taking the field with
60,000 men, against the I]lack Prince, he was defeated by
the latter with a far inferior number, in the signal battle of
PoicXiers, and made prisojier.
§ He was carried in triumph to London, and, after having been de
tained in captivity four years, was permitted to return to France
upon ceding several important places to the Englisli. He, howeAK?r
visited London again, on account, as is supposed, of a passion which
■he had conceived for the countess of Salisbury. He died very soon
afterwards.
12. The Dauphin assumed the administration, during the
captivity of the king; and, on tlic death of the latter, succeed-
fid to the throne, under the name of Charles V. the Wise,
FRANCE. 169
flad it not been for tliis prince, France would most probably
have fallen under the domination of England. During his
reign, the French re-conc[ucred almost all the places taken by
the English. This prince possessed a vigourous mind, but a
delicate constitution of body, and was suddenly carried off in
his forty-seventh year. He was one of the best of the French
sovereigns, a patron of literature, and a sagacious statesman.
He possessed a library of several hundred volumes ; which
was extremely large for the age.
§ It was through Dii GuescHn, a celebrated general, whom the
king raised to be Constable of France, that the French, after having
been beaten by the English during thirty years, began to beat the
hitter in turn.
13. Charles VI., styled the Well Beloved, succeeded to the
kingdom, 1380. He first made war on the Flemings, whom
he defeated in the battle of Rosebeck. A formidable inva-
sion, of which the object was the British shore, failed, in con-
sequence of a tempest that dispersed and wrecked his ships.
During this reign, a civil war occurred between the houses of
Orleans and Burgundy, the cause of which pertained to the
regency. Charles had fallen into a state of insanit)", which,
of cour.-^e, rendered a regency necessary. In the midst of the
contention, and of the miseries which it inflicted on France,
Henry V. of England, invaded the country, and gained the
memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this
victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, was the ac-
knowledgment of his right to the French throne, on the death
of Charles. These sovereigns died soon after, and within
two months of each other.
§ Charles was a weak prince, and his insanity reduced him ahnost
to idiotism.
The fleet which was fitted out for the invasion of England, con-
sisted of 12S7 sail, of which, sixty were ships of the line. In the
centre was a wooden ci.ty, having a diameter of 3000 paces, pro-
vided with towers and bastions, and constructed over boats fastened
together. It "was so contrived as to be put together, or taken tr)
pieces, in a da\' ; and was intended to furnish lodgings for the troops,
when they should be landed. The wreck only, of this singular city,
reached the British shore.
Cards were invented in the reign of Charles VI., to amuse that
.monarch, and to relieve him from tite melancholy which followed
his alienation of mind.
11. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, was crowned at
t'oictiers, 1422, while, at the same time, the infant Henry
15
170 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD VII.
VI., was crowned at Paris, through the agency of the duke
of Bedford, the Enghsh regent of France. This competi-
tion issued in war. The tirst great military operation Uii
dertaken by the English, was the siege of Orleans, a place of
the utmost importance. And here a transaction occurred,
which is one of the most wonderful on record. This was the
raising of the siege, and the consequent deliverance of France
from the grasp of Englisli power, by means of Joan of Arc,
otherwise called the Maid of Orleans. The enthusiasm which
she inspired at this juncture, by pretending to a divine com-
mission, and by her singular and courageous appearance at
the head of the French troops, rendered them invincible.
§ Joan was a young country girl, of twenty-seven years, a domestir
of a tavernkeeper. Presenting herself to the conncil of Charles,
who had fled in despair to Dauphine, she declared that God had, in
a revelation, apprised her that the royal troops would force the ene-
my to retire from the siege. An assembly of divines pronounced
her mission to be supernatural; and, at her own request, she was
clothed like a man, and, in complete armour, headed the troops.
A white palfrey bore her gaily to the scene of combat; while on
her banner was displayed the image of our blessed Saviour. The
English, raising the siege of Orleans, fled before her. The hopes of
the nation were raised, as if by a miracle, and other conquests suc-
ceeded. The impulse which her heroism excited, enabled Charles
to extend his triumphs to the banks of the Sehie.
As a recompense for her important services, she was ennobled by
Cnarles, together with the whole of her family, and their heirs and
descendants. After she had effected the object of the mission, she
requested leave to retire, but she was retained in the service, from
the belief that it would he benefited by her presence. At the siege
of Compeigne, not long after, she was made prisoner; and being
tried by the English for sorcery, she was condemned to be burned.
This sentence, which is an eternal disgrace to the judges who pre-
sided at the trial, was barbarously put into execution. ^Vhen led to
tlie stake, the heroic maid, overcome by her emotions, burst into
tears. To prolong her tortures, a scaffolding of plaster had been
contrived, with so great an elevation, that the flames required a con-
siderable time to penetrate to her body, which was gradually con-
sumed.
The tide of fortune turning against the English, they lost
tnany of the French provinces ; and, after the battle of For-
migny, which was gained by Charles, they lost Paris itself.
In the southern dominions, however, the French arms were
jiaralized, for a time, by the brave Tall)ot, an illustrious Eng-
lish warrior. His death, and the fatal disputes between the
ENGLAND. 171
houses of York and Lancaster, placed tlie whole of the
French monarchy, with the exception of Calais and Greignes,
under the dominion of Charles, 1450.
§ The death of this prince was hastened by the imdutiful and un-
natural conduct of his son, the Dauphin. The latter formed a plot to
cut off his father by poison. Tliis was discovered ; but the king was
so haunted by the idea of treachery and poison, that he could not be
prevailed on to receive that degree of nourishment, which was ne-
cessary to support life.
Tlie Pragmatic Sanction originated in his reign, in a general as-
sembly of the clergy and nobility, representing the Galilean church.
Its aim was, to check the despotism of the popes. I'he superiointy
of the assemblies of the clergy over the See of Rome, formed the
basis of its regulations.
ENGLAND.
Family of Plantagenet. — Branch of Lancaster.
14i Edward XL, surnamed of Caernarvon, from the
place of his birth, ascended the throne in 1307. He was the
opposite of his father in character and disposition, being w'eak,
indolent, and destitute of penetration in selecting his advi-
sers. Yet his inoffensive disposition, joined with his misfor-
tunes, entitles him to respect, as well as commiseration. He
made war on the Scots, but was terribly defeated by Robert
Bruce, in the battle of Bannockburn. la consetiuence of this
battle, the latter was established on the throne of Scotland^
1314. Edward was unfortunate in all his connexions. His
queen, Isabella, sister of the French king, was an ambitious
and worthless woman, and his favourites were equally de-
tested by the people, and injurious to their sovereign. Edward,
at last, fell a victim to his wife's cruelty and lust, and misera-
bly perished.
§ It was in obedience to his father's dying request, that Edward in-
vaded Scotland. He marched at the head of one hundred thousand
men. Bruce met this immense force with only thirty tliousand.
The army of tlie latler was however advantageously situated. A hill
covered his right flank, a morass his left, and to screen liis front, he
had dug dee]) pits, planted tlieiii witli stakes, and covered tliem with
turf. Tlie English, confident in tlieir superior numbers, rushed for-
ward without precaution. Tlieir cavalry was entangled in the pits,
their ranks were broken, and the Scottisli horse, pouring through the
openings, scattered on every side slaughter and dismay. The En-
glish threw down their arms and fled, and were pursued to tlie gaies
172 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VII,
of Berwick. The defeat of Edward sunk him in the estimation of
his subjects.
The most famous of his favourites, were Gaveston, and the two
Spencers, father and son. The queen, who persuaded the king to
recal them after they had been banished by parliament, at length
fixed her affections on Mortimer, a powerful baron. A breach soon
followed between her and the Spencers, and going over to France
with her paramour, she found the means to form such a parly in
England, that on her return with some French troops, she made her
husband prisoner, and forced him to abdicate his crown in favour oi
his son, then fourteen years of age. While he was in prison, he
was put to death by the keepert?, who, with infinite barbarity, thrust
a red hot iron into his bowels, until he was internally consumed.
These wretches wei*e instigated by Mortimer and the queen.
15. Edward III., succeeded his father, 1327, under the
regency of Isabella and Mortimer. But to such a regency,
he would not submit. At the age of eighteen, lie assumed
the reins of government, hanged Mortimer at Tyburn, and
confined the queen, his mother, for life.
The conquest of Scotland soon became an object of ambi-
tion, and marching to the north with a large army, he van-
quished the Scots at Ilalidown Hill, with little loss on the
side of England.
On the death of Charles the Fair, in 1328, Edward, having
a claim to the throne of France, as being the son of Isabella,
the sister of the deceased king, and first in female succession,
prepared to assert his claim (since the French rejected it) by
the fortune of arms. For this purpose, he invaded France
in 1339, and from that time to 1360, war raged furiously be-
tween the two countries, with only occcisional suspensions.
During this long contention, were fought the famous battles
of Cressy, in 1346, and Poictiers, in 1 356. The battle of
Cressy was fought Ijetween Philip, the French king, on the
one side, and Edward and his son, the Black Prince, on the
other. The army of Philip amounted to one hundred thousand
men, that of the English, only to thirty thousand. The bat-
tle of Poictiers was fought between the Black Prince, and
King John of France. The former commanded only six-
teen thousand men, while the army of the latter amounted to
sixty thousand. Notwithstanding the disparity of numbers^
the English obtained a decided victory in both engagements.
The heroism of the Black Prince hag rendered his name evei
famous in the annals of war.
ENGLAND. 173
§ In the liallle of Crcssy, there fell, by a moderate computation,
twelve hundred French knights, fourteen hundred gentlemen, four
thousand men-a; 'rms, besides about thirty thousand of an inferior
rank. The actioii .-eenis no less remarkable for the small loss sus-
tained by the English, luan for the prodigious slaughter of the French.
Among "the former, there only fell one esquire, and three knights,
and an inconsiderable number of private men.
In the battle of Poictiers, the French king was taken prisoner,
and afterwards was led by liie Prince of Wales, in triumph, to Lon
don. He was treated with the greatest courtesy by his conqueror.
Edward, during his absence in France, left his queen, Philippa, with
the care of the realm. Attacked by the Scots, who invaded England
soon after the battle of Cressy, she entirely defeated them near Dur-
ham. David, tlieir king, who had expelled Edward Baliol from the
throne, was xmable to effect his escape from the field, and thus he
became a captive at the sanie time with king John in London.
16. The decline of Edwartrs life did not correspond with
the early part of it. The tide of sticcess turned against him
in France, and besides the lo?;s of his dominions abroad, he
felt the decay of his authority at home. His ago he unwisely
devoted to pleasure ; and to complete his disappointment, the
Prince of Wales died, after a lingering illness, in his forty-
sixth year. Never had king a more illustrious son, and
never did a nation have greater cause to felicitate itself in the
prospect of having sucli a model of heroism and virtue for its
sovereign. The old king did not long siuvive this melancho-
ly occurrence. He died in 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of
his age, and the fifty-first of his reign.
The English nation has ever taken pride in its Edward
ni., and recurred to his reign, as one of the most glorious in
its annals. The splendour of his foreign victories, and the
traitquillity and efficiency of his domestic government stamp
the impression of greatness on his mind. But the moral pu-
rity of his character, and the justice of his wars with France
and Scotland, are more than questionable.
17. Ricliard H., son of the Black Prince, succeeded to the
throne, 13?T, at the age of eleven years. He was umvorthy
of his great fatlier. Indolence, prodigality, pcrfidiousness.
and sensuality, marked his character. His kingdom suffered
from the distractions attending a regal minority. The con-
tests for power between liis three uncles, the dukes of Lancas-
ter, York, and Gloucester, who secretly directed the affairs of
the realm, embroiled all the public measures. An instirrec-
15*
174 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII.
tion, headed by Wat Tyler, put the go\ crnmeii', for a time,
in great jeopardy. While the kingdom was couvulb^ed with
domestic contests, it was also engaged in hostilities with
France and Scotland. At length, during the king's absence
in quelling an insurrection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster
rose in open rebellion, and compelled Richard, at his return,
to resign the sceptre into his hands. The parliament con-
firmed the act, and the king was soon after privately assassi-
nated or starved to death. Thus began the contention between
the bouses of York and Lancaster.
§ The finances of the kingdom were exhausted by the Avars which
were carried on with its foreign enemy. As nothing was obtained
by conquest to repair the waste, parhament fomid it necessary to
impose a poll tax of three groats on every person, male and female,
above fifteen years of age. But the minds of the people were un-
favourably disposed for this measure, and the principles of demo-
cracy gaining ground, this distich was frequently in the mouths of
the multitude :
" When Adam clelv'd and Eve span,
Where was then the gentleman."
Besides, the injustice of the tax, to which the poor were obliged to
contribute as much as the rich, was apparent to every body, \\liile
the character of the measure was viewed in this liglit, the rigorous
manner in which it was enforced, seemed insupportable.
An incident which occurred, respecting the wanton conduct of a
tax-gatherer, in the family of a blacksmith, aroused the pul)lic mind,
and becanie the occasion of a wide spread insurrection. The popu-
lace flew to arms. The spirit immediately pervaded Essex and the
neighbouring counties. The leaders assuming the feigned names of
Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and Hob Carter, committed the most out-
rageous violence on such of the nobility and gentry as came in their
way. At length, assembling their followers on Blackheath, to the
amount of one hundred thousand, they broke into London, demand-
ing certain immunities, which were granted, but in parties still con-
tinuing to insult and plunder the capital.
At this juncture, the king, slenderly guarded, met Tyler at the
head of a "large body of rioters, and entered into conference witli
him. Tvler ordered his companions to retire, till he should give
the signal for attack, and then ventured alone into the midst of the
royal "retinue. Here he demeaned himself in so insolent a maimer,
that Walworth, the mavor of London, in a fit of indignation, drew
his sword and brought "him to the ground. He was instantly dis-
patched by the rest of the king's attendants. Richard's presence of
mind saved himself and them from the meditated revenge of the
mutineers. Accosting the enraged multitude with an afiable and
intrepid countenance, he asked them, "What is the meaning of
ENGLA]<ir). 175
your disorder? Are you angry, my good people, that you liave
lost your leader. I, your king, will be your leader."
The presence of majesty overawed the multitude, and they im-
plicitly followed the king. Leading them into the fields, he peacea-
bly dismissed them, with the same charters which had been granted
to their fellows. These charters, however, were soon after annuUed
iu parliament.
In regard to the death of Richard, after he was deposed and im-
prisoned, it was long the prevailing opinion, that his guards fell upon
hmi in the castle of Pontefract, and dispatclied him with their hal-
berts. But it is more probable, that he was starved to death in
prison, for after his body was exposed in public, no marks of vio-
lence were foinid upon it.
The particular ground of tlie controversy between the houses ol
York and Lancaster, was, that Edmund .Mortimer was the true heir
to the crown, being descended from Lionel, the second son of Ed-
ward IIL, whereas Henry, duke of Lancaster, who was placed on
the throne, was the son of John of Gaunt, the third son of Ed-
ward III.
17i Henry TV., was tlie title whicli the duke of Lancaster
ussuined, when lie came into power. He was sinnamed
Bolingbroke, and the date of his reign is 1400. He was
immediately oppressed by faction and discontent; and as a
righteous retribution, he felt the uneasiness of " the head that
wears a crown." A rebellion, raised by the earl of Northum-
berland, for placing Mortimer, of the house of Yoric, the true
heir, on the thr'^ne, first required his attention. The Scotch
and the Welch took part witli the malcontents, but their
united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and their leader,
young Percy, (Hotspur, so named on account of his fiery
temper.) was killed on the field.
§ The armies on this occasion were nearly equal in numbers, con-
sisting of about twelve thousand men, each ; and rarely was there a
battle in those times, where the s'aock was more terrible or more
constant. Henry exposed his person to all the dangers of the field.
His gallant son, the prince of Wales, who afterwards so signalized
himself by his military exploits, urged on the figlit with the utmost
intrepidity, and even a wound which he received in the face with an
arrow, could not oblige him to retire. On the other side, Percy and
Douglas, terrible nam'"'-", suijported their ancient renown. But while
the armies were contending in the most furious manner, the death
of Percy, by an unknown hand, decided the victory, and the ad-
lierents of the king won the day.
18. A second rebellion, headed by the archbishop of York,
was quelled by the capital punishment of its author. In the
feign of this prince, the secular arm was unrighteously ex-
176 MODERN HISTORY PER TOD VII.
tended against the followers of Wickliffe ; and history records
the shameful fact, that Henry IV. was the first English mo-
narch, that made the religion of his subjects, an offence to be
expiated by the faggot and the scat Ibid.
The latter part of his life was embittered by the extreme
profligacy of bis son Henry, prince of Wales, who afterwards
nobly discarded the vices and follies of his youth.
§ The following- particular merits a recital. One of his abandoned
companions having been indicted before Sir Wm. Gascoigne, the
chief justice, the young prince was not ashamed to appear at the
bar with the criminal, in order to give him countenance and pro-
tection. Finding that his presence did not over-awe the chief jus-
tice, he proceeded to insult him on his tribunal. But Gascoigne,
mindful of his own dignity, and of the majesty of the laws, ordered
the prince to be committed to prison. Hemy, sensible of his error,
quietly submitted to the order. When the affair was mentioned to
his father, he is said to have exclaimed, "Happy is the king who
has a magistrate sufficiently courageous to execute the laws upon
such an offender; but still more happy, in having a son willing to
submit to such chastisement."
Henry died, 1413, at the age of forty-six', in the fourteenth
year of his reign. Notwithstanding distinguished military
talents and politic;U sagacity, he became a most unj^opular
sovereign. The illegality of his title, may have disafiected
his subjects towards his person and his reign. He felt the
miseries of guilt, and became suspicious and jealous. In re-
ligion, he was bigotted and intolerant.
19. His son, Henry V., ascended the throne in 1413. He
laid aside his dissolute habits, as already intimated, and in-
formed the companions of his pleasures, that they must enter
on a similar reformation, if they would secure his favour. He
also received the wise ministers of his fother, who had checked
his riots, with all the marks of esteem and confidence.
Henry early asserted by arms, the English claim to France.
Taking advantage of disorders in that kingdom, he invaded
it with an army of about thirty thousand men, and with
iialf that number, defeated the French army, amounting to
sixty thousand men, on the plains of Agincoiut. His own
loss did not exceed five hundred men. while that of the French'
amoiuited to twenty-two thousand in killed and prisoners.
§ Ilfiury drew up his army on a narrow ground, betAveen two
woods, to cover cacli flank, and patiently expected an attack, having
been sui'priscd by the sudden appearance of llie French, in great
ENGLAND. 177
(brce, when his own arvny had been greatly reduced by sickness and
fatigue. Had the French general declined a combat, tiie English
must have relinqiiislied the advantages of tlieir situation ; but the
impetuous valour of the nobility, and a vain confidence in sup.<^rior
numbers, brought on an action, which proved to the English so
glorious and successful.
After this battle, returning to England to recruit his forces,
lie hiiided again with an army of twenty-five thousand men,
and fought his way to Paris. The war between Henry and
the French king, was t,erminated by the treaty of Troyes,
1420. Henry then turned his arms with success against the
dauphin, who assumed the style and authority of regent.
Triumphing signally over his enemy, and realizing most of
his wishes, he had nearly reached the summit of human
glory. But his end was approacliing, and one of the most
heroic of the Enghsh monarclis, died at the early age of thirty-
four years, and after a reign of nine years.
§The treaty of Troyes was made with the Queen mother, and the
duke of Burgundy — Charles, the French king, being insane. By
this treaty it was agreed that he should marry the daughter of
Charles, aud receive the kingdom of France as her dowry, which,
till the death of her father, he sliould govern as regent.
Henry was a true hero, and like all heroes, his views of conquest
were pernicious in their tendency. Accordingly, England derived
from liLs achievements, rather fame tlian solid advantage. He was
able in the cabinet as well as in tile field — was magnanimous,
generous, aud affable, but luui more than the bigotry of his fatlier iri.
religion.
20. Henry VI., at the age of ten uionths, succeeded his
tatlier. in 1422, under the regency of the dukes of Gloucester
and Bedford, the former for England, the latter for France.
Henry was crowned king of France, at the age of eight
years. At this era, in order to complete the conquest of that
kingdom, it remained only to capture Orleans. The duke of
Bedford, acting as regent of France, had laid siege to tlie
place, hut he was obliged to raise it by the valoiu- and good
conduct of Joan of Arc, the maid of (!)rleans. Thus was
France saved, and England was afterwards stripped of
almost eveiy conquest it had made in that country.
When arrived at adult years, Henry proved himself to be
mild and inoffeti^ive, but deficient in the energy which be-
comes a sovereign. He had but a slender capacity. These
defects in the king were suppHed by his queen, the famous
Margaret of Anjou, a woinan of great talents, ambition, and
I7b MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII.
heroism. She made a conspicuous figure in the wars,
which distracted his reign.
The insurrection of Jack Cade, was an event of some im
portance, and was quelled only after considerable bloodshed.
§ Jack Cade, a native of Ireland, whose crimes obliged him to retire
into France, had assumed the name of Mortimer, and at the head ol
20,000 Kentish men, encamped on Blackheatli, in this way to Lon-
don, in order to obtain a redress of grievances. The city opened its
gates to Cade, who for some time maintained great order among his.
followers; but at length when he could not prevent them from com-
mitting depredations and outrages, the citizens, with the assistance.
of some soldiers, repulsed the rebels with great slaughter. Upon,
their submission, they received a general pardon, which was after-
wards annulled, and both Cade, and many of his followers, were ca-
pitally punished for their rebellion.
The duke of Gloucester, who was heir lo the crown in
case the king should die without issue, was tiie favourite of
the nation ; but he had opposed the marriage of Henry with
Margaret, and was therefore marked out by the latter for de-
struction. He was arrested and sent Lo prison, where he
was found dead a few days afterwards. This event, in con-
nection with the imbecility of the king, encouraged the
Duke of York to assert his claim to the throne.
§ The duke of York, who was Richard, son of Lionel, second son of
Edward IIL, was, however, averse to violent measures, and his for-
bearance, when appointed lieutenant of the kingdom, though amia-
ble and unusual, proved the source of all those furious wars and
commotions which ensued ; for the queen at length persuaded
Henry to annul the protectorship of Richard, and place theadminis-
tt'ation in the hands of the duke of Somerset. Richard then levied
an army ; but an account of the wars between the houses of York
and Lancaster, properly belongs to the next period.
GERMANY.
21. In the history of the German Empire, is to be no-
ticed, the rise of the House of Austria, which constitutes an
important portion of that empire. This event took place in
the latter part of the former period, viz. 1274, when Rodol-
phus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was elected emperor of
Germany. He owed his elevation to the jealousies of the
electoral princes, who could not agree in the choice of any
one of themselves. The king of Bohemia, to whom Rodol-
phus had been steward of the household, cotdd not endure
the supremacy of his former dependent ; and refusing him
GERMANY. 179
the customary homage for his Germanic possessions, Rodol-
pliu? stripped him of Austria, which has ever since remained
in tlie family of its conqueror.
When Rodolplius ascended the throne, he found the
em})ire distracted and ahnost ruined by anarchy and faction^
but he restored order by his prudence and lirmness. He
was a prince generally esteemed for his \drtues.
§ IJc dcmolislied tlie retreats of the banditti, that every where in-
fested the country, and executed great numbers of the marauders
The following anecdote, among others, is related of him.
A merchant complaining to him of an innkeeper at Nuremberg
who refused to return a sura of money which he had deposited in
the hands of the latter, Rodolphus, seeing the innkeeper soon af-
terwards, took an opportunity of praising his hat, and proposed
an exchange. His proposal was naturally accepted, and he sent
the hat as a token to the innkeeper's wife, desiring, in her husband's
name, she would deliver to the bearer, the money which a merchant
had left in his hands. By this stratagem, the plaintiff recovered
his property, and the innkeeper was sentenced to pay a lieavy fine.
Rodolphus had seven beautiful daughters, by means of whom, he
contracted alliances, which proved higlily advantageous to his })os-
terity. He had also seven sons ; but none of these survived h'm, ex-
cept tlie duke of Austria. In Rodolphus began the good fortune of
the liruse of Austria, of whicli he was the founder : a fortime which
callnl forth the observation, "that Venus was even more favourable
to them than INIars."
•~2. Adolphus of Nassau, was elected the next emperor of
'^"Cimany, 1291, instead of tlic duke of Austria, the late em-
peii.r's son ; but proving unworthy, he was deposed, and tlie
duke, named Albert I., was duly raised to the empire, 1298.
The pope claimed the empire, but finaiiy acknowledged
Mi.ert.
This prince treated the Swiss with great rigour, contrary
to the conduci of his falher. Several of the Cantons were
his by inheritance, but he formed the design of annexing the
whole of tlie provinces to his dominion, and erecting them
into a principa'iitv, for one of his sons. The Swiss revolted.
The cantons of Schewitz, Uri, and Underwald, wiiich always
had resisted the authority of Austria, combined to assert their
freedom ; and a small army of four hundred or five hundred
men, defeated an immense host of tlie Austrians, in the pass
of Morgate, 1315. The rest of the Cantons, by degrees,
joined the association, and with invincible perseverance, after
sixty pitched battles with their enemies, they effected their
180 MODERN HISTORY. — 'PERIOD VII.
freedom. It was the famous William Tell, who was instrti-
•mental in producing this revolution, and in laying the foun-
dation of his country's liberty.
§ In so brief an outline of history as is attempted in this work, it
will be impossible to include a separate account of every country.
Several of the smaller ones must therefore be noticed in the account
of others, or be grouped together. As this seems to be a fit place to
touch on the affairs of Switzerland, a few particulars may be added.
The story of William Tell, deserves a record. In this story is ex-
emplified an instance of the lawless tyranny of the governor of
Switzerland.
Geisler, governor of the Canton of Uri, had ordered his hat to be
fixed upon a pole in a certain place, and commanded every passen
ger, on pain of death, to pay the .same obeisance to it as to himsell
Tell, an inhabitant of Uri, indignant at this insulting mark of wanton
tyranny, disdained to pay the homage required. Tell's death wac
determined, and he was condemned to be hanged, unless he should
be able to strike with his arrow, an apple placed upon the head (>!
his son. Being an excellent marksman, he accepted the alternative,
and providentially cleft the apple without injuring the child. Geisler
perceiving another arrow in his belt, asked him for what pni-pose
that was intended. Tell heroically replied, " It was designed foi
yon, if I had killed my son."
Condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a dungeon for this an-
swer, he was bound and thrown into a boat, that Geisler hiinsell
might convey him across the lake of Altorf, to his castle. In the
midst of the passage, a furious squall arose, and the cowardly go-
vernor was so intimidated by the danger he was in, that he unbound
Tell, who was a most skilful boatman, and entreated him to row him
safely across the lake. Tell soon etfected his escape by swimmmg
to the shore, and had an opportunity by the time Geisler arrived, to
pierce the tyrant's heart with an arrow. This event paved the way
Jbr the conspiracy which followed.
23. Eight emperors succeeded xilbert, during the remain-
der of this period ; but a connected account of their reigns
need not here he given. A few scattered pa'-;iculars may be
found below.
§ In the reign of Henry VIII., Germany groaned under all the
miseries of plague and famine, by which whole towns were depopti
lated, and provinces brought to desolation. The rich sought an
asyium in other cormtries, while the poor perished without ])ity o!
assistance ; wolves, and other beasts of prey, compelled by hunger,
quitted their dens, and rushing into the villages, satiated iheniselve.".
witli human blood ; cataracts of water, bursting from the mountains,
swejn trees and houses before them with dreadful impetuosity; and
the earth was convulsed by frequent shocks, which seemed to agitate
It to its centre.
While Louis V. held the imperial sceptre, a spirit of fanaticisai
CHINA. 181
broke out in Alsaoo, and the lower class cf people assembled under
me hiiiiiursof an innkeeper, who erected himself into a prophet, and
neraiiaded his followers, that it was their indispensable duty to re-
venge the death of Christ, by an extirpation of the Jews. In obe-
dience to this doctrine, they massacred great multitudes of tliat un-
happy nation. In one place tlie carnage was so great, that the Jews
themselves augmented tlie horror of the scene ; for, being driven to
despair, they butchered their own wives and children, and then
murdered themselves, to elude the cruelty of their inhuman enemies.
After some time, however, these frantic enthusiasts were driven out
of the province ; their sanguinary leader perished by the hands of
the executioner, and the survivmg Jews were permitted to live in
peace.
In 1350, Charles IV., issued the celebrated Golden Bull, containing
a declaration of the fundamental laws of the empire. The edict
was so called from a golden seal termed Bulla.
The emperor Sigisnumd, became also king of Bohemia, in con-
sequence of the death of his brother Winceslas. It was this empe-
ror who betrayed the celebrated reformer, John IIuss, to the Elector
Palatine, who caused him to be burnt alive. The next year, Jerome
of Prague suffered the same fate.
CHINA.
24. A part of the twentieth and twenty-fn-st dynasties of
the empire of Chnia, is inckidcd in the present period. In
the reign of Sliistu of the twentietli dynasty, the famous
canal was dug, whicli is nine hundred miles in length. Un-
der some of the princes of this dynasty, the religion of Fo
was established in the empire. Shunti was the last of the
Tartar race, who held the sceptre in China.
The twenty -fast dynasty was that of Ming, fountied by
Chu, who, ascending the throne, took the name of Fay-tsu.
This dynasty, which commenced in 1368, lasted two hundred
and eight3'-one years, under seventeen emperors.
§ Chu had been a servant in the monastery of the bonzes. Head-
ing a numerous company of revolters, he reduced many considera-
ble cities and provinces, and defeated ine imperial army in a battle.
His successes were so great, that he assusned the title of emperor
and fixed his court at Nankin. In a few montlis, however, he made
himself master of Pekin, and erected that country into a sovereign-
ty, which he gave to his fourtli son. He proved to be a prince of
great wisdom and prnelration.
It is relatcil of Cliing-lsu, one of the emperors of this dynasty,
that when specimens of precious stones were brought to liim from
a mine which had lately been discovered, he ordered it to be shut up,
alleging, that it only harrassed his people with useless toil, as these
stones could neither feed nor clothe them in limes of scarcitv.
16
lS2 modern HISTORV. period VII
Distinguished Characters in Period VII.
1. Dante, and ) , • t. r ,
pp. .1 > classic Italian poets.
3. Boccace, an Italian, one of tiie restorers of learning
4. Wicklifle, an Faiglish theologian and reformer.
5. Froissart, an entertaining French chronicler.
6. Gower, and ) r .^ /.t^ i- i ,
^ ^„ ' } lathers oi Jhnglisli poetry,
i. Chaucer; ) » r j
§ 1. Dante, (Alighieri,) who died at the age of fifty-seven years,
early displayed poetical talents ; but the ambition of being elevated
among tlie ruling men of his native city, engaged him in continual
discord and faction. He and his party were at length defeated, and
with them he sought safety in banishment. While he was in tliis
situation, he vented the bitterest reproaches against his enemies.
The occasion of his death v/as, an atfront wliicli he received from
the Venetians. The prince of Ravenna, (in which place he was in
exile,) sent him to negociate with the Venetians, in order to avert a
threatened war ; but the magistrates of Venice treated the embassa-
dor with contempt, and refused to receive him within their walls.
Tlie irritable heart of Dante was so affected by this affront, that he
could not survive it, and he died on liis return to Ravenna.
His literary worics owe tiieir origin to his misfortunes and re'-
vengeful spirit. His great object seems to have been to pierce his
enemies with the shafts of satire. The rancour of liis feeling, min-
gled itself wiVa the sweetness and graces of poetry. His poems
are characterized by spirit, fire, and sublimity. His triple poem,
of Paradise, Purgatory, and Hell, displays wonderful powers of
genius.
2. Petrarch (Francis) is deservedly celebrated as one of the re-
storers of classical learning, and more, perhaps, than any other per-
.son, as lijc father of modern poetri". He displayed all the powers
of genius and poetical inspiration, not only in his own native lan-
guage, but in Latin. His sonnets are esteemed the sweetest, most
elegant, and most higlily finished verses, ever written in Italian ; and
iiis songs possess uncommon beauty and grace. Petrarch had a
most charming fancy.
Some of the events of liis life are rather singular; particularly
his inextinguishable passion for liis mistress Laura. He first saw
this beautiful female in 1G27, after he had fixed his residenr(^ at
Vaucluse, near Avignon, and he was smitten with all the i)angs oi
love. But though the soft ])assion was expressed in the softest lan-
guage of iioetry, the heart of the fair one was by no means moved.
To divert the melancholy wliich ensued, he travelled through va-
rious countries, and was at last persuaded to enter into the servire ol
Pope John XXH. But, " amor vincit omnia," and Petrarch, abandon-
ing the pleasures of curiosity and of greatness, fled to the shades of
Vaucluse, to converse with his beloved Laura. He again de/o-
led his hours to studious pursuits, and to the amatory effusions of
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 18
tiis muse. But though the idolized fair one heeded not his poetry,
the world did ; and Rome, Paris, and Naples, at the same moment,
invited him to come and receive the poetical crown. Rome pre-
vailed, and in that famed scat of empire and of genius, the poet's
brow was entwined with the resplendent honour. He was occasion-
ally drawn from his favourite resilience, on public business; and it
was during an absence in 1348, tliat he was informed of Laura's
death, which affected him with the deepest gloom.
The poet's purity in this affair, has been maintained by some, and
denied by otiiers ; and some parts of his character certainly afford
too much ground for the opinion of the latter. Petrarch was an
ecclesiastic, thougli he never took priest's orders. He died at the
age of seventy, 1374.
3. Boccace, (John,) born at Certaldo, in Tuscany, 1313, studied
under Petrarch, who was his friend and patron. He lived abroad
for a time, iuit afterwards returned to his native village, where he
spent the remainder of his days, in literary pursuits. His constitu-
tion was w^ealcened iiy his great application, and lie died of a sick-
ness in the stomach, 1375.
His works are both Latin and Italian. He possessed uncommon
learning, and lie shiires with a few otliers the honour of contribut-
ing to the revival of learning in Europe. " Decameron," a licen-
tious, though witty, satirical, and elegantly written romance, is his
most celebrated composition. His poetry is not equal to that of
Petrarch, but his prose is unrivalled, for its simplicity, grace, and
varied elegance.
4. Wickliffe, (John de) was professor of divinity, in the Universi-
ty of Oxford, and deservedly considered as the forerunner of Lu-
ther, iti the reformation. His elevation to the professorship of Ox-
ford, exposed him to the jealousy of the monks, and he was soon dis-
placed. He felt the indignity keenly, and it was not long before he
boldly came out against the errors and encroachments of Rome
The Romish clergy, with the pope at their head, took the alarm, and
employed every effort to suppress the doctrines of Wickliffe. Most
of liis doctrines were pronounced as heretical, by the several coun-
cils that were called. He was seized as a heretic, by the emissaries
of the Pope, and tried ; but the judges, although they enjoined him
silence, pf-viiiited him to depart in safety, as they feared the nobility
and people. These, in general, favoured Wickliffe. Not at all in-
timidated, the reformer continued to preach his peculiar sentiments,
and they became still more widely known. But the penal statutes
were severe, and some who embraced the new heresy, were deliver-
ed over to punishment.
Wickliffe, in the mysterious providence of God, died at a time
when nothing was wanting to emancipate the JiUglish nation from
the tyranny of Rome, but the boldness, perseverance, and eloquence
of a popular leader. Wickliffe's noble struggle proved almost abor-
tive, and little was thought of it, till Luther arose to establish the
<amc doctrines ■.n an iuiperishable basis.
184
MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII.
Trialogus, is almost the only work of Wickliffe's that was
printed.
5. Froissart, (John,) as an historian, excelled all the writers of
his time. His narrative of the events which took place in England,
France, and Spain, from 1326 to 1400, is exceedingly lively and en-
tertaining. He personally witnessed many transactions which he
tias described. He was a chronicler both of political events and of
chivalric manners. He Avas bred to the church, but he was a great-
er reader of romances, than of his breviarj^ Of gayety, he was
fond to an excessive degree. " Well loved I," as he said of his
youth, in one of his poems, (for he wrote poetry as well as history,)
" to see dances and carolling, and to hear the songs of minstrels,
and tales of glee. It pleased me to attach myself to those who took
delight in hounds and hawks." " My ears quickened at the soimd
of opening the wine flask ; for I took gi'eat pleasure in drinking,
and in fair array, and in fresh and delicate viands." He began his
chronicle at the age of twenty, and continued it many years, travel-
ling through England, Scotland, France, and other places. He was
born at Valenciennes, in the year 1337, and died in 1397.
6. Gower (Sir John) was born in Yorkshire, 1320. He was emi-
nent, both in law and poetry. He is, by some, associated ^ith Chau-
cer, as a father of English poetry. He lived a little longer than
Chaucer, though born eight years sooner, and was the successor of
the latter in the laurel. His principal production in poetry, was
" Confessio Amantis ;" though lie left behind, other poems of con-
siderable spirit and energy. Though gentle in manner, he inveighed
boldly against the debaucheries of the times, the immorality of tlie
clergy, the wickedness of corrupt judges, and the vices of an aban-
doned court. He died at the age of eighty-two.
7. Chaucer (Geoffrey) was born in London, 1328. Compared with
Chaucer, all who preceded him, not excepting Gower, were merely
pioneers in English poetry : they were scarcely poets. He is, there-
fore, more commonly considered the father of English song. Though
in the idiom of the fourteenth century, his poetry is not devoid oi
great smoothness and delicacy ; the sentiments are bold, the charac-
ters are well supported, and the genius of the poet is every where
brilliant, sprightly, and sublime. The Canterbury Tales, are his
best production.
Chaucer enjoyed a signal share in the favours of royalty, and his
honours and emoluments exceeded far the ordinary Kh of poets.
This circumstance may, perhaps, be partly owing to tlie fact, that
he had a princely brother-in-law, John Gaunt, duke of Lancaster,
At one period of his life, he suffered persecution, in consequence ol
embracing the tenets of Wickliffe. The latter part of his days was
spent at a distance from the busllo and intrigues of public life, and
in his retirement at Woodstock, and afterwards at Donnington, he
devoted himself to the cultivation of his nuise. He d;-:.d 25th Ot~
tober, 1400.
T"RKISH EMPIRE. 185
PERIOD VIII.
Tke period of the Rcforviat'wn ; extending from the Ta-
king- of Constantinople, 1453 i/ears A. C., to the Edict
of Nantes J 1598 i/eurs A. C.
TURKISH EMPIRE.
Sect. 1. The history of the Turkish Empire, at this era,
i:5 signaUzed by the taking of Constantinople, and the con-
sefiiicnt extinction of the Eastern Empire of the Romans,
1453. The Turks elfectcd the object luider Mahomet the
Great, the Turkish SuUan.
Constantine was the name of the last emperor of the
liiast, as it was also the name of the iirst. His dominions
had become exceedingly circumscribed. The Turks had
gradually encroached upon its borders, and Constantinople
would soon have l>ecoi'ie the seat of the Ottoman power,
had they not been obliged to defend themselves against the
Tartars.
Mahomet II., after some delaV; con)menced the project
which had long engaged the attention of the Turks. The
indolent inhabitants of Constantinople, made but a feeble
jireparation for defence, and all Europe was supine and in-
tlilVerent. The city was assailed Ijoth by sea and land — the
walls were battered down witli camion, and aU who opposed
were massacred. The emperor was .slain, and tiie city soon
surrendered. The Turks forl^ore to destroy the imperial
edifices, and the chinches were converted into mosques. The
exercise of their religion, however, was allowed to all the
christian^, and they have, till lately, chosen their own patri-
arch. Tlie Fiastern empire, from the building of its capital,
had subsisted 1123 years. {'
After the fall of Constantinople, Greece and Epirus were
subdued ; and Italy might probably have shared a similar
fate, but for the lleet of the Venetians, who opposed the arms
of Mahomet with considerable success : but peace was soon
conchided Ijetween the hostile powers. The death of Ma-
homet the Great, occurred 1481.
IG*
186 MODERN HISTORY —PERIOD Vlll.
§ Mahomet was a youth of only about twenty-one years, when he
undertook the project of exthiguishing the empire of the East,
The force with whicli lie invested Constantinople, was fully adequate
to the object, being nearly three hundred thousand men ; while the
wliole population of that city, did not amount to more than one
hundred thousand.
The Greeks, notwithstanding their degeneracy, displayed con-
siderable bravery. Their all was at stake, and a small but faithful
Dand adhered to Constantine, till they were nearly annihilated.
Seeing his dearest friends fall by his side, and himself at last re-
maining', surrounded only by enemies, he exclaimed in the bitterness
of grief, " Has death then made such havoc, that not one Christian
is left to take my life?" As he spoke, a Turk to whom his person
was luiknown, for he had prudently laid aside the purple, strucV.
him in the face; a second blow succeeded from another hand ; and
he fell, in the forty-ninth year of his age, a glorious example of
honourable resolution, in expiring with his defenders, rather than
surviving them.
Mahoinet liberally patronized the arts and sciences ; and
fo compensate fo'^ tlie ir.igration of those learned Greeks,
who, on the fall of the empire, spread themselves over the
countries of Europe, invited both artists and men of letters
to his capital from other kingdoms.
The successors of this sovereign during the remainder of
the present period, were Bajazet II., Selim I., Solyman I.,
Sehm II., Amurath III., and Mahomet III.
§ Bajazet II., prosecuted various wars against the Hungarians,
Venetians, Persians, and Saracens, but having resigned the govern-
ment to his son, who had revolted and was supported by the
Janizaries, he was soon after poisoned by the order of the latter.
His son and successor, Selim I., was a prosperous, but tyrannical
prince ; who, in 1517, conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli,
Damascus, and Gaza.
Solyman I., surnamed the Magnificent, succeeded Selim in 1520;
and v/as one of the most accomplislied, enterprising, successful, and
warlike of the Turkish princes. He took Buda, and besieged Vien-
na. From the latter place, however, he was obliged to retire with
the loss of eigiity thousand men.
Selim IL, his son, besieged and took Cyprus and Tunis; but his
fleet was defeated at Lepanto, with the capture or destruction of
almost all liis ships.
Amurath Ilf. strangled his five brothers immediately upon his ac-
cession. Tills prince extended his dominions by the addition ol
Raab in Hungary, and of Tibris in Persia. In this reign, the Jani-
zaries having lost their submission, and in great part, their discipline,
began to kill their commanders, whenever they were dissatisfied
with them.
His son, Mahomet HI. was a monster of barbarity, having begun
ITALIAN STATES. 187
his reign by strangling his nineteen brothers, and drowning ten of
his fatlier's wives. He finally put to death his eldest son, a nrince
of estimable qualities, on an unfounded suspicion of ambitious views.
ITALIAN STATES.
2. We shall pursue the history of Italy, by giving an ac-
count of only two or three of the States of which it was
composed. The events in the Italian history are not politi-
cally important at tliis era. It is chiefly in reference to the
influence of Florence on the literature of the times, and the
ecclesiastical influence of the Papal dominions, that these
portions of Italy will be brought more particularly into view.
Florence, under the ^ledici, enjoyed a high degree of
splendour, during this period. It was an era, in the cultiva-
tion of the sciences and elegant arts. The family of the
Medici held sway in tliis country from the year 1428 (o
1569, when Cosmo de Medici the Great was entitled Grand
Duke of Tuscany. Under the title of the Republic of
Florence, which they governed, were included not only Tus-
cany, of which Florence is the capital, but Modena, Mantua,
and one or two other states.
§ Cosmo de Medici died in 1464. wiio, though the private subject
of a repuliiic, liad more riches tlum any king in Europe, and laid out
more money in works of taste, learning, and charity, than all the
kings, princes, and states, of that or the subsequent age, the indi-
viduals of his own family excepted. His religious foundations were
unrivalled. His private buildings were equally sumptuous. No
palace in Europe at that time exceeded his in Florence. He had be-
sides many others. With all this public magnificence and expendi-
ture, lie was in his private conversation, iuinible and unassuming;
and in his person plain and modest. He was not celebrated for
learning, though he was the greatest patron of learned men of his
age.
(>)smo was succeeded in the government by his son Peter, and he
liy his sons Lorenzo and Giuliano. The latter was soon murdered,
and Lorenzo died ajied no more liian fifty-four years, illustrious lik
his predecessors, in every public and private virtue.
Tlie trau(iuillity of the republic was much disturbed by wars with
the Venetians and Genoese, fur many years. In the course of these
conunntions, Florence assumed the popular government, but it was
quickly reversed by the emperor Charles V., who, laying siege to the
ciiy, forced it to capitulate, and restored the family of the Medici.
Cosmo, the second of that name, now (Io37) succeeded to the ducal
crown, which he wore with honour, during thirty-eight years. The
encouragement he gave to the practice and study of all the fine arts,
f88 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
proves him to have been one of the greatest patrons of hiiipan geni-
us, since the clays of Augustus. The names of his sons were John
and Garcia. The latter was of a furious, vindictive disposition, and
quarrelling one day with his brother, stabbed him to the heart with
a dagger. The father charged him with the murder, but the youth
denying it, was introduced into the room where the body lay, which
is said to have bled, (doubtless by chance,) at his approach. He
then threw himself at his father's feet, and confessed biis guilt. The
father, who had resolved on the part he was to act, solemnly desired
his son to prepare for death, adding, that he ought to thinlv himself
happy in losing a life he was unworthy to enjoy, by the hands of
him who gave it. He then unsheathed the dagger with which the
cardinal had been murdered, and plunged it into the bosom of his
son.
3. That part of Italy which constitutes the dominions of
his hohness, became the scene of much crime and conten-
tion during this period. Both the temporal and spiritual pow-
er of the popes, was now at its height. In 1498, the papacy
was enjoyed b}^ Alexander VI., a monster of wickedness.
Charles VIII. , of France,, had resolved on an expedition into
Italy. The pope and the duke of Milan, who encouraged
him in it, immediately betrayed him, and joined the interest
of the king of Naples, who was the object of attack on the
part of Charles. The latter, however, now lirst besieged the
pope in Rome, and forced him to submission, but at length
devoutly kissed his feet. He then marched against Naples,
while its timid prince, Alphonso, fled to Sicily, after absolving
his subjects from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples
in triumph, but lost bis nev/ kingdom almost as soon as he
had gahied it. A league was formed against Charles, be-
tween the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Arra-
gon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians ; and on liis re-
turn to France, the troops he had left to guard his conquests^
were all driven from Italy.
§ it has been remarked, that from the decisive effect of tliis con-
federacy, the sovereigns of Europe derived a useful lesson of policy,
and first adopted the idea of preserving a balance of power, by that
tacit league, wliich is understood to be always subsisting, for the
prevention of the co-ordinate agfjrandizement of any particular state.
History relates with horror, the crimes of Alexander VI., and his
son Ca;sar IJorgia : their murders, robberies, profanations, and in-
cests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of llicir
ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind. Their death
seems to have been a sort of retribution for their crimes, so far as
retribution is known on earth.
FRANCE. 189
If an author, Guicciardinj, who was a mortal enemy to Alexan-
der, may be believed, Borgia had sent a present of some flasks of
poisoned wine to the cardinal of Corneto, in whose garden they pro-
posed to snp, but ordered the servant to give none of it to any per-
son. Alexander soon after coming into the garden, and calling for
wine before supper, the servant gave him some from the poisoned
flasks, tliiiiking the proliibition could not extend to the Pope, how-
ever rare and valuable the wine might be ; and Borgia, in the mean
time appearing, unconsciously drank of the same wine with his
fatiier. They both immediately felt the symptoms of the poison,
and Alexander died tlie next day; but Borgia, having drank his wine
much diluted, survived with the loss of his skin and hair. He was
afterwards stripped of all his possessions by Pope Julius 11., and at
last perished in miserable obscurity in Spain.
FRANCE.
Branch of Valois. — Brandt of Orleanft.
4. Louis XL, began to reign in 14(3L He immediately
removed all his late father's ministers, proceeded to luimble the
nobles, and in almost every respect acted (lie tyrant towards
his subjects. Indeed, his character is that of a most deceitful,
profligate and crtiel prince ; he followed too nearly the odious
Tiberius in his measures. He left, however, some good regu-
lations for the encouragement of commerce, and for the ef-
fectual administration of justice. Notwithstanding the otlious-
ness of his character, he was the first of the French Ivings, on
whom the title of His most Christian Majesty was conferred.
§ His severity occasioned a revolt of several of the first lords of
the kingdom. The war which thence arose, they entitled " the war
of the public good." His sanguinary disposition is evidenced bv
the following fact. When he pronounced sentence of death on a
certain nobleman, he ordered that his infant cliildren should lie placed
beneath the scaffold, to be sprinkled by the blood which gushed
from the body of their parent. This was an almost incredible
instance of refined cruelty, and cold barbarity. Louis died a victim
of superstitious terror and remorse of conscience.
5. Charles VIH., surnamed the Affable, at the age of
thirteen years, sticceeded his father, under th-c regency of
Anne of France, his sister, 1483. His marriage with Anne
of Brittany, who was promised to Maxiniihan of Atistria,
occasioned a short war witii the (iermaiis. His expecUtion
into Italy, and \\\^. conquest and subsequent loss of Naples
have already been noticed in the ItaHan history. He reign-
ed about fifteen years.
100 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
§ His surname is indicative of his disposition and manners biit he
led a hfe of intemperance, and was early cnt off by tliis vice, in his
twenty-eighth year. The direct line of Philip of Valois terminated
with this monarch, as he left no issue.
6. Louis XII., who was duke of Oiieans, and great grand-
son of Charles V., ascended the throne as the nearest heir,
1498. He was idohzed by the Frencli, and obtained and
deserved the title of " The Father of his People," by his
frugal poUcy, which eased them from taxes. Yet lie was am-
bitious and imprudent in his military enterprises.
He conquered the Milanese and Genoa, bvit in prosecuting
his claim to Naples, though he obtained some advantage at
first, he was unsuccessful in the end. He was duped by his
associates, Ferdinand of >Spain, and {X)pe Alexander VI.
The whole of Naples finally fell into the treacherous hands
of Ferdinand ; nor did the French king long retain his
other conquests in Italy, since they revolted from him on the
first opportunity. Louis died suddenly, while preparing to
recover, by arms, his lost Italian possessions.
§ In justifying himself for tlie pardon of his enemies, Louis
made an observation worthy of royalty. " The king of France does
not revenge the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." What this
prince also said in vindication of his economy, will always be praised.
" I had rather see my courtiers laugh at my avarice, than my people
weep on account of my expenses." It was an unhappiness, how-
ever, that he procured, in part, his supplies of money by the sale oi
offices, which was a very dangerous example.
7. Francis I., count of Angouleme, was called to the throne,
1515, Louis having died without male issue. He v/as a ne-
phew of the late king, and began his reign at the age of
twenty-one.
His real power, and the high opinion which he entertained
of his own greatness, led him, in 1519, into competition with
the celebrated diaries V., who had just ascended the throne
of Spain. Charles, as grandson of the emperor Maximilian,
u|)on the death of the latter, preferred his claiin to the empire,
but was opposed by Francis. Charles oblained the election,
and these princes now became sworn enemies. Their mu-
tual claims on each other's dominions, caused seas of blood to
flow, in wars that lasted more than thirty-eight years.
§ Francis began hostilities by attacking Navarre. He first won and
then lost that kingdom. The emperor attacked Picardy, and his
troops at the same lime wrested JMilan out of the hands o) the French,
FRANCE. 191
Henry VIII., of England, whose friendship had been as.^iduoiiblj''
courted by botli parlies, was brought over for a time to tiic side of
Charles.
Just at this juncture, Francis, unfortunately, quarrelled with his
oest general, the constable of Bourbon, who revenged himself by
deserting to the emperor. The constable was invested with com-
mand in the army of Charles, and thus greatly added to the supe-
riority which was already apparent in the generals of the latter. The
consequences were such as mi^iit have been expected. The French
were defeated in the battle of liiagrassa. In this engagement, Bay-
ard, the model of knights, [)crished. At his deati\, he replied to the
marks of pity shown by the duke of Bourbon, with these words; " it
is you who ought to be pitied, for fighting against your king, your
coimtry, and your oatlis."
A temporary success attended the Frencli arms in the capture of
the capital of the Milanese ; but a sad reverse soon followed in the
battle of Pavia. That batth; was fought on the 24th of February,
1525, and resembled in its catastrophe, those won by the English at
Poictiers and Agincourt. Twenty-five thousand French were slain,,
and Francis himself made prisoner. He had llie mortification to
find himself the captive of that very man, the constable, whom he
had treated witii the greatest hauteur.
Europe being alarmed by the aggrandizement of Charles, a league
of several states was formed against him, in favour of the captive mo-
narch. In this league, England was included. The emperor was
thus in a manner forced to liberate his prisoner, and he derived little
benefit from his good fortune. The severity of the terms respecting
his ransom was such, that the states general refused to fulfil them.
On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France,
but the powerful Charles was not intimidated. liesolving on an in-
vasion of his enemy's country, he inundated Provence with fifty
thousand men. But the defensive operations of the French were
very successful, and Charles returned sorrowfully into Italy, having
lost tlie one half of his army, cut o.T by diseases and famine.
In tlie interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for ten
years, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and on the
part of Francis, was treated with the utmost courtesy and liospitality.
He had previously stipulated to grant the French king the investi-
ture of Milan. But though he was every where received with the
utmost pomp, and staid seven days in Paris, where he was loaded
with e\-ery mark of friendship and confidence, lie left no autheiUic
testimony^ of his promise.
The seeds of a renewed contest were tluis sown, but though the
French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, they derived from
it little or no advantage. The Imperialists, on the whole, had a de-
cided superiority, and France must have been ruined had not the
disorders of (Germany forced tlie emperor to conclude the treaty
of Crepi, with Francis, 1544. The latter purchased a peace with
Henry Vill., who had once more changed sides, and favoured
Charles.
192 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
8. Francis died in 1547. He lias the reputation of a great
prince, and would have appeared greater, but for the manifest
superiority of his illustrious rival. Notwithstanding the wai?
in which France was engaged during the reign of this mo-
narch, he left his kingdom in a flourishing and prosperous
state. Literature and the arts made great progress in France
under his auspices, and the French court acquired that polish
and refinement in taste and manners, lor which it has since
been so conspicuous throughout the world.
§ " The fine qualities of this prince," says Millet, " his open temper,
beneficence, honour, generosit}^, and courage, have not been able to
cover his faults, rashness in his enterprises, negligence in his affairs,
fickleness in his conduct, prodigalit}^ in liis expenses, and excess in
his pleasures. Whatever merit he was possessed of, he would have
met with fewer encomiums, had he not caressed and favoured men
of letters, by whose suffrages the reputation of sovereigns is fixed.
He founded the royal college and printing house. At the same time
that he encouraged the culture of the learned languages, he had the
prudence to command that the public acts should be written in
French. In the same manner, he gave life to tne fine arts, built
Fontainbleau, and began the Louvre. In order to polish the man
ners of the court, he drew to it the most respectable women and
distinguished prelates."
9. Henry H. succeeded his father in 1547. This prince,
though brave and polite, was the slave of pleasure, and the
dupe of favourites. He continued the war in which his father
had been engaged with Charles V., and that emperor's sor.
Phihp II., of Spain. He obtained considerable advantage over
Chailes at the siege of Metz, but was terribly defeated by Phi-
lip, at St. duentin. The event most glorious to his reign,
was the recovery of Calais from the English, in 1557. The
duke of Guise captured the place in eight days, to the sur-
prise of all Europe.
The origin of those civil wars which distracted France
during the three succeeding reigns, may be dated from this
reign, or rather from that of Francis I., when the Huguenots,
who were Calvinists, or Protestants, began to be persecuted.
The sj)irit of persecution greatly increased during the reign
of Henry.
§ The death of this monarch was owing to an accident M'hich befe]
him at a tournament. Wishing to amuse the ladies with a lilt be
tween himself and the count of Montgomery, wlio was esteemed
the most dexterous justler of liis lime, he gaily entered the lists. In
their rencounter both their lances were broken, and the count
PRANCE. 193
thrown from his horse. In his fall, the broken trunk of the spear,
still remaining in his hand, struck tlie king's right eye, and produced
so violent a contusion as to terminate his life.
10. His son, Francis II., wa.s raised to the throne in 1559.
He was tlic husband of jMary, queen of Scots, and died the
Qext year, having reigiicd about seventeen months. The
only important event in this reign, was the conspiracy of the
Protestants against the king, and the Guises, who were five
brothers, at tiie head of the Catholics. Two of these, the
duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine, were conspicu-
ous in the government. This conspiracy was detected, and
1200 of those engaged in it, were put to death.
§ Tiie Protestants were wearied with the persecutions they had so
long endured, and came to a resolution to devote their lives to the
defence of their liberties. They were secretly abetted by the prince
of Conde, brother to the king of Navarre. Tiie prince, Iiovvever.
escaped punishment, having pleaded his cause before the king, in
person.
11. Charles IX., a boy only ten years old, succeeded his
brother, 1560, under the regency of Catharine de Medicis,
who luid been the wife of Henry, and was notorious for her
proliigacy and ambition. Tlie diflicultics between the Catho-
lics and Protestants had arisen to a great height. Some ol"
the first men of the French court, were included among the
latter, j)articularly the prince of Conde and Admiral Cohgny.
Their inlluence was too great to be resisted ; and after the
conference held at Poissy, liljerty was granted to the Protes-
tants to exercise their worship without the walls of the towns.
The violation, soon after, of the edict granting this liberty, oc-
casioned the sanguinary civil war, which for a long time
lillcd France with misery and blood.
§ Tlie Protestant religion had spread groatly at court, as well as
in the capital and tlic i)rovinces, even under Francis J. The perse-
cution of the Protestants under Henry II., only increased their num-
ber, and produced tliat exasperation of feeling, which ended in the
conspiracy, already mentioned, under Francis II.
The celoi)ratcd conference at Poissy, was attended by tlie young
king, the queen mother, and the whole court. Theodore Beza, an illus-
trious reformer, defended the Protestants, while the cardinal of Lor-
raine, undertook the cause of the Catholics. Both parties, as is usual
on such occasions, claimed the victory. It was, however, difficult
any longer to refuse certain concessions to tiie Protestarits. Indeed,
the queen motlier found it politic to grant them libcn-ty of worship,
and to favour the prince of Cunile, i.-i order to counterbalance the
power of the Guises.
n
194 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
The Protestants, in the war which ensued, were headed by Admi-
ral Cohgny, who was assisted by 10,000 Germans from the Palati-
nate. The command of the Catholics was assumed by Guise and
Montmorency, who were aided by Philip of Spain. The latter were
always victorious, though the Protestants were too powerful to be
despised ; and in tlie conditions of peace which they obtained, was
included the toleration of their religion. Murders and assassina-
tions aggravated the horrors of civil war. The duke of Guise fell
by the hand of a religious enthusiast. And even the peace which
was secured, was only a prelude to more awful scenes of atrocity
and blood.
It became now tlie policy of the government to caress the Protes-
tants, in order to destroy them. They received extraordinary marks
of favour ; even the prudence of Coligny was lulled asleep ; and on
the occasion of the marriage of the king of Navarre with the sister
of Charles, these persecuted people were allured to court. By the
order of the government, a dreadful massacre of the Protestants
then took place, the horrid plan having been all previously arranged.
On the night of the twenty-third of August, it being St. Bartholo-
mew's, there perished in Paris and France, 60,000, some reckon
100,000 Protestants. The duke of Guise (Henry, son of Francis)
went in person to Coligny's gate, and caused that great man to be
murdered. Tlie streets and houses in Paris floated in blood. The
king barbarously fired upon his unhappy subjects, and afterwards
beheld with pleasure Coligny's body insulted by the populace.
To crown this horrid act, the king declared that every thing Avas
done by his command ; the parliament ordered an annual procession
to celebrate the deliverance of the kingdom ; a medal was struck
■with this legend, piety put the sword into the hands of justice ,
and at Rome and in Spain, the massacre was made a subject of
public rejoicings.
Calvinism was not at all crushed by this infernal plot, infernally
executed. It only became more formidable through despair, and
now both of the ]]ourbons, — tlie king of Navarre as well as the prince
of Conde, were enlisted in the Protestant cause. It was found ne-
cessary again to grant them liberty of conscience. Charles died
soon after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, at the age of twenty-
four years.
12. The successor of Charles IX., was Henry III., duke
of Anjou, who had just been elected king of Poland, 1574.
He was a weak and Avorthless prince, joining to the utmost
depravity of manners, the external observances of tlie lowest
superstition. He became the scorn of his subjects, and the
dupe of the contending factions. It was in his reign, that
the Catholics, incensed on account of the privilege's conferred
on the Huguenots, formed the famous league for the purpose
of extirpating them, having the duke of Guise at its head.
§ This league was nommally for the defence of the state and its
ENGLAND. . 195
religion, but in reality, besides the extirpation of the Protestant faitli,
it had in view the usurpation of all the powers of government. The
king, with the weakest policy, united himself to tiiis league, and
thus became the avowed enemy of a large portion of his subjects.
But in carrying on his military operations against tiie Protestants,
he found himself thwarted at every step, by the duke of Guise and
tlie Cardinal of Lorraine. To dispel the fears which he entertained
from tliese men, lie put them to death, by the hands of assassins. Af-
ter a reign of fifteen years, the king himself was assassinated, 1589,
by a fanatic monk.
1 3. Oil the death of Henry III., who died without children,
the sceptre of France passed to the house of Bourbon, repre-
sented at this time by Henry HI., of Navarre. As king of
France, he is known by the name of Henry IV., afterwards
surnamed the Great.
As his reign extends into the next period, the following
particulars only, will be mentioned at present. He had been
educated in the reformed rehgion by his mother, who avowed
herself its protector. At the age of sixteen, he had been de-
clared head of the party of the Huguenots. When invited
to Paris at the peace of 1572, to marry the sister of Charles
IX., he narrowly escaped from the massacre of St. Bartho-
lomew, but remained three years a prisoner. Although his
first mihtary enterprises were unsuccessful, yet, when on the
death of Charles, he again took the field against the army of
the league, he defeated it in the battle of Coutras, 1587, and
still more signally in that of Argues, 1589. After the death
of Henry III., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry, against
the army of the League, then commanded by the duke of
Mayenne, who iiad proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon, king,
under the title of Charles X. As a protestant, however, he was
environed with difficulties; a large portion of the people refused
to submit to him; and influenced by the earnest entreaties
of the duke of Sully, as well as by views of policy, he re-
nounced protestantism, and became a catholic, 1594. In
1596, the duke of Mayenne submitted to Henry, and the
whole kingdom acknowledged him as its sovereign.
ENGLAND.
Branch of York. House of Tudor.
14. Henry VI., had been on the throne of England since
the year 1 42J ; but the wars which now commenced between
196 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
his house and that of York, rendered his situation most in-
secure, and, at length, hurled him from his throne. Justice
was on the side of Richard, duke of York, as he was a de-
scendant from the second son of Edward III., while Henry was
a descendant from Edward's third son. The whole nation
took the side of one or the other, and each party was distin-
guished by a particular symbol. That of the Lancastrians
was the red rose, and that of the Yorkites the white rose.
Hence, this contention was known by the name of the
" quarrel of the two roses." Hostilities commenced in 1455,
§ The principal battles which were fought, previous to the acces-
sion of Edward IV., were, that of St. Albans, in which Henry was
defeated and taken prisoner, and Richard assumed the title of Pro-
tector— that which was fought on Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, and
which terminated in favour of Richard — that of Northampton, in
which Henry was defeated and again taken prisoner, by the Earl of
Warwick— and that of Wakefield, in which Henry's queen, Marga-
ret of Anjou, gained a complete victory over Richard, who, together
with his second son, was slain.
Upon the death of tlie duke of York, the earl of Warwick,
known by the name of King Maker, from tln' conspicuous part he
bore in the contentions of the times, took coiamand of the forces
belonging to that party.
15. Upon the death of Richard, the young duke of York,
liis son and successor, entered London at the head of a nu-
merous army, amidst the greetings of the citizens, and as-
sumed the powers of government. He did not, however,
fully consider himself as king, until he had obtained, (1461,)
at Towton, a signal victory over the adherents of Henry, of
whom 36,000 were killed. His title was that of Edward IV.
After various turns of fortune, in which he was once deposed,
and Henry re-instated on the throne, he finally triumphed
over the Lancastrians, in the desperate battle of Tewkes-
bury, in which Margaret, and her son, the Prince of Wales,
were taken prisoners. Tlie latter was assassinated, and
king Henry, who had been confined in the tower, was found
dead a few days afterwards. Margaret, whose ambition had
kindled the desolating war, was punished only with imprison-
ment. She was afterwards ransomed by the king of France,
and died in that country.
§ It is said that the young prince, when brought before the king,
and asked in an insulting tone, by the latter, liowhf dared to invade
nis domuiion, replied, with a spirit coiitrenial to lus high birth, that
he came thither to claim his just inheritajice. The ungenerous Ed-
The Princes smothered in the Tower. P. 197.
!'rS'\,».''i^K ..^iA^^
Biirmng of Moscoiv.
Bomparte and his suite in front of the Kremlin. P. -290.
ENGLAND. 197
ward, indignant at his answer, and insensible to pity, struck him on
the face with his gauntlet ; and the dukes of Clarence and Glouces-
ter, witli others, taking the blow as a signal for further violence,
hurried the prince into the next apartment, and there dispatched
him witli their daggers.
It is said also, and generally believed, that Richard, duke of
Gloucester, killed king Henry with his own hands.
When Edward was secured on the throne, his spirit sunk
in indolence and pleasure. The energies of iiis reign seem
to have terminated with the civil wars, unless we except liis
acts of detestable tyranny. He put to death, on the most
frivolous pretence, liis brother Clarence ; and preparing to
gratify his subjects, by a war with France, he died sud-
denly, in the forty-second year of his age, poisoned, as was
sus|)ected, by his brother Richard, duke of Gloucester.
§ The only favour which tlie king granted his brother, Clarence,
after his condemnation, was, to leave him the choice of his death.
The duke ciiose to be drowned in a butt of Malmsey — a whimsical
ciioice, which implies that he had an extraordinary predilection for
tliat li((Uor.
U). Edward V., a minor, succeeded his father, 1483, under
the protection of his inicle, the duke of Gloticester. A few
(la}s afterwards, the duke of Gloucester catised himself to be
proclaimed, tmdcr the title of Richard III. The young king
and liis brother having been removed to the tower by Rich-
ard's order, under pretence of guarding them, disappeared
about that time. The diabolical Richard, had inhumanly
deprived them of life.
§ Richard possessed a fierce and savage nature, and in making his
way to the tlirone, had recourse to the most perfidious and cruel
acts. Endeavouring to gain the .■issi.stance of lord Hastings, and
finding that nobleman inflexibly favourable to the children of Ed-
ward, lie accused him of treason, and ordered him to be decapita-
ted, witliout even the ap[)earance of legal forms.
The mtu'der of tlie two young princes, was as deep a tragedy as
any recorded in lOnglish history. Riclr.ird gave orders to Sir Ro-
bert IJrakenbury, constable of tlie tower, to put his nephews to
death ; but this gentleman, wlio had sentiments of honour, refused
to stain his hands with the infamous deed. The tyrant then en-
gaged Sir James Tyrrel, who, choosing three a.ssociates, like him-
self, came in the night time to t!ie door of the chamber, where the
princes were lodged, and sending in the assassins, he bade them ex-
ecute their commission, wliile he himself staid without. They
found the unofllcMiding young princes in bed, and fallen into a sweet
and profound sleep. After suffocating them with the bolster and
pillows, they showed their naked liodics to Tyrrel, who ordered
17*
198 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
them to be buried at the foot of the stairs, deep in the ground, undtT
a heap of stones. These circumstances were all confessed by the
bloody actors, in the following reign. In the reign of Charles II.,
the bones of two persons were found in the place indicated, M-"iich
exactly corresponded, by their sizes, to Edward V., and his brother ;
and being judged the undoubted remains of these unhappy prmces,
were deposited in Westminster Abbey.
17. The earl of Riclimond, tlie only surviving heir of the
house of Lancaster, became the instrument, under divine
Providence, of avenging the awful crimes of Richard. As-
sisted by the French king, he landed in England, and revived
the spirits of a part)^ almost extinguished in the kingdom.
He gave battle to Richard, 1485, in the lieid of Bosworth,
and entirely defeated the army of the usurper, who was slain
while fighting with the most desperate courage. This l)attle
terminated the terrible contest between the houses of York
and Lancaster — a contest which lasted thirty years, and
in which twelve sanguinary pitched battles were fought, and
100,000 brave men, including eighty princes of the blood,
perished on the field, or by the hand of the executioner.
§ The person of Richard was as deformed as liis character wa^? de-
testable. He was small of statm-e, huinp-backed, ugly m liis fea-
tures, and had his left arm withered. This infirniity, which had
attended him from his birth, lie pretended, on a certain occasion
when he wished to confound lord Hastings, was the eHecl of Jane
Shore's incantations, knowing that this nobleman had engaged in
an intrigue with that lady.
18. The crown which Richard wore in the engagement
that proved fatal to his life, was immediately placed on the
head of the conqueror. The earl of Richmond assumed the
title of Henry VII., Aug. 22, 1485. By marrying a daugh-
ter of Edward IV., he united the rights of the two houses of
York and Lancaster. He was a descendant from Edmund
Tudor, and first king of the house of Tudor.
Henry was a prudent and politic prince, but unhappily
prejudiced against the adherents of the house of York. A
degree of discontent was thus engendered, which tended tc
jeopardise his government. The general tranquillity of his
reign was, on this account, occasionally disturbed by plots
and conspiracies — two of which were rather singular, con-
sisting in attempts to counterfeit the persons of the heirs of
York, and to enforce their claims to the crown.
§ The name of one of tlie«e impostors was Lambert Simnel. the
ENGLAND. 199
son of a baker, who counterfeited the person of the earl of War-
wick, son of the late duke of Clarence. The name of the other
was Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, who personated
the duke of York, who had been smothered in tlie tower. They
were supported by men of distinction in the nation, and gave Henry
great trouble, but were finally subdued and taken. Simnel was
spared and made a scullion in the king's kitchen. Warbeck expia-
ted his crime on the scaffold.
The aversion of Henry to the house of York, shewed itself even
m liis treatment of his wife. Though in the highest degree virtu-
ous, amiable, and obsequious, she never met with a proper return of
aflection, or even of complaisance, from her husband ; and the
malignant ideas of faction, in his sullen mind, prevailed over all the
sentiments of conjugal endearment.
Heiuy was by nature a dcs|)ot ; and indeed tlie principles
of despotism were congenial to all the sovereigns of the
Tudor lace. Yet his sagacity led him generally to pacific
counsels. Thougli he was by no means a po[)ular })rince,
he was useful to the nation, having enacted many wise laws,
piomoted industry, encoiu-aged connnerce, patronized the arts
of civilized life, and curbed and softened the spirit of a proud
and rude aristocracy. His polic}'^ gave a death blow to the
Teudal system. The greatest stain in this prince's character
was his avarice, whicli, m the latter part of his reign, prompt-
ed to the most oppressive exactions.
§ He is said to have left at his death, in ready inoney, a sum equal
to £10,()C)0,000 at present.
19. Henry VHl. sticceeded his father in the eighteenth
year of his age, 1509. He came to the throne with llattcr-
ing prospects, considered whether in respect to the improved
and traiKjuil state of the kingdom, the alfection and high
expectation of his people, or his own suj)posed good ijualities.
§ The succession was well established, the contending titles of
York and Lancaster were fully united in him, the treasury was well
filled, and peace and prosperity were imiversally enjoyed. The
young prince's oerson was beautiful, his manners elegant, his dis-
position frank, his mind higlily cultivated for the times, and his
native talents commanding.
The nation, however, was greatly disapjX)inted in its young
prince. He soon shewed himself an unprincipled tyrant ;
and both friends and foes felt, at times, the ellects of his
caprice and cruelty. His ministers were talented men, but
lie took |)]easure in abusing them. Only archbishop Cran-
inor cuntinued to be an object of favour to the last. Cardinal
200 MODERN history; — PERIOD VIII.
Wolsey, in whom he placed unbounded confidence for a time,
was finally discarded. Wolsey, more than any one el^^e, by
ministering to the pleasures and ambition of the king, shapefl
his destiny and tiie fortunes of the people.
§ This celebrated man was the son of a butcher at Ipswich ; but
having received a learned education, and being endowed witli an ex-
cellent capacity, he was tal<.en into the service of the king, and by
degrees rose into distinction, till he became the prime minister of
his sovereign. Clergyman as he was, he countenanced tlie king in
all his light sports, gaiety, and sensual indulgences, a quality in the
companion, which contributed to the influence and elevation of the
courtier.
20. In the early part of his reign, the counsels of Wolsey
agreeing with the natural temper of Henry, prompted him to
make war against Louis Xli. of France. He invaded the
coLuitiy, and met witii success so far as he went, having
gained the Battle of the Spurs ; (because the French on the
occasion made more use of their spurs than their swords ;)
but he failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking
Tournay, returned to England.
About the same time the Scots, who had made an incur
sion into England, v/erc defeated by Henry's general, the
earl of Surrey, at Flodden Field, wheie James IV., and a
great part of his nobility, were slain. Henry, however, did
not follow up his advantage, but generously granted a peace
to Scotland.
Henry also took a part in the long and obstinate wars
which were waged between Francis I. and Charles V., as
before detailed. His foreign alliances cost him the expendi-
ture of immense treasures to no purpose, as he was, by turns,
the dupe of both parties.
The most important events in Henry's reign, are connected
with liis matrimonial alliances. Out of these, as a conse-
quence, arose the ever-memorable Reformation in England.
Henry w^as opposed by the pope in an affair so interesting to
his passions, and therefore the pope was opposed by huu,
and at length lost his influence in the kingdom. In this
great religious change, it is evident Henry had no good in^
tentions, but sought the gratification of his own unliallowed
appetites. He had previously declared liimself the champion
of the Romish church, and even written a book ngainst
ENGLAND. 201
Luther. Hence was conferred on him, by the pope, the title
of " Defender of the Faith."
§ Henry was married to Catharine of Arragon, his brother's
widow, but having fallen in love with the beautiful Anne Boleyn, he
applied to the pope for a divorce. This, however, was denied him.
But Henry was not to be frustrated in his intentions. The opinion
of the universities was favourable to him, and Anne was soon crown-
ed queen.
The pope now was forced to pay the price of his conscientious-
ness or obstinacy. His authority, from that time, was abolished in
England ; the annualMribute was no longer paid to him ; the dissolu-
tion of the monasteries was ordered ; and the clergy, as well as all
others, were obliged to acknowledge the king as head of the church ;
and the want of obedience, was punishable with banishment or
death. On this account, Sir Thomas More, and the bisliop of Ro-
chester, among others, perished by the hand of the executioner.
Cardinal Wolsey also, was conceived to be in the way of the king's
wishes on the subject of his marriage, and after being deprived of
his immense power and possessions, was arrested for high treason.
He, however, died of a broken heart soon afterwards, uttering in the
anguish of his soul, the never to be forgotten words, " Had I but
served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not
have forsaken me in my gray hairs."
Anne Boleyn, in less than three years, was condemned and be-
lieaded. After her, he married four wives in succession ; the first
dying in child-birth ; the next having been divorced, because he
foimd her not so beautiful as had been represented ; and the third
having been executed for adultery. The fourth survived liim.
Tiie tyrant died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, bequeathing his
crown, first to Edward, then to Mary, and lastly to Elizabeth.
20i Edward VI., Henry's son, by Jane Seymour, ascended
the throne in 1547, in his tenth year. At first, the earl of
Hertford was regent; afterwards, the duke of Somerset, who
was decidedly friendly to the reformation. Edward was a
prince of great promise and many virtues; but, to the deep
regret of the English nation, he died in the sixteenth year
of his age.
During his reign, the reformation made great progress,
through the zeal of Cranmer ; yet a large body of the people
adhered to popery. The triumphs of the new religion were
not, however, effected without public disturbances, and some
sanguinary executions took place on account of religion.
A project was undertaken of uniting England and Scot-
land, by a marriage between Edward and Mary Stuait, the
young ijueen of the Scots. It, however, failed, and a battle
202 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
ensued, near Musselburgh, in which 10,000 of the Scots were
slain.
§ So different in disposition was Edward from liis father, that it is
said he always wept, wlien he signed an order for an execution
against any of his subjects. Edward's benevolent turn oi'' mind is
evidenced by his charitable endowments, as Bridewell, St. Thomas's
Hospital, and several schools, which still exist and flourish.
21. Mary, Edward's sister, next ascended the throne, in
1553. History has assigned to her the unenviable title of
" bloody," from the persecutions and martyrdoms suffered by
the protestanis, in her reign. Her disposition was morose,
tyrannical, and cruel, in the highest degree. Bent upon the
restoration of the catholic religion, she hesitated at no iliea-
sures, however unjust, which were calculated to effect the
object.
§ To force and violence, she naturally resorted. Some of the most
eminent reformers, as Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, Ferrer,
ajid Rogers, she consigned to the flames. In consequence, however,
of these cruelties, a powerful prejudice was excited against the
catholics. Their cause sunk, and that of the protestants rose ; and
the reformation was, in reality, extended, by the means employed
for its extinction.
The beginning of Mary's reign, was stained with the
blood of the celejjrated liady Jane Grey, grand daughter to a
sister of Henry VHI. She more happily suppressed, soon
after, an insurrection under Wyat.
Her husband was Philip H., of Spain ; but, by the articles
of marriage, she, or rather her parliament, has the merit of
inaking provision for the independence and glory of the Eng-
lish crown. It was agreed that the administration should Ije
solely in the queen, and, on certain conditions, her issue
should inherit the dominions of Philip.
The loss of Calais, which the English possessed 210
years, together with the knowledge that she was hated, both
by her husband and her subjects, caused her to die of grief
and vexation of heart, in the forty-third year of her age.
§ .Tane Grey, whose fate was so tragical, was designed by Ed-
ward to be his successor. Her title, however, was quite defective :
aiul the law, assigning the crown to her, which Edward caused to
be i>assed, was unconstituticinal. Lord Giiilford Dudley, sou of the
duke of Northumberland, had lately married her; and lioth the fa-
ther and son strongly solicited her to accept of the perilous bequest
of Edward. She i-eluctantly consented, and, by their intrigues, was
proclaimed queen. Her youth and innocence might have excused
ENGLAND. 203
her ; but slie was soon arrested, and, togetlier with hot liusband, was
condemned and executed.
On the day of her execution, lier husband desired i)ermission to
see her; but she refused her consent, informing him by message,
tliat the tenderness of their parting would overcome the fortitude of
both, and too much imbend their minds from a greater concern,
She adverted also to other topics of a consolatory kind. Her hus-
band was first brought to the block, before her eyes; but, undaun-
ted at such a sijjht, she addressed the spectators, in a most affecting
speech, and, with a serene countenance, immediately submi!tted her
own neck to the fatal axe.
Lady Jane Grey was an accomplished scliolar, a devout christian,
and the fairest ornament of her sex. Aschem tells us, that she wrote
in Latin, with great strength of sentiment; and we are informed
by her contemporary, Sir Thomas Chaloner, that she was well versed
in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian. Fuller adds, that
she had "the innocency of childliood, the beanly of youth, the so-
lidity of middle, the gravity of old age, and all at eighteen ; the birth
of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, yet the
death of a malefactor, for her parent's offences."
22. Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, on the death of
her sister Mary, 1558. Tiiis was a joyful event to the Eng-
hsli people. The prudence which, as a subject, she had dis-
played during the sanguinary reign of her sister, gave pro-
mise of excellence in the sovereign.
§ It required all tire sagacity and caution of Elizabeth, to elude the
effects of the violent jealousy which the queen, her sister, enter-
tained against her. When questioned respecting the real presence,
the net for catching protestants, she replied :
" Christ was the word that spake it,
He took the bread and brake it,
And what the word diti make it,
Tliat I believe and take it."
Tliat which was thus promised, was, in a great measure,
fulfilled. By her wise counsels, the protestant religion was
fostered; the church of England received its present form;
and agriculture, commerce, arts, and literature, attained to an
elevation unknown in Englarul before. Her intre[)id mind,
and the measures of the government, so sagaciously and
firmly pursued, rendered her the most respectetl and |)ower-
ful sovereign in Europe. She colonized a large portion of
North America, supported the infant republic of Holland
against its tyrannical enemy, liumbled the pride of Spain, in
the defeat of its boasted armada, and assisted Henry IV. in
the recovery of his kingdom. She sought the true interests
204 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
and glory of her subjects, so far as concerned their temporal
prosperity, or their external religious observances.
Yet it must be acknowledged, that she compassed her objects,
often, by very questionable means. She was stern, unyield-
ing, unrelenting, despotic, in her maxims of government,
and was guilty, at times, of the basest acts of cruelty and
hypocrisy. Her treatment of her cousin, Mary, queen oi
Scots, whom she caused to be beheaded, on the bare suspi-
cion of a conspiracy, has loaded her memory with a degree
of reproach, which the splendour of her reign, in other re-
spects, can never obhterate. And her conduct towards her
favourites, particularly the earl of Essex, is marked with sin-
gular caprice, if not injustice.
§ The invincible Armada, so called, was a fleet which Spain fitted
out for the invasion of England, on account of the interference of the
latter power in the affairs of the Netherlands. It consisted of 150
ships of war, carrying 27,000 men, and 3000 cannon— the largest
naval armament which Europe had ever seen. The English fleet of
108 ships, commanded by Howard, Drake, and others, met the ar-
mada as it entered the English channel, attacked it in the night, and
burnt and destroyed a great part of the squadron. A storm which
drove the remainder of the Spanish ships on the coast of Zealand,
completed their discomfiture, and only fifty shattered vessels, wit]\
6000 men, returned to Spain.
The story of tlie beautiful and unfortunate Mary, will be briefly
told in what follows. She was a daughter of James V., king of Scot-
land, and great-grand-daughter of Henry VII. of England, and next
heir to the English crown. She succeeded her father, eight days af-
ter her birth. She was educated in France, as a catholic, and, in
early life, married the Dauphin, afterwards Francis II. Influenced
by her maternal uncles, the Guises, she consented to take the title ol
queen of England — an injudicious measure, equally calculated to
wound her own peace, and excite Elizabeth's resentment.
After her return to Scotland, on the death of Francis, she gave
her hand to her cousin Henry Stuart, (lord Darnley.) But the king,
her husband, being excluded from any share in the government, by
the advice (as he suspected) of Rizzio, an Italian musician, her
secretary and favourite, he, by the assistance of some of the princ'-
pal nobility, suddenly surprised tliem when at supper together, and
effected the death of Rizzio, in the queen's presence.
The next year, the king was blown up with gunpowder, in a pri-
vate house, to which lie had retired witli a few friends. The earl of
Bothwell, the new favourite of ftlary, is, not without reason, sup-
po.sed to have been the contriver of this murder. He was, however,
acquitted by the nobles of his and Mary's party ; and, in about two
months after, the imprudent princess condescended to marry him.
This shameful conduct, occasioned the revolt of the chief nobility;
ENGLAND. 205
and her best subjects, by whom she was taken prisoner, compelled
ner to resign tlie crown, and her son, James VI., was called to the
sovereignty. The queen, soon after, escaped from prison, and raised
an army to oppose the regent, Murray, who was determined on her
destruction, and whom she had frecpiently condemned, and as fre-
quently pardoned. She was, however, defeated, and fled to Eng-
land, in 1568, where she exjjected, from the repeated declarations of
Ehzabeth, protection and security.
Elizabeth, secretly delighted to lind a liatcd rival in her power,
proved unfaithful to her professions, and detained the unhappy
fugitive a prisoner, for eighteen years. She first, however, under
pretence of doing justice to Mary, had the cause of the latter en-
quired into, at a conference at York. But though nothing w;i>5
proved against her, Elizabeth saw fit to detain her in close con-
flnement.
The Scottish queen, during her tedious and merciless (confinement,
naturally desired, and her friends for her, a release. For a plot to
effect tiiis object, devised by her friends, and detected, she was held
responsible ; and though an independent sovereign, was tried by a
foreign power. Presumed, only, to be guilty, she was condennicd,
and soon alter barbarously beheaded, in Fotlieringay castle, in tlie
fortj'-iiftli year of her age, and in the nineteenth of her captivity.
Historians tell us, that when Mary was informed of the order fur
her execution, she was surprised, but betrayed no symptoms of feiw.
The inght before her execution, slie called in all her servants, and
bade them a solemn farewell. Next morning she dressed herself in
a rich habit of silk and velvet, and declared her resolution to die in
the faith in which she had been educated. It Avas on the 8th ot
Feb. 1587, v.licn she was brought to the block, and in tliat awful
conjuncture, displayed a fortitude and decency, which woidd have
honoured a matron of Rome; and to the moment of lier death,
united the majesty of a queen with the meekness of a martyr.
The bisliop of Lincoln, in a ])raycr on tiie occasion of her inn-ial.
used the following words — '"it is a cliarilable saying of fatlier
Luther, ' Many one liveth a Papist and dielh a Protestant:' only this
I have been informed, that she took her death patiently, and recom-
mended herself wholly to Jesus Christ."
Mary, liesides her eminent beauty, which was celebrated tlirough-
oui Europe, possessed the highest mental accomplishments. Slie
read and luiderstood several languages, wrote poetry, and cultivated
a knowledge of music. Her misfortunes were great; and thdugh
many of them were brought upon her by her indiscretions, if nut
crimes, the severity of her lot has culled forth general counnisera-
tion.
In the early part of Elizabeth's reign, the earl of Leicester was
her principal favourite; but after his death, she became attached to
the earl of Essex, as her minister ; and indeed there was, on the part
of the queen, though quite advanced in life, much of the appearan 'e
of a more tender passion. She seems, however, unalterably to have
'.kept her resolution "to live and die a maiden queen." She was
IS
20G MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
pleased Avith courtship, but kept aloof from matrimony. Essex ws.ii
a young nobleman of singular accomplishments, talents, and spirit.
The queen and Essex had many quarrels and I'econcili-ations. In
one instance, in consequence of some affront which he offered her,
she angrily gave him a box on the ear ; upon which Essex clapped
his hand on his sword, swearing he would not bear such usage, were
it from Henry VIII. ; and immediately withdrew from court. His
indiscretion, liowever, was soon pardoned. He was at length teased
by her capricious humour into a crime, which she could not pardon.
He had severely reflected on her person, (for though nearly in her
seventieth j^ear, she wished to be thought a beauty,) and connected
this with some suspicious movements of a treasonable nature. He
was soon arraigned, convicted, and brought to the block.
From this period her mind began to be depressed. The cause
doubtless was, the revival of her tenderness for Essex. While under
sentence of death, he sent by the coimtess of Nottingham, to Eliza-
beth, a ring which she had given him as a pledge of her afTection,
and of the confidence he might feel, in whatever disgrace he might
be, that the sight of it would secure her favourable interposition.
The countess, at the instigation of her husband, the mortal enemy
of Essex, neglected to deliver it ; and when on her beatli-l)ed, sent
for the queen, to inform her of the fact. Elizabeth, bursting into a
frantic passion, shook the dying countess in her bed, and exclaimed,
'' God may pardon you, but I never can."
From that moment the queen fell into the profoundest melancholy,
refused both food and medicine, and t'nrowing herself on the floor,
remained in that state several days and nights, till life became
extinct.
Essex, it appears, was much thought of in his day. We find in
an ancient account of him, the following quaint and hyperbolic
epitaph :
"Here sleeps great Essex, dearling of mankindc,
Faire honour's lampe, foule envie's prey, Artc's fame
Nature's pride, Virtue's bulwarkc, lure of minde,
AVisdome's flower, Valour's tower, Fortune's shame,
England's sunnc, Belgia's light, France's star, Spaine's thunder,
Lysbone's lightning, Ireland's clowde, the whole world's wonder."
23. Little needs be added respecting the character of
Elizabeth. In her private Hfe, she was less commendable
than in her public conduct. Slie possessed few (|uahties of
the heart which we love to see in all, especially in woman.
The rivalship of beauty, the desire of admiration, the jea-
lousy of love, the meanness of insincerity, and the sallies of
anger, sullied her character, and showed that she was still a
woman, but without the amiability of her sex. The attri-
butes of her intellect, however, merit the highest encomium,
and her public conduct was that of a queen. We give her
GERMANY. 207
full credit for vigour, firmness, penetration, and address — for
heroism without rashness, for frugality without avarice, foi
activity without the turbulence of ambition. Her proficiency
m learning was great, and she possessed extraordinary talents
for government. The security and defence of the EnglieU
people, were never placed in abler hands.
GERMANY.
24. At the commencement of the present period, Germany
was under tlie sway of Frederick IV. He erected Austria
into an Archduchy, and rendered his family the most power-
ful hi Germany, by marrying his son Maximilian, to Mary,
heiress of Burgundy and the Netherlands. He reigned
fifty-three years.
25. Maxin^.ilian I., his son, succeeded him, 1493. He
possessed mott of the qualities that signalize a great prince.
He freed Germany from the disorders of the feudal system,
and established peace among its separate sovereignties.
§ He was wanting in decision of mind, which seemed to be his
only failing as a prince ; in conscnuence of which, some of his im-
portant projects miscarried. His memory was so tenacious, that he
never forgot the names of persons he had once seen, or heard men-
tioned.
2(3. His grandson, Charles V., succeeded liim in the empire,
1519, having carried the election in preference to Francis I.,
of France. Some particulars respecting this distinguished
prince, were given in the iiistory of that country. A few
others will be added.
§ Charles was the oldest son of Philip, son of Maximilian, and of
.lane, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. He succeeded to the
throne of Spain, in 1516.
The first act of his administration, was to appoint an im-
perial diet, with a view to check the progress of Luther's
opinions, wiiich were represented as inimical to the peace of
Germany. About this time, also, Germany was divided into
ten circles. In 1521, connncnced the celebrated war between
Charles and Francis, in wiiich Charles obtained manifest ad-
vantage. In 1527, he took Rome, which was plundered by
the Germans during nine months. A few years afterwards,
Charles captured Tunis, and liberated twenty-two thousand
Christian slaves.
208 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII,
But the most extraordinary event pertaining to this sovef-
reign, was the vohnitary rehnquishnient of his kingly and
imperial authority. He resigned, first the Netherlands and
the kingdom of Spain, to his son Philip, in 1556, and after-
wards the empire, in favour of his brother Ferdinand. The
remainder of his life he spent in a monastery. An occur-
rence of this kind, is rare in the history of princes, who are
generally more fond of authority, the longer they have en-
joyed it.
§ Charles was the most powerful sovereign of Europe, his sway
extending over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and a part of Italy.
He was generally successful in war, though (if such was his aim)
universal empire was beyond his reach. He never could bring his
dominions into a well connected body. His enemies were nume-
rous and powerful, and gave him pei-petual annoyance. His care.s
and difficulties increased as he advanced in life, and finding his health
also decline, he detemiined to relinquish the burdens of government.
Accordingly, he recalled his son Pliilip, on whom, at liis recent
marriage with Mary, queen of England, he had bestowed the king-
doms of Naples and Sicily, and also the duchy of Milan. Having
assembled the states of the Low-Countries, at Brussels, he explained
the reasons of his resignation, recapitulated the most important ac-
tions of his life, and transferred the sovereign authority to Philip,
with such unaffected magnanimity and paternal affection, that the
whole audience melted into tears. A few weeks after this solemni-
ty, Charles conferred all his royalties and signiories, botli in Europe
and America, upon his son ; reserving nothing to himself, but a pen-
sion of 100,000 crowns, to be deducted from the revenue of Spain.
After making some ineffectual attempts to secure the German
princes in the interests of Philip, Charles made a formal resignation
of the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and immediately set out for
Spain, with a chosen retinue. Previously to his arrival in that coun-
try, a small building had been annexed to llie monastery of St. Just,
consisting of six rooms, four of them in the form of friar's cells, with
naked walls, and the other two hung with brown cloth, and furnish-
ed in the most simple nianner. Thither Charles retired, with only
twelve domestics ; and there, after a peaceful solitude of about two
years, he resigned his breath, in the fifty-ninth year of his age.
27. The successors of Charles in the empire, during tlie
remainder of this period, were, after Ferdinand I., his son
Maximilian II., and Rhodolph II. These princes generally
made use of pacific expedients, in the disputes carried on be-
tween the Protestants and the Catholics.
§ Ferdinand and Maxiniilivan, are said to have been most excellent
princes. From the latter, no one ever heard a harsh expression.
So economical were his arrangements, tliat to every act of his lifft «
its appropriate hour was allotted. The empire flourished in a pecii
GERMANY. 20"
liar manii' r under liis administration. Rhodolpli, though at war
Willi the 'i'urks, ahiiost the whole of his reign, was more occ-iipied
ivith tournament^, and the study of mechanics, chemistry, and as-
tronomy, than wii;i the affairs of state. lie frequently spent whole
days atthe shops of clockmakers, turners, «Scc., so eager was his de-
sire for that species of knowledge.
28. The refoniiatioii in relig-ion, l)y which the present pe-
>iotl is so pecuharly distinguislicd, is the most important event
in the history of Germany. It commenced in that conntry,
whence it spread rapidly through several other European na-
tions. It was connected with a new era in the rehgious his-
tory of tlie world. By it, Papacy received a woimd, from
which it can never recover. Tlie date of tliis event, is 1517.
Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, was the first instrument
employed i)y an overruling Providence, in accomphshing this
great moral revolution. His attention was excited to the
corru^ption and abuses of the Catholic religion, by the sale ot
indulgcncics, at that time instituted throughout all the Chris-
tian kingdoms of Europe. Leo X., in order to raise money
lor the com|)letion of his magnificent buildings at Rome, had
published general indulgences ; that is, remittances from the
pains of purgatory : and the elector of Mentz, authorised the
Dominicans to receive the money, and preach up the merits
of such a contribution.
But the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all
sin^, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, gave great
ofi'ence to many religions persons, and induced Luther, who
was then a professor of divinity at Wittemberg, to expose the
absurtlity of such odious traffic. His indignation was aroused ;
and indeed, the enormity of these doings, opened his eyes to
the ini(|uity of the whole system.
His anathemas found many willing hearers, particularly in
the electorate of Saxony, though Tetzel, the papal agent,
\ igorously combattcd him. Luther, however, by degrees ac-
(juired great popularity, and his influence brought other di-
\ incs into the controversy. Persecution was now resorted to
by the pope and his emissaries, but this only increased his
/ceal and indignation as a preacher. Luther was soon cited
by the pope, to appear at Rome, within sixty days. Prince
Frederick, elector of Saxony, however, requested that the re-
former might plead his cause in Germany ; and Luther re-
paired, under the protection of a safe conduct, to the imperial
IS*
210 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
diet, convoked by Charles at Augsburg, '.efore cn.idinal Caje
tan ; but instead of making any recantaiion, he boldly avow-
ed his resolution of defending his doctrines, though all the
terrors of the church should be denounced against him. As
the pope's legate, however, proceeded to menaces, Luther re-
tired privately from Augsburg, having first complained, by
^etter, to the pope, of the harsh treatment he had received from
Cajetan.
Having arrived safely into Saxony, he found the mass there
universally abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents
shut up. The spirit which had been thus kindled, spread
next inio Switzerland, Avhere it produced the most important
changes. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, soon embraced
the Lutheran tenets ; and the protestants, as they were all
called who embraced the reformed religion, multiplied in the
Netherlands, France, and England, as well as in Germany
The quarrel wliich Henry VHI., who was no protestant him
self, had with the pope, was the means of advancing the re-
formation in England, and of subverting the ancient iaith
The cruel persecutions of which the papists were guilty,
greatly aided the good cause, in the end.
SPAIN.
29. Spain had, for several ages, been held by the Moors,
or Mahometans. This people, however, had lost one province
after another, till towards the close of the fifteenth century, only
Granada remained subject to their authority. Upon the acces-
sion of Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1479, the crowns of Cas-
tile and Arragon were happily united, and thus all the Chris-
tian principalities in Spain, found themselves under one
sceptre ; and, with the conquest of Granada, which the king
and queen elTected in 1492, Spain became one entire monar-
chy. Ferdinand and Isabella were, in effect, two sovereign
princes, though professedly united in mairiage.
The Moors suliered terribly in the siege of Granada, and
with the loss of their dominions, were, for the most part,
obliged to retire into Africa.
§ To Ferdinand and Isabella, the establishment of the terrible In-
quisition, in Spain, is owing. Two thousand persons are said to have
sutTered death under Torquemada, the first inquisitor general. This
instance of intemperate and ferocious zeal, in the king and queen.
SPAIN. 211
may well be set off against the several good qualities, which it is al-
lowed, iliey possessed. Their reign was signalized by the discove-
ries made by the gi-eat Columbus.
30. Jane, who Ijecanie deranged, succeeded her mothe.
Isabella, in Castile, Avith her husband, Philip of Austria.
On the death of her father, Jane being unlit to reign, her
son Charles I., afterwards Charles V., was acknowledged
sovereign of all Spain, 1510. His history has already been
related.
§ During Charles's reign, Mexico was conquered by Fernando
Cortez, in I5I9, and Peru by Pizarro in 1525. The Spanish do
minions were thus greatly extended.
31. Philip IL, .succeeded his father upon the abdication of
the latter, in 1550. In his time, the balance of power in
Europe, was sustained by Spain, France, England and Ger-
many, all, at this time, iiighly nourishing and respectable, either
from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength.
Philip was an acute and able politician, though his policy
[)artook somewhat of selfish cunning. He was sovereign of
Spain, the two Sicilies, Milan, and the Netluulands. He
had likewise, for a few years, the resources of England at
••ommand, b}' his marriage with Mary, the English queen,
ilis power was great, but his ambition was greater; and
fliough he met with occasional success, at the close of along
and busy reign, he had accomplished but few of his nume-
rous projects.
§ Pope Paul IV., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alli-
ance with the king of France, to deprive the Spaniards of Milan and
the Sicilies. Philip, witii tlic aid of the English, defeated the French'
at St. Quiiitin, and hoped, from this signal victory, to force the
allies into a peace. Another signal victory, however, was necessary.,
which Philip gained near Gravtliiics, the result of v.-hich was, that
the French surrendered to Spain, no less than eighty-nine fortified
towns, in the low countries, and in Italy.
Philip was an intolerant bigot in religion, and it was owing to his
cruel attempis to enforce a uniformity of religious opinion in the
Niiherlands, tiiat the latter broke away from liis authority, as will
be detailed below.
HOLLAND,
32. Holland became a republic by the union of Utrecht,
in 1.579. The states combined to defend their conmion
liberties, on account of the tyranny of their sovereign, Philip
II. Seven of the seventeen provinces, constituting the Neth-
212 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIJI.
erlands, came into the measure. The remaining ten pro
vinces had their charter renewed by Phihp, and did not be
come independent until in the beginning of the eighteenth
century.
§ Holland, is another appellation for the Seven United Provinces,
so called, from its chief province being of that name. The remain-
ing ten are known by the name of Flanders. The duchy of Bur-
gundy, composed of some of these provinces, was originally equal
to any power in Europe. The wliole of the Netherlands, except
three states, were annexed to the German empire, by marriage, 1477.
They were afterwards resigned to the king of Spain.
In the early periods of their history, the Hollanders became sub-
ject to the Franks, under whom, they were divided into small gov-
ernments, the heads of which were despotic, in their own dominions.
Holland and the Netherlands, were uaited to German}', under one
of tlie grandsons of Charlemagne, but became independent in the
tenth century. At length, in 1443, they Were subject to the dukes
of Burgundy. The next transfer of tliese states, was to Germany,
Charles V. l^eing heir to the house of Burgundy.
They endured the rule Of Charles, but the tyraniiy of his son
Philip n., was not to be borne. The ileformation had made a con-
siderable progress in the Netherlands. Philip, with a view to repress
it, established the Inquisition, projected certain innovations, which
created alarm and tumult, and sent an army under the duke of Alva,
fo enforce implicit submission. The consequence of tliese measures
was, that many thousands of persons, and some of the highest dis-
tinction, perished by tlie hands of the executioner. It is computed
that 18,000 were the victims of the five years' administration of
Alva.
William, the prince of Orange, on whom the government of seve-
ral of the provinces liad been conferred, and who was now, himself,
under the sentence of the Inquisition, raised an army on this occa-
sion, and undertook the deliverance of the states. Having reduced
some of tiie most important garrisons, he was proclaimed Stadtholder
of Holland and Zealand, in L570.
The whole seventeen provinces had equally suffered from the
tyranny of Philip ; but only seven of them could agree to form a
confederated republic. The influence of jealousy and competition,
prevented the imion of the wliole. By the treaty wliich was formed,
it was agreed that they should defend their liberties, as one united
republic; that they should jointly decide in the concerns of peace
and war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain re-
ligious freedom. Wilham Was elected Stadtlioldcr of the whole
seven, a title which included the duties of a general, admiral, and
magistrate.
Tlie effusion: of blood, which had been great prior to this union,
was not hereby mucli diminislied. The crown of Spain, strained
every nerve to recover those provinces. Philip, venting his indig-
nation, by a proscription of the prin«e of Orange, and offering '25,000
AMERICA. 213^
crowns for his head, compassed his revenge ; for this ilhistrious man
was cut off by an assassin, 1584. By persevering courage, however,
and assisted by quocu Elizabeth of England, and Henry IV. of
France, the Hollanders, at length, completely established their inde
pendence, and brought the Spanish monarch to acknowledge tliem
as a free people.
Maurice, the son of William, was elected Stadtholder, in the room
of his father, and displayed the most consummate talents, as a states-
man and warrior, having conducted the struggle to the issue already
related.
AMERICA.
33. The immense portion of the earth called America,.
was unknown to Europe, Asia, and Africa, till the year 1492,
when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a native
of Genoa, in a voyage which he made from Spain, sailing
west, for the purpose of finding a new continent, or at least
of arriving at India, in this direction. He first met, not with
the continent, but the islands in its vicinity.
§ The discovery of the new world, was one of the greatest and hap-
piest results of genius, that mankind have ever witnessed. The im-
portance of the discovery cannot be easily overrated. An event so
unlooked for, so unthought of, expanded the views, afid waked up
the energy of the human mind. It excited a spirit of enterprise, un-
felt before. Its influence on commerce, and consequently wealth,
was, from the beginning, great and decisive, by immensely increas-
ing the articles of traffic. The mines of America furnished, also, a
great abundance of tlic precious metals ; thus nniltiplyLng the amount
of the circnlatina medium tliroughout the world. Colonization, and
the arts of civilized life, have been advanced and extended, by means
of this discovery ; the si)bere of human enjoyment enlarged, and
especially the blessings of the true rehgion, comanmicated to greater
numbers of mankind. America luis also given to the world a new
and bright example, both of civil and religious freedom ; the effects of
which, are destined to be felt through all time, and, perhaps, among
all nations. Some evils have, indeed, been incident to the discovery,
but they are exceedingly outweighed by its propitious results, and
will continue to be so, judsing from the known principles of human
nature, and from the dealings of divine providence.
It has been believed by some, that America was not imknown to
the ancienis. 'i'lie theory has gained advocates, from a few pas-
sages in the works of some of the writers of antiquity, and also from
coincidences intlie langiiages and customs of some of the nations of
the old and new continent. Rut the theory has little ground for its
support. Certainly, at the revival of letters in Europe, no traces of the
knowledge of another continent existed ; and it was generally suppo-
sed, that the Canaries formed the western boundaries of the world.
To Columbus, an account of whom will appear in a biographical
214 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII.
sketch, about to follow, mankind are indebted for the correction of
this error, and the discovery of a new continent. From a long and
close application to the study of geography, this great man had ob-
tained a knowledge of the true figure of the earth, far beyond what
was common to the age in which he lived. Another continent, he
conceived necessarily existed, to complete the balance of this terra-
queous globe; but he erroneously supposed it to be connected with,
that of India. The truth of his speculations, he now ardently de-
sired to prove, by experiment. In this, however, he met with great
difficulty, and it was not until the expiration of several years, that his
project was patronized by any prince or court in Europe. Queen.
Isabella, of Spain, has immortalized her name, by rendering the
first effectual assistance to Columbus,
One great motive which influenced Columbus and his patroness,
aside from the hope of ascertaining the existence of anew continent,
was to find a passage to China and the East Indies, by sea : or rather,
the latter, may have been the sole motive, connecting the supposed
new regions with the east of Asia. It had been long an object of
study, to find such a passage, and thus avoid the inconvenience and
expense of transporting the merchandise of India, across tlie land,
from the Red Sea, to Alexandria, in Egypt. The passage round the
Cape of Good Hope, was not then known, and the shortest route
Vas supposed, by Columbus, to be by the west. It is to be remem-
bered, that the maps of that period, represented the oriental countries
of Asia, as stretching vastly f;irther to the east, than has since been
proved to be the fact. Columbus was fitted, in every point of view,
for his mighty and perilous undertaking.
Never was success more complete, or a great idea more happily
realized. With inconsiderable means, and an ill-appointed flotilla
of three small ves.sels, victualled for twelve months, and having on
board ninety men, he commenced his unpromising adventure. Leav-
mg Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, he sailed directly for the
Canaries, whence, having refitted his frazy ships, he kept a due
western course, over an unknown ocean, not without a compass, but
without a chart. His compass, however, occasioned perplexity.
The variation of the magnetic needle from due north, was first ob-
served, when he had sailed about 200 leagues from the Canaries,
and so terrified his men, that they were scarcely restrained from
mutiny. All his address and talents were now put in requisition.
The phenomenon of the needle seemed portentous to himself, but
his ingenuity devised a solution of it, which silenced the complaints
of his crew.
After this, he pursued his voyage, yet not without the frequent
manifestation of anxiety and impatience, on the part of his crew.
Thirty days had transpired since they had left the Canaries, and no
land appearing, both officers and men joined in a revolt. Columbus
was forced partially to give way to their remonstrances, and pro-
posed to return, after the expiration of three days, if they should
find no land. Some indications of it had already begun to appear,
AMERICA. 215
and, on the 11th of October, the joyful sight was descried, first by
Columbus himself. God was immediately praised, and tlie sailors
were now as ardent in tluar expressions of repentance and admira-
tion, as they had been, before, insolent and ungovernable.
34. St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, was the island fust
discovered. Cokunbus allerwards toiiclied at Cuba, and
Hispaniola, (St. Domingo,) now Hayti. On the latter he left
some of his men, to form a colony. His theory led him to
call the regions he had discovered, by the name of ^Vest In-
dies ; since he had reached India, or a portion of the globe
which he supposed to be near it, by a western passage.
Columbus returned to Spain in the following May, and soon
set out, with a much larger expedition, on a second voyage.
In this he was so happy as to add many other islands to
those already found. In a third voyage, he discovered Trini-
dad, and the continent at the mouth of the Oronoke, 1498.
The fame of his discoveries, drew adventurers from all
parts of Europe ; and, among others, Americus Vesputius, a
Florentine, a man of science and genius, who, a few years
afterwards, following the footsteps of Columbus, acquired the
undeserved honoiu" of giving his name to the new world.
In 1497, one year before the main 1-and of South
America had been discovered by Columbus, .Tohn Cabot, a
V'enetiau by birth, but at that time an iidiabitant of England,
proceeded on a voyage of discovery, imder a commission from
the British king, and foimd the continent of North America.
Touching at various parts of the coast, he took possession of
the country, in behalf of the crown of England.
The Spaniards, after an interval of a few years, made
settlements in the new world, and, impelled by a thirst of
gold, connnitted horrible butcheries in several of the islands,
nnd especially in Mexico and Peru, imder Cortez, Pizarro,
and Alinagro. These brave adventurers, though base men,
estal)lished the authority of Spain over countries which they
depopulated by their avarice and cruelty. In the year 1500.
the coast of Brazil was accidentally discovered by Alvarez de
Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, in consequence of having
been driven too far to the west, on a voyage roimd the Cape
of Good Hope. Hence, the settlement and possession of that
part of America, by the people of Portugal.
§ Columbus, as we have seen, entertained the idea that the re-
gion he had discovered, was India, or apart of the continent ol'
216 MODERN HISTORY.-^PERIOD VIII.
Asia. This notion was generally received, until 1513, when the Pa-
cific Ocean being descried from the mountains of the isthmus of
Darien, the illusion began to be dispelled.
Fernando Cortez, M'as a successful, but execrable adventurer, Iv.
was on the occasion of being sent, in 1519, by the governor of
Cuba, upon an exjiedition to the main, that he first heard of the ex-
istence of the rich and flourishing empire of IMexico. Stimulated
by the loA'e of power and gain, he resolved to make the conquest of
that country. He had at his command only 617 men, and a very
few fire-arms, (thirteen muskets and ten small field pieces,) these
having not yet come into general use. His other instruments of
death, were cross-bows, swords, and spears. But it was the former
description of weapons, few as they were, that gained for this
handful of Spaniards, a conquest over a numerous people. They
looked upon fire-arms as the weapons of the gods.
Landing at Vera Cruz, Cortez advanced, though with a brave op-
position from the natives, into tlie heart of the country. On the ap
proach of the Spaniards to the capital, the terror of. their name had
paved the way for an easy conquest. T'he Mexican sovereign, Mon-
tezuma, received the invaders with great hospitality and kindness.
Indeed, he regarded them with \he reverence due to superior beings.
An occasion, however, was not long wanting, on the part of Cortez,
for puttins his bold and hazardous project into execution.
Some difHculty between his soldiers and the natives, became the
pretext for his seizure of Montezuma. Marching to tlie palace, with
fifty men, he put the emperor in irons, and carried him off prisoner
to his camp. This flagrant abuse of their hospitality, aroused the
Mexicans, who fleeing to arms, expelled the Spaniards from the
capital. Montezuma having, during the affray, offered to mediate
between the Mexicans and tlieir enemies, was indignantly put t(.
death by one of his own subjects. Gautirnozin, son of Montezuma
Immediately succeeded him, and armed *he whole empire against
the p8rfi;Iious Spaniards.
Cortez. l)y a fortunate concurre'iico of events, having induced a
nation of tlie Indians to revolt, and having obtained a reinforcement
of Spaniards, commenced the siege of the city, and soon took it, to-
gether with Gautimozin, and bec;ime master of the empire, in 1521.
The emperor was treated by the Spaniards in a manner shocking to
humanity. Refusing to discover the place v/here his treasures were
hid, the miserable man was stretched naked, for some time, on
burning coals. Soon after, on the discovery of a conspiracy against
the Spaniards, he was executed on a gibbet, with all the princes of his
blood. This was the last lilow to the power of the Mexican?:. IMie
nefarious Cortez, and his few associates, enjoy the honour or the in-
famy, in the way now narrated, of having brought this simple and
unsuspecting people, under the yoke of Spain.
"\\ !ii!e Cortez was employed in the reduction of Mexico, the Span
iards were informed of a still more rich and extensive empire, in th<}
south. This was Pern, at that time governed by the inca,or king, Ata
^bahpa. Francis Pizarro, in 1525, had sailed to and visited the coua
AMERICA. 217
ry. He afterwards iiiulertook the conquest of it. in connection
with Diego Ahn.igro, and Ferdinand Lucques, two iinprnicipled ad-
venturers like iiiniself ; and for tiiis purpose, sailed in 1531, from
Panama, with three small vessels and 300 men.
Willi this inconsiderable force, he invaded the country, and
marchnig to the residence of the inca, he seized his person by stra-
tagem, having employed friendship and religion as the cover of his
villany. In this defenceless condition, the king was obliged to sub-
mit to the slaughter of his attendants, and to the exaction of an
enormous quantity of gold and silver, as the price of his ransom.
When, however, the treasure was committed into the hands of the
Spaniard, with perfidious cruelty, he still retained the wretched
monarch a prisoner, and finally, by a mock trial, condemned and
executed him, as a usurper and idolator.
The vast booty wliich fell into the possession of the victors, be-
came soon an occasion of dispute among themselves. War only
could settle it ; in the course of which, both Pizarro and Almagro
perished. 'J'his contention lasted seventeen years, and Peru became
the theatre of the most licentious rapine and cruelty.
In the year 1548, the celebrated Las Casas, was sent from Spainj
as viceroy. Under his administration, the country obtained repose,
as a province of Spain; and, notwithstanding the temporary success
of their new inca, IluancaCapac, who rose against the Spaniards, the
whole Peruvian people were effectually broken down and subdued.
The inhabitants of the American continent and its islands, were
a race of men quite new to the Europeans. They were of a cop-
per colour, and liad no beard. In some parts of the continent, as
Mexico and Peru, they had made considerable progress towards
civilization. They were not wanting, in a degree, as to polish, and
even luxury. Architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the
precious metals, were understood. Their persons were clothed,
tlieir lands cultivated, and their state governed by fixed laws and
regulations. In Peru there were some magnificent palaces and tem-
ples. In other parts of the new world, man was a naked savage,
the member of a wandering tribe, whose sole occupation was hunt-
ing or war. The savages of the continent were characterized alike
by their cruelty to their enemies, their contempt of death, and their
generG.->ity towards their friends. The islanders were a milder race,
of gentle manners, and less robust constitutions.
The inliumaniiy with Miiicli the Spaniards treated these simple
and unoffending people, is sliocking to every reader of sensibility.
To convert them to the holy and benevolent religion of the Saviour
the most violent means were employed, by men who were strano^ers
to tlie spirit of that religion. The rack, the scourge, and the faggot
were the principal engines used for their conversion. 'J'hcy were
hunted down like wild beasts, or burnt alive in their thickets and
fastnesses. Some of the islands were nearly depopulated.
The conversion of the Indians, however,jvas less an object, than the
desire of obtaining the precious metals which they possessed. So
19
21§ MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD VIII.
powerful was the passion for gold, that the first adventurers endu-
red every fatigue, and encountered every danger, in search of it ;
and, by compelling the natives to dig in the mines, prematurely de-
stroyed the lives of vast nudtitudes of this hapless race. It being
the practice of the Europeans to take possession of the regions in
America which they visited, by the pretended right of discovery,
they seem to have made no account of the aboriginals, depriving
them of liberty, or life, whenever occasion or passion demanded.
The Spani^'h acquisitions in America, before the late revolution
among them, belonged to the crown, and not to the state : they were
the absolute property of the sovereign, and regulated solely by his
will. The pope, agreeably to principles which governed men in a
dark and superstitious age, granted to the monarclis of Spain, the
countries discovered by their subjects, in America. They were go-
verned by viceroys, who exercised supreme civil and militaiy au-
thority over their provinces.
Distinguished Characters in Period VIIL
1. Columbus, an eminent navigator, and discoverer of
America.
o' TVT "^i 'i i masters of painting among the moderns.
3. M. Angelo, ) r & ^^
4. Erasmus, a Dutchman, eminent in philology and gene-
ral literature.
5. Copernicus, a Prussian astronomer, and discoverer of
the true system of the universe.
6. Luther,
7. Calvin,
8. Camoens, a distinguished Portuguese poet.
9. Buchanan, a Scotch historian and poet.
10. Montaigne, a celebrated French essayist.
1 1. Tasso, prince of Itahan poets,
12. Spenser, one of the greatest of the English poets.
§ Columbus (Christopher) was born 1442, at Genoa, son of a
vvoolcomber. He was early inured to the labours of the sea, and
acquired great experience in navigation. With the sciences imme-
diately connected with his profession, he was acquainted, beyond
most men of his age. Indeed, this great man was far in advance of
The rest of the world, and anticipated the illumination of a distant
futurity. For the splendid discovery Avhich he was destined to
make, his temperament and his previous course of life, eminently
fitted him. There was an enthusiasm in his character, a lofty ex-
pectation, and a religions fervour of soul, which spurned ordinary
difficulties, and raised him immensely above ordinary men. By his
knowledge of maritime alfairs, as well as by reasoning, he became
eminent theologians and reformers.
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 219
persuaded that a continent must exist in tlie western ocean. To
ascertain the trutli of his theory, was an object which soon engross-
ed all his time and faculties. And, after much effort and many trials
and disappointments, in regard to assistance, he was permitted to
realize the grand idea he had so happily conceived.
He made application to several courts, before he could obtain the
requisite means and patronage, and it was only after much delay,
tliat he was finally enabled to prosecute his discoveries under the
auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He sailed on the third
of August, 1492, in three small ships, and returned to Spain in May
the following year. In the mean lime he had discovered a new
world, and had taken possession of a portion o*" it, in the name of
his sovereign. This event filled Spain, and all Europe, with amaze-
ment, and the greatest honours -vvere accorded to him in the coun-
try, whose annals he has so signallj' adorned. He made three sub-
sequent voyages tot'ic new world, in the second of which he reach-
ed the continent; but powerful enemies had now risen up, jealous of
his ascendency, who impugned his motives or decried his services,
and so much influinice had they with the Spanish court, that
Columbus, in his third voyage was sent back to Spain in irons.
Though he suffered much in the latter part of life, he finally trium-
{)hed over his enemies, and peacefully left the world, on the twentieth
of May, 1506.
The memory of Columbus will be cherished while the world
stands; thcmgh in consequence of one of those untoward events
that sometimj's occur, he has been deprived of the honour of giving
his name to the hemisphere wiiich his genius brought to light.
Signal must have been the satisl'action of his mind, notwithstand-
ing the disasters through wliich he passed, in view of the transcen-
dent benefits whicli Providence had made him the instrument of
conferring on mankind.
2. Raphael (Sanzio) was born at Urbino, 1483. By studying the
best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and merited the
appellation of the divine Raphael. He also excelled as an architect,
and was eiuployed in the building of St. Peter's, at Rome. He came
to an untimely grave, in consequence of his addiction to licentious
pleasures, dying at the age of thirty-seven years. By the general
constMit of mankind, he is acknowledged to have been the prince of
l)aiiUers. He excelled in beauty and grace.
3. Angelo Buonaroti (Michael) was not only a great painter, but-
.sculptor, and arciiitect. He was even an elegant poet. In architec-
ture be surpassed all the moderns, and he was the greatest designer
that ever lived. He is said to have sucke<l sculpture with his very
milk, inasmuch as he was mu'sed by a woman whose husband was
eminent in that art. The (>arly displays of his genius, raised so
great a jealousy ainf)iig iiis youtiiful rivals, that one of tiiein struck
him with such violence on the nose, that Ik; carried the mark to his
grave. The most celcliraled of his paintincfs, is the Last .ludgment.
His arcliiteotiu il abilities are best displayed on the church of Su
220 MODERN HISTORY; PERIOD VIII.
Peter's, at Rome, the building of which he completed. His style is
that of grandeur and sublimity, united with the utmost simplicity and
beauty. Sir Joshua Reynolds declared, that the last word which
he wished to utter from tlie academic chair, was the name of Michael
Angelo. Description can convey but a very imperfect image of
" Buonaroti's car
Midst epic glories flaming from afar."
Only the sight can give one an idea of his peculiar excellence. He
lived ninety years.
4. Erasmus (Desiderius) was the most learned man of the age in
which he lived, and contributed by his example and writings, to the
restoration of learning in Europe. He was somewhat of a wander-
er, having occasionally resided in Italy, Switzerland, Holland, France,
and England. With the last of these countries he was best pleased,
and there he met with the greatest encouragement from Henry VH.,
Sir Thomas More, and all the learned Englishmen of those day.s.
He was the most correct and elegant Latin writer among the mo-
derns. Rotterdam, is to this day proud of having given birth to
Erasmus. The house in which he was born is still marked out to
the admiration of the traveller by a suitable inscription, and a beau-
tiful copper statue was long since erected to his memory in an o])cn
part of the city.
In the great question of Protestantism and Popery, he was claim-
ed on both sides, though neither party was pleased with him. Here
is a dark spot on his character. He was evidently temporising,
timid, and undecided. He lashed the vices and follies of the Pa-
pists, while he seemed to be indifferent to the success, or jealous of
the labours of the reformers. He died at Basil, July 12, 1536, aged
sixty -nine.
5. Copernicus (Nicholas) \vas a native of Thorne hi Prussia. In
nis twenty-third year he went to Italy in search of knowledge.
After some years' absence, and having in the mean time acted as
professor of mathematics at Rome, lie returned home. Here he
began to apply his vast knowledge, to an examination of the different
theories respecting the universe. The simplicity of the Pythagorean
system pleased him best ; and after twenty years of profound inves-
tigation, he removed from tlie macliine of the universe, the cycles
and epicycles of former astronomers, and placed the sun in the cen-
tre to illuminate and control the whole. This great discovery he
kept concealed for more than thirty years, for fear of exciting against
himself the persecuting spirit of bigotry. When at last he consent-
ed, through the importunities of his friends, to have his work pub-
lished, and a copy of it was brought to him, he was a few hours
afterwards seized with a violent effusion of blood, which terminated
his life, 24th May, 1543. in his seventieth year.
6. Lut.licr (Martin) was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. His
parents designed him for a civilian, but by the foljnwing awful inci-
dent, his views were directed to tlie church. As he was walking in
the fields \vitli a fellow-student, they »\vcre struck by ligiitning
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 221
Lutticr to the ground, and his companion dead by his side. Hia
mind was so miicli aff(;ctcd by the event, tliat without consulting
nis friends, he formed and executed the resolution of retiring from
the world. He entered into the order of Augustine hermits, at
Krfinlh. From this place he removed to Wittemberg, being ap-
pointed by the elector of Saxony, professor of tlieology and philo-
sophy in the university just founded there by that prince. It was
m his retirement at Erfurlh, that he providentially found a Latin
Bible, the first he ever saw, and in penising it he \\'as astonished at
the little knowledge of Scripture and Christianity, which the clergy
then imparted to the people.
After he had been al Wittemberg three years, he was sent to Rome
to plead the cause of some converts of his order, who had quarrel-
led with their vicar-general. While he was at the seat of the papal
power, he became more than ever convinced of the ignorance and
debauched lives of the dignitaries of the churcli. This probably
gave him the first decided disgust to the Romish ecclesiastical go-
vernment, especially as he had engaged in the monastic life, from
motives of aeiuiiiie piet\^ Upon his return to Wittemberg, he was
created D. D. at the request of the elector of Saxony, and continued
to act as professer of divinity in the universit}'. Here he explained,
with clearness and ease, the Psalms and the Epistle to the Romans,
and supported iiis reputation by the most rigid morality, and the
most exemplary conduct.
The minds of his auditors being tluis prepared, a favourable occa-
*-ion soon offered for carrying into execnlion his glorious plan of re-
formation. The completion of St. Peter's church, at Rome, at this
lime, required extraordinary sums, and pope Leo X. publislied, in
1517, general indulgences for the forgiveness of sin, to such as
would contribute to the i)ious work. The Dominicans were intrust-
ed with the selling of these indulgences in Germany; and in paying
their nione}-, tlie friar Tetzcl informed the superstitious people, that
they miglit release themselves, not only from past, but also future
sins. Luther's holy indignation was roused by these vile practices,
and he preached against them, with wonderful success. Persecution
soon followed, and the reformer became tlie object of the papal ven-
ueauce. Luther, however, was undismayed, and, in an astonishing
-•cries of efforts, in which he was opposed by all the power and
poncy of the papal world, he. achieved the object of his long clie-
rished wishes.
In 1521, liUther threw aside the monastic habit, and thf next year
married a nun, who had escaped from a convent, and, thougn l.c
was ridiculed and censured by his enemies, he confounded them all
by his appeal to the Scriptures. By her, ho had three sons, whose
descendants are still respected in Germany. Luther died in the
place of his nativity, 18th February, 154G.
Luther was singularly (jualified for the service he performed. He
was a man of hig'.i endowments of mind, and great upriirhtness — a
friend of true religion, libertv, and liu.nian happiness. His under-
222
MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII.
standing was vast, and his knowledge unequalled, almost, iii the age
in which he lived. Especially had he an admirable acquaintance
with the Scriptures, which he expounded with equal eloquence and
(;l{;arness. In courage, resolution, and decision, he was an example
to all reformers.
7. Calvin, (John,) a coadjutor of Luther in the reformation, was
born at Noj'on, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. His early piety mark-
ed him out for the church ; but though he assumed tlie functions of
the ministry, he was too much disgusted with the superstitions of
the Romish church, to remain in her communion. His knowledge
of the Bible had opened his eyes to the abominations of the " man
of sin." He now applied himself to the study of the laws, in which
he made great progress ; at the same time, he extended his ac-
quaintance with divinity. He soon entered most cordially into the
reformation ; and his zeal and labour as a writer and disputant,
very essentially aided the work. With difficulty, however, he
escaped from the vengeance of the catholics; but his confidence in
God was not to be shaken, and having taken his position, he felt
that it was to be maintained. He spent most of his active life at
Geneva, where he undertook the ministry, and filled the chair of the
professor of divinity. He was, however, once expelled the place
on account of refusing to administer the sacrament indiscriminately,
and again experienced trouble in the affair of Servetus.
Calvin, by his vast abilities, and by his clear views of re<igion, at-
tracted the attention of the world, and it might almost be said, that
"the care of all the churches" rested on him. Many of the reformed
churches of German}', France, England, and Poland, looked to him
as their head, and he was in the habit of directing them 1 y his let-
ters. He died, 1564.
Calvin was a man of pre-eminent piety and talents, and, though
not faultless, he has rendered such a service to the cause of evangeli-
cal truth, and of the reformation, as to deserve the gratitude oi
})Osterity. Scaliger says, that no commentator has better hit the
sense of the prophets than he.
8. Camoens (Lewis) is known principally as the author of the
Lusiad, an epic poem, which has been translated into the most im-
])ortant languages of Europe, (,'amoens is deservedly called the
Virgil of his country, and in his work has displayed great poAvers
of description, extensive lt>:irning, and a sublime imagination.
Misfortune marked his course in life. In the service of his coun-
try, he lost an eye. On his return from the Indies, whither he had
gone to better his fortune, he was shipwrecked, and .saved his life
with difliculty, by swimming witli his right arm, and holding up
his poem, with his left.
After he had published his poem, and dedicated it to the king, he
was cruelly disappointed, as to patronage; and feeling all the mise-
ries of indigence and neglect, he expired in the midst of his ungrate-
ful countrymen. He lived fifty-two years.
0. Buchanan (George) was born in the shire of Lenox, in Scot-
iDISTiNGUISHED CHARACTERS. 223
land, in 1506. lie early embraced, from conviction, the tenets of Lu-
ther, and, as the consequence, suffered persecution from tlie catho-
lics. He became tutor to James I. of England, and employed the
last twelve or tliirteen years of his life, in wrhmg the history of his
country. lie occasionally resided in England and France, but died
in his native country, at Edinburgh, 1582. His history is written
in a nervous, elegant, and perspicuous style, but is occasionally de-
ficient in fidelity and accuracy. He has the reputation of an able
scholar, whose mind was stored with all the fire, the elegance, and
the graces of aiu-icnt literature, and who, in a barbarous age, revi-
ved in his poetry, the beauty and grandeur of the Roman muses.
10. Montaigne was born of an ancient family at Perigord, in
France, 1533. He was instructed to speak Latin first, as his mother
tongue. Disdaining the drudgeries of law, for which he was intend-
ed, he travelled, witli a view to make observations on men and man-
ners. In tlie latter part of his life, he enjoyed learned ease and phi-
losophical society. His essays liave been repeatedly published.
They are able and amusing productions, though unsafe to be put in-
to the hands of youth, on account of tlieir scepticism. Some per-
sons have extravagantly praised them.
11. Tasso (Torquato) was born at Sorrento, in the kingdom of
Naples, in l.'>44, and derives his celebrity from his " Jerusalem De-
livered," an e[)ic poem of great merit. Like the works of Homer
and Virgil, it has gained the palm of immortality. Tasso passed a
life of varied and great sulTcring. Among oilier calamities, he was
confined by the duke of Ferrara, wlio had been his patron, in an
hospital, for a long time, under the pretence that he was insane. Tas-
so had been guiltj' only of an imprudence. Unfortunately, he had
fallen in love with the princess Kleonora, the duke's sister, and, on
a certain occasion, he made bold to embrace her, in the midst of a
crowded assembly. For this ofl^ence, the unfortunate lover was
obliged to mourn his disappointment in a tedious solitude, rendered
more tedious by a lingerinof disease, and occasional lunacy. He was
at last relea-<(^d, and his merits as a poet began to be more known ;
but just as he was on the point of receiving the laurel crown from
the pope, he suddenly expired, and that which was to have been, on
Iho next day, his coronation, proved to be the melancholy proces-
sion of his funeral. He was fifty-one years of aire.
12. Spenser (Edmund) is deservedly regarded as little inferior,
either in invention or in judgment, and true fire of the nuise, to
any author, ancient or modern. But Mitli all his beauties, he was
fanciful and chimerical, and without uniformity, so that his poem is
truly fairy land. His sublimity, variety, and fertile imagination, are
unfortunately to be set oft' against his oijsolete language, and heavy
stanza. His Fairy Que(Mi, is his most celebrated poem.
He was poet laureat to queen Elizabeth, and was employed some-
what in public life. At one period, he was possessed of wealth ; but
Desmond's revolt in Ireland, where his property lay, proved his ruin.
He was plundered and robbed of his estate, one of his children was
'224 niODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
burned in t'.ie conflagration of his house, and broken in heart and
fortune, he came to London, where he died, in 1598.
PERIOD IX.
77^6 'period of the English Commonwealth ; extending
from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 ■f/eaj's A. C, to the death
of Charles XII. of iSiveden, 1718 years A. C.
FRANCE.
House of Bonrhon.
Sect. 1 . Henry IV., had now occupied the throne of France
several years. He had changed his rehgion from pohtical
considerations, but did an act of justice to the Calvinists, by
vviiose aid he liad secured the sceptre, in granting the famous
Edict of Nantes, by \viiicli lie tolerated them, as well as all
his subjects, in the unfettered exercise of their religion.
Henry's own great abilities and love of his subjects, aided
by the talents and industry of his minister, the duke of Sully,
enabled him to repair the desolations of a thirty years' civil
war, and to place his kingdom in a state of iinancial pros-
perity and general happiness.
France never had a more popular sovereign. His talents,
as a general and statesman, commanded respect, his person
was prepossessing, his manners a model of good breeding,
and his love of his subjects inspired a most enthusiastic at-
tachment to him in return. His private and domestic life,
was however very exceptionable, and infected, by the force
of example, the manners of the court with no little disso-
luteness.
§ A mistress of Henry, an artful, intriguing, ambitious woman,
luid, by consummate management, obtained from him a promise of
marriage. This promise, tlic king showed to Sully, ready signed,
and the minister, transported with indignation, tore it in pieces. " I
believe you arc mad," crictl Henry in a rage. " It is true I am mad,"
replied Sully, " and I wish I was the only mad man in France."
>Vhen, after so keen an altercation, Sully thought himself irreco-
verably disgraced, he received the brevet of grand master of the
ordnance.
Henry, who had lived tIn-o;igh fifty conspiracies, fell l)y the
FRANCE. 225
hand of an assassin, named Ravillac, after a short reign of
twenty years, too short for tlie glory of France, just as he
was entering upon a splendid, but visionary project, of form-
ing Europe into a Christian repubhc.
^^ Ravillac was a desperate Catholic bigot, who had long formed a
design to murder his sovereign. Henry was ready to join his army
in prosecuting his singular scheme, but was detained against his
will, on account of tlie coronation of the queen. In the midst of
ills impatience to depart, his mind was harrassed with sinister fore-
bodings, and they were too truly realized by the event. Passing
along a street in Paris, his coach became entangled, and his footmen
quitting it for a moment, Ravillac, who liad followed him secretly for a
long time, took advantage of the opportunity, and stabbed him in the
midst of seven courtiers. The crime of Ravillac was expiated by the
most horrid tortures.
Henry's project was to divide Europe into fifteen settled powers,
none of which should be suffered to make any new acquisitions, and
should altogether form an association for the maintenance of a
mutual balance, and the preservation of peace. There is little evi-
dence, however, that he thought it practicable. He meant to effect
it, if at all, by force, and it is certain that he strongly wished to set
bounds to the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy. The
latter, therefore, may have been his only real design.
2. Louis Xlll.jin his ninth year, succeeded his father, 1610,
under the regency of Mary of Medicis, his mother. During
the early part of this prince's reign, France, which had arisen
to splendour and prosperity, under Henry, evidently retro-
graded. Mary's partiality for her Italian courtiers, disgusted
the nobility, and weakness, faction, and disorder, began to be
experienced. But when cardinal Richelieu succeeded to the
ministry, after the duke of Luynes, affairs wore a much
more favourable aspect. He had vast al)ilities, and propor-
tionaljle influence, which he successfully exerted in subduing
the turbulence of the nobility, diminishing the power of the
Protestants, and restraining the encroachments of Austria.
The principal events of the reign of Louis, were, the ar-
rest of the prince of Conde, on account of his intrigues
against the regent, and the subsequent temporary exile of the
regent herself ; the revolt of the Protestants at Rochelle,
;i.nd the siege of that place, which lasted a year, and was nt-
tend(!d with the loss of 15,000 lives ; the junction of Louis
u ith the Protestant princes of Germany, against the empe-
ror Ferdinand U., and the revolt of the duke of Orleans^
supported by the duke of Montmorency.
226 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
§ The Protestants were accused of a design to form France into
an independent republic, to be divided into eight circles, on the
model of those in Germany. Certain it is, tliat alienated by per
secution, they attempted to throw o.T their allegiance, and Rochelle
was the bulwark and head quarters of their party. Richelieu,
having become master of the court, the armies, and the fleets, car-
ried into execution, the plan he had long meditated, that of waging
war against the Protestants, whom lie was resolved to exterminate.
He accordingly laid siege to Rochelle. On this occasion he acted
as commander in chief; but chose to be accompanied by the king
for fear his enemies should take advantage of his absence.
The Protestants implored the aid of England, but were disappoint-
ed by the tardy measures of the duke of Buckingham. The garri-
son and inhabitants of Rochelle were resolved, however, to hold dut
until the last extremity. For tv/elve months they endured the
miseries of a siege, but were at length obliged to yield to the active
genius of the cardinal. He triumphed over the Calvinists, and de-
prived them of their most significant privileges. They never rv-
covered from this blow.
The union of Louis with the Protestant princes of German}-, 1026.
owed its origin to the influence of Richelieu, in his anxiety to hum-
ble the Austrian greatness. He forgot his hatred of Protestantism,
for a time, and embarked most eagerly in the cause of the Protes-
tant princes, who were alarmed at Ferdinand's avowed design
of suppressing their religion, together with the liberties of tb.e {Ger-
man empire.
Richelieu's plans were attended tvith complete success, llie
Protestants and Catholics, laying aside their theological disputes,
conspired for the diminution of Ferdinand's power; the court of
England embarked in the same cause ; the Danes also took up arms,
and Gustavus, king of Sweden, rushed like a torrent upon Germa-
ny. In the course of events, the emperor was effectually humbla!,
and a solid foundation was laid for the prosperity of the empire.
The haught}' minister of Louis, amidst all the jiolitical intrigues
and wars in which he was engaged, found leisure to patronize lite-
rature and science, and thus to extend the glory of the Frencli n;i-
tion, beyond the lionour acquired by feats of arms. The P'reuch
Academy owes its institution to the genius of Richelieu.
Louis died at the age of forty-three years. After lie had been
married twenty-three years, he had two sons, Loris XIV., and Philij),
duke of Orleans. During his reign, the king was a less prominent
object of attention, than his minister, and is not known to have been
characterised oy any particular talents or virtues.
3. Louis XIV., ill the fifth year of his age, ascoiuled the
tlirone, in 1643, under the regency of Anne of Austria, his
mother. The talents of this monarch, the vigour of his ad-
ministration, the splendid events of his reign, his conquests and
i-eversesj and the ilourisliing state of Hterature and the ar*s
FRANCE. 227
under his patronage, have been themes of deep interest with
historians. He is often styled the Great.
The most conspicuous events of his reign, were his war
with the Spaniards, which commenced a few days after his
accession, under the duke of Enghein ; the civil commotions
called la-Fronde, which grew out of Mazarine's ministry ;
tiie contention with Holland, in 1672, in which he was op-
posed by the Germair emperor and Spain, and in which
Franche Comte was conquered and united to France ; the
revocation of the edict of Nantes ; the league of Augsburg
against France, by which v\'ar was waged against that coun-
try, by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland, and, in con-
sequence of which, Louis acquired peculiar glory ; and the
war of the succession, in which he met with woful reverses,
from the allied powers, under the duke of Marlborough, and
prince Eugene.
§ In tlio early war with the Spaniards, the duke of Enghein gained
the battle of Rocroi ; that of Fribonrtr in 1044; that of Nordlingen
in 1645 ; and that of Bii:ikirk in 1646. The Spaniards were the
aggressors, having taken an advantage of the king's minority, and
the popular discontents.
These discontents arose from the ministry of Cardinal 3Iazarine,
the favourite of the regent, who was an Italian, and whose avarice
was excessive. The burdens wliich he imposed on the people, and
the consequent detestation in whicii he was held, terminated in the
commotions of the fronde. Cardinal de Retz, had a principal agency
in exciting this civd war. The parliament of Paris, and the chief
r.obiiil3',took part with the rebels. The celebrated general, Turenne,
also aided the rebels. A short pacification ensued, but the impru-
dent violence of Mazarine, soon renewed the disorders. At length,
the parliament of Paris assumed the right of banishing this unpopu-
lar minister. When, however, the king became of age, Mazarine re-
.sumcd his station as minister, whifc de Retz and Orleans, the chief
jjromoters of the rebellion were banished in their turn.
On the death of Mazarine, in 1661, when Louis was twenty-two
years of age, he took upon himself the entire control of affairs, and
by the splpcdour of his projects, and the success with which many
of them were crowned, established throughout the world, his reputa-
tion ^s an able monarch. His war with Holland soon commenced,
m which Turenne, and Conde, another great general gave signal
proofs of the sagacity of Louis, in tlie leaders whom 'le had chosen
to conduct his military operations. Although Spain and the empe-
ror joined the Hollanders, yet Turenne defeated the I.nperialists m
the pitclied battles of Ensheim, Mulhausen, and Turkhrim. Some-
time before, Conde had signalizeu his arms against Franche Comte
which he subjugated in the space of seventeen days.
228 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
Several powers now became jealous of the ascendency of France,
and the prince of Orange, whose dominions had been so wanton
ly attacked by the French king, had siitRcient influence with England,
to obtain hs alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Louis,
hoAvever, still continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at
Nimeguen, in 1678, was much to the lionour of France. Franchc
Comte was assured, as a part of the dominions of Louis, and Spain
allowed his right by conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands.
In the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685, the French king
manifested a complete dereliction both of wisdom and justice. The
toleration which was granted to the Protestants by Henry IV., was
taken av/ay, their worship suppressed, their churches demolished,
their ministers exiled, and an absolute renunciation of their religion,
was made the condition with all who chose to continue in their na-
tive country. If they failed to comply with this requirement, death
was the consequence, whenever they could be found. By this
measure, the kingdom lost, according to some, 800,000 of her most in-
dustrious and useful citizens, who cither perished, or driven into exile,
carried the arts and manufactures of France, into various countries.
The League of Augsburg, in 1686. was brought about by "William,
prince of Orange, the sworn enemy of Louis. His attack on Hol-
land had betrayed his ambition, and the splendour of his designs
could not but excite the envy or jealousy of his neighbom-s. Victory
however, attended his standard against all the forces of the leaguers.
Though the valiant Turenne had perished in battle, the able Conde
had retired, and Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen of any age,
was no more, and their places could not be well supplied, yet the
name of Louis was a host, ann the successors of those renowned
men, were by no means contemptible. Luxemburg defeated the
prince of Orange, in the battles of Slecnkirk and Norwinden ,
Noailles was victorious in Spain ; and an army of one hundred
thousand French, ravaged the Palatinate, and took mony of the most
important towns on the Rhine. This was the brightest period of
his reign. Disasters Avere soon to follow him.
The extensive military enterprises of Louis, had been attended
with enormous expenses. The pride of the monarch had been
flattered by his victories, but no solid advantage had accrued to the
nation. The finances had fallen into disorder, and the persevering
efforts of his enemies, obliged him to conclude the peace of Ryswick,
m 1697. The war, however, was soon renewed. That was the Avar
of the succession. The nations engaged in it were England, Hol-
land, and the empire, against France and Spain. The avoAved object
on the part ot the former, Avas to put the house of Austria in pos-
session of th.3 throne of Spain, on the expected death of Charles IJ.,
without issue.
Louis har i passed his prime, and lost his greatest generals and
ministers ; Avhile the armies of his enemies Avere commanded by the
ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treasures of the
united poAvers. The Avar Avas carried on Avith manifest advantage
FRANCE. 2^9
• on the part of the allies. The battle of Blenheim, in which the
English Marlborough began his victorious career, cost the French
twenty thousand men. lie gained, besides, the battles of Ramilies,
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. One or two victories on the part of the
French and Spanisli, prevented Philip, king of Spain, from aban-
doning his possessions in Europe. Louis sued for peace, and even
proposed very iuuniliating terms ; but as they were rejected, and the
hard condition of dethroning his grirndson Philip, was insisted on,
he made one more desperate etfort in battle, in which he was so
far successful as to preserve Philip on the throne. Tlie change in
queen Anne's cabinet, gave fiicility to propositions for peace, in
which the English and Dutch secured many valuable acquisitions.
4. Louis died, aged seventy-seven years, liaving reigned
more than i-cvent3^-t.\vo, one of the longest reigns on the
page of history, and ilkistrated by many splendid achieve-
ments. His patronage of literature and the arts, constitutes,
more than any ether which he possessed, his claim to the
admiration of posterity. No species of merit was suffered to
go unrewarded, and the finest models of composition in the
French language, were produced in his reign. x\ll kinds of
public works were extended and improved — the capital was
enlarged and beautified, the splendid palace of Versailles
erected, commerce and manufactures encouraged, and the
fine canal of Languedoc constructed.
iiouis was remarkable for his able administration of in-
ternal affairs. His sagacity was peculiarly displayed in the
selection of his generals and ministers. Besides those that
have been already mentioned, was the famous Vauban, whose
great genius Avas successfully employed in Ibrtifying towns.
Colbert has been named. His skill in finances, has acquired
him an immortal reputation. The latter was also a zealous
patron of learning, thus seconding the designs of his royal
master. At iiis suggestion, the celebrated astronomer, Cassini,
quitted Italy, and placed himself under the protection of the
king of France, who bestowed on him, and also on Huy-
gens, a Dutch mathematician of equal cclebrit}^, a ver}' large
pension.
Louis was reckoned the handsomest man in his dominions,
and was celebrated for his politeness and urbanity. His in-
tellect was vigorous, but indifierently cultivated. It was the
great fault of Mazarine, to whom the childhood of Louis
was entrusted, that he neglected his education. He sought
ffor the young monarch, no other accomplishments than tiiose
.20
230 MODERN HISTORY. PER[OD IX.
of dancing, fencing, and riding, so that when the latter was
drawing on towards manhood, he scarcely knew how to pen
an epistle.
Tlie love of glory, was perhaps his ruhng passion, though
he was influenced unduly by other passions, to the indelible
infamy of his private life. How often is it, that an admired
public pageant, lamentably fails in that which constitutes rea'
worth of character.
GREAT BRITAIN.
House of Stuart. Coinmonu-ealth. Restoration of
Monarchy.
5. The throne of England, (called towauls the close ol
the present period. Great Britain.) was ascended by
James I., 1C03, who was the sixth king of Scotland of that
name, and son of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots. Thus the
sceptre passed with entire tranquillity from the house of
Tudor, to that of the Stuarts — an event which was in exact
accordance with the law of succession, and with the express-
ed wishes of Elizabeth, and which united the two crowns,
and eventually made the two kingdoms one. ,
§ .Tames I., was a great grandson of Henry VII. When Elizabeth
was dying, upon being requested to make known her pleasure in
regard to a successor, she replie'l " that she had held a royal scep-
tre, and required no other than a royal successor" — which, she ex-
plained to be one Avho was then actually a king, viz. " her nearest
kinsman, the king of Scots."
The history of Scotland, from the time of Wallace and Robert
Eruce, to Mary, the mother of James, and rival of Elizabeth, is
very summarily as follows :
The son of Roliert, was David Bruce, who began to reign in 1329.
During his minority, on account of the invasion of the kingdom by
Edward Baliol, he was conveyed to France for security. He was a
weak, but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverse* of for-
tune. He was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, by Ed-
ward III., and remained cfeven years in captivity. He was ran-
somed by his subjects, and ended a turbulent reign, in 1370.
He was succeeded by Robert II., his nephew, and the grandson of
the great Robert I3ruce, whose reign of twenty years' continuance,
was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and the English.
Robert HI., then ascended the Scottish throne ; but his infirmities
and weakness, obliged him to resign the government into the hands
( f his brother, the duke of Albany
GREAT BRITAIN. 231
James I., a son of Robert, whom Albany had sought to murder,
and whom the Enghsh had taken prisoner in his attempts to escape
to France, next ascended the tlirone, 1424. He was a prince of great
natural endowments, and profited by a captivity of eighteen years
in England, adorning his mind with every valuable accomplish-
ment. The kingdom had fallen into great disorders, during tlie
regency of Albany ; but James, on his return, soon placed affairs on
A favourable footing. He bent all his attention to the improvement
and civilization of his people. In restraining the power of the
nobles, however, as necessary to this end, he incurred their enmity,
and was accordingly assassinated.
James II., succeeded his father, 1437. He inherited a portion of
his fatlier's talents, but possessing an impetuous temper, he pursued
the plan of humbling the nobles, with excessive rigour. Ruling with
absolute authority, he was uncommonly successful in attaining the
objects he had in view, and greatly improved his kingdom.
His son, James III., without the talents of his predecessors, affected
to tread in the same steps. But he was impolitic in attaching him-
self to mean favourites ; and quaiTeling with the barons, he was killed
in an insurrection, 1488.
James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, succeeded to
the tlirone. He was respected by his nobles, and beloved by his
people. Invading England with a powerful army, he fell, v/ith al-
most the whole of his nobility, in the rash and unfortunate battle of
Flodden-Field, 1513.
James V., his son and successor, was a great, but uncultivated
prince. His reign was long and turbulent, the aristocracy attempt-
ing to resume their power, and he being employed in defeating their
projects. He died of a broken heart, in consequence of the infideli-
ty of his troops, ill a war with the Englisli, 10,000 of the Scots having
deliberately surrendered themselves to the enemy.
He was succeeded by Mary, whose eventful life and tragical death,
have been already narrated.
6. Tliough the succession of James T. was tranquil, a few
events soon occurred, which tended to disturb his reign. One
event was, a conspiracy planned to subvert the government,
by seating on the tlnone Aral^ella Stuart, the king's near re-
lative, descended, like himself, from Henry VII.
§ Sir Walter Raleigh, was taken as one of the principals in this plot;
and tliough he was convicted on incompetent evidence, he was only
reprieved, not pardoned, and lay many years a prisoner in the
tower.
A project of a much fouler kind followed. This was the
gunpowder plot, which was ascribed to the catholics, who,
disappointed in their expectations from James, were enraged
beyond measure, and meditated the destruction of the royal
family, lords and commons, at a meeting of parliament.
332 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
§ The plot was discovered, just as it was on the eve of execution'
It was intended, on the part of the conspirators, to blow up the
house in which the parliament should assemble, by means of gun-
powder, which had been secreted in the cellar of the building.
Twenty conspirators had sacredly kept this dreadful secret, nearly
a year and a half; but the same bigotry which had given rise to the
plot, was directed as an engine by Providence, to reveal it. A few
days before the meeting of parliament, a catholic member of it, re-
ceived, from an unknown hand, a letter, advising him not to attend
the meeting, and intimating to him, obscurely, what was about to
take place.
This, on the part of the member, was considered merely as a.
foolish attempt to frighten him. He, however, showing it to the
king, the superior sagacity of the latter, led him to conceive, that al-
lusion was made to danger from gunpowder. The following sen-
tence in the letter, seems to have suggested the idea to the king,
"Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet, I say, they will
receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see
who hurts them."
Search was now detennined to be made in the vaults under tlie
house of parliament. With the view, however, that they might de-
tect not only the conspiracy, but the conspirators, they were quiet-
till the night before the connnencement of the session. The plan oi
the king succeeded. A man by the name of Guy Fawkes, was found
at the door, who was immediately seized, the faggots, and powder,
to the amount of tliirty-six barrels, discovered, and the very matches-
to set fire to the train, were detected in his pocket. He gave up the
names of his accomplices, eighty in number, who, with himself,
were all put to death.
7. The puritans, ■wlio had already become conspicuous,
having first appeared in the reign of Mary, indulged the ex-
pectation at the accession of James, of meeting with special
favour from the new monarch, because he had been educated
a presbyterian. Their disappointment, but especially the re-
straints and persecutions which they endured, forced num-
bers of them to the new world, where they laid the founda-
tions of a great nation.
Domestic events, such as have been recorded, chiefly dis-
tinguished the reign of James. He exerted, and wished to
exert, no influence abroad. His disposition was altogether
pacific. When, in the early part of his reign, he was sohcited
to join in a league with Henry IV., the United Provinces,
and the northern crowns, to repress the exorbitant power oi
the house of Austria, he would have nothing to do with the
scheme.
The Stuarts, as well as Tudors, were strenuous advocates
GREAT FRITAIN. 2SS
forthennul prerogative, in the widest exercise. This was
especially liie case with James. He was prejudiced against
the Puritans, oii account, of tlieir notions of liberty, and took
part with tlie estabti -bed church. It was a fiivourite maxim
witli liim — •• No bishop, no king." But the minds of English-
men were undergoing a change. Light had increased, and
juster notions of the people's riglits began to obtain. The
opposition of parliament to the ro^'al prerogative, was carried
to a great height, and laid the foimdation of those fatal strug-
gles which, in the next reign, subverted the monarchy.
James died after a reign of twenty-two years over Eng-
land, and of nearly his whole life over Scotland. The pri-
vate character of this prince, is not free from reproach. His
disposition, howevei", was mild ; and his reign, though not
glorious, in the usual sense of tliat word, was yet, in many
respects, happy and prosperous to his people. On them he
bestowed the care of a parent.
5 James was ingenious and learned, and yet pedantic withal. Of
flattery, he was excessively I'ond, and there were parasites to deal it
out to iiini without measure. On a certain occasion, he publicly
proposed the question, vvliether lie might nut take his subjects' mo-
ney, when lie wanted it, without the formality" of parliaments.
•' God forbid," replied the obsequious Neile, bishop of Uuiiiam, '• but
that you should, for you are the very breath of our nostrils."
James is said to have been pusillanimous in life, but he shewed
himself cf)ura.<xeous in death, being so composed as to close his own
eyes in his last struggle. Perhaps, a people who delighted in war,
and vahied blood and treasure less than the splendonr of battles and
Conquests, were incapable of doing justice to the principles that
guided the public conduct of this prince. Hence tlie contempt,
which lias sometimes been expressed against his benign and gentle
policy. Saving his high notions of prerogative, and liis attempt
io sustain tliem, lliere was nothing, during this reign, to mar the
liappincss of a great people.
Two of tlie greatest iia;iies in the records of genius, Shakspeare
and Bacon, besides otliers, adorned the times of James, and the lat-
ter part of the period of Elizabeth.
8. Charles I., ascended the throne in 1G25. The king-
dom, at this time, was in a prosperous condition ; but the
principles of liberty had expanded the minds of many of
his subjects, and they demanded a more liberal system in the
administration of the government, than was observed by his
immediate predecessors. This demand, however, Charles'
20*
234 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX.
repelled, and he shewed that he possesset> the sa ine arbitrary
principles with his father, without the prudence uf the latter.
The refusal of the parliament, to grant adequate supplies,
for enabling the king to carry on a war, first in support of his
brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, and afterwards with
France and Spain, led Charles to adopt the resolution ol
uling without their aid, and of levying money in the most
illegal forms.
§ The manifestation of a tyrannical disposition, on the part of
Charles, first soured the ininds of his parliament against him. Be-
ing engaged to his allies, the king could not brook the denial of sup-
plies, and accordingly dissolved the parliament, and issued warrants
for borrowing money of the subject. A new parliament was found
equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy of the king, by the
impeachment of his minister, Buckingham. Charles, however,
avenged the insult, by imprisoning two members of the house of
commons. A quarrel thus began, received continued additions from
new causes of offence.
The king, in his wars with France, sent troops to assist the French
calvinists ; but, after an unsuccessful expedition under Buckingham,
they were obliged to return to England. Rochelle was, in conse-
quence, reduced to extremity, by which the protestant interest re-
ceived an irrevocable blow in France. The biame of every public
miscarriage was throw-n upon Buckingham, who sheltered himself
under the royal protection, till he was assassinated by one Felton,
just as he was ready to embark for the relief of Rochelle.
The death of this worthless favourite, however, did not deter
Charles from his arbitrary proceedings, which the English patriots,
in that enlightened age, justly considered as so many acts of tyran-
ny. His impositions upon trade, without the voice of parliament,
many of the merchants, and some members of the house of com-
mons, refused to pay.
A new parliament, which was now convoked, exhibited a spirit
of determined reformation. A petition of right was passed by both
houses, which declared the illegality of raising money without their
sanction, or enforcing loans from the subject ; annulled all taxes im-
posed without consent of parliament, and abolished the exercise of
martial law; and Cliarles was obliged, with much reluctance, to
give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives. The
t^xes of tonnage and poundage had usually been continued from
one reign to another. On this ground, the king conceived he was
warranted to levy them -without a new grant ; and a member of the
house of commons refusing to pay them, was imprisoned. A com-
motion being excited, parliament was dissolved.
9. About this time, a great number of Puritans, weary of the
restraint they experienced in England, under the domineering
spirit t)f Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, embarked for Ameri
GREAT BRITAIN. 235
ca, where they spread the liberty of which they were deprived
at home. But at length the enemies of that sect prevailed
on the king to forbid these emigrations. This providentially
proved a very unhappy affair for Charles, inasmuch as John
Hampden, John Pym, and Ohver Cromwell, were prevented
from going.
§ Ihimpdcn rendered liiraself illustrious, by his talents and virtue,
and particularly by the firm stand he made against the illegal impo-
sition called ship money. He refused to pay a small sum, that had
been levied against him, and ventured to assert the liberty of En-
glishmen, by risking a legal prosecution. All England was deeply
interested in tiu; trial, and tliis was the favourable result which he
realized, though tlie venal judge decided the cause against him.
The people began to see their danger.
At a lime when the public feeling was running strongly in favour
of Puritanism, and a simpler form of worship, Laud, with a most
intemperate and insulting zeal, was engaged in loading the church
witii new ceremonies. 'J'hings might have gone on in this train for
some tinin; but attempting likewise to introduce the liturgy of the
ehurcti of England among the Scots, the most violent commotions
were produced. A bond, termed the National Covenant, containing
an oath of resistance to all religious innovations, was subscribed in
Scotland, by all ranks and conditions. To maintain this proceeding,
the Scotch reformers took up arms, and soon marched into the
heart of England.
At the same time, a catliolie rebellion arose in Ireland, which the
people imputed to the arts of the royalists; and to complete the misfor-
tune of the king, the parliament, which had been necessarily convoked,
proceeded to such extremities in its acts, that they were considered
tantamoimt to a declaration of war against the king and his party.
10. Things had arrived at such a pass, that the sword was
now to decide the contest. The two liouses of parliament
took into their hands the force constituted b}'^ the militia of
the country, and at the same time the king erected his stand-
ard at Nottingham, 1642. Several battles were fought, du-
ring three or four consecutive years, with various success;
but at lengtli the royalists were overcome, and the king
was thrown into the hands of his enemies. The cause of
Cliarles was supported by a large proportion of tiie landed in-
tei;est, all the friends of the established church, and all the
adherents of the papacy ; that of the parliament, by the city
of London, and most of the great towns, and all the dissen-
ters from the establishment. Cavaliers was the term applied
to the supporters of the king — Round Heads to those of the
parliament.
2*J6 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
§ The parliament, in order to carry on hostilities with the grpater
prospect of success, had entered into a strict confederacy with the
Scots, who were already in a menacing attitude. The new bond
which they formed, was more specific in its objects than the former,
and more determined in its spirit. It was called the " Solemn
League and Covenant," and it brought an accession of 20,000 men
to the forces of the parliament.
Oliver Cromwell, an officer under Fairfax, general of the parlia-
ment, in reality, directed all the measures of the army. This extra-
ordinary man, as will presently appear, was destined to perform an
extraordinary part in the transactions of this period. The two first
battles, viz. those of Edgehill and Newbury, were favourable to the
royalists ; but those of Marston Moor and Naseby, terminated in.
their overthrow. Never Avere the morals and religion of an army
more carefully watched, than those of the soldiers of Cromwell-.
Previously to each battle, it was customary with them, individually,
to spend some time in praj^er.
When the king was taken bj'' a party of Cromwell's soldiers, af-
ter having been delivered up by the Scots, among whom he had
so\ight protection, he was conveyed first to Hurst castle, and then
to Windsor, and at last to London. The parliament at this time,
intiiienced by Cromwell, having declared it treason in a king to levy
war against his parliament, a court, consisting of 133 men, were ap-
pointed to try him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. Charles de-
clined the jurisdiction of the court, and refused to plead. He was
nevertheless condemned to suffer death, and was beheaded the third
day afterwards, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty-
Iburth of his reign.
On the morning of tlie fatal day, which was the 30th of January,^
J'649, Charles rose earlier tlian usual, and calling one of his attend-
ants, bade him employ more than usual care in adjusting his dress.
As he was preparing for the block, he observed, in reply to some
exhortations addressed to hini by the l)ishop of London, " I go from-
A corruptible to an an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance
can have place." He submitted to the stroke witii entire resigna^-
tion.
Charles had many virtues, and, in private life, was estimable and
engaging, beyond most princes. As a sovereign, he had unfortu
liately imbibed, in his education, the arbitrary principles wiiich dis-
tiu'guished his ancestors ; but with the disadvantage of living in an
age and country, in which a king could not be a tyrant with impu-
nity. He deceived the parliament too often for them to trust him,
and suffered himself to be guided by counsellors much inferior to
him in knowledge and judgment, while he paid an unwise deference
to the advice of liis queen, who was a bigoted pajiist. Granger
says, " He would have made a much better figure in private life,
than he did upon a tlirone."
We may lament the fate pf Charles, as severe, and perhaps unne-
cessary ; and nnist condemn several of the acts of the republicans,.
as passionate and oppressive ; yet Providence seems to have overruled'
GREAT BRITAIN. 237^
the events of the times, for the advancement of civil liberty, and for
ihe general rood of mankind. Had Charles lived, England might
have been still governed by despots, instead of limited monarchs.
Charles was an author, botii in prose and verse. The Icon Basi-
like, a work which appeared soon after the king's death, and excited
much commiseration for his fate, has often been attribnted to him.
The authorsliip of that work, however, remains a matter of dispute.
If Charles wrote it, his talents, in composition, must have been much
superior to those of most contemporary scholars. Hume considers
it the best prose composition which, at tlie time of its publication,
was to be found in the English language : and D'Israeli remarks, that,
tlie political reflections it contains, will be found not unworthy of
Tacitus.
In a poem of his, entitled " ^Majesty in iNIisery," the following staitr
zas will show his manner in poetry.
" With my own power my majpsty they wound,
In the king's name, tlic king himself 's uncrown'd ;
So ilotJi the (Just destroy the diamond.
Felons attain more privilege than I,
They arc allow'd to answer ere they die ;
'Tis death to me to ask the reason why."
11. On tlie Vath of Charles I., monarchy in England was
'lissolved, and tlu house of lords was abolished as useless, by
the commons. Ttje forms of all public business were chang-
ed from the king's naiTie,^ tp that of the keepers of the liber-
ties of England. Rehgion shared m the revolutions of the
times.
§ Presbyterianism, which had succeeded episcopacy, now began to
yield to the independent interest. Ca'omwell so managed, as to
transfer to the army, tlie power which the parliament had not long
before taken into their own hands^ Presbyterians had been mostly
excluded from i)arliament, and that part of the house which re-
mained, termed, in derision, the Rump, was composed of Indepen-
dents, under Cromwell's influence. As is often the case, the milita;-
ry power proved fatal to those Presbyterians who had employed
k to effect their own purposes.
12. The confusions which overspread England, upon the
dissolution of monarchy, could be settled only by the great
influence, both civil and military, acquired by Oliver Crom-
well, who was pcculiarl}' fitted for the age in which he lived,
and for the part wliich he was destined to act.
§ The situation of Ireland and Scotlan-d, gave some inquietude to
the new republic. The duke of Ormond, at tlie head of 16,000
men, had recovered many places in the former country, from the
parliament ; while in Scotland, Charles II., had been proclaimed
king on the condition of his strict observance of the covenant. Crom-
<vell, with his usual cunning, procured for himself the appointnie^l
238 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IX.
of commander-in-chief in Ireland. He accordingly passed over to
ihat country, and soon put an end to the successes and authority of
Ormond. He next marched into Scotland, at the head of 16,000
men, and defeated the royalist covenanters, in the battle of Dunbar.
Upon the retreat of their army into England, Cromwell pursued it
thither, and overtaking it at Worcester, the whole was annihilated by
him in one desperate battle. The king was obliged to flee.
It was with great difficulty, and after many adventures, that the
latter effected his escape. He first retired to Boscobel, a lone house
on the borders of Staffbrdsliire, inhabited by one Pcndereil, a far-
mer, who, in conjunction with his four brothers, served him with
unshaken fidelity. They clothed him in a garb like their own, and
employed him, like themselves, in cutting faggots, and he partook
of their homely fare. On one occasion, when his enemies were in,
.search of him, he ascended an oak, where he was effectually con-
cealed a whole day, among the leaves. In this situation, he saw seve-
ral of his pursuers pass by, whom he overheard expressing their
wish to be able to find him. This tree was afterwards known, and
venerated, under the name of the royal oak. He succeeded, eventu-
ally, in reaching France.
The republic, at this era, acted with uncommon vigour. Admiral
Blake, and other naval officers, now carried the terror of the English
name, by sea, to all quarters of the globe. Under his command, a
war with Holland was ably maintained against the celebrated Dutch
commanders, Van Tromp and De Ruyter ; but the advantage was
greatly in favour of the English, who took 1600 of the Dutch ships
The famous Navigation act, which the parliament passed at this time
had a most favourable effect on the commerce and naval superiority
of Great Britain.
An attempt being made to reduce the land army, at this time,
Cromwell remonstrated against it, and demanded a new parliament.
But this meeting with no regard, he entered, in great rage, into the
house, attended by 300 soldiers, and, loading the parliament with
reproaches, bade them be gone, and give place to honester men. The
republic of England, which had subsisted four years and three
months, was thus, in a moment, annihilated, April 20th, 1653.
Cromwell-, however, though he had seized the reins, could not.
well deny his subjects a parliament. He therefore summoned 144
persons in England, Scotland, and Ireland, to assemble as the repre-
sentatives of the nation. They were his creatures ; and though some
of them possessed the (juality and degree of gentlemen, they were
generally, as Clarendon says, "a pack of weak, senseless fellow.s,
fit only to bring the name and reputation of parliaments lower than
it was yet," This body was called Praise God Barebones' parlia-
ment, from the name of a certain member, a leather seller, who dis-
tinguished himself by speaking. Incompetent to their duties, they
re-delivered to Cromwell, at the expiration of five months, the
instrument they nad received from him, calling them together, and
besought him to take care of the commonwealth.
UKEAT BRITAIN. 23^
13. The supreme power of tlie nation, now passing into
tlie hands of Cromwell and his Council of officers, he was
declared, by the latter, Protector of the Commonwealth of
England, with the title of Highness, 1654. In this capaci-
ty, he exercised greater power, than had ever been annexed
to the regal dignity. He gave the command of all the forces
in Scotland, to General Monk, and sent his own son, Henryj
to govern Ireland. Administering the government with en-
ergy and ability, and granting religious toleration, the repub-
lic greatly flourished. Its rights were respected abroad.
Success attended the usurper, both in iiegociation and battle.
In an engagement which was fought with the Spaniards in
Flanders, the latter were defeated ; and Dunkirk being soon
after surrendered, was by agreiement, delivered to Cromwell.
Notwithstanding the general correctness of his administia-
tion, he was never popular, either with the royalists or repub-
licans. He had subverted the freedom of his country, and
his professions passed for nothing. He had reached a fearful
elevation, and was consequently kept in perpetual inquietude.
Neither society nor solitude could soothe his agitated mind.
Fearing assassination, he was constantly attended by his
guards, and changed the place of his sleeping, every few
nights. Seized at longth, with a slow fever, he died, A. C.
1658, in the sixtieth year of his age.
§ 111 regard to thc-charactcr of Oliver Cromwell, what was said of
Ciiina, has been applied to him. " He attempted those things
which no good man dnrst have ventured on ; and achieved those in
which none but a valiant and great man could have succeeded."
This, however, is the judgment rather of an enemy tlian friend.
Respecting his capacity, there can he but one opinion; but mankind
have viewed his moral qualities in very diiTerent lights. He lias in
this respect been oflener condemned than approved. Indeed, he
is no favourite of history, as no man of equal merit or fewer faults,
has been so often held up to suspicion, derision, or hatred, 'i'here
are, however, those who, while they promptly condemn liis dissimu-
lation and ambition, can see much to admire in the strict morality
and devotions of a man, who, in private life, apparently reverenced
tlie institutions of religion.
14. Richard Cromwell, by the father's dying request, suc-
ceeded the latter in the protectorate. He was acknowledged
in all parts of the empire ; but as he wanted resolution, and
possessed none of those arts which take with the soldiery, he
soon signed his own abdication. He retired to private life.
'240 MODERN HISTORY. — 'PERIOD IX.
and his virtues secured to him, rare enjoyment to extreme
old age.
15. After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Charles
II. was restored to the throne of his ancestors, 1660. The
short interval that occurred, was a season of anarchy.
§ The restoration was effected by the wishes of the people, wlio
seem to have thought, that neither peace nor protection could be
obtained, unless the ancient order of things should be re-estaolished
Monk, a man of military abilities, had the sagacity to observe thi?
change in the sentiments of the people; and after temporizing in
various shapes, rendered himself master of -the parliament, through
which Charles was duly acknowledged.
16. Charles, wlio was thirty years of age when lie began
his reign, made a favourable impression on his subjects, by
means of his personal appearance and accomplishments, and
of the superior character of his intellect. He was easy in
manners, unaffectedly polite, gay in his temper, lively, witty,
and a great observer of men and things. It must be added,
also, that he was base and unprincipled, and became at length
immersed in pleasure and indolence. He was personally a
favourite with his subjects, and continued so to be ; although
the government became unpopular, after the king was so
immersed in private gratification, as to neglect the true in-
terests of his realm. Still, in this case, he escaped the re-
proaches which he merited, and most of the odium of ex-
travagance and unsuccessful public measures, fell on his ad-
visers. The whole royal party were so elated at the return
of their sovereign, that they were dissolved in thoughtless
joUit}^, and many of the republicans, especially the younger
part and the women, were glad to be released from the
gloomy austerity of the commonwealth. Duiing this reign,
dissipation and infidelity became greatly prevalent.
Cliarles was distinguished by the same arbitrary notions?
wbich had prevailed with his ancestors ; and though there
were many struggles like those ill the preceding reigns, a
sairprising change had taken place in the feeling of the peo-
ple in general, in consequence of which, he escaped the fate
of his father. The slavish doctrines of passive obedience
and non-resistance, now came into repute, opposed indeed by
the enemies of the crown. This was the origin of the dis-
tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory — the former oppos-
ing the crown, tlie latter advocating it. This is a distinction
caiEA'l' BRITAIN. 24l
of jjaities still existing. The Whigs have alwaya favoured
tlie nglUs of the people, the Tories, those of the monarch.
In consequence of high church, or tory principles, an act
of uniformity in religion was passed, hy which two thoHsand
Presbyterian ministers, were deprived of their Uvings.
§ We mav enumerate among the other events of this reign, the
followinjT— an act of indemnity, by which ten only, out of twenty
eiglit who were tried and condemned for the murder of the king,
were devoted to death — the sale of Dunkirk for £400,000, required
hy tile prodigality of Charles, and which he soon squandered upon
his pleasures — the war witli the Dutch, which, after an immense ex-
penditure, was attended with no material benefit — and finally, the
measures excited by tlie influence of tlie duke of York, (afterwards
James II.) consisting of numerous attacks upon the lives, liberties,
and properties of the people, mingled Avith party intrigues, i)lots, and
conspiracies.
Before tlie reign of Charles expired, the Whigs became predomi-
nant ill parliament, and raging furiously against the Catliolics, in-
sisted on the king's assent to the bill for the exclusion of his brother,
the duke of York. This affair induced the king to dissolve two
parliaments in succession. The consequence was, tliat England was
thrown into a flame. But the king took measures to crush or in-
timidate the opponents of the court. Lord Russel, who had been
remarkable for his opposition to the popish succession, Algernon
Sydney, and several other distinguished protestants, were tried, con-
demned' and executed. The ground of proceeding against them,
was a pretended cons})iracy in favour of reform, called the Rye-
House Plot. A pretended Popisli Plot had, previously to this, been
disclosed by the unprincipled Titus Oates, by means of which Lord
Stafford and some other Catholics were condemned and executed.
17. It was thought that Charles, having been guilty of
arl)itrar3^ conduct, intended to lake some measures for tlie
future quiet of his reign, when he vras seized with a sudden
fit of illness, and after languishing a few days, expired, 1685,
in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-fifth of his
reisrn.
§ In addition to what has already been said of the character of
Cliarles, it may be observed, that thougli he was a genius, he acted
in direct opposition to every principle of sound policy. lie chose
ratl;rr to be a pensioner of France, from whose king he received
£200.0tt0 a year, for ilie concealed purposes of establishing popery
and despotic j^owcr, than the arbiter of I'^urope. Rochester's epi-
grammatic jest, that Charles " never said a foolish thing, and never
did a wise one," forms a tolerable motto for his " picture in little."
Charles, it is said, had a constant maxim which was, never to
fall out with any, let the provocation be ever so creat : by wnieu he
observed, he had found great benefit all his life , and the reason he
21
242 MODERN HISTORY, PERIOD IX.
gave for it was, that he did not know how soon it miglit he necessary
for him to have tliem again for his best friends, ll has hkewise
been said of this king, ttiat had he loved business as weU as he un-
derstood it, he would have been the greatest prince in Europe.
Dryden did not scruple to laud this prince, in a fulsome manner
as in the lineSj
" Truly good and truly great :
For glorious as he rose, benignly so he set."
18. On the death of Charles, the duke of York was im
raediateh' proclaimed king under the title of James IT., 1685.
The history of this reign consists of little more than the
weak and irresolute efforts of a bigotted and tyrannical prince,
to introduce popery ; an attempt so absurd, that it did not
meet with the least encouragement from the pope himself.
§ The capacity of James was by no means equal to the subversion
of those deep and solid foundations, which supported the civil and re-
ligious liberties of his people. The share which he had in his father's
sufferings had not sufficiently taught him, that the jealousy of the
royal prerogative, was too strong in the hearts of his subjects, to be
easily allayed. He was so violent and precipitate in his conduct, that
he never failed to counteract his own purposes; and he establislied the
protestant religion, on a firmer basis than ever, by his wild attempt?
to inti'oduce those of the church of Rome. Thougli lie ascended
the throne with many advantages, he could never sit easy in it; ano
having taught even the advocates of non-resistance, to resist, he wen
forced to relinquish a crown, wJiich he was absolutely unfit to wear.
19. One of the principal events of his reign, was ihe re
bellion of the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles,
II., wdio undertook to seize the crown. He was defeated at
Bridgewater. by the king's forces, taken prisoner, and be-
headed. Had this victory been managed with prudence by
James, it would have tended much to increase his authority ;
but the cruelty with which the revolt was punished, and the
rash confidence with which this success inspired the king,
led to his ruin. That most profligate of all the judges that
ever sat on the Enghsh bench, Jeffries, aided the king in
1 he work of murder, to an extent that has called down on
him the execrations of mankind. He was wont to boast of
the numbers whom he had adjudged to the gallows.
The spirit of the nation was roused, by the offensive and
tyrannical measures Avhicli James took to establish popery;
and many great men in England and Scotland, applied foi
relief to "William, prince of Orange, who had married Mary
(he eldest daucrhter of James. William according"! v embark
GREAT BRITAIN. 243
ed for England, with an army, and determined, agreeably to
request, to assume the government.
§ Upon the arrival of the prince, he was joined, not only by the
>vhigs, but by many whom the king had considered his best friends.
Even his daughter Anne, inspired with protestant zeal, deserted
him, and, with her husband, prince George of Denmark, joined the
invader.
Upon this, James, reasonably filled with distrust of his
people, fled to France, where the palace of St. Germain was
assigned him ; but as one remarks, " the convent of La
Trappe would have been a much more suitable retreat." In
France, he spent the remainder of his life.
A convcjition-pailiament declared the king's flight an ab-
dication, and settled the crown upon William and Mary.
§ The duke of Buckingham gave this character of the two royal
brothers, Charles and James ; tliat " the elder could see things if he
would, and the younger would see things if he could."
Oil tlie access of James, an address of the quakers to him, is high-
ly characteristic of that shrewd sect. "We come to condole the
death of our friend Charles; and we are glad that thou art come to
lie our ruler. We hear that thou art a dissenter from the church of
Kngland, and so are we. We beg that thou woi Idst grant the same
liberty that thou takest thyself, and so we wish thee well. Fare-
well."
20. William and Mary now ascended the throne. This
event constitutes what the British writers are pleased to call
the glorious revolution of 1688. In the settlement which
was then made of the crown, the sole administration remain-
ed in the prince. The protestant succession was secured ;
reli2:ious toleration granted, and presbyterianisni re-establish-
ed in Scotland. A declaration of rights was also made, in
which the chief subjects of dispute between the king and
people, were finally determined. The powers of the royal
prerogative were more narrowly circumscrilied, and more ex-
actly defined, than in any former period of the English go-
vermnent.
§ A revolution became indispensable, inasmuch as the principles
of religious liberty were now generally established in Britain, and
the princes of the house of Stuart, from their arbitrary notions,
entertained a strong aversion to a large portion of their subjects.
There was, however, a class, chiefly among the clergy, who held
the doctrines of passive obedience, and the divine right of kings and
ijishops. Numbers of these, looking upon James as theii* lawful
bing, and refu-^ng to take the oath of allegiance to William, wero
244
MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
deprived of their stations. Hence, they were styled " non-jurors,
high-churchmen, and Jacobites."
21. William experienced a degree of trouble from Ireland,
as that country still adhered to James. The latter, being
assisted by Louis XIV., landed with some French forces in
Ireland, where he was joined by a large army of Iiishmen.
William, however, defeated them, in the memorable battle oi
Boyne, and the coimtry submitted to the new king.
During most of the reign of this prince, the nation was
involved in many active wars. Their principal cause was
the ambition of Louis XIV. These wars were carried on
with vigour and success, though without any distinguished
actions, unless it be the sea-fight of La Hogue. The peace
of Ryswick, in 1 697, terminated hostilities, and it was ap-
parent that the power of France was weakened. The prin-
ciple on which William acted in hi^ foreign wars, was, the
balance of power, of which he was an ardent advocate.
§ Louis, who used James to promote his own ialerest, was deter-
mined, if possible, to restore him to the throne. With this object,
he furnished him with a powerful fleet, an 1 the exiled prince re-
paired to La Hogue^ whence he was i-eady to embark for England.
The English admiral, Russel, pat to sea with all possible expedition,
and being reinforced by the Dutch squadron, he sailed for the coast of
France, with ninety ships of the line, besides frigates and fire-ships.
On the 19th of May, 1692, the hostile fleets met off La Hogue ; and,
after a bloody contest of ten hours, victory declared in favour of the
English. The French, who had fifty-three ships of the line, lost
a great part of their fleet, and could not be made to hazard another
battle by sea. James returned in despair to St. Germaiiis, where he
died, in 1701, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, having, some time
before his death, laid aside all thoughts of worldly grandeur, and
subjected himself to uncommon penance and mortification. His
body, brains, and heart, like those of Richard I., were deposited in
difTerent cemeteries.
'22. After the death of James, notwithstanding the succes-
sion of the crown bad been settled in the house of Hanover,
his son was proclaimed king of England, at St. Germains,
and treated as such at the court of Versailles. This act so
exasperated the British nation, that both houses of parliament
assured his majesty, that they would assist him to the ut-
most of their power, against all his enemies, and the \\liole
kingdom joined in a cry for war with France. While Wil-
liam was making preparations for the approaching conllici,
he was suddenly removed bv death, in the fifty -second yea;
GREAT BRITAIN. 245
of his age, and fourteenth of his reign. His excellent consort,
and partner in the throne, died seven years before him, of the
(^mail pox.
§ In person, Willuim was small and slender. His complexion was
brown, liis nose Roman, and his oye piercing. His genius was pene-
trating, and his judgment sound ; but in lus mannei's he was distant,
and better qualified to gain respect than love.
During this reign, the system of borrowing money on remote
lunds commenced, which laid the foundation of the present national
debt. A standing army, too, was first sanctioned by parliament, in
the time of tiiis prince, a measure only to be defended by the rela-
tive situation of Europe.
23. The crown now, (1702,) devolved on Aime, the
second daughter of James IT., who was married to George,
prince of Denmark. Her reign is one of the most illustrious
in British liistory. The arms of England were every where
triumphant, nor were the achievements of its scholars less
conspicuous. The great names of Newton, Locke, Addison,
Swift, and others, have immortalized the times of the " Good
Q,ueen Aime," as she has been familiarly called. Though
not endowed with superior talents, she was respected for her
virtues. The military and literary distinction of her reign,
could not, in any great degree, be attributed to her personal
conduct or councils.
The principal events of her reign were, her war against
France, carried on by the duke of Marlborough, the greatest
general of the age, Avho gained the splendid victories of Blen-
heim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, aiid Malplaquet, the constitution-
al union between England and Scotland, in 1706, and the
confusions occasioned l)y the high parly spirit which prevail-
ed in the latter part of the (lueen's reign.
§ The war against France, continued from the commencement to
Ihe last year but one of !ier reign. Germany and Holland were in
alliance with England. Thecomnjander, on the |)artof the empire,
who was associated witli IMarlboroiigh, was prince Eugene. In the
famous battle of IJlenlieim, the French lo.st twenty thousand men.
The duke, during the engagement, rode tin-ougli the hottest of the
fire, but neitlier in this, nor in any other conflict, did he receive a
wound. This victory saved the house of Austria from ruin. In the
battle of Ramilies, six thousand of the enemy lost their lives, and
seven thousand were captured; and this success was soon followed
by the general conquest of tlie Netlierlands. In the course of a most
successful war on tlie part of the allies, Louis was humbled to a de-
giee, that obliged him to demand peace, which though at first refu-
21^'=
246 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
sed, took place in 1713, wlien the change m Anne's ministry, gave a
facility to negociations for that object.
In the treaty of peace which was signed a< Utrecht, Spain yielded
to England all right to Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, while
France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, St.
Christopher'?, and Newfoundland.
Of Marlborough, it may be said, that he never laid siege to a town
which he did not take, or fought a battle which he did not win. His
understanding was as injurious to France as his arms. At St. James',
he was a perfect courtier, the head of a party in parliament, and in
foreign countries, one of the ablest negociators that any age has pro-
duces.
In the constitutional union of England and Scotland, it was stipu-
lated, that the united kingdoms of Great Britian, should be represent
ed by one and the same parliament, that Scotland should be repre
sented by sixteen peei-s and forty-five commoners, and tliat all peers
of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain, and rank next after
English peers, of the like orders and degrees.
The confusions occasioned by high party spirit, were aggravated
after the occurrence of peace. The strife between the AVhigs and
Tories, was never higher than at this time. After the peace, the mi-
nisters, as leaders of the nation, no longer restrained by the tie of
common danger, gave loose to their mutual animosity.
The great duke of I^Iarlborough was sacrificed, in consequence of
these dissentions ; though every honour had been accorded to him, and
the most munificent benefactions bestowed upon him, (£500,000
having been voted at one time, to build the castle of Blenheim,) when
his enemies came into the ministrj^, the queen was induced to dis-
miss him from all his employments. The tories had now supplant-
ed thewhigs in her favour, an event brought about by the preaching
of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the tory principles of passive
obedience, and who, on account of his trial, before the house of com-
mons, excited a sympathy which he did not deserve.
24. Anne died in her fiftieth year, after a short reign of
tweh^e years, in 1714. She became a victim to an apoplec-
tic disorder, which was brouglit on, or hastened, by fatigue,
and the agitation of lier mind, in attending a prolonged ca-
binet council, in which, her ministers fell into violent alterca-
tions with one anotlier.
§ Anne was of the middle size, majestic, and well proportioned ;
her face was round, her features regular, her c:,tnplexion ruddy, and
her hair a dark brown.
GERMANY.
25. Soon after the commencement of this period, 1612,
Matthias was at t!ie liead of the German empire. He
GERMANY. 247
attempted to reconcile the protestants to the catholics, but
without success. The revolt of the Bohemians brought on a
civil war, which lasted thirty years, in the course of which,
Ferdinand, cousin to the emperor, was invested with the
kingdom of Bohemia ; and Hungary, also, was soon afterwards
conceded. Matthias, overwhelmed with grief, died before the
conclusion of the war.
§ An excellent rule of conduct for a prince, which the emperor de-
livered to his successor, Avas the following: " If you wish your sub-
jects to be happy under your government, do not let them feel the
full force of your autiiorit}'."
26. t'erdinand 11. became emperor in 1G19. During his
reign, the ambition of Austria appeared, in her attempts to
extinguish the protestant religion, to abridge the liberties of
the empire, and to render the imperial diadem hereditary in
her own house. But these attempts, especially in regard to
the lirst two objects, were frustrated by the agency of Gusta-
vus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who, at the liead of the
Kvangelical Union, made ra|)id progress in Germany, till
d'atb stopped his career, in 1632. Austria, however, has
u-iially !u'ld the imperial sceptre, and has long had an as-
cendancy in the empire.
§ Ferdinand has been styled by the papists, the Apostolical Empe-
ror, on account of his hatred to thu protestants. He was an unfeel-
mg bigot, and scourge of the empire.
27. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding, was elected king
of the Romans, (so is the head of the Germanic body often
called,) in 1037. The protestants in the empire, foimd the
most active support during the former part of this reign, both
from the Swedes and the French ; aiul the emperor being
forced to conclude the peace of Westj)halia, 1G4S, these pow-
eis dictated its terms. By this celebrated treaty, all disputes
were settled between the contending princes of the empire,
and the contending religions.
§ The Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and
acquired Ponierania, Stettin, Wismar, &c., and their sovereign, the
dignity of prince of the empire ; tlie Palatine family was restored to
its chief possessions ; tlie king of France made landgrave of Alsace,
and an eciual establishment of the three religions, viz. the Catholic,
Lutlicran, and (Jaivinislic.
Ferdinand was a de\oted Catholic. He experienced many cala-
mities, but bore them witli magnanimity.
28. licopold I., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was elect-
248 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
ed emperor in 1657. His was a long reign, of nearly fifty
years. Joseph I. succeeded him, 1705, and reigned till 171 1
Both of these emperors were engaged in the war of the Span-
ish succession, which commenced in 1700, on account of the
claim advanced by Leopold, to the crown of Spain. The
house of Bourbon was his competitor. The war was car-
ried on by Austria, (England and Holland being her allies,)
with success. Joseph, after having conquered Naples and Sar-
dinia, forced the pope to acknowledge the Archduke Charles,
as king of Spain. But, at length, the Austrian claimant
being elected emperoi", the Spanish crown was relinquished
to the house of Bourbon, in tlie peace of 1713. In 1683;
Vienna was besieged by an immense army of the Turks,
but the place was reUeved by John Sol)ieski, king of Poland.
Charles VI. was elected in 1711. His reign extends many
years into the next period, but before the conclusion of the
present, occurred his memorable war with the sultan Achmet
III., in which he obtained many victories over the Turks,
by his general, the renowned prince Eugene.
SPxUN.
29. The successor of Philip II., on the throne of Spain,
was his son, Philip III., 1598. From the commencement of
this reign, Spain declined in power, and notwithstanding her
great sources of wealth, the national finances were exceeding-
ly embarrassed. He had lost the seven United Provinces,
whose independence Avas solemnly acknowledged, 1609. A
most ill judged measure of his reign, was the expulsion of
all the Moors, from his kingdom, who were its most industri-
ous inhabitants. This, added to the depopulation occasioned
by her American colonies, rendered Spain a mass of weak
ness.
30. Under PhiUp IV., who succeeded his father, in 1621,
the national weakness and disorders increased, rather than
diminished. Philip was implicitly ruled by his minister,
Olivarez, a man of an indiscreet and insolent turn, who,
while he encouraged the licentiousness of his sovereign, him-
self wore the specious appearance of extraordinary piety.
The reign of Philip was indeed one continvied series of
miscarriages and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil : the
SPAIN. 249
French iijvaded Artois ; Catalonia revolted to France ; and
Portugal, shaknig otf the yoke, recovered its independence.
31. The revolution of Portugal, was effected with unwont-
ed ease and celerity. It took place, 1640, and Portugal, af-
ter having been an appendage of the kingdom of Spain for
sixty years, asserted the rights of self government. The
people, disgusted with the administration of Ohvarez, were
prepared for a change. The duke of Braganza, descended
from the ancient kings of Portugal, having command of the
army at this time, and instigated by the ambition of his
dutchess, caused himself to be proclaimed king, at Lisbon.
Tlie Spanish guards Avere attacked and overcome, and the
principal adherents of tlie government, were put to death by
the populace. The whole was accomplished in two or three
hom^s. The example of the capital was followed by all the
consideral)le towns, and soon after, by all the foreign settle-
ments. The duke of Braganza took the title of John IV.
§ The events whieti occurred in the history of Portugal, previous-
ly to the above revolution, are summarily as follows :
Portugal was the ancient Lusitania, and was successively subject
to the Suevi, the Goths, and the Moors.
In the early part of the twelfth centtiry, Henry of Burgundy
grandson to Robert I., of France, rendered assistance to Alphonso.
in liis wars against the Moors, and having distinguished himself by
great bravery, Alphonso bestowed on him his natural daughter
^'hcresa, in marriage, and also created him count of that part of
Portugal, wliere Oporto was situated, from whicli place, formerly
called Portus Calle, the whole country took its name. By the valour
of Henry, the country regained its liberty, and he governed it with
the title of count.
His son. Alphonso Hcnriquez, having obtained a decisive victory
over five Moorish kings, was proclaimed king, by the soldiers. Seve-
ral princes succeeded him, whose reigns deserve no particular notice.
On the death of Ferdinand I., in 1383, the states gave the crown to
his natural brother, John I., surnamed the Bastard, who was equally
politic and enterprising, and in whose reign, the Portuguese first
projected discoveries in tlie western ocean.
In the reign of his great grandson, .John II., who was a prince of
profound sagacity and extensive views, the Portuguese made con-
quests in tlie interior of Africa, and discovered, under Diaz, the Cape
of Good Hope. That cape was doubled in 1497, for the first time, by
Vasfo de Gama, who thence sailed for the East Indies.
Eiiianuel, cousin of John, ascending the Portuguese t!u-one, in
1495, adopted tlie plan of iiis predecessors, and sent out a fleet. It
was with this fleet, that Gama doubled the cape as above mentioned;
oth'jrs of the king's vessels discovered Brazil, in 1501.
250 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
These princes had the merit of exciting that spirit of discover]^
which led to many subsequent improvements of navigation and
commerce. Their discoveries on the coast of Africa, led to the voy-
age of Cokimbus, and tlie discovery of America Tney also estab-
lished valuable colonies in Africa and America, and an extensive
empire in India. The reign of Emanuel, was the most glorious ir.
the annals of Portugal. He was a great and wise prince, and ban •
ished poverty and distress from his dominions.
John III., the son of Emanuel, admitted the new founded order
of the Jesuits, which has since been a powerful engine of despotism
and superstition. He encouraged, if he did not establish, the Inqui-
sition in Portugal.
Sebastian, his grandson, fanatically led an army against the Moors,
in Africa, where he and most of his army perished in battle. Sebas-
tian, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his imcle, cardinal Henry,
in 1578, who, also dying without children, Philip II., king of Spain,
obtained the crown, in right of his mother, 1580. After sixty years
of subjection to Spain, the Portuguese, as already related, threw oil
the Spanish yoke, and became independent, under the duke of Bra-
ganza, the legal heir of the throne.
32. Charles II., succeeded his father, Philip IV., on the
throne of Spain, in 1G65. In order to frustrate the schemes
of the kings of England and France, and of the states of
Holland, he left his dominions to Phihp, duke of Anjou,
second son of Louis, dauphin of France.
§ This prince is said to have been debilitated, both in body and
in mind, by certain drugs which his mother administered to him in
his chocolate. To so unnatural an act, she was led, in consequence
of his refusal to accept of her assistance as regent. Certain it is,
that active before, he lost, in the course of a few weeks,'his wonted
spirits ; and his future imbecility, proved highly detrimental to the
interests of his Jcingdom.
33. The duke of Anjou, under the title of Philip V,, the
first Spanish inonarch of the house of Bourbon, ascended the
throne in 1700. In 1701, nearly all Europe united against
France and Spain, and a useless and bloody war was carried
on till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Gibraltar was lost to
Spain, in the course of this war.
TURKISH EMPIRE.
34. The most splendid period in the history of Turkey,
was that which immediately preceded tlie present. The spirit
of military enterprise was now considerably abated ; though
the power of the empire continued undiminished, except ih
TURKISH EMPIRE. 251
Its naval force. Tlie latter never wholly recovered from the
effects of the fatal battle of Lepanto.
The present period embraces the reigns of nine sultans,
and a part of the reign of another. They were generally at
war with the neighbouring powers ; Persia on the one side
Venice, Himgary, and Austria, on the other.
§ During tlie former period, the wars of the Turks with the Vene-
tians, liad been extremely frequent and bloody. That small, but
enterprising and martial iepul)lic, liad, during one hundred and fifty
years, restrained tlie Ottoman power, and prevented it, most proba-
bly, from overspreading a great part of Europe. The spirit of hos-
tility continued througli the present period, and broke out occasion-
ally into fierce fightings. The Turks were for a long time superior
to the Christian powers of Europe in military tactics, on account of
having an order of men exclusively devoted to the profession of
arms, and also on account of their frequent use of artillery.
Achmet I., made war with Persia and Hungary, but with little
success. During his reign, in 1611, Constantinople was afl3icted wiin
a dreadful plague, of which more than 200,000 persons died.
Othman II., invaded Poland, but was forced to inake peace after
having lost 80,000 men. In 1622, he was strangled by me Janizaries,
whom he intended to disband.
Amurath IV., tarnislied a victory which he had obtained in the
capture of Bagdad, by the barbarous slaughter of 30,000 Persians,
who had laid down their arms, as well as of all the inhabitants.
Mahomet IV. made a conspicuous figure in the annals of Europe,
from the middle, till towards the close of the seventeenth centurJ^
Under him, the Turks again became formidable to Europe, and too"x
Candia from the Venetians, and besieged the capital of Austria.
The siege of ("andia is one of the most remarkable of modern times.
Candia was the ancient Crete, and an emporium for commerce.
The Turks had long desired to take possession of it, and at length,
in 1645, effected a landing on it, with 60,000 men. After several
towns iiad surrendered, Candia, the capital, was invested. This
siege continued twentj^-five years. For the last two years, the
Turks put forth every effort, inasmuch as the delay was mortifying
to their pride, and disappointed their ambitious hopes. After the
loss of 30,000 lives, on the part of tlie Venetians and their allies, and
118,000 on tlie part of the besiegers, in the spncc of two years and
four month^^, the city surrendered on honourable terms, in 1070. It
is said the besiegers made against it, fifty-six assaults and ninety-six
sallies ; and that the Venetians discharged 276,743 cannon balls,
48,119 bombs, and consumed 50,317 barrels of powder. The Turks
have ever since held possession of the island.
In the siege of the capital of Austria, in 1683, John Sobieski,
king of Poland, particularly distinguished himself. His assistance
"was requested by the emperor of Germany, and readily I)estowed.
Tlirougli his efforts, Austria seems to have been saved from destruc-
252 MODERiV HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
tion, and the Ottoman power prevented from effecting an establish
ment in the heart of Europe— a service whicli Austria has since ill
requited. Sobieski, whose army, when joined by the Austrians, did
not exceed 50,000 men, advanced to the environs of Vienna, and
fought one of the most memorable battles of the age. An army of
nearly 200,000 Turks, brave and well disciplined, was entirely de-
feated b}^ the Pole, who lost only GOO men. The victors secured the
great Ottoman standard, 180 pieces of cannon, and the immense
treasures found in the camp of the enemy. The war continued
after that defeat, in which the Turks were the greatest sufferers.
The imperialists, however, were weary of it ; but neither party
could be speedily brought to an accommodation, on account of the
intrigues of the French king, who wished to exhaust the resources
of the house of Austria.
Under Solyman IL, tlie Turks were almost constantly defeated by
the imperialists. Mustapha II., was severely beaten in the famous
battle of Zenta, in Hungary, by prince Eugene, in 1697; and, in
1699, concluded a peace at Carlowitz, by which he was forced to
cede Transylvania, Kaminiek, the Morea, and Azof.
Under Achmet III., in 1715, the Ottoman court declared war
against the Venetians, and recovered the Morea. At the same time,
war was waged against Austria, but the most disastrous eflfects to
the Turks, took place from this renewal of the contention. Prince
Eugene defeated a powerful army, in the battle of Peterwaradin,
and took Temeswar, in 1716. The next year, the strong town of
Belgrade surrendered to his again victorious arms. The disadvan-
tageous peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, followed these defeats. And
tlie Ottoman, formerly so terrible in arms, was obliged to yield the
palm of military skill, if not valour, to the disciplined legions of
Christendom.
BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA.
35. Our own country, is intended by the British Colo-
nies in AaiERicA. During the present period, and part of
the following, the people inhabiting, chiefly, the south-eastern
portion of North America, were known by the above appella-
tion.
These colonies were settlements made j'jrincipally by the
English, though some of them derived their origin from ad-
ventures set on foot by otlier European nations. They were
all, however, included within the English patent, and claimed
by the English crown.
36. It was more than a centtny, from the discovery of the
northern portion of the American continent, by Cabot, before
the English made any eflectual attempts to colonize the
BRITtgH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 253
country. The first grant from the crown, under which set-
tlements were actually made in North America, was dated
April 10, 1606. James I., by his letters patent, granted an
exclusive right or privilege to two companies, called the Lon-
don and Plymouth companies, by which they were autho-
rized to possess the lands in America, hing between the thirty-
fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude; the southern
part, called South Virginia, to the London, and the northern
called North Virginia, to the Pl3anouth compan}^ Before
the present patents, however, a project to settle the country
was undertaken by Sir Walter Raleigh, who, under a com
mission from Elizabeth, in 15S4, had arrived in this portion
of North America, which, upon his flattering account of it,
was called Virginia, in compliment to the queen's virgin
majesty. But this project, as well as two that followed it,
wholly failed.
Under the king's patent, the London company sent Cap-
tain Clnistopher Newport to Virginia, December 20th, 1606.
with a colony of one hundred and five persons, to commence
a settlement on the island Roanoke, now in North Carolina.
By stress of weatlier, however, they were driven north of
their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake Bay.
Here, up a river which they called James river, on a beautiful
j)eninsula, they conmienced, in May, 1607, the settlement of
Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement in the
United States.
37. Seven years afterwards, 1614, a colony of Dutch com-
menced a settlement on the present island of New- York,
which had been discovered in the year 1609, by Henry Hud-
son, an Englishman in the service of Holland. The Eng-
lish government claimed a prior right to the country, by vir-
tue of Cabot's discovery; but the first settlers retained pos
session, until 1(564, when it was surrendered to an armament
fitted out Ijy Charles TI., and received its name from his bro-
ther, the duke of York. It had been previously called New-
xVmsterdam. The Dutch had built a fort here, and one also
at Albany.
38. The same year in which the Dutch settled on the
Hudson, Captain John Smith, ranged the coast, from Penob.s-
cot to Cape Cod. King Charles, to whom a map of the
country was presented, named it New-England, instead of
22
254 MODERN HISTOKY.- — PERIOD IX.
North Virginia. Sixteen years from this, December 22.
1620, a colony of jDuritans landed at Plymouth, in Massa-
chusetts, and began the first permanent settlement in INevv-
England. These colonists were originally from England,
but had resided several years in Holland, on account of the
religious intolerance which prevailed in their native country.
The colony of Plymouth was afterwards connected with
another colony in New-England, called jNIassachusetts Bay,
which was founded in 162S.
39. In 1623, a number of persons from England, arrived
in the river Piscataqua, and began two settlements ; one at
the mouth, at a place called Little Harbour, the other at a
place now called Dover. These were the first settlements in
New-Ham psh ire .
40. The next settlement in the order of time, seems to be
that which Vt'as made by some bodies of the Dutch and
Danes, about the year 1625, in New- Jersey. This was fol-
lowed by the colonization of Delaware, in 1627, by the
Swedes.
41. In 1637, Charles I. granted a patent to Lord Balti-
more, conveying to him a tract of country, on the Chesapeak
Bay, which, in honour of Henrietta Maria, daughter of the
French king, he named Maryland. The next year, Balti-
more appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the
province, who, with about tv/o hundred planters, chiefiy Ro-
man cathohcs, began a settlement, in 1634, near the mouth
of the Potomac, on the northern side.
42. In 1633, the first house was erected in Connecticut.
This was a trading house built by some Plymouth adveu
turers, who transported tlie materials up Connecticut river
Two years from this, 1635, about sixty men, Avomen and
children, from Newtown and Watertown, in Massachusetts,
commenced their journey through the wilderness to Connec-
ticut river. By these people, Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hart-
ford, were settled.
43. The settlement of Rhode Island, is dated from the
year 1636, an event occasioned by the Jmnishment of Roger
Williams from Massachusetts, on account of his religious
opinions. He removed with his family to Mooshawic, and
began a plantation, which, on account of the Divine kin(3-
ness. he called Providence.
BRITISH COLONIES. 255
44. The colony of New-Haven, was formed in 1638, in
consequence of tlie English having occasion lo vi.sit the ter-
ritory, in an expedition against the Pequots. This colony
eventually united with that of Connecticut.
45. In 1663, some of the Virginia settlers laid the foun-
dation of Xorth Carolina, which was followed l^y the settle-
ment of South Carolina, in 1670. The Carolinas were so
called in honour of Charles IX., king of France, under whoso
patronage the coast had been discovered, in 1563.
46. In Pennsylvania, a small l)ody of Swedes had plant
ted themselves, at an early [)eriod. Their settlement in
creased slowly, until the arrival of William Penn, in 16S1
with a numerous company of Quakers, whom religious per-
secution drove across the Atlantic. Penn had acquired a
grant of the territoiy now constituting the state, in conside-
ration of tlie debts due from the crown, for services perform-
ed by his father, admiral Penn.
47. The last settled of the original thirteen states, was
Georgia, founded in 1732, by General Oglethorpe. This
comes within our next succeeding period. At first, Georgia,
and even the Florida ■, were covered by the Charter, as it was
afterwards confirmed and enlarged, which conveyed Carolina
to its proprietors.
48. Tlie three eldest of the American states, it will be per-
ceived above, are Virginia, New-York, and Massachusetts.
These have hitherto been the most important and influential
in the confederacy. Others, however, from their numbers,
are begirming to acquire their just consideration.
49. The causes of the settlement of the American states,
svere various. Some were made on mercenary views, the
usual principle of colonization, for the particular benefits of
the proprietors. This was the case with Virginia. The im-
mediate i)urpose of the settlement of New-York, was com-
merce. The Dutch were then [)articularly distinguished for
tlieir commercial and enterprising spirit. Massachusetts, and
Xew-England generally, were planted principally to enjoy,
in an unrestricted manner, the institutions of religion.
50. In the original foundation of three of the states, viz.,
Rhode Island, Maryland, and Peimsylvania, the free tolera-
tion of religion was recognized, and these were the first civil
communities which acted on a principle that now seems to
256 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX.
be fast gaining the popular consent. In the other colonies^
there was a degree of intolerance on the subject of religion^
the fault of the age ; and yet they laid the foundations of a
civil community, the freest and best which the world had
hitherto seen. In New-England, particularly, they wished
to enjoy their religion in peace ; and in shutting out others-
whose religious opinions differed from their own, they seem
to have justified themselves on the principle of self defence,
with a view to be delivered, ever afterwards, from evils simi-
lar to those from which they had recently escaped. As, how
ever, it must be impossible to prevent differences of opinion
on the subject of religion, a civil community would be wise
in providing for such a state of things, by suitable and tole^
rant regulations.
51. Many of the first settlers of the country, were men
of talents and liberal culture ; and a wilderness has never
been planted by a l)ody of people, who were inore solicitous
for the interests of learning, and general education. Next,
after the establishment of the Gospel, their greatest object
was to multiply schools and higher seminaries of learning.
Indeed, the colonists possessed excellent traits. Their mo^
rality and piety, their spirit of enterpriec and habits of indus-
try, their love of hberty, and attention to education, were un-
paralleled in the history of similar efforts. They were not
perfect men, but tliey were the best and the noblest that ever
founded an empire. These remarks are intended particular-
ly for New-England, though they have a degree of applica-
tion to all the American states.
52. The colonists purchased their lands of the Indians ;
and notwithstanding what has been often asserted, respecting
the frauds that were practised, there is little reason to question
the purity of motive, and the good faith of those who were
engaged in these transactions.
.53. The settlers in some of the colonies, experienced at
first but little trouble from the Indians, for many years. This
was the case particularly with Massachusetts and Pennsylva-
nia. In others, they were molested from this quarter, at a-
very early period. Connecticut, and particularly Virginia,
were obliged, soon after their settlement, to make war against
the savages, in self-defence. And all the colonies, sooner or
kter, suffered in various ways, and especially by contentions
BlllTISII COLONIES. 257
with the natives. It is not to be denied, that in the end,
Avrong was son"^times done to these nniserable tribes. Their
ferocity and luj^Messness were, occasionally, met with the
sternest inflictions ol vengeance on the part of the Avhites.
Respecting the colonists as a body, during the present pe-
riod, it may be remarked, in a very general way, that they
struggled long with all the hardships, difficulties, and priva-
tions incident to new est abhshments among savages; that
they displayed a heroism and constarjcy, such as have rarely
been witnessed among men, and though tempted to believe,
in some instances, tliat tlieir imdertaking would never suc-
ceed, yet that their virtues finally overcame every obstacle,
;ind they found themselves before the conclusion of this pe-
riod, increasing in wealth and population.
It may be added, that the colonists were often involved in
the wars of the mother country, with other powers ; that a
lew of their wars with the Indians, affected several of the
states at a time, and that a consideration of their common
exposure, led to a general intercourse with one another, and
particiik\rly to the union which was formed between the New-
England colonies, in 1C43 ; a union whi<^h lasted more than
forty years, or until their charters were revoked, and which
i'urnished the example of that nobler confederacy which has
since takeii place, of all the American states. In general,
however, it is with the individual colonies that we are mostly
concerned in the history of this period, but the limits of our
work will admit only of a very few details, in regard to one
or two of the states.
§ Two years after the settlement of Connecticut, occurred the war
uhli tlie Pcquots, a tribe of Indians, whose principal residence was
on a hill in the present town of Groton These savages had pre-
viously made depredations on the infant settlement, and killed seve-
ral individuals, and carried others away captive. In this perilous
stale of a.Tairs, a court, convened at Hartford, determined on war.
Ninety men, nearly half the fencible men of the colony, were or-
dered to be raised. Forty-two from Hartford, thirty from Windsor,
and eighteen from VVetherslield. These troops, together with seventy
Kiver and Mohcgan Indians, were commanded by Captain Masoii,
who, sailing down the river, surprised Mystic, one of the principal
forts of the enemy, in the prc.sent town of Stonington.
Before the savages could get themselves in readiness, the troops
instantly pressed forward and fired. The destruction soon became
terrible, but the Indians raUied at length, and made a desperate re-
22*
258 MODERN HISTORy. — PLRIOD IX.
sistance. All, however, was in vain. Upon vn order ;o burn them,
the work of destruction was completed. Seventy wigwams were in
ruins, and between 500 and 600 Indians, lay bleeding on the ground,
or smouldering in ashes. With the assistance of a detachment of
nearly two hundred men from Massachusetts and Plymouth, the
whites pursued the rest of the tribe, who tied towards the Hudson,
and, defeating them in another terrible battle, in a great swamp, in
Fairfield, the power of the Pequot nation, was entirely prostrated.
In Virginia, the colonists were soon involved in contests with the
Indians. In addition, they suffered severely by the scarcity and
badness of provisions — the consequence of which was, lliat diseases
swept off one half of their number, in a few months. In the latter
part of the year 1609, Captain Smith, whose romantic story has been
so often told, and whose name was a defence of the settlers, and a tei -
ror to the Indians, returned to England. Soon after his departure
the Colonists were reduced to the greatest extremities, having had a
company of thirty men slain by the Indians, and their provisions
wasted on the occasion. A most distressing famine ensued, the ef-
fect of which was tlie reduction, in six months, of the colonists, from
nearly five hundred to sixty. The remainder embarked for their
native home ; but being met by a new company of adventurers, with
a large supply of provisioi».^, they were induced to return, and try
the fortunes of a wilderness once more. For a number of years,
it was only by the arrival of new comers, that the colony was pre-
served from extinction. At last it began to prosper, from the date
of Sir William Berkeley's administration, 1638, which lasted nearly
forty years. Before the conclusion of this period, however, the
colony experienced the evils of a terrible insurrection, known by
the name of Bacon's rebellion, which terminated only with the death
of its mover.
54. Ti)e principal events which relate to the coloniep, as a
body, or to the greater part of them, during the present pe-
riod, were Philip's war, in 1675 and 1676, w^hich was the
most general and destructive war with the Indians, in which
the colonies were ever involved — the oppressive measures re-
lating to the colonies under the Stuart family, who attempted
the destruction of their charters and liberties — and the wars
occasioned by the liostilities into which the mother country
entered with other European powers, usually called king
Williaiu's war, and queen Anne's war; the former com-
mencing rn 1690, and continuing to 1697, and the latter com-
mencing in 1702. and ending in 1713.
§ Philip's war was carried on by a king or sachem of that
name, who was at the head of the Wampanoags, and whose re-
sidence was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. This distinguished
warrior, designing to exterminate the whites, formed a most exten-
sive combination of the Indians. The greatest battle during this
RUSSIA. 259
contest, is known by the name of the Swamp Fight, December, 1675,
in the Narraganset country, at the Indian fortress, situated in a large
swamp. Tlie English, who were commanded by Josiah Winslow,
governor of Plymouth, obtained a great victory, but dearly bought,
with tlie loss of two hundred and thirty men, killed and wounded.
The Indians lost more than four times this number, besides many
women and children. Though their power was greatly broken by
this defeat, they continued their depredations and massacres, until
the death of their great warrior, in 1676, and in some parts of New-
P^ngland, two years later. This was a melancholy period in the an-
nals of the country, during which, six hundred men, the flower of
its strength, had fallen ; twelve or thirteen towns had been destroyed,
and six hundred dwelling houses consumed — a terrible destruction,
out of a population not exceeding 60,000.
The oppressive measures, under the Stuart family, were owing,
in part, to the tyrannical disposition of the princes of that family,
and, in part, to the sinister attempts of certain men, who, having
visited the colonies, became hostile to them, and infused their preju-
dices into the king and his ministry. Under this baleful influence,
the colonies were required to surrender their charters — a demand
which was complied with, except in the case of Coiuiccticut. The
duration of tliis state of things, however, was short ; the revolution
occurring in England, in 1688, when William and Mary were placed
on the throne.
From this time, the colonies, though unmolested by the mother
country, in regard to their liberties, suffered by means of her wai^s
with the French, who employed the savages as their auxiliaries.
This was a long period of woe and desolation, lasting from 1688 tO'
1713, with an intermission of only four or five years.
IIUSSIA.
or>. Tlic history of Russia is both obscure and unimpor-
tant, until the time of Peter I., siunamed the Great, who as-
cended the throne in 1689. Russia, then raised from bar-
barism and ignorance, was brought into notice with the civil-
ized world ; and, by successive advancements, has attained to
a rank, in power and inllucnce, second to no other state in
l'^uroj)e. To Peter, that country owes all its greatness.
§ In regard to the early history of Russia, it is only ascertained,
that in the foinlU century, the coiuitry was possessed by several
different tribes. In the tenth century, it is said to have received the
light of Christianity. In the fifteentli century, .Tohn Basilowitz re-
deemed the empire from its subjection to tlie Tartars, and united the
greater part of tlie country under one monarchy. The sovereigns
of Russia, until Ivan Basilowitz IV., in the sixteenth century, bore
the title Wenike Knez, " Great Prince," but he added that of czar,
wiiich, in the Sclavonican language, signifies king. Peter the Great
260 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
assumed the title of emperor. It was not till the end of the six
teenth century, tliat Siberia was added to the empire, which, to thai
time, was bounded by the limits of Europe.
The predecessors of Peter, maintained considerable splendour, as
sovereigns; but their dominions were uncultivated, and their sub-
jects barbarians. Alexis Michaelowitz, father of Peter, was tlie first
who published a code of laws.
Peter became master of the empire, by setting aside a weak elder
brother, and banishing a factions sister, who liad seized the govern-
ment. His youth was spent in ignoraace and debauchery ; but liis
new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to
the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people.
.56. The principal events of his reign, were, his war v\^ith
the Turks, and taking of Azof, in 1696 — his sending an
embassy into Holland, which he accompanied in disguise,
in order to learn the art of ship building — his destruction of
the Strelitzes, a body of troops, much resembling the Janiza-
ries of Turkey — his abolition of the patriarchate of Moscow,
which rivalled the authority of the czars — the several de-
feats lie experienced in a war with Charles XII. of Sweden — -
his signal victory over tliat monarch, in the battle of Pul-
towa — his building" of Petcrsburgh — and, Iinally, his institu
tion of a numerous infantry, and powerful army.
§ Having gained tlic little knowledge he possessed from foreigners,
he resolved to travel in search of more. Appointing De Fort, an
able Genevese, his junbassador, he travelled as a private person in
Ids suite, through Germany to Holland, and when he arrived at
Amsterdam, engaged himself as a workman in the dock yard, under
the name of Peter Michaelof. Here was exhibited tlie astonishing
spectacle of a mighty prince, at the age of twenty-five, quitting the
luxury of a court, lai)ouring with his own hands, at a toilsome me-
chanic art, fed and clad like the rest of liis fellow-workmen, and
obeying the orders of his temporary master I His occupation did
not prevent him from attending the lectures on anatomy, surgery,
mechanics, and other branches of practical philosophy, cultivated in
Holland. From Holland he passed to England, where he was simi-
larly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement.
At the end of sixteen montlis, he returned to Moscow, laden with
knowledge, and the fruits of ex])erience, which he employed for the
benefit of his own subjects.
Charles the XH. was, at this time, sweeping ail before him. He
had beaten the czar, in a number of engagements; and, suddenly
breaking off a negociation, lie entered Russia with 45,000 men, with
the design of dictating peace at Moscow. He would probably have
accomplished his object, had he not been induced, by a treacherous
promise of aid from the Cossacs, to march through the Ukraine, in
the midst of winter. Here Peter seized his opportunity, when the
SWEDEN 26 li
enemy's army was wasted by fatigue and famine, and meeting
Charles, at Piiltou'a, ho gave him battle, killing 9000 of the Swedes,
and taking 14,000 prisoners.
Peter diet! in 1725. His usefulness, as a sovereign, is un-
questioned ; yet, as a man, he is justly obnoxious to the.
charge of being ferocious, impatient, passionate, and prodigal
of the lives of his subjects.
SWEDEN.
57. The history of Sweden is unimportant, until the re-
volution of 1523, wliich placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne,
who was followed by eight sovereigns to the time of Charles
Xll., in 1697. The crown was elective till 1544, when.
Gustavus persuaded the states to render it hereditary in his
family. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, had been united,
i^ito one kingdom, from the time of Margaret of Denmark,
in 13S9, to the time of Gustavus. The last king (Christian
11.) of the united countries, was so tyrannical, that Gustavus
was induced to take up arms against him, and deliver his
subjugated countrymen. He introduced Lutheranism into
hrs states, administered the govcrninent with great firmness
and wisdom ; and, considering the age in which he lived, was
one of the most extraordinary of men.
Two at least of his successors to the period of Charles.
XII., were eminent sovereigns, viz. Gustavus Adolphus, sur-
named the Great, and Christiana. Gustavus was illustrious
as a hero, and (Christiana was enthusiastically devoted to
Hteraturc, and distinguished for her patronage of learned
men.
§ Sweden was the eastern part of the ancient Scandinavia, and,
together with Denmark, was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a colony
of the Gomerians. From tiiis country came the Goths, the Gepidce,
the Heruli, and the Lombards. The Swedish monarchy is very an-
cient ; but the history of its earlier sovereigns is too uncertain, to
.satisfy the sober enquirer. Eric IX., in the twelfth century, is the
first monarch whose reign approximates to clironological truth.
There appear to have been nine sovereigns between him and
Gustavus Vasa.
During the oppressive reign of Christian II., Gustavus Vasa wa^
sent as an hostage into Denmark, in 1518, whence he made his
escape on hearing of the massacre at Stockliold of ninety-four
senators, among whom liis father perished. For a while he con-
cealed hin^elf In Dalecarlia ; at length he entered into a small towa
262 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
on a day when a fair was held, harangued the country people, and
with their assistance took possession of the fortress, and put the
Danish commander to death.
From this moment his life became a scene of triumphs. Follow-
ed by his brave Dalecarlians, he besieged Stockholm ; and it hap-
pening, when the Danes came to relieve that city, that a sudden
frost detained their ships at a great distance from the port, Gusta-
vus's soldiers advanced on the ice and set fire to them. This victory
opened the gates of Stockholm, and he was proclaimed king.
Gustavus Adolphus began to reign m 1611. He became a hero
in early life, having in his twelfth year been encircled with the
laurels of victory. At the age of eighteen he was successfully
prosecuting a war with Denmark, which he concluded in 1613
with an advantageous peace. He was equally successful in his
wars with the Poles and Russians, from whom he took many towns.
In his war with the Imperialists, he defeated their forces in the battle
of Leipsic, in 1631, and afterwards in that of Lutzen; but in the
latter he lost his life.
Christiana, in 1632, succeeded her father Adolphus when only
seven years of age, and during her reign, Sweden preserved its
ascendency in the affairs of Germany. She ruled the kingdom with
great wisdom and prudence, till 1654, when she resigned her crown
to her cousin, Charles Gustavus. She was so eager to quit Sweden,
and to reach a land more congenial to the cultivation of science,
that when she arrived at a small brook, which separates that country
from Denmark, she alighted from her carriage, and leaped over the
stream : " At length," said she, " I am free, and out of Sweden,
whither I hope never to return." She visited Paris, where imbound-
ed homage was paid to her genius, but where her manners gave of-
fence to the court for want of decency and conformity to rules.
Rome, however, became the place of her residence, where she em-
braced the Catholic religion, and where she died.
58. Charles XII. succeeded, in 1697, at the age of fifteen
years. He was a competitor of Peter the Great, and divided
with him the admiration of Europe. He has been lanked
with the greatest conquerors of antiquity, on account of his
heroism of character and, extraordinaiy achievements. But
diaries was rather a singular, than a great man. His suc-
cess as a warrior, for a time, alarmed and agitated Europe.
Soon after his accession, his dominions were attacked on
three sides, by Russia, Poland, and Denmark, and he, al-
though then only a boy of seventeen years, successively took
the field against these powers, and signally defeated tliem.
Poland he humbled in the dust. A negociation having been
begun by the czar, Charles abruptly terminated it, and de-
clared that he would negociate only at Moscow. The rigoui
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS 263
of a Russian winter, prepared liis army for the defeat, which
It so signally experienced at Piiltowa. After this battle, he
fled into Turkey, where his conduct seemed to be that of a
maniac, rather than of a man in his senses.
§ The war with Denmark he despatched in six weeks. The
Danish king purchased the safely of his capital and kingdom, by
making full indemnity to the duke of Holstein, whose territory he
iiad attempted to wrest from liim.
The Swedish monarch then hastened into Ingria, which tlie czar
had attacked, and at the battle of Narva, with eight thousand men,
he defeated an army of eighty thousand Russians, of whom he took
thirty thousand prisoners.
In his chastisement of Poland, he satisfied the dictates of the
amplest revenge. lie reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated
into the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw
and Cracow. lie then, by means of the assembled states, declared
the Polish Augustus deposed, and procured Stanislaus, his own de-
pendent, to be elected sovereign of Poland.
When Charles tied into Turkey, he had only eighteen hundred
men. He still hoped to dethrone the czar, by engaging the Otto-
man power against him. After many efforts the Sultan was induced
to send two hundred thousand soldiers against the Russians. But
upon the capitulation of Peter's army, peace havuig been made,
Charles was disappointed, and vented his rage against the Turk.
He had been hospitably entertained more than three years, but his
arrogance becoming insufferable, he was ordered to quit the Turkish
dominions. This order he refused to obey, and proceeded immedi-
ately to fortify his camp. With only three hundred men, he de-
fended himself for some time, against an army of twenty tiiousand
Turks, and only yielded, when he was taken by the legs and arms
and dragged to the tent of the bashaw.
Distinguished Characters in Period IX.
1. Tycho Brahe, a Dane, celebrated as an astronomer.
2. Cervantes, a Spaniard, the celebrated author of Don
Q,ui.\'ote.
3. Shaks|X'are, the greatest of dramatic poets.
4. Galileo, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries ia
mathematics and astronomy.
5. Raleigh, an eminent navigator and man of letters.
6. Bacon, an English philosopher and universal genius.
7. Kepler, a German astronomer.
8. Grotius, a Dutch writer, of various and profound learn
ing.
9 Des Cartes, a famous French philosopher
•264 MODERN HISTORV. — PERIOD IX.
10. Gassendi, a Frenchniari, distinguished as an astiono*-
mer.
1 1 Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and theologian.
12. Milton, the greatest of epic poets among the moderns.
13. Comeille, the prince of the French dramatic poets.
14. Boyle, an Englishman, distinguished in natural philo-
sophy.
1.5. Dryden, an eminent English poet.
16. Locke, the greatest among the English metaphysi-
cians.
17. Leibnitz, an acute German philosopher and mathema
tician.
§ 1. Tycho Brahe, descended from an illustrious Swedish family, was
horn in Denmark, 1546. He was sent by his father to Copenhagen,
for the purpose of studying rhetoric and philosoph}^ ; but the great
eclipse of the sun on the 21st of August, 1562, engaged liiniio study
astronomy. With this science lie was excessively delighted. He
often spent whole nights with a small celestial globe in his hands, in
learning the names of the stars, and in the acquisition of a science,
which he called divine. He was honom-ed by the noble and learned
of his age, and patronized by his sovereign, for a time ; but the ma-
lice of his enemies drove him from liis coimtry, and he found an
•asylum in Prague, where he died, in 1601.
It is said, that his learning made him superstitious, and his pliilo-
pophy irritaijlc, to such a degree, that in a philosophical dispute with
some person, the argument rose to sucli a pitch of personal violence,
that he lost his nose. This he supplied by a gold and silver one^
admirably constructed.
The best of his works are, the Rodolphine Tables, and the Histo'-
ria Coelestis. He opposed the Copernican system, which is a suffi-
' cient proof of the unsoundness of his judgment.
2. Cervantes, wlio is better known by this name than by his sur-
name, Saavedra, was born at Madrid, 1549. He led a life of hard-
ship and poverty. Before he became an author, he engaged in the
military profession, and five years and an half he endured all th<:
horrors of an Algerine captivity. After his release and return to
Spain, he began to write plays for his maintenance, but tliough his
pieces were acted with universal applause, he pined in poverty, and
at last, found himself in a prison. In hiscontinement, lie began hi.-
immortal work Don Quixote, which was not finished till the ex-
piration of .several years. This work is read and admired in every
known language ; but though popular from the beginning, it pro-
duced him neither notice nor bread. He was, however, serene
amidst his wretchedness.
In Don Quixote, Cervantes appears the purest of all humourists,
gentle, genial, and kmd.
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 265
3. Shakspeare, (AVilliam) was born of a respectable family, at
Stralford-oii-Avon, April, 154G. Few events of his life have been
j-ecordcd, while scores of volumes have been written on his poetry
and on the character of his genius. lie was designed to carry on
the trade of his father, which was that of a wo(;l dealer, and with
that view, he was early taken from school. He married at the age
of seventeen, and soon became the father of a family. An un-
fortunate and criminal act, (deer stealing,) which he committed
in connexion with some thoughtless companions, was the means of
driving him to London.
Here, a new scene opened upon him, and he soon laid the foun-
dation of a fame, which is unequalled in the history of human genius.
He first enlisted among the players, and became an actor on the stage.
It is not known that ho excelled in the profession of an actor ; the
contrary is rather inferred. But from acting, he passed to the Avri-
Img of plays, which, at first, he adapted to the lower classes; but
when his i:ferformances had gained the favour of the queen and
Iier court, he aimed at more elaborate compositions. Having by the
productions of his pen, and by the management of the plaj^-house,
acquired a competent fortune, he retired to his native town, where
he lived respected and beloved by his neighbours. Shakspeare died
23d April, 1516, in the fifty-third year of his age.
Several relics of the immortal bard, are still preserved in the house
where he was born, tlie front of which is now occupied as a meat-
shop. Among the articles are, his sitting-chair, a table on which
he wrote, a Spanish card and dice-box, presented to the poet by
the prince of Castile, part of a Spanish match-lock, the remains of
the piece with which he shot the deer in Charlicole Park, a table-co-
ver, a present from good Queen Bess, &c. &c. This is a place, which
is visited bj^ thousands, of all ranks, conditions, and countries, in
homage to the genius which was there first brought to light.
Of Sliak.speare, it has been said, almost in the language of adora-
tion, " that he is the greatest of poets and of men — that he went be-
yond all men, and stands in the array of Inmian intellect, like the
sun in tlie system, single and unapproachable." But eulogy has
been exhausted on him. After all, it is melancholy to reflect, that
amidst his great and incomparable beauties, there are many moral
l)lemis]ies and defects.
4. Galileo made discoveries in astronomy, that were too astonish-
ing, and too opposite to the doctrines of Aristotle, to escape the cen-
sure of the philosophers of tl ~t age; and no sooner was it known,
that he had embraced tlie Co; crnican system, than he was sum-
moned before tlie Inquisition. Into its terrible dungeons was tliis
illustrious man twice thrown, where, in the whole, he spent tlirceor
four miserable years, and tliis for embracing opinions then deemed
so false in philosophy, and so heretical and contrary to tlie word of
God.
Aniung the discoveries that have rendered the name of Ganieo
imniorial, are his observation of the inequalities on the surface of
the moon, and his knowledge of her vibration, his calculation of ih :
23
266 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
longitude by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, which he first noti-
ced, his invention of the cycloid, and his perception of the increas-
ing celerity in the descent of bodies.
He lived seventy-eight years. Towards the close of his long hfe,
lie became blind. Milton has finely alluded to him in the lines
" Like the moon, whose orb
Through optic glass, the Tuscan artist views
At evening, from the top of Fesole,
Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands,
Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe."
5. Raleigh (Sir Walter) was one of the most brilliant and useful cha-
racters of the times in which he lived. His perseverance in making
discoveries, first inspired the British nation with tliat ardour alter
maritime distinction, which has given both wealth and glory to the
empire. He was also a valiant leader, an able negociator, and a man
of letters. His works, composed in the obscurity of a dungeon, on
history, politics, geography, and philosophy, as well as some good
poetical pieces, will make him known to future time. It must be
owned, nevertheless, that his genius was cramped by the fashions ol
the age.
His life, not indeed free from stain, was clouded by misfortune —
he became the victim of royal persecution, — and his head wasfinalh
brought to the block. On the most frivolous and arbitrary charges,
king James confined him in the tower thirteen years ; and thougli
he was afterwards released, it was not long before he fell again
under the king's suspicion, the consequence of which was his tragical
end, on the 29th Oct. 1618.
That at one time Sir Walter aspired to the hand of Elizabeth,
would seem to be inferred from the following incident. On a win-
dow where the queen could see it, he wrote this line —
" Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall."
Attracting Elizabeth's eye, she replied to it with her usual good
sense.
" If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all."
6. Bacon (Sir Francis) was born 22d January, 1561, in West-
minster. Ilis astonishing faculties were early developed, and wlien
only a child he was favourably noticed by Queen Elizabeth, who
useid to call him her "young lord keeper," alluding to the office held
by his father. On the accession of James I., he rose into power — he
was knighted, and successively made attorney-general and keeper
of the seals, lord chancellor, and raised to the peer-^ge. His eleva-
tion excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery
and corruption in the office of lord chancellor. The consequence
was, that he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to be imjirisoned in
the tower. But liis fine was remitted by tlie king, he was restored
to the public opnuon, and sat in the first parliament called by
Charles. It is a matter of some doubt whether Bacon was guilty (k
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 207
the crime alledged against him. The blame is w'.th much reason
supposed to attach to his servants, so that the eulogy of the poet, is
more clearly due to him than the poet's censure —
" The wbest, brightest, meanest of manlcind."
Bacon was indeed one of the greatest and most universal geniuses
that any age or country lias produced. As an author, his " No-
vum Organum Scientiarum," has, among his other performances,
immortalized his name. He was the first who tauglit the proper
method of studying the sciences : that is, he pointed out the way in
vvliich we should begin and carry on our pursuit of knowledge, in
order to arrive at truth. In this view he has been very properly
denominated " the miner and sapper of philosophy," " the pioneer
of nature," " the priest of nature's mysteries." The great princi-
ples of the Baconian philosophy, are now universally established.
7. Kepler, (John,) though the contemporary of Bacon, and the
worthy precursor of Newton, was by no means freed from the illu-
sions of the old philosophy. Tlie old or Aristotelian philosophy
was the method of anticipating nature, or dictating to her as to
what her operations are to be, instead of observing what they ac-
tually are, and inferring general truths from particular facts. Thus,
Tycho Brahe anticip:ited nature, in taking it as a certain truth, that
tlie earth must be at rest, tliough he admitted the reality of the
planetary motions. Thus the great Kepler, imagined that the planets
must be six in number, because of certain properties of numbers,
and he maintained other puerile absurdities. He was, however, a
man of high celebrity as an astronomer, and deservedly commended
by most of the great astronomers who succeeded him. He first
proved that the planets do not move in circles, but in ellipses ; and
that in their motions, they describe equal areas in equal times, &c.
His earliest years were not improved by education. When, how-
ever, he began to study, tlie turn of his intellect was abundantly
manifest. He w^as born in 1571, and died in 1630.
8. Grotius (Hugo) was born at Delft, in 1583, and died, in 1645.
A singular event of his life, showing the sufferings and dangers of
literary men in those times, was the following. In consequence of
the persecution of the Arminians, of whom Grotius was one, and
an able defender, in 1618, he was doomed to perpetual imprisonment.
His confinement was alleviated by his literary occupations, and the
assiduities of his wife. The fond care of this worthy woman at
last procured his deliverance, after a captivity of nearly two years.
On pretence of removing books, which she declared proved injurious
to her husband's healtli, she was permitted to send away a small
chest of drawers, of the length of three feet and a lialf, in which he
was confined, 'i'hus, carried by two soldiers from tlie prison, the
chest was then removed to a distance on horseback, and at tlie house
of a friend the illustrious prisoner was set at liberty, jiursuing his
flight afterwards in the guise of a mason with a rule and a trowel.
His particular profession Avas the law, and lie pleaded liis first
«*ause at tlie agij of seventeen with great eclat. But polite literature
68 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX.
engaged much of his attention, and he wrote many works on moral
and rehgious subjects, together with histories, poetry, critical notes,
epistles, &c. His learning was very various and profound.
9. Des Cartes, (Renedes,) though a man of genius and extensive
attainments, was too much of a theorist. He, however, advanced
far beyond his predecessors in many respects, and if he had done
nothing besides introducing a spirit of inquiry, and a wish of ex-
amining the mysterious operations of nature, he would have effected
much for mankind. He was well acquainted Avith mathematics and
philosophy, and possessed a mind capable of profound meditation
and patient inquiry, though highly imaginative. He wrote ingeni-
ously on the laws of the universe, but his theory of vortices, ac-
counting for the movements of the planetary worlds, is sufficiently
visionary.
He was courted by the learned and the noble, and princes almost
vied with one another in paying him their attentions. He died at
the age of fifty-four, at Stockholm, but after he had been interred
seventeen years, his body was removed to Paris, as his countrymen
chose to claim it.
10. Gassendi, (Peter,) also a native of France, was born in Pro-
vence, 1592. He contributed somewhat to weaken the dominion oi
Aristotle over the human mind, though he Ava-; not himself altoge-
ther based on the true philosophy. He was nevertheless a great
man and a great scholar ; and to his genius and labours, the intel-
lectual improvements of subsequent ages are not a little owing. His
studious habits proved injurious to his constitution, but he was in
some degree relieved by phlebotomy. He, however, at length sunk
under his chronic complaint, and placing the hand of his faithful
amanuensis on his heart, after perceiving that the motion of that
spring of life was faint and fluttering, he exclaimed in these last
words, " You see what is man's life," and immediately expired,
22d Oct., 1655.
11. Pascal, (Blaise) whose early extraordinary powers and at-
tainments astonished the world, was born at Clermont in Auvergne,
19th June, 1623. From a child, he inquired into the reasons of
every thing, a):d he could be satisfied with noticing but with such
proof as the subject examined would admit. He always sought for
demonstration and truth, if tliey could be attained.
The following circumstance evinces his wonderful aptitude for
mathematical studies, and the superiority of his intellect. His father,
an eminent mathematician, had carefully secured him, as was sup-
posed, from learning the mathematics, by denying the child the
requisite books. Tlie father's object was first to perfect Blaise in the
languages ; but the latter extorting from his fatlier by entreaty, a
definition of geometry, which was very vague and general, imme-
diately entered on the study, without any otlier help. He was then
but twelve years of age. He pursued his inquiries clandestinely,
till his fatlier happened to enter tiie room, where ]:c was busy with
his bars and rings, (used in place of geometrical lines and circles,)
and to his infinite astonishment, found that the child was endeavour-
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 269
ing to domonstratc what makes the thirty-second proposition of
Euclid's first book. He iiad proceeded tlius far in geometry, from
axioms and principles which he had laid down, and wliich he had
applied in a connected series, through the iuterveniug propositions.
At the age of sixteen, he composed the ablest treatise on conic sec-
tions, lliat liad appeared since the time of the ancients. At the age
of nineteen, he contrived a mathematical machine, by wliich calcu-
lations of every kind could be made, without the help of a pen.
And at the age of twenty-three, he demonstrated the phenomena o
(he gravity of the air, and soon after solved a problem, proposed
by Alersennus, which had hitherto perplexed the ablest mathema-
ticians of Europe.
All tlicse mighty powers and attainments, he consecrated to re-
ligion, and Christianity never received a more splendid offering than
she did from the genius of Pascal. His religious views and feelings
are embodied in his Provincial Letters, and his Thoughts on Re-
ligion, &c. works, whose celebrity has not surpassed their merits.
Voltaire, with his characteristic scorn of piety, calls Pascal, "u
sublime madman, born a century too early."
12. Milton, (Jolm,) was born in London, 1608. His political and
controversial writings are justly celebrated, and contain many ad-
mirable passages. He was a strenuous asserter and defender of
liberty, and, in many of his views on this and kindred subjects, was
far in advance of his own age. But as a poet, he is still more justly
celebrated, and is, at least, a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His
Paradise Lost, is the greatest poem which modern ages have pro-
duced. In his life time, the poet never received the meed of praise
which was his due; but ample justice has since been accorded to
hun, and all [posterity will render homage to his transcendent genius.
The incidents of his life are interesting, but they are so well
known, that we shall pass them over, except to say that he was
tiirice married ; was subjected to much domestic infelicity, in his
first marriage ; became blind in writing his Defence of the l-iUglish
People, against the Attack of Salmasius ; suffered not a little from
personal and political enemies ; and, finally, died comparatively poor
and forsaken by the world.
It may be added, that he was uncommonly handsome, when
young; was economical in his living, and rigidly abstemious; and,
in religion, was a puritan, with some diversity, however, in his re-
ligious views, at the different periods of his life. He died of the
gout, in 1674.
13. Corneille, (Peter,) whose poetical works are among the sub-
limest effusions of the French muse, was born at Rouen, 1606. He
was brought to the bar, but ho soon abandoned it for poetry, which
was far more congenial to his taste. He wrote plays, tlie most cele-
orated of which was, the Cid, a tragedy, which drew against him
the persecution and obloquy of rival wits and unsuccessful poets.
He is .said to have been a very meritorious man, in private life :
liberal, humane, and devout, and rather inclined to melancholy. He
lied at the age of seventy-nine years.
23^
2^0 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX.
14. Boyle, (Robert,) was the seventh son and fourteenth child ol
Richard, earl of Cork, and born in 1626. After having visited foreign
countries, he retired, in 1646, to his estate at Stalbridge, and, amidst
the confusion and timtiuits of the time, enjoyed there a peaceful soli-
tude. He, however, laboured assiduously for tlie promotion of
learning and religion, to both of which he was devoted in a most
exemplary manner. He was eminent in natural philosophy and
hemistry, in which, from adopting the Baconian method, he made
many discoveries. " To him," says Boerhaave, " we owe the secre<;s
of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, fossils; so that, from his
works may be deduced the whole system of natural knowledge."
He invented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. His re-
gard for rehgion, he showed in the purity of his life, the general
tendency of his writings, his aversion to temporal honours, which
were abundantly offered him, and his liberal benefactions in aid of
benevolent and pious undertakings. His regular charities amounted
to £1000 annually. He founded a public lecture for the defence of
divine revelation against unbelievers, and particularly interested
himself in tlie propagation of the Gospel among the nations, send-
ing many hundred copies of parts of the New Testaments into the
east. He died in his sixty-fifth year.
15. Dryden, (John,) early gave proof of his superior poetical abili-
ties. He continued to write to old age, and improved to the very last,
not only in judgment, but in fire, of which, his Ode on St. Cecilia's
Day, and his Fables, are a proof. He wrote much, bolh in poetry
and prose, and doubtless too much ; for the rapidity with which he
composed, prevented correctness. He produced no less than twen-
ty-seven plays, besides a very large number of other works. He
excelled less in dramatic composition, than in any other species of
poetry. In his prose, he was equalled by few of his age, for judg-
ment, criticism, and erudition. He professes himself to have derived,
in regard to prose writing, more essential aid from Tillotson, than
from any other writer.
Dr. Johnson's critique on Dryden, is very just and discriminating.
The Edinburgh reviewers place him at the head of his line; they
think him great as a satirist, but, in respect to genuine poetic power
a step lower than the j)oets of Elizabeth and James. His writings
are too much tinctured witli the licentiousness of the age, and, in
his religious views, the poet was too flexible and accommodating.
The vear of his birth avhs 1C31— that of his death 1701.
16. Locke, (John,) so celebrated as a philosopher, and an orna-
ment of English literature, was born in 1632. In the field of men-
tal and political philosophy, he has won laurels that can never fade.
He has been called, " the glory of theorists."
By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situa-
tion under government, and wrote, at that time, several political
tracts. The danger of prosecution for high treason, compelled his
lordship, at length, to fly to Holland. Thither Mr. Locke followeo
him. After a time, the English demanded him of the States Gene-
ral, on suspicion of being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion.
SWEDEN. 271
Thus persecuted, Locke concealed himself twelve montlis, devoting
his lime to literary labours; and, two years after, when lie returned
to England, in consequence of the revolution, he published his cele-
brated Essay on the Human Understanding, in the composition of
which, he had been engaged nine years. The latter portion of his
life was passed in religious retirement, and in the composition of
theological treatises. He died at the seat of lady Musham, his
friend, in 1704, giving emphatic testimony, in what he said, to the
vanity of human life.
17. Leibnitz (William Godfrey) was not undistinguished as a
statesman, lawyer, and poet, though he is mo.st celebrated as a
mathematician and philosopher. On the principle of the Baconian
philosophy, he must be pronounced wanting, in some respects, yet
he enjoyed the singular felicity of being esteemed the greatest and
most learned man in Europe.
In civil life, he had considerable employment, and attained to
some distinction. He spent thirteen years in studying the plan of an
universal language, but he died before he had completed the extra-
ordmary design. Leibnitz proposed characters which, like those in
algebra, might not only be simple, but expressive, and enable men
of all nations to converse familiarly together. He died in 1716, of
those complicated disorders, the gout and the stone, aged seventy.
In temper, he was passionate; in character, avaricious. At his
death, such a quantity of money was found in his house, hoarded in
sacks, that the wife of his nephew, who possessed his property, died
with excess of joy at the sight.
PERIOD X.
The period of the American and French Revolutions ; ex-
tending from the death of Charles XTI., of JSiveden,
1718 A. C, to the final restoration of the Bourbons,
1815 A. a
SWEDEN.
Sect. 1. In pursuing the history of Sweden, a country
which at this time excited much attention, on account of the
character of its sovereign, we have to record an event, which
secured for Sweden a reformation of her government, and
saved Europe from the ravages of a fatal ambition. This
was the death of Charles XII., who, while besieging a Nor-
wegian fortress, was Icilled by a cannon ball, on the llth of
December. 1718.
272 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
§ T^^lile Charles remained in Turkey, the czar and the king ol
Denmark ravaged Sweden on every side. At the same time, through
the influence of the czar, Stanislaus had been driven from the throne
of Poland, on which Augustus was replaced. This state of affairs
made Charles desirous of returning to his own country, especially
as he despaired of engaging the sultan in a war with Russia. Re-
turning in disguise, he immediately conceived the design of wresting
Norway from Denmark. This project, however, he soon abandoned,
in consequence of failing in the outset. Sweden was too much
exhausted and distracted, and surrounded by too many powerful
enemies, to sustain him at that time, in a war of conquest.
His able minister, Goertz, advised him to a different course, which
was, to make peace with the czar, and with him, unite in the attempt
to dethrone George I., and reinstate James, on the throne of Great
Britain. These measures were agreed upon ; but in tlie interval oi
preparation, Cliarles, still wishing to wrest Norway from the Danes,
made an attack on that country. It was in this expedition that he lost
his life. A half pound ball, disci larged from a cannon loaded with
grape shot, struck his head, while he was exposing himself, with per-
fect temerity, to unnecessary danger. Though he expired without a
groan, the moment he had received the blow, he instinctively grasped
the hilt of his sword, and was found in that position, so characteristic
of his temper.
No conqueror, either of ancient or modern times, ever had a more
enthusiastic passion for glory, than Charks XII. This is the clue to
all those eccentricities and acts of daring, which have justly entitled
liim to the epithet of "mad-man." His preceptor asked him, when
a pupil, what he tliought of Alexander. " I think," said he, " that
I should choose to be like him." "Aye, but," .said the tutor, " he
lived only thirty- two years." " Oh," answered the prince, " that is
long enough, when a man has conquered kingdoms."
After the death of Charles, Sweden, exhausted and impoverished,
demanded repose and enjoyed it. She engaged in the pursuits of com-
merce, and cultivated the attendant arts. Her islands in the West
Indies, were of great consequence to her foreign trade. The states
took the opportunity to reform the government, and wisely restricted
the prerogatives of the crown.
2. Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ulrica
Eleonora, by the election of the states, wlio permitted her
husband, the prince of Hesse, to be associated with her in
the government ; but they greatly limited the power of the
sovereign. Ulrica soon resigned the throne to her husband.
On his death, in 1751, the states elected Adolphus Frederick,
a prince of mild and pacific virtues, but whose reign was
rendered most uneasy, by the factions of the senate. After
his decease, the sceptre was given to his son, Gustavus III.'
in 177i, who, notwithstanding his coronation oath, deprived
PRUSSIA. 273
the senate of its privileges, and rendered himself absolute.
The despotism, however, which he wrongfully procured, he
moderately exercised, and the succeeding part of his reign was
marked with peace and prosperity. In 1792, he was assas-
sinated, at a masked ball.
§ Gustaviis effected the change in the government, in the following
manner. Having assembled the officers of his army, without making
any communication of his design, he repaired to the senate house,
v/here he read a decree, already prepared, for making the crown ab-
solute, caused it to be signed by all the members of the senate, and
then dismissed the assembly.
3. Gustavus IV., son of the former, now succeeded to the
throne, under the regency of the duke of Sudermania. In
1800, he joined the Northern Confederacy against England,
but made peace with that power the next year. In 1805, he
united with Austria and Russia, in the war against France.
He soon after, lost Pomerania and Rugen, and in 1808, Fin-
land, which was conquered by Russia. He was dethroned
in 1809, and the crown given to the duke of Sudermania.
§ The conduct of Gustavus, in the latter part of the period of these
wars, was marked by so much extravagance, that he was considered
mentally deranged ; and to prevent the total ruin of the kingdom,
it was determined to dethrone him. This plan was carried into ef-
fect, without difficulty or blood-shed.
4. The duke of Sudermania, under the title of Charles
XIII. , made peace with France ; but the king having no
children, Bernadotte, a favourite general of Napoleon, was,
through his influence, declared crown prince, and successor
to the throne, 1810. Bernadotte, however, has been faithful
to the country which adopted him, and he never aflbrded any
aid to his former master.
§ Upon the death of Charles, in 1818, the crown prince quietly
succeeded to the throne. He rendered efficient aid in the wars which
terminated in tlie overthrow of the French emperor. He proves to
be a wise prince, and promotes the welfare of his subjects, by salu-
tary improvements and reforms. A few years before the accession
of Bernadotte, (1814,) Norway was taken from Denmark, and an-
nexed to Sweden, in opposition to the wishes and efforts of the Nor-
wegians.
PRUSSIA.
5. Prussia was very little noticed, till some time within
the present period, when Frederick II., the Great, raised the
kingdom to a high degree of splendour. It had existed as a
274 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X
kingdom, from the year 1700, when all the German states
acknowledged it as such. It was before stvled the Electorate
of Brandenburgh.
§ This country was inhabited by the Borussi, who denominated it
Borussia, wliich has been corrupted to Prussia. They were conquered
by the knights of the Teutonic order, whom Cassimer IV., king ol
Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves Ins vassals, and to al
low Polish Prussia to continue under the protection of Poland.
Modern Prussia, is a kingdom formed of several states, united by
alliances and conquests. The house of Brandenburgh, which now
occupies the tlirone, is descended, in a direct line, from the ancient
family of Hohenzollern, mentioned in history from the year 800.
The more distinguished predecessors of the great Frederick, Avere
Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector, and Frederick Wil-
liam I., the father of the Great Frederick. Frederick William, the
Elector, was a prudent and valiant prince. At the commencement
of his reign, his electorate resembled a desert ; the villages were
burnt, the cities presented nothing but ruins, and a part of his inheri-
tance was in the hands of the Swedes. He began by regulating the
finances, and discharging his father's unworthy ministers, and by
skilful negotiations, regained all the provinces guaranteed to him by
the peace of Westphalia.
Frederick William I., would have been deemed an extraordinary
man, had he not been eclipsed by his greater son. As the cai=e is,
his talents and management excite a degree of wonder. His father
was profuse, and lavished treasures without an object. Frederick
William was economical in the extreme, and expended nothing ex-
cept on the soldiery. In his dress and diet, he was remarkably sim-
ple and plain. He even denied liimself the common comforts of
life, being wont to say, that a prince ought to spare not only the blood,
but the property of his subjects. Voltaire describes this monarch
thus. " He used to walk from his palace, clothed in an old blue coat
with copper buttons, half way down his thighs ; and when he bought
a new one, these buttons were made to serve again. It was in this
dress that his majesty, armed with a huge Serjeant's cane, marched
forth every day to review his regiment of giants. These giants
were his greatest delight, and the things for which he went to tne
heaviest expense. The men who stood in the first rank of this re-
giment, were none of them less than seven feet high ; and he sent
to purchase them from the farthest parts of Europe, to the borders
of Asia."
FrederickWilliam was a man of vulgar habits, and coarse manners,
and often treated his children with a rudeness and asperity, that
would have disgraced a savage. According to an account given by
his daughter, Wilhelmiua, princess of Prussia, it would be diflicult
to count the canings and the fisticuffs with which he gratified his
son, the great Frederick, w'.io could never appear before the king with-
out being beaten, or, at least, insulted. The princess, trjo, had her
full share of the brutal liberality of her father, who often struck her.
PRUSSIA. 275
Slie tells us, one day, " he seized her by the hand, gave her several
blows on the face with his fist, one of which knocked her over."
What added to tlieir misfortunes was, the severe diet to which they
were condemned, for they were almost literally fiimishing. There
was often nothing at their father's table but garden-stuff, so badly
cooked, that it disgusted them. Frequently, indeed, it was impossi-
ble to touch it, for, after serving the other guests, Frederic William
would spit in the dish, that his children might not break their fast.
What a specimen of a prmce's coui-t.
6. Frederick II., the Great, ascended the throne, 1740.
His father had left hiin an efficient and well disciplined army,
amounting to sixty-six thousand men. His views were bent
on conquest, and on the enlargement of his small territory.
With the best arm)^ in Europe, he was by no means backward
in putting his ambitious projects into execution. The next year
after his accession, he revived some obsolete claim to Silesia,
and accordingly marched against the Austrians, whom he de-
feated at tlie battle of Molwitz. He effected the conquest of
Silesia, in ] 742. He next invaded Saxony, but the part he
had already acted, was sufficient to alarm the neighbouring
states. Accordingly, Russia, Austria, and France, concluded
a treaty of defensive alliance against him. This confedera-
cy took place in 1756, and constituted what is called, " the
seven years' war," which proved to be an extremely sangui-
nary contest.
§ The success of this war was various. Frederick maintained his
ground against his powerful enemies, sometimes conquering, and
sometimes conquered. He lost, perhaps, as many battles as he gain-
ed ; but so equal a contest was wonderful, considering the vast su-
periority of nimibers on the side of his opponents. At last, howe-
ver, his affairs became so critical, from his diminishing resources,
and the increase of his enemies, that he began to act solely on the de-
fensive. But the death of the Russian empress, at this time, afford-
ed him the most essential relief. Her successor made peace with
the Prussian king, and being joined by the Russian troops, with
whose aid, Frederick obtained an important victory, he was enabled
to secure an honourable peace with all the hostile powers.
In 1772, Frederick added New Prussia to his dominions,
which, in conjunction with Russia and Austria, he disinem-
l>ered from Poland. In 17S6, he died, at the age of seventy-
four years, with the reputation of being the greatest warrior
of the time, and one of the most distinguished princes of
whom history has preserved any memorial. This distinc-
276 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
tion, however, lies not in his moral, but in his intellectual
endowments.
§ Frederick possessed a discernment, energy, activity, decision,
and constancy of purpose, which fitted him to act the part of a hero;
and, together with these quaUties, as much moral perverseness as is
required to make a consummate hero. He was not so distinguished
for tlie conduct of a battle, or a campaign, as for resources in adver-
sity, for celerity of operation, and, especially, for the discipline of
his troops. An instance of his decision of character, and the seve-
nty of his discipline, appears in the following relation :
Intending to make, in the night, an important movement in his
camp, which was in sight of the enemy, he gave orders, that by eight
o'clock, all the lights in the camp should be put out, on pain of death.
The moment that the time was past, he walked out himself to see whe-
ther all were dark. He found a light in the tent of a captain Zietern,
which he entered, just as tlie officer was folding up a letter. Zietern
knew him, and instantly fell on his knees, to intreat his mercy.
The king asked, to whom he had been writing ; he said it was a let-
ter to his wife, which he had retained the candle these few minutes
beyond the time, in order to finish. Tlie king coolly ordered him to
write one line more, which he should dictate. This line was to in-
form his wife, without any explanation, that by such an hour the
next day, he should be a dead man. The letter was tlien sent as had
been intended, and tlie next day the captain was executed.
Frederick was remarkably attentive to business, and every depart-
ment of administration was under his own immediate inspection
The most minute particulars of national and domestic policy, did
not escape his observation. He extended the limits of his kingdom,
and much increased its industry, population, and wealth.
His intellectual powers were great,, and when we considerhis
situation, and the little care that had been taken of his education,
we must acknowledge, that his literary acquisitions were considera-
ble. He had much general knowledge of the sciences, and was well
conversant with French writers on polite literature. He aimed at
the reputation both of philosopher and poet, and was a voluminous
author in prose and verse.
Nothing favoin-able can be said of his moral and religious charac-
ter. He was sceptical, undevout, and addicted to various species of
vice. Atheists and libertines were his bosom companions, particu-
larly the corrupting and flagitious Voltaire.
7. He was succeeded. 1786, by Frederick William II., his
nephew, an impolitic, pleasure-loving priuce, who joined in
the league against tlie French republic, and tlien deserted his
allies. Dying in 1797, he Avas succeeded by his son Frede-
rick William III., who unhappily revived some obsolete pre-
tensions to Hanover, in 1S05. and on Napoleon's proposing to
restore that electorate to the Idng of England, in 1806, Fre-
GERMANY. 277
dericK took the field against him, and experienced c:n utter
overthrow at the great battle of Jena, which was fought Oc-
tober 14, 1806.
§ A hereditary animosity against Austria, prevented a co-operation
of strength, when their national existence was threatened. The
wiiole of ticrmany, well united and organized, would, probably,
al any time, have resisted the power of Napoleon. But being di-
vided, both Prussia and Austria, as well as the lesser states, were
overrun and subjected by the fortunate conqueror. Prussia, after
neglecting several opportunities of humbling the common enemy,
with a strange inconsideration, risked her national existence on the
■ssue of a single battle. Slie trusted too implicitly in her ancient mi-
litary fame, and the beauty of her army, (for there was not a proud-
er army in Europe,) and, therefore, fell before lier more sagacious
and calculating enemy. Frederick was shorn of nearly half of his
dominions.
S. in 1812, the Prussian monarch assisted the French in
their Russian campaign ; but on the faikire of that enter
prise, joined his forces with those of the emperor Alexander,
and contributed to the subsequent overthrow of Napoleon. At
the battle of Waterloo, his army, under the valiant Blucher,
tinned the fortune of the day, and thus essentially contributed
to the restoration of the Bourbons. Prussia honourably acquit-
ted herself in this great contention, and regained her former
territory. Of late years, the Prussian king has been efl'ectu-
ally engaged in promoting the intellectual improvement of his
people. Perhaps, no monarch in Europe, has done more than
he, to advcuicc the true happiness and glory of his kingdom.
He has declared, that a Bible shall be put into the hands of
every peasant's family in his realm.
§ It has been conjectured by politicians, that Prussia cannot long
preserve the rank that she has now attained, situated as her territory
is, runainir out in dilTerent parcels of lands, of singular shape, and
inteisecte;! by half of the secondary states of Germany. It is, llicre-
fore, further supposed, that Frederick only waits a favourable oppor-
tunity, to consolidate his territorj"^ ; and they are little acquainted
ivitli llie intelligence, energy, and ambition of the Prussian people,
who imagine they will be backward in attempting any thing wliich
iir.omises to promote their national honour and security.
GERMANY.
9. In the history of Germany, during this period, we arc
principally concerned with Austria, its more important mem-
bcr, in which the imperial crown usually resides. From th<?
24
278 MODRRN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
commencement of this period, there was no war of any coft
sequence, till that of the Pragmatic Sanction, which was an
engagement of several powers, to secure the Austrian domi-
nions to the female childien of the emperor Charles VI., in
case of the failure of male issue.
§ Charles VI. died without male issue, 1740. The house of Austria,
in the male line, thus became extinct, after it had governed Austria
for several centuries, and the whole of the Austrian dominions now
belonged to iMaria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the emperor. She
was accordingly raised to the Austrian throne ; but the neighbour-
ing powers, regardless of their engagements, supported the duke of
Bavaria, in his claim to the crown. After much opposition, the lat-
ter was invested with the imperial dignity, in 1742, under the name
of Charles VII. ; but this prince, worn out by a complication of
bodily complaints, and by a long train of misfortunes, died two years
afterwards. In the mean time, the queen, though nearly overwhelm-
ed by her numerous adversaries, finally triumphed over them, and
at the peace of 1748, was confirmed in the possession of her domi-
nions, and her husband, duke of Lorrain, under the title of Francis
I., was raised to the intperial throne.
10. Francis I., Avas crowned at Frankfort, in 1745. He
continued the war till 1748, when the peace of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle was concluded, and Maria Theresa obtained the succes-
sion of her father. She had all the time been sustained by
the affection of her subjects, and had received important aid
from Great Britain.
During the reign of Francis, the "seven years' war," the
fiercest that had hitherto been waged in Germany, took jilace ;
but of this, an account lias l^een given in the history of Prussia.
§ Maria Theresa, as heiress to tlie Austrian dominions, was queen
of Hungary and Bohemia; and as the wife of Francis, was empress
of Germany. She was a woman distinguished for her heroism, in-
telligence, felicity of temper, and captivating condescension. As a
wife and parent, she was unrivalled ; she was blessed vvith a nume-
rous and amiable progeny, and left her possessions to a son, who
was worthy of the empire. She built hospitals, encouraged com-
merce and science, and did every thing which humanity and muni-
ficence could devise to render her infirm soldiers comfortable.
11. Joseph II., the son of Francis and Maria, succeeded
to the empire, in 17G5. He seized Bavaria, on the death of
Maximilian II., the elector. 1777 ; made war two years with
Prussia ; reformed the church of Germany, indulging the
protestants with the imperial protection, and curtailing the
authority of the court of Rome ; dismantled the fortified
towns in Brabant ; restrained the excesses of the clergy in
GERMANY. 279
that country, and carried on a disastrous war against the
Turks. During tluit war, he died. He maintained the cha-
ra<cter of a most equitable and tolerant prince.
§ Joseph promulgated a decree in favour of the liberty of the
press, wiilch had been, hitherto, much circumscribed in the Austrian
dominions. He even permitted, that all strictures upon the throne
itself mitrht be published, with full security, provided ihey did not
descend to the character of libels and pasquinades. " If they be
founded in justice," said he, "we shall profit by them ; if not, we
shall disregard them ;" a remark well worthy of his character and
dignity.
It was during the reign of Joseph, that a series of unfavourable
seasons had occasioned a general dearth of corn, which whs more
or less felt in all the countries of Europe ; but in parts of Germany,
the scarcity was so great, that vast numbers of people actually pe-
rished, and the peasants, in many places, were compelled to unthalch
their cottages, to supply the want of provender for their cattle. They
themselves, in some instances, subsisted on the bark of beech and
alder, mixed with a quantity of spice. A part of this time, terrible
inundations overspread the country ; several districts were totally
ruined by a flood of the Elbe ; Hamburgh v/as in a most critical
situation ; and the great suburb lying towards the Elbe, was so com-
pletely covered with water, that only the tops of the trees were dis-
cernible.
12. Leopold II., brother of Joseph, was invested ^ith the
empire, in 1790. Though powerfully sohcited to arm against,
the revolutionists of France, his moderation and prudence
kept him aloof from the vortex ; but a speedy death cut short
the promise of much excellence. At the time of his death,
however, he was preparing to take the field against France.
§ After tlie " seven years' war," tlie Germanic body remained in
comparative quiet, till the French Revolution. During that period,
up to the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, Germany suffer-
ed more than most other nations. Its territory was the theatre of
most of tlie wars that were waged during the great struggle. This
coimtry, however, had been eminently prepared to experience the
evils whicli such un event was calculated to produce. The Germans
embraced the fashionable prevailing system of anarchy and irreli-
gion, with almost the same ardour which characterized the French
themselves ; and their country was early inundated with the deadly
publications which proceeded from the scliool of atheistical dlsor-
ganizers.
In nearly all the wars of the revolution, and of the subsequent
period, Austria has had a share. She has generally been arrayed
against France, and often been beaten. In the production of such a
result, some liave been disposed to ascribe more to French intrigue,
than to the superiority of the French soldiers, or generals, over those
of Austria. Tlic archduke Charles, brother of the present emperor^
880 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
Francis II., has often shown himself not inferior to any of the com
manders of his time.
13. Francis II., son of Leopold, was crowned in 1792. He
has proved to be a prince of mild virtues, and is much re-
spected. He prosecuted the contemplated war with the
P^rench republic ; but it proving unsuccessful, he concluded
the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, by which, the Nether-
lands were ceded to France. Tliis was the first in that series
of hostilities, which distinguished that period of convulsion.
14. Hostilities were renewed in 1799, in Italy, on the part
of Austria, assisted by Russia ; for it was evident to the Aus-
trian sovereign, that France was bent on aggrandizement.
The Russian forces were commanded by Marshal Suwarrow.
The war was carried on with gieat success, on the part of the
Austrians and Russians, and the French were in a few months
driven out of Italy. Much now might have been accom-
pHshed for the salvation of Europe, liad it not been for the
jealousy which the Austrian court felt town ids their ally.
§ This jealousy was, without doubt, excited l)y the intrigues ol
France ; and the consequence was, that Paul, the Russian emperor
recalled his victorious troops.
Austria, left single-handed to sustain the contest, and meet-
ing the enemy with scattered forces, suffered most severely
in the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden. Peace
was concluded at Limeville, in ISOl. This was the second
war, and more humiliating to Austria tlian the former.
§ During the peace, Francis formed a numerous army, and fore
seeing the ruin of the German constitution, caused himself to be
proclaimed hereditary emperor of Austria, in 1804.
15. The Austrian sovereign had been mortified too severe-
ly, to remain contented at peace. A third warlike coaHtion
was formed between Austria and Russia, against France, in
1805. Btrt the destruction of an Austrian army, under Ge-
neral Mack, and the fatal battle of Austerlitz, speedily ter-
minated tliis war. The same year, the peace of Presbiu'gh
followed, in which the Austrian monan^hy was far more hum-
bled than ever, by the loss of some of its most important pos
sessions.
§ A part only of the emperor of Russia's forces, had joined those
of Francis, when the battle of Austerlitz took place. To this im-
prudence, was added the greater one, of risking an engagement
without the assistance of the archduke Charles, who, at the distance
GERMANY. 281
of only a few tlays' march, was hastening with a victorious army
of nearly onoiiundred thousand men.
In 1806, Sb', ; ; al of the states of Germany were united
under the name of the " Conlederacy of the Rhine," of which
Napoleon was acknowledged the head ; and in the course of
the same year, Francis was compelled formally to resign the
title of emperor of German}^, and to absolve the German
states from their recii)rocal duties towards the empire.
§ According to the terms of this confederucj^, all those states of
the ancient German empire, that did not accede to the act of federa-
tion, were excluded from common protection. By this means, the
French emperor united Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, Burg, Darm-
stadt, Nassau, Hohenzollern, &c., to thepohtical interests of France,
and, virtually, raised liimscif to the head of the German empire.
16. In 1809, Austria, for the fourth time, took the field
against France. In this war, was fought the sanguinary
battle of Essling, in which the French emperor, almost for
the first time, was beaten in a regular field figlit ; but re-
ceiving a large reinforcement, he crossed the Danulje, from
wliich lie had been driven back, and fought the long and ob-
stinate battle of Wagram. This battle, lost by Austria, ter-
minated the war, and the conditions of peace were soon after
settled by the treaty of Vienna, according to which, Francis
was obhged to relinquish a further portion of territory, and
consented to bestow his eldest dauglitcr and child, Maria
Louisa, on the emperor of France.
§ In tliis war, the Austrians had taken wiser measures fnan before.
Tlieir best commanders were in the field ; tlie archduke Charles, as-
sisted by the archduke John, the prince of Lichtenstein, and the
prince of Schwa rtzenburg. The whole strengtli and resources of the
empire were held in requisition ; but Austria had become essentially
weakened, and really less a match for France than ever : and, be-
sides, the French emperor was in advance of the Austrian. Antici-
pating the event of a declaration of war, lie was soon prepared for
action, and joining his army, marched at once into the heart of Ger-
many. So expeditious was the French eii;peror, that forty-five
days after the declaration of war by Austria, the battle of Essling
was fought below Vienna.
17. in 1813, Austria engaged in a fifth war with France,
having united its forces with those of Russia, Prussia, Great
Britain, and almost all Europe, in the invasion of France, in
obtaining possession of Paris, and in dethroning Na|X)leon.
On this occasion, the emperor accompanied the army, which
was commanded by the prince of Schwartzenburg. Then
24*
282 MODERN HISTORY PHRIOD X.
was gained the celebrated battle of Leip ic, wh'oli produced
the overthrow of Napoleon. The whole allied forces were,
in this battle, principally commanded by Schwartzenburg-.
§ When this junction of the greatest pan of Europe was formed,
Napoleon had just returned from Russia, having lost his great army,
composed in part of troops of many European nations, then his tri-
butaries. Austria, at first seemed reluctant to take the field, proba-
ly on account of its family alliance. A remembrance of former
suJTerings may also have had its effect. But. though late, the assis-
tance of Austria was very efficient.
It was on hearing of the issue of the battle of Leipsic, which was
announced by Schwartzenburg himself, to the emperors of Austria
and Russia, and to the king of Prussia, that these three sovereigns,
who were viewing the battle from a distant hill, on horseback, im-
mediately dismounted, and, on tlieir bended knees, offered a tribute
of thanks to the God who had crowned their arms with victory.
18. On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, in 1815, Au-
stria, for the last time, combined with the other powers of
Europe, to dethrone him, and succeeded. At this time, a
new union was formed by the states of Gei-many, designed
to secure its future tranquillity, under the title of the Ger-
manic Confederation. This was signed at Vienna, by its
sovereigns and free cities ; and it is to be hoped that, as it
has done hitherto, so it will continue to prove, a powerful
preservative against the renewal of those wars, domestic and
foreign, of whicli Germany has so often been the cause and
the victhn.
§ In the new order of things, which succeeded the downfal of the
French emperor, Austria manifested a due regard to the rights of
the Germanic body, as appears from the natureof the confederation
above noticed. The several states have been reinstated, as far as
possible, in their former possessions, and Francis is now acknow-
ledged, as formerly, ttie emperor of Germany.
Shortly after, another union, of a more doubtful character, was
formed between the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of
Prussia, to whicli they pave tlie name of the Holy Alliance. The
object, in a great measure, seems to have been to confirm their own
power, and to suppress any effort, on the part of their subjects, to
obtain liberal constitijtions.
The improper views of this confederacy, were openly displayed
on the occasion of the Neapolitan revolution. A congress of the
three sovereigns, in 1821, issued a manifesto against Naples, in
which they plainly avow their hostility to every form of improve-
ment. 'J'o enforce their views, an Austrian army marched towards
the territories of Naples. This alliance may, at the present mo-
ment, be considered as virtually disbolved.
POLAND. 283
POLAND.
19. Poland, which existed in independence, during a
part of the present period, Avas a nation of some importance,
for several ages ; but \vc feel little interest in its history, till
nearly the memorable era v/hen it was blotted out from the
list of nations. Its fine situation, and rich natural resources,
are strikingly contrasted with its wretched government and
Institutions; nor can we, perhaps, find a spot on the globe,
where, with so many physical means of securing felicity, a
civilized people are found, that have been involved in greater
miseries. Its former government, which partook of all the
different kinds, with a peculiarly strong infusion of aristocracy,
and with a weak executive power, was wholly inadequate to
the administration of justice, or the maintenance of peace.
Weakness, anarchy and crime within, and injustice, trea-
chery, and oppression on the part of others, without, consti-
tute a great portion of the history of Poland. Yet its in-
riabitants were not without some striking and noble charac-
teristics. They were a brave and martial people. Amidst
their degradation, they cherished the love of liberty in an
eminent degree.
Till the first divi-iou and plunder of Poland, in 1772, we
find a long list of kings up to the year 842, A. C. But we
can record the names of a very few only.
§ Poland is denominated by the natives, Poloka; which is a Scla-
voniun word, signifying a level or champain country. Such is the
surface of Poland.
In the liistory of its sovereigns, we notice the name of Lech V.,
who is here introduced for the sake of a singular maxim, which he
used to lUter, and whicli must be very convenient to a king. "A
sovereign is not bound to observe his oalh, except when neitlier his
safely nor his advantage requires that he should violate it." His
reign, it is said, was the most inauspicious in the annals of the na-
tion.
Cassimcr III., the Great, formed a new code of laws, M'hieh he
committed to writing ; for, before his time, the Poles had only oral
traditions. This was in the middle of the fourteenth century. Cas-
sinier is said to have been a model of integrity, wisdom and pru-
dence.
Sigismund I., whose reign began in 1506, was one of the most
accomplished monarchs that ever sat on the throne of Poland. In his
epitaph, vvhicli was not composed in the language of exaggeration^
284 .-VIODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
he was styled the '• conqueror of the Russians, Wallachians, and
Prussians," and obtained the still more honourable appellation of the
" father of his country." He applied himself to the improvBment
of the manners of his subjects, by inspiring them with a taste for
the arts and sciences, and fortified and embellished the cities
No Polish monarch was more distinguished, on the whole, than
John Sobieski, who ascended the throne in 1674. Many of the
rulers of Poland were foreigners, but Sobieski was a native, elected
on account of his eminent virtues, and military talents. He was
particularly distinguished by his wars with the Turks, and his vic-
tories over them. The assistance which he rendered to the house
of Austria, when Vienna was besieged by an army of 200,000 men,
has been mentioned in another place. He died in 1696, leaving his
country in prosperity and peace.
Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen as the succes-
sor of Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. The fac-
tious nobles, who had been kept in awe under Sobieski, were un-
willing to place any one of his family on the throne, and thus showed
themselves unworthy of such a sovereign. Augustus made war against
Charles XH. of Sweden, mistaking utterly the character of his ene-
my. Being defeated and overcome, he was dethroned, and Stanislaus,
through the influence of Charles in the diet of Warsaw, was elect-
ed to fill his place, in 1704. After the ruin of Charles, at Pultowa,
Augustus was restored to the throne, and in 1773, was succeeded by
his son Frederick Augustus IL, after an interregnum of eight months.
The reign of the latter was generally tranquil and peaceablt, though
both before and afterwards, the kingdom was in a very unquiet state,
owing to political and religious controversies, as well as foreign wars.
Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, elected in 1763, was the last
king of Poland. He was the creature of Catharine of Russia, placed
on the throne, more by the influence of her armies and treasures,
than by the free consent of the Polish nobles; and in the subsequent
difficulties of his reign, was unable to manifest the independence of
a sovereign. He was finally kept as an honourable prisoner, at Pe-
tersburgh, where he died, in 1798.
20. In 1772, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia,
Prussia, and Austria, which had, for some time, been secret
ly meditated, took place, to the utter astonishment of all
Europe. This has been stigmatized as one of the most un-
principled acts recorded in history. The pretexts of the
|)lunderers, as set forth in their manifestoes, were various ; but
they Avere doubtless encouraged to this act of violence, in
consequence of the perpetual divisions in the Polish counsels,
and the mutual animosities of the nobility. Indeed, they
purposely increased the factions and difficulties in which the
nation was involved.
§ Prussia laid the train of events, by flattering the Russians with
POLAND. 285'
the idea of giving a king to Poland ; but not designing that Poland
should sink into a Russian province, it was contrived on tlie part of
Prussia, to make the Poles dissatisfied witli their king. Tliis was
easily eflected, and in the course of two or three years, nothing could
exceed the disorder, dissensions, and weakness of the kingdom. In
tliis situation of afiairs, when the Poles were prevented from vindi-
cating their sacred rights, the unholy deed of partition was perpe-
trated. Each party had previously agreed on its portion, the whole
including nearly half of the Polish territory. The Diet was assem-
bled, and surrounded by the partitioning powers, it could do no other-
wise than sanction, by a legislr.tive act, the crime which these
powers had committed.
Ill the division wliich was made, Frederick seized Polish
Prussia, and a part of Great Poland ; the emperor of Austria.
the kingdoms of Galicia and Ludomiria ; and Catharine,
Polish Livonia, with a part of Lithuania.
2L In 1791, a revokitioii took place in Poland ; a new
constitution Avas proclaimed, which opened to the middling
classes, the avenue to cver}^ employment ; and the crown,
liitherto elective, was declared to be hereditary. This was
done in an assembly of the people, with entire concord. But
Poland, despoiled of half her territories, was weak ; and
though the change was approved by all Europe, except Russia,
the Poles were suffered to become the victims of the Russian
empress, and eventually again of the Prussian and Austrian
sovereigns. Anew division was agreed on, in 1793. which
included a considerable portion of the remainder of Poland.
§ Catharine first resented the act of the Poles in framing a new
constitution, as it was wliolly opposed to her ambitious views in re-
gard to the remainder of Poland. Frederick "SV^illiam, though he at
first expressed his approbation of the measure, yet finally, with un-
blushing effrontery, consented, with the otliers, to act the royal
plunderer.
22. Before, however, this second nefarious project could be
executed, it became necessary to encounter the hazards of
war. The spirit of the Poles was raised, and imder tlie brave
and patriotic Kosciusko, they resisted, for a time, the united
force of their powerful enemies. But on the part of enfeebled
Poland, numbers were wanting, which could not long be'
supplied by love of country and a desire of vengeance ; and
Kosciusko, after making every effort that man could be ex-
pected to make, was defeated and taken prisoner. Under
the barbarous Suwarrow, Warsaw was captured and sacked.
286' MODERN HISTORY.--— PERIOD X.
Ill atteinpting to defend it, nine thousand gallant Poles",
perished.
§ But the carnage which succeeded the victory, was greater, and'
has forever tarnished llie laurels of the Russian general. The houses
were pillaged, women violated, children murdered, and thirty thou-
sand victims fell a prey to a ferocity bordering on that of savages.
Kosciusko, Avho origin; >^d from a noble family, had been a dis-
tinguished officer in the United States of America, during the war
of the Revolution. The Poles elected him tlieir general, and he
proved worthy of their choice. Cader more propitious circumstan-
ces, he would have been hailed as the deliverer of his country. After
his defeat, he was held as a prisoner at Petersburgh, till the death of
the empress, in 1797. Upon the accession of Paul, he obtained his
freedom, and was favoui-ed with a pension — an act on the part of
the Russian monarch, which received the applause of the civilized
world. Kosciusko has since been in America.
23. A third and final dismemberment of Poland, took place
in 1795. when the three powers appropriated it entirely to
themselves. Both Stanislaus and Kosciusko, were secured;
the spirit of the Poles was crushed, and the robbers had only
quietly to divide all that remained of their bloody prey.
At the congress held at Vienna, in 1815, part of Poland
was united to the Russian Empire, with the preservation of
its own constitution ; and on this event, Alexander, emperor
of Russia, assumed the title of king of Poland.
RUSSIA.
24. In the history of Russia, we find Catharine I., the wife
of Peter the Great, on the throne, near the commencement
of this period. By his appointment, she succeeded him, in
1725. She reigned only two years, but with great ability,
and pursued the plan begun by her husband, in civilizing her
people.
§ Catharine was originally the wife of a Swedish soldier, but fall
ing into the power of the Russians, she was employed in the gene
ral's kitchen, where MenzicofT, one of Peter's favourites, saw and
obtained her. Peter having met her at .AlenzicofT's house, and being
delighted with her uiiderstandiiig, at first made her his mistress, but
afterwards married her. She obtained a complete control <yver the
emperor, by her singularly gay and cheerful temper, as well as by
her respectful and kind attentions.
25. Peter II., grandson of Peter the Great, succeeded her.
in 1727. He reigned only three years, but his reign was q.
liussiA. 287
^Bcene of peace and prosperity. He was extremely beloved
by his people.
§ The succession, during several reigns after Peter the Great, seems
not to liave been regular, or fixed by any certain rules ; yet the prin-
ces came to their thrones with little difficulty, and pursued the gene-
ral features of that wise policy which Peter adopted. The great
object constantly kept in view, was the advancement of civilization
and knowledge among the people.
26. Anne, duches? of Coiuland, next ascended the throne,
in 1730, the male line of the house of Romanow, to which
Peter the Great belonged, having become extinct. She was
a niece of that monarch. Her reign was glorious and happy,
and comprised the war against Turkey, in 1736 ; the con-
quest of the principal towns in Crim Tartary ; and the vic-
tor}^ of Choczim over the Turks, in 1739.
27. On the death of Anne, Ivan, or John, only about two
month's old, was elected emperor, 1740 ; but the next year
a sudden revolution took place, by which the young prince
was deposed, and Ehzabeth, daughter of Peter the Great,
was proclaimed empress.
Tiiere were strong points of resemblance between her and
Iter father, and like him, she seemed to possess an inherent
capacity lor reigning. She miited benevolence with great
poiilical talents, and to her, Russia is indebted for much of
■ its inlluence in the aOairs of Europe and Asia. In 1757,
her troops, in conjunction with those of Austria, entered upon
" the seven years' war" against the great Frederick, and her
j)art was so well acted, that had she lived, the Prussian mo-
narchy would probably have been in jeopardy, as to its very
existence.
§ Elizabeth founded the universities of Petcrsburgh and Moscow
und decreed a new code of laws, called Elizabeth's code. It is re-
ported that a few years preceding her death, this princess indulged
in the most imbounded intemperance and sensuality.
28. She wtis >i:cceeded, in 1762, by her nephew, Peter IH,,
son of her elder sister Anne, and consequently grandson of
the great Peter. He was at first somewhat popular with his
subjects, but they soon became disallected towards him. Hb
was found to be deficient in talents and strength of chcrac^
ter ; and his wife, Catharine, becoming disgusted with him,
-and inspired with ambitious views, is supposed to have beeft
'288 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X.
the mover of the conspiracy l)y which he was dethroned and
murdered, in the first year of his reign.
§ Catharine of Anhalt, a princess of Germany, had been married
to Peter several years before his accession ; and as she began her
political life witli crime, she seems never afterwards to have been
scrupnlous as to the means with wliich she executed her plans. It
was by the help of her paramour Orloff, that she arrested tlie em-
peror, and procured his deposition and death. Orloff first gave hiin
poisoned brandy to drinic, and then strangled him.
29. Catharine II., who was immediately proclaimed, com-
bined with her singular depravation of principle, a powerful
intellect. As a woman, she was a disgrace to her sex and to
human nature, but as an empress she was great, and justly
denominated '' the Semiramis of the North." Her reign was
brilliant and long, and at once the admiration and terror of
all Europe. Notwithstanding the great extent of her empire,
she sought continually to enlarge its boundaries. In hei
wars with Turkey, Persia, and Poland, she secured immense
acquisitions of territory. Her transactions in regard to the
dismemberment of Poland, have already been related. In
regard to Turkey, her object appears to have been nothing
less than the possession of the Ottoman throne in Europe —
an object which Russia has ever since had at heart,
§ One of the victorious wars which Catharine carried on wltJj
Turkey, cost her'two hundred thousand men, and 200,000,000 rubles -,
while it cost the latter three hundred and thirty thousand men, and
300,000,000 piastres — a war scarcely less ruinous than triumphant.
In tliis v.'ar, Ismail was t!ie Jast town that surrendered. Twice
were the Russians under Suwarrow repulsed ; but at tlie third at-
tack, they scaled tlie ramparts, forced their ^vay into the place, and
put to the sword all wlio opposed them. Fifteen thousand ilussians
purchased with their lives \he bloody laurels of their leader, who
wrote to the empress with his usual brevity, " The haughty Ismail
is at j'our feet."
30. Catharine was succeeded by her son, Paul Petrowit;^,
J 796, whose reign was the reverse of that of his mother, .and
who occupied himself with trilles. In 1799, he declared war
against revolutionary Prance, and sent Suwarrow into Italy,
wdio met with great success till he passed into Swit/fuland,
whence he was recalled by his sovereign. In ISUl, Paul
declr.red war against England, and obliged Sweden and
Denmark to join; but soon afterwards this unhappy monarch
was strangled, by some conspirators, who were ollicers in
his court.
RUSSIA. 289
31, Alexander I., the eldest son of Paul, was proclaimed
in ISOl, at the age of twenty-two. His name will descend
with renown to after ages, as the deliverer of enthralled
nations. His reign was at first pacific, nor did he make those
eflbrts against France, which seemed desirable at that junc-
ture. He, however, became alarmed at length by the am-
bition of Bonaparte, and in 1S05, formed a coahtion with
Austria, against the conqueror.
He Avas able to efiect a junction with only a remnant of
the Austrian forces, which had previously been deserted, and
being attacked imexpectedly at Austerlitz, he experienced a
signal overthrow. He then withdrew his army into Russia,
but designing to assist Prussia, the next year he hastened to
the scene of war ; but before his army could reach it, the
battle of Jena had been fought, and the power of Prussia half
annihikited. Russia left alone on the field, maintained the
contest with the French emperor for a few months, during
wliich several sangumary battles were fought, without any
decisive advanta2:e on either side. At length the fatal battle
of Friedland, obliged Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit.
In ISOS; he engaged in a war with Sweden, in which Fin-
land was conquered, and in 1811, he commenced hostUities
against Turkey. At this critical time, a mighty contest was
about to ensue, Avhicli was to decide the fate of a great part
of the globe. The refusal of Alexander, in 1812, to concur
in Bonaparte's scheme, of excluding British commerce from
the whole European continent, highly displeased the latter.
This circumstance, concurring with the French emperor's de-
sire to establish an universal monarchy, induced him to march
against Russia, with all the force of the territories imder his
dominion, and of every state rendered subservient to his
views. "In that way," says Prof. Heeren, "a storm of na-
tions arose, (about twenty were united under the standard of
tlic conqueror,) unparalleled in history, since the expeditions of
Xerxes and Attila." The Russians retreated steadily before
the French, not without engaging in several ])loody liattles,
in which the French were victorious, but by means of which
they were continually weakened.
At Borodino, a few miles in advance of Moscow, the Rus-
sians made a stand, and here was fought one of the most
terrible battles ever recorded. The loss on both sides was
25
5i90 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X.
nearly equal ; the Russians, however, retired, and the French
entered Moscow. But they entered it to Avitness its confla-
gration ; the Russians had set it on fire, and thus deprived
the French army of its expected winter quarters. It was
obhged to retreat ; and the animosity of the Russians, aided
by the terrible severity of the weather, contributed almost to
anniliilate the most efficient military force that ever invaded
a nation.
§ Upon tlie invasion of his dominions, Alexander soon made peace
with the Turks, and this on advantageous terms, as has always been
the case in the wars between Russia and Turke}'. Alexander might
have met his foe with an equal number of nations, if he had had
time to summau them from the mountains and deserts of Asia. All
his troops, divided into three armies, by no means equalled, in num-
ber, those of the enemy, which amounted to more than half a mil-
lion. But although the collection of the Russian force was only
partially effected, yet there vvas a high moral preparation in the spirit,
fjoth of the prince and his people. After one conspiracy in the be-
ginning of tlie contest was detected, and its authors summarily pun-
ished, all orders of tiie people manifested the most determined pur-
pose to resist tlie enemy, submitting to sacrifices, which nothing but
devoted patriotism and the deadliest hatred of the invader, could in-
spire. Alexander, in his manifesto, declared that he would never
make peace, so long as the enemy remained within his empire. And
to engage God and religion on the side of Russia, one entire conse
cration of the empire and of the church, was made to the God a
armies.
The constant retiring of the Russians, without risking a great bat-
tle, greatly weakened the expectation indulged by Bonaparte, oi
speedily terminating the war, by penetrating into the heart of the
empire. Fire and rapine, by friends and foes, marked the course of
the invading army, and seemed to render return impossible. Wiliia
was occupied the 28th of June. The French advanced with many
skirmishes by way of Witepsk to Smolensk, where two of the Rus-
sian armies formed a junction, August 6th, while the Prussian aux-
iliaries besieged Riga, and t'ae Atistrians were manieuvcring in Vol-
Jiynia. Smolenic w"as slormod and destroyed, August IStli ; after
which, Koutousoff was vested with the chief command. After tlie
battle of Borodino, the solitary capital was entered, September 14th
and 15th. In tlie Kremlin, the ancient residence of the Czars, the
conqueror took up his head quarters, the limit of his expedition, and
the grave of his greatness.
•Moscow, fired by its own citizens, fell a victim for the empire ; for
such a drama demanded such a catastroplie ; but in its pillars of fire
the first dawn of freedom shone over shackled Europe in the farthest
East. Instead of a Capua, the army suddenly stood in a waste.
" The campaign may now end," was the proposal of Napoleon ; " the
campaign is now beginning," was the rei)Jy of Koutousoff. A spee-
RUSSIA. 291
dy retreat, before the beginning of tlie winter's cold, might, perhaps,
have saved the army; but the pride of the conqueror disdained tliis
measure, till it was too late. When three-fourths of Moscow were
consumed to the ground, just as tlie fatigued and debilitated army of
the French entered it, needing repose and refreshment, and an un-
conquerable Russian army was before it, it Vv'as impossible for Na-
poleon to stay there. Never was a disappointment more sudden and
more bitter. The retreat which he had declined, he was obliged to
undertake, and such a retreat, so disastrous and terrific, history never
before recorded.
32. Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the boundaries
of his empire, and thus gave the signal for the emancipation
of Europe. He first exhorted Prussia to war. She obeyed
the call, and others, the late vassals of France, sooner or later,
joinod his standard. "From this ti]ne the storm of nations,
which had gathered in the west, against the east, was to be
turned from the east against the west." An immediate erup-
tion was prevented, by the fortresses and countries which were
occupied by the relations of the rulers, and the certainty that
Napoleon had himself escaped. But in the nature of the
case, it could not l)e long ere the subjugated nations should
turn upon their falling master. Austria was the last to join
iTie alliance ; her \rcight m the scale was decisive.
The campaign of 1813, which thus began, is one of the
most memorable in history. Never were more battles fought
within a given space of time, and never were greater than
some of them. In regard to the battle of Leipsic, which fin-
ished the cam|)aign, Heeren says, '• If the mass of combat-
ants, almost half a million, met on the field, makes it the first
battle of lUDdern times, its consequences do so no less." The
way was now opened to France itself, in the signal defeat of
the French emperor. Accordingly, in the begimiing of the
year 1814, the respective sovereigns entered Paris, dethroned
Napoleon, and replaced on the throne the house of Bourbon.
The renown of Alexander was now complete, as the provi-
dential deliverer of Europe.
§ This prince deceased 1st December, 1825, and was succeeded by
Nicholas J.
The character of Alexander, will appear with advantage on the
page of history, and his success in saving Russia and Eurojie, from
the grasp of military ambition, will consecrate his name as the most
fortunate of sovereigns. The circumstances under which he enter-
ed upon nis reign, were, indeed, calculated fully to bring into action
qll his faculties. Though inferior to his great antagonist in native
292 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
intellectual poAver, he was, perhaps, of all the European sovereigns,
the most fit, by his indefatigable spirit, to contend with him. He
appears to have been guided mainly by a principle of honesty ; and
if several private accounts are to be credited, there are pleasing in-
dications, that he was one of the very few princes who can be called
tridy religious. Tlie most inexplicable part of his character, in a
moral view, was his suppression of the Russian Bible Society, which
had, a few years before, commenced under his own auspices.
Since the event, which we have mentioned as the termination of
the tenth period, the affairs of the Russians have been generally pros-
perous. Besides a successful conflict which they have maintained
with Persia, they have rushed into war recently, with their old ene-
mies, the Turks; and although tlie present is the second campaign,
they have been met with so vigorous a spirit, on the part of the lat-
ter, under their warlike sultan, Mahmoud II., that the issue of the
contest seems somewhat doubtful. Russia puts forth her whole
power, and Turkey fights for her existence. Russian successes have,
of late, been reported ; but it is altogelher probable, that other cam-
paigns* will be necessary, in order to drive the Ottomans into Asia,
should the other great po\yers of Europe suffer tlie contest to con
tinue.
ENGLAND.
House of Bru/istvick.
33. George I., Elector of Hanover, liad been proclaimed
king, by the regency, on the death of Anne, 1714. At the
cominencement of the present period, he had, therefore, been
on the throne about four years. Notwithstanding the divided
state of the kingdom, the accession of George took place
without the least opposition, tumult, of sign of popular dis-
content.
It was protestantism that gave tlie house of Brunswick the
throne, and it was protestantism that vras to preserve it to
them. No new maxims, no new continental policy, could
therefore become prevalent ; it was the ancient policy of Wil-
liam III., modified according to the circumstances of the times.
Thus harmony was established between the nation and the
government ; and fortunately for the new house, there was
for a long time yet, a pretender, who did not permit these
maxims to be forgotten.
* Since the above was penned, a series of splendid \dctories has attended
the Russian arms, in consequence of which, a peace has been, concluded be-
tween the contending powers, on terms exceedingly humiliating to the Turks
ENGLAND. 298
Tlic natiirctl consequence of this policy was, the fall of the
tory miiik-tiy, which had made itself more than suspected by
its conduct towards the pretender, and the restoration of the
superiority of the wliigs.
§ George J., was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover,
and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., and was in the 55th year
of his age, wlicn lie ascended the throne.
Tiio Pretender, who was styled the Chevalier St. George, was the
son of .lames H. His exchision from the throne affected the public
tranquillity, for a time. He had his partisans chiefly among the to-
ries, aufl in Scotland ; but the several attempts M'hich they made in
liis behalf, were ineffectual; his intrigues were detected; his forces
were overpowered in battle ; many of the leaders among the rebels
were captured and executed; but the chevalier had the good fortune
fo escape to France.
34. In 1720, the king having recommended to the com-
mons the consideration of proper means for lessening the na-
tional debt, this proved a prelude to the famous South Sea
act, which became so ruinous in its consequences. In this
scheme, it was believed possi!3le speedily to perform by art,
what can be the result oidy of continued exertion — the liqui-
dation of the public debt ; but the projects of the South Sea
company foundered, and thousands were involved in ruin.
As tlie English government, however, allowed itself no des-
potic steps, its credit was preserved entire ; and it found itself
able, by a diminution of interest, to establish a sinking fund,
which only needed a better administration, to effect its object.
§ The character of George I. was that of a wise and good mo-
narch, but he was less popular than he might have beCn, had he staid
more at home, and manifested less partiality for his German domi-
nions.
He died suddenly, of a paralytic disorder, on the continent, in the
GStli year of his age.
34] George II., succeeded his father, 1727, and, like himj
favoured the whigs, and was stroitgly attached to his German
possessions. His character was that of an active, intelligent
prhice, possessing a violent temper, and a love of war. His
administration of affairs was generally ecjuitable, and satisfac-
tory to the people. A period of jieace, during ten years, in
the former part of his reign, happily occurred through want
of a plausible pretence for embarking in a war. At length,
occasion was found for collision with Spain, and war was
declared in 1739. It produced no important results. In 1744,
England declared war against France, and assisted Maria
294 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
Theresa, of Austria, in the war of siiccrssion. In this public
contest, the principal states of Europe were involved ; and
among others, the battles of Dettingen and Fonlenoy were
fought ; the former terminating in favour of the allies, the
latter in favour of the French. The Britisli king command-
ed, in person, his army on tlie continent.
§ The minister who guided the destinies of England, during this
part of the reign of George II., as also during the principal part of
the former, was Sir Robert Walpole. Concerning him, the his-
toric professor of Gottingen says, " that without the restless ac-
tivity which is often called greatness, he was a statesman most wor-
thy of respect. He introduced uprightness into politics, at a time,
■when they were disgraced by the profligate Dubois, and the false
Alberoni. But his maxim, to be on good terms with all, entangled
him in a web of negociations and relations ; from which, only an
island state, like England, could have disengaged itself." Others,
however, speak of liini as distinguished for the sj'stem of corruption
and venality which he practised in his administration.
35. During the absence of tlie king on the continent, the
rebellion in Scotland, 1745, took place, in consequence of an
effort made by tlie son of the old pretender, for the British
throne. The young Charles was assisted by Louis XV.,
and having landed in Scotland, led an army against the royal
forces, which he defeated in the battles of Preston Pans, and
Falkirk ; but in the subsequent battle of Culloden, he met
with a decisive overthrow. The Stuart family made no more
attempts to take possession of the sceptre which they liad lost.
In 1755, war was renewed between France and England,
on account of encroachments made on the British territories
in North America. The war was not at first very fortunate
to the British ; but, at length, they met with signal success,
and the result of it was, the surrender of all Canada, on the
part of the French. It was in this war, tliat the brave AVolfe
perished, having distinguished himself by the capture of the
city of Q,uebec.
§ In the expedition against Quebec, the courage and perseverance
oi General Wohe, surmounted incredible difficulties. It was on the
Heights of Abraham, which he succeeded in gaining, that he fought
and defeated the French army. As he occupied a conspicuous
station in tlie front of the line, lie had been aimed at by the enemy's
marksmen, and received a shot in the wrist. Wrapping a handker-
chief round his hand, he gave his orders, as usual, without betraying
the least emotion ; and while he was advancing, at the head of the
grenadiers, another ball, unfortuaately, pierced the breast of this
ENGLAND. 296
young hero, who thus fell at the moment wlien victory was aimoun-
ced. His death was mourned as a national loss.
36. At this period, the arms of Great Britain were tmim-
phant in every quarter of the globe ; but in the midst of his
successes, the old king suddenly expired, in the 77th year of
his age, and in the 34(h of his reign.
37. George III., grandson of the deceased, succeeded him
in 1760. He was then in his eighteenth year, and swayed
the sceptre during the long period of sixty years ; the longest
reign in the annals of Great Britain. It is distinguished as
a period of important events, and of the nation's advance-
ment ill power, wealth, conmierce, and the arts. The re-
sources of the British, in their great contests, during this
reign, appear to have been almost inexhaustible.
George III. commenced his reign at a favourable period,
when the arms of the nation were triumphant, and when
Chatham, the ablest and most popular of the British minis-
ters, administered the government. His miriistry, which be-
gan imdcr the former reign, continued from the 20lh of Octo-
ber, 1756, to the 5th of October, 1761.
§ " WTiat five years !" says Heeren. '• By the greatness of his
own cliaracter, he elevated the spirit of his nation, for he was the
first to breathe into it a confidence in itself." Upon the resignation
of Mr. Pitt, violent political dissensions arose, which were afterwards
increased, upon the retirement of the duke of Newcastle.
38. An ill-judged course of policy, pursued by tlie ministry
towards the American colonies, gave rise to those animosities,
which ended in tlie separation of the colonies from the mother
country. 'J'his colonial war commenced in 1775. The elo-
quence of Chatham was arra}ed against the unjust and op-
pressive measiues of the British pailiamcnt. But his coun-
sels \\ ere overruled; and after a long and distressing conten-
tion with tlie American states, Great Britain acknowledged
their independence in 1783, Thus was laid the foundation
of a great and rising empire in the new world, w'hicii bids
fair, in time, to rival the most renowned nations of Europe,
and of antiquity. Antecedently to this contention, party
spirit had become general and violent in Great Britain, and
produced frequent changes in pulilic men and measures.
§ In the colonial war, France and Holland, after a time, formed an
alliance with the American government, and took part in the con-
fention. Though England thus lost important foreign possessions
296 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
and increased her public debt, (from 146,000,000, to 257,000,000^
sterling,) yet she lost nothing in her contest with other powers; her
commerce and resources were constantly extending, and her spirit
was equal to every effort.
39. Another important feature of this reign, was the ex-
tension of the British possessions in India. Tlie British East
India Company, before the year 1766, conquered, and took
possession of the kingdom of Bengal, together with Bahar
and part of Orissa, a large and flourishing country, contain-
ing above 10,000,000 of people, and producing an immense
revenue. These territories, afterwards, received a very great
addition, as the fruits of several wars, w4iich the Company
had with the natives. Hyder x4.11y, and afterwards Tippoo,
his son, distinguished themselves by their opposition to the
British encroachments, but they were obliged to submit to
superior prowess.
§ Tippoo was vanquished by Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, and de
prived of one half of his dominions. In 1799, Seriiigapatam, the
capital of Mysore, v/as taken by Gen. Harris, and Tippoo was slain.
40. The Irish rebellion, in 1798, and the subsequent union,
in 1800, of Ireland and Great Britain, weie also hiiportani
events during this reign. The rebels in Ireland were princi-
pally Romanists, the most numerous and least favoured part of
the Irish population, whom the spirit of the French revolution
had at this time affected. The xict of Union was the favour-
ite object of Mr. Pitt, and made Ireland an integral part of
the British empire. From the danger of the separation of
Ireland from the British sovereignty, the ministry and the par-
liament, both had been urged to this project of a legislative
incorporation ; and in the anxiety which was felt, were less
scrupulous as to the means of securing a majority in both
houses, than became the dignity of the empire. For this object,
the arts of corruption were employed. The effects of the
union, however, have been mutually advantageous.
§ A spirit of discontent and revolution, had been working for a
long time, in the minds of the Irish people. This was inflamed, by
the countenance which the government of France had given to cer-
tain insurrectionary projects. With a view to effect a separation
from England, and form a close connexion with France, several at-
tempts were made on the part of the French, to land troops in Ire-
land ; but these attempts proved abortive. The French fleets were
either dispersed by storms, or defeated by the valour of the British
admirals, Duncan and Warren.
Jn the summer of 1798, the spirit of revolution had arisen to such
ENGLAND. 297*
a height, that several counties were in a state of insurrection. Lord '
Cornwallis was now appointed lord lieutenant, and took command
of the government's forces. He engaged the rebels, on several oc-
casions, and many lives were lost. Pursued by the vigilance of the
government, and despairing of foreign succour, they at last submit-
ted. Some of them suffered punishment, others emigrated to
America.
41, The reign of George III., was particularly distinguish-
ed, by the wars which grew out of the French revolution.
This great event, which will be more particularly noticed in
the history of France, commenced in 1789. It threatened
in its consequences, the ov'ertlnow of all established govern-
ments, and deeply convulsed the whole civilized world. From
the commencement of the revolution, to the restoration of the
Bourbons, in 1815, Europe endured more, in the loss of lives
and property, and suffered more misery, than in any other
equal poition of time, since it has been known in history.
§ Tlie g'overnment of Great Britain, early conceiving a jiist alarm'
for its own safety, zealously embarked in the European war, with a
view to check the dissemination of disorganizing principles, both at
home and abroad. All the Christian states in Europe, opposed in
their turn, the tyranny and ambitious views of France; but Great
Britain only pursued tlie object with undeviating constancy, and
with a just conception of tlie character of the common enemy. Wil-
liam Pitt, one of the ablest ministers which it ever had, was then at
its head. Under his auspices, alter various vicissitudes of disap-
|)ointnient and success, victory crowned the efforts and sacrifices of
the British nation ; efforts and sacrifices, of which history does not,
perhaps, record a second example. All Europe was arrayed against
her at times ; yet, so far was she from being intimidated, or dis-
heartened, tliat she met the enemy, whether on the sea or land,
wherever he was to be found. Her greatest efforts, particularly in
the former part of the war, were made on tlie sea. Here Nelson, the
first of naval captains, gained the battles of the Nile, Copenhagen,
and Trafalgar, and ahnost innihilated the maritime power of the
continent. In tlie latter part Df the contention, Wellington conquer-
ed the armies of France, at 'J'alavera, Salanranca, Vittoria, and
Waterloo.
An interval of peace occurred between the years 1801 and 1803.
But this short suspension of arms, was felt to be too long for the
safety of the Britisli government, while the emperor of P'rance
seemed to set no bounds to his ambition. Tlie war was accordingly
renewed ; and though, on tiie part of the French, the invasion of
England was threatened, and lier commerce was designed to be ex-
cluded from the whole continent, j'et one of the projects was aban-
doned, and the other ]jroved fruitless.
In the battle Of the Nile, which happened August 1, 1798, the ma-
298 MODERN HTSTORY.-^PERIOD X.
ritime fame of Great Britain was established beyond all competition'
The French fleet had every advantage of situation, but Nelson cap
tiired nine ships of the line, and destroyed several others. In the
battle of Trafalgar, which was fought on the 21st of October, 1805,
the great English hero defeated a powerful fleet of the enemy, con-
sisting of thirty-tliree ships of the line. His own force amounted
to twenty-seven ships of tlie line. Nineteen of the French and Span-
isli ships were captured, though four of them only reached port, the
rest having been purposely destroyed, as it was impossible to take
care of them on account of tempestuous weather. Subsequently,
the greater part of the enemy's ships which escaped, were either
wrecked or captured. The day of this great triumph to the Eng^
lish admiral, was the day of his death. His person was much ex-
posed in the battle, and being observed by the enemy, he was point-
edly assailed by the musketry, and received a mortal wound.
42. While the resources of Great Britain were called forth
in the great European contest, she found, or made an enemy
ill the United States of America. The long depending dis-
putes between the two nations, respecting commercial rights,
terminated in hostilities, which were commenced on the part
of the United States, in the summer of 1812, by an attack
on Canada. This war, though not very vigorously prosecu-
ted, inasmuch as the aflairs of Europe engrossed the attention
of the British ministers, was, nevertheless, marked by uncom-
mon acrimony. It continued until the last of the year 1814.
43. During the last ten years of the reign of George III.,
he was reduced to helplessness, by an inveterate insanity.
In the meantime, his son, the prince of Wales, acted as re-
gent. In regard to the great contest, the latter pursued the
course which had been adopted by his royal father.
§ The old king died on the 29th of January, 1820. The subver-
sion of his intellect, is supposed to have been brought on, by the
sickness and death of his youngest daughter, Amelia, aided by the
advance of age, and the toils and anxieties of state. Amelia, when
sensible of her approaching dissolution, presented to him a ring, re-
questing him to wear it in remembrance of her affection. This terr-
der incident, created a sympathy which soon mastered his faculties,
and he gave way to an incurable despondency. He was a good
monarch, seemed to be guided by religious principle, and was ho-
noured and beloved, as tlie father of his people. His natural endow-
ments were not great, though he possessed good sense, and a culti-
vated mind.
His successor, the present king, is George IV., who has, hitherto,
generally reigned in peace and prosperity The only war of any
consequence which has occurred during his reign, is tliat wliicli was
carried on a few years since in the East. By this, the British pos»
FRANCE. y9y
•cessions have been immensely enlarged, particularly by a reduction
ol" a considerable part of the Burnian em{)ire. To the above we
may add, the single battle of Navarino, against the Turkish fleet, in
connexion with the naval forces of France and Russia.
FRANCE.
House of Bourbon. — Revolution. -^NaiJoleon. — Bourhous
restored.
43 i The successor of Louis XIV. was a great grandson,
who ascended the throne under the title of Louis XV., at the
age of five years, 1715 A, C. Contrary to the will of the
old king, his nephew, Philip of Orleans, obtained the regency.
§ Without morals, and without sense of shame, the duke of Orleans
was regarded as more profligate than he actually v.^as, and tlie long
continued anxiety respecting the life of the young king, who was
sickly, had a strong influence on the politics of the times. Cor-
ruption of manners was a natural consequence of such a regency,
and the French court was never more dissolute than at this time.
It Avas during this regency, that France made an abortive attempt
to pay off its debts by means of the paper bank law, and the Missis-
sippi scheme, connected with it. These were of no small conse-
queiice for its future fate, and its whole influence in the European
political system. The ruin of thousands of families might be re-
paired in time, but it was the arbitrary money operations of tlie go-
vernment, that reduced its credit to irrevocable ruin. From this
time, uo paper money could be issued in France, under the old con-
stitution. The French financial sj'stem was ever after in an unset-
tled state.
44. The niLiister Avhom Louis chose soon after he came
of age, was cardinal Fleury, whose seventeen years' admi-
nistrafion, if it was not free from faults in the interior, secu-
red tranquillity (o France, and was beneficial to Europe.
The reign of Louis, which was fifty-nine years, was too
long for his reputation as a sovereign, and for the happiness
of his people. He was at first styletl well-beloved by them,
but they had occasion eventually to lay aside that flattering
epithet.
§ Louis pursued a long course of rapacity, profusion, and tyran-
ny, and in the latter part of his reign, he became infamously licen-
tious and debauched. He was the slave of his mistresses, and his
government was a government of mistresses. The last ejioch of his
reign, may be compared to what has been mythologically de-
nominated the iron age. lie became insensible, not only to the
disgrace and ruin of his state, Init to the loss of his nearest and
300 MODEilN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
dearest relatives, many of whom deceased during the latter
part of his life.
It is said, that the profusion of this monarch, led him, in the first
instance, to undertake the scandalous traffic of a monopoly of corn,
which, while it starved his subjects, enabled him to support the ex-
travagant claims of his minions and mistresses. It is at least certain,
that at his demise, 200,000,000 of livres, in specie, were found in his
private treasury, and that their acquisition could be traced to no other
source. It is no matter of surprise, that the vices and errors of Louis,
particularly his extortions, should have produced difficulties between
him and his people. These were manifested in the disputes which
he carried on with his parliaments, and in the opposition which they
expressed against his rapacious acts. He conducted the controversy,
on his part, in so ill-judged and unjust a manner, that affairs grew
worse and worse, and fast ripened for that dreadful state of things
which followed under his unfortunate successor.
The aggregate of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., is one
hundred and thirty-one years, which is unparalleled in history. Du-
ring so long a period, what treasures were drawn from the French
people, in consequence of tlie amI)itious wars of the one, and the
profusion and fiscal mismanagement of the other ! And is it to be
wondered at, that they felt their burdens to be insupportable ?
45. Louis XVI., who was grandson of the late king, as-
cended the throne in 1774, at the age of twenty years. His
situation, from the first, \vas critical and dangerous, beyond
the common lot of kings. With a temper fitted to make a
people happy in ordinary circumstances, he was ill calculated
for the evil days on w^hich he was fallen, when his sul^jects
were almost maddened by the oppression of their former mas-
ter, and now unreasonably jealous of his successor.
§ Louis seemed to aim at a prudent and conciliatory course. He
early made some removals from office, that were designed to be po-
pular, and sought integrity and talents in his ministers. Turgqt,
Necker, and Calonne, were successively placed at the head of the
finances.
After the efforts made by France in favour of American indepen-
dence, and tlie consequent great increase of her debt, her financial
situation became alarming, and demanded attention. 'J'he disclo-
. sures and discussions on this subject, led directly to the great con-
vulsion which followed. There were other concurrent causes, such
as the corruption of religion, and the abuses which existed in the
church; tlie despotism and profligacy of the government ; the ine-
quality, and the enormous burden of taxation ; the hauteur and
odious privileges of the nobility and clergy; the notions respecting
liberty and equal rights, generated by the revolution in America, and
especially the progress of pliilosopln', freethinking, and atheism,
which the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and otiiers. so effectually
: aided. These, and perhaps otJier causes combined, threw a great
FRANCE. 301
nation into madness, and created a revolution which rocked the
world.
A state of things arose not only in France, but among all civilized
nations, very different iVom any which ever existed before. " The
contemporary world, which lived in this period," says professor
Heercn. " calls it the revolutionary ; it is as yet, too early to decide
with wiiat name it shall be denoted by posterity, after the lapse of a
century ; probably, the constitutional ; for the struggle after regiilar
but free constitutions, is the thread that guides through the whole
confusion."
46. Our limits preclude a minute account of the revolution
which was now about to burst forth. Suffice it to say, that
the operations of government being nearly suspended for want
of supplies, the king was induced to convoke, first an assem-
bly of the notables, next the parliament, and aftenvards, the
parliament and notables together ; but nothing was effected
by their measures. At last, the convocation of the states-gene-
ral, May 5th, 1789, was resorted to ; but difficulties arising
between tl)e branches of which it was composed, the popular
branch soon declared themselves the representatives of the
people, and constituted the National Assembly. Conciliatory
as the language of the king liad been, the measures of this
body Aveie dictated by a spirit of opposition to his prerogatives.
The revolution, properly speaking, began with the destruc-
tion of the ancient prison of the state, the Bastile, 14th July,
1789. This was followed by other excesses on the part of
the populace, till Paris became a field of blood.
§ The States General consisted of three orders — nobility, clergy,
and the " tiers etat" or conimons. With the commons, a small portion
of the nobility and clergy united in calling themselves a national
assembly, \\laen this measure was adopted, there actually remain-
ed of the monarchy only the name. The king and the royal family
were obliged to yield to the popular feeling, which demanded their
removal from Versailles to Paris. Here, however, the king was with
difficulty preserved from violence, which the mob seemed inclined
to offer to his person. He attempted to flee at one time, but his
flight was intercepted.
The progress made by the National Assembly at its earlier sit-
tings, in tiie work of reform, was manifested by several important
acts, such as the abolition of titles of nobility, and feudal rights —
the exclusion of the clergy from all judicial functions — the suppres-
sion of religious houses and vows — and the division of France into
eighty-three departments.
In the year 1790, those political societies began to appear, parti-
cularly the Jacobin club, which controlled the measures of the As-
sembly in so remarkable a degree.
26
£»02' MODERN HISTORY. rfcRiOu js..
47. Although Louis accepted the new constitution of 1791,
which estabUshed the equality of ah ranks and was othe*"-
wise obsequious to the Assembly, yet the Jacobins were
clamorous for the abolition of royalty ; and accordingly, the
regal government was abolished, and Prance declared to be a
republic, on the 21st of September, 1792. This was done by
a new body, called tlie National Convention, on the first day
of its meetnig. The views of the enemies of royalty, were
not as yet, fully answered. For the king, nothing further
was to remain, than in the language of Manuel the re-
porter of the commune, " the right of justifying himself
before the sovereign people." He and the royal family were
immediately imprisoned in the temple. Soon after, he was
brought to the bar of the Convention, and being condemned
on several charges brougiit against him, he was sentenced to
suffer death, by the axe of the guillotine, which took place on
the 21st January, 1793.
The fate of Louis has been widely commiserated. His
character was that of an intelligent and inoffensive man, but
he wanted firmness, to stem the torrent of faction. In death,
he displayed a manly dignity and fortitude.
§ Among tlie cliarges alledged against the king, were, his having
supplied tlie enemies of France with money ; his being the author of
the war waged on the French territory ; his having conspired against
the liberty of the country, &c. &c. He answered the accusations
against him, in a self-possessed and dignified manner.
The man who was the most influential in procuring the destrr.c-
tion of tlie king, was the Duke of Orleans, one of the princes of the
blood, and a monster of wickedness.
It was a sublime remark, made by the king's confessor to him, as
he mounted the scaffold, on which he was executed, " Offspring of
St. Louis," he said, " ascend to heaven."
48. After the death of the king, the " reign of terror," as
it has been denominated, commenced in France, under tlie
revolutionary tribunal erected by Robespierre and his associ-
ates. Factioiis soon arose in the Convention, and their mu-
tual jealousy led to the most fearful consequences. The san-
guinary excesses of monsters in human form, which France
for a long time was doomed to suffer, are too shocking to be
described. Besides the countless massacres of the rich and
noble, and generally of those who opposed the revolutionary
fury, the parties in the Convention sought the destruction of
FRANCE. 303
one another. Each successive faction, as it triumphed, was
at length put down, and made to answer with blood, the cruel-
ties which it had committed. Thus these execrable wretches
became the instruments of inflicting merited vengeance on
one another. The Convention, in its acts, outraged decency,
and rendered its infamy immortal, by renouncing the Chris-
tian religion. The queen of France, Maria Antoinette,
perished by the axe, 16th October, 1 793. Madame Elizabeth,
sister of the late king, was beheaded 4th February, 1794.
§ The human monster who exercised the longest and most terrific
sway, was Robespierre, Avith his villanous accomplices, at first Dan-
ton and Marat, and afterwards Collot d'Herbois, Billand-Varennes,
Coulthon, and St. Just. The party which was opposed to Robes-
pierre in tlie Convention, called tlie Girondin, fell under his ruth-
less domination. Among them was the infamous Orleans. He
smiled at his condemnation, and made but one request, which was,
that his punishment should not be delayed until the following day.
On his way to execution, he braved the insults of the multitude,
whose contemptible idol he had so long been ; and perished with-
out the smaUest remorse of conscience.
Robespierre and his party, were at length put down, and of all
the actors and victims of the revolution, he suffered the most in the
circumstances of his death, and was the least pitied. In attempting
to destroy himself with a pistol, he dreadfully mangled his jaw, and
while overwhelmed with indescribable agony from the wound, he
was conveyed to the place of execution, surrounded by a populace
intoxicated with joy. With him perished eighty-three of his as-
sociates.
49. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin clubs were
suppressed, and in the course of the succeeding year, 1795,
Oct. 26th, the Convention closed its sittings, having been the
means, in all probability, of more human sulfering than any
other deliberative body that ever met. Two days after, the
executive power was vested in a Directory of five, and the
legislative power in two Councils.
50. While these transactions, which belong to the internal
history of the revolution, were taking place, the external re-
lations of France were seriously all'ected. The republic had
waged a desperate war with the adjoining states, from nearly
the commencement of the revolution. These states, particu-
larly Austria and Prussia, took the part of Louis and his
government, from natural sympathy, from a sense of danger,
from resentment at the disorganizing principles which the
revolutionists disseminated, and from the desire to restore
304 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
tranquillity, and reinstate the king on his throne. The nu-
merous emigrants also, consisting of the nobility, clergy, and
rich citizens, who had been enabled to escape from the scene
of blood, offered encouragement and aid. Accordingly, seve-
ral armies marched to the borders of France, but the repub-
lic, up to the time of the Directory, not only sustained itself
against the efforts of its enemies, but made the conquest of
the Netherlands, changed Holland, then perhaps the richest
country in Europe, into a dependency of Fiance, and inva-
ded Germany. Such was the energy of the republic, that
alone, without allies, it had at command, one million of fight-
ing men, in the year 1794.
51. The government of the Directory, continued till 1799,
when the executive power was vested in three consuls,
of whom the first was Bonaparte, the second Cambaceres,
and the third Le Brun. The Directo'y had been in several
instances unfortunate in the field, and the consulate was de-
signed to restore, and, as we shall soon see. did effectually re-
store, the energy of the government.
The series of hostile efforts, which the different states op-
posed to France directed against that country, are termed
coalitions. Including both republican and imperial France,
there were six of these coalitions with which she contended ;
two under the former character, and four under the latter. In
these combined eflbrts, all the nations of Europe were, at one
time or another, engaged.
The first of these coalitions, includes the wars already ad-
verted to, and beginning in 1793, it continued till nearly
the time of the consulate. In this coalition, England, Spain,
and the Stadtholder, were included. France had declared
war against these powers ; and indeed Portugal, Naples,
Tuscany, and the Pope, were involved.
§ William Pitt, was the founder and head of these combinations.
" He was more correct than others in his estimate of the danger,
and no less great in character than in talents, he never capitulated
with political maxime. Whatever could be accomplished by gold
and perseverance, he accomplished." Tliis war was not merely a
conflict of arms, but of clashing elements. An express decree of
the Convention, announced the introduction of the sovereignty of the
people, in every country which its armies sliould subdue.
The nature of the warfare carried on by the c -mbined powers,
aroused in France a resistance of desj^iir. This called forth, as has
already appeared, a reign of terror, with all its cruelties, and all its
FRANCE 305
Vigour, and sanctioned, at the same time, a maxim more momentous
and fearful tlian a series of victories — that every citizen is a soldier.
The success of France in this war, was signal. At length, some
of the powers, as Prussia, Spain, and the grand duke of Tuscany,
withdrew from the coalition, and made peace with the republic. The
coalition, however, was not entirely dissolved. It was held together
oy British gold. A foreign commerce, embracing every quarter of
the globe, and aided by an oppressive maritime law, oppressive to
neutrals, supplied Great Britain, at this critical time, with wealth,
which no other nation, ancient or modern, possessed in an equal de-
gree.
The war of the continent was carried on with the most vigour
against Austria ; but the fate of Austria was not to be decided in
Cfermany ; there, the archduke Charles repelled the armies of the
republic. It was to be reached through Italy. This country, there-
fore, l)ecame the principal theatre of the war, in 1796, 1797. Here,
Napoleon Bonaparte, in his 27th year, first entered on the splendid
and bloody career he was destined to run. To him the command of
the army of Italy was intrusted, February 23d, 1796. One cam-
paign gave him Italy ; the second, peace. This was the peace of
Campo Formio. Out of the Austrian and Papal provinces in Italy,
a new republic was formed, under the name of the Cisalpine Re-
public.
After the peace of Campo Formio, there was no suitable theatre
in Europe, for the hero of the day. Egypt, the land of ancient won-
ders, was invaded and seized by the conqueror of Italy, 1798. Pre-
pared under the mask of an expedition against England, the execu-
tion was yet more wonderful than the preparation. No undertaking
ever created such immeasurable anxiety in England. Even the
great naval victory at Aboukir, could not allay it, tliough that victo-
ry produced important results. England, therefore, was determined
not to rest, till Egypt should be torn from France.
52. The second coalition was foimed in 1799, by means of
England and Russia. Tliis "was a consequence of the victo-
ry of Aboukir. Austria, and some otiicr powers, soon enga-
ged in it, making it a more extensive combination than the
precednig. Prussia, however, maintained its neutrality. Un-
der the mismanagement of the directorial government of
France, one campaign gave the victorious aUies, Italy, Swit-
zerland, and Germany ; but they were headed by the able
arcliduke Charles, and the dreaded Suwarrow.
§ A brief account of the situation of Switzerland will now be given,
as here a convenient place is found. That country, in the lieart of
Europe, had succeeded for three hundred years in avoiding all parti-
cipation in those great disputes in which the world had been involv-
ed ; but it was destined to come within the vortex of tlie French re-
volution. This country became agitated, and tlie revolution began
in the Pays de Vaud, December. 1707. The evils of the .federal consti-
'2G*
306 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
tution were disclosed ; there was a Avant of unity, and the burden
at last fell almost exclusively on Berne. The French advanced on
two sides, with bloody fights ; Berne was overpowered, March, 1798,
and the other cantons were conquered, except the three smaller.
These made an obstinate resistance, and an honourable capitulation.
The consequence of the French military operations against Switzer-
land was, that the Helvetian Republic Avas proclaimed, April, 1798.
Then followed five unhappy years of war and faction, till the French
act of mediation, 1803, restored to the Swiss, their federal, but alter-
ed constitution.
It was at the critical period, when the success of the allies,
and their approach towards the borders of France, excited such
alarm for the fate of the republic, that Bonaparte returned
from Egypt and Syria, to Paris, and overthrew the directorial
constitution. The directory abdicated ; the deputies of the
people were driven asunder with clubs, and Bonaparte was
appointed regent, as first consul. The most important results
ensued. Factions were quelled ; internal enemies were over-
awed ; tranquillity w^as restored; and new energy and hfe were
infused into every department of the government. From this
time, the popular sovereignty was at an end. The military
force of the nation was put in a l)etter train, and a series of
victories and conquests conuiienced, which have no parallel
in modern history. Before Bonaparte put himself at the head
of the French armies, Russia had seceded from the coalition,
and it was necessary to conquer only Austria, on the continemj
feebly aided by Naples, and the soulh of Germany. The
great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden, besides many
smaller ones, brought Austria to terms, and led the way to
the general peace of Amiens, 1S02. "^riiis peace raised Bona-
parte to the zenith of his renown. He was soon after elected
first consul for life. At this epoch, he might have ruled Eu-
rope, without further contests, had he been able to rule himself.
Absolute sovereignty only could suffice, and he was according-
ly proclaiuiod enn^jeror of France, in 1804, to which, the next
year, he added the title of king of Italy. This elevation was
brought about in consequence of a new war, which had com-
menced the preceding year, and which is soon to be spoken of.
§ The peace of Amiens was enjoyed throughout Europe; but it
was enjoyed only for a sliorl time. This was to have been expected,
when the object for which the war had been waged by the coalition-
ists, viz. the freedom of Europe, was fariher than e^-er from being
secured. Ever England desired peace, inasmuch as she had effected
the deliverance of l-gypt. This was witli her, after the failure of
FRANCE. 307
the general object, the turning point. She never could consent to
see Egypt a colony of France. Egypt was restored to the Porte, in
1800, by means of the successes of Abercronibie, and othcs.
From tlie conflict wiiich has been related, France had retired
with its interior well ordered and tranquillized, with an increase of
territory, and with the restoration of all its colonies. Tliis seemed
to be llie work of Napoleon, together witli the rebuilding of the al-
tars, and the cstablislimcnt of religious liberty. The project of an
imiversal monarcli}', was now in a fair way of being realized.
Such a project. Napoleon doubtless had formed, but it was defeated
by a concurrence of providential circumstances. No potentate in
Europe ever had such resources at command. Ilis sovereignty in the
interior, was absolute. Abroad, France extended to the Rhine, and
beyond the Alps, and the kingdom of Italy fell under Bonaparte's
sceptre ; the rest of Italy, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, and the Ger-
man states on tlie Rhine, were kept in dependence by alliances, or
by fear, and Hanover was occupied by a French army, in the heart
of the Prussian monarchy.
53. The third coalition against France, was formed in 1805,
by England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. England was
its centre. A general rising of Europe was, according to
Pitt's plan, to reduce France to its ancient bounds, and the in-
dependence of the states was to be secured by judicious regu-
lations and divisions. England had been at war with France
nearly two years before this combination, the peace of Amiens
l)a\ ing continued between these nations scarcely a year. The
coalition was most unfortunate. The power of Austria was
broken at Ubn, and at Austerlitz, and the peace of Presburg
followed, 26th December, 1805. The expeditious movements
of the French emperor, overthrew the whole plan of the
allies.
$ The war between England and France alone, which commenced
in 1803, was brought on by the refusal of England to give up the
island of Maha, wliich is the bulwark of Egypt, and with that island,
the dominion of the Mediterranean. France would not concede
these jjoinls. Thou£;li these nations were prbfc-sedly at war, there
were found few points of contact, as the one, at that time, had no
power, except on the sea, and the other none except on land. Great
Britain swept from tlic ocean, all the enemy's forces that could be
found on that element, and recovered the colonies that had been re-
stored to France. Before the conclusion of this war, it was, that
the famous naval battle of Trafalgar was fought.
The first instance of a rf)yal family being dethroned, by a bare
prochunation, occurred at Naples; and Bonaparte, by placing his el-
der brother, Joseph, on that throne, laid the foundation of the do-
minion of his family in Europe.
308 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
In ihis war, Prussia obstinately insisting on neutralitA'-, was not to
le gained. And yet, without the accession of this power, it was im-
possible to make an efficient attack on France ; the northern half of
which, was protected by Prussia's neutrality. The consequences,
however, of the peace of Presburgh, revealed to Prussia, as well as
to the rest of Europe, what was to be expected from the gigantic
ambition of Napoleon. It was ascertained that neutrality could not
be preserved, towards one who wished for none. Prussia stood di-
rectly in the conqueror's way, and its neutrality was violated with-
out hesitation, by the march of French troops through one of its
provinces. That power began to make preparations after the war
had been actually decided at Ulm and Austerlitz. When, however,
the Prussian monarch found that according to the treaty of peace,
the quiet of northern Germany was to be purchased, on the condi
tion that he was to cede to France several provinces, and occupy
Hanover in return, thereby exposing himself to a war with Englanu
and Sweden, his embarrassment was extreme. But the scales turn-
ed in favour of a war with France, and thus arose a new combi-
nation, though the old one could hardly be said to have ceased, since
Russia had not wholly retired from the field.
54. A fourth coalition, as it may perhaps be numbered,
was soon matured, 1806, which inchided Prussia, Russia,
Austria, Sweden and England. Prussia, which began the
war, was utterly overthrown by one battle, that at Jena and
Auerstadt. Its capital was entered, and here Bonaparte is-
sued the Berlin Decree, announcing the blockade of the British
islands. The conqueror's army passed into Poland, and the
war was thus transferred from tbe banks of the Soal, to those
of the Vistula, where Russia was under the necessity of de-
fending its frontiers. In the course of this war, were fought
the obstinate and bloody battles of Pultusk, Eylau, and
Friedland, with the Russians. The last only was decisive,
and led to a peace, which was concluded at Tilsit, 7th July,
1807. Peace was concluded two days after with Prussia, by
which about one half of the monarchy was returned, as a
gift of charity, and this once potent nation, was reduced to a
state of second rank. Russia gained a small accession of
territory, but both nations agreed to close their harbours and
countries against British navigation and trade. All was
now French law or influence throughout continental Europe,
and all was made to bear against Britain.
§ By the peace of Tilsit, Russia had been made beforehand, not
merely a spectator, but an active participator in the project of crush-
ing Britain, by excluding it from all trade and communication with
the continent. This was done by the secret articles of the peace.
FRANCE. 309
England, however, anticipated the enemy's dependance on the fleet of
Denmark, and effected its snrrender, by tlie bombardment of Copen-
hagen. One consequence of this act was, a declaration of war by
Russia against England, and another was an alliance of Denmark
with France, which was to open to this latter power the road to
Sweden.
The Berlin Decree was met by the British Orders in Council
whicli prohibited every sliip from entering any French port, or any
port under French influence, under pain of confiscation. This was
followed by the Decree of Warsaw, declaring that all British com-
modities, in the Hanseatic cities, were confiscatcfl, without respect of
owners. This decree was retaliated by a strict blockade of the Elbe
and the Weser, and by the Order ii; Council, declaring in blockadcj
all ports from which the British flaj; was excluded, and that all ships
proceeding thither, should be captui ed, unless they had touched at a
British port, and paid a duty. This was answered by the Decree ot
Milan, by which every ship which should sulmiit to these conditions,
was declared denationalized, and a lawful prize. Thus, neutral pow-
ers could have no navigation. Afterwards, the mad Decree of Fon-
tainebleau, consigned to the flames, all British manufactures from
Naples to Holland, and from Spain to Germany. But Europe could
not subsist under the operation of such measures. Industry was
fatally paralized.
55. jSapoleon, triumphant and powerful, now wislied to
enlarge the dominion of his liiniily, by appropriating to his
remaining brothers, the thrones of Portugal and Spain.
Spain was destined to receive his brother Joseph, whom Mu-
ral, the emperor's brother-in-law, was to succeed in the king-
dom of Naples. Louis Bonaparte had before been made
king of Holland, and Jerome, king of Westphaha. His de-
sign on Portugal failed, though its throne was prostrated. A
new and greater throne arose, on the other side of the ocean.
Under a British convoy, the royal house of Portugal emi-
grated to Brazil. His design on Spain succeeded for a time,
by his having artfully secured the person of the Spanish mon-
arch, and compelling him to resign his crown, in favour of
Joseph Bonaparte, 20th June, 1808.
This act, to say nothing of its moral character, was a political
fault on the part of Naj)oleon ; the first fatal step which lie took,
towards his subsecpient downfal. He had already the con-
trol of Spain, by his inlluence. " It was done without a
knowledge of the country and nation : an universal insur-
rection having ensued, it opened the abyss which devoured
alike, the French armies, and the French finances ; and it
gave Fjugland a theatre for war. But it taught Europe that
310 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
the people are more powerful than mercenary armies, and it
was destined to give freedom to another quarter of the globe."
The British, wlio were called to the aid of Spain, in connex-
ion with the Spanish forces, carried on the war from 1808,
to 1813. Many battles were fought, in which the English-
Spanish trooi)3 were generally victorious. Here " the Marl-
borough of the nineteenth century," began his brilliant career.
The French were eventually driven out of the country.
56. While the war in Spain, employed the best forces of
the French empire, the insatiable conqueror meditated a new,
greater, and more formidable war. That was the war with
Russia, in 1812 ; a war whic'i decided the destiny of Europe.
It is unnecessary to repeat what has already been said con-
cerning this terrible conflict, in the history of Russia.
57. After Napoleon's defeat, he fled to Paris, and raising
another army, he hoped to regain the dominion which he
had lost in the east. To oppose him, the Fifth Coalition
was formed, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, a part of
the Confederation of the Rhine, and Sweden. Of this con-
flict also, no particular mention need be made liere, since the
details have been given elsewhere. It may only be said, that
the allies carried the w^ar into the heart of France- -that
after much and strenuous fighting, they entered Paris, which
capitulated, 30th March, 1814 — and that with the capital,
France was conquered, because in France, the capital is
every tb.ing.
58. The results of these successes of the allied jjowers,
were important, and great changes took place. The situa-
tion of Napoleon becoming extremely critical, he abdicated
the throne of France, and w^as removed to the island of
Elba. His mighty empire, reared b}'^ a military despotism,
fell into ruins. And Louis XVIII. , after an absence of twen-
ty-three years from his kingdom, returned and took possession
of his rightful throne.
§ Bonaparte had it in liis power, while the allies held a cong^ress
at Chalillon, to preserve the throne and empire, had he been satis-
fied with ancient P'rance. But it was fortunate that he demanded
too much, and even this, as an intercepted letter of his minister,
Maret, afterwards showed, was only a deception. After his defeats
in defending France, the senate, lately his slave, openly proj)osed the
deposition of Bonaparte, and he himself, not without many useless
attempts in favour of his son, descended from the falling throne
FRANCE. 311
having executed an unconditional abdication on the part of himself
and liis heirs, Isl April, 1814. He was soon after escorted to Elba,
which he received with full sovereignty, with a pension of two and
a half millions from the revenues of France, and with a body guard
of four hundred men.
Louis XVIII. had spent his time in Italy, Germany, Russia, and
finally England. Tlie same month that restored to France her king,
beheld three other princes, who had been driven from their thrones,
ascend them again. — Pius VII., returned to Rome, Ferdinand VII.
to Madrid, and Victor Emanuel to Turin.
59. To restore the political system of Europe, which had
been so completely subverted, a General Congress Avas as-
sembled at Vienna, 1st November, 1814. Six of Llie crowned
heads of Europe were present, united in peace as in war,
with a long and splendid list of princes, ambassadors, and
ministers. While they were engaged in their difficult and
important deliberations, an event occurred which was the
cause of the sixth and last coalition of the European powers.
" The man of destiny" again made his appearance on the
bloody arena where he had lately acted so conspicuous a part,
but whence, it was hoped, he had been excluded forever.
Having escaped from Elba, Bonaparte, after an vmparralleled
adventure, reached Paris, and re-seated himself on the im-
perial throne. A temporary confusion enstied, but the result
proved that the army, and not the nation, was the support of
that throne. The great day of Waterloo, the 18th June,
1815, buried the hopes of Napoleon Bonaparte in the dust.
§ The French king, upon Bonaparte's return to Paris, withdrew to
Lille, and afterwards to Ghent. He came back to his capital after
an absence of one hundred days, and was the second time seated on
his throne.
In the whole career of Bonaparte, nothing was more extraordina-
ry than his progress through France, and re-occupancy of tlie
throne. He larwied at Cannes, March 1st, 1815, and in twenty days
from that time, accompanied with about fifteen hundred men, he
reached, though without opposition, the scene of his former triumphs.
No blood was spilt. The previous conspiracy seems not to liave
been very extensive, because the emperor could, and of course did,
rely on the assistance of the troops. They received him with en-
thusiastic shouts. The nation was held in mute astonishment for a
time; but it soon became evident that he had lost in a measure liis
influence over it. Instead of ruling the parties as formerly, he
seems to have been swayed by them. So much the more energetic
were his warlike preparations — lie could now indulge no hope of
peace.
It was a happy circumstance that the news of Napoleon's return,
312 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD jw.
reached the congress of Vienna, while still in session. The most
prompt and decisive measures were adopted. By a special act, he
was declared the enemy of the nations, and to have forfeited the
protection of the laws. Almost every nation in Europe, small and
great, combined against the usurper. The sum of all the contin-
gents to be furnished, amounted to 1,057,400 fighting men. A Bri-
tish-German and a Prussian army were assembled with the utmost
speed, under Wellington and Blucher. Napoleon was equally active,
and pressed forward across the boundaries with 170,000 men, 15lh
June, 1815. He first met "the gray hero" (Blucher,) at Ligny,
who, after a bold resistance was forced back to Wavre. Meanwhile
the army of Wellington was drawn up at Waterloo. Napoleon
commenced the attack at noon, of the 18th June, with a great su-
periority. After an awful conflict, the victory was fluctuating at
evening, when Blucher appeared with his auxiliaries, at the right
crisis, and decided tlie battle.
Bonaparte fled to Paris, abdicated anew in favour of his son, and
after fruitless attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself
to a British ship of the line; but instead of being permitted to land
in England, as he wished, he was transported to tlie island of St.
Helena, Oct. 16tli, and was detained as a prisoner of war till hia
death, which happened 5th May, 1821.
Thus "on an island rock in the midst of the ocean, died, almost
unnoticed, the man, whose name but a short space before, had filled
the world. His plans were wrecked ; from tlie thraldom, which he
was preparing for the nations, there sprang liberty in more than
one quarter of the globe. UnknoAvn to himself, he was but the in-
strument of a higher power ; for his objects were not its objects.
Whatever judgement posterity may pass on him, universal his-
tory can view him only from this point." He was the aiUhor of
several valuable institutions, and effected some propitious changes,
not only in France, but in the rest of Europe ; yet they were pur-
chased at too dear a price— infinitely dearer than if he had taken
Washington, and not Caesar, as Iiis model. Like other great con-
querors, he sacrificed the repose, liberty, and happiness of millions,
to his insatiable ambition.
France, having been conquered the second time, by the second
taking of its capital, was required to indemnify the allies for their
expenses and sacrifices. Slie was left a great and a powerful nation,
little less diminished in territory tlian after tlie first pacification,
which fixed her limits nearly as they were in 1789. The indemnity
which the allies received, consisted chiefly in money, and in the
occupancy of eighteen fortresses, by a portion of tlieir troops, to be
supported at the cost of France. These troops, however, were ali
withdrawn long before the term agreed on, whicli was five years.
Louis XVn'h, whose reign was that of a prudent, though ineffi-
cient monarch, died in 1824, and was succeeded l)y his brotlier, the
Count d' Artois, under tlie appellation of Cliarles X. The princi-
pal event of the reign of Louis, was tlie invasion of Spain, m 1823,
SPAIN. 313
by a Fren(;h army under the Duke d' Angouleme, but without a
declaration of war, in consequenr^e of the decisions of llie congress
of Verona, in 1822. 'J'iiis uniustifial)le act resulted in the overthrow
of the Cortes; and the despotism of absolute royalty was immedi-
ately re-established.
ITALIAN STATES.
(JO. In the history of Italy, during modern ages, nothing
important occiured till the late convulsions, occasioned by the
French revolution. The Italian states shared deeply in them,
as lias already appeared. It may be only added, tliat the
Congress of Vienna, in 1S15, decreed the subdivision of Ita-
ly, between the house of Austria, the king of Sardinia, the
Pope, and the king of Naples. The free republics of Venice,
Genoa, and Lucca, have, in consequence, been amalgamated
with arbitrary sovereignties ; and Austria is become the pre-
ponderating power of Italy.
SPAIN.
61. Phihp v., the monarch of Spain, at the commence-
ment of this period, reigned till the year 1746. During his
long rule, the nation degenerated as before, from the opera-
tion of a despotic government, a superstitious and cruel reli-
gion, aided l^y the natural indolence of the people.
§ In 1717, the Spaniards took Sardinia ; but the next year invaded
Sicily, without success.
62. Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI., 1746,
who was a mild and pacific prince, but whose reign is barren
of those events which usually furnish matter for histor3^
The indolent and efreminate Charles III., brother of Ferdi-
nand, succeeded him, in 1759, who reigned till the year 1788.
The principal events of his reign were, the formation of the
family compact, between France and Spain ; the union of
these nations against England, in the American war; and
their unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar.
§ In the siege of Gibraltar, twelve thousand pieces of heavy ordi-
nance were accumulated before the place, for the numerous intended
attacks by sea and land ; there were, also, in proportion, gun-boat.s,_
bomb-vessels, battering sliips, military stores, and anmiuuiiion. In-
deed, nearly all the frigates and smaller armed vessels of the king-
dom, were assembled to atlbrd re(juisite assistance, and the combined
fleets of France and Spain, amounting to about fifty ships of the line
27
314 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
were to cover and support the attack. But all this formidable force*
was employed in vain, from the almost impregnable situation of the
fort, and the valour of its defenders. It seemed as if so many can-
non and other means of destruction, playing upon the rock, would
have annihilated it — all looked like a mass of fire in and around it.
hut the loss sustained by the besieged was much less than might
have been expected, while tliat of the Spanish and French was im-
mense. The mortification which the Spaniards always have felt, ever
since this fortress fell into the hands of the English, was greatly in-
creased by the unsuccessful issue of this celebrated siege.
63. Charles IV. possessed the crown upon the death of his
father, 1788. He was an inefficient and unfortunate mo-
iiarch. In 1792, he entered into a leati^ue against the Frencli
repubUc, but being defeated, he united witli France against
Great Britain. After the rupture of the treaty of Amiens,
Spain professed to be neutral, till the capture of several of
her treasure ships, by a British squadron, after which, the
weakness of the government led to an insurrection, and Fer-
dinand VII. dethroned his father.
The father and son, under the influence of French intrigue,
afterwards appealed to Napoleon, to whom the father formal-
ly surrendered his kingdom, at Bayonne, for the purpose of
tfefeating the claims of his son ; who, after being also obliged
to sign a renunciation of the throne, was then treacherously
detained a state prisoner, at Compeigne, in France. From
this period, the situation of Spain, appears in the account al-
ready given concerning France.
§ Since the restoration of the general peace, Spain has been more
unfortunate than any other of the European communities. Abroad,
she has lost her colonies in South America ; at home, the horrors ot
anarch}^ and internal war, and, at length, of despotism and the In-
quisition, she has been doomed to bear.
Portugal has experienced scarcely a milder fate than Spain. lis
situation since the emigration of the royal family to Brazil, has been
singular, and at the present time, is deplorable. A monarch residing
in a colony, and governing the parent state, is altogether a novelty
in the history of the world ; yet such has been the fact in regard to
the emperor of Brazil. At this moment, the despotism of the usurp-
er, Don Miguel, is producing consternation and distress among the
adherents of the regular government.
The history of Portugal, from the time of its independence under
.lohn, dulce of Braganza, in 1064, to the time of the French revolu-
tion, is of so little consequence, that it has been omitted altogether.
Since the latter period, tlie incidental notices which have been given
of its atTairs, must suffice. It may be remarked, that the Portuguese
THE NETHERLANDS. 315
are still rich in colonial possessions, notwithstanding they have lost
fliost of what they used to hold in Asia.
THE NETHERLANDS.
64. The liistory of tlie Netherlands, under the name of
Holland, was briefly sketched in the period preceding the
last. Holland, as including seven united provinces, and as
constituting an independent nation, was the most important
portion of the Low Countries. The character of its inhabi-
tants, as an eminently enterprising and industrious people,
also placed them at the head of these countries. In the ages
preceding the French revolution, their conunerce was exceed-
ed by that of no nation, and wealth from this source poured
in upon them apace. Their maritime force was consequently
extensive, and they had numerous collisions with their great
rivals, the British, who Avere destined, at last, far to surpass
them in riches and naval power.
Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century, it was
apparent, that the Dutch Avere falling from their high eleva-
tion. Indolence, luxury, and avarice, the consequence of
wealtli, had, in a degiee, alfected this excellent people ; and
their spirit, which would otherwise have been invincible,
yielded to French intrigue and military enthusiasm, at the
era of the revolution.
The ten provinces, called Belgium, or Flanders, since
they were freed from the Spanish yoke, have been usually
divided into Austrian, French, and Dutch Netherlands.
Prussia, also, has shared in them ; and, indeed, they have
often changed inasters. They were swallowed up eventually
in the great jjolitical voitex, to which reference has been so
frequently made.
§ No space remains for an accovmt of the stadtholders of Holland,
since the time of Maurice, who was mentioned in the eighth period.
Nor is their history very important, as the stadtholdership was seve-
ral times abolished. During the separate times of its existence, it
has been held by the princes of the house of Orange.
65. After the United Netherlands were overrun by the
French, in 1795, and the stadtlioldcr and his family were
obliged to flee to England, the whole country was oppressed
and plundeied by the Frencli, and the melancholy spectacle
was presente;'.; of ruined conmicrce and civil discord, with an
316 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
incredible mass of public and individual suffering. Besides
misery at home, there was loss abroad ; and Holland, rich in
colonies, was stripped of most of them, by means of the re-
rolutionary wars, in which she was involved.
In 1814, the prince of Orange ^vas recalled, and Flanders
being annexed to Holland, and forming one kingdom, he as-
sumed the title of king of the Netherlands.
§ The restoration of the state of the Netherlands, was one of the
principal points in the restoration of the political system of Europe,
effected by the congress at Vienna. That its fate was connected
with the fate of the Belgic, no less tlian the Batavian provinces, ap-
peared from the fact, that Belgium, in the hands of France, first
opened the avenue to universal dominion. It was felt to be necessa-
ry, to found there a powerful state, which, at least in alliance with
Prussia, should be strong enough for its own defence ; and the iraion
of all the Netherlands into one kingdom, was resolved on by I he
Congress. The sovereign of the house of Orange adopted the
royal title, and gave them a free constitution.
TURKISH EMPIRi:.
66. In the history of Turkey, we perceive the evidences
of a rapid decUne, from about the commencement of the
present period. The people have been extremely depressed,
and the nature of their institutions is such as to preclude, in
a great measure, the improvements common to the rest of
Europe. Some changes have very recent!}^ been elfectcd.
The discipline of the army has been improved, and the an-
cient body of the Janizaries, so formidable to the government
and its master, has been broken up by the present cHergetic
Sultan. Yttt the empire, as it respects European dominions,
is now on the brink of destruction,* from the victorious ca-
reer of the Russians. From its conflicts with that j)eople, it
has generally retired, shorn of some portion of its teriitories,
and with diminished strength and resources. With Persia,
also, it has often fought, but on more equal terms.
At the commencement of this period, Achmet HI. was the
reigning Sultan. He was deposed in 1730, since which time,
♦ By the late treaty of peace, which the SalUin ratified, on theilOth Septpm-
ber, 1829, European Turkey is nominallv itreservcil in indei>enclencc ; but tlie
terms of pacification were so lavuuraoie lo ivunain, liiat the !,ilter enjoys almost
every advantage which would accrue from the actual possession of the
country.
TURKISH EMPIRE. 317
there liave been seven sultans, viz. Mahomet V., Osman Til.,
Mustapha III., Aclimet IV., Sclim III., Mustapha IV., and
Mahnioud II., the present sultan.
§ Under Mustapha III., Turkey and Russia engaged in a furious
and bloody war, whieh lasted from 1769, to 1774. By means of a
fleet whieh sailed to tlie Archipelago, the Russians seized a part of
the Morea, whose inhabitaius soon rose in a general revolt, and de-
clared in favour of Russia. But the sultan sent an army to the
Peninsula, and quelled the revolt, inllicting the severest punishment
on luany of the unhappy Greeks. This war was disastrous to the
Turks.
The war was renewed by Achmet IV., in 1787, and concluded not
until 1792, under Selim III. Important concessions were made to
Russia. Koutousolf greatly distinguished himself in this war, as
did also Suwarrow. It was during the reign of Selim, that Bona-
parte invaded Egypt, and the transactions took place in regard to
that country, which have been related in the history of France.
Achmet, and also his successor, 3Iustapha IV., were deposed and
murdered by the Janizaries.
The Porte had kept itself remote from the convulsions connected
with the Frencli revolution, with the exception of the war with Rus-
sia, from 1809 to 1812, which cost it Bessarabia, and a part of Mol-
davia. Assisted by the powerful Bashaw of Egypt, the Porte was
more active in Arabia, against the ^'v'echabites, than in Europe, the
tranquillity of wliich it is not for its interest to disturb, if it be itself
left in quiet. This, however, has not been suffered to be the case,
since llie year 1821. Since that time, it has had an almost inces-
sant struggle with the Greeks, and lately it has been involved in a
ruinous war with Russia.
The inhabitants of Greece, oppressed beyond endurance by the
barbarous Turk, and recalling to remembrance their ancient freedom,
and their ancient renown, have asserted their rights by arms. An
insurrection broke out simultaneously, in almost every section of the
territory, and has been pursued on botli sides, on the mainland, and
on the sea, with a furious rancour. After eight years of unprecedent-
ed sulTering, (Greece has become elTedively free, by its own heroism,
and the interference of Russia, France and England.
The insurrection, which has thus terminated in securing the liber-
ties of Greece, broke out in the month of April, 1821, in Moldavia,
and almost at the same time, in the Morea, as well as on most of the
Islands of the Archipelago. Of these islands, the naval force was
generally superior to the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821,
the Turks w(>re driven from the Morea and the islands, with the ex-
ception of the garrisons of several strong fortresses. But these por-
tions of Greece, have since been repeatedly harrasscd by the vindic-
tive Turks, till lately, tlieir contest with Russia, for their own exis»
fence, has absorbed every other interest.
27*
318 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
CHIINA.
67. At the commencement of this period, Yong-Tching
of the twenty-second dynasty, occupied the throne of China.
Two emperors of this dynasty, which is that of the Tartars,
had preceded him, viz. Chun-tsi, and Kang;-hi. A revohition
in China, which commenced in 1641 , broiiglit the Tartars a
second time into power ; but they were not considered as set-
tled, till 1649, which is properly the date of the twenty-
second, or the present dynasty. 1'he successors of Yong-
Tching, have been Kien-Long, and Kia-Khing. The name
of the present emperor is not known to the author of this
work.
§ In the reign of Yong-Tching, the Jesuits, who first penetra-
ted into tlie empire, in 1683, were banished, and the chiistians were
persecuted, not excepting those of tlie imperial family. In the reign
of the same prince, also, an earthquake look place, at Pekin and its
environs, such as had never before been felt in China. The first
shocks were so sudden and violent, that in less than a minute, above
100,000 inhabitants were buried in the ruins of houses, and a still
greater number in the surrounding country, where whole villages
and towns were destroyed.
- Kien-Long died in 1795, in the ninetieth year of his age, and in
the sixty-second year of his reign. It is said to have been a
peaceful and happy, as well as long reign. In 1793, the celebrated
British embass}^, under Lord Macartney, arrived in China, with a
view to the establishment of a commercial intercourse between the
two countries. An account of tliis embassy, has been written by
Sir George Staunton. In the estimation of Europe, Kien-Long stood
at the head of the sovereigns of half civilized nations.
Kia-Khing died in 1819, at the time when the famous Russian
mission, under Timkowski, was approaching the celestial empire.
He was the seventeenth son of Kien-Long, and reigned happily.
The Russian mission, took notice that the buttons, which are so con-
spicuous in the Chinese official costume, disappeared from all the
caps of the loyal Chinese and Mongul officers, and that they, as
well as their countrymen, adopted a white dress. This, among them,
is the mourning colour, for as good a reason, doubtless, as black
among the Europeans, blue among the Persians, and violet among
the Turks.
PERSIA.
68. Soon after the beginning of the present period, Persia,
which was governed for a time by the posterity of Tamer-
kine, and afterwards by the Sophis, had llic famous Kouli
PERSIA. 319
Khan, or Nadir Sliali, for its sovereign. He had been the
general of Abbas 111., his predecessor, whom it is supposed
he poisoned, and thus supplanted the Sophia family. In
1739, he invaded India, and conquered the Mogul empire,
taking Delhi, acquiring immense wealth, and committing the
most horrible massacres. This monster then took the title
of Emjxjror of the Indies, and returning into Persia, attempt-
ed to change the religion, and strangled all the priests, after
which, in self defence, he was murdered in his tent, by his
own officer.
After his death, Persia was desolated by civil wars, be-
tween various rivals for the throne ; but the country, after
being exhausted by these events, settled itself under Kerim
Khan, an able prince, of obscure birth, who died in 1779.
On his death, Persia again fell into confusion, till the last ot
his family was overthrown, and the sovereignty regained by
Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1794. He delegated the govern-
ment to his sons.
§ The origin of the Sophis, is connected with a revohition on ac-
count of religion, in the end of the fifteenth century. Hadar, or
Sophi, a rehgious entliusiast, restored or estabhshed the sect of Ali
in Pcrsiii, whom lie considered to be the successor of Mahomet, rather
lliau Omar. The Persians liking a doctrine that distinguished them
from tlieir enemies, the Turks, and being attlie same time exempted
from the obligation of performing pilgrimages to Mecca, embraced
it in great numbers ; and Ishmael, the son of Sophi, following the
example of Mahomet, enforced his opinions by the sword. All Per-
sia and Armenia submitted to his arms. His descendants ruled till
ihe time of Kouli Khan.
Persia has been often conquered, yet the form of its government,
and the state of society, have continued nearly the same through
almost two thousand years. In a late war with Russia, it has lost
'•onsiderable territory.
INDIA.
69. The vast and populous country under the name of
India, makes but an inconsiderable figure in history. Doubt-
less, many subjects of an interesting nature might be found,
could the modern historian have a fair opportunity of research ;
but [e\v have, as yet, ajipeared, and these in so detached a
manner, that a regular account cannot easily be given of the
events in Indian history. The mention of this country, sepa-
rately from otJiers, has accordingly been omitted till the pre-
320 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
sent period. Indeed, it has little claim on our attention, in ad
outline of general history, till very modern times. The few
details that can be alTorded, both of its earlier and later histo-
ry, will appear below. Like most other Asiatic countries, it
has been often and easily conquered, but without materially
afTecting the form of its government, or its manners and cus-
toms. Successive dynasties have luled over most of the ori-
ental nations, but they have left the latter where they found
them. So far back as authentic records carry u.s, we find
among the people, little or no advances made in civilization,
refinement, or knowledge: They are the same in indolence,
effeminacy, and luxury, that they were two thousand years
ago; not ignorant, yet without a spirit of enterpiise; accom-
plished in certain arts, yet incapable of learning others.
§ India was but little known to the ancients. Alexander the Great,
first invaded, tlioiigh he did not conquer it, except in part. The
country was afterwards visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell
in the partition of Alexander's empire; and Antiochus the Great,
two hundred years subsequently, made a short expedition thither.
The Arabians penetrated into Hindoostan, about 710, and founded
an empire extending to the Ganges, which, in 1155, was usurped by
the Persians. After this, followed the march of Genghis Khaii,
who is said to have given the name of 3Iogul, to India ; and subse-
quently, the conquering career of Tamerlane, both of whicla have
been elsewhere mentioned. The descendants of Tamerlane enjoy-
ed no more than the northern parts, till after 1498, when sultan Ba-
ber subdued almost all the country, except the Deccan, Grezerat,
and Bengal.
Aureng Zeeb, who reigned between 1660 and 1707, conquered
Bengal, and the greater part of the Deccan. At his death, he left
an empire of great extent, and producing a revenue of more than
£35,000,000 sterling. But a succession of weak princes and wicked
ninisters reduced this vast empire, in the course of fifty years, to in-
significance. In 1739, Hindoostan was invaded by Kouli-Klian, who
anniliilated the Mogul empire. It was, however, afterwards reviv-
ed, for a time, but soon fell into decay, and can now be scarcely said
to exist.
The British are now the principal possessors of India. Their do-
minions in India have been created, first, by the establishment of
factories for trade ; 2d, by wars made upon the natives by tlie resi-
dents of those factories ; and lastly, by the capture of the Portuguese,
Dutch, and French colonies in India.
The British Indian dominions, which were extensive before, and
which began as early as 1757, have been greatly increased within
the last thirty or thirty-five years. A statement, somewhat recent,
makes the number of square miles of territory, under British juris-
diction or influence, 776,000, and tlie population not less than eighty-
UNITED STATES. 321
six millions. To the above it must be added, that their Indian do-
minions have been lately increased by a portion of the Burraan em-
pire, in consequence of a war with the latter.
The government of this immense country, is vested in a Governor
General, and a council of four, appointed by the British crown, Avho
reside at Calcutta.
THE UNITED STATES.
70. The United States of America, which, at the be-
ginning of this period, were in a colonial condition, assumed
before the conclusion of it, their separate and equal station
among the nations of the earth. It was with tliem an era
of great events, and the change from colonies to a state of
independence, though it lay in the natural course of things_
was equally unexpected and instructive to the v/orld.
The colonies enjoyed a degree of tranquillity from the
peace of Utrecht, to the year 1744. In that year, a war
breaking out between Great Britain and France, America was
involved in it, the result of which was the capture of Louis-
burgh, on the island of Cape Breton, a place of gTeat strength.
This conquest was effected principally by the troops of Mas-
sachusetts. A small proportion of the soldiers was furnished
by the other New England states. The place, however, was
restored to France, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748.
After the peace of Utrecht, the French had built Louisburgh, as a
security to their navigation and fishery, and had fortified it at a vast
expense. Twenty-five years had been spent upon the fortifications,
and though not entirely completed, they were considered the strong-
est in America. It was deemed indispensable to take this fortress, as
it afforded a convenient resort to such privateers as disturbed the New
England fisheries. Accordingly, efforts were made to engage the co-
lonies in the enterprise, and circulars were addressed by the govern-
ment of Massachusetts to the colonies as far south as Pennsylvania
for their assistance. But New England alone undertook the expedi-
tion. Massachusetts furnished nearly three fourths of the troops, who
were placed under the command of General Pcpperell.
Their success was peculiar and almost unexpected. With some as-
sistance from an En<ilish fleet, they brought the French to the neces-
sity of surrendering the city of Louisburgh and the island of Cape
Breton to the British king, after a siege of forty- nine days.
71. In 1746, a powerful French armameut was sent against
America with a view to revenge the loss of Louisburgh ; but
by means of shipwrecks, sickness, and other disasters, it pro-
videntially failed of its object. The peace of Aix-la-Cha-
322 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
pelle now took place, which lasted eight years, or until 1756.
For several succeeding years, powerful efforts were made on
the part of the Americans and British, against the places and
forts occupied by the French, particularly Louisburgh, Ti-
conderoga, Crown Point, Fort du Quesne, (Pittsburgh,) and
Niagara. This war, which commenced in 175(3, and ended
in 1763, is commonly called the French and Indian war.
Success eventually attended the Americans and British, and
by the peace of Paris, in 1763, all the Canadas, together with
Nova Scotia, and the island of Cape Breton, were confirmed
to Great Britain. Georo;e Washington, the future deliverer
of America, first came into public notice during these con-
tests.
The French armament consisted of forty ships of war, fifty-six
transports, with three thousand five hundred men, and forty thousand
stands of arms, for the use of the French and Indians in Canada.
The consternation of the colonies, as might be expected, Avas great ;
but Providence, by the means above mentioned, dispelled their fears,
and blasted the hopes of their enemies.
The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, Avhich followed this attempt,
left the respective parties, as to tlieir rights and possessions, the same
as tliey Avere at the commencenient of the Avar. Great losses, how-
ever, had been sustained by the colonies in their commerce, and their
pecuniary concerns Avere in a very embarrassed state. The return of
this peace, and its continuance through eight short years, altered the
aspect of the colonies much for the better. Commerce again flourished,
population increased, settlements were extended, and public credit re-
vived.
The French and Indian war Avas occasioned by the alleged en-
croachments of the French upon the frontiers of the colonies in Ame-
rica, belonging to the British croAvn. Besides the encroachments that
were made on NoA'^a Scotia, in the north and west they Avere settling
and fortifying Crown Point, and in the west, Avere not only attempt-
ing to complete a line of forts from the head of St. Lawrence to the
Mississippi, but were intrenching far on Virginia.
By an understanding between England and the colonies, hostili-
ties were carried on betAveen the latter and the French during two
years, Avithout any formal proclamation of Avar. The Virginians,
who were particularly concerned in the beginning of these hostilities,
entrusted to George Washington the difficult and dangerous service
of going to the French commandant on the Ohio, a distance of
several hundred miles, through a Avilderness, to demand of him the
reasons of his hostile conduct, and to summon the French to evacu-
ate their forts at the Avest. He Avas then but tAA^enty-onc years of
age, and at that early period stepped forth the champion of his coun-
try's rights. He executed his errand, but the result showed the ne-
cessity of Ibrce, Avhich was accordingly resorted to under the com-
UNITED STATES. 323
mand of Washington. He met with partial success, but the superior
number of the euciny obli<4ed him at lengtli, after surreudering a
fort he liad taken, to retire to Virginia.
This was as early as 1754, but in the spring of 1755 more vigorous
exertions were made by the colonies against the enemy. Four ex-
peditions were planned — one against the French in Nova Scotia ; a
second against the French on the Ohio ; a third against Crown Point ;
and a fourth against Niagara. The expedition against Nova Scotia,
wiiich consisted of three thousand men, chiefly from Massachusetts,
met witii entire success. The expedition against the French on the
Oiiio was disastrous in the extreme. It was led by Gen. Braddock,
a Briiish officer, at the head of two thousand men. His rashness,
hauteur, and ignorance of the mode of Indian warfare, cost him his
own life, and that of hundreds of his brave companions. Refusing
to take counsel of Washington, he sutfered himself to be ambuscaded
by a body of French and Indians, who would have destroyed his
whole array, had it not been saved by the skill and intrepidity of
Washington, his aid on that occasion. The expedition against Crown
Point, though it failed as to its main object, yet its results were
cheering to the colonies after the gloom occasioned by Braddock's
defeat. A body of the enemy which had landed at Southbay, now
Whiteliall, and which were marching towards Fort Edward to de-
stroy the provisions and military stores there, were signally defeated
by the Americans under tlie command of Gen. William Johnson.
The expedition against Niagara was eventually abandoned, on ac-^
count of the lateness of the season and other unfavorable circum-
stances.
After hostilities had been conducted in this manner for two years,
war was declared in 1756 by Great Britain against France, and soon
after by France against Great Britain, in turn. The operations of
the Britisli till the year 175S were singularly unsuccessful, through
the indecision of the commander-in-chief, the earl of Loudon ; but
a change in the English ministry that year, which placed Lord Chat-
ham at the head of the administration, materially altered the aspect
of affairs. Of three expeditions which were planned and carried
into cfl'ect in the course of the year, two, viz. those against Louis-
burgh and Fort du duesne, succeeded. That against Ticonderoga
failed.
The campaign of 1759 had for its object, the entire conquest of
Canada. Accordingly, it was determined on the part of the English
and the colonists to attack all tiie strong holds of the French in that
country — viz. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Niagara and (iuebec.
These were taken in due time, three armies having entered Canada
by different routes, nearly at once. The conquest of duebec was
the most important and difficult enterprise undertaken during this
war, and has been greatly celebrated through the heroism and death
of each of the opposing commanders-in-chief, Wolfe and Montcalm.
Wolfe died in the field before the battle was ended, but he lived long
enough to know that the victory was his. The words "they fly"
caught his ear, as he was sinking in the agonies of death. " Who
324 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
fly," the hero asked. " The French," was the reply. " Then," said he,
" I die happy." Montcahn, in talents, in military skill, and in personal
valour, was not inferior to Wolfe. He lived, after receiving a mortal
wound, to be carried to the city, where his lasi moments were employ-
ed in writing, with his own hand, a letter to the English general,
recommending the French prisoners to his care and humanity.
72. We come now to the most in:iportant period of the
American history, that of the Revolution, when the colonies
passed from a state of dependence on the British Crown,
into free and independent communities. The long che-
rished democratic principles realized by the constitutions of
most of the provinces, a consequent weaker political connex-
ion with the mother country, and the feeling of growing
strength, already tried in the seven years' war, were among
the causes of the struggle after independence. Nothing
was wanting but an occasion for a breach, and that could
not long be wanting.
73. The origin of the dispute was not so much in any
sensible oppression, as in a question of right. Had the
British parliament a right to tax the colonies ? Parliament
maintained the affirmative ; the colonies denied it, on the
ground that they were not represented. Representation and
taxation, according to their views, were inseparable. If their
property could be taken without their consent, they had no
safety.
74. The dispute arose as early as 1 764, occasioned by an
act, the avowed purpose of which'was to raise a revenue
in America without her consent. The famous stamp act
followed, March 22d, 1765. This act was peculiarly ob-
noxious in its character, aside from the principle which it
involved, as a revenue measure. The immediate conse-
quence was a great commotion in all the colonies, especially
in Massachusetts and Virginia, and a congress was convened
at New York in October, which published a declaration ot
the people's rights. The stamp act was repealed March 19,
1766; but the principle was at the same time confirmed, by
the bill, declaring the supremacy of the parliament in all
cases whatever.
The stamp act came into operation on the first of November, 1765.
In Boston and Portsmouth, the day was ushered in by a funeral
tolling of the bells. In the latter place, in the course of the day, a
coffin, Avith appropriate decorations, and inscribed with the word
Liberty, was carried to the grave. During the movement of the
mourning procession, minute guns were fired ; and an oration was
UNITED STATES. 325
■pronounced in favour of the deceased. Similar expressions of griel
«and indignation, occurred in many parts of the land. In some places,
the stamp officers were obliged to resign, or to secrete themselves, to
/escape the vengeance of the people. Stamps were not permitted to
be landed, and ousiness in many places was conducted without them.
At the same time, numerous associations were formed by merchants
not to import goods until this odious act was repealed. In this
measure they were sustained by the people, who submitted with the
utmost cheerfulness to the necessary self-denial.
75. Ill as^reement with the British doctrine, the ministry
.soon after attempted to effect its object by means of indirect
duties. These were laid on tea, paper, glass, and colours, by
the revenue act, June, 1767. The proceeds of these duties
were to form a civil hst fox America, which should be wholly
at the disposition of the ministers, for conferring remunera-
tions, pensions, (fcc. The opposition to this form of taxation,
and to every form, being renewed, especially in Boston,
which was the centre of the resistance. Lord North abrogated
these duties, except the one on tea, in 1770. By this reser-
vation the right of taxation was explicitly asserted ; but as
the Americans, by voluntary agreement, would make use ot
no British commodities, the tea which was brought to this
country could not be sold. The East India Company conse-
quently became embarrassed ; and after the repeal of the ex-
port tax in England, attempted to gain the Americans by a
. cheaper price. But, nevertheless, measures were adopted to
. prevent the importation of tea, and a cargo of it was forcibly
■seized and tliro\vninto the harbour in Boston, Dec. 26, 1773.
76. The measures adopted by the Americans, impelled Eng-
land to resort to severer acts. These consisted not only in
shutting the harbour of Boston, but m regulations by which
the charter of Massachusetts was annihilated. It was these
regulations which created the general insurrection, since
each colony now saw no security for its former constitution.
The Boston port bill was passed, March 25th, 1774. The
town was soon occupied by the British troops.
By the " Boston port bill." that town was precluded from tlie privi-
lege of landing and discharging, or of loading and shipping goods,
wares, and merchandise. The bill Avhich destroyed the charter of
Massachusetts, made the appointment of the council, justices, judges,
&c. dependent on the crown, or its agent. Another bill was after-
wards passed, authorizing and directing the governor to send any
person indicted for murder, or any other capital offence, to another
colony, or to Great Britain, for trial. The indignation occasioned by
these acts was extreme. As an expression of their sympathy witk
S2b MODERN HISTORY. — ^PERIOD X.
the people of Boston in their distress, the house of burgesses in Vir-
ginia ordered, that the day on which the Boston port bill was to
take effect, should be observed as a day of fasting and prayer.
77. Great harmony prevailed among the provinces, and a
Congi-ess, consisting of deputies from eleven of them, was
opened at Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774, which resolved to
suspend all commercial intercourse with England, expressing
at the same time all dutifulness to the crown. England was
thus brought to the alternative of making concessions or a
civil war. It chose the latter ; and, notwithstanding the elo-
quence even of Chatham and Burke, parliament proclaimed
the provincials rebels.
The name by which this congress is generally known, is " The
Continental Congress." After the arrival of the delegates from
North Carolina, twelve colonies were represented. Although the
power of this congress was only advisory, their resolutions were ap-
proved, not only by the people, but also by the authorities, whether
established or provincial ; and exerted a commanding influence in
consummating that union among the colonies, which had been in-
creasing for a number of years. This congress finished their busi-
ness, and dissolved themselves in less than eight weeks. It was re-
commended by them, that another congress should be assembled in
case of necessity.
78. Hostilities began by the battle of Lexington, 19th
April, 1775. New troops arrived from England in May. It
vv^as hoped that a few regiments would be sufficient to put
down opposition — so profoundly ignorant was the British
ministry of the spirit which had been aroused in America.
The battle of Lexington commenced by an unprovoked attack,
from a detachment of British soldiers, Avho had been sent to destroy
the American military stores at Concord, on a few militia Vv-ho were
assembled at Lexington, on account of ihe alarm occasioned by this
movement. Eight of these were killed, and several wounded. The
detachment after this went forward, and effected their object ; but the
news of the occurrence at Lexington, spreading with the utmost ra-
pidity from place to place, brought together the militia in considera-
ble numbers, who revenged the deaths of their countrymen, by firing
upon the British, from behind walls, hedges, and buildings. The
enemy, who lost nearly three hundred men, was astonished and mor-
tified by the resistance it met with from the Americans, while the
latter were greatly encouraged in their opposition to tyranny. The
intelligence of this battle kindled the spirit of war through the length
and breadth of the land.
79. The war, thus rapidly commenced on the part of the
colonies, was soon signalized by the surrender of Ticondero-
ga and Crown Point, and by the memorable battle of Bun-
ker's Hill An expedition led by Arnold and Montgomery
UNITED STATES. 327
against Canada, in Oct. 1775, which was at iirst successful,
at length proved fruitless, and the forts whicli had been taken
in the progress of the invading army, were, one after another,
given up and lost. The war, in general, necessarily became,
from its nature, a defensive war ; and who but the modern
Fabius, was capable of waging it ? " The greatness of
Washington was not founded on splendid talents, but on la-
borious years — not on quick success, but on enduring perse-
verance."
The battle of Bunkers Hill, although the Americans were obliged
to retire from the redoubt they had hastily thrown up, had all the ef-
fect of a victory. It showed that America was invincible. It taught
the people the importance of stricter discipline, and greater prepara-
tions. This battle was fought the 17th of June, 1775, and cost the
British, in killed and wounded, one thousand and fifty-four men. The
Americans lost, in the whole, four hundred and fifty-three men.
As military opposition to Great Britain w'as resolved upon, it be-
came necessary to select a leader. This was done by the second
continental congress, which met at Philadelphia the 10th of May.
The choice unanimously fell on George Washington, who was at
that time a member of the body. Several major-generals and brig-
adier-generals, were then likewise appointed. The arrival of Wash-
ington at Cambridge, to take command of the American army, dif-
fused through it univ<3rst-.ljoy. He soonmtroduced order and system
into the army, and manifested, in all his military operations, that
Avisdom and tiiat caution, which were more important to America,
than his known personal bravery.
In the northern expedition, the attack on Quebec was unsuccess-
ful; and, to the great loss and grief of the colonies, fatal to the brave
Montgomery. Incredible hardships and difficulties had been previ-
ously encountered by the army which Washington had despatched,
under the command of Arnold. In the same year, 1775, Lord Dun-
more, the royal governor of Virginia, obliged to retire from the soil
by fear of the provincials, proceeded with an armed naval force to re-
duce the town of Norfolk to ashes. Tiie loss of property to the in-
habitants was great. Royal government generally terminated tliis
year througliout the country.
In consequence of Washington's operations, in taking possession ot
and fortifying Dorchester heights, which commanded the harbour of
Boston and the British shipping, the enemv suddenly evacuated the
place. This gratifying event happened on the 17th of March, 1776.
Washington and his army entered Boston immediately, with every
form of victory and triumph.
The same year, in the south, an unsuccessful attempt was made by
Gen. Clinton, and Sir Peter Parker, to destroy the fort on Sullivan's
Island, near Charleston, S. C. After an action of upwards of ten
hours, the British w^ere obliged to retire, having their ships greatly
shattered, and with a loss of two hundred men killed and wounded.
328 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
80. It was not long before the idea of an entire separation
from England, suggested by the vindictive measures which
that country had employed, found every where a hearty re-
ception in America. In that event only, was aid to be hoped
for in Europe. Accordingly, the thirteen United States were
declared independent, 4th July, 1776. After this decisive
step, but one happy blow was wanting to give the colonies
allies in Europe. That was realized by the capture of Bur-
goyne and his troops, on the 16th Oct. 1777. This joyful
event had been preceded by a period of gloom and disaster in
the middle states, while Washiugton, with the shadow of axr
army, enfeebled, dispirited, and destitute almost of clothing
and necessaries, was closely pursued by a powerful Britisli
force through the Jerseys — while the enemy had come in
possession of the city of New-York, Long Island, Staten Isl-
and, and Rhode Island — and while the inauspicious opera-
tions at Brandywine and Germantown, filled every American
with terror. This sad picture,- however, was relieved by the
firmness of Congress — by the uniform, cautious valour, and
steady perseverance, of the commander-in-chief — and by his
successes at Trenton and Princeton. Upon the capture of
Burgoyne, the French court acknowledged the independence
of the United States, and declared war against England.
France had Spain and Holland for its allies ; and the war
on their part became at first a contest for the dominion of
the ocean. On this element the French contended with
more glory than usual. Bat the fate of America, as the
event has proved, was to be decided on the continent.
The idea of independence had not been long broached among the
people before the Avay, in some degree, was prepared to bring the
subject before Congress. Accordingly, on the 8th of June, 1776,
Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, made a motion before that body, to
declare America free and independent. Some reasons existed foi'
delaying the subject for a few weeks, at the expiration of Avhich, viz.
on the 4th of July, upon the report of a committee of whicli Thomas
Jefferson was the head, the thirteen confederate colonies, by their
delegates, dissolved their allegiance to the British Crown, and de-
clared themselves Free and Independent^ under the name of the
Thirteen United States of America. This was a decisive and bold
step, and constitutes an era in history. It has been the rneans, ia
connexion with the eventual success of the struggle, of giving to
several other nations liberty and independence. Mexico, and most
of the states of South America, have followed this exariiple.
The period of disaster and gloom Avhich followed in respect to'
American affairs, deserves a summary notice. Washington, in anti-
UNITED STATES. 329
-ipation of tne movements of the British, left Boston with his army,
and procenied to New-York, Avith a view to occupy the latter place.
Here his army ai.. unted to between seventeen thousand and eighteen
thousand men, a part of whom were encamped near Brooklyn, on
Long Island. The enemy soon after arrived by sea, with a superior
force, and on the 27tl) of August attacked, with success, that part of the
American army which was encamped near Brooklyn. The loss of a
thousand of his best troops was most sensibly felt by the commander-
in-chief. He soon after evacuated the citv, upon which, on the 12th
of October, the British army entered it. At White Plains, whither
Washington had retired, he v/as attacked on the 28ih of September, by
Generals Clinton and Heister. The loss here was several hundreds,
and about equal on both sides.
It is to be remarked, that previously to these recent battles, many
of the Americans, in this region, deserted the cause of their country,
in consequence of offers or threats held out by his majesty's govern-
ment, in several proclamations which were issued at this period.
These occurrences produced a disheartening effect on the people.
The strong places in the vicinity of New-York were now taken by
or given up to the enemy, among which was Fort Washington, which
surrendered with nearly three thousand men, after nearly a day's se-
vere co)itesl. The American army, now greatly reduced by the
-eturn of the militia, (for it was composed of the militia or troops en-
-isted for a year only,) by sickness, and other casualties of Avar,
crossed the North River into New-Jersey. On the 22d November,
the whole force under the command of Washington, did not exceed
three thousand five hundred. With this small numi)er, the American
general tied before a superior force, under Lord Cornwallis ; and
even this remnant of an army Avas diminished on its march to the
DelaAvare by the expiration of the term of enlistment of the Jersey
and Maryland brigades. On crossing the DelaAvare in the early part
of December, General Washington had only about seventeen hundred
men.
NotAvitlistanding the general aspect of affairs, on the part of Ame-
rica, Avas thus forbidding and gloomy, the continental Congress, so far
from betraying symptoms of despair, manifested more confidence than
ever in the cause of their country ; as a proof of which, we may notice
the fact, that at this time they Avere calmly occupied in draAving up
various articU'.s of confederation^ and perpetual union, among the
states. These Avere adopted on the 4th of October. At the same
time, also, the great mass of the American people remained firm and
determined in the cause of independence. Congress having become
sensible of the impolicy of short enlistments, and a reliance on the
irregular services of the militia, determined by bounties of ready
money, and promises of laud, to raise eighty-eight battalions, to serve
during the Avar.
Washington, noAv aAvare of the necessity of some immediate favoura-
ble turn in his military operations, not only to save Philadelphia, Avhich
the enemy evidently intended to possess, but to arouse the spirit of the
nation, and to secure an army for the succeeding campaign, boldly
28*
330 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
resolved, even with his shadow of an army, to ; ttempt :■ surprise ci a
body of Hessians, encamped at Trenton. This he completely effected
on the morning of the 26th of December, after suffering great hard-
ships in his march, and in crossing the Delaware, in a cold stormy
winter night. Many of the Hessians were killed, and more tlian nine
hundred taken prisoners. Having secured these prisoners on the Penn-
sylvania side of the Delaware, and re-crossed to Trenton, where he
was met by a superior force under Cornwallis, he escaped by a won-
derful stratagem, marched to Princeton, and attacked a party of the
British, of whom he killed sixty, and took three hundred prisoners.
These successes alleviated the gloom which had settled upoa the
public mind.
Notwithstanding all the exertions thai had been made, the Ameri-
can army amounted to little more than seven thousand at the opening
of the campaign of 1777. The British, after an indecisive course,
some time in the month of August took up their march to Philadel-
phia, from the South, having sailed around into the Chesapeake. At
Brandywine, on the 11th of September, the Americans met theui, but
were unsuccessful, having lost probably more than a thousand men
in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On the 26th, the British entered
Philadelphia without molestation. As, however, a part of their army
was stationed at Germantown, six miles from that city, a battle
occurred there on the 4th of October, but with defeat again on the
part of the Americans. The plail of attack by Washington Avas
judicious, and the commencement of the battle favourable, but i'ailure
finally ensued from the inexperience of a part of the troops, and the
occurrence of a fog, which increased the darkness of the nisht.
The capture of Burgoyne's army had a most important effect on the
destiny of America. A part of his force, in pursuance of the plan of
operations, which was to invade the states from the north, having
been detached to seize a magazine of stores at Bennington, Vermont,
was gallantly met and totally defeated, by a party of Vermont troops
and some New-Hampshire militia. This loss seriously embarrassed
the British commander : he resolved, however, to proceed, and meet-
ing the American army under the command of General Gates, at Sa-
ratoga, after a succession of contests, he was obliged to capitulate with
his whole army, consisting of five thousand and seven effective men.
This event increasing the probability that the American arms would
finally triumph, decided B'rance to espouse the cause of the United
States, and to declare war against Great Britain, as already stated.
81. The countenance and aid which France offered to the
cause of liberty, filled America with rejoicing ; but Washing-
ton, however much assisted by the French auxiliaries under
Rochambeau, and La Fayette's generous enthusiasm, has the
glory of having struck tlie decisive blow. He surrounded
Cornwallis at Yorktown, who was forced to capitulate, Oct.
19, 1781, with more than seven thousand prisoners of war.
This event had been preceded by considerable fighting du-
UNITEO STATES. 331
ring two or three years, though no very vigorous measures
had been taken on the part of the Americans, and also by
numerous depredations on the part of the enemy. The
linancial state of the country had also been, in the meantime,
peculiarly distressing. After the capture of Burgoyne, Eng-
land couid entertain no more hope of reducing America, and
it required only a change of ministers to produce a peace,
which was accordingly done. The independence of the
United States was acknowledged by Great Britain, and pre-
liminaries of peace were signed Nov. 30, 17S2, which were
changed into a definitive peace, Sept. 3, 1783.
On the alliance of America with France, it was resolved in Great
Brilain immediately to evacuate Philadelphia, and to concentrate the
royal force in the city of New York, which was accordingly executed.
Washington, penetrating the enemy's design, marched in pursuit of the
retreating army. On the 2Sth of June, the two armies engaged at Mon-
mouth, and after a severe contest, in Avhich the Americans, upon the
whole, obtained the advantage, were separated only by the night. In
the morning, it was found that the British general had left the field
for New York.
Hitherto the conquest of the states had been attempted by proceed-
ing from north to south ; but before the close of the year 177S that
arrangement was changed, and the southern states became the prin-
cipal theatre of the enemy's operations. Savannah, and with it the
state of Georgia itself, soon fell into the power of the English under
Col. Campbell, who was sent thither at the head of two thousand
men. Nothing decisive occurred during the campaign of 1779, on
either side. Actuated by motives of plunder, the British litted out
an expedition from New York to Virginia, which took possession of
large naval stores, magazines of provisions, and great quantities of
tobacco. A similar expedition, under the command of Gov. Tryon,
was ])rojected against several sea-port towns of Connecticut. New
Haven suffered from pillage ; and East Haven, Fairfield, Norwalk,
and Green Farms, were wantonly burned.
During this campaign there was scarcely an important expedition
attempted by the Americans against the English. Two only need be
named, viz. one under Gen. Wayne, against Stony Point, on the
Hudson, and the other under Gen. Sullivan, against the Six Nations,
both of v/hich were successful. The deficiency of exertion on the
part of America during this campaign, was owing principally to two
causes. One was, the failure of the French fleet in every scheme un-
dertaken in behalf^ of the Americans. This operated by way of dis-
couragement, since much had been expected from that quarter. Ano-
ther cause, still more strongly operating, was the daily depreciation
of American money, consisting of bills of credit. It has commonly
been called " continental currency." From the state of public finan
ces, Congress seemeil to be under the necessity of adopting some
such expedient, and accordingly emitted bills of credit, representing
332 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
specie, under an engagement of the country ultimately to redeem
them, by an exchange of gold and silver. These, in the course of
five years, or up to the year 17S0, amounted to the immense sum of
two hundred millions. But long before they had reached that
amount, they had begun to depreciate, till finally they became of little
or no value. Under these circumstances, it was with the greatest
difficulty that an army could be raised, and necessaries provided for
its subsistence. This system produced many other evils, but they
cannot here be enumerated.
In 1780, Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, after a gallant
resistance, fell into the hands of the enemy. The state was, in a
measure, overawed by the British force which Avas kept there in dif-
ferent garrisons, but the spirit of liberty often broke forth in attacks
upon the enemy. After there was a sufficient concentration of force,
by the arrival of Gen. Gates and his army at the south, the Ameri-
cans ventured a general battle with the enemv, but were repulsed
through the unpardonable failure of the militia. This occurred at
Camden on the I6th of Aug. 1780.
While the campaign of 1780 was thus filled vi'ith important events
in the southern department, it passe.d away in the north in a series
of disappointments and distress. The treachery of Arnold had at
one time nearly proved fatal to his country. He himself escaped,
but the victim of his measures, Major Andre, a British spy, who was
engaged in the negotiation between Arnold and the enemy, expiated
his crime on the galloAvs.
General Greene having succeeded Gen. Gates in the southern army,
soon after his appointment despatched Gen. Morafan against Tarle-
ton, in South Carolina, between whom was fought the memorable
battle of Cowpens, in which the Americans obtained a signal victory.
This occurred on the 17th of .Tan. 1781. On the 8th of March fol-
lowing, General Greene and Lord Cornwallis joined battle at Guilford
Court House, in which the Americans were repulsed. Several other
battles took place in the south, in which, although the Americans were
generally defeated, the force of the enemy was so weakened, that it
retired to Charleston, leaving the rest of South Carolina in the
hands of the Americans.
Lord Cornwallis had now directed his march towards Virginia,
and having received considerable reinforcements, the expectation was
indulged that this state would soon yield to his arms. The Marquis
de la Fayette having been previously despatched to Virginia, to co-
operate with a French fleet Avithin the waters of that state, in the
capture of Arnold ,who was committing depredations there, was soon
called to oppose Cornwallis. Prudence forbade him from risking an
engagement with the superior force of the enemy, and Cornwallis,
after having in vain sought to give him battle, retired to Yorktown,
near the mouth of York river.
It was at Yorktown where the scene of the revolution was substan-
tially closed. Washington, joined by Count de Rochambeau, drew
off his forces from New York, where he had at first designed to at-
tack Clinton, and marched towards Virginia. Here he was joined by
UNITED STATES. 333
the troops under La Fayette, and a French fleet commanded by Count
de Grasse, and being in sufficient force to attempt the siege of York-
town, on the 6th of October it was commenced in form. The French
fleet had proceeded up to the mouth of York river, to prevent Corn-
\Vallis either from retreating or receiving assistance. Seldom, if
ever, during the revolutionary struggle, did Washington or his troops
appear before the enemy with more cool determination, or pursue him
with more persevering ardour, than at the siege of this place. The
result we have already mentioned. Upon this event the Americans:
indulged in the most enthusiastic joy, and the names of Washington,
Rochambeau, De Grasse, and La Fayette, rang through the land.
On the 3d of Nov. 17S3, a little more than two years after the bat-
tle at Yorktown, the American army was disbanded, and the great
Washington bid a final adieu to the partners of his toils and his vic-
Cories. The gratitude of America to her providential deliverer knew
no bounds.
82. The new republic at first languished itnder its hberty.
The first'constitution, which was formed during the war, cre-
ated a federal government witliout strength and \vithout
credit. But the constitution of 1789, which is the present?
form of government, gave it a very desirable degree of soU-
dity, and based the public credit on a system of finances for
the union. Under this constitution Washington was chosen
tlie first president, in which character he was no less essen-
tial to the welfare of the country, than in that of a general,
" The Union can, perhaps, be preserved only by having great
ilien in the first offices." This is the judginent of the liberal
and learned historian, Heereh. Commerce felt the first great
influence of the new republic, and almost all the maritime
nations hastened to form treaties with it. The consequence
^vas, that wealth and prosperity poured in upon the country
apace. Seldom can a nation so increase, because it is seldom-
so favoured by circumstances. America, preserving its neu-
trality during most of the European maritime wars, had such
a vast carrying trade, especially between the West Indies
and Europe, that its commercial navigation was hardly sur-
passed by that of the British.
The evils existing under the early confederacy, after the termina-
tion of the revolutionary struggle, were so great, that there was im-
minent danger of losing all that had been gained. The powers of
the government were in general small, and in respect to so vital a
point as the payment of the public debt, contracted during the war,
Congress could only recommend to the individual states to raise
money for that purpose. In this and in other things there was by no
means entire union among the states, and especially owing to mutual
jealousies and the want of power, were they obliged to suffer from
334 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
the regulations of foreign governments in respect to trade. This
condition of things led to the consideration of a stronger bond of union,
among these independent communities.
That bond was found in the Federal Constitution, which was
presented to Congress on the 17th of September, 1787, who shortly-
after sent it to the several states for their consideration. It had been
drawn up by commissioners from the stales, who on the 19th of
May assembled at the city of Philadelphia, with Washington at their
head. By the terms of the instrument, it was to be carried into ope-
ration by Congress^ as soon as nine states should have ratified it. Its
fate w^as at length settled by the adoption of it, on the part of eleven
states. From this time the attention of all classes of people. Fede-
ralists and anti-Federalists, (those in favour, and those against the new
Constitution.) was directed to Washington, as their first president.
He was accordingly elected to that oflfice on March 3d. 1789.
The acts of his administration were, as it might be expected, emi-
nently wise ; though some of them were carried through, not without
difficulty, owing to the spirit of party that had begun to arise. He
was subjected at times to unjust censure, though the event proved,
that the vast majority of his fellow citizens could not forget their
obligations to so distinguished a benefactor of his country. After the
first term of his office expired, he was unanimously elected president
of the nation for a succeeding term, notwithstanding his wishes for
retirement. Among the more important events that occurred during
Wasliington's administration, we may summarily name the following,.
viz. the disturbances between the Indians and the whites on our fron-
tiers— the difficulties growing out of the mission of Genet, the French
envoy, who sought to entangle America into an alliance Avith the
French republic — the suppression of the slave trade in American
ports — the admission of three states into the union, Vermont, Ken-
tucky, and Tennessee — the negotiation of Mr. Jay's treatv, by which
the frontiers were secured against the remorseless savage — and the
insurrection in Pennsylvania, occasioned by duties laid on home-
made spirits.
83. John Adams, of Massachusetts, was chosen the suc-
cessor of Washington m 1797. He retained the presidency
during only one term. Some of the measures of his admi^
nistration were peculiarly offensive to those who had been op-
posed to the policy of Washington, and the federal party ;
and the political strife which had been for some time begun,
greatly increased, until Mr. Jefferson, the opponent of Mr.
Adams, was placed at the head of the government. This
took place in 1801. Under Adams's administration, the ag-
gressions of the French republic were repelled with spirit —
preparations were made for war — but, happily, at the very
crisis, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, September
30th, 1800, under the auspices of Bonaparte. Mr. Jefferson,
imiTED STATES.
335
after his nrst ienn of oflice had expired, was again elected
for another term. The times of peace and prosperity, which,
with few abatements, were enjoyed under the former admi-
nistrations, continued till nearly the close of his.
It was perhaps impossible for the United States always to
continue on terms of amity with the belligerent powers of
Euro])e. Disputes arose both with France and England, es-
pecially with the latter, who saw in America a formidable
rival. These disputes finally impelled the states to have re-
course to the unexampled resolution of a voluntary suspension
of their own commerce. On the 22d of December, 18U7,
Congress passed an act laying an embargo on all vessels
within the jurisdiction of the United States. This was fol-
lowed, March 1st, 1808, by an act interdicting commercial
intercourse with France and Great Britain. This restrictive
plan continued, in respect to France, until the 2d of Novem-
ber, 1810, and in respect to Great Britain, with one short
suspension, until April 4th, 1812, when an embargo was laid
on all xVmerican vessels, preparatory to a war with the latter
power. It was hoped, on the part of the American govern-
ment, that a suspension of all commercial relations with the
belligerents; would induce them to rescind those edicts by
which they had annihilated neutral rights on the ocean ; but
this failing ultimately in respect to Great Britain, war ensued
between that power and the United States — a declaration of
which was made by Congress on the 16th of June, 1812. In
this contest, the young American navy gained a glorious
distinction, the army did less, the capital itself became the
spoils of the English, but New Orleans was defended with
courage and success. The negotiations at Ghent led, in a
happy hour, to a much needed peace, 14th December, 1814.
The war took place (during the presidency of Mr. Madison,
vho was inducted into the office in 1S09. Mr. Madison, like
Mr. Jefferson before him, served through two terms of the
, presidential office, retiring in 1817, wiien he was succeeded
by James Monroe. The principal events that marked the
administrations of Jefferson and Madison, besides those above
: noticed, were, under Mr. Jefierson — the admission of Ohio
into the Union, the conclusion of the war with Tripoli, the
revolutionary projects of Col. Burr, and the purchase of Loui-
■ siana; and, under Mr. Madison — the establishment of the Bank
'336 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
of the United States, and the admission of Lonisiana and In-
.diana into the Union.
A few details only can be given respecting the war with Great
Britain. The principal grounds of war, as set forth in the presi-
, dent's message, were — the impressment of American seamen by the
British — the blockade of her enemy's ports, supported by no adequate
force, in consequence of which the American commerce had been
plundered in every sea, and the great staples of the country cut olV
from their legitimate markets — and the British orders in council.
Both Congress and the country, during the whole period of the con-
tention, were very much divided respecting both the justice and the
expediency of it. The nation was not well prepared for the under-
taking, and especially Avas the Avant of officers at first severely felt.
The commencement of the war, in the operations against Canada,
was marked by disaster. General Hull, who had been sent at the
head of two thousand and five hnndred men to Detroit, with a view
to putting an end to Indian hostilities in that country, surrendered his
whole armiy to General Brock, without a battle, and with it the For'
at Detroit. This event occurred on the 16th of August. The bat '
of Q,aeenstoAvn, which soon followed, was bravei'y fought, and ai
peared at first to be successful, but by successive reinforcements
enemy at length gained the day. The brave British commander
General Brock, was. however,. killed during the engagement. This
battle was fought on' the 13th of October, 1812.
But while disaster attended the operations of the Americans on
land, victory crowned the efforts of their infant navy. The charm
of British invincibility on the ocean, was almost, for the first time,
broken. Capt. Isaac Hull, of , the frigate Constitution, obtained the
•first triumph over the enemy on his own peculiar element, in the'
capture of the British frigate Guerriere. This occurred about tlic
middle of August,lS12. On the 17th of October another victory was
obtained by Capt. Jones, of the sloop of war Wasp over the Fro-
lick. Before the expiration of the month. Commodore Decatur, of
the frigate United States, captured the Macedonian, a frigate of tlie
Jargest class, mounting forty-nine guns, and manned with three hun-
dred men. And, finally, just at the close of the year, a second victo-
ry was achieved by the Constitution, then commanded by Com.
■ fiainbridge, over the Java, a frigate of thirt\'-eight guns, but carryinx^
•forty-nine.
At the commencement of the year 1813, a battle was fougiit at tlis
"iver Ilaisin, between a detachment of the north-western army un-
der Gen. Winchester, and a superior force of British and Indians
under Gen. Proctor, the result of which was fatal to the Americans,
since, upon their surrender as prisoners of war, nearly all of them
"ivere inhumanly massacred by the Indians.
During the winter, another naval victory was obtained by the
Americans, in the Cxipture of the sloop of war Peacock, by the Hor-
, net, under Capt. Lawrence. This, however, -was followed on the lat
of June, by the loss of the Chesapeilke, under the same officer, who
bad been promoted to the command of it, in an engagement with the
UNITED STATES. 337
•Shannon, off Boston harbour. The Argus, also, was soon after cap-
tured by a British ship of war. This, however, was but a temporary
ill success of tlie American navy. No other considerable vessel, ex-
cept the Essex, under the command of Com. Porter, after this, fell
into the hands of the enemy ; while on the part of the Americans,
beside victories in single ships, two several fleet engagements ended
in the complete triumph of the American navy. These occurred,
the one on Lake Erie, under Com. Perry, and the other on Lake
Chumplain, under Com. Macdonough.
In the early part of the spring of 1813, a successful attack was
made by the Americans upon York, the capital of Upper Canada,
which fell into their hands. In this battle, the brave Gen. Pike per-
ished. On the sea-board, during this year, the British shipping in
our waters blockaded several important places, and made a number
of predatory excursions, in which much property was plundered and
destroyed. In the north-west, success attended the Americans un-
der Gen. Harrison, and Detroit fell into his hands. This event gave
security to the frontiers. A more extended plan of attack on Cana-
da was now formed by the American army under Gen. Wilkinson ;
but, from various causes, very little was eflected. During the re-
mainder of the year, several events of importance occurred— as the
capture of Washington, and the destruction of the public buildings
of the place, and the defence of Baltimore. But Ave can give no
more details respecting this war, except to add, that the battle of New
Orleans, under Gen. Jackson, occurred on the 8th of Jan. the succeed-
ing year, after negotiations for peace had been set on foot with the
promise of success.
84. The war with England failed of its immediate object,
but it showed us our strength and our wealmess, and perhaps
tended to consolidate our union. It caused us to feel the ne-
cessity of a navy, and, connected with the previous prohibi-
tions of commerce, gave an impulse to our maimfacturing
mdnstry. With the return of peace, our trade was diflused
over every sea. The presidency of ]Monroe continued through
.two terms, and was an era of good feelings. Five states were
added to the union during his administration. But the period
of internal concord and good will soon came to a close. Party-
altercations arose in the choice of ]Mr. Monroe's successor,
John Q,. Adams, in 182.5, and have continued with more or
less violence, under the administration of President Jackson,
who was elected to the high office in 1829. The measures,
however, of these officers have been approved by respectable
majorities of the American jieople. It may be remarked, gene-
rally, that amidst unexampled prosperity, party spirit has too
often raged, not without danger to the republic, but love of
country has in the end prevailed. Thus, we trust, it ever wiU
29
i535 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
be, through the favoring- providence of God. He has been
better to us as a nation, than either our deserts or fears would
have led us to expect.
Soon after the conclusion of the war, the attention of congress was
turned towards the establishment of a national bank. The subject
presented great difficulties at the lime ; but the measure was carried,
and a bill, incorporating the "Bank of the United States," received
the signature of President Madison on the 10th of April, 1816. The
capital of the bank was fixed at ihirty-five millions of dollars, and its
duration, twenty years. Great efforts have lately been made to obtain
a recharter of the institution, but they have all hitherto tailed.
Soon after the accession of President INIonroe, he made a tour
through the northern and middle states, which, besides the great pub-
lic objects he had in view, in respect to the defence of the Atlantic
board, served very much to conciliate the affections of all classes of
his fellow-citizens.
Early in the presidency of Monroe, an expedition, which had been
set on foot by a number of adventurers from different countries, against
East and West Florida, was terminated by the troops of the United
States. These adventurers claimed to be acting under the authority
of some of the South American colonies, and had formed an establish-
ment at Amelia Island, a Spanish province, then the subject of nego-
tiation between the United States and Spain. Their avowed object
being an invasion of the Floridas, and of course an invasion of a part
of the United States, the American government deemed itself autho-
rized, without designing any hostility to Spain, to take possession
of Amelia Island, their head quarters. Accordingly, a naval force,
with the necessary troops, was despatched under the command of
Captains Henley and Bunkhead, to Avhom Amelia Island was surren-
dered on the 24th of December, without the effusion of blood. The
suppression of Galvezton, a similar establishment on an island off
the coast of Texas, followed soon after.*
The states which were admitted into the union during the adminis-
tration of Monroe, were Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and
Missouri. Mississippi was received in Dec. 1817. Some parts of
it had been early visited and settled by the French. They claimed
the country until the treaty of 1763, when they ceded their posses-
sions east of the river to the English. Illinois adopted a state con-
stitution in 1818, and in the same year was admitted as a member of
the union. The first settlements in Illinois were made by the French,
and for a lime, they were in a flourishing condition. Afterwards,
however, they fell into decay. In 1762, all the country to the east of
the Mississippi was ceded to the British ; Illinois of course passed
with the rest. After the war of the revolution, Virginia and some
other states claimed the whole country north and west of the Ohio,
but they saw fit at length to relinquish their claims to the general
government. Alabunia was admitted into the union in the latter part
of the year 1819. This country continued the hunting ground of
* Goodrich's History of the United States.
UNITED STATES. 339
•savages, until some time after the American revolution. In 1817 the
eastern portion of the Mississippi territory, which included what
are now the states of Mississippi and Alabama, was formed into a
territorial government, and received the latter name. Maine was
admitted as an independent state into the union, in the year 1820. It
had been a part of Massachusetts, and after several ineflectual at-
tempts to obtain a majority of its people in favor of a separation, the
object was accomplished in the year 1819. The separation took place
amicably. Missouri was declared by the president's proclamation,
to be an independent state, and a member of the federal union, in the
year 1821. Missouri with Louisiana remained in the possession of
Spain through the war of the revolution, until the cession of the whole
country to France in 1801, by which latter power it was ceded to the
United States in 1803. The admission of Missouri into the union
was attended with some difficulty, on account of a bill which was in-
troduced into congress, providing for the interdiction of slavery in
that state. Warm debates arose, and the matter was settled only
through a compromise, by which slavery was tolerated in Missouri,
and forbidden in all that part of original Louisiana lying north of
36^ 30' north latitude, and beyond the limits of the state.
An Indian war of some importance was carried on in 1818, under
the presidency of Monroe. It is called the Seminole war, as a tribe of
Indians of that name were principally concerned in it. It ended in their
complete discomfiture. They consisted originally of fugitives from
the northern tribes, resident within the southern states, and were then
living partly on the borders of Florida, but mostly within the bounda-
ries of that country. They had made aggressions on the white habi-
tants of the United States, and had been guilty of repeated murders.
This state of things determined the government of the country to
inflict an exemplary chastisement on the barbarous offenders. An
armed force was sent for this purpose, and after pursuing the enemy
into Florida, and taking possession of several Spanish forts, the dif-
ficulty was terminated by their complete dispersion. Gen. Jackson
was the leader in this war. He rendered a signal service to his
country, but some parts of his conduct were deemed highly excep-
tionable, by a portion of the community. His appeal to the people of
West Tennessee, calling for volunteers instead of applying to the
governor for a draft of the militia — his course in relation to the trial
and execution of Arbuthnot and Ambrister, two Englishmen, who
were charged with giving encouragement and aid to the Indians —
and his occupation of St. Marks and Pensacola — were subjects much
commented upon in the public prints, and eloquently debated in the
American congress. The general escaped the censure of that body,
notwithstanding the efforts that were made to cast a stigma upon his
conduct.
In the year IS 19, a convention was concluded between Great Bri-
tain and the United States, some of the articles of which were, that
the citizens of the United States have liberty, in coumion with the
subjects of Great Britain, to take fish, on the southern, western, and
poithern coa,s' of Newfoundland, 6^c. — that the uprthern boundaries
340 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
of the United States should extend from the Lake of the Woods tc
the Stony Mountains — and that the commercial convention betAveen
the two countries concluded at London, in 1815, should be continued
for the term of ten years.
In the year above named, (1819,) Spain, by its minister at Wash-
ington, ceded to the United States, East and W^est Florida, with all
the islands adjacent. This country, which was discovered as early
as 1497 by Cabot, Avas held first by the Spaniards, next by the En-
glish, and then by the Spaniards again. Its cession to the United
States was accompanied not without vexatious delays on the part of
the Spanish government. It was not until a forcible execution of the
treaty which had been made, but not ratified, was about to be pro-
posed by the United States, that the treaty was ratified by his Catho-
lic Majesty. As an indemnity to the citizens of the United States,
on account of Spanish spoliations and injuries, a sum not exceeding
five millions of dollars was to be paid by the American government,
out of the proceeds of sales of lands in Florida, or in stock, or money.
During the administration of President Monroe, a territorial go-
vernment was formed for the Arkansas, and for Florida, the former
in 1819 and the latter in 1822. The Arkansas Avas the southern part
of what in 1812 constituted the Territory of ^Missouri. A division
of the territory Avas made in 1819, the northern district being called
Missouri, and the southern formed into a territorial government by the
name of Arkansas.
In the second session of the seventeenth congress, President Monroe
introduced to the notice of congress, the subject of the piracy prac-
tised in the West Indies upon American seamen, and recommended
the immediate organization of an efficient force to suppress it. Mea-
sures were soon adopted by the government to put a stop to this in-
famous business, and the object was promptly effected under Commo-
dore Porter, Avho sailed with a competent naval force to the scene of
the depredations.
The year 1824 Avas signalized by the visit of the Marquis La
Fayette to this country. He Avas accompanied by his son, and M. La
Vasseur, his secretary. Landing at Ncav York, he Avas received
with the most enthusiastic feelings of admiration and gratitude. Du-
ring his slay in this country, he visited almost every important part
of it, and in every place he Avas Avelcomed, as emphatically the na-
tion's guest. The important services Avhich he rendered to the United
States in the war of the revolution, Avere thus rewarded Avith the ho-
mage of a great people; while the American congress responded to
the public demonstrations of respect, by voting him tAvo hundred
thousand dollars, and a tOAvnship of land, as a compensation for his
services and expenditures. In the autumn of 1825 he took passage in
the ship Brandy wine for France, where he has smce figured in many
interesting scenes.
The presidency of John Q,. Adams, Avhich commenced in 1825,
and continued for one term only, encountered a bitli r storm of oppo-
sition from the beginning. Party spirit tro far gained the ascendancy,
to allow full justice to the measures of his ;;dniinistration. This may
UNITED STATES. 341
be soJight partly from the circumstances under which he came into
office. The choice of president not being settled by the electoral vole,
devolved on tlie house of representatives. Mr. Adams was chosea by
this body, but inasmuch as Gen. Jackson had a plurality of votes in
the electoral college, many conceived that injustice was done to the
general, and to the expectations of the country, and that the election
of Mr. Adams was effected by bribery and corruption. Notwithstand-
ing the difficulty of his situation, he secured a large share of respect,
not only personally, but as an executive officer. The agitating sub-
ject of the tariff oi" duties on imports, was extensively discussed du-
ring the term of his administration, and some of its principles were
settled, at least, for a time.
Andrew Jackson took the oath of office as president of the United
States, on the fourth of March, 1829. The country was at that time
in a flourishing condition, peace was enjoyed abroad, and the national
debt had been greatly diminished. He entered upon the performance
of his duties with energy and decision ; but the causes of collision and
party alienation which had sprung up in connection with the election
of his predecessor, have continued at woik to the present time, and
presented serious obstacles to the execution of his plans. The cha-
racter of his admiuistraiion hitherto has been strongly marked, and
he seems destined to achieve most of the objects Avhich he has had at
heart.
President Jackson's cabinet consisted of Martin Van Buren as
secretary of state, John D. Ingham as secretary of the treasury, John
H. Eaton as secretary^ of war, John Branch as secretary of the navy,
and John M'Pherson Berrien as attorney-general. This cabinet con-
tinued but a little more than two years, when it was dissolved in a
manner that occasioned great surprise throughout the country.
A favorite measure with President Jackson, has been the removal
of the Indians in the southern states, beyond the limits of the republic,
to be congregated into a community by themselves, under the care of
the general government. In the contests which the state of Georgia
has had with the tribe of Cherokees within her borders, and with the
United States, on the subject, Gen. Jackson has ever favored the pre-
tensions of that state. On the 24th May, 1S30, a bill for removing
the Indians passed the house of representatives, by a vote of 102 to 97.
Arising out of this controversy, history has to record the surprising
fact, that three christian missionaries, Messrs. Butler, Trott, and
Worcester, were sentenced by the superior court of Georgia at Law-
renceville, to four years imprisonment at hard labor, in the peniten-
tiary, for residing in the territory occupied by the Cherokees, without
taking an oath to support the constitution and laws of Georgia. It is
consoling, however, to know, and it will appear on the page of history
to the latest time, that the supreme court of the United States decided
in the case of these missionaries, that the law of Georgia under which
they were imprisoned, and by which the state assumed jurisdiction
over the Indian territory, is contrary to the laws and treaties of the
United States, and therefore null and void.
In the early part of the year 1831, a treaty was made between the
29*
342 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
United Slates and the Creek Indians, by which the latter ceded to
the United States, all their lands east of the Mississippi river. In
the same year, tlie ratification of the treaties of commerce, navigation,
and of the limits between the United States and Mexico, was ex-
changed at Washington. In June, of the same year, a bill for the
further relief of the surviving offices and soldiers of the American
revolution, having passed both houses of Congress, received the sig-
nature of the president. The same year was further signalized by the
new tariff act, which passed the senate by a vote of thirty-two to
sixteen, and also by the act which extended the charter of the Bank
of the United States, but which, though passed by the senate, by a vote
of 28 to 20, and the house of representatives, by a vote of 105 to S3,
was returned by President Jackson to the senate with his objections
to signing it ; and less than two thirds voting for its passage, was re-
jected.
On account of the laws respecting the tariff, difficulties of a serious
nature arose between the general government and some parts of the
union, particularly South Carolina. In the month of October, 1832,
an act passed in the legislature of that state, requiring "a convention
of delegates of the people of that state to assemble at Columbia, on
tlie 3d Monday of November, then and there to take into considera-
tion the several acts of congress of the United States, imposing duties
on foreign imports for the protection of domestic manufactures, or for
other unauthorized objects; to determine on the character thereof,
and to devise the means of redress; and further in like manner to take
into consideration such of the acts of said congress, laying duties on
imports, as may be passed in amendment of, or substitution lor, the
act or acts aforesaid, and all other laws and acts of the government
of the United States, which shall be passed or done for the purpose
of more effectually executing and enforcing the same."
The convention of delegates of the state of South Carolina thus
assembled at Columbia, passed an Ordinance, (unless the acts of
congress imposing duties on imports should be repealed,) declaring
and ordaining " that the several acts and parts of acts of the congress
of the United States, purporting to be laws for the imposing of duties
and imposts on the importation of foreign commodities, and now
having actual operation and effect within the United Stales, and more
especially, 'An act entitled an act, in alteration of the several acts
imposing duties on imports, approved on the 19th of May, 1S2S, and
aJso an act entitled an act, to alter and amend the several acts im-
posing duties on imports, approved on the 14th of July, 1832,' are
unauthorized by the constitution of the United States, and violate
the true meaning and intent thereof, and are null and void, and no
law, nor binding upon this state, its officers or citizens; and all pro-
mises, contracts, and obligations, made and entered into, or to be made
and entered into, with the purpose to secure the duties imposed by
the said acts, and all judicial proceedings which shall be hereafter
had in affirmance thereof, are and shall be held utterly null and void."
Soon after the meeting of congress on that year. President Jackson
issued his proclamation, stating his views of the constitution and laws
VXil"i:n :^TATES. 343
applicable to tho nu-nsuros adopteJ by the convention of South Caro-
lina, and to the reasons put forth to sustain them, declaring the course
which duty would require him to j)ursue, and Avarning the people of
South Carolina of the consequences which must result from the ob-
servance of the dictates of the convention.
This document was well received in most parts of the United
States, as it addressed itself to the patriotism of the people, and
gave a correct exposition of the principles of the constitution. The
president soon after communicated a message to congress, laying
before it ,the acts and proceedings of South Carolina, giving informa-
tion respecting the measures which he had already taken for the
collection of the revenue, and suggesting such further measures as
he deemed necessary. Following this communication, a bill for col-
lecting the revenue, called the "enforcing bill," passed in the house
of representatives, after an animated debate of several weeks. This
occurred on the first of March. 1833, and on the eleventh of the same
month, the state convention of South Carolina assembled, and in the
course of a few days passed two ordinances. The first repealed the
nullification ordinance of the preceding year, and most of the laAvs
passed by the legislature, in pursuance thereof. The other was an
ordinance to nullify the late act of congress, further providing for the
collection of the national revenue.
SOUTH AMERICA.
85. The provinces of South America, which were colo-
nized by Europeans, continued, with little variations in their
circumstances, from the time of their settlement, to the con-
vulsions attendina; the French revolution. Those convul-
sions, inasmuch as they affected the parent countries, also
reached them. Within the present century they have be-
come independent sovereign states, generally with republican
governments, resembling that of North America. Brazil,
belonoing to the Portuguese, having ceased to be a colony, is
styled by its ruler, an empire. The Spanish provinces "had
a long strugofle for liberty and independence, which they
have attained, so far as concerns the interference of the
mother country. If our information be correct, all of
them have not yet agreed on permanent forms of govern-
ment. Seven states are already enumerated among the
free governments of the South, viz., 1. Colombia ; 2. La
Plata ; 3. Chili ; 4. Mexico ; 5. Peru ; 6. The Capitania of
Guatimala ; 7. Bolivia, formed out of the provinces of Upper
Peru.
§ The struggle for freedom in the Spanish provinces, did not origi-
344 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
nate in the intention of an entire separation from the Spanish tlirone,
but from resistance to the usurpation of Napoleon and his brother.
The insurgents were, therefore, no more rebels, than the Spaniards
themselves. But they were as unwilling to be ruled by Spanish
Juntas, as by their viceroys, in whom they could not confide. Like
the Spanish, they established Juntas of their own, during the im-
prisonment of their lawful king. Meanwhile, after the erection of
the regency in the mother country, and after its refusal to comply
with their just demands, they would not recognize its authority, nor
that of the Cortez assembled by it ; upon this they were declared
rebels. After the accession of Ferdinand VII., they had gone too
far to retreat. His violence and insincerity finished the rest.
Distinguished Characters in Period X.
1. Addison, an elegant English essayist and poet.
2. Newton, a most profound mathematician and phiIosoi)her.
3. Boerhaave, a skilful and leained Dutch physician.
4. Pope, an eminent Enghsh poet.
.5. Swift, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer.
6. Montesquieu, a Frenchman, a greal political philosopher.
7. Edwards, an illustrious American metaphysician and
divine.
8. Hume, a Scotchman, an able historian, and an acute
and skeptical writer.
9. Voltaire, a French poet and writer of great celebrity.
10. liinnteus, a Swede, the fatli^r of botany.
11. Rousseau, a renowned Swiss pliilosopher;and fine writer.
12. Pitt, a distinguished statesman and orator.
1 3. Metastasio, tlie most illustrious poet of modern Italy.
14. Euler, a renowned Swiss mathematician.
15. Johnson, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essayist
16. Franklin, an American, a distinguished philosophei
and discoverer of electricity.
17. Gibbon, an eminent English historian.
18. Burns, a Scotch poet, a great untaught genius.
19. Burke, an Irishman distinguished for eloquence and
political knowledge.
20. Washington, an eminent statesman and warrior, and
father of the American republic.
21. Cowper, a celebrated English poet.
22. Klopstock, a German poet of great repute.
2'^ Heyne, an eminent German critic and scholar.
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 345
24. M. de Stael, a learned and accomplished French female
writer.
25. Dwight, a celebrated American divine and belles-lettres
scholar.
26. Buonaparte, a renowned warrior, conqueror, and states-
man.
1. Addison, (Joseph,) " so great in prose, so little in poetry,"* was
the son of a clergyman, and born in 1672. He was educated at Ox-
ford, where he so cultivated and improved his mind, by the compo-
sition of Latin verses, that he acquired an uncommon correctness
of style, and elegance of diction. His merits, as a writer, procured
for him public employment, and he even became, in 1717, secretary
of state ; a place, however, to which he was unequal, as he possessed
neither boldness nor eloquence. He was unable to defend the
measures of government in the House of Commons, and only wasted
away his time in his office, in quest of fine expressions.
Late in life, he married the countess dowager of Warwick and
Holland ; but if this event added to his elevation, it diminished his
happiness, for she ever remembered her rank, and treated him with
very little ceremony; an emphatic warning against ambitious love.
He died at the age of fifty-seven.
The Spectator, of which the most admired pieces came from the
pen of Addison, has immortalized his name. In that work, and in
most of his other prose productions, he is remarkable for a delicate
and gentle humour, and an entertaining seriousness. His style is
admirable, for purity and ease ; and the idiomatic excellence of the
English language, is seen in his pages, to the greatest advantage.
Some have thought well of his poetry ; and his tragedy of Cato, ac-
cording to the French notions, would be pronounced one of the best
in the English drama. But others have a very different opinion of
Addison's poetry, and at the present day, it certainly does not stand
very high in public esteem.
2. Newton, (Sir Isaac,) the most illustrious philosopher and ma-
thematician that ever lived, was born in 1642, and died in 1727.
The place of his nativity, was Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire. Particu-
lar care was bestowed on his education by his mother, for he early
lost his father. At tlie age of eighteen, he entered Trinity College,
Cambridge, and there he began to show the astonishing strength of
his mind in the mathematics. At the age of twenty-two, he discov-
ered the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved.
His next pursuit was the grinding of optical glasses, for the improve-
ment of telescopes, and soon after, connected with his investigation
of the prism, followed ins new tlieory of light and colours. His great-
est discovery, and the greatest that the world ever saw, viz., the prin
ciple of gravitation, next succeeded. His immortal work, the Prin
cipia, Wcis published in 1687. The friendship of tlie earl of HalifaXj
♦ Edin. Review.
346 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X.
now procured for him a very lucrative emploj-meut, in being made
master of the mint. His reputation extended with every effort of
his genius, and he enjoyed numerous honours, and the favour of
princes.
He began to be affected with disease, about the age of eighty. An
incontinence of urine, and the excruciating pains of a stone in the
bladder, were the melancholy presages of approaching dissolution.
He, however, lived about five years from this time. For a few weeks
before his death, the agonies which he suffered were very great yet
he bore them with exemplary patience, and though, from tlie severe
paroxysms which he endured, large drops of sweat ran down his
cheeks, he preserved his usual smile of cheerfulness and serenity.
The character of Newton, is represented as being amiable, and
adorned with the virtues of a christian. Irreverence towards the
Deit}', or the holy scriptures, always drew from him the severest
censure. The bible he made his favourite study. His person was
of a middle stature, and his countenance, though venerable and
pleasant, did not indicate that transcendant sagacity, which he is
known to have possessed.
It is superfluous to comment on his intellectual superiority. A
celebrated w riter lias observed, that if the literati of all ages and na-
tions could nicet in one assembly, they would choose Sir Isaac New-
ton for their president. In his researches, he proceeded on the
method laid down by Bacon, but with a clearness and strength of
comprehension in abstruse studies, even exceeding the father of ex-
perimental philosophy.
3. Boerhaave, (Herman,) was born near Leyden, iu 1668. He
was intended for the ministry by his father, but the circumstance,
that in his twelfth year only, he cured a distressing complaint with
which he was afflicted, and which baffled all the powers of his sur-
geon, turned his tlioughts to the medical profession. Still, however,
he studied theology in connection with it. He stood at tlie head of
his profession, and as a lecturer on physic and botany, iie becanie
renowned, not only in his own country, but throughout Europe, so
that students resorted to him from all quarters. His powers of mind
were vast, and his learning extended to almost every subject of hu-
man investigation. He \vas a great and good man. His valuable
works are in Latin, and all on medical, botanical, and chemical sub-
jects. His death occurred in 1738.
4. Pope, (Alexander,) ^^'ho died in 1774, aged fifty-six years, was
a native of London. After having been at school a few years, he
went, at the age of twelve, to live with his parents at Binfield, in
Windsor forest, and first discovered, or rather improved his taste for
poetry, by reading the translated works of Virgil and Ovid; but es-
pecially the poems of Spenser, Waller and Dryden. He early be-
gan to try his strength in poetry, and so early, that to use his own
expression, he " lisped in numbers." His first regular composition
seems, however, to have been his Ode on Solitude, written when he
was about twelve years old. Four years after tliis, when lie began
his pastoralSj liis merit introduced liim intothe society of the wits of the
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 3x7
tige; and he became the wonder of the literary world, when, at lesjj
than the age of twenty, he publisheil his Essay on Criticism. 'Iliis is,
perhaps, as faultless a piece of composition, as the history of youth-
ful genius has ever recorded. It evinces all the mature reflection,
and developed capacities of age. But the fame of the Essay was
soon surpassed by the Rape of the Lock, which he produced at the
age of twenty-four. The Temple of Fame, next engaged the pub-
lic attention. His next great etibrt, was the translation of Homer's
Iliad, from which he realized a fortune, receiving £6000. from his
subscribers, and £12,000, from his bookseller. After this, he wrote
several other works, particularly the Dunciad, a work of the keen-
est satire, and the Essay on Man, which, thougli beautiful in language,
and elaborate in disquisition, shews the writer to have been skeptical,
as to religion.
Pope was bred a Roman catholic, but, in the latter part of his life,
he attended the service of the English church. In his person, he
was diminutive, and somewhat crooked — when tauntingly reminded
of it, he would say, " God mend me." In disposition, he was fretful
and easily displeased, and, to his no small reproach, it must be said,
that he was capricious in his friendships. His manners were easy,
and his wit fascinating. Many of the great and noble were his ad-
mirers, but he made them feel, that he did not servilely adore supe-
riority of rank.
Puny and dehcateas the constitution of this poet was, his life was
prolonged to his fifty-sixth year, by means of peculiar care and tem-
perance.
5. Swift, (Jonathan,) was born in Ireland, in 1667. He was de-
scended, however, from an ancient English- family. In early life, he
was poor, but his relatives furnislied him with the means of pro-
curing his education. So inditfercnt a scholar was he at the univer-
sity, that he obtained liis first degree only by special favour. This
mortification of his feelings, had a most propitious effect on his lite-
rary progress, for it stimulated him to a methodical and diligent ap-
plication to his books, during several succeeding years. Swift, un-
der the auspices of Sir William Temple, with whom he had formed
an intimacy, might have risen in civil or military life, as the king,
in one instance, offered to make him captain of horse; but his
thoughts were directed to the church. A little after the year 1694,
he took orders, and engaged in the duties of a parish priest. His
hopes of preferment were, from time to time, disappointed. He had
expected some fat benefice in the Englisli church, and even looked
to a bishoprick ; but lie attained only tlie deanery of St. Patrick, Dub-
lin. After the accession of queen Anne, he became deeply engaged
in political controversy, and wrote some able political works. He
died in a state of alienation and weakness, in 1745.
The works of Swift are numerous, and highly respectable for the
ability they display. He wrote in a pure and plain style, and had,
as Johnson says, " an ccpiable tenor of e.-isy language, which rather
trickles than flows." The effects of his writings were very decisive,
at the time, and some of them are still read with great pleasure. His
348 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
Gulliver's Travels, and his Tale of a Tub, have lost nothing of their
popularity.
Swift was an eccentric being, and little better than a madman,
lie delighted to differ from all other men, on those subjects, or in re-
gard to those interests, in which all other men are agreed. Though
married, he was never known to be in company with his wife, ex-
cept in the presence of a third person. He was strongly attached to
her, and yet his strange cruelty broke her heart. Like some men,
liowever, he was avaricious. " He made a rule to himself, to give
but one piece at a time, and therefore always stored his pocket with
coins of different value." But what he did give, was graced neither
with tenderness nor civility. " When his friends, of either sex,
came to him, in expectation of a dinner, his custom was to give
every one a shilling, that they night please themselves with pro-
vision. At last, his avarice grew too powerful for his kindness; he
would refuse a bottle of wine ; ana, in Ireland, no man visits where
he cannot drink." Whether he really believed in the truth of Chris-
tianity, is, to say the least, doubtful. His professed dread of hypo-
crisy, might rather be termed the fear of man, or indifference to re-
ligion, when it induced him to read prayers to his servant, every
morning, with such dexterous secresy, that Dr. Delany was six
months in his house before he knew it.
6. Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat) was born at Brede, near
Bordeaux, 1689, of a noble family. He devoted himself early to
liteiature, and first displayed strong powers of mind in his Per-
sian Letters. His great work, that whicli has conferred on him an
immortal name, is, his Spirit of Laws. In this production, he dis-
plays astonisliing depth of thought, vigour of imagination, and so-
lidity of judgment, and deserves the honourable appellation of the
Legislator of the Human Race. While he was engaged in that
work, he visited several countries for information, as Germany,
Hungary, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England. In the last he
resided two years, where he was greatly honoured. It was an ob-
servation of his, " tliat England was the country where to think, and
France where to live."
7. Edwards, (Jonatlian,) so advantageously known at home and
abroad, for the power of his intellect, and the usefulness of his wri-
tings, was a native of Windsor, Connecticut. He was born in 1703,
graduated at Yale College, in 1720, where he spent two years, as a
tutor; settled in the ministry at Northampton, 1727, whence he wa.s
removed ; appointed missionary to the Indians, at Stockbridge, iu
1751 ; and called to the presidency of Nassau Hall, in 1758. He had
scarcely entered on the duties of that station, when he fell a victim
to the small pox, in the fifty-sixth year of his age.
President Edwards was one of the greatest and best men of mo-
dern times. He possessed an acute metaphysical turn of mind,
which he most usefully employed in the investigation of divii^p
truth. His treatise on the Will, is deservedly ranked as one of the
ablest productions of the human mind. This work did that for the
moral nature of man, which Locke's Essay on the Understanding
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 349
did for man's intellectual nature. It settled several controverted
subjects, which had perplexed the divines and philosophers, who
went before him. Edwards, as a metaphysician, stands by the side
of Locke, Bacon, and Aristotle ; while, as a christian, he was prtv
eminent in conscientiousness, humility, fear of God, and faithfulness
to tlie spiritual interests of men. There is an awful power in his
sermons. His Treatise on the Affections, is an invaluable book,
which no christian, probably, ever read without profit.
8. Hume (David) was designed, by his family, for the law, but
the turn of his mind led him to literary pursuits. For this purpose,
he retired to France, and, though he possessed slender means, he
was able, by the most rigid economy, to pursue his studies in that
country. Here he wrote his treatise of Human Nature. In 1742,
the first part of his Essays appeared. His Political Discourses, and
his Inquiries concerning the Principles of Morals, followed, in 1752.
At different periods afterwards, the several portions of his English
History were given to the public. These works were little noticed
at first, unless his History be excepted, but some of them gradually
grew into reputation, and he realized, from the latter works particu-
larly, a handsome reward. This, together with the avails of other
employments, made liim, in his own view, very opulent, as he pos-
sessed a revenue of £1000 a year. He was born at Edinburgh, 1711,
and died at the same place, 1776.
Hume, doubtless, is an able writer, ingenious, subtile, and acute ;
but the sophistry of his arguments, on the subject of morals and re-
ligion, is unworthy of a man of his penetration. He knew better
than to use the fallacious language with Avhich he has often clothed
his thoughts, and by means of which he has confounded truth with
error, and right with wrong.
9. Voltaire (Marie Francis Arouet de) was a Parisian by birth.
He died in 1778, at tlie age of eighty-four. For a long period, he
was a sort of dictator in tlie republic of letters on the continent.
By his free remarks on government and religion, he contributed,
perhaps more tlian any other man, to lay the foundation of that
state of tilings which afterwards existed inFrance, known under the
name of tlic Revolution.
In early life, he evinced superior powers of mind, and especially
a sprightly imagination. He wrote verses, he says, before he left
his cradle. His fondness for satire, directed against tlie government,
procured his imprisonment in tlie bastile, till he was liberated by
the interference of tlie duke of Orleans. After this event, he devoted
liimself more entirely to the composition of poetry. His principal
efforts were directed towards the drama ; and his Alzire, Mahomet,
and Merope, placed him at the head of the dramatic poets of France!
His Henriade, an epic poem, he had previously published in Eng-
land. Encouraged by tlie Prussian monarch, he spent some time at
the court of Berlin ; but he at last fixed his residence in a village on
the borders of France, named Ferney. The boldness and effrontery
of his muse, had rendered a residence in the French capital vexa-
tious, and even dangerous to him, and hence he willingly left h:s
30
350 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X.
country at different times, and at last retired to a remote- cornftr
of it, so that he might pursue his studies in quiet. Here he con-
tinued long to direct the taste and literature of the age. He died at
Paris, while visiting tliat city ; and according to some accounts, he
departed in great horror, from reflections on the irreligious tenden-
cy of his writings. The blasphemous atheist often, indeed, ap-
peared in his works.
Tlie following particulars respecting Voltaire, are given from a
contemporaneous account. Many others might be added. " The
most piercing eyes I ever beheld," says Dr. Moore, " are those of
Voltaire, now in his eightietli year. His whole countenance is ex-
pressive of genius, observation, and extreme sensibility. In the
morning, he has a look of anxiety and discontent, which gradually
wears off, and after dinner, he seems cheerful ; yet, an air of irony
never entirely forsakes his face, but may always be observed lurking
in his features, whether he frowns or smiles. By far the greater part
of his time is spent in his study, and whether he reads himself, or
listens to another, he always has a pen in his hands to take notes, or
make ro^narks."
10. LinnfEus (Charles Von) was tlie son of a Swedish clergyman,
born in the province of .Smaland, 1707. He practised physic with
such popularity and success, tliat at the age of thirty-four, he was
nominated professor of physic and botany in the university of Up-
sal, where he had been educated. His sovereign duly noticed his
services, and besides other favours, conferred on him the honour
of nobility. With an vuiparalleled ardour after knowledge, Linnseus
undertook to explore the inhospitable deserts of Lapland, and through
ten degrees of latitude, he exposed himself, generally on foot, to every
sort of fatigue. He afterwards visited other countries. He died iii
1778, having been seized with an apoplexy two years before.
To his sagacity and discernment, science is indebted for the useful
and familiar division of plants, of animals, «&c. into classes. To the
most extensive knowledge, he united the most indefatigable industry,
and before his publication of his Genera Plantarum, he most minute-
ly examined the characters of more than eight hundred plants.
11. Rousseau (John James) was born in Geneva, in 1712. He
was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active,
and the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus expanded his ideas,
and inspired him with courage. His life was somewhat eventful,
though we cannot dwell on the particulars. The strangeness and
inconstancy of his character, subjected him to no inconsiderable ca-
lamities ; and, while by nature he was formed to enjoy the pleasures
of the world in perfection, he endured self-inflicted tortures to such
an extent, as to leave the balance of pleasure very little, if at all, in
his favour. He had a perpetual hankering after some unattainable
state of voluptuous virtue. Though equally skeptical with Hume
and Voltaire, he quarrelled With the one, who v/as his protector in
England, and he incurred the persecution of the other, for maintain-
ing the immoral tendency of the stage. (Strange to tell, he h.ad
written for the stage himself; but he was a creature of inconsistency:)
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 351
Some of his opinions were so obnoxious, that the popular indigna-
tion was aroused against him, and he was obhged to flee from place
to place on the continent, and, in fact, he found no asylum till lie
reached England. At length, however, he returned to Geneva, and
spent the last years of his life in the company of a few friends, and
resigned himself to peaceful studies. He died of an apoplexy, in
1778, aged sixty-six years.
His works show him to have been a man of transcendent genius,
but convict him of the utmost eccentricity, joined with licentious-
ness and skepticism. He may be called the Diogenes of modem
times. His literary career commenced at the age of thirty-eight,
by a prize essay, in which he maintained the superiority of savage
nature to the comforts of domestic and social life. This opinion he
defended, for a long time, against all Europe. His New Heloise, ana
his Emilius, moral romances, attained to a great celebrity. His Con-
fessions, a work published after his death, is one of the most singu-
lar productions of the human mind.
12. Pitt (William) was earl of Chatham, and is commonly known
by that name. He was born in 1708. At the age of tweniy-seven,
lie was elected a member of parliament, and soon began to distin-
guish himself as an eloquent and well-informed speaker. He enlist-
ed early in the ranks of opposition, and in his speeches displayed
such acuteiiess, vehemence, and depth of argumentation, as asto-
nished the house, and marked him as worthy of the highest offices
of the state. Wealth now poui'ed in upon him, from private bene-
factions, and from his public employments. In 1756, he received
the seals of secretary of state for the southern department ; but his
continuance in office was of short duration. His popularity, howe
ver, with the mass of the nation, recalled him to the secretaryship
in 1757. This restoration was the beginning of a new era of splen-
did conquests, and of national glory. At the accession of George
III., his resignation took place, accompanied not only by a nation's
regrets, but by the most substantial testimonials of his worth, on the
part of the government. He deprecated, with all his eloquence,
the measures relating to the American war, in the house of lords.
His constitution, however, was, at this time, so enfeebled, that on
one of these occasions, as he arose to speak, he fell into a fit, and
died in a few days.
As a statesman and orator, he stands, perhaps, at the head of the
men of liis profession, in modern times. It is said, that Walpole,
the minister, surrounded with power, and the unshaken support of a
decided majority, never heard his voice, in the house of commons,
without being alarmed and thimdcr-struck.
13. Metastasio (Pietro Bonaventura) early began the exercise of
the poetic art. At the age of ten, he often collected little audiences,
who listened with attention and admiration to the sweetness of his
extemporary verses. He found a patron in the celebrated Gravina ;
and without neglecting the muses, he first studied the law ; but at
last assumed the clerical habit. Gravinfi, at his death, left the poet
bis whole fortune, worth 15,000 crowns, which the latter dissi[>ated
3^2 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
in two years by his convivial and hospitable habits. He now Avrote'
for the stage, at the solicitation of Bu'igarella, the celebrated singer,
and soon found himself the object of general admiration. A very
large portion of his life, he spent at Vienna, enjoying the patronage
of the sovereigns of Austria. He died at the age of eighty-four.
Rome was the place of his birth, Vienna of his death.
His works consist of twenty-six operas, eight sacred dramas, be-
sides masques, sonnets, and other poetical miscellanies. They have
been translated into various languages, and possess a high reputa-
tion. The sweetest pictures of virtue and morality are delineated in ■
his writings; nor is he wanting in flights of sublimity. It is said,
that Metastasio believed in no poetic inspiration, or propitious sea-
sons for the composition of poetry, and that he trusted to no such
thing in himself, but always set himself down calmly to his prescrib-
ed task, and completed it as he would any other piece of business.
14. Euler (Leonard) was born at Basil, 1707. His father intend-
ed him for the ministry, but the genius of his son was bent to philo-
sophical pursuits. In 1727, he went with the Bernouillis to Peters-
burg. Here his publications ranked him among tlie greatest of phi-
losophers. In 1740, he gained, with Maclaurin and D. Bernouilli,
the prize of the academy of Paris, on the nature nf tides. In 1741,
ne removed to Berlin, at the invitation of the king of Prussia, and
assisted that monarch in the establishment of an academy of scien-
ces. Here he produced his theory of the motions of the planets and
comets, that of magnetism, &c. He died suddenly, while convers-
ing with a friend, on the new planet, and as he was playing with
one of his grand-children, at tea time. He was attacked by a fit of
apoplexy. " I am dying," were his last words, and in a few hours
after, he expired, aged 76 ysars.
His mental powers were astonishing. While his fellow academi-
cians asked four months to complete an important calculation, he
finished it in three days, but so intense had been his application that
it produced a fever, by which he lost the sight of one of his eyes.
In one night, he calculated in his head, the six first powers of all the
numbers above twenty, which he repeated the next day most correct-
ly to his astonished friends. His erudition was immense. He read
tdl the Latin classics, and had the history of all ages and nations,
even to the minutest facts, ever present to his mind. Indeed, so re-
tentive was his memory, that he could repeat the whole of the
/Eneid.
In society he was never absent like Newton or Adam Smith ; but
like Hutton and Hume, he was thoughtless and playful in his hours
of relaxation; and entered into all the trifles and frivolous anecdotes
with which many choose to kill time while in company.
15. Johnson, (Samuel,) surpassed by no one in literature, was born
at Litchfield, 1709. He was educated at Oxford in part, the insol-
vency of his father obliging him to leave the university premature-
ly. Involved in poverty, and with unpromising prospects before
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 353
him, he trit'J various expedients to obtain a livelihood, but abandon-
ed them successively, till in company with liis pupil Garrick, he
went to London i:i quest of employment, in 1737. From this period
till 1762, he was engaif^d in literary labours, under the pressure of
poverty and disappoiniment. A part of the fruit of these labours
were his immortal works, the English Dictionary and the Rambler.
He comiiletcd his Dictionary, in the space of seven years, and re-
ceived for it £1575; but owing to the urgency of his wants, the
money had been advanced during the composition of the work.
During tliis period he was once arrested for a debt of five guineas,
from which lie was relieved b)' the kindness of Richardson. His
services to literature were not, however, to pass unrewarded ; for, in
1763, he was presented by the king with a pension of £300 per
annum, as the grant expresses it, for the moral tendency of his
writini^s. The Lives of the Poets, he began in 1777, and complet-
ed in 1781. This is a noble model of that description of writing,
and embodies some of the choicest criticism in the English language.
The inflictions of disease now began to be felt, and Johnson con-
templated, not without gloomy apprehensions, the end of his earthly
beinji. His fear of tliis event was excessive, for his temperament
was deeply melancholic, and he did not at first perceive the true
ground of confidence for sinful men. At least, his mind was not
satisfied on this subject. But as he approached the tomb, darkness
fled from his soul. He was soothed and cheered, he saw the proper
ground of confidence, and departed with the faith and consolation
o.f a christian.
Johnson's works are numerous ; none are indifferent, and some are
of the highest order of literary excellence. His powers of conversa-
tion were admirable. The particulars of his life, character, opinions,
connexions, Otc. have been minutely recorded by Strahan, Mrs. Piozzi,
Boswell, and others.
16. Franklin (Benjamin) was born at Boston, Mass., 1706. In
lis youth he was apprenticed to an uncle in the business of print-
;iig; and eager after knowledge, he read attentively, in the night,
t\m works which he had printed in the daj'. In this way he early
amassed a valuable stock of information, and as he possessed a re-
flecting and philosophizing, and withal a practical sort of mind, he
turned his knowledge to the best account. After he commenced
business for himself in Philadelphia, he soon rose in public esteem,
so that he was called t(> offices of trust in the commonwealth, and
finally, in tlie contention of the coloni.?s with the mother country, he
acted a most conspicuous and useful part. He was a member of the
American congres"s during that eventful period. Several times in
the course of his life, he went to Europe, where he was received
witli the distinction due to his pre-eminent worth as a statesman and
philosopher. As a public ncgociator, he effectually secured the
honour and the hiterests of his country. He died governor of Penn-
sylvania, full of years and glory, 1790, aged eighty-four years. His
4iscoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton.
30*
354 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X.
He is the father of that branch of philosoph}' which explains the
laws of the electric fluid ; and the utility of llie lightning rod, will
forever point him out as a temporal benefactor of the human race.
His political reflections have placed him by the side of the greatest
legislators of antiquity
17. Gibbon (Edward) was born at Putney, 1737, of a respectable
and ancient family. He acquitted himself poorly at the university,
and it would seem, from his own account, that he was not much in
the fault. " The fellows," he says, " were easy decent men, who
supinely enjoyed the gifts of their founder ; their days were filled
by a series of uniform employments ; the chapel and the hall, the
coffee-house, and the common room, till they retired weary and well
satisfied, to a long slumber. From the toil of reading, or thinking,
or writing, they had absolved their consciences." The student with
such examples before him, might well be excused for indolence.
Gibbon afterwards, when at Lausanne, paid much attention to classi-
cal literature, and acquired such a perfect knowledge of the P'rench
language, that he could both speak and write it with as much facility
as his own. A portion of his printed works is in French.
The great work wliich has immortalized Gibbon, is his Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire. It was in the midst of the ruins?
of Rome, that he conceived the idea of this magnificent topic. This
history cost him twenty years of labour. His resources for it he
derived, in a considerable degree, from his own library, which con-
sisted of ten thousand volumes. It is an elaborate and splendid
production, and generally accurate. But his accormt of the causes
of the progress of Christianity, is highly exceptionable, and he ap-
pears throughout the work, a thoroughgoing skeptic and unbeliever.
His sneers at the holy religion of the Saviour, very much detract
from the value of the work. He received from his booksellers,
eight thousand pounds for his history.
Among his miscellaneous works, are a volume or two of letters,
highly sjiirited and entertaining, and rich with the stores nf an
elegant, cultivated, and playful mind. These, however, are also
tinctured with infidelity. He wrote memoirs of himself He ac-
knowledges that from the Provincial Letters of Pascal, he " learned
to manage the weapon of grave and temperate irony, even on sub-
jects of ecclesiastical solemnity." In describing the characteristics
of his intellect, he says, "Wit I have none ; my imagination is
rather strong than pleasing ; my memory both capacious and re-
tentive. The shining qualities of my understanding are extcnsive-
ness and penetration, but I want both quickness and exactness."
He died of a dropsy, in 1794.
18. Burns (Robert) was born, 1759, at Ayr, in Scotland. Though
a ploughman originally, he rose to high poetical fame. He has been
cahed the greatest untaught poet since Shakspeare. His poems,
which are in the Scotch dialect, possess uncommon beauty, and an
elegant simplicity. He no sooner appeared in print, than he was
noticed and drawn from the plough, to associate with men of letters
and opulence. By the exertions of his friends, a handsome sub-
DISTINGUrSIlED CHARACTERS. 355
scription of nearly one thousand one hundred pounds was raised
for him, and a place in the excise was obtained, and a farm rented,
where he might exercise his genius, and live in comfortable affluence.
But the change ruined him. He became a sot, and indulged in
licentious pleasures, till his constitution gave way, and the tomb re-
ceived him. His age was thirty-nine.
19. Burke (Edmund) was the son of a respectable attorney, at
Carlow, in Ireland, where he was born, 1730. He took his bache-
lor's degree at Trinity College, Dublin, where, it is said, he was not
nnich distinguished- In 1753, he came to London, and entered at
i!i(" Middle Temple. With all his powers of elocution, he paid no
serious attention to the law, but devoted his time principally to
literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer, soon
attracted notice, and his Essay on the Sublime, procured for him
distinction. He therefore became a public man, and in 1765, was
introduced into parliament. He then joined to the character of a
most elegant writer, that of a most eloquent speaker. The American
M'ar, he denounced tvith great vehemence and justice, and was so
liappy at length as to witness its termination. When the French
revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licen-
tious principles, and with a view to counteract them in England, lie
published his celebrated Reflections. His Anti-Gallican zeal brought
on a rupture between him and his former associates — Mr. Fox and
others. From this time, though he atlected to be as fond of liberty
as ever, he favoured the administration of Mr. Pitt, and the court
rewarded him with a large pension for his able services. By many,
in his high- wrought enthusiasm in favour of the war agaiust France,
he was considered as the oracle and bulwark of the country. Some
time before his death, Mr. Burke retired from public life, but tliough
loaded with honours, he sunk, three years after, a melancholy viclini
to the recent loss of his only and dearly beloved son. His death
occured in 1797.
As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged. He was
copious, elegant, and forcible. His pieces are nuniv^rous. His Re-
flections were so interesting in the public opinion, that 18,000 copies
were sold in a few weeks.
20. Washington, (George,) who has filled the world with his own,
and his country's glory, was born 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in
Virginia, where his father was possessed of large landed property.
Washington was educated under the care of a pri\ate tutor, and
after making rapid progress in mathematics and engineering, he em-
braced the military profession. Here he displayed his great talents,
particularly his wisdom and caution, and showed himself master of
the knowledge of military stratagems. Eminent also was his per-
f'oual valour, and lu; proved he could fight, whenever he cahailated
upon the prospect of decisive advantage, or certain victory. He had
greatly distinguished himself in several expeditions in his native
state, before he was called to the command of the American army,
n the war of the Revolution. How ably he sustained his country's
cause, and to what a successful termination he brought the great
35Gt JfrODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X,
Struggle, our readers need not be informed. As a military captain;
he ranks among the greatest, whether of ancient or modern times:
But in some respects, he is beyond a comparison with the most ce-
lebrated heroes. He had no stain of an unhallowed ambition. A^
the close of the war, America was in his power, but instead of a
dictator, he became one of her most obedient sons. Military com-
mand he assumed as a duty, and whenever an opportunity offered,
he hastened to resign h, that he might retire to the shades and peace
of private life.
Washington was the first president of the United States, and was
inaugurated into that high otRce, in 1789. Having served during
two presidential terms, he declined the honour which his country-
men would doubtless have again conferred upon him, and sought
the gratifications of his farm at Mount Vernon. The All-wise Dis-
poser did not suffer him to enjoy many years in his peaceful retire-
ment. He was called away irom life, rather unexpectedl)', after a
few days illness, 14th December, 1799. '• He was buried with due
national honours. America, in a pubhc mourning, deplored in him
Ihe loss of her father, and of her friend, and a new city was erected
on the borders of the Potomac, which, in becoming the capital of
the United States, records to distant times, in bearing his name, the
services, the patriotism, and the glories of her great and illustrious
founder."
Besides the qualities which distinguish the warrior and statesman,
Washington was endowed witl: every virtue of humanity. His pas-
sions were naturally strong, but he attained to a wonderful command
of them. He was modest, condescending, and affable, and excellent
in all the relations of private and domestic life. His punctuality and
method in managing liis multifarious concerns, are a model to every
one. And his exemplary conduct, as a Christian, and his calmness
in death inspire the belief that liis memorial is on high.
21. Cowper, (William,) who died in 1800, was son of Dr. Cow-
per, chaplain to George II., and rector of Berkhampstead, Herts. He
was in his eighteenth year, when he left Westminster school, and as
lie was destined for tlie law, he entered at the Iimer Temple, and at
the age of thirty-one, was apprenticed clerk in the house of lord.s.
But weakness of nerves, and the most distressing diffidence, unfitted
him for public employment of any kind. He soon fell into a re-
ligious melancholy, wliich arose to such a height, that in a fit of des-
;>cration, he attempted his own life, but was providentially saved
from so awful an end. He, however, attained at '.ength tiie cheering
and serene hope of religion. He became an author, not until he was
fifty years of age. Ilis first volume of poems, appeared in 1782,
and in 1785, his second volume, which raised towards liim the gene-
ral voice of approbation. He afterwards executed a valuable trans-
lation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in blank verse.
About this time, (1787,) a similarity of literary undertakings,
biouglit Cowper and Hayley the poet, into an intercourse of friend-
Btup, which contimied to the la.-t peri/d of life. Hayley has com-
memorated the genius and virtues of his friend, in an interesting and
DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. SSTT
f
elegant account of his life and poetic labours. In this account, many
of Cowper's letters are embodied, which, together with a volume or
two, since published, place him at the head of English epistolary
writing. In 1794, the king, as became the sovereign of an enlight-
ened nation, honourably bestowed upon the poet a pension of three
hundred pounds per annum. But the bounty came too late to be
much enjoyed. Cowper was again sunk into dejection and religious
melanclioly, which continued, witli lew intervals of reason and hope,
till he ceased to be an inhabitant of this world. He died at the age
of seventy.
The Task, is Cowper's most celebrated work, and abounds in
beauties of every kind. It exhibits religion, particularly, in a most'
engiiging form.
22. Klopstock (Frederick TheophiUis) was bom at Quedlinburg,
in 1724. He studied theology at Jena, where he wrote a great part
of his Messiah, which he published in 1747. His name is immor-
talized chiefly by this poem. Though at the time of its publication,,
it was censured by some, it was admired by more, and Bodmer, and
the .Swiss in general, were loud in its praises. Klopstock was in-
vited into their country, whence he was called to Copenhagen, by
llie rnost flattering promises, which were amply fulfilled. He died
in 1803. His funeral was conducted with extraordinary pomp. It
was attended bj^ the senate of Hamburgh, where, at the time of his
decease, he was residing as Danish legate. The diplomatic body,
also the clergy, men of letters, and merchants, honoured his remains
by their presence. The whole constituted a procession of seventy-
six coaches. At Altona, it was joined by fifty more carriages, to
the village of Ottensen, wiiere he was buried, with every ceremony
expressive of profound regard.
As a writer, he \% characterized by a fervid imagination ; but though
rich in imagery, and lofty in sentiment, he is frquently obscure and
turgid. Besides the Messiah, he was the author of three tragedies,
called the Death of Adam, Solomon, and David.
23. Heyne (Christian Gottlieb) was born in Silesia, 1729. He
succeeded Gesner. in 1763, in the professorship of Rlietoric, at Got-
tingen, where also he became secretary to the society of Sciences.
He drew up a catalogue of the library at Gottingen, which made 150
folio volumes. King George HI. placed his three younger sons un-
der his care, and they all treated him with the greatest respect.
He died suddenly, in 1812. As an editor of the classics, he is just-
ly celebrated, and his critical skill has been the admiration of the
learned world. He is the first of his class. From poverty and ob-
scurity, he arose to comfort and fame, and lie is an encouraging in-
stance of tlie rewards which often attend diligent and well-directed
mental eflTorts.
24. Staol, (Anne Louisa Germaine Necker,) a baroness, was the
daughter of the celebrated M. Necker, and born at Paris, 1766. She
received a liberal education, and early displayed extraordinary ta-
lents. Her understanding was of a masculine character. Perhaps no
female of ancient or modern times, has equalled her in native strength-
358 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X;
of intellect, especially as manifested in an elegant and profound phi-,
losophy. In 1786, she married baron de Stael, a Swede, by whom
she had four children, two of whom only survived her. She began'
her literary career, 1789, in Letters on the Writings and Character
of Rousseau, and soon afterwards took an active part in the French
Revolution. At Paris, she engaged in political intrigues, to which
she had a great propensity. The consequence was, that she offend-
ed Buonaparte, who banished her from the capital. From this, she
went to Germany, next to Italy, and twice visited England. She
died in 1817. Her works are highly finished productions, among
which may be particularly noticed, her Corinne, or Italy, a novel,
and her book on The Influence of Literature upon Society. She
seems to have been a votary of the new philosophy, so called.
25. Dwight (Timothy) was born at Northampton, Mass., on the
r4th of May, 1752. He was a grandson, on the mother's side, oi^
the illustrious Edwards. His great capacity was early displayed,
and to his excellent mother he was peculiarly indebted, by her pre-
cepts and example, for the moral and intellectual qualities with
which he was so richly gifted. At the age of seventeen he took
the bachelor's degree at Yale College, and two years afterwards, he
was elected a tutor of that institution. In the tutorship he continu-
ed six years, after which he was variously employed for several
years, residing for the most part of the time in his native place. In
1783, he was settled in the Christian ministry, over the parish of
Greenfield, in the town of Fairfield, Con. Here he continued twelve
years, and acquired a high reputation as an eloquent preacher, and
faithful pastor. His fame also, as a teacher of youth, (for he had
previously been much engaged in that business,) was greatly ex-
tended, by the academy which he established and superintended in
tiiat place. During this period he published his Conquest of Canaan,
and his Greenfield Hill; the one an epic, in eleven books, which was
completed in his twenty-fourth year, the other a descriptive and
didactic poem, in seven books.
In 1795, he was elected to the presidency of Yale College, which
station he retained till his death, in 1817. Under his auspices, that
institution flourished in a most remarkable degree; every department
was improved ; the standard of literary attainments was greatly
raised ; extensive religious reformations took place ; and the num-
ber of students, by the time of his death, had increased nearly
three-fold.
His death, which, under the visitation of a protracted and most
severe disease, took place before he had reached the ordinary bounds
of human life, gave a shock alike to the republic of letters and to
the church of God. It was lamented as the fall of one of the great-
est, best, and most useful men that have adorned the annals of this
country.
Since his death, his theological lectures, under the title of Theology,
have been published in five octavo volumes, and have passed through
several large editions, both in the United States and Great Britain.
NO' American work, it is believed, has ever been more popular in 'ho^
blSTfNGUlSHED CHARACTERS. 359
latter country, than this. His Travels also, have been extensively
circulated at home and abroad.
26. Buonaparte (Napoleon) was a native of Corsica, where he
was born, in 1769. His education was chiefly military, thougli the
wonderful powers of his mind, enabled him to appear with advan-
tage on ahuost every subject which engages human attention. The
times in which he entered on the stage of action, were big with
events, and afforded him rare occasions for the display of his talents,
and for the gratification of that inordinate ambition which was so
natural to him. The revolution in France was beginning to bear
down all the land marks of former ages, and Buonaparte embraced
the opportunity of playing his part on that imposing theatre. By
a masterly management, and by a series of successes, he rose in the
military profession, till he was placed at the head of it, and till he
eventually placed himself at the head, not only of France, but ol
almost all the nations of continental Europe. From the time he
was appointed to the command of the army of Italy, in 1796, to
near the termination of the campaign against Russia, he met with
an almost uninterrupted series of brilliant successes and victories,
dictating peace to one nation after another, till the idea of an uni-
versal empire seemed likely to be realized. From that period,
though he gained two or three important victories, he met in gene-
ral with sad reverses ; but it was not until nearly the whole ol
Europe was allied against him, that he was crushed. Twice he
abdicated the throne : in the former instance, retaining the sove-
reignty of the island of Elba, whither he retired for a time, only
again to seize on his dominion : in the latter instance, after his de-
feat in tlie battle of Waterloo, fleeing to a British fleet with a view
to protection. He was, however, exiled to St. Helena, and continued
there, guarded by a body of Britisli troops, till his death, which oc-
curred on the 6th May, 1821 ; having been kept in confinement be-
tween five and six years.
Buonaparte has received, and will continue to receive the applauses
or execrations of mankind, according as they view his mighty
achievements, connected with the good whicli has incidently growu
out of them, or with the evil which they directly produced, and
' which the author did not care to avert from the world.
GENERAL VIEWS:
OR A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE PECULIAR INSTITUTIONS
OF THE MIDDLE AGES, AS THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, CHI-
VALRY, &c.; ALSO OF THE MANNERS AND CHARAC-
TER OF THE GOTHIC NATIONS; LEARNING AND THE
ARTS; DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS; INCIDENTS
AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS; AND THE PRESENT
STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS IN RESPECT TO AG-
RICULTURE, ROADS, CONVEYANCES, INTERCOURSE.
EDUCATION, MANUFACTURES, iStc; AND FINALLY, OF
THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
The Feudal Systein.
Sect. 1. A peculiar system of policy prevailed aniong all
the nations of Europe, at an early period. Sina^ular as it
seems, and diffei-ent from the establishments of the present
times, it was the general state of society, among the ancestors
of modern Europe. This was the Feudal System.
The Feudal System, means that tenure on which the
owners of land held their possessions, viz., an obligation to
perform military service, w^henever required by the cliief to
whom they owed allegiance. Such is i*s nature; its origin
and history, its principle and its eftects will be soon jiointed
out.
§ It was on the following' plan, that the feudal policy was ar-
ranged:— every freeman or soldier, upon receiving an allotment of
conquered lands, bound himself to appear in arms against the com-
mon enemy, whenever his leader should call upon him for this pur-
pose. This miUtary service was the condition upon which every
one received, and the tenure by which he continued to hold his lands.
It was not at first considered either a degradation or hardship. The
came service which a vassal owed to his lord, was due from tb.e lord
to his king. The king required those among whom the conquered
lands were distributed, to repair to his standard, with a number of
followers, in proportion to the extent of their respective estates, and
to assist him in his expeditions. This service was due to the king;
but when obedience was refused, it could be enforced, not by civil
regulations^ but only by wax. Under such a system, the nobles or
FEUDAL SYSTEM. 361
barons, enjoyed a subordinate sovereignty, in their own dominions ;
while their vassals or dependants, were in complete subjection lo
their will.
2. The origin of this iiittiiutionlies in a remote antiquity
Some writers have attributed it to the kings of the Franks,
who, after the conquest clGaul, are supposed to have divi-
ded their lands among tlieir followers, on the condition of
miUtary service. But we must look for it to a remoter source.
It is consonant with the usages of all warlike, barbarous na-
tions, among whom we remark a strict sulwrdination of the
meml)ers of a tribe, to their chief or leader. This subordi-
nation affords the clue to the general policy, and so far as the
history of it can be traced, it is a fact, that Julius Caesar
noticed it among the Gaulish nations, before the Christian era.
§ With the Ganls, this subordination was peculiarh^ strong, and
subsisted not only between the soldiers and their commander, but
between tiie inferior towns or villages, and the canton or province
to whicJi they belonged.
When in peace, every man cultivated liis land, free of all taxation,
•and subject to no other burden, than that of military service, i-equi-
red by his chief. "Wlien the province was at war, each village, thougli
taxed to furnish only a certain number of soldier.s, was bound to send,
on tlie day appointed for a general muster, all the males capable of
bearing arms, from whom the rated number was selected by the chief
of the province.
This relation between soldiers and their commander, sub-
sisted among the Franks, as well as among the Gauls. It
subsisted among the Romans also, who, to check the inroads
of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant conquests,
were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers.
To each oflicer in those garrisons, it v/as customary to as-
sign a portion of land, as the pledge and pay of his service.
These gifts were named benficia or fiefs.
§ When the Franks overran Gaul, a great part of the land was
found ill the hands of the Romans, held by this tenure, as the rest
was found so held by the Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to
the same policy, would naturally adopt it, in the partition of their
• new conquests, each man being boimd to service, on receiving his
share of the land.
The fiefs were at first revocable by the sovereign, and reverted to
liim on the death of the vassal. But the possession of fiefs, under
Ihe imbecile Merovingian kings, at length obtained independency
■?.nd security of property.
- It was a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary, that it should
' capable of being given out in portions, and that the vassal hitrt-
O JL
362 GENERAL VIEWB.
self, holding his lands of the sovereign, by the tenure of militafj;
service, should be able to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving
to them parts of his estate, to be held on the same condition, of fol-
lowing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their lord,
and paying, as a symbol of tlieir subjection, a small annual present.
3. The piinciple of policy upon which this singular estab-
lishment was founded, was self-protection. The new settler?
in a country, wished to secure themselves, not only against
the attacks of the inhabitants w^iom they had expelled from
their possessions, but especially against the inroads of fresh
invaders. But unfortunately for the peace of society, it was
attended w4th many evils, especially after the land had be-
come unalienable property.
The effects, therefore, of the feudal system, demand some
notice in this place. It was natural, in those disorderly times,
when the authority of government, and the obligation of
general laws, were extremely weak, that the superior or over-
lord snould acquire both a civil and criminal jurisdiction over
his vassals. Such power, in their hands, must have been an en-^
gine of oppression. They moreover exercised the privilege of
coining money, and carried on wars against their private
enemies. So situated, they disdained to consider themselves
as subjects ; and the con.-cquence was, that a kingdom Avas
broken into as many separate principalities, as it contained
powerful nobles ; and the occasions of war thus becan)e innu-
merable.
§ Every country in Europe was wasted, or kept in continual alarm,
by the feuds of the barons, and in every country, vast multitudes of
castles and places of strength, were erected for the security of des-
potic chieftains, against domestic invasions.
In the reign of Stephen of England, when the feudal system was
at its height, not less than one thousand castles, with their depen-
dencies, had been erected in the southern part of the Island. Pri-
vate retaliation and revenge were the only law in the minds of proud
and ferocious chieftains. The edicts of kings and magistrates were
trampled on. A baron who was provoked by injury, met his adver-
sary at the head of his vassals, in hostile array, and sought redress
only by his sword. The most numerous and useful part of the com-
munity, the common people, were no better thUn slaves, and though
not chained by the leg, as was the fact with slaves among tlie Ro-
mans, yet they were transferred from one lord to another, like cat-
tle, and the implements of husbandry. They were styled serfs or
illeins, a name implying their servitude and degradation.
In this state of thing.s, neitlier the iimocent could be protected, nor
the guilty punislied, by the regal authority. A general anarchy pre-
CHIVALRY. 363
called ; the feelings of the people became familiarized to violence
and blood, to despotism and injustice ; intellectual and moral im-
provement was suspended, the arts and sciences were banisiied, the
light of Christianity was obscured, and only the stern and rough
virtues were nourished. Never was there a period in the annals of
Europe so filled with atrocious actions, as tiiat which intervened
from the seventh to the eleventh century, the era of the prevalence
of the feudal system.
At tlie commencement of the twelfth century, this unhappy state
of things began to abate, and government, laws and manners, exert-
ed a degree of influence on tlie minds of men. Chivalry produced
a propitious effect, and a variety of other causes, operated to check
the licentiousness of the barons, and to soften their ferocity. Per-
haps no one cause was more efficacious, than the establishment of
standing armies, in the fifteenth century. This engine, wielded by
kings, crushed tlie power of the nobles, and reduced them to order
and obedience.
The first monarch who adopted this measure, was Charles VII. of
France, in tlie year 1445 ; but so opposed was it to the genius of feudal-
ism, that it required the greatest boldness to carry it into execution.
Charles, however, did not shrink from the attempt. He retained a
large body "of forces in his service, and appointed funds for their
regular payment. The principal nobility soon repaired to his stan-
dard ; and as the feudal militia were only occasionally called out,
they were in tim.e regarded with contempt by regular soldiers. This
example was followed by the politic Henry VIZ., of England.
Chivalry.
Sect. 1. Nature, Origin, and First Appearance. —
Chivahy, or knighthood, was an institution common to Eu-
rope, during tlie middle ages, having principally for its ob-
ject, the correction of those evils that were peculiar to the
state of society which then existed. The feudal system at
that time prevailed, the disorders flowing from which, con-
nected with the ignorance and barbarism of the people, ren-
dered some such institution as ciiivalry, necessary, provided a
better could not be found. Considered in this aspect, chival-
ry was co-existent with feudalism. It was designed as a cor-
rective of feudal despotism, injustice, and licentiousness. It
sought to support, the weak, to protect the oppressed, to re-
strain the lawless, to refine the rude, to avenge wrongs, and,
especially, to maintain the rights, and defend the purity of
the female sex. In its elements, it combined bravery, honour,,
courtesy, love, and rehgion.
364
GENERAL VIEWS.
§ In the origin of the term chivalry, or knighthood, reference wasi
had to the nature of its duties, which were performed on horseback.
Hence, the languages which were formed on a Latin basis, derived'
their phrases descriptive of mihtary duties on horseback, from cabal-
his, a horse ; cabillarius, a horseman ; and cabillare, to ride — the
letter b, being pronounced Uke v, in the south of Europe. In all
languages of Teutonic origin, the same circumstance was expressed
by words literally signifying service. The German knight, the Sax-
on cniht, are synonymous with the French cavalier, the Italian ca-
valiere, &c. The word, rider, also designated the same person.
Chivalry was, in many respects, a beautiful and beneficial form ot
manners, though in others, it was highly objectionable, as will ap-
pear in the sequel. We must not, however, confound the extrava-
gant knight-errantry of the old romances, or even the natural chi-
valry common to most nations, with the gallant and Christian chi-
valry of Europe, which constituted a military barrier against oppres-
sion. That was, in some degree, a moral institution, which sought
to make travelling safe, and the intercourse of society refined and
liberal, though it would have been more moral, had it not itself em-
ployed violence.
Chivalry had its origin in that state of ^;ociety in which
the feudal system arose; and regarded particularly in a mi-
litary light, we find it a part of tlie earliest condition of most
of the European norld. Its foundation, in fact, was the an-
cient character of Europe, and it grew into the form and con
sistency which it at length assumed, from the following prac-
tices common among the early Europeans, particularly the
Germans, viz. from receiving their weapons in an assembly
of the nations associating in clans, protecting and revering
women, and performing acts of service when atiection and
duty commanded them.
The exact time when these elements were framed into
that system of thought and action, which we call chivalry,
it is impossible to tell. Knighthood was certainly a distinc-
tion of society before the days of Charlemagne. But it want-
ed religion. When it began to be marked by religious rites,
it formed a regular institution. Its union with religion, took
place somewhere betvv'o.en tbc nintli and eleventh centuries.
Its character was raised and perfected by the crusades.
§ Religious rites were not used in the days of Charlemagne, for he
girt the military sword on his son, Louis the Good, according to the
rude principles of ancient Germanic chivalry ; and a century after-
wards, we read of the English Edward the Elder, clothing Athel-
stan, in a soldier's dress of scarlet, and fastening around him a gir-
dle, ornamented with precious stones, in which a Saxon sword, in a
CHIVALRY. 365
sheath of s.)kl, was inserted. In the century following, however,
during thr reign of Edward the Confessor, we meet with the story
of Hereward, a vi'ry noble Anglo-Saxon youth, being knighted by
the abbot of Petei ciorough. He made confession of his sins, and
after he had received absolution, he earnestly prayed to be made a
legitimate knight.
Knighthood was always, and essentially, a personal distinction,
and in this respect, different from nobility. The nobility of Europe
were the lords of particular districts of a country, and although ori-
ginally they lield their dignities only for life, yet their title soon be-
came hereditary.
Every person of noble birth, was required, when twelve years old
to take a solemn oath, before the bishop of his diocese, to defend the
op[)ressed, &c. Tliis was ordained at the Council of Clermont, in
the eleventh century ; thus giving a public and sacred sanction to
the hunianitit's of cliivalry. But besides the nobility, others might
be promoted into tlic order, by meritorious valour.
Almost the whole of Europe was affected witli the chival-
ric spiiit. It flourished most, however, in France, Spain, and
(uMinany, and more early developed itself as a fixed princi-
ple of action, in these countries than in others. England, at
length, was not imdistinouishcd for its chivalry.
2. Desi'rces of CUirnlnj. — There were three degrees in
the chivalry of Europe : — knights bamiarets, knights, and
esquires.
A soldier must have passed through the ranks of esquire,
and knight, before he could be classed with the knights ban-
narcts. That high. dignity could be possessed only by a
k'niglit, who had served for a length of years in the wars, and
witli distinction, and who had a considerable retinue of men-
at arms, and other soldiers.
§ The privileges of a knight bannaret, were considerable. He did
hot tigiit under the standa«-d of any baron; but he formed his sol-
diers under his own. The baron and bannaret, as soldiers, were of
equal authority.
The s(!cond and most numerous class of chivalric heroes,
consisted of knights. A general qualification for knighthood,
was noble or gentle birth, which, in its widest signification,
expressed a state of inde])endence.
§ There was no fixed amount of estate necessary for knighthood.
It was, however, a costly dignity, and many were obliged to forego
it, on account of its expenses.
Tiiough it was often bestowed as an ornament of custom on the
nobility and gentry of a state, it never altogether lost its character of
being a reward of merit. Men-at-arn'is, and other soldiers, were often
exalted to tlie class of kniehts.
31*
366 GENERAL VIEWS.
The last class of chivalry, the squirehood, was composed
of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knight,
and superior to the men-at-arms. Many of them, on various
accounts, remained in this station, during all their military
career.
§ It was a maxim in chivalry, that a man had better be a good
esquire, than a bad knight. MiUtary honours could be reached by
the squirehood, as well as by the knighthood of a country.
3. Education of a Knight. The education of a knight
in the family of a feudal lord, generally commenced at the
age of seven or eight years. The place of education was
sometimes a school appointed by the nobles of the country,
but most frequently the nobleman's own castle, or that of
some brother nobleman, served.
§ The duties of the boy, for the first seven years of his service,
were chiefly personal. He learned the dignity and beauty of obedi-
ence, being made to feel it a privilege to attend the lord and his
lady in the hall, and follow them in their exercises of war and pas-
time. The intellectual and moral education of the boy was given
by the ladies of the court.
From the lips of the ladies, the gentle youth learned both his
catechism and the art of love. He was directed to regard some one
lady of the court as the type of the future mistress of his heart ;
she was the object of all his hopes and wishes ; to her he was duti-
ful, faithful, and courteous.
The ingredients of religion, love, and war, were strangely com-
bined in chivalry. Surrounded by noble females and valorous
cavaliers, the first impressions of the futnre knight were on these
subjects ; and he was taught to regard chivalry and its honours, as
the most noble object of ambition.
The military exercises of the youth were not many ; and
they were important ordy as they w^ere the earliest ideas of
his life. During the first seven years, he was called a valet
damoiseau, or a page — in the old English jjallads a child.
§ During this period, he was taught to leap over trenches, to laimch
or cast spears and darts, to sustain the shield, in his walk to imitate
the measured tread of the soldier, and in mock battle to fight agamst
stakes or his youthful companions.
At the age of fourteen, he received the title of armiger, or
esquire ; and though he was then authorized to carry arms,
yet his personal domestic service continued for some time.
His education was not completed, till the age of twenty -one.
§ The esquire prepared the refection in tlie morning ; and at
dinner, he, as well as the pages, attended at the table, and presented
to the lord and his guests the water used for washing. The knight
CHIVALRY. 367
and the squire never sat before the same table, not even in the case
of father and son — so strict was the principle of chivalric subordina-
tion. The squires often made tlie beds of their lords. Each one
had his respective duties — one was the squire of the chamber, or
the chamberlain, and another tlie carrying squire. But their many
duties cannoi here be described. Spenser, in the following stanza,
beauinully paints the domestic squire discharging some of his
duties.
" There fairly them receives a gentle squire,
Of mild demeanor ant! raTe courtesy
Right cleanly clad in comely sad attire ;
In word and deed that show'd great modesty,
And knew his good to all of each degree,
Hight reverence. He them with speeches meet
Does faire entreat, no courting nicety,
But simple, true, and eke untained sweet.
As might become a squire so great persons to greet."
Jn the life of a squire, the anxieties of love, and military exerciser-
were commingled. Chaucer delighlfuhy paints the softer employ-
ment.
" vSinging he was or floyting all the da\'.
He was as fresh as is the month of May,
He could songs make, and well endite,
Just and eke dance, and well pourtraie and write ;
So hole he loved, that by nighterdale*
He slept no more than doth the nightingale."
He practised every mode by which strength and activity could
be given to the body. He learned to endure hunger and thirst, heat
and cold, in their extremes, and to plunge all covered Vi'ith dust into
'he running stream. He accustomed himself to wield the sword, to
thrust the lance, to strike with the axe, and to wear armour. But
iio exercise was more important than that of horsemanship. Of the
true knight, it could be said,
" Wei could he sit on horse and hit ride."
4. IncuigurcUion of a Knight. The full dignity of
knighthood, was seldom conferred on a squire befoie the age
of twenty-one. The ceremonies of inauguration were so
lemn. The preparation consisted in prayer, confession, and
fasting— was accompanied by clothing iiim with a white
dress, which was considered symbolical of tlie purity of his
new character ; and by throwing over him a red garment^
whicli was to mark his resolution to shed his blood in the
cause of heaven. These and other rites were a necessary
prehminary.
* Night-time<
368 GENERAL VIEWS.
A church, or hall of a castle, was generally the place of
inauguration. The candidate first offered his sword to the
priest, who blessed it. Before it was returned to him, he took
his oaths of chivalry.
§ He solemnly swore to defend the church, to attack the wicked,
to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to pre-
serve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood, even to the
last drop, in behalf of his brethren.
The young warrior having kneeled with clasped hands
before the supreme lord in the assembly, (a purely feudal
ceremony,) and having declared that his only object is to
maintain religion and chivalry, was now invested with all
the exterior marks of the order. The knights and ladies of
the court attended on him, and delivered to him the various
pieces of his harness.
§ The armour varied at different periods and in different countries,
but some matters were of jiermanent usage. The spurs were al-
ways put on first, and the sword was belted on last.
The concludiug sign of being dubbed or adopted into the
order of knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord to
the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the
body, the neck, whereon it was struck. The lord then pro-
claimed him a knight, in the name of God and the saints
§ The ceremonies of inauguration, which have been concisely des-
cribed, were gone through when knighthood was conferred on great
and public occasions of festivity, but they often gave place to the
power of rank, and the necessity of circumstances. Princes were
exempted from the laborious offices of page and squire. Men who
were distinguished soldiers were often adopted into chivalry on the
eve of a battle, as it was considered that a sense of their new
honours would inspire their highest gallantry.
5. EqiiipmeHt of a knight. The horse of the cavalier
was his peculiar piide, and skill in the management of the
anitnal was a distinction deemed worthy of every effort. The
knight bore about with him a variety of the instruments of
death. His chief oll'ensive weapon was the lance. His otlier
offensive weapons were a sword, (a favourite weapon,) dag-
ger, battle-axe, and maces. His defensive armour Avas also
various. He had his shield, helmet with its visor and l)eaver,
and body harness made of plates of steel, to which dillerent
names were given according to the different parts of the body
which it covered. A long flowing rol)e, reachir)g down to the
heels, constituted the dress of the knight.
CHIVALRY. 369?
Some of the defensive armour was so constructed, that it could
be rolled up, and carried by the squire on horseback. It was too
rigid, heav)^, and cumbersome to be worn for a long time togethefj
though tlie kniglits were often subjected to that inconvenience.
When they were completely armed, no weapon could reacli the bo-
dy. It was not often tliat a knight could be killed, except by being
unhorsed. In tliat event, a tliin dagger, which was worn by each
assailant, was employed. This could be thrust into the body between
the plates.
It is only in romance, tliat we read of swords cutting through that
solid front of iron, by wliich a kniglit was protected. The only way
in which deatli could be inflicted, Avlicn he was mounted, was, by
thrusting a lance through the small liole in the visor. Such a mode
of death was not very common, for the cavalier always bent his face
almost to the saddle-bow, when lie cJiarged. He might, however,
be unhorsed, in the shock of meeting. In that case, he was at the
mercy of the foe, who was in the better condition.
The horse of the knight was defended by mail, or plate, agreeably
to the fashion of the age. His head, chest, and flanks, were either^
wholly or partially protected, and sometimes, on occasions of pomp,
lie was clad in complete steel.
6. The Chlvalric Character. — in the clinractcr of a true
knio^ht, were combined many virtues and noble endowments.
It necessarily included, also, some prominent defects. Co77i-
panionship in Arms, was a sacred principle, and a knight
woidd fly to the relief of his companion in arms, even were his
services demanded by a female, at the time. His valour was
connected with modesty, and both were, in the highest de-
gree, conspicuous. In chivalric war, much humanity was
displayed, though in contentions of a different kind, it was
unliappily suppressed. As a knight fouglit for the church, he
was intolerant, and towards infidels and heretics he ceased to
exhibit his \vonted forbearance. His sense of honour was
keen, and his independence was consistent with discipline
and submission. His whole course was dictated by a regard
to religion. His devotions were frequent. Religion entered
into all tlic observances of chivalry, but it was only the religion
of the times — a form rather than spirit — too corrupt to be a safe
guide. The knight, finally, was characterized by a very re-
markable fidelity to obligations, by generosity, and by court
§ Companionship in arms, was the strongest tie in chivalry :
" From this day forward ever mo,
Neither fail, either for weal or wo,
To help other at need.
Brother, be now true to me,
And I shall be as true to thee.
370 GENERAL VIEWS.
Such a thirst for renown in arms, for the display of valiancy, had;
a knight, that he would sometnues attempt the very height of he-
roism, and engage in the execution of impossibilities. It was this
passion, which dictated many of his vows. Certain young l^nights
of England, during the French wars of Edward III., each bound up
one of his eyes with a silk riljbon, aiid swore before the ladies and
the peacock, that he would not see with both eyes, until he had ac-
omplished certain deeds of arms in France.
The valiancy of chivalry was finely chastened by humility :
" And of his port, as meek as is a maid.'
Every hero, as well as Chaucer's knight, demeaned himself in all,
things, as if God solely had controlled ; and in the divine name, used
his arms, without vaunting or praising himself; for praise was regard-
ed as blame, in the mouth of him who commended his own actions.
The clemency of chivalry was often shown, especially in sparing
inferior people. As a knight could gain no honour in sla}''ing an un-
armed peasantry, so he seldom attacked one of this class; and even
an enemy of his own order, if prostrate and supplicating, was not often
despatched.
Still, he was ruthless towards the infidel and heretic. He knew
no other argument than the sword, to gainsay the infidel, and he
was ready, at all times, to " thrust it into the belly of a heretic as lar
as it would go."
Of his moral virtues, perfect fidelity to a promise was very con-
spicuous ; for his nobleness disdained any compromise with conve-
nience or circumstances. However absurd the vow, still he was
compelled to perform it, in all the strictness of the letter.
Knights were renowned for their com'tesy ; and this principle, like
every other blessing of modern times, had its origin in the Christian
religion. The world thought, that courtesy and chivalry accorded
together, and that villanous and foul words, were contrary to an
order which was founded on piety. A knight was always spoken ol
as gentle. The following anecdote curiously marks this quality of
chivalric manners. The wife and sister of Du Gueselin, were once
living in a castle, which was attacked by a force of Normans and
Englishmen. The success was great and important; but public in-
dignation was excited against the invaders, because they had trans-
gressed the license of war, in being guilty of the uncourteous action
of surprising and distui'bing ladies while they were asleep.
7. Every day life of the Knight. — The military and mo-
ral qualities of knighthood, were fostered by all the circum-
stances of chivalric life, even those of a peaceful nature.-
Their common life was one of amusement and revelry, in
which the images of tlieir favourite pursuits were easily re-
called to their minds. They passed most of tlieir hours of
peace, in the diversions of falconry and chess-playing, in lis
tening to the minstrels, who sung the feats of chivalry, in read;
CHIVALRY. 371
ing romances, and in conversation, which turned ahnost
wholly on love and war. Entertainments, also, at each
other's castles, were frequent ; in these, the utmost merriment
prevailed.
§The minstrel's lay, the poetry of the troubadour, the romance of
the learned clerk — all spoke of arms and amours — of the duties and
sports of cliivalry. Every baronial kniglit had his gay troop of min-
strels, that accompanied him to the field, and afterwards chanted in
his hall the martial deeds which had renowned his family.
At their entertainments, the knights were wont to repose on
couches, or sit on benches. The guests were placed two by two,
and only one plate was allotted to each pair ; for to eat on the same
trencher or plate with any one, was considered the strongest mark
of friendship or love. Peacocks and plieasants were the peculiar
food of kniglits, on great and festival occasions.
S. The Chivalrlc lady-love. The females of chivalry,
possessed a distinct and peculiar character. The lady, like
the knight, was regularly trained up to become, at length, the
mistress of his affections. Siie was commonly educated in
the castle of some knight or baron, her father's friend. One
of the first duties or accomplishments which she learned, was
that of courtesy, and condescension to her inferiors. In those
days, her mental education was not of a high polish. Some
knowh)dge of medicine was deemed desirable, as chivalry re-
quired lier to take care of her wounded knight. Her dress
was required to be plain, except on festive occasions.
§ The only tasks on her intellect, were to repeat the prayers of the
church, to sing a brief piece of poetry, or the longer romaunt. She
could also play on the harp. Sometimes the graver sciences were
introduced into female education. There were solitary instances, m
which might be applied what was sung of Felice, the daughter of
the earl of Warwick.
" l^usy they (her masters) were that maiden to leer,
And they lered her of astronomy
Of armsmetrick, and of geometry ;
Of sophistry she was also witty,
f)f rhetorick and of other clergy;
I /earned slic was in musick,
Of clergy was her iwne Hkc."
In tliat singular system of manners which we call chivalric, lo^C;
next to religion, was the most influential principle. In many instan -
ces, it was doubtless the most influential. The true knight was 'a
more perfect personification of love, than poets and romancers ever
dreamed. The fiiir object of his passion, reigned in his heart, with
absolute dominion.
Every gallant spirit of " gentle" Gower's days, the reign of E?]
'ward III., said of liis mistress,
'372 GENERAL VIEWS.
"What thing she bid me do, I do,
And where she bid me go, I go."
Chivalric love, had both its absurdities and impieties. Knights
were not satisfied to fight in defence of the ladies, and to joust in
their honour, but from the extravagance of their love, each knight
maintained at the point of liis lance, that his mistress surpassed all
other ladies in beauty.
Cliivalric love, became a foe to the distictions of wealth and rank,
and many a knight, whose whole fortune lay in his prowess, gained
the hand of high born beauty.
In chivalry there was always a generous consideration foi
woman. Hence proceeded the honorable maxim, that it was
not just or courteous to take ladies in war.
§ In the wars of the Guelphs and the Gltibellines, the emperor
Conrad, as an offended sovereign, had refused all terms of capitula
tion to the garrison of Winnisberg ; but as a courteous knight, ho
permitted the women to depart with such of their precious effects as
they themselves could transport. The gates of the town w^re
thrown open, and a long procession of matrons, each bearing a hus-
band or a father, or brother, on her shoulders, passed in safety
through the applauding camp.
9. Totirnanients and Jousts. Tournaments and jousts,
were both the offspring and the cherislier of chivalry. No
amusentent or exercise was so delighted in by gallant knights
and beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobility, and the gentry,
us these images of war. They were often splendid beyond
description, especially at coronations, the marriage of princes, '
and important victories.
Tournaments were military exercises, performed by two
parties of cavaliers, with hurl less weapons.
§ If the occasion was high and solemn, it was aunounced at the
courts of different sovereigns, l)y heralds, sent by the king who pro-
posed to hold the martial exercise ; and all those who valued their
kniglithood, together with respected dames and maidens, were invi-
ted to repair to the appointed city, and prove tlieir chivah-y. Not
knights alone, but kings and princes, pricked over the plain in gal-
lant and graceful array ; for tliough they were not expected to stoop
to many kniglitly observances, they were eager to prove their chi-
valric character, by deeds of valour. For this they overlooked tlie
pride of station
Not every kjiight might tourney. He must have been guilty oi
no unchivalric deportment. He must never have blasphemed God,
or otfended tlie ladies ; must never have been false, ungrateful, or
deserted a brother-in-arms in battle. The rules of tourneying, liow-
cver, were sometimes evaded. Young knights, particularly, often
concealed their names, and came in disguise.
The place of cotnbat was, the lists, a large space, surround
Chivalry — a Tournament. P- 372
Washington taking the oath of office.
ScmE— Front of the old Federal Hall, New- York. /'. 33-1.
CHIVALRY. 373
ed by ropes or railing, in single or double rows. Sometimes
there was a wooden division in the lists or area, to prevent
the horses of the adverse knights from careering against one
another.
The ladies were the supreme judges of tournaments ; but
they generally deputed their power to a knight, who was cal-
led on this account, the Knight of Honour. They some-
times proposed the rewards, such as a diamond, ruby, &c.
But the meed of renown was oftcner military.
§ Wlien the knights reached the hsts, their arras were examined
by the constable, in order tliat only hurtless ones miglit be used.
But, notwithstanding this regulation, there existed a strong disposi-
tion, in many instances, to convert tovu'naments into real battles.
Victory at a tournament was scarcely less glorious than victory in
the field. The ladies, the minstrels, and the whole assembled mul-
titude, acclaimed the conqueror. The practice of converting the
elegant tournament into a deadly fray, occasioned an oatli to be im-
posed on all knights, that they would frequent tournaments, solely,
to learn military exercises.
The chivalric bands were so well poised, that one encounter seldom
terminated the sport. The lances were broken, horses and knights
overthrown, and the tide of victory flowed to either end of the lists.
The air was rent with names of ladies. Each knight called upon
his mistress to assist him, thinking that there was a magic in beauty,
to sustain his strength and courage. Death sometimes, though not
often, ensued. It was on the whole a hazardous and dissolute amuse-
ment. Tlie revelry whicli followed, lasted often two or three days.
The court of Rome was justly hostile to tournaments, and thunder-
ed its denial of christian sepulture to those who fell in a tilting
ground ; but still the practice went on.
Of jousts, there were two sorts ; the joust to the utterance,
and the joust of peace. The former expressed a single com-
bat between two knights, who were generally of dififerent
.nations, Tn strictness of speech, the judicial combat was a
joust to the utterance ; and so was every duel, whether lawful or
unlawful ; but with such jousts, chivalry has no direct con-
cern, though the absurd and iniquitous practice of modem
duelling, grew out of its principles.
§ The joust was not so favourite an amnsemont as the tournament,
for baronial pomp was not necessary to its display ; often was it held
Without a store of bright ladies distributing the prize.
The joust of peace often took i)lace at the conclusion of a
tournament. A knight who had acquired honour, would
ride about the lists, and call on the siurounding cavaliers, b)'
their valiancy, and for the love of the ladies, to encounter hiip
32
3/4 GENERAL VIEWS.
in three strokes of tlie lance. The joust was more fieqneiit/-
ly held at a place expressly appointed for the occasion. The
mode of combat was always specifically described.
.Tousts possessed a more martial character than tourna-
ments. Such usually was the dexterity of the combatants,
that the encounter of the lance was seldom fatal.
§ Through the long period of the middle ages, tournaments and
jousts were the elegant pastimes of Europe and Greece. Knight-
hood had its triumph over classical institutions, when the games of
chivahy were played in the circus of Constantinople. In the West
they survived chivalry itself, whose image they had reflected and
brightened, for changes in the military art, did not immediately af-
fect manners ; and the world long clung with fondness to those
splendid and graceful, though dissipating shows which had thrown
light and elegance over the warriors and dames of yore.
10. Orders of Knighthood. Chivalry had its various
orders, or associations of cavaliers, formed for specific purposes,
generally of a benevolent character. Ten of them remain
to the present time. Most of the present orders are otherwise
than of a chivalric origin. The orders of chivalry were of
two general descriptions, viz. religious and military. Tliey
extended over various countries, particularly the Holy Land,
England, Spain, France, and Italy. Some of the rehgious
orders were those of the Templars, St. James, Calatrava,
Alcantara, the Lady of Merc)^, and St. Michael. In the re-
ligious orders, the cavaliers were bound by the three great
monastic vows, of chastitj", poverty, and obedience.
The military orders, were imitations of the religious. Those
of the Garter, th? Golden Fleece, and St. Michael, in France,
were clearly of c.Hivalric origin. Many others tiiat now ex-
ist, cannot boast cf such a descent. All these institutions had
particular rules b} which they professed to be governed, but
they varied with the spirit of the times. They need not
here be recited.
§ Our limits will not permit us to describe the character and pro-
gress of chivalry in the several countries in which it flourished, or
to detail the exploits of renowned individuals. It belongs to this
work to sketch only the general features of the system, which has
been done. It remains now to notice the merits and effects of
chivalry,
IL Merits and Effects of Chivahy. Chivalry was, m
many respects, a whimsical institution ; but it well suited the
period in which it rose and flourished, and seems to have
CHIVALRY. 375
been needed in those ages. It was probably the best system
that could have been adopted to aid the improvement of so-
ciety, at a time when Christianity was so deeply corrupted.
The principles of this religion, as it was then understood and
practised, were incorporated in it ; and much of (he good
which it included, was the fruit of the Gospel. Its theory,
however, was in several resjiects indefensible, and its practice
was larely ever so good as its theory. Still we find much to
admire m chivalry, considering the character of the nations
among whom it prevailed.
§ " The patriarchal system of manners, shaped and sanctioned by
Christianity, formed llie fabric of chivalry ; and romance, witli its
many coloured hues, gave it light and beauty. The early ages of
Europe gaily moved in all the wildness and vigour of youth ; imagi-
nation fresliened and heightened every pleasure ; the world was a
vision, and life a dream. The common and palpable value of an ob-
ject, was never looked at, but every thing was viewed in its connec-
tion witli fancy and sentiment. Prudence and calculation were not
suffered to check noble aspirations ; duties were not cautiously re-
garded with a view to limit the performance of them ; for every
principle was not only practised with zeal, but the same fervid wish
to do well, lent it new obligations. From these feelings proceeded
all the graceful refinements, all the romance of chivalry."
This institution fostered civilization, and was therefore needed in
a barbarous age. It refined tlie manners, and added harmony to
social intercourse, where otherwise little but rudeness and misrule
would have prevailed. It contributed to the safety and order of
society, inasmuch as it thinned the ranks of robbers and ruffians.
It infused kind and beneficent feelings into the bosom, and enjoined
external propriety of conduct, and courtesy of behaviour. It culti-
vated a humanity which was not limited by kindred or country.
As chivalry was spread over Europe, it formed mankind into one
band, one order of men. The features of war were softened by its
influence. It taught the warrior gentleness and clemency. A nice
sense of honour and a scrupidous regard of truth were fostered by
its maxims. It was a principle, as well as a feeling and a love in
chivalry, to guard and cheri.sli woman, and many of its amenities
proceeded from her mild influence. In fine, it corrected the peculiar
evils of the feudal system, haughtiness, tyranny, oppression, and
misrule.
NotwithstandinfT tliese beneficial effects of cliivalry, it must be
acknowledged that other effects attended it, which may well qualify
tiie language of praise. Still we are willing to believe, that it did
more good than mischief, in a secular view. It has. however, been
more condemn .'d than lauded, and every one knows the exquisite
ridicule which has been tlirown upon it, or rather upon its extrava-
gancies, by th." iiiimitaljle author of Don Quixote. It resulted in
376
GENERAL VIEWS,
some degree m looseness of morals, in respect even to the intercourse?'
of the sexes ; the purity of which it so highly professed to regard
and defend. Instances of gross violence and injustice in the con-
duct of knights, too often appeared ; and it nourished feelings of re-
sentment and the love of war. While it stript war of many
features of savageness by the civilities and courtesies with which it
surrounded it, it at the same time nourished that proud and sensi-
tive spirit, falsely called honour, which suffers no wound, without
seeking redress in the private duel.
These, it is thought, are mostly exceptions to its general spirit and
tendency ; and as to individual persons, it is doubtless too true, that
recreant knights may be found, on the same principle, that false pro-
fessors may be found of the only true rehgion on earth, viz., the im-
perfection of human nature.
A witty old English author says, that " errant knights were arrant
knaves." And another remarks, that "their horses groan under the
burden, not of weapons, but of wine; not with lances, but cheeses ;
not with swords, but with bottles ; not with spears, but with spits."
This is spleen.
It is difficult to define the precise period of the duration of
chivahy. It was a hght which was kindled in a dark age,
and it went out when that age was beginning to be brightened
with superior himinaries. Viewing tke subject in its great
and leading bearings, chivalry may be said to be coeval with
the middle ages o^ Europe, and all its power ceased when
new systems of warfare were matured, when the revival of
letters was complete and general, and the reformation of re-
ligion gave a new subject for the feelings and thoughts of
men.
Romances.
A peculiarity of the middle ages, connected with chivalry
and subservient to it, was the production of Romances. These
were books which describe an extravagant kind of chivalry,
and were then read with singular avidity, and indeed con-
stituted the principal reading of the people. They were so
called, from the language in which they were written ; Ro-
mance, a mixture of the Gallic and Latin. They first ap-
peared about the middle of the twelfth century, and their ori-
gin is to be traced to the Provenjal Troubadours, a sort of
story tellers and bards in Provence. In these productions, it
has been observed, appeared the first dawnings of modern
Uterature.
§ The more ancient romances did not record contemporary events^
since fiction or exaggeration hero would liave been detected. Their
PILGRIMAGES. 377
subjects were an ideal chivalry. They depicted not only knigiits,
settin<r forth to rctlress ;ill manner of wrongs, but magicians, dra-
gons and giants, invulnerable men, winged horses, enchauied armour,
and enctianted castles ; adventures which nobody could really be-
lieve, but tiie possibility of which, owing to the ignorance ana su-
perstition of tlie times, miglit liL-ve been admitted by the readers.
Among others of the early romances, the follcv.'ing were cek bra-
ted, viz: — tlie Seven Champions of Christendom, Sir Launcelot,
Aniadis de (Jaul, CliarlcMuagne and liis Twelve Peers, King Arthur,
and the noble knights of tlie Round Talile. From these sprung a
progeny no less wild and extravagant, till in a subsequent era, at a
considerable distance, a revolution occurred in this species of wri-
ting. Komances of a new order, api)eared in the Astraea of Durfe,
the Grand Cyrus, the Clelia and Cleopatra, of Mad. Scuderi, and
others, which, tliough leaving out the dragons and necromancers,
were still unnatural, and loo marvellous for belief. Both classes of
these; productions, pariool; of a moral and virtuous turn, and highly
extolled heroisin, generosity, and p'ety. The familiar novel of mod-
ern ages, was the last form of the Romance.
These books, as an juitlicn- lias observed, "composed upon the
striking subjects of gidlantry, war, satire, and history, first awaken-
ed Europe froiri its ignorance and lethargy, amused the minds of
men with grotesque and lively images and descriptions, and first
laught them to think, reflect, and judge upon subjects of imagina-
tion." Much of the popular literature of Italy, consisted of roman-
ces ; and llie chief topics of them were the exploits, both in arms
'and amours, of Ch.arlemagne and Ids Paladins. In England, so much
wa"? thought of romances, that Caxton, the father of English print-
ing, could exhort, " Read tiie noble volumes of St. Graal. of Laun-
celot, of Perceforest, of Gawayn, of Tristem, of Galaod, of Perce-
val, and many more. Then shall you see manhood, courtesy, and
gentilness."
Pilgrimages,
The pili^rimages so common (o the people of Europe, be
fore and at the time of the crusades, were journeys under
taken to some holy place, in order to adore the relics of some
deceased stiint. 'I'hey were considered meritorious acts, a re-
ligious discipline of great importance. It was about the mid-
dle ages of the church, that pilsrimages began to be made,
but their reputation was highest after the end of the eleventh
century, when almost every one was inclined to visit places of
devotion, not excepting kings and princes, and even bishops
did not hesitate to alisent themselves from their churches, on
the same account. The places most visited, were Jerusalem,
Rome, Tours, and Compostella.
§ Jerusalem, as the resort of pil-jrims, was far the most famous
32*
378 GENERAL VIEWS.
and all the wars of the crusades were occasioned on account of that
place. As to Compostella, we find that in 1428, abundances of li-
censes were granted by the crown of England, to captains of Eng-
lish ships, for carrying numbers of devout persons thither, to the
shrine of St. James, provided, however, that those pilgrims should
first bind themselves by an oath, not to take any thing prejudicial to
England, nor to reveal any of its secrets, nor to carry out with them
any more gold or silver, than what would be sufficient for their
reasonable expenses.
In almost every country where popery has been established, pil-
grimages have been common. In England, the shrine of St. Tho-
mas-a-Becket, was the chief resort of the pious, and in Scotland, St.
Andrew's, where, as tradition informs us, was deposited a leg of the
holy apostle ! In Ireland, pilgrimages have been continued, even
down to modern times.
Manners and Character of the Gothic^ or Scandinavian
Nations.
The brevity of the plan of this work, will not admit a separate ac-
count of the manners and character of the various nations, whose
history it narrates. The genius and national character of the Ro-
mans, during the long period in v/liich they were masters of the
world, have been exhibited to some extent* in the political history of
that people. The manners and character of the present nations of
Europe, and of nations decended from them, in other parts of the
globe, except the particidars included in the account of chivalry,
the feudal system, &c. already given, must be learned from more ex-
tended works. But in regard to those barbarous nations of the north,
who conquered the Roman empire, and from whom many of the
present European communities are descended, it is proper that some-
thing should be said in these General Views. The manners and in-
stitutions of these tribes, are curious objects of inquiry, from their
influence on tlie constitutions and national character of most of the
modern kingdoms of Europe. The inhabitants of these kingdoms
a)-e a mixed race, compounded of the Goths and of the nations whom
they subdued, and consequently the manners, laws, and institutions
of the conquerors and the conquered, would naturally affect and
modify those of one another.
The Gothic, or Scandinavian nations, were the Goths,
properly so called, the Gepidae, the Lombards, the Heruli,
and the Vandals. Other barbarous tribes from the north of
Asia or Europe, were the Huns, Alains, Bulgari, Suevi,
Biirgundians, Franks, Alcmani, Normans, Saxons, &c. The
[)arts wliich these various nations acted, in the political histo-
ry of the world, have been described in the proper place.
Their manners, ciiaractcr, (fcc. particularly those of the Scan-
GOTHIC NATIONS. 379
rlinavlati tribes, may be learned, in part, from the following
brief account.
(1.) Some characteristics were common to them all. What-
ev'er diflerence of manners and customs there may have been
among the various tribes of Scandinavian origin, the promi-
nent features of their character, apjiear to have been the
t-aliie. They were formed by all their haljits and education
for a brave and conquering race. The corrupted Roman
world could not but fall before a people, whose bodily frame
was invigorated by the climate which they inhabited, and
inured to danger and fatigue, whose habitual occupation was
war, and whose rehgion taught them that the loss of life in
battle, was a certain passport to the halls of Odin.
§ The Scandinavian and Scythian nations, probably had the same
origin, inasmuch as they agreed in manners and institutions. The
characteristics of the Scythians, as given by Ilerodolus, may be ap-
plied to the Scandinavians. Their life was spent in hunting, pastu-
rage, and predatory war. They entertained a high respect for their
women, despised learning, and for many ages had no otlier records
than the songs of their bards.
The theology of the Scandinavians, was a proper index of their
manners. One of their leading articles in religion, Avas to be intre-
pid in tight. As, moreover, they believed the world to be the work
of some superior intelligences, so they held that it was regulated
and fixed by an unalterable destiny. These notions had a won-
derful effect on the national manners, and on the conduct of in-
dividuals. The Scandinavian had no other delight, than what war
afforded ; he entertained an absolute contempt of danger and of
death : and the larger the number of his enemies slain in battle, the
more highly was he esteemed by others, and himself. The solace of
his departing spirit, was a recital of his acts of carnage.
His God was Odin, a God clothed with every terror, and delighting
in war, revenge and slaughler. From him and Frea, the heavenly
mother, sprung various lesser divinhies; as Thor, wiio perpetually
wars against Loke and his evil giants ; and the virgins of the Val
halla, whose office it is to minister to the departed heroes. The
joys of paradise are fighting, perpetual carnage, and drinking beer
out of the skulls of their enemies. Of these joys, the cowardly are
never suffered to partake.
There was a great similarity between the manners of the Scandi-
navians, and those of the ancient Germans. The latter, however,
seem to liave sprung from a different origin. The Germans as well
as the Gauls, were branches of the CellcC, a great original nation,
who inhabited most of the countries of Europe, south of the Baltic^
before they were invaded by the Scandinavian tribes. The religion
of the Celtae, differed in some respects from that of their northern
neighbours, ihowgh it was founded on the same principles. It was
380 GENERAL VIEWS-
tiie Druidical system. They usually performed their devotions m
sacred groves, woods or forests. Of their sacrifices, horses were ac-
counted the most acceptable, but their altars, like those of most bar-
barous nations, were sometimes sprinkled with human blo'id.
The warriors of Scandinavia, upon their settlement in me provin-
ces of the Roman emoire, soon lost much of their native ferocity and
barbarism. Sometime previously to this change in their condition,
they had nominally emljraced Christianity, and their morality had
become respectable. The Gothic conquerors of Rome, generally
spared the noble works of art, and Theodoric the Great, at the head
of the Gothic monarchy in Italy, was an excellent sovereign, mild,
indulgent, prudent, and enlightened. Under this monarch, and even
under Alaric, Amalasonte, and Totila, the Romans were treated with
an indulgence which they could scarcely have expected. Their
government was monarchical ; at first elective, afterwards heredita-
ry, in the sense that the sovereign on his death bed appointed his
successor.
(2.) A few things may be noticed as applicable to particu
lar tribes. There were some diversities of character and in-
stitutions, that tlirow additional hght on the genius and man-
ners of modern civilized nations.
§ The Goths, properly so called, appear to have been famed, even
in the earliest ages, for their hospitality and kindness to strangers.
They encouraged the study of philosophy, above all other barbarous
nations : and Horace has bestowed some warm encomiums on the
virtue of their women. Poligamy, however, was universally coun-
tenanced among them ; and their martial disposition, induced them
to commit many unvv'arrantable depredations on tlie territories of
their neighbours. Their principal weapons consisted of bearded
lances, and missile hatchets. Their government was monarcliical.
After the Goths, upon their conquest of the Roman empire, be-
came divided into Ostrogoths and Visogoths, their policy somewhat
varied. The former enforced, in their new dominions, the ol3ser-
vance of the Roman laws. Tlie latter adliered to a code compiled
by their own sovereigns, and founded on their ancient manners and
usages. From tliis code may be gathered much information respect-
ing their national character and genius.
Tlie following are a few particulars, imparting this information,
"It is enacted by laws of the Visogoths, that no judge shall decide
in any law suit, unless he finds in that book, a law applicable to the
case. All causes that fall not under this description, are reserved
for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but
tempered with equity. No punishment can affect the heirs of the
criminal. Death was the punishment of the murder of a freeman,
and perpetual infamy of the nuuxler of a slave. Pecuniary fines
were enacted for various suliordinate offences, according to their
measures of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in bondage to
the injured husband ; and the free woman who had committed adul-
tery with a married man, became llie slave of his wife. No physi-
LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 381
cian Avas allowed to visit a female patient, but in the presence of her
nearest kindred. The lex taliationis was in great observance for
such injuries as admitted of it."
The Heruli appear to have had some laws peculiar to themselves ;
for among them, when persons had attained to a certain age, they
were placed on a pile of wood, put to death, and their bodies re-
duced to ashes. When a man died, his wife was obliged either to
strangle herself on his tomb, or become an object of universal con-
tempt ; and human sacrifices were frequently oflcred to appease the
gods of the country. The generality of the people were distin-
guished for courage, swiftness, and activity ; but their manners were
greatly corrupt, and every kind of impurity was practised without
shame or control. Their government is said to have been monar-
chical ; but it appears that their kings possessed a very small share
of authority, and diiTered but little, in any respect, from their
subjects.
The Huns, though not of Scandinavian origin, but from the
vast deserts boi'dering on the north of Cliina, were a hardy, warlike,
and ferocious people, who at first subsisted entirely on roots or raw
meat ; lived constantly exposed to the air in the woods, or among
the excavations of tlie movmtains ; were accustomed even to eat
and sleep on horseback; and professed the utmost contempt for
raiment, houses, and other conveniences of life. They were desti-
tute equally of religious and civil institutions, and abandoned them-
selves without restraint to the gratification of their imruly passions.
Hence we find them making frequent incursions into the Roman
empire, in defiance of the most solemn oaths, and even occasionally
turning their arms against their own countrymen for a pecuniary
reward. Their distinctive character and institutions were lost, after
they were subdued by Charlemagne, and dispersed among othei
nations.
Learning and the Arts.
Sect. 1. The interesting topics embraced in this article
may be treated synch ronically, or according to certain eras.
Inckidiiig literature, science, philosophy, and the fme arts,
such as painting, sculpture, and architecture, they are too
numerous and extensive to be treated particularly according
to the different states or nations, in so compendious a work as
the present. The mere sketch here to be presented, will in-
clude three eras. 1. From the close of the Augustan age
to the destruction of the Western Roman empire, or the com-
mencement of the dark ages. 2. From the commencement
of the dark ages to the revival of learning in the 1.5th cen-
tury. 3. From the revival of learning to the present time.
382 GENERAL VIEWS.
§ The Augustan age of literature may be considered as extending
a few years into the period assigned as the commencement of mo-
dern history ; for Livy, Ovid, and Phaedrus lived and wrote till after
the Christian era.
2. In the First Era, we have to notice the gradual and
very perceptible decay of literature, and poUte learning. Im-
mediately succeeding the Augustan age, there were many
persons of superior erudition and intellectual powers, but
whatever pertains to taste and elegant literature, began
visibly to decline. A pompous, affected, and false style
of writing, soon prevailed in the room of the classic beau-
ties of the age of Cicero, Virgil, Horace, and TibuUus.
No works so finished as those of these masters, were pro-
duced after the Augustan age ; and though there were
writers whose endowments and genius were quite equal
to those of the above named, yet their deficiency in taste, is
too certainly indicated by luxuriance of ornament, and by
continual efforts after brilliancy of thought and expression.
In science and philosophy, the decline is not so perceptible
at first, as it was towards the middle or conclusion of the
era. Perhaps at first, if there was any difference, science
and philosophy were more indebted to some of the writers
succeeding the Augustan age, than to any who flourished
during that age.
§ In poetry, Lucan, Juvenal, and even Martial, have a native power,
but little, if at all inferior to that of Virgil, Horace, or Ovid, how-
ever they may fail as to purity of style compared witli the latter.
Yet in general, it must be allowed that the writers who figured
in polite literature, during this era, were deficient both in art and
genius, as is evident from the works of Statins, Siiius Italicus, and
Valerius Flaccus. Affected obscurity, bombast, and new-coined
words, are too heavy a tax for the few occasional felicities of repre-
sentation found in these authors.
In physical science, Pliny the Elder, was a great name ; in moral
philosophy, Seneca and Marcus Antoninus, shine with a superioi
lustre. These writers, with Plutarcli the biographer, and Tacitus
the historian, and a few others, were men of great power, though
the faults of their style are to be regretted. The Natural History
of Pliny, is a most valuable repository of the knowledge at that time
possessed, in physics, ueconomics, and the arts and sciences.
3. The princes who succeeded Augustus, were no enemies
to literature, and some of them were not only patrons of
learning, but were learned themselves. They were, however,
despots, and despots of a different stamp from Augustus.
LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 383
Generally, they favored a literature wliich harmonized with
"despotism ; and genius beiuo- indulg^cd at the risk of life, was
cramped within narrow bounds. Eloquence was abandoned
to pedants. Sophists at length occuj)icd the chair of phi-
losophy.
§ Towards the conclusion of tliis era, learning, taste, and genius,
greatly declined. Very few of tlie later writers observed, or seemed
to comprehend, the perfect models of the Augustan age. A small
number of poets, as Ausonius, Prudentius, and Claudian, wrote
elegant and harmonious verses, but they exhibited no commanding
genius, and depicted no powerful passions. We look in vain in
them for the happy invention and artificial conduct of an interest-
ing fable, or a just and lively representation of the characters and
situations of I'cal life. Seldom do they contain any thing sublime
or patlietic. A few philosophers, philologists, and historians, ap-
peared between the age of Constantine and the destruction of the
empire, but no names are peculiarly distinguished. We read of
some great names as connected with the dt 'fence of Christianity,
though the style of writing prevalent at that time, and especially
among that class of authors, was very faulty. There were hardly
any vestiges of the ancient classic taste, towards the close of the
empire.
4. Seminaries of learning, at Rome and in Italy, were first
endowed from the public treasury by Vespasian. The prin-
cipal school next to that of Rome, was at Milan. In Greece,
the schools of Athens continued to flourish for a considerable
time, and when the seat of the Roman empire was transfer-
red to Constantinople, that city included, for more than a
thousand years, most of the literature and books that existed.
Previously to that time, and during the decline of the empire,
the destruction of books was extended and increased, in the
midst of the turbulence and rapine of the civil contests for
the imperial throne.
Until the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews had
schools in Judea, particularly at Bethhoran Jerunia, and Ti-
berias. In the schools of Egypt, the chief of which was
Alexandria, were taught the Greek philosoph)', mathematics,
'urisprudence, medicine, magic, and astrolog}'.
§The despotism, disorders, civil commotions, and unparalleled suf-
ferings of the Roman people in the latter stages of their political ex-
istence, together with the destruction of libraries and books, could
not but prepare the way for the melancholy era Avhich followed in
regard to the debasement of tlie human intellect.
It may be remarked, that the arts declined with literature and
Science — the cultivation of them being neglected amidst the troubles
384 GENERAL VIEWS.
of the times. The Eomans, as they were never eminent in any of
the arts dependant on design, employed Greelc artists, for the most
part. But httle encouragement was given to architecture, or to the
labours of tlie chisel and pencil, in the latter periods of the empire.
All things were tending towards a state of ignorance and barbarism
among the nations.
5. Li tlie Second Era, which begins and ends with the
dark ages, as they have been commonl}^ called, we have to
remark an extraordinary depiession of the human mind
duiing a long period. The time that intervened between the
fall of the Western empire of Rome, and the era of the re-
vival of learning, was nearly one thousand years, during
which, the world presented a sad scene of ignorance, barbn
rism, and misrule. There were, however, some intervals of
hght, as in the times of Al Rascliid, when Arabian literature
flourished, and of Henry 11. , when in England, Henry of
Huntingdon, and some others, studied and wrote. At Con-
stantinople, there was throughout the whole period, a degree
of refinement and knowledge. The central poition of the
era was the darkest, including the ninth, tenth and eleventh
centuries. The classic authors ended with the former part
of the era, as also the spoken Latin tongue.
The civilized nations bound up together in one mighty
and unwieldy community, had been prepared by a variety of
causes, for the catastrophe which awaited them. The nor-
thern invaders did not originate ; at most, they onl^^ hastened
this catastrophe. As much of ignorance and ferocity as they
brought with them, they became, upon their settlement in the
south of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the native citizens
themselves. Considering tlieir previous habits and temper,
they did more than could have been expected, to preserve
learning and the arts for a time, in the dominions wliich they
concjuered. Without the agency of the northern invaders,
darkness and barbarism would have covered the world, so
long as such abuses of human rights, and especially of the
divine system of the Gospel, were suffered to exist. Still
the conflict of arms, and the overturning of the empire, could
not but have given a shock to learning and the arts.
§ " In the revolution of ten centuries," says Gibbon, " not a single
discovery was made to exalt the dignity, or promote the happiness
of mankind. Not a single idea has been added to the speculative
systems of antiquity. Not a single composition of history, philoso-
LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 385
phy or literature, has been saved from oblivion by the intrinsic
beauties of style or sentiment, of original fancy, or even of suc-
cessful imitation." "Of the writings of antiquity,"' sa3s tlic same
author, "many tliai existed in the twelfth century arc now lost: the
literature of the Greeks had almost centered in the metropolis : and
without computing the extent of our loss, we may droj) a tear over
the libraries that have perished in the triple fires of Constantinople."
The ignorance and infelicities of the dark ages, cannot perhaps be
easily overrated. Tiiose times, compared Avith our own, enjoying as
we do the meridian light of knowledge and religion, must have been
indeed undesirable. But there is a side to the {HCture, which is not
altogether cheerless. There were some bright and joyous scenes;
and the relish of life in certain portions of tlie community, mwst have
been strfing, if we may judge from the noble works of gothic archi-
tecture which were then erected — from the convivialities of baronial
halls — from the gayeties of chivalry — and from the inspiring strains
of the troubadours. The love of a sort of intellectual display, was
indeed mingled with grosser propensities. But this is the most
favourable aspect of the dark ages.
.Christianity, properly understood, and exercising its due influence
on the imderstanding and character, must be a warm friend of know-
ledge and literature ; but the spurious christianit)^ beheved and acted
upon in the dark ages, was hostile to some of the noblest produc-
tions of the human mind. The temples of llie heathens, with the
public libraries they contained, were the olijects of vengeance and
destruction. The classics were regarded as sinful books. In addition
to these causes, the devastations of the northern conquerors, notwith-
standing the commendable moderation which characterized them
generally — and the plunder of Milan, which, next to Rome, was the
chief repository for books in Italy — necessarily reduced the number
of manuscripts, and so far injured the interests of learning.
After the commencement of the sixth century, scarcely any
writers or men of genius worthy of notice appeared. The scien-
ces suffered great decay. Taste was fast extinguishing. A sort of
attention was p;iid to learning during these times, but with little or
no effect. The common course of studies in all the schools was
grammar, logic, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astrono-
my. The first three were called Trivium, or trifling studies : the
last four Quadrivium or high studies. A vain and ideal philosophy
had begun universally to infect the minds of men.
When we come to the more palpable darkness of the present era,
we find that literature, science, and taste, were words but little known
and used. Many of the clergj^ whose profession should have se-
cured to them a competent degree of knowledge, did not under-
stand the breviary, which they were obliged daily to recite ; some
of them could scarcely read* it. The human mind, in general,
neglected, uncultivated, and depressed, sank in the most profound
. ignorance. Charlemagne, and after him Alfred the Great, by their
V superior genius, endeavoured to dispel this darkness, and to giye
33
386 GENERAL VIEWS.
their subjects a short gUmpse of light. But the ignorance of their
respective times was too powerful for their efforts and institutions.
The darkness returned and prevailed throughout Europe more or
less, till about the middle of the fifteenth century.
The scarcity of books in those times, and the nature of theii
subjects, as legends, lives of t!ie saints, «Scc. evince the singular
dearth of learning. What of learning was cultivated, was confined
to a few ecclesiastics. The monks of those religious houses whose
rules did not proliibit the reading of the classics, turned their atten-
tion to procuring and copying manuscripts. Most of these indeed
were wortliless ; but truth obliges the historian to add, that some of
the abbots, and even the monks, employed themselves in procuring
or copying tlie choicest works of Greece and Rome. Cassiodorus,
to use the words of Gibbon, " after passing thirty years in the
lionours of the world, was blessed with an equal term of repose in
the devout and studious solitude of Squillace." To this place, the
monastery of Jionte Cassio, in Calabria, he carried his own extensive
library, wliich he greatly enlarged by manuscripts bought in various
parts of Italy. His fondness for literature spread among the monks ;
and he encouraged them to copy manuscripts. What he did there
seems to have been imitated in the other monasteries of that part of
Italy; for fifty religious houses there are mentioned, which aftei'-
wards principally supplied tlie libraries of Rome, Venice, Florence,
and Milan, with books.
The only national exception to the profound ignorance of the
middle portion of the dark ages, were the Arabians. Tlnit part of
Europe which they held, viz. Spain, was inuch more enlightened
than any of the other states. The caliph Al Raschid rendered
Bagdad illustrious, by the successful cultivation of the arts and
sciences. At the same time the Moors of Cordova emulated their
brethren of llie East in pursuing a similar course. The sciences to
which the Arabians were devoted, were principally medicine, geo-
metry, and astronomy. In the end of the 10th century, they intro-
duced into Europe the use of figures instead of letters.
The arts, like literature and science, were low in this era of igno-
rance. This was the case even Avith the mechanic arts during
much of the time. The fine arts, particularly sculpture and paint-
ing, were preserved from absolute extinction, only by the existing
remains of ancient art. Charlemagne, in his time, seems to have
been solicitous for the improvement of music, and the Italians arc
said to have instructed his French performers in the art of playing
on the organ. The musical gamut was invented in the 11th centu-
ry. Architecture was cultivated in a style termed the Gothic, which,
notwithstanding its barbarous proportions, possesses a beauty pecu-
liar to itself.
In the 12th century there was the dawn of literature in England
under William of Malmsbury, Geoff'rey of Monmouth, Henry of
Huntingdon, Giraldus Cambrensis and others. It M-as, however, a
transient dawn, and darkness again succeeded. The barbarism and
subtleties of the schools triumphed over the better principles and
LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 387
tlie more correct taste which had begun to prevail. The great
teachers and patterns of logic and scholastic divinity, were charac-
terized by the high-sounding epithets of divine, angelical, irrefraga-
ble, &c. The most eminent among these teachers, otherwise called
schoolmen, were Lanfranc, Abelard, Petrus Lombardus, Thomas
Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. Their great business seems to have
been to make innumerable nice and metaphysical distinctions,
founded neitlier in nature nor good sense, and to draw conclusions
which had no moral end whatever. Their speculations were found-
ed on the philosophy of Aristotle, and the folly lasted long after
the light had shone on other departments of human investigation.
6. Ill passing to the Third Era, which commences
with the revival of learning during the 15th century, we
notice a favoural)le change, though not at first strongly
marked. It is difficult to fix upon the exact point where the
darkness ended, and the light began. The transition was
too gradual to admit of nice discrimination. Occasionally,
a distinguished individual appeared towards the conclusion
f}f the era of darkness, and some nations were in advance of
others as to the cultivation of learning. In the middle of the
13th century, Roger Bacon arose; and as Wickh fie at the
distance of a century and a half from the Reformation has
been called its "morning star," so may Bacon, preceding the
revival of learning by nearly the same distance, be entitled
to a similar distinction. He was the morning star of the
restoration of letters in Europe. To his original genius and
vast scholarship, tlie advancement of science in subsecjuent
times is singularly indebted. His own age was too unen-
lightened to appreciate his merits or to profit by his discove-
ries. In the 14th century also, men of genhis arose in Italy,
who were devoted to classical learning and the cultivation of
their native tongue. The works of Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccacio have fixed the standard of the Italian language.
In the same age also, flomished the English Gbaucer and
Gower,and the accomplished James I.of Scotland, allof whom,
by their learning, genius, and taste, were fitted to give a cha-
racter to the time in which they lived. Spain also at this
period began to emerge from ignorance and barbarishj.
Although on some accounts we might be tempted to fix on
the 14tli century as the era of the revival of learning, we
are on other accounts led rather to fix on the period com-
monly assigned, viz. the 15tli century.
A few nations only felt at this time the spirit which has
388 GENERAL VIEWS.
been described, and that to a very small extent. It wasj
moreover, poetry only that then attained a degree of splen-
dour. There was but little advancement in general literature
and science. Miracles and fables were wOven too much into
the texture of history, though we find much curious informa-
tion in the writings of Walsingham, Everard, Duysburg,
and particularly Froissart. France and England, thongh
they contained a few learned men, were in general extremely
barbarous. Few books, and scarcely any classics, were found"
in either of these countries. During nearly a hundred years
from the time of Petrarch, little advance was made ; but a
concurrence of circumstances, favourable to the development
of the human intellect, took place, which eventually altered
the whole aspect of affairs. Every subsequent age has felt
the effects which in the middle of the I5th century proceeded
from a taste for classical learning, from the dispersion of the
Greeks on the fall of Constantinople, and especially from the
noble invention of the art of printing. I'hese were the
principal causes which renovated the intellect of Europe..
General literature and the fine arts first felt their influence ;
and after the dominion of Aristotle was brolvcn by the great
Sir Francis Bacon, in the beginning of the 17th century,
discovery succeeded discovery, and the most astonishing
efforts of genius were put forth in science and philosophy.
Improvements in knowledge have been making ever since,
till, at the present time, both Europe and America enjoy the
clear and full light of an intellectual sun.
A volume would scarcely suffice for a satisfactory account of the
particulars, by which the above might be profitably illustrated and
expanded. The few notices that follow are all that the design of
thi.s work can admit, and can furnish only a very slight sketch of thv3
revival of learning, of the intellectual advancement since made, and
of the present state of literature, science, philosophy, and the fine artS;
Long- before the fall of Constantinople, the love of classical litera-
ture had been gradually reviving ; — that event increased it by com-
pelling a great number of learned Greeks to seek a shelter in Italy.
But it could not be gratified, till the manuscripts, which lay buried
and neglected, were brought to light. The discovery of manuscripts,
therefore, was a most important step in the restoration of learning.
In some former centuries classical manuscripts had been looked up,
and particularly by Pope Silvester II., in the tenth century. Petrarch
and IBoccacio, in the fourteenth' century, were zealous and successful
labourers in this field. But no man, during the first half of the
fifteenth century, devoted himself Avith so much industry to the
search of manuscripts, or made so good a use of them, as Poggio.
LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 389
His youth \\ rts spent in travelling, to attain what seemed to be the
sole objei ; df his lile. To these names may be added those of the
Medici I'amiiy ; ; '^o Emanuel C.'hrysoloras, who was one of the first
that introduced a knowledge of the Greek language into Italy ; and
Theodore Gaza. At tiiis important era there arose also a succession
of enlightened and muniticent popes, who gave eveiy encouragement
to learning and tlie sciences. Among these Leo X., soon after the
beginning of the sixteenth century , was the most conspicuous. It
was during his pontificate, tiiat a perpetual indulgence was granted
for rebuilding the church of a monastery, because it possessed a
manuscript of Tacitus.
As a neglect of the standard works of Greece and P«,ome was one
great cause of the decline of learning, and o[ the bad taste and bar-
barism of the middle ages ; so a renewed attention to those works
was one great cause of the restoration of learning, taste, and refine-
ment. From an accurate knowledge of the masterpieces of antiqui-
ty, two great advantages resulted, viz. the scholar acquired tlie rich
stores of ancient thought and eloquence, and he learned the art, by
imitating such perfect models, of expressing his own ideas with per-
spicuity and elegance. In the exercise of the new studies, the Italians
were the first, and the most numerous ; and there soon shone among
them an illustrious constellation, having Ariosio and Tasso foremost
in the train. It was not long before -these improvements were re-
ceived in other countries, and spread their influence over France,
England, Spain, and Hungary. In France, Amyot and Marot, the
one in prose, the other in verse, wrote with a sweetness and simpli-
city unknown before; and the ])oetry of Malherbe glowed with all
the fire of genius. The last writer is more commonly considered as
the father of French poetry. In England, Henry VIII., and his
minister, Wolsey, gave considerable countenance to letters, and the
English writers and scholars who had the greatest influence in re-
storing elegant learning, were, Sir Thomas More, Linacre, Lily,
and Hector Boece.
In the former part of the present era, criticism, poetry, and history,
as well as classical studies, made a rapid progress in most of the
kingdoms of Europe. Criticism and general learning were advanced
by the researches of Scaliger, Era«;mus, and others on the continent.
Poetry attained to considerable distinction. Dramatic composition
began to be regular towards the conclusion of the 16th century.
Some finished epics were produced in Italy, particularly the Orlando
Furioso of Ariosio, and the Jerusalem Delivered of Tasso. Lyric
poetry was cultivated in Italy. France, and England, but not with so
much success. In history, Machiavel particularly excelled, though,
like Tacitus, he was fond of those ambiguous expressions, dry phrases,
and abrupt turns, which, under the appearance of brevity, border on
obscurity and bad taste. The French De Thou wrote accurate his-
tory in the purest latinity. Science and philosophy, however, did not
keep pace with literature. Aristotle, whose works were the great
text-book of knowledge, and whose logic was the only weapon ot
truth in the middle ages, reigned over the schools till the 17th ceii-^
390 GENERAL VIE^rF'.
lury. A few, nevertheless, arose in the lot! and l<^th centuries fc
dispute his authority, among whom were Copei nicus, Luther, Ramus,
Bruno, Campanella, and others. But legislatures and inquisitions
were against them. In regard to Ramus, it may be remarked that in
an edict of the French parliament, he was gravely pronounced to be
"insolent, impudent, and a liar, and he was solemnly prohibited from
copying, or even reading his own works !"
Soon after the commencement of the present era, the fine arts passed
suddenly from obscurity to splendour. Statuary and painting were
at their lowest ebb in the middle ages. They had revived a little in
the ]3th and 14ih centuries. A few painters in those ages imitated
nature with some fidelity, but they were altogether destitute of grace
or elegance.- Bouchet, a Greek by birth, was the hrst architect,
Nicolas the first sculptor, and Ciraabue the first painter, that re-
covered the antique style from the ruins of Rome and Greece. But
these attained only to mediocrity. Towards the end of the loth
century, however, in the great age of Leo. X., Raphael and M. An-
gelo carried the art of painting to perfection. The masterpieces of
antiquity were their models. And Angelo and others at the same
time carried also statuary and architecture to perfection. In painting,
these artists were lolioAved by names of great distinction, as those
of Titian, Giorgione, Corregio, and others. Italy most excelled in
the production of painters, but Germany, Flanders, and Switzerland,
Avere not undistinguished. The most eminent oi the schools were
those of Rome, Florence, Lombardy, and Flanders. These several
schools were characterized by peculiar attributes, which it is here un-
necessary to describe.
In that which maybe considered the middle portion of the present-
era, viz. the 17lh century, the human mind put forth its mightiest ef-
forts, and the most profound researches were made in science, phi-
losophy, and literature. The foundation was then laid for the im-
provements that have since been realized, in every department of
study and intellectual effort. That period was distinguished through-
out for inventive genius, originality of thought, depth of investiga-
tion, and solid acquisitions. Philosophy had been trammelled by the
schools till the beginning of the ITth century, when Bacon, Lord
Verulam, disenthralled the human mind, and taught the sure method
of advancing knowledge, by experiment and the observation of na-
ture. He sketched the outline of one grand and comprehensive plan,
that should include in it the endless varieties of our knowledge, and
guide our inquiries in every branch. The progress of philosophy was
not, however, rapid at first. Much of theorizing remained even in
Gasscndi and Des Cartes, the latter of whom, according to Le Grand,
found out more truths than all the philosophers who went before him.
But Newton at length arose, who, imbibing most deeply the spirit of
the Baconian philosophy, completely dispelled the illusions which
Bacon before him had detected and exposed. Before the light of his
investigating intellect the dreams of more than 2000 years utterly
vanished. Locke, the contemporary of Newton, applied the same
mode of inquiry to the study of the mind, and overthrowing the sys-'
LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 391
l!ems of the old philosophers, met Avith nearly the same success as
his compeer in physics.
On the continent, a century anterior to the time of Bacon, Coper-
nicus published his system of the planets, (the true system,) which the
Romish church, in liie plenitude of its wisdom, condemned. Galileo,
nearly a century before the time of Newton, constructed telescopes,
and discovered the satellites of the larger planets. But the same
churcli saw fit to imprison the illustrious astronomer. Kepler, about
the same time, and contemporaneous with Bacon, discovered the
laws of the planetary motions. But Kepler, as well as Tycho Brahe
before, and Iluygens after him, by not observing the method of science
fell into error. Instead of following, Tycho Brahe anticipated na-
ture, in taking it as a certain fact that the earth must be at rest.
Kepler imagined that the plan-ets must be six in number, because of
certain properties of numbers. Huygens suffered himself to be im-
posed on in a similar way. The discoveries in astronomy in that
age led to improvements in navigation, and a great advancement in
geometry in all its branches. In Scotland, logarithms were invented
by Napier, in 1614, by which calculation was abridged and the ac-
quisition of science facilitated. Many instruments, besides the tele-
scope already mentioned, connected with the advancement of know-
ledge, were invented in the middle portion of the present era. In
Italy, Torricelii invented the barometer, by Avhich the weight of the
atmosi)here is determined. The same instrument was invented also
in France, by Pascal. Before this time (1610,) the thermometer
was invented in Holland, as also the miscroscope in 1619. England
claims the invention of the micrometer in 1640, and the air-pump
was invented by Guericke, at Magdeburg, in 1654. In the 17th cen-
tury also, several learned societies were instituted, as the Royal So-
ciety in England, an'd the Royal Academy of Sciences in France;
which have greatly contributed to the advancement of learning and
the useful arts. Indeed, the useful and mechanic arts Avere very
much multiplied during the century spoken of. Hundreds of con-
veniences and luxuries, Avhich were unknown to antiquity, sprung
into use ; though many others Avhich distinguish modern times, owe
their origin to an earlier period. A spirit of adventure and settle-
ment in distant regions eminently prevailed, and the globe Avas cir-
cumnavigated hy English, Uuich, and Spanish sailors. The sphere
of knowledge by these means Avas immensely enlarged.
The progress of literature, in the middle portion of the present era,
Avas no less remarkable than that of science and philosophy. Nu-
mero'js Avere the productions of taste and genius, and many of them
sustained the highest reputation. Minuteness of detail is precluded
here ; it can only be remarked in genera!, that Shakspeare, Milton,
Dryden-, and Addison, in England, and Corneille, Pascal, Moliere,
Racine, and La Fontaine, during the Augustan age, in France, pro-
duced Avorks which Avill be as lasting as the languages in Avhich they
are Avritten.
In this part of the present era the fine' arts continued to be cultiva-^
ed with success. It cannot be expected that the old school of paint-
392 GENERAL VIEWS.
ing, with Raphael and Angelo at its head, Avill ever be surpassed in
the essential perfections of the art. The second Roman school
flourished at this time, which included the Caraccis — three brothers
Guercino, Albano, Lanfranc, Domenichino, and Guide.
The last portion of the present era. comprising the eighteenth cen
tury, and the nineteenth thus far, is perhaps less distinguished than the
portion of it just reviewed, for profound attainments and original
works in science and literature. This seems to arise rather from the
force of circumstances, than from any other cause. Many subjects ot
investigation had been forestalled, yet great improvements have been
made in every department of knowledge, nor have discoveries been
wanting; and where the genius of former ages has not exhausted re
search, research has been made. Within this period some sciences have
been created, and others have been greatly advanced. By a course
of observation agreeably to the Baconian philosophy, the great prin-
ciples of chemistry, botany, electricity, galvanism, mineralogy, geol-
ogy, statistics, in many respects geography, and perhaps one or two
other sciences, have been fixed on a new and firm basis. Both the
science and the practice of astronomy have been carried to a very
high pitch, by the talents and ingenuity of many eminent persons in
France, Britain, Germany, Italy, &c. Five planets have been added
to those formerly known as belonging to our solar system. But it
would be endless to specify particulars in respect to the advancement
of knowledge.
In polite learning, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have
been greatly distinguished. The Augustan age of English literature
is said by some to have begun with the eighteenth century under
Queen Anne, and to have continued, without any visible decline, till
the accession of George III., a period rendered glorious by the names
of Addison, Swift, Congreve, Rowe, Steele, Prior, Pope, Young,
Watts, Thomson, and many others. But ever since the accession
of Georo-e III., though the period has been more particularly fruitful
in scientific and philosopliic research, there has been an illustrious
train of fine writers, with Johnson and Burke at their head ; and
though poetry declined in the latter part of the eighteenth century, a
new school has arisen since the commencement of the present cen-
tury, including several names, both in Great Britain and in the United
States, destined to immortality. In our own country literature has
made a rapid progress during the last twenty or thirty years, as is
also the case with every branch of learning. In lexicography we can
boast a standard work, (Webster's Dictionary,) which, it is believed,
for extent of learning, and accuracy of thought, is superior to any
other publication of the kind in the English language. In periodical
literature, both countries. Great Britain for a longtime, America more
recently, have made the most laudable efforts ; and indeed this is a
form in which the mind of all intellectual nations now chooses to ex-
hibit nmch of its wealth. It is needless to speak of continental
Europe in respect to polite learning, since it is impossible to particu-
larize. France and Germany have more especially excelled in works
of taste and imagination, as well as in the departments of science and^
LEARNING AND THE ARTS 393
philosophy. Other nations on the continent, however, have a share
m the glory of these noble pursuits.
During the eighteenth anil nineteenth centuries the fine arts have
been cultivated with much success. Architects, painters, and sculp-
tors, have generally received a patronage worthy of their merits.
Hogarth, Reynolds, Mengs, Cipriani, West, and David, in painting,
and Canova, Flaxman, and Chan trey, in sculpture, are great names.
American talent has been conspicuous in the former art. Within the
period here spoken of, there have been numerous inventions antl dis-
coveries, many of which are exceedingly important. By means of
them, the conveniences and comforts of life have been almost indefi-
nitely extended and multiplied. On these objects the human intellect
has been most vigorously and happily employed. The numerous in-
ventions which are designed to aid the various branches of manu-
factures, and the application of steam to the same and to many other
purposes, are the glory of the age. A very few of the more important
discoveries and inventions are the following, viz. : inoculation, and
much more recently vaccination, spinning machines, stereotype print-
ing, ligh<ning rods, life-boats, and life-preservers, the cotton-gin, en-
graving on steel plaies, steam engines, steam-boats, and locoiBotive
engines.
To concentrate and give effect to individual lahors, societies, in
more modern times, have been formed in all parts of the world ; and
on these now depends, in a great degree, the further improvem.ent of
mankind in knowledge. Thus in England there is the Royal Society
v/hich has been already mentioned, the Antiquarian Society, the
Royal Academy, the Society of Arts, and the Board of Agriculture.
In France there is what is now called tne Imperial or Royal Institute ;
and at Berlin, Madrid, Vienna, and Petersburg, there exist royal so-
cieties lilce those of London. America also has its literary associa-
tions, and there are others m India, and even Turkey — all laboring
for the promotion and propagation of knowledge.
The power of association for such a purpose, as well as for its great
Collateral object, viz. religion, was scarcely realized until compara-
tively of late years. It is a distinguishing; feature of the age, and will
doubtless be increasingly relied upon in future time. Multitudes of
students and readers have been brought into being by these means,
especially in connection with the periodical press. The extent to
which new53papers have been published in the United States, and
Great Britain, particularly the former, show how much may be calcu-
lated upon for the diffusion of knowledge, on that means alone. More
probably than two millions of prints of that kind are put into circula-
tion every week in these two countries. With every deduction on
account uf tlie light character of many of these vehicles of intelligence,
the amount of information which tliey dilTuse cannot but be consider-
able. That information, it is to be noted, operates, particularly in
the United States, on the great mass of the people It cannot be de-
nied, however, that these papers, in many instances, have produced
a degree of political animosity, that endangers the stability of free
institutions. It becomes importa-ut, tlierefore, that they should be
394 GENERAL VIEWS.
controlled in their character, by the good sense of the community, as
enlightened by early moral and religious instruction. The periodical
press, as it might and ought to be conducted, would be of incalculable
advantage, in respect both to the intelligence and morals of the com-
munity.
On the whole, as WG have now the advantage of looking over the
entire history of human genius, we arrive at the following result. " In
several of the fine arts, in which chiefly the taste and im.agination are
concerned, such as poetry, rhetoric, statuary, and architecture, the
ancients, according to the general opinion, have equalled, if not sur-
passed, any of the moderns. The ancients nobly distinguished them-
selves also in those more vigorous exercises of the understanding
which are demanded by pure mathematics ; in proof of which it is
sufficient to quote the name of Euclid and of Archimedes. But it
was reserved for the moderns to invent a calculus — a new and more
profound arithmetic, which was called for by a more exact acquaint-
ance with nature herself, and was to be applied to that more improved
state of natural science which is peculiar to later times ; we allude
to the doctrine oi jluxions, or to the differential method of Newton
and Leibnitz, since cultivated and applied to physical astronomy v/ith
great success by the French, and especially by La Place. In most ofi
those branches of knowladge, however, which rest on the basis of ex-'
■periment and observation, the ancients almost entirely failed. The
case is, that to form theories, or systems of science and philosophy,
from a hasty view of facts and appearances, is an easy task, since
this can be done without the labour of close and patient thinking: and
if antiquity be in truth, as Bacon represents it, but the childhood and
youth of the world, it is nothing more than we might expect, that, at
that period of its existence, imagination should prevail over reason ;
and that the calmer and more successful exercises of the latter should
not unfold themselves till a maturer age."
Discoveries and Inventions.
1. A passing notice only can be taken of the discoveries and inven-
tions which have characterized modern ages, as a full and adequate
account of them would require volumes. Many of them are alto-
gether new and original ; others are essential improvements of the
works of antiquity. Those of a mechanical character, will claim,
principal attention in this place, since some that pertain to science
and philosophy, are naturally included in the consideration of those
subjects. Somewhat of a chronological order will be observed. The
following are a few of the many inventions and discoveries that are
presented in modern history.
2. Corn Mills. In remote antiquity, corn was rather pounded
than ground ; and the hand-mills of which we read in scripture,
were probably not unlike the pestle and mortar still in use. Im
DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS 396
provements were made in these machines, till, in process of time,
shafts were added to them, and they were driven by cattle. The first
mention of public water-mills which occurs in the Roman laws, dates
in the year 39S, A. C, when some enactments were made, which
shew they were then considered as a new establisliment. These
mills were situated on the aqueducts which supplied Rome with water
and as tliese were cut off when the city was besieged by the Goths,
536, Belisarius, who commanded the garrison, caused boats to be
moored in the Tyber, on which he erected mills, which were driven
by the current. Hence the origin of tide mills. Wind-mills, which
for a long time were so constructed, that they could work only when
the wind was in one quarter, are not spoken of till tlie time of the
first crusade.
3. Clocks and Watches. — The art of constructing mechanical
clocks was unknown to the ancients. It was not until late in the
fifth century of the Roman era (293 B. C.) that the first sun-dial was
introduced into Rome. At a later period, a machine was invented
at Alexandria, termed a water-clock, which was simply a conical
glass, with the scale marked on the sides; and which, being per-
forated at the base, denoted the hour, as the liquid, with which it
was filled, subsided. To this may be traced the origin of the hour
glass, still in use.
The inventor of clocks moved by machinery, is not certainly known.
Several names of the ninth century have been mentioned, but there
jS reason to believe that the origin of the present invention is not
older than the eleventh century. About that time, clocks moved by
weights and wheels, certainly began to be used in the monasteries
of Europe. The writers of the thirteenth century, speak of them
as being well known ; still they were for a long time confined to mo-
nasteries. It was not till towards the close of the fifteenth century,
that they began to be used in private houses ; and about the same
time, mention is first made of watches. These were originally
formed in the shape of an egg, or at least of an oval, and catgut
supplied the place of a metal chain. The first watch is said to have
been made in Germany. In England, watches appear not to have
been in general use, until about the time of Queen Elizabeth.
The invention of pendulum clocks, is due to the mgenuity of
the seventeenth century, and the honour oi the discovery is disputed
between Galileo and Iluygcns. The most ancient, now existing in
England, is that of Hampton Court palace, the date of which is 1540.
4. Linen used as clothing'. — Although linen was known in an-
cient times in the East, and was introduced into Rome m the second
century, it was not used in Europe, in the form of a garment, till
sometime in the third century. It was earlier adopted for the table
than for the person. The emperor Alexander Severus, is said to have
been the first European, who wore a linen shirt. But inasmuch as
the web was usually interwoven with threads of gold, it was too
rough to be much of a luxury. The manufacture of this article
made but little progress in Europe, during the middle ages. It was
confined both then, and for a long period afterwards, to private familiee,
396 GENERAL VIEWS.
among whom it was made for domestic use ; and its scarcity as an
arlicle of apparel, has been considered as one chief caus^ of tiiat
cutaneous disorder, formerly called leprosy. About the nildriie of
the twelfth century, linen was so little known, that woollen shuts
were generally worn in Milan ; and flannel, or rather liiiseywolsey,
formed the usnal underclothing of ladies. Linen was first imported
into England from Flanders.
5. Glass Windows. — The venerable Bede tells us, that artificers,
skilled in linking glass for windows, were first brought into England
from the continent, in 674, and were employed in glazing the church
of the monastery at Wearmouth. But the art was not generally
practiced, and the hixury of such windows was slowly adopted, for
it was not until a century after the Norman conquest (1160, or 1170)
that they began to be used in private houses, and even then, few
could support such a style of magnificence. The manufacture o{
glass was not commenced in England, until the middle of the six-
teenth century.
■ 6. Glass Mirrors. — There is no positive evidence that glass mir-
rors v/ere known before the year 1279. At that time, an Englisli
Franciscan monk speaks of them, in a work on optics, but also men-
tions that they were covered on the back with lead. It may be in-
ferred that this invention cannot be much older, from the circum-
stance that glass mirrors were scarce in France, even in the four-
teenth century. Various methods were adopted to perfect the art,
before that which is now in use.
7. Mariner''.'! Coynpass. — The date of the invention of the mari-
ner's compass, is near the commencement of the fourteenth century.
Gioia, of Amalfi, in Naples, a celebrated mathematician, from his
knowledge of the magnetic powers, was the author or improver ol
this important contrivance. Tiie polarity of the magnet liad beeu
known in Europe, as early as the thirteenth century, but the com-
pass was not used in sailing, till the time of Gioia. It is said that
the Chinese, as in several oilier inventions or discoveries, lay claim
to a knowledge of the compass long before; but we may well be in-
credulous in regard to most of their pretensions of this sort, since
they are so much in accordance with that vanity, which derives
their national existence from ages long preceding the scriptural ac-
count of the creation. By this discovery, the dominion of the sea
lias been opened to man, and he is also put in full possession of the
terrestrial globe, by being enabled to visit every part of it. The art
of steering by this instrument, was gradually acquired. Sailors un-
accustomed to quit sight of land, durst not launch out and commit
themselves to unknown seas. The first appearance of a bolder spi-
rit may be dated from the voyages of the Spaniards to the Canary
Islands.
8. Gunpowder. — It is said that the Chinese claim acquaintance with
gunpowder from the remotest era of their history; but however
that may be, it is certain, that several centuries of the Ciiristian era
liad passed away before it was known in Europe. Some have
■ thought that the knowledge of it was obtained in Europe througJ).
DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 397
the Saracens, as early as the latter part of the seventh century ; but
It has more fjenerally been supposed, that Friai Bacon was tlie first
European who possessed the secret of the composition of gunpow-
der, and that he was the inventor. He certainly so far alludes to i*.
as to say, that from saltpetre and other ingredients, afire may be
made that shall burn at any distance. Bacon died in 1294.
9. Fire-arms. — It is generally admitted that artillery was used by
Edward III., at the battle of Crecy, 1346; and though Froissart
does not mention the circumstance, we have the decisive testimony
of Petrarch, that these guns were common before the year 1344.
The invention of portable fire-arms would appear to have originated
in Germany, from the old names by which the different kinds were
distinguished. These names were either German, or immediately
derived Irom that language. They were, however, too long and
heavy at first to be conveniently fired from tlic hand alone. When
used, they were placed on a prop, with a fork at the upper part, be
tween which the piece was fixed, by means of a hoop projecting
from the stock. They were first used at the siege of Parma, in 1521.
Tlie first muskets were discharged by means of a match applied
with the hand ; but this was afterwards adjusted to a cock for greater
security and precision in shooting. There were other improve-
ments, but flint locks do not seem to have entirely superseded the
match-lock in the continental armies, until towards the close of the
seventeenth century. The first gun-lock was invented in 1517. The
term fire-lock, was given to the invention, which is still in use, and it
was applied to tiie gun itself, in order to distingui.sh it from that
which was fired by a match-lock.
10. Paper made of cotton or liven rags. — Letters were written,
or ideas transmitted, on a variety of substances, previously to the
time when the art of making paper from cotton or linen rags was
discovered. Sometimes a hard and solid substance was used, as
stone, metal, or wood. Of these, wood was the most generally used,
in various forms and modes, which cannot be here described. The
leaves of trees also were employed; hence the meaning of leaf, as
applied to a book. This mode of writing was superseded by the
use of the bark of trees, liber, hence the Latin name for a book.
Linen cloth also was employed by tlie Egyptians and Romans.
Leatlier, or skins prepared in the present manner, seems to have been
often used by the Jews, on which to write portions of the Bible.
Skins of annnals rudely prepared, was another material, which
originated with the lonians. A more common material was parch
ment, which was a certain preparation of the skins of animals.
Most of the ancient manuscripts now extant, are written on parch
ment. Papyrus was also celebrated as a substance for writing up-
on ; hence the word paper is derived. This was a species of rush
which the ancients procured exclusively on the banks of the Nile. The
paper manufactured from the papyrus, was of an inferior quality,
until the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Romans.
The time when the manufacture of this paper was lost or super-
seded, is not known. It is generally supposed that few, if any.
34
19S GENERAL VIEWS
manuscripts on papyrus are of a later date than the 8th or 9th cen-
tury. About this period cotton paper was first made : according to
some in Bucharia, according to others it had been known long before
HI China and Persia. There is no doubt, liowever, that the Arabs,
having gained a knowledge of the process, established a manufactory
in Ceuta, and afterwards in Spain, and thus introduced it into
Europe about the r2th century. At first it was made of raw cotton ;
then of old worn out cotton cloth. The use of cotton paper be-
came general only in the 13th century; and about the middle of the
14th it was almost entirely superseded by paper from linen, such
as is at present made.
11. The Art of Printing. — No evidence exists that moveable
wooden types were ever used, except m the capital letters of some
early printed books. It has indeed been contended that Lewis Cos-
ter of Haarlem, invented and used them ; that he therefore was the
original inventor of the art of printing. But it is now proved that
this opinion is without foundation ; that wooden types were never
used ; and that the art of printing as at present practised, with
moveable metal types, was discovered by John Guthenberg of
Mayence, about the year 1438.
Three years before this, Guthenberg entered into a partnership
with three citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose a secret
which would enrich them all. One of the partners dying, and
some of the most important implements having been stolen from
the work-shop, a lawsuit took place. In the course of this lawsuit,
five witnesses, among whom was Guthenberg's confidential servant,
proved that Guthenbefg was the first who practised tlie art of print-
ing with moveable types. The result was a dissolution of partner-
si lip. The whole proceedings on this trial arc in existence, and
have been published in the original German.
Misfortune and pecuniary loss attended his efforts for a time. In
1450 he entered into partnership at Mayence, with John Fust:
this also was a failure. The art was so little perfected that in their
early efforts, neither the printing was fair, nor the expense sup-
portable. It is not certain whether during their partnership, they
found out the art of casting characters in metal, which they had
previously been obliged to cut with a knife ; or whether this great
improvement was made by Schceffer, who assisted them at this time.
The general opinion is, that Schoeffer is entitled to this honour.
Guthenberg and Fust at length separated ; and in consequence of a
lawsuit, the former was obliged to give up his apparatus to Fust.
Guthenburg, however, was not discouraged, but established a new
printing office, until 1465, wlien he obtained a situation, with a good
salary, under the Elector Adolphus. In the mean time Fust, in
conjunction with Schceffer, continued printing. Upon the taking
of Mayence in 1457, the partners suffered much , and their work-
men dispersing themselves, this most wonderful art was thus spread
over Europe.
In regard to stereotype printing, Holland has a far more .substan
tial claim to the merit of inventing that, than to tlie glory, through
DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONo. 399
Coster, of origin:iling the art of typography. Besides a quarto Bible,
published in 1711, there exists a Dutch Bible stereotpyed in folio at
the commeiicenieiU of the 18lh century. These are satisfactory
proofs that stereotype printing was employed in Holland long before
it was even known in France. In a note to No. 1316 of Barbier's
catalogue, it is also recorded, that Johaini Mueller, pastor of the
German church at Leyden, had devised in 1701, a novel method
of printing, which mucii rescml)lcs the process of stereotyping as
now practised. This method consisted in composing the page in
the usual manner, correcting it accurately, securing the type with
iron ties, turning it over on its face, and then cementing it into a solid
mass by means of a metallic composition, or preferably, of mastic.
12. Steam Engine. — This grand machine, which has done so
much for the human race, and is destined to do much more, was
unknown to the ancients. Its powerful effects are the result of the
scientific combinalinns by which the immense expansive force
exerted by Vvater, wlien converted into steam, is rendered available
to the most important purposes.
The original projector of the Steam Engine is generally believed
to have been the marquis of Worcester in 1655 ; but his apparatus
was intended to raise water by the expansive force of steam only.
His project was neglfx-ted in his own age, nor does the subject ap-
pear to have excited the attention of scientific persons, till the year
1698, when Captain Savary obtained a patent for a new invention
for raising water, and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill-work,
by tlie impellent force of fire. Other improvements were attempted
on the steam engine by Amonlon, Papin, Blakey, Newcomen, and
others ; but nothing essential was achieved except by the philoso-
phical genius of Mr. Watt. Being accidentally employed to repaii:
a model of the then nn perfect steam engine, Mr. W^att observed that
a great quantity of heat was lost by the unnecessary and improper
mode of condensing the steam : he completely obviated the defect,
and by the introduction of a condenser apart from the cylinder, and
an alternate action of the steam against each side of the piston, he
effected the most essential improvement in the above particular.
Under his hands, however, the machine received other improve-
ments, particularly in the mechanical arrangement througTiout.
Since the expiration of Watt's patent, a variety of other improve-
ments have been made by several mechanical gentlemen, but details
must be omitted.
Steam engines are now common all over the world. Their ap-
plication to tlie purposes of navigation forms an era in their history.
The Americans first made this ap()lication, as the genius of Fulton,
a native of Pennsylvania, was successfully employed on this subject,
as early as the commencement of the present century. He first
made the experiment of propelling boats by steam at Paris in 1803;
after which he returned to America, and exhibited a boat in successful
operatiuu, on the waters of New-York. Vessels propelled by his
ii,nachinery are now in common use, throughout the United States
and in Euroj.'j. They are known also in India, and their nurn-
400 GENERAL VIEWS.
ber is continually on the increase. In 1827, American steamboat
tonnage alone amounted to 40,197 tons. It is now much greater.
Incidents and Curious Particulars.
1. Miscellaneous matter which cannot be conveniently arranged
under any other head, is here designed to be presented. A few
only of the vast mass of facts appropriate to this article, will be
selected from the annals of different nations. From the present
sample may be learned, among other things, the state of tlie useful
arts, the modes of living, and the progress of society and improve-
ment, at different periods.
2. The most extensive and splendid of the libraries at Rome was
the Ulpian, founded by Trajan. It is believed that at the suggestion
of Pliny the younger, this emperor commanded all the books that
were found in the conquered cities to be placed in this library.
Most of the principal cities throughout the empire, at this time, had
public libraries. The desolation of the western empire destroyed or
dispersed most of the books in them, so that in this part of the
world, after this period, and during the dark ages, monasteries
almost exclusively possessed libraries. In the ( astern empire it was
different : both Constantinople and Alexandria preserved theirs, till
the Turks obtained possession of these cities.
3. From the origin of monasteries till the close of the 10th cen-
tury, it is said there were no schools in Europe, except those belong-
ing to monasteries, or episcopal churches. At the beginning of the
11th century, they were opened in most of the cities of Italy and
France, by qualified persons among both the laity and clergy.
JbLit though their general introduction and establishment, must be
assigned to this period, yet it is certain that Charlemagne founded
several in his dominion. Afterwards, or in the middle ages, there
were distinct schools for clerks, for laymen, and for girls. But the
education of the highest ranks seldom went beyond reading, wri-
ting, and a little arithmetic.
4. We learn from Seneca three curious circumstances relating to
the journeys of the Romans. 1. They were preceded by a troop
of Numidian light horse, who announced by a cloud of dust, the
approach of a great man. 2. Tlieir baggage-mules transported not
only their precious vases, but even the fragile vessels of crystal and
murra, which last has been almost proved by the learned, to mean
the porcelain of China and Japan. 3. The beautiful faces of the
young slaves were covered by a medicate crust or ointment, which
.«ecured them against the effect of the sun and frost.
5. The use of braccfE, breeches or trowsers, was considered in
Italy in the 3d century as a Gallic and barbarian fashion. The
Romans, however, had made great advances towards it. To encir-
cle the legs and thighs with fascia? or bands, was understood in the
time of Pompey and Horace to be a proof of ill L-. >ilth and effemi-
nacy. In the time of Trajan the custo;.) was confiut;d to the rich
INCIDENTS AND rUUlOVS PARTICULARS. tOl
and luxurious. It was gradually adopted by the meanest of the
people.
6. Afler the age of Tiberius, the decay of agriculture was felt in
Italy, and it was a just subject of complaint that the life of the
Roman people depended on the accidents of the winds and waves.
7. In regard to habitations, our English ancestors in early times
had few luxuries or even conveniences. Down to the reign of
Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns had
no chiimieys: the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke
found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the
windows. Tlie houses were mostly built of walling, plastered over
with clay ; the floors were of earth, strewed, in families of distinc-
tion, with rushes; and the beds were oidy straw pallets, with a log
of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better
than his subjects, for in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions,
" to exumino every niglit the straw of the king's bed, that no dag-
gers might be concealed therein." A writer in 1577, speaking of
the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were
" marvellously altered" for tlie worse in England ;" the multitude of
ciiimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange
of treene platters into ]>ewter, and wooden spoons into silver and
tin, and he comphuns bitterly that oak instead of willow was em-
ployed for tlu; building of houses.
In the middle ages the fires in tlie houses were made in a cavity
in the centre of tlie floor, over which there generally was an open-
ing in the roof for the escape of the smoke ; and when the fire was
out, or the family retired to rest, Ihfe place in which it was made
was closed by a cover. In those days a law was almost universally
established on the continent, that fires should be extinguished, and
the family be all at home, at a certain hour in the evening, which
was notified by the ringing of a bell ; that, in England, was called
the corfeu, curfew.
8. In 1100, an inundation of the sea happened which overflowed
the lands of Godwin, earl of Kent, called Godwin's Sands, to this
day. Of these shoals the following account was given not many
years since. " Upon our journey to Ramsgate," says Mr. Snieaton,
civil engineer, " having visited the Godwin Sands, in order to ex-
amine their nature, we found that though, like quicksand, they were
clean and unconnected, yet they lay so close that it was diflicult to
work a pointed iron bar into them more than to the depth of six or
seven feet.
9. The spirit of the middle ages is shown in the following instan-
ces of wild magnificence or barbarity. On a certain occ;i«ion,
when the nobility of Languedoc met in 1174, the countess of Urgel
sent to the meeting a diadem, worth 2000Z., to he placed on the head
of a wretched butfoon. The count of Thoulouse sent a diadem
also of twice tli;it value, to a favourite knight, who distributed the
same amount in money among the poorer knights. Other acts of
mad prodigality w'ere performed, particularly tlie soM'ingof a piece
of plowed "ground with small coin to the amount of 1500 English
31*
402 GENERAL VIEWS.
guineas, by count Bertrand Rimbault. But the barbarous wasteful-
ness of lord Raymond was the most remarkable feat on the occasion.
Having ordered thirty of his most beautiful and valuable horses to
be tied to stakes, and surrounded with dry wood, he wantonly set
it on fire, and suffered iiis favourites to perish in the flames.
10. Among the Romans the interest of money was not fixed by
law. It is on this account that we find in the Roman satirists so
many loud complaints of extortion, and of the severity with
which pecuniary claims were enforced. Horace describes a rich
old miser, who
" Dooms the wretches, on the appointed day,
His interest or principal to pay."
Many of the bankers acquired large fortunes, and arrived at the
highest dignities of the state. Their establishments were of a pri-
vate nature, and such banking houses are known to have existed in
the chief cities of Italy in tlie 13tli and 14th centuries ; and about
the some period the first public banks appear to have been establish-
ed by some of the Italian states, for the purposes of contracting
loans and managing the collection of the revenue. The most an-
cient general bank for the deposit of cash and the issue of its own
paper in return, appears to have been formed in the city of Barce-
lona, in 1401.
11. The specious miracles of Arabian magic were introduced into
Europe, by means of pilgrimages and the holy wars. Fairies and
giants, flying dragons and enchanted palaces, were blended with t\w
more simple fictions of the West ; and the fate of Britain depended
on the art or predictions of Mf-rlin.
12. The magnificent castle of Windsor, was built by Edward HI.,
in the fourteenth century, and his melliod of conducting tlie work,
may serve as a specimen of the condition of the people in that age.
No contracts were made with workmen as in the present times, but
every county in England was assessed to send the king a certain
mimber of masons, tilers, and caroeiTters, who were to perform their
quota of labour.
13. In tlie } ear 1414, the citizens of London were ordered to hang
out lanterns to light the streets, and one of its mayors, in 1417, re-
newing the order, " ordained lanthornes with lights to be hanged
out on the winter evenings between hallontide and candlemasse."
in this particular, London must have set the example to the other
cities of Europe. Diu-ing tliree centuries afterwards, the citizens
were occasioiuiUy reminded of this regulation, under pains and
penalties for its non-observance ; but the frequency of the repetition
only proves, how ill it was obeyed. In 1716, it was directed that
each house should have a lamp hung out on every night between
tlie 2d after full-moon until the 7th after new moon, from the hour
of six in the evening until eleven. In 1736 and 1739, the present
mode of lighting was partially adopted, but it was not till 1744, that
an act of parliament was passed for completely lighting the cities ol
London and Westminster.
INCIDENTS AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS. 403
14. During the periods of feudal strife, when neighbouring' chief-
luins often made sudden inroads on eacli other, every baronial castle
was provided with its warders, i. e. men that were posted on the
tops of towers to watch tlie apj)roach of an enemy. In Wales, these
persons were furnished with horns to sound an alarm ; and those
in tlie castles of the German princes, in the sixteenth century, blew
a horn every morning and evening, on the relieving and setting of
he guard.
15. Between the years, 1312 and 1315, Germany groaned under
all the miseries of plague; and famine, by which whole towns were
depopulated, and provinces brouglit to desolation. The rich sought
an asylum in other countries, while the poor, unpitied and imassist-
ed, miserably perished. Hunger .«o preyed upon wolves and other
ravenous beasts, that overcoming their f(^ar of man, they rushed into
the villages, and gorged themselves with human blood. Trees and
houses were swept away by cataracts bursting from the mountains ;
and the earth was dreadfully convulsed by earthquakes.
IG. It was not until towards the close of the sixteenth century,
that potatoes made their appearance in Europe. They were first
brought by Sir Walter Raleigh, from America to Ireland. From
t'lence they passed by slow degrees over to Scotland, and the nor-
thern counties of Euiiland, and iiave since become general through-
out Great Britain. I'he lapse, however, of two centuries has not
sufficed to introduce so important a vegetable into common con-
sumption, in the soutli of Europe.
17. In the year 1500. there happened so great a plague in Eng-
land, that it obliged the king and court to remove to Calais, and
carried off upwards of 30,000 people in London.
18. The progress o{ improvement has been slow in many res-
pects. Many centuries of the christian era had passed away, before
any thing better tiian splinters of wood, was used by our English
ancestors for lighting their houses by night. It was not until
towards the close of the thirteenth century, that tallow candles were
employed for this purpose. It was not until this period that cups
and saucers were used, and then they were considered as luxuries.
A few centuries only have gone by since knives and forks were used
in eating ; since hats were worn in lieu of cloth hoods and knit
caps ; since the ladies were accommodated with pins instead ox
skewers ; and since knit stockings were introduced in the room of
cloth hose.
19. In 1546, a law was made in England for fixing the interest of
nioney at 10 per cent. This was the first legal interest known in
that country. Strange as it may seem to us, all acts of that nature
were formerly considered as usurious.
20. Between the years 1660 and 1670, two awful calamities befel
London— a f)lague which carried off 68,000 persons— and a fire,
which, breaking out near London bridge, and continuing several
days, destroyed eighty-nine churches and thirteen thousand two
hundred dwelling houses.
404
GENERAL VIEWS.
21. A few years before the landing of the puritans at Plymouth,
a remarkable pestilence destroyed most of the Indians from Nara-
ganset to Penobscot, which seems to have been a providential oc-
currence to facilitate the settlement of New-England.
22. The waste lands in the united kinirdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, amount even at this time to 15,301,994 acres.
23. In the year 1828, American shipping in foreign trade amount-
ed to 824,781 tons, and foreign shipping employed in American
trade was 149,435 tons — the whole being 974,216 tons. The en-
rolled coasting tonnage of the country is nearly or quite equal to
that in foreign trade.
24. In the year 1829, tlie public libraries in Europe were com-
puted to contain 19,847,100 volumes.
25. The expenses of Great Britain in war, since 16S8 amount, as
appears from a statement lately made, to £2,023,500,000, viz. —
Years. Expense.
The war of the Revolution, 9 £36,000.000
Spanish Succession, 11 62,500^000
Spanish w^vr, 1739, and ) 1 ) 54,000,000
Austrian Succession, ^ 9 ^ ' '
The "Seven years war" with )
the French, Spanish, Austri- \ 7 112,000,000
ans and Russians, of 1756, )
The American war, of 1775, 8 136,000,000
French Revolution war, 9 464,000,000
The war against Bonaparte, ^
the three last years of which > 12 1159,000,000
with the United States, S
There w-ere about sixty-five years of war, and seventy-live ol
peace, in a period of one hundred and forty years.
Present state of several Natwyis in respect to Agriculture,
Roads, Conveyances, Intercourse, Education, Trade,
Manufactures, ^"c.
1. The history of culture, in respect to many characteristics, were
they to be traced from their origin, and described as they have ex-
isted in past ages, v/ould be interesting and instructive. Some sub-
jects of this kind have been thus traced and described. It may an-
swer the purpose of so succinct an outline, to present others to the
reader, as we now find them, with little reference to the past. The
articles above enumerated, may therefore come under review, in res-
pect chiefly to tl)e present times. They are properly characteris-
tics ot the age, or the history of it, so far as such particulars are
concerned.
PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 405
2. Agriculture. — Agriculture, as tlie foundation of the means of
living, and as connected witli the state of society, and with the civil
and intellectual character of a people, deserves a liigh degree of at-
tention. Accordingly, it has been a commanding object of pursuit,
with all civilized communities, from the beginning. But it is only to
be remarked here, that in modern times it has received more conside-
ration than formerly. The ancient Romans, perhaps, were as much
devoted to it as any modern nation ; and their agricultural wealth,
as individuals, when, in some instances, several tlionsand yokes of
oxen were the property of a single farmer, exceeds probably any
thing known at present. But with tlie exception of tlie Romans, if
they were on the whole an exception, modern nations manifestly esx-
cel antiquity. Especially do they excel the middle ages, for then
this great interest suffered, with every thing else, a lamentable decay.
In very recent times, peculiar attention has been bestowed on the
subject, both in Europe and America, by means of numerous agri-
cultural societies. Indeed, science has been of late most successfully
applied to the purposes of advancing the agricultural art. The bu-
smess in the hands of scientific practical farmers, has assumed a sys-
tematic arrangement, unknown in former days.
3. Roads. — In Europe, as the Roman empire declined, the roads
gradually fell into neglect ; and during the dark ages, their ruinous
condition, rendered communication difficult, beyond what we can
now find it easy to conceive. It is not readily ascertained what the
state of the roads was, but they must liave improved as trade in-
clreased. We know that tlie amelioration of them was slow ; that
the arts of constructing and directing them, were for a long time un-
derstood very imperfectly ; and that the first kingdom in which the
condition of the great roads, at all approached the present standard
of excellence, was Sweden, w'here from its want of wealth, and its
remote situation, no such occurrence could reasonably have been
looked for.
In England, the change in regard to the arrival and departure of
the mails, whicli took place in 1793, greatly forwarded that improve-
ment of the principal roads, wliicli had been going on tlirough the
eighteentli century ; and from 1793 to the present moment, the high-
ways, cross-roads, bridges, and ferries, throughout the whole extent
of tliat country, are decidedly superior to those which are to be seen
any v/here else.
A remarkable improvement, however, has recently taken place in
roads and bridges, all over Europe. Materials for road making have
been found where formerly they were liot believed to exist, and the
skill with which they are employed is sur[)rising. Neither clay,
sand, morasses, torrents, precipices, nor any otlier obstacles, are deem-
ed insurmountable. A terrace has been conducted along the whole
face of tlie Appennines, from Nice, tf) the gulf of Spezzia. The finest
carriage roads cross the Alps, over mount Ceni.s, St. Bernard, the
Simplon, St. Gotliard, the Splugen, from the lake of Coino to the
source of the Inn, from Trent to Brixeii, and where the road from
Vienaa to Vei' 'ce crosses them at Ponteba. An entirely new road
406 GENERAL VIEWS.
has been formed in the kingdom of Netherlands, from Namur to Lux
embourg ; another runs along the banxs of the Rhine from Mentz to
Nimeguen ; another from Hamburg to Hanover, and from Hanover
to Deventer. Others have been formed, and particularly the whole
way between Berlin and Petersburgh, probably presents by this time
an admirable line of communication between these two capitals.
Other roads are said to be under consideration, and particularly one
from Berlin to Hamburg, through sands which appear almost impas-
sable. Indeed, the traveller in Europe, since the cessation of wars,
every where witnesses the utmost zeal in building bridges, in open-
ing, widening, levelling, and repairing roads.
Nor has less been done, or is less doing in the United States. Pro-
bably no people in the same time, ever made so many improvements
in roads and bridges. Where two hundred years ago, all was a wide
wilderness, traversed only by the foot-paths of the Indians, there are
now thousands of good roads. The extent only of post-roads in this
country, now considerably exceeds 100,000 miles. In some parts ol
Europe and of the United States, rail-roads have been made, or are
in progress, v^'hich promise the greatest advantages to commerce
and inland transportation. The recent construction of carriages
moved by steam, which are designed to pass over roads of this des-
cription, will form an era in the history of travelling. Moving with
the velocity of thirty miles or more by the hour, these vehicles will
seem to annihilate space.
4. Water Conveyance. — The progress lately made in water con-
veyance, is also very remarkable. The first canals known in Europe,
were those which were formed in Italy and the Low Countries, and
served in several cases both to drain the groimd, and for the convey-
ance of merchandize. France followed their example, und by means
of the canal of Langucdoc, joined the chaimel and the Mediterra-
nean. Several others have since been completed, and others are begun;
but that country is never likely to place much dependence on its ca-
nal commimications. About the middle of the last century, the
commercial prosperity of Great Britain, induced it to turn its atten-
tion to canals, and from its alnmdance of water, and the moderate
elevation of its surface, it has now pushed canal navigation, beyond
•every other country. The total lengtli of canals in Great Britain at
the present time, is 2,600 miles. Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, now
possess canals ; and Russia, both within her old limits and in Pd-
land, is zealously encouraging canals, to connect her rivers, and trans-
port the produce of her soil. Next to Great Britain, the United
States have displayed the most enterprise in the business of canals.
In the several states, twenty-two canals are finished, in progress, or
ui immediate contemplation, whose aggregate length is about 2,500
miles. Tlie greater part of them are cither finished or in progress.
Two of them, viz. the Hudson and Erie, and the Chesapeake and
Ohio canals, are each 360 miles, the Ohio state canal is 306, and the
Pennsylvania canal is 296 miles. The Hudson and Erie canal, which
is in operation, is the boast of the new world.
The application of iteam to shipping, which deserves to be ranked
PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 407
among the greatest discoveries, tlieoretical or practical, tliat were
ever made, lias done more witliin the last twenty years, to facihtate
the communication between diflerrnt places, by water, than all the
contrivance's that went before it. Steam vessels are now foiaid per-
manently or occasionally plying from the bottom of the Mediterra-
nean, all nnmd to the top of ihe Kaltic. No place in the eastern part
of the world has derived so great advantage from the discovery of
steam vessels, as England. Its situation, coal, and commerce, en-
ables it to shoot forth these vessels in every direction, and by means
of the certainty and celerity of their passage, tiiey have diminished
its distance, and multiplied its means of access to every part of t'ne
European continent. In the United States, where the application of
steam to the purposes of navigation was first made, these vessels arc
most extensively employed. They abound, with all their facility of
conveyance, on our coasts, and in our rivers ; hundreds of them are
owned on tlie Mississippi alone. The combination of the above dis-
coveries and improved arrangements, has produced an ease, certain-
ty, and rapidity of intercourse, exceeding all past experience or ima-
gination.
5. Travellin<y-. The increase of the number of travellers which
these facilities have caused, is a characteristic of tlie times worth no-
ticing. Travelling for improvement or gratification, has increased
fifty or an hundred fold, and it is continually augmenting. In peace,
Europe is now one great family, and certainly many advantages at-
tend this state of things. Such a degree of travelling and inter-
course tends very much to bind nations together, and to promote
liberal views, and a charital:)le feeling, one towards another. Some
good things, however, arc sacrificed to it. Simplicity of heart, and
the earnestness of kindness in domestic hfe, are diminishing. The
love of home, the warm gush of affection, is checked. The bonds of
society now set loosely on a man. Attachment to country ceases to
operaie as it once did.
6. Increase of Education. Another characteristic of the present
times, is the extraordinary ' increase of education. A much larger
portion of the people of civilized countries read tlian formerly. Pro-
testants have always been more devoted to reading than the Catho-
lics. Except in Spain and Portugal, reading has increased every
where. IJoth the means and the habits of reading are increased.
The multiplication of newspapers and periodical publications— the
number of booksellers' shops — the profusion of literary institutions
and circidating libraries, are infallible indications of the extraordi-
nary spread of education and reading. There is evidently, there
fore, the more need of moral discipline. The Bible should by all
means be made a study, and its heavenly truths should be more than
ever enforced upon the heart. The cheapness of books, the number
of teachers, the spare time created by the extension of machinery,
and tiie fashion for reading, have operated very considerably on the
common people in Europe. In the United States, the same causes
have operated on the same portion of the community, though here
408 GENERAL VIEWS.
the common people have always been distinguished, above those of
other nations, for a love of reading and a competent education.
Among the higher orders of European society, there are so many
i)ooks, and so much to learn, that few are profound. The stream ol
knowledge flows wider, but lias not become deeper. To master all
the branches of science and knowledge, is impossible. Daily and
periodical publications abound, but perhaps too much so for a sound
and permanent literature. They include the principal stock of read-
ing, except novels, books of travels, and memoirs. The mind of the
public cannot be more effectually abused and unsettled, than by the
systematic conversion of history, private life, religion and morality,
into themes for works of fiction ; and the full extent of the mischief
will be seen only when it is too late. A similar change to tliat which
has taken place among readers, has affected authors. Most of this
class are so impatient to reap the rewards of their labours, or so ap-
prehensive of being supplanted by competitors for the public favour
that few are willing to bestow the time and trouble which are ne-
cessary for the composition of a standard work.
7. Improvement in external condition. — In the present state ol
most civilized nations, a surprising improvement has taken place
in the outward condition of all ranks of society. Many shocking
and painful disorders have almost wholly disappeared, and others,
which flesh must still be heir to, have by superior treatment, been
rendered less violent and dangerous. The small pox, the ravages of
whicli were once so terrible, has now ceased to alarm the communi-
ty. The discovery of vaccination, in 1798, by Dr. Jenner, was the
instrumental cause of so propitious a change. This is one of the
diseases referred to ; others might be named. The plague, except
in Turkey, and some other countries bordering on the Mediterra-
nean, is almost unknown. Famines, arising either from cold or heat,
are now of much less frequent occurrence than they formerly were,
and the cruelties and calamities of war, have been mitigated. While
these scourges of mankind have beem removed or diminished, the
length of human life has been extended, as a consequence. A greater
proportion live to old age than was the fact a century ago. Other
causes, however, may liave operated here, as greater temperance,
better food and clothing, less exposure, &c. Connected with the
above, inventions of every sort, conducing to personal enjoyment,
have been multiplied or brought to perfection. In houses, furniture,
liorses, conveyances, and every thing which can minister to the ease
and gratification of mind or body ; in the number and ri-finement of
the sources of amusement, and in all articles of domestic luxury and
convenience, the progress tliat has lately been made, is unprecedent-
ed either for extent or rapidity. There is not a district to be found
in any European state, in which the traveller is not struck with the
taste and magnificence displayed in the architecture of public and
private buildings, the multiplication and commodiousnessof bathing
and watering places, hotels, coffee houses, and reading rooms, the ex-
quisite arrangement of gardens, grounds and villas, and the neatness
of cottages, shops and manufactories.
PRESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. (409
This alteration is very conspicuous in England. The comforts of
IiJe appear in great profusion ; no native or foreigner can travel fifty
or sixiy miles, along a public road, without being lost in wonder and
astonishment. Towns, villages, hamlets, mansions, farm lioiises, and
cottages, are every where scattered about in the most pleasing and
romantic situations. It were to be desired that the reality in every
respect, corresponded with the appearances, but it is not to be con-
cealed that the present stagnation in business, has thrown many of
the English operatives into distress. In the United States, however
these improvements not only abound, but the favourable appearan-
ces are generally connected with a more delightful reality.
8. Increase of population. — In consequence of the improvement
in the physical circumstances of the people in christian countries,
the population has increased in an unt xampled manner. ■ Some pla-
ces, owing to political revolutions, or change of trade, may have de-
creased in population, as Rome, Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Verona,
Seville, Barcelona, Cadiz, Lubec, Bremen, Ghent, Bruges, Cologne,
^trasburg, Nuremburg, and Augsburg. These, however, are excep-
tions to the general rule. Petersburg, Berlin, Vienna, Brussels,
Paris, Hamburgh, Frankfort, Blilan, Munich, Stuttgard, Stockholm,
and the territories to which thej^ belong, are swelling in extent and
population. England has outstripped the continent within these last
tliirty or forty years. London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester,
Birmingham, and many other cities and towns in Great Britain, have
experienced a great increase. According to statistics, which have
lately appeared,* it is found that the inhabitants of Europe have,
within the period that has elapsed since the general peace, in 1815,
been augmented by the number of 28 or 29,000,((00. Every coun-
try has had a share in this increase. Europe, however, can hardlj'
be compared with the United States, in thi-s particular. Within the
time above mentioned, the population of this country has increased
to the amount of at least one third of the whole number. History
probably does not furnish another instance of the rapid rise of cities,
equal to that of New-York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New-Orleans,
and several others.
9. The approximation of the lower classes to the higher. — I'hi?
is a characteristic of the age more particularly observable in tlie old
world. In America, ov/ing to its institutions, and the abundance
of tiie means of living, the difference in tiie classes of the people has
never been so wide as it is in p]urope. The approximation spoken
of is very perceptible in European society. It is obvious in dress,
maimers, and acquhements. It is encouraged by the improvement
which has taken place in manufactures, and by the subslitution of
machinery for manual labour. Dress is scarcely a test of rank. In
language and address, the middling classes have advanced. There
are few above the lowest rank, if possessed of good sense, who do
.not speak and act, in these days, with ease and propriety. Much
tjisle and elegance, are in many instances displayed. In mental H0
* The American Almanac for 1830, a most valuable production,
35
410 GENERAL VIEWS.
quirements, particularly, the assimilation is visible. Children of the
nobility, from the greater pains taken with them, excel at first, but
are outstripped afterwards, by tliose w^ho feel the necessity of excel-
ling. The procession in society, has extended to attainments of every
kind, especially in matters of legislation. The numerous papers
and documents which are published, and which are accessible to
most readers, liave contributed to this result. In regard to Great
Britain, an American gentleman long resident in that country, at
this moment writes, " A spirit is silently at work, whicli is gradu-
ally undermining the power of the Aristocracy, and will one day
(and that not far distant) show itself in a form too powerful to be
resisted."
10. Trades and Manvfachires.— The spring of late years given
to trade and manufactures, is quite characteristic of the times. Our
remarks have reference more especially to the continental portion of
Europe, where, since the general peace, the products of manufactu-
ring industry have been wonderfully multiplied.
Sugar refineries have within a recent period been established to a
great extent, at Trieste, Petersburg, Hamlmrg, and Gothenburg. At
Motala, near Orebro, in Sweden, there is perhaps the largest esta-
blishment in existence for all sorts of implements in steel and iron.
The manufacture of muskets and fowling-pieces has lately l\"en
greatly improved in Germany, and particularly at Herschfeld, in
Hanover. Admirable travelling carriages of all sorts, botli in point
of elegance and durability, are built at Brussels, Berhn, and Vien-
na. The glass manufactories in France, at St. Quentin, St. Gabin,
Comenty, and Premontre, in the department of Aisne, are all in the
most flourishing condition, and glass is made at Munich, of a most
superior quality, so that the Bavarians have deprived even tlie Bri-
tish of tiie manufactuie of telescopes. The elegant iron and steel
ornaments, made at Berlin, liave now become a valuable and extend-
ing branch of commerce. The utmost attention is paid to the im-
provement of wool tliroughout France, Austria, Saxony, Holstein,
and some other parts of Denmark. The woollen manufactures es-
tablished in Moravia, Saxony, and Silesia, and in the Low Coun-
tries, are increasing, and in addition to th.ose which have been long
seated at Sedan, Elboeuf, and Louviers, in France, they have now
been introduced at Corcassone, Castres, and Lodevc, in the south,
and at Bourges, and Chatevuroux, in the centre. A determined and
successful degree of anxiety to improve the breed of horses, has
manifested itself in Prussia, Russia, and France. England no long-
er supplies nearly the whole of Europe with lead ; a great quantity
is now raised near Almeria, in Spain. The manufactories of iron,
•and steel, which are flourishing in France, are prospering still more
at Liege, which has become the Birmingham of the Low Countries,
as Ghent is their Manchester and Glasgow. The cotton manufac
tures of France and Belgium, have increased tenfold in ten years.
They are now firmly fixed at Elberfeld, near Dusseldorf, and rapid-
ly extending themselves in the Prussian Rhenish provinces. The
silk trade of France, which used to be confined to Lyons, has now
PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 411
spread its ramifications to Avignon, Nismes, and Tours, and its an-
nual vaiue amounts to £6,000,000. Tlie silk trade is carried on in
Switzerland, a fact which is little known abroad. There is in Zu-
rich and its neiglibourhood alone between 12 and 13,000 looms. It
is also established at Aran, Basle, and several other places. In the
Prussian Rhenish provinces, it is spreading from Mentz through all
the towns and villages along the Riiine, and is carried on to a great
extent at Dusseldorf and Elberfelt, but particularly at Creveld, where
it is conducted with great capital and great spirit. All sorts of house-
liold furniture are now made extremely beautiful in most large towns
throughout the continent. Exhibitions of works of genius and in-
dustry are every where encouraged, especially at Petersburg, Berlin,
Brussels, Paris, Munich, Stuttgard, and Vienna.
Tlie manufacturing industry and talent of Great Britain, and the
trade therewith connected, have been long celebrated, and have
grown with her growth, till she has filled the world with the choicest
^;'orks of mechanic art. But particulars will not be needed in re-
gard to a country so well known. In the United States, also, trade
and manufactures have of late risen in a remarkable degree, consi-
derii' r the comparative newness of the country. Many new branches
have l)uen established, and many old ones enlarged, so that although
vre are essentially an agricultural people, and must remain so for a
I'Mig time to come, we already produce a great variety of important
articles of meclianical skill. The ingenuity and enterprise of our
citizens are here, as in every other department of human effort, alike
conspicuous and successful.
11. Reform in Government. — A desire among many nations
to free themselves from their oppressions, or to new model their go-
vernments, is a prominent characteristic of the age. It has been ob-
served in the course of this work, tliat the present period, though
by the contemporary world which lived in it called the revolutionary,
will probably be denominated the constitutional period by posterity.
Tiis nations for some time have been struggling to obtain free and
regular constitutions. The spirit began with the United States, more
than fifty years ago. France afterwards made a misguided, abortive
attemi)t, and some other despotisms have been considerably agita-
ted. The strict despotic principles have hitherto prevailed, except in
tlie colonial establisliinents ; yet even in countries governed on those
principles, such has been the influence of popular feeling, there has
been a degree of amelioration. The attempts of the Spaniards, Por-
tuguese, and Neapolitans, to change their forms of government, have
been frustrated chiefly by the despotic sword from abroad ; but it i?
evident, that knowledge is increasing, and that the minds of menare
turning with fond desire towards their long lost rights and liberties,
and that a spirit is at work, wliich promises eventually tlie destruc-
tion of all despotic thrones. The colonial struggles, however, have
been successful, and the various republics of South America, and
that of Mexico, in North America, attest the energy of that feeling
which resolves on independence. Greece, too, favoured by circum-
stances, and by the sympatliiesof nations, but more by her own, he-
4l2 GENERAL VIEWS.
roism and self-denial, is an arm broken off from the Turkish power^
and with the lingering remains of genius found in her, and quicken-
ed into life by the principles and systems of American education, is
destined, we may hope, to be twice immortal.
12. Religious Enterprises. — The present era is greatly distin-
guished by a spirit of enterprise in religion. IMany, in protestant
countries, are especially waked up in regard to the precious interests
of the Christian church — its prosperity at home, and its extension
abroad. Great reformations have taken place, and signal revivals of
piety have abounded, especially in the United States ; and both here,
and in Great Britain, the work of Christian missions has been vigo-
rously prosecuted. Vast numbers of associations are formed in va-
rious parts of Protestant Christendom, to give the Bible to the des-
titute— to educate pious, indigent youth for the ministry — to imbue
the minds Of children with scriptural knowledge by means of sab-
bath school instruction — to promote religion and morality among
sailors — to enlighten the inmates of dungeons — and in this country,
especially, to secure the observation of the sabbath — to do awaj' tlie
abominations of intemperance; and to benefit the descendants of
Africa, by colonizing them in the land of their fathers. The esta-
blishment andsuppf)rt of missionary seniinaries, and theological se-
minaries, are also among the important religious enterprises of the
day. Indeed, there is scarcely a conceivable form of benevolent and
pious movement which does not receive a portion of regard from
the Christian public.
The C/uistimi Church.
We shall attempt a very brief history of the Church of Jesu?
Christ, or of Christianity as a divine establishment common to most
of the nations, whose affairs ha\e been narrated in a different portion
of this work. Tliis is the only religious system tliat claims much of
our attention, in modern annals. A sufhcient notice has been taken
of the religion promulgated by iMahomet, in the history of the Sara-
cens. As to the religion of paganism, we have had so little occasion
to bring into view the nations, who, in modern times, possess the
pagan creed, that we need not trace its distinctive features. A few^
however, of the religious notions of the barbarous heathen tribesj
whence sprang the modern European states, have appeared in a des-
cription of the manners, mstitutions, &c. of those tribes. The reli-
gion of the Greeks, Romans, and other early nations, all of whom,
except the Jews, were pagans, is a topic of Ancient Ilistory.
1. It will suffice for the object here conteniplated, to sketch
the affairs of the Chiistian Church under three distinct heads.
1. In its primitive and pure state, extending froni the birth
of Jesus Christ, to the year 325 A. C, when Christianity
became the religion of the Roman empire. 2. In its cor'j
CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 413
rupted slaiO; extending from 325 A. C. to the commencement
uf the Kerormation, 1517 A. C. 3. In its reformed state,
extendins: from !517 A. C. to the present time.
2. In the first era, as it might be expected, we behold the
Christian cliurch in its best condition. Compared with the
subsequent era, it was distinguished for the simphcity of its
order, purity of practice, and attachment to the doctrines cf
the GospeL Among the many events of the present period,
we can notice only tlie following leading ones, viz., the ap-
pearance of Jesus Christ on earth ; the general success of the
Gospel under the preaching of the apostles and others ; and
tfie ten great persecutions of the Church, so enumerated ana
called, beginning \\ ith Nero, and ending with Diocletian.
§ The appearance of Jesus Christ on earth was the most re-
markable event that ever occurred. Its date, as commonly given, is
four years later than the real time. The prophets had pointed out
the period, and the world was in an unusual degree prepared for ths
coming of the Son of God. But though the nations were expecting
the appearance of some extraordinary personage, and the Jews par-
ticularly were waiting for their Messiah ; yet Jesus was almost imi-
versally rejected, both by the Jew and Gentile. In the circum.stan-
ces of his birth and life, and in the doctrines which he taught, the
expectations of his countrym.en were disappointed, and upon a fri-
volous pretence, tliey put him to the cruel death of tlie cross. By
this procedure, so unjust on the part of tlie Jews, the divine plan,
which sought the redemption of the nations, was accomplished, for
on the third day, Jesus rese from the dead, and forty days after,
having given his disciples suitable instructions respecting their duty
as prcacliers of his religion, he ascended to heaven, a cloud receiving
him out of their sight.
The general success of the Gospel under the preaching of the
apostles and others, was also a remarkable circumstance, and strong-
ly confirmed the truth of Christianity. Many reasons might be
given for this opinion, but our limits forbid. In regard to the fact ol
t!ie early and general extension of the Gospel, Ave are left to no
doubt, from the nature of the case, and from historic records. The
apostles and evangelists were early spread abroad among the na-
tions ; and even before the destruction of Jerusalem, the Gospel liad
If en preach.ed to multitudes in several parts of the known world.
Within thirty years of tlie death of Christ, says Paley, the institution
had spread itself through Judea, Galilee, and Samaria, almost all
the mnuerous districts of Lesser Asia, through Greece and the islands
of the J'^gean Sea, the sea coast of Africa, and had extended itself
to Rome, and into Italy. At Anlioch in Syria, at Joppa, Ephesus,
Corinth, and many other places, the converts were spoken of as nu-
merous. The first epistle of Peter, accosts the Christians dispersed
throughout Ponlus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bvthinia. In a
35*
414 GENERAL VIEAVS.
short time, nations and cities more remote, heard of the Gospel,
The Gauls received the knowledge of Christianity fiom the imme-
diate successors of the apostles ; and during the second century, the'
Germans, the Spaniards, and probably the Britons, were converted
to the true religion.
The ten great persecutions of the Church have given a charac-
ter to the whole era. They were not, however, in every instance,
general through the Roman empire. Persecutions indeed existed
from the beginning, and there were not many periods of entire tran-
quillity to the Church, during three hundred years. But those of a
more marked character, are included within the above expressed
number. Their order is as follows :
1. The persecution under Nero occurred thirty-one years after
our Lord's ascension. When the emperor set fire to the city of
Rome, he threw the odium of that execrable action on the Christians,
and made it the pretext of persecuting them. Accordinglj^, they
were hunted like wild beasts, and torn to pieces by devomung dogs,
and in innumerable other ways, were vexed, tortured, and put to
death.
2. The persecution which Domitian instigated, took place in the
year 95. It is computed that 40,000 persons suffered martyrdom at
that time.
3. The persecution which existed in the reign of Trajan, began
in the year 100, and was carried on with great violence for several
years.
4. The persecution which was permitted by Antoninus, commen-
ced in the year 177. iMany indignities, deprivations and sufferings
were inflicted on the Christians in this persecution.
5. The persecution under Severus, began in the year 107. Great
cruelties were committed at this time against the patient followers-
of Christ.
6. The persecution which Maximinus ordered, began in 2.35. It
was the more severe to the sufferers from the indulgence they had
enjoyed under the reign of liis predecessor, Alexander Severus.
7. The persecution under Decius, began in 250. It was the most
dreadful hitherto known. The Christians were in all places driven'
from Iheir habitations, stripped of their estates, tormented with
racks, &c.
8. The date of the persecution under Valerian, is 257. Both men
and women suffered death, some by scourging, some by the sword,
and some by fire.
9. The persecution by Aurelian, was in 274. But this was incon-
siderable compared with the others before mentioned.
10. The persecution in which Diocletian was concerned, com-
menced in 295. TJiis was a terrible persecution. It is related that
17,000 were slain in one month's time. The enemies of Christianity
had the presumption to think " that the name and superstition of the
Christians" had been effaced from the empire. The period, however,-
was just at hand, (a salutary lesson to persecutors,) when this holy
CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 415
feith was to rise on the ruins of all the former religions of the Ro-
man people.
During these persecutions, Christians multiplied, and Christianity
became a principle of life and power to the iiearts of its votaries.
So long as their profession of religion was attended witli danger — so
long as tliey had the prospect of the dungeon, the rack, or the fag-
got, their lives were pure and heavenly. 'J'he gospel was their only
source of consolation, and they found it in every respect sufficient
for all their wants. Atfectcd with mutual sufferings, they 'sympa-
thised most tenderly with each other, and their Lord's new conunand
of brotlierly love, was never fulfilled in a more exemplary manner.
3. Tlic Church, at the commencement of the second era,
was externally prosperous and flourishing. The storm of
pagan persecution had ceased, and Christianity was support-
ed by the Roman government. Under Constantine the Great,
that government (which had long inchided the limits of the
civihzed world) changed from a persecuting to a protecting
power. I'at its love was more fatal to the real interests of
the Church than its hate. Evils soon began to arise within,
produced or aided by the aggrandizement it received without,
which eventually reduced the Church to the lowest state of
spiritual weakness and degradation. "\Yorklly prosperity pro-
duced pride, ambition, emulation, luxury, and many other
vices equall}' opposed to the spirit of the gospel. The mix-
ture of pagan philosophy and superstition exceedingly de-
based the purity of religion, and the general ignorance which
prevailed during the dark ages, rendered inetlectual its hea-
venly truths.
Among the more important particulars constituting this
state of things, or aftbrding proof of the disorders of the
church and the consequent degeneracy of the people through
this long period, may be named the Arian and Pelagian
lieresies, the institution of monkery, image worship, the
establishment of the papal supremacy, the passion for relics
and pilgrimages, the separation between the eastern and
western churches, the crusades, sale of absolution and indul-
gences, the persecution of the Albig^nses and Waldenses, the
inquisition, the great western schism, the bulls and interdicts
of the popes, and the contention of scholastic divines.
§ These and several others are interesting objects of attention in-
this portion of the church's history ; but except so far as a few of*
Ihem have been already treated of separately, recourse for informa--
don nujst be had to more extended accounts.
416 GENERAL VIEWS.
4. Towards the commencement of the third era, the re
hgious state of the world was deplorable. All Christendom
was held in bondage to the papal power. Corruption, both
in doctrme and practice, prevailed to an extent before un-
known. The Reformation of religion, which is the distinc-
tion of the present era, was therefore greatly needed ; and we
liave the satisfaction of exhibiting the christian church under
the influence of so propitious a change. The greater part oi
this body adhered to the papacy, and perhaps still adheres to
it ; but though the whole of Christendom did not participate
in the reformation, the whole may have derived benefit fiom
it indirectly. The reformed, which is also called the protes-
tant* faith, spread rapidly at the beginning, and even now,
from the increase of the population in nations embracing this
faith, as well as from efforts made to diffuse it abroad, it is
favouraljl}' extending its influence.
The date of the great event of which we speak, is 1517,
and the ' instrumental agent whom Providence employed in
bringing it to pass, was Martin Luther. Tlie immediate oc-
casion of the reformation was the sale of indulgences, which
had been authorized by Leo X., in order to furnish the means
of gratifying his taste or extravagances. This traffic having
been intrusted to the care of one John Tetzel, an insolent
and dishonest wretch, attracted the notice of Martin Luther.
His indignation was first excited by the base manner in
which it was carried on ; but from noticing the mode, he was
led to inquire into tlie thing itself, and his eyes were soon
opened to the enormity of the principle which it involved,
and the nefarious character of the whole system. From this
period his opinions were openly and boldly expressed, on the
various errors which he found prevailing in the Church, and
many were convinced on the subject by his preaching and
writings. Hence the memorable rupture and revolution which
took place — the blessed effects of which have been more and
more felt from that age to the present.
§ During his life time the benevolent labours of Luther were bless-
ed in no small degree, and around him gathered a host of able and
♦ So called from the protest whicii the elector of Saxony and other princes,
entered against a decree of the diet at Spires, in 1529, by which every depar-
ture from the Cathohc faith and discipline was forbidden, till a general councit
should be assembled.
CilRISTIATi CHURCH. 417
godly men, who proved to be, in many instances, the most efficient
coadjutors. Among these were Carolstadt, Melancthon, Ziiiiio;lius,
Buccr, Oecolampadiiis, Martyr, Calvin, and Beza. Several of tlie
princes of Germany were iiis patrons, and afforded him the most
essential aid, among whom especially were Frederick the Wise, and
John his brother, electors of Saxony.
The new opinions were not long confined to Germany. Through
the oppressive measures of the [)apacy, as much as by any other
cause, they were dilVused abroad among the neighbouring nations.
Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland, participated in the reforma-
tion, and it found many friends in France, the Netherlands, Sjiain,
Hungary, and Bohemia. In England, also, it was firmly establish-
ed, though by an inslrumemality at <irst very different from friend-
ship to the cause. The p-issions and obstinacy of Henry VHI., as
has elsewhere appeared, were, bj' the providence of God, concerned
in effecting the religious revolution in that country. Iii Scotland
the denunciations of Knox demolished the papal hierarchy.
The opposition of the Catholic power to the reformation, pro-
duced in Germany much bloodshed, desolation, and discord. These
scenes continued till the year 1555, When a treaty was formed at
Augsburg, called the Peace of Religion, which established the Re-
formation, inasmuch as it secured to all the inhabitants of Germany
the free exercise of their religion. The protestant princes of that
country never at any time ceased their exertions, till this desirable
result was brought to'pass.
5. A few years after the establishment of the reformation,
the countries of Europe which lavouied it and became pro-
testant, were Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, England,
Scotland, Ireland, and Holland. One lialf of Germany, and
a small majority in Switzfii'land, embraced the reformation.
The cotmtries which adheied to Rome were Italy, Spain,
Portugal, the Belgic Provinces under the SpanisJl yoke.
France becume decidedly papal, tl'iough at first the hope was
entertained that she would favour the protestant cause. A
goodly number, however, of the Frencli population were
protestants.
That portion of the professed Christian body which con-
stituted the Eastern or Greek church, was not affected by
the revolution in the West. Though religion in this church
was then at a very low ebb, and the church had experienced
many external calamities, corruption and error had not made
so fatal a progress in the East, as among the Latins. Rus-
sia and a part of Eirropean Turkey were the seat of the
Greek religion. Many of its professors, however, were found
in various coiihlries of Asia and Africa. In 1589, the Rus-
418 GENERAL VIEWS.
sian church separated from the government, though not from
the communion, of the Greek church — a circumstance which
has reduced the latter to an inconsiderable body.
§ As the Russian and Greek branches of the Christian church need
not be referred o again, it may be added, that they have undergone
but few changes in more modern times — perhaps some improvement
is visible. Still they seem to be little acquainted with evangelical
piet}^, are in general destitute of the Bible, and consequently involv-
ed in ignorance. Their numbers are variously estimated. Hassel
makes them seventy-four millions, which is the highest calculation.
Members of the Greek church are at present found scattered over a
considerable part of Greece, the Ionian isles, Wallachia, Moldavia,
Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Lybia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia,
and Palestine.
It must suffice for a rapid survey of the Roman and Protestant
churches, from the time that their separation was consummated to
the present era, to notice the following particulars.
First, the Roman church. — Desperate etforts were made by the
popes to regain their lost power, but on the whole with little etfecl.
The means which they used, as enumerated in a recent interesting
publication,* were principally these four. 1. The employment of
the order of Jesuits, formed in the year 1540, by Ignatius Loyola,
whose object was to go forth, as advocates of the papal power.,
2. An attempt to christianize the heathen, in several parts of Asia
and South America. 3. The better regulation of the internal con-
cerns of their church. 4. The persecution of the protestants. In
regard to the laTt, it may be observed, that scarcely a country, in
which protestants were to be found, but was the scene of awful suf-
ferings. Our blood boils with indignation at the thought, that cru-
elties which would have disgraced Domilian, were intiicted by the
minions of the papacy, under the sanction of the mild religion of
the Saviour, upon his own followers. In these persecutions, fifty
millions of protestants are computed to have perished, principally
in Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, France, parts of Germany, and
England.
But all the efforts of the Roman church were in vain, except as by
propagating her religion in heathen countries, she was for a time
nominally mistress of greater numbers of mankind than before.
Several causes have contributed to weaken, essentially, her
power, wealth and splendour. These, as enumerated in the work
above referred to, are, 1. The loss of foreign conquests. 2. Un-
successful contests with several European governments. 3. The
suppression of the order of the Jesuits. 4. The revolution in
France. 5. The abolition of the inquisition.
The statistics of the Roman church, as it exists at the present
day, are as follows :
The temporal dominions of the pope, are a small territorj'' in
* Outlines of Ecclesiastical History, by Rev. Charles A. Goddrich.
CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 419
Italy, south of the Po, containing 15,000 square miles, and 2,500,000
inhabitants.
Its rcclrftiastical aubjecls arc supposed to amount to 80 or
100,00(),()()0, in all parts of tlie world. Malte Brun put them down
at 110.01)0,000.
Tlie countries where they most abound, are the pope's dominions
m Ital}', Spain, Portugal, and South America. These are considered
ejitirely papal. France, Austria, Poland, Belgium, Ireland, and Ca-
nada, are chiefly papal. Switzerland has 700,000 ; England half a
million, and the United States about that number. Others are found
in Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and tlie West Indies. The \x)pe is at
present making great efforts to extend his influence in the United
States ; but it is believed either tliat the system cannot widely pre-
vail here, or if from any temporary causes, it is destined to meet
with some successes, that it will be in a degree modified by the ge-
nius of our institutions, and not be the dark, intolerant, cruel, and
licentious system that it has been in other countries.
Second, the Protestants. — A diversity soon took place among those who se-
parated from the fellowship of Rome. A general division of the protestants is
into the Lutheran church, and the Reformed churches.
1. Lutheran CInircIi. — The Lutherans, as the name imports, were the im-
mediate followers of Luther, who. consider their church as having been es-
tabUshed at the tim.e of the j)acification at Passau, I5^r2. Their standard of
faith is the Augsburg confession. They suffered far less from the persecu-
tions of the times than the other portions of the reformed church, though they
were unhappily engaged in a controversy among themselves, relating to various
points of faith and practice.
Tlieso controversies were followed by a low state of religion ; and this by ef-
forts which many of the better sort made to bring about a happier state of
things. Some good was clone by the Pietists, (so this class of people were
called,) but far less than might liave been, had not their views and principles
.been misconceived or opposed. The Pietists flourished about the middle of
the seventeenth century, but they degenerated after a time, and were suc-
ceeded by a set of wild religionists, who did much miscliief to the cause of god-
liness. To counteract this evil, the system of the Neologists was introduced,
which consisted in the application of human philosophy to the interpretation
of the Bilile. The remedy was as bad as the disease, and the Gospel, stripped
of its peculiarities, has become a dead letter very extensively in Germany. It
is believed, however, that a better spirit is now connnencing in some parts of
the Lutheran church, while it is a happiness to know tliat, in other parts of it,
both in Germany and the neighbouring churches, there are those who have all
along maintained their integrity.
In regard to the statistics of the Lutheran church, it may be observed, that
portions of it are found chiefly in Denmark, Norway, iuid Sweden, in a great
Eirt of Germany, ])articidarly in the north, and in Saxony and Prussia, where
utheranisin is tlie established religion. < 'hurches of this denomination also ex-
ist in Holland, France, Russia, North America, and in the Danish West In-
dies. The nuuiber of Lutherans is probably between fifteen and twenty millions.
2. Reformed Churches. — These are numerous, and little more than their
names can be here mentioned. The term " Reformed" was a title originally
assumed by those Helvetic or Swiss churches, which adhered to certain tenets
of Zuinglius, in relation to the Sacrament. But in latter times it has a wider
signilication, and under it may be included all those sects in Protestant Chris-
tendom, that dissent from the tenets of the Lutheran churcli. These aM
i^W GENERAL VIEWS.
principally the Calvinists, the Church of England, the Presbyterian Churcl. ai
Scotland, the Moravians, the Congregationalists of New-England, the Pres-
byterian Church in the United States, the Episcopal Church in the United
States, the Baptists, Methodists, and Cluakers.
1. Calvinists. — The Christians so called, taken loosely for those who ex-
plain the Bible as Calvin explained it, constituted at iirst the whole body of the
Protestants as distinguished from the Lutherans. Protestant Christendom
even now owns this distinction on the cofitinent of Europe. They were called
Huguenots in France, and suffered terrible persecutions. They are not known
as one particular denomination, but constitute a portion of several bodies of
Christians. They exist in France, Holland, Prussia, Great Britain, and
other countries in Europe, and extensively in the United States. The sect of
Arminians is, as to sentiment, directly opposed to the Calvinists, though per-
sons of both persuasions are often foimd together in the same churches. The
Arminian doctrines began to be propagated at the beginning of the seventeenth
century.
2. Church of England. — By this name is known the reformed church as
established in England and Irelanii. Its history is deeply interesting, as it
passed a bloody ordeal, but there is no space for particulars. The rise of pii-
ritanism is connected with the histor}' of the church of England, tlian which
few events in the records of religion are more important ; but this also must be
]iassed over. Dissenters from the church of England are tolerated in the
United Kingdom. The establishment embraces 5,000,000 of the inhabitants :
its livings are 10,.500. The dissenters, or independents, in England and
Wales, have more than 1000 congregations.
3. Presbyterian Church of Scotland. — The tlate of the establishment of the
Reformation in Scotland, is about the year 1560. At this time the Prcsby-
•terian church in that country began to assume a regular form. This church
passed through various vicissituiles, and has in general been distinguished tor
■the piety of its members. It includes nearly the whole population of Scotland.
4. JMoravians. — The Moravians, or United Brethren, date their modern
•history in 17:2"3. They are an exemplary people, and devoted to missionary
enterprises. They have settlements in Germany, Denmark, Holland, Eng^
land, Scotland, Ireland, Russia, and the United States. Their converts among
•the heathen, amount to 30,000.
5. Congregationalists of New-England. — Under this name are known tlie
descendants of a class of the English puritans, who fled from persecution to
the wilds of America. They began the settlement of New-England, on tlie
■ 23d December, 1620. The sulTerings, piety, and success of the fathers of New-
England Congregationalism, are rich topics in religious history. The Con-
gregationalists have about 1000 churches in New-England, and about 200 in
other f)arts of the United States.
6. Presbyterian Church in the United States. — This body of Christians
was originally composed of a few Presbyterians from Scotland and Ireland,
;united to a like number of Congregationalists, chiefly from New-England.
They have greatly prospered and increnscd, and are found througiiout the
middle, southern and western states. The number of their churches is nearly
• 1900.
Our limits preclude an account of other reformed churches, several cf "^liicb
are respectable for their character and rnnnhers.
QUESTIONS
ON
OUTLINES OF ANCIENT HISTORY.
BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS.
INTRODUCTION.*
1. What does the term Ifistory compre-
hend ?-[What are tlu^ Innrfits lobe expect-
ed from history ! What rauscs it to become
a source of perpetual interest and enjoy-
ment 1 In wtiat way does tiistory improve
our understanding, and enlarge our store
of useful knowledge'! How does it (each
us wisdom 7 What is the most si^al bene-
fit to be derived from the record of past
agesi What is history, speaking in the
way of aphorism 1 What other advantages
result from the study of history 7]
2. How is history derived to us 7 What
are its principal sources 7-(What four other
eouixes are mentioned 7 What are monu-
ments, and what are they intended to per-
petuate 7 In what way do ruins afford a
knowledge of antiquity 7 What is said of
coins 7 What are the most celebrated
marbles known 7 Wliicli is the most im-
portant of the Arundelian Marbles, and
wliat does it contain 7]
General DrvisiON.
How may history be divided? How
many years does ancient history include?
What is its extent 7 What does modern
history include 7 What is its extent?
What is the name and extent of the first
period 7-[Repeat this question in every pe-
riod. From what are the periods named 7]
PERIOD I.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod?
1. What is the first grand event vrtiich
history presents? Why is the scriptural
account the only one worthy of implicit be-
lief?
2. Give a brief account of that event as
there related7-(What were the occurren-
ces of the first three days? What was
done on the fourth day ! What on the
fifth and sixth 7 When, and how was man
created * Mention some of the theories
j held by ancient philosophers on this sub-
ject. What is the opinion of the Bramins
I and the negroes of Congo on this subject ?
■ What of Butfon and Darwin?]
3. Where were A<lam and Eve placed ?
I What was their character and situation?
! -[What opinions have been entertained re-
lative to the situation of the garden of
Eden 7 From the account given by Moses,
where may we suppose it to have been sit-
uated 7]
4. What were the circumstances of the
first transgression ?-[ What was involved in
their sin 7 What was the effect upon crea-
tion and themselves 7 What promise was
given in connexion with the doom of the
serpent? To whom did it refer? What
was the conclusion of this scene?]
5. When were Cain and Abel born?
What crime did Cain commit? What was
the occasion of it 7 What was his punish-
ment? Where did he dwell after this
event 7 For what was his family famous 7
-[When is it supposed the murder of
Abel occurred? When was Seth born?
Why are his descendants styled the child-
ren of God? What prepared the way for
the universal wickedness which soon pre-
vailed?] ■
6. What are the next events related by
the sacred historian 7 What is recorded of
Enoch 7 How far is the sacred genealogy
minutely given ?-[Where did Adam die?
What are the conjectures respecting hia
■■^epulclire? From' whom did the giants of
those days descend 7]
7. How (lid God determine to punish the
wickedness which soon prevailed upon the
Earth 7 How long a spare djil he give tliem
for repentance? What pjrac her of right-
eousness did he semi aiiioiig them ? Why
were Noah and his faiihly exempted from
the general destruction? By what means
' It will be noticed, tliat the same order which prevails through the History, is preserved in the
following ducKlione— anil also that the dueations on that part uf Iho work wliicb is printed on
tbe tmaller type, arc included in brackeia, thus -l J.
QUESTIONS ON
was their deliverance accomplish ^i7-[De-
scribe the ark.]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
of this period ?-[What further particulars
can be given of Adam and Eve 7 What is
said of Jubal in Scripture"! Wlio was pro-
bably among the earliest civilizers of the
world? In what was Tubal Cain an in-
structer? What was there peculiar in the
character and history of Enoch 1 For what
was Methuselah remarlcable 1]
PERIOD II.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod?
1. In what manner did God bring the wa-
ters upon the earth 1 How long were tliey
poured upon the surface of the globe 1 How
old was Noah when he entered into the ark 1
Who went in with him 7 How long did he
remain there 1 What was his first act on
coming out of the ark 7 Where did he set-
tle 7-[How high did the waters rise above
the summits of the highest mountains 7 On
what mountain did the ark rest? When
did they leave the ark?]
2. By what is the truth of the account
given in the Bible, of the deluge, confirmed?
-[What nations have had some traditions ,
respecting it? What anecdote is related
on this subject 7 How is this fact indicated
by the surface of the earth?]
3. Wliat was the covenant which God
made with Noah after the tlood 7 How did
he confirm it 7
4. Why was Canaan, the son of Ham,
subjected to a curse 7-[What was the age
of Noali, and how long did he live after the
flood 7]
5. In what parts of the world did the
three sons of Noah settle 7-[What nations
were derived from the immediate descend-
ants of Shem 7 What from Ham 7 What
from .Tapheth ?]
6. How long after the flood did all the
descendants of Noah speak one language ?
What was the origin of a diversity of
tongues? What does the name given to
the cit V signify ?-[Of what materials was the
tower built 7]
7. Why must the history of mankind from
this time, be given in distinct nations?
8. Which was the oldest nation? Where
and by whom was As.'iyria founded 7 What
was its capital, and by whom was it htuilt 7
How long did it continue before it was uni-
ted to Babylonia7-[About what time, and
by whom was Babylonia founded 7 Under
what king was it united to Assyria? By
whom was the scat of government removed
to Babylon ?]
9. How did Semiramis signalize her name?
• [How far did she e.xtend her conquests?]
10. By whom was Semiramis succeeded ?
What was his character, and that of his
f,uccessors?-[Who was the last of the As-
syrian kings ?]
11. How far do the records of China ex-
tend? Wliat different accounts are given
of the foundation of t bis empire 7-[Into how
many dynasties are the sovereigns of China
divided? Who formed the first dynasty,
and how long did it last 7 What is said of
Gu-(u7 Wliat ofKy-a?]
12. What is the character of the early
annals of Egypt ? When, and by whom is
it supposed to have been founded? What
four kingdoms arose from the division of
the land among his children ? What cir-
cumstance prevented the increase of civi-
lization in this empire 7 When did this
event occur, and how long did it last ?-[What
did JVIenes accomplish 7 Under whose reign
was the country invaded, and by whom 1
What king of Tliebes was worshipped
under the name of Mercury? Why w.as
Tosorthros styled Esculapius ? Wliat did
he invent 7]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
of this period, and for what were they emi-
nent 7-[What is known of Nimrod? What
is Menes called in Scripture, and what was
his cliaracter 7 What more is said of Ninu*
and Semiramis 7]
PERIOD HI.
What is the name and extent of Period
Third?
1. From whom were the Hebrews de-
scended? Why, and when was Abraham
called of God? Why does the history of
the Hebrews instruct us in a different way
from that of all others ? From whom were
the twelve tribes into which it was divided,
named 7-[What is meant by the calling of
Abraham? What promise did God make
to his descendants? Why was one family
thus set apart from the rest of mankind ?
To which of Abraham's children was the
promise made 7 Who were the children of
Isaac 7 How did Jacob obtain his father's
blessing ? Why were his descendants call-
ed Israehtes ? Of wha.t nation was Esau
the founder?]
2. When, and in what manner did Jacob
close his life 7 By what means had he been
brought into Egypt 7 What do the occur-
rences by whicii Joseph became minister
to the king of Egypt, show7-[What is the
cliaracter of the story of Joseph, as record-
ed in Scripture 7 Mention some of the prin-
cipal incidents.]
3. VVhen did Joseph die ? What was Ih«
consequence to the Israelites? What
means did Pharaoh take to prevent their
increase? What was his success? In
wha.t way did God prepare for them a deli-
verer 7
4. From whom were the Canaaniles de
scended 7 How many nations did the term
Canaanites include 7'[What did they suf-
fer in consequence of the curse denounced
against their progenitor?]
ANCIENT HISTORY.
5. What arc thr first authentic accounts
of this people 1 Wliat juduincnt was inllicl-
cd on tlieia tiftrtii years alter tliis event 1
What cliaiige (lid this etVect in ttie face of
their country !■[ What peculiarities mark
this sea, and tlie adjacent region f|
6. What otlier events have been trans-
mitted to us, relating to this people, during
(his period i
7. Is the early history of Greece aul hen-
tic I Where do we find any information
respecting the descendants of .lapheth, du-
ring this and the preceding period ! From
what event do we date the commencement
of Greece ! Who founded Sicyon "(-[Who
are the greater part of the deities worship-
ped by the Greeks, supposed to be ? Wlio
was Uranus 1 Who was Saturn i What is
said of Jupiter!]
8. Describe the ancient inliabitants of
Greece.-[What is the most ancient name of
Greece, and from what is it derived ?]
9. When did the other states of Greece
arise? How long did tlie descendants of In-
nchus retain possession of the throne of
Argos % Who founded a second dynasty 1-
[When, and by whom was the kingdom
transferred to Mycenai ? Which were (he
only two States founded by the native
Greeks? When do we find laws among
them I How were they governed previous
to that event?]
10. When, and how was Athens founded ?
How did Cccrops divide the inhabitants ?-
[What did Athens afterwards become ?]
11. Who was the successor of Cecrops,
and what event occurred during liis time?
Who was the third king of Alliens, and for
what is he celebrated h[Ti) wliat does the
deluge of Deucalion owe much of its im-
portance? What event occurred during
the reign of Amphiction?]
12. Give an account of the founding of
Corinth.
13. By whom was Thebes founded ?
When did Cadmus introduce letters into
Greece? [Of what nation was Cadmus a
native?]
14. By whom, and when was Lacedffi-
mon founded? How lonir did the govern-
ment continue in liis family ?-[To what did
the names of Sparta and Laceda>mon pro-
perly belong ? Where was this state situa-
ted ?]
15. To what do the events of Egypt, du-
ring this period, chieily refer? When and
where did Nitocris reign ? Is any thing
known of the other kings of Egyju, during
this period ?-[What was the cliaracter of
Nitocris? In what way was Sesostris dis-
tingui.stieil?]
16. How long did the second dynasty of
China continue? Ol'liow many emperors
did it consist ?-[Wliat was tlie character of
Ching-tang, its founder? What anecdotes
are related of two of liis successors ?]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished character.'
ia this period, and for what were they cele-
brated ?-[l. Relate the principal incidents
in the life of Abraham.
2. What is known of Melchisedec?
5. What did Cecrops teach the Atheni-
ans?
0.. Of how manv letters did the alphabet
consist, which Cadmus introduced into
Greece ?]
PERIOD IV.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod ?
1. What was there remarkable in the
history of the Israelites at this era? By
what means did Muses effect their deliver-
ance from Egypt ? How long did they wan-
der in tlie wilderness? How far were they
conducted by Moses ? What is tlie date of
this event ?-[Relate the first incident which
is mentioned after the Israelites left Egypt?
What other instances of rebellion against
God are recorded ? What punishment was
inflicted on them for these sins ? What
was the sin and punishment of Korah, Da-
than, and Aliirain? When and liovv did the
Israelites begin their conquests?]
2. What did Joshua aceoiiiiilisli for them?
How long were they governed by judges?
Why did they desire a king?-[By what mi-
racle did Josliua enter Canaan ? What fol-
lowed this event ? Why were tlie IsraeUtes
often brought into bondage ? Who were in-
struments of delivering them, on these oc-
casions? What is related of Gideon? Of
Samson? Of Samuel?]
.3. Who was the first king of Israel?
When was he anointed, and what was the
character of his reign ? Who was his suc-
cessor? What was his character, and the
state of the nation under his reign? By
whom, and when was the foundation of the
temple laid7-[What more is said of Saul?
Of David?]
4. What was the fate of the Canaanites?
5. What arts were early cultivated among
the Phccnicians? What were their princi-
pal kingdoms ? With whom was Hiram
contemporary 7-[What is related of the
foundation of Sidon and Tyre ? How far
did their trade extend? In what way did
their king assist David and Solomon ?]
6. How is the history of Greece pursued
during this period? What was done for
Athens by Theseus 7-[How was he treated
by its citizens ?]
7. Wtiy, and when did a change take
lilace in tlieir government ?-[What anec-
dote is related of Codrus? What olfice was
created at his death?]
8. How long did the family of Sysiphua
reign in Corinth ? By wliom, and when
was tlie last king deposed?
9. Give an account of the last great en-
terprise of the Greeks ?-[ What is said of
the cause and success of this expedition?
What games were instituted on their re
turn?]
10. IVIenlion the two war» which occur-
red in Greece during this period-
QUESTIONS ON
11. What is the most celebrated event in
the annals of Greece in this period?
When did it commence and terminate 1
What was the consequence to Troy?
AVhy was it undertalien ?-[Where was
Troy situated ? When, and by whom was
it founded 7 What was the chai-acter of the
people ? Relate the circumstances of this
war. Who of the survivors settled in Italy ?]
12. When did the war of the Heraclida;
begin 1 Wliat was the occasion of it 1
What was the result ?
13. What was the state of Greece after
this event 1
14. Who is supposed to have been the
king of Egypt that was drowned in the Red
6ea?-[What celebrated work of art was ac-
complished during this period? For what
was Hermes Trismegistes celebrated ?
What is said of Actisanes ? From what
king of Egypt was the word Proteus de-
rived ?]
15. Into how many dynasties are the
kings of Lydia divided ? When did the
first begin to reign ? For what were the
Lydians celebrated ?-[Who is the supposed
founder of Lydia? Where was this coun-
try situated ? For what were this people
early remarkable ?]
16. At what time did Italy begin to be a
kingdom ? When did ^Eneas arrive there,
and how did he become connected with
their history ? Which among the early
kingdoms of Italy deserves attention ?
Why are these worthy of notice ?-[What
reasons are there for supposing that the
Etruscans were a refined people ? From
whence was Italy probably peopled ? What
is the story of Latinus and JEneas ?]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
of this period, and for what were they emi-
nent ?-[l. What are the principal events in
the life of Moses?
2. What was the first city conquered by
Joshua ? What more did he do for the Is-
raeUtes ? When did he die ?
3. Relate the story of Orpheus.
4. What poem appeared in this period,
and by whom was it written?
.'>. What is said of Samson ?
6. What of Sanconiathon ?
7. What was the character of David as a
prince and a poet ? How long did he reign,
and when did he die ?]
PERIOD V.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod?
1. What was the character of the reign of
Solomon? What was the most important
undertaking of this prince ? By what was
he characterized ? What was the conse-
quence of his sins to the Israelites ?-[De-
scribe the Temple.]
2. When did Relioboam begin to reign ?
What important event occurred during his
reign ? Were the kingdoms of Judah and
Israel ever reunited?
3. What is the character of the kings of
Israel during this period ? Wliat marks
their history ?-[What is related of Jero-
boam, their first king? What of Zimril
Of Ahab ? Of Jehu ? Of Jehoash ? In
whose reign were the ten tribes carried to
Assyria?]
4. What was the character of the kings
of Judah during this period ? Why were
the people whom they governed called
Jews?-[What occurred during the reign of
Rehoboam? What was the conduct of Je-
hoshaphat? What was that of Ahaziah !
What is recorded of Joash? What of Uz-
ziah and Jotham ?]
5. What induced the Gbeeks to adopt a
popular form of government? Who was
distinguished in this work of reformation ?
6. When and by whom were the poems
of Homer introduced into Greece ? What
was their eti'ect ?-[What is said of Homer
and his poems ?]
7. What etTect had the peculiar institu-
tions of Lycurgus upon Sparta ? What was
the form of government introduced by him7
What appears to have been his sole object?
When did this cliange take place ?-[Who
vfas Lycurgus? How did he commence
reformation ? What were his regulations
respecting lands, coins, and food i What
was a part of the ceremony at their public
meals? How were the children taught^
From what is the term lavoiiic derived 1
How did Lycurgus ensure the observance
of these laws, and how long did they con-
tinue in force ? What are some of their de-
fects?]
8. From what time do the Olympic games
form a certain epoch in history ?
9. Where was Macedon ? When and by
whom was it founded? How long did the
government continue in his line ?
10. How long a chasm do we find in the
history of Assyria? What is recorded
respecting Pul, one of its last sovereigns ?-
[What effect had the preaching of Jonah ou
the Ninevites?]
11. Who was the last of the Assyrian
monarchs ? What occurred during his
reign ? What monarchies arose upon its
ruins ?-[What was the character and fate of
Sardanapalus?]
12. Who were the most con.siderable of
the kings of Egypt during this period ?-
[What is recorded of Shishak? What of
the three others ?]
13. By whom were the Phienicians go-
verned din-ing this period? Why was Dido
obliged lo llee?
14. When did Dido arrive in Africa?
What nation dates their history from thi.s
event? Where did she fi.\ her habitation?
How did this nation afterwards beconje
tiunous ? What character had this colony ?
What was the extent of its dominion and
population in the height of its splendor ?-
[What were the circunstances of Dido'a
flight?]
AN^CIENT HISTORY.
ff>. When was rticre a turn in the events
nf Italy deserving noticed What was it 7
Who were Ruinulus anil Ilciiius !-[Give au
account ol'tlieir early history fj
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
in this period, and for what were they emi-
nent ?-[l. What were the writings of Solo-
mon 1 How long did he reign, and when
did he die 1
2. What is known of the parentaaic and
circumstances of Homer 1 By what is his
poetry characterized I When did his po-
ems appear in Greece? Who arranged
them In their present form?
3. What is said of Uesiod and his poetry ^
4. Why did Lycurgus travel in foreign
coimtries !
5. What was there tragical in the death
of Dido?
fi. Give an account of the life and charac-
ter of Isaiah.]
PERIOD VI.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod ?
1. When did Romulus conunence the
building of Rome ? What became of Re-
mus ! Where was the city situated!
What was its early state ]-[What were the
circum.>tances which decided its .situation 1]
2. What was the character of the regula-
tions introduced by Romulus 1
3. What was the cause of the Sabine
war 7 How long did Romulus reign ■> By
whom was he succeeded 1 When did this
occur ]-[now was peace prod\iced between
the Romans and 8abines ) W'hat occasion-
ed the death of Romulus? What was the
character of Numaand his reign? What
were the names and duties of the different
classes of priests?]
4. Who was the third king of Rome ?
When did he begin to reisn ? What were
the effects of liis warlike disposition ?
What was the most remarkable event of
his reign 7-[Describe this combat.]
5. What four other kmgs successively
ffovemed Rome ? For what was each re-
markable ? When did the monarchical go-
vernment end at Roirie ?-[Wliat anecdote is
related of Tullia? What was the occasion
ofTanpiin's expulsion from Rome? Who
was Brutus, and what part did he take in
this event /]
0. W'liat was the form of government
now introduced at Rome ^ To whom was
the supreme authority committed ? In what
respect did their power differ from that of
kings? Wlio were the first consuls ?-
[What was the result of a conspiracy form-
ed against the government ? What was the
conduct of Brutus on this occasion? In
what way was Rome saved in the war with
I'orsetma t Wlmt incident led to the con-
clusion of a peace 1]
7. Why an<l when did the Latins declare
1*
war against the Romans ? Wliy was it ne-
cessary to create a dictator? What was
his authority ? How long did it continue ?
Why were tribunes created? llow were
they elected ? What were the duties of
their office? To what number were they
afterwards increased? When may the
couunencement of the popular government
of Rome be dated? In what way were the
liberties of Rome threatened about this
time 1 How was tliis danger averted !-[lle-
peat the story of Coriolanus 1]
8. What was the state of Athens at the
beginning of this period? Wliat change
took place in 648 B. C. ? When and by
whom were reformations attempted I How
was it accomplished ?-[Wliat was the cha-
racter of Draco and his laws? What is
said of Solon ? What were some of his re-
gulations? What anecdote is related of
hun?l
9. What usurper appeared in 560 B. C. ?
How long did he and his posterity exercise
the supreme power !-[What arts were em-
ployed by Pisistiatus to secure the favour
of the pe"oi)lc ! For what was he eminent ?
How was the democracy restored ? What
became of Hippias?]
10. What effect had the institutions of
Lycurgus upon the Spartans? With what
nation were they almost constantly engaged
in war? When did the first Messenian
war commence, and how long did it con-
tinue? How many other wars were there
between them J What was the fate of the
Messenians ?
11. What was the state of the kingdom of
Israel at the commencement of this peri-
od ? l)uring whose reign did this event oc-
cur ?-[Wliat was the cause of the taking of
Samaria by Salmanazar? Wliat became of
the Israelites? Who were the Samaritans?
Why were the ten tribes destroyed as a
nation 7)
12. W^iat was the state of the kingdom of
.ItDAH after the commencement of tllis pe-
riod i When and by whom was Jerusalem
taken 7-[\Vhat were the characters of the
last kings of Judah?]
13. When diil the seventy years captivity
commence? Under wliat king did this
event occur 7-[What took place in the reign
ofZcdekiah?]
11. When, and 'jnder what king, were
the Jews permitted to return to their na-
tive land 7 Who were their leaders? Did
their attempts to rebuild the temple meet
with success? When was it completed?
How did they celebrate this event 7-[What
effect had adversity on many of the Jews ?]
1.^. Into how many kingdoms was the an-
cient Assyrian empire divided on the death
of Sarilanapalus 7 Which is the fir.<l in or-
der 7 Who was the first king of Nineveh ?
Wliat is the date of this event ? Who are
some of his successors? By whom was
this kingdom destroyed? What became of
Belshazzar ? Wlien did this occur ?-[What
i.^ recorded of Sennacherib? Whai was
there remarkable in the life of Ncbuchad-
QUESTIONS ON
nezzarl How did Belshazzar become pe-
culiarly infamous 7 Relate the circum-
stances of the taking of Babylon 7]
16. How long did Babylon continue a
separate kingdom ! Wlio was its first
king ? When, and by whom was it annex
ed to Nineveh ?-[Did any thing worthy of
notice occur during the reign of Nabonas-
6ar?]
17. Which was the last in order of the
kingdoms which constituted the second
empire of Assyria? What was the early
state of this kingdom 7 Who was their
first king, and when was he elected? How
did the kingdom of the Medes, and the As-
syrian empire, become united with that
of Persia 7-[From whom were the Medes
tdescendedl What was the early capital
of this empire I What was the fate of De-
joces 7 How did the Scythians obtain a re-
sidence in IVIcdia? How were they de-
stroyed? Who was king of Media at lliis
time ? In what war did he engage ? For
what was the last battle remarkable ? How
did Cyrus become king of Media and Per-
sia?]
18. What is the date of Cyrus the Great?
What was the state of Persia, before and
after his reign? What was the character
of Cyrus? What was the result of his ex-
pedition against the Scythians? By whom
was he succeeded? What did he add to
the empire? Who was his successor?
How many years B. C. was this event ?-
[Prom whom were the inhabitants of Per-
sia descended ? What incident relating to
their early history is recorded in Scrip-
ture? What was the education of Cyrus?
How vfas he affected by a visit to the court
of his grand-father Astyages ? What is re-
Idted of his conduct there ? How did he
obtain an entrance mto Babylon ? How
long did he reign over this vast empire
alone? How long did the Egyptians re-
main under the Persian yoke ? By what
stratagem did Cambyses enter Egypt? In
whose reign did the Jews rebuild the Tem-
ple?]
19. Wliat is said of the dynasties of Lydia
during this period ? For what was Croesus
celebrated? By whom was his kingdom
conquered ?-[What occurred, worthy of re-
mark, in the contest between Cyrus and
Croesus?]
20. By whom was Egypt governed during
this period? Wlien was Egypt conquered
by Cambyses, kuig of Pfrsia?-[What is
said of Sabljacon ! Of Tliaraca? What
connexion had Pharaoh Necho with the
Jewish history ? Wliat was the end of
Psanmienitus ?]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the di.stinguished characters
of this period, and for wlial were they emi-
nent ?-|l. Wlial is the fable respecting the
death of Romulus?
2. Where was Sappho born, and where
lid she flourish ? What is her story? For
What have her poems been admired 1
3. When did Mso'p flourish ? By what
did he acquire a high reputation ? What
was his original condition? What was the
occasion of his death?
4. What more is said of Solon ?
5. Where was Thales born ? In what
sciences was he eminent? When did he
die, and how old was he .'
6. What is related of the death of Cy-
rils?
7. What was the character of Anacreon,
and his writings?
8. For what was Pythagoras celebra-
ted?]
PERIOD VII.
Wliat is the name and extent of this pe-
riod?
1. When, and under what king, did the
Persians invade Greece? What was the
size of their lleet and army ? Where did
they meet? Who successfully opposed
them tliere ? What was the loss on each
side ? What is the date of this event ?•
[What was the cause of this war ? Where
was Marathon situated ? How did Miltiadea
become sole commander? To what was
the success of the Greeks owing? What
treatment did he afterwards receive from
his countrymen? Witii what did Greece
abound at this time? What is related of
Themistocles? What was his character 1
How did he behave under the ungrateful
treatment of his countrymen ?J
2. Wlio prosecuted the war against
Greece ? Wliat celebrated battles were
fought in the early part of this war? What
is the date of these battles ? Who distin-
guished themselves in defending their
country? What was the size of Xerxes'
army ? How long was this army resisted
at the pass of ThermopyliB ? By how many
men ? What was the loss on the side of
the Persians ? Was tlieir progress finally
arrested ? How did the Persians treat
Athens ?-[What anecdotes are related to
show the character of Xerxes 7 Wliat ci-
ties refused to send tlie token of homage
to the Persian king? Who was Leonidas,
and where did he meet the Persians t
What reply did he give Xerxes when he
demanded his arms? Describe the battlo
which ensued. What was the success of
the Athenian fleet? Who commanded iti
What was the conduct of Xerxes on wit-
nessing this defeat? Describe the battlo
of Plata>a. When was the Persian fleet de-
stroyed ?]
3. Did Xerxes make anv further attempts
upon Greece? Wliat became of him?
What was the state of the military glory of
the Greeks? What was l lie cause of tlicir
prosperity? Wlio was (.'imon ?
4. When did lie coinnieiice his military
career ? What were lii.-i successes against
the Persians?-! How long did the military
glory of the Greeks continue ? What was
the treatment which Cinion received from
his countrymen? In what way did he iiu-
ANCIENT HISTORY.
prove the city ? What anecdotes are re-
conleil of Aristiiles'i)
5. Between whom was the power of
Athens divided ? Which obtained tlie con-
trol in the repuldic .' What etrect liad his
aihninislration upon Alliens? Wjicn did
the Lacfda-iiionian war coinnience ! IIow
lonj dill I'encles live after its coiinnence-
iiieiil ! Who succeeded hiuif On what
terms was the Lacedaemonian war closed I
What Spartan signalized himself in this
war ?-[What more is said of Pericles 7
(Jive an account of his death, and the oc-
casion of It. What was the cause of the
LacedwiTioiiian war 7 What was the con-
duct of Alcibiades, dnringtliis war ? What
treatment did he receive from the Atheni-
ans ] Why did (he Athenians wish his re-
turn 7 In what manner did he return 7
What was the termination of his varied
life ! What brought the Lacedajuionian
war to a close 7 What was the conse-
quence to Athens 7]
6. What government was established at
Athens 7 When and by whom was the re-
publican government re-established ?-[Who
were the thirty tyrants 7' How long did
they continue in authority? What is as-
cribed to Ly Sander 7]
7. What occurred to stain the Athenian
character, about this time7-[Wlio was So-
crates? What were the distinguishing traits
of his philosophy I INIention the circum-
stances of his death !]
8. What celebrated event occurred in the
year 401 B. C.( What are the remarkable
circumstances of tliis retreat 7-[Whal was
the occasion of th Greeks being in such a
situation 7 Who has written an account of
this retreat? How did Sparta become en-
faged in this war 7 What was the result to
parta 7 When was a peace concluded 7]
9. Which of the Grecian States became
distinguished during this period 7 What
occasioned the war Ijetwecn this state and
Sparta? What slates assisted Thebes?
Who were the Theban leaders? What
celebrated battles were gained by the Tlie-
bans? What is the date of these battles?
What paved the way for the entire subjuga-
tion of the Cfrecian states to a foreign pow-
cr7-(How long was the Theban fortress
kept by the Spartans ? By whom, and how
was it received? What was the staiiipn and
character of Epaininondas? To what was
the success of the Theban army at the bat-
tle of Leuctra owing? How were these
two generals treated by their countrymen?
Give an account of the death of Epaniinon-
das71
10. What change look place in the govern-
ment of Rome, during this period 7 Had it
not been a dfnwrrii'-y before 7-lHow was
this change eftecled !|
11. When, and upon what occasion did
the Uoinans choose a Dictator? Who was
appointed? What service did he render
his country 7 II.iw long did he retain his
power 7-[\Vhat w.is the character of Cin-
sinnatus 1 What more is said of himi]
12. When were the Decemviri chosen 1
For what purjiose 7 What was the charac-
ter of their laws ! How many crimes were
jiunishable with death ;-[What was the first
code of laws of the Uomaiis f In what way
did the Decemviri e.xercise their authority I
How long did this government hut? What
tragical event was the cause of its dissolu-
tion 7]
13. What itnportant law passed 445 B. CI
What was substituted for Consuls, the same
year? Were the Consuls ever restoreill
Wlien was the otTice of Censors created 7
What was iheir duty 7-[What barriers sepa-
rated the patricians and plebeians? How
were they removed? Why was the otSce
of Censors important?)
14. How did the Senate repay themselves
for their concession to the people? What
efliect had this on Roman ambition 7
15. What cities were taken by Camillusl
When were they taken 7-[What were the
circumstances of the siege of Veil? What
occurred during the attack on Faleriil
What became of Camillus?!
16. What calamity befel Rome soon after
these successes? Wlien did this event
occur? How were they expelled from the
city 7-[What was the cause of this invasion?
What occurred in the Senate hou.se ? How
was the capital preserved from the general
ruin?]
17. When did the Roman constitution
undergo another change? What was iti
What effect had this on the power of Rome J
-[What was the cause of tliis change?]
18. When, and by whom was tlie king-
dom of Egypt restored? How long did it
conlintie independent? To what power
was it then subjected?
10. With what nation is the history of
Persia involved during this period ? What
sovereigns were engaged in this war?
-[What is said of Artaxerxos 1.7 What of
Xerxes II. 7 Wliat of Arlaxerxes II,, and
Ochus?]
a). What king first gave Macedon celeb-
rity 7 What advance had he made in con-
quest, before the birth of his son Alexan-
der ?-[In what way did lie ascend the throne?
What was his character? What more is
related of him?]
Distinguished Characters.
AVho were the distinguished characters
of this period, and for wliai were they emi-
nent 7-11. What is said of Confucius 7
2. What does the history of Herodotiia
describe? In what dialect was it written,
and what is its character?
3. Of what country was Pindar a native?
What is said of his compositions?
4. For what statues was Phidias celebra>'
ted 7
5. What is said of the life of Euripides?
What of his writings ?
6. For what was Sophocles distinguish-
ed? What is said of his writings? What
anecdote is related of him? What was th«
occasion of bis death?
8
QUESTIONS ON
7. Of what country was Socrates a native 1
What was his early occupation? What
was his character 1 Wliy was he condemn
cd to die'? What was his belief?
8. Under what circumstances did Thu
cydides write his history of the Peloponne
8ian war? Wh^ are the peculiarities of
liis style 1
9. Where was Hippocrates born ? How
did he acquire the knowledge of medicine?
10. What more can you say of Xeno-
phon ?]
PERIOB VDI.
What IS the name and extent of this pe-
riod?
1. What was the situation of Greece, at
the commencement of this period ? With
what nation is their history connected 7
What was the cause of the sacred war?
How did Philip become engaged in it?
Who roused the Athenians to oppose him ?
When was the battle of Cheronea ? How
were the Greeks treated by Philip ?-[now
did Philip obtain a place in the Amphicty-
onic council? From what is the term Phi-
lippic derived? What proof is recorded of
the success of his eloquence ? What great
expedition was Philip contemplating at the
time of his death ? How did he die ?]
2. When did Alexander, the son of Philip,
enter Greece? What did he do there?
[How old was he when he began to reign ?
What is said of his early life? Describe
his interview with Diogenes. What was
the result of his consisting the oracle at
Delphos? Did he retain possession of the
Grecian states without an effort?]
3. When did Alexander invade Persia?
How old was he ? What was the size of
his army ? What countries did he conquer ?
How long was he in conquering them?
Where, and how did he die? What was
his character ?-[ Where was his first bat-
tle with the Persians fought? What was
the fruit of this victory ? Where was the
next encounter? What was the conse-
quence to the Persians? How did he em-
ploy himself from this time to the battle of
Arbela? What is said of this battle? What
more did he accomplish? What instances
of amiable feeling are recorded of him ?]
4. How were the possessions of Alexan-
der divided, immediately after his death ?
How were they afterwards divided ? Which
was the most powerful of these divisions?
-[How did Alexander's family become ex-
tinct?!
5. What was the situation of the Grecian
states, after the death of Alexander ? What
and when was the last effort made to revive
the spirit of liberty ?-[ What was the occa-
sion of the deatli of Demosthenes? In
what respect did he differ from Phocion ?
What was the character and death of Pho-
cion ? What prevented the success of the
Achaean league?]
6. What was soon to be the fate of Mace-
donia and Greece? When did Macedonia
become subject to the Romans 7 When,
and by whom was Greece subdued? Whal
was the pretext for attacking Greece ? Un-
der what name did Greece become a pro-
vince of Home ?-[ What was the occasion
of introducing the Romans into Greece^
What was tiie result to Macedonia, and
their last king, Perseus? What was the
fate of Corinth? In what year did this oc-
cur? What other event renders this year
important? What is said of Philopoemon ?
WhatofNabis?]
7. What was the situation of Rome at the
commencement of this period?
8. What nations did the Romans easily
subdue ? Against whom did they then turn
their arms ? How long were they engaged
in this war? What nation did they subju-
gate in the mean time ? [What was tlie
country of the Samnites ! What remarka-
ble instanceof bravery occurred during the
war with this nation? Whal incident in the
war with the Latins shows the sternness of
Roman virtue ?]
9. Wliat mortification did tlie Roman army
experience during the war with the Sam-
nites? When-were they subdued? What
nation shared their fate?-[Relate the cir-
cumstances of the disgrace ofthe Romans?]
10. When were the Romans engaged in
vi'ar with the Tuscans ? What general de-
feated them? What was the most impor-
tant war in which they were engaged at
this time? How did Pynhus become en-
gaged with the Romans? What was the
success of his attack on them ? When did
all Italy submit to the Romans ?-[What ,
anecdote illustrates the ambition of Pyr-
rhus ? To what was he indebted for his
first successes in Italy ? What was his
fortune in Sicily ? What instance of gene-
rosity is mentioned? What was the condi-
tion of the States of Italy after they were
conquered by the Romans?]
11. What was the occasion of the first
Punic war? When did it commence)
How long did it last? What exception is
mentioned to the general success of the
Romans? What reasons were there for
supposing that the Romans would not suc-
ceed in tlieir naval engagements ? Where
was the principal scene of this war ? On
what terms did the Carthaginians conclude
a peace ?-[What was the object of both
nations? What was the success 'of the
naval engagements? What orders were
given to Reguliis ? Why did he wish to re-
turn home ? How were the Carthaginians
enabled to defeat him ? In what way did
he show uncommon devotedness to his
country ? What was the condition of Sicily
after this war?]
12. How long did the peace between
Rome and Carthage continue? Over what
nations did the Roman arms triumph?
How often had the temple of Janus been
shut since the foundation ofthe city ? How
did the Romans employ themselves durinij
this interval ?-[ What was the cause of tho
war with the lUynans and Gauls ?]
ANCIENT HISTORY.
t3. How did the Carthaginians improve
this season of peac(t J How was ll>c se-
cond Punic war coiiiiiiouccd ! Who was
the leader ia tliis war ! When did this
war commence, and liow long did it lastl
Where was the war al first carried on?
Willi what success ! Why was Hannibal
obljijed to leave Italy? What finally deci-
ded the fate ot" the war! On what terms
did the Carthaginians obtain a peace?
(Wliat oath did Hannibal take when a child ?
what was his characliu" and habits! De-
scribe tlie course of Hannibal from Africa
to Italy. How old was he, and what was
the number of his troops? What battles
were lost by the Romans? What were
the circumstances of the battle of Caimaj?
What is said of Paulus vEmiiius ? To what
causes can you attribute the future ill suc-
cess of Hannibal i Under wliom were the
Romans a^ain victorious ? By what means
did Fabius conduct the war prosperously 7
Who reduced Spain? What was the fate
of Asdrubal? Why did Scipio carry the
war into Africa? What was the cliaracter
of Scipio ! What was the loss to the Car-
thaginians at tlie battle of Zama? What
more is said of Hannibal ? When did the
second Punic war end !)
11. What other victories were obtained
by the Romans .'-[What was the war with
Philip called?]
1.'). What war commenced in 192 B. C. ?
What was the result of this war? What
was the cause of it? What was the conse-
quence of these successes to Rome ?
16. What is said of the government of
Sicily ! With what nation were they fre-
quently at war ? Wlien were they brought
under the Roman sway?-[What were the
circumstances of the early settlement of
this island ! By wlioiu was Syracuse found-
ed ? Who established a tyrannical govern-
ment there? What was "the character of
his successor, Dionysius the younger?
Who etfected his first banishment? Who
his secoud ! By whom was this city taken ?
Wliat interesting anecdote is connected
with thp taking of this city ?]
17. When, and under what monarch did
the kingdom of Svkia arise into import-
ance ? To whom did it fall on the first di-
vision of Ale.vander's empire? How did
Keleucus obtain it? What were the sove-
reigns of this kingdom called ?-[By whom
was Syria settled? What do we learn of
tlie kinss of Syria from the Bil)le?l
IS. How did Seleucus obtain possession
of Macedonia? What preventcil his re-
taining it?-lW)iowas the successor of Se-
leucu.s, and what is related of liim ! What
is said of Antiochus Tlieos 7 Who reigned
between hiin ;md Antiochus the Great !
Relate the principal events of his reign?
What occurred during the reiiin of Seleu-
cus Philopafcr? Wh.at was the occasion
of the death of his sui-ces^or Antiochus
Epiphanes? Wliat is sale! of the other so-
vereigns during this period?)
20. What do wc notice in the history of
the Jews at tlic commencement of this pe-
riod? What was their state under the
kings of Persia? When did this prosper-
ous state expire ?-[What particular favours
did they receive under Arta.\rrxes ? Whal
abuses were reformed by Nehcniiah and
Joiada? How was Alexander the Great
met by the high priest?]
21. What was the state of the Jews after
323 B. C. ? What was the consequence of an
invasion of Antiochus Epiphanes ? When
were the Syrians driven from Judeal
Who was the leader of the Jews on this
occasion ?-[ReIate the circumstances of the
invasion of Judea by Ptolemy governor of
Egypt? When, and by whom was the
translation of the Bible called the Septua-
gint m.tde ? What led the Jews to revolt
from Antiochus ? How was his death con-
nected Willi this event? What was the fato
of Judas Maccabeus?]
22. What was the state of Egypt when
conquered by Alexander the Great? What
change took place after his death? When
did this event occur? How long did the
Ptolemoean dynasty last? Who was the
last sovereign ? How many of this dynasty
are included in this period ?-[Who wero
these princes, and what is said of them?]
23. When does the history of Parthia
begin? By whom was it founded? Of
what did it at first consist? What are the
successors of Arsaces called ?-[What did
the Parthian empire include ? To whom
had Parthia been subject? What was Iha
occupation of the Parthians?]
24. What was the character of the Arsa-
cidaj? How far did Mithi'idates I. extend
his dominions?
25. What is the date of the commence-
ment and close of the third dynasty of Chi-
na? How many emperors did it include,
and what is it called ? When did the fourth
dynasty begin and terminate ? How many
emperors did it include ? What is it called?
-[What is related of Chaus ? What was
accomplished by Ching? What is said of
his ambition !]
Distinguishea Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
in this iieriod, and for what were thev emi-
nent .'-[1. What is said of the lili^, charac-
ter, and manners of Plato? What of his
writings? What truth did he maintain
with powerful arguments ?
2. When did Apelles live? What is said
of his pictures?
3. Mention the iirinclpal circumstances
in the lite of Alexander. What anecdotes
are recorded of hlin which exhibit ainiablQ
feelings ?
■1. Wliat difficulties stood in the way of
Demosthenes' ever becoming a great ora-
tor ! How did he overcome them? How
did he die !
5. What was the peculiarity of Aristotle's
mind? What is said of his writings, habits,
and appearance ? Where did he teach phi-
10
QUESTIONS ON
losophy'? Relate the circumstances ofhia
death.
6. Where did Euclid live, and where did
he flourish 1 For what was he distinguish-
ed 7
7. When and where did Theocritus live ?
What was the character of his writings ^
What was the cause of his death 1
8. Of what country was Zeno a native 1
What influenced him to devote his life to
philosophy 1 Where did he deliver his in-
structions ? What was his character and
habits %
9. In what way did Archimedes assist in
defending the city of Syracuse, when be-
sieged by the Romans 7]
PERIOD IX.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod 7
1. What was the state of the Roman peo-
ple in this and several succeeding periods 1
When was Carthage conquered by the Ro-
mans? How long was the war! Who
were the aggressors ? What was the result
to Carthage as a city and nation?- [What
measures did the Carthaginians lake to pre-
vent this war t What demands were made
upon them by the Romans? How did they
receive them? How did they defend the
city, and with wliat success ? In what way
were they attacked by Scipio? What other
circumstances relating to the destruction of
the city are mentioned?]
2. Wliat defeat did the Romans sufTer
ebout this time ? What success attended
their arms in Spain after this defeat ? When
did Spain become a Roman province ?-[What
were the principal events of this war?l
3. What was the state of Rome 133 years
B.C.? What was the occasion of the
death of Tiberius Gracchus? Why was
his brother Cains Gracchus obnoxious to
the nobles ? What was his fate ?-[Who
were the Gracchi ? What is relared of her 7
What circumstance occasioned the death
of Tiberius? What was the character of
Caius Gracchus? To what were these tu-
mults a prelude?]
4. What were the conquests of the Ro-
mans abroad about this time ? Wlien did
the war with Jugurtha comi-nence and
close? How many of the Nuniidian army
were slain? What became of Jugurtlia?
What Roman generals commanded in this
war?-[Who was Jugurtha? How did he
obt.iin the crown of Numidia? What was
the state of the war when Marius succeeded
to the command ? What was the character
of Marius? How did he obtain possession
of Jugurtha?]
.'i. In \vhat war were the Romans again
engaged under Marius? What was the oc-
casion of the Social war? What was the
result of this war?
G. When did the Mithridatic war com-
mence? Where had Sylla distinguished
himself? Why was liis a|ipointment to this
expedition Hie cause of dreadful dissensions
in Rome ? How long was Sylla absent, anil
what was his success ?-[Who was Mithri-
dates, and over what countries did he ex-
tend his dominion ? What were his means
for carrying on a war with Rome ? On
what pretence did the Romans attack him?
Who was Sylla and what was his character?
With what act of cruehy did Mithridates
commence this war? What was the suc-
cess of the two battles which succeeded?
Why did both parties desire a cessation of
arms?]
7. When did the contention between Ma-
rius and Sylla begin? What was the con-
duct of Sylla when recalled to Rome? How
did he enter the city? What was his suc-
cess? Why did Sylla return into Asia?
What occurred during his absence ?-[Who
was Cinna, and what was his character?]
8. Was Sylla victorious in Asia? What
was his conduct on his return to Rome?
-[By whom was the ariny headed which
opposed Sylla ? What was the consequence
of this battle ? With what purposes did
Sylla enter Rome ? How far did he extend
the work of destruction?]
9. How was Sylla enabled to support this
violence ? When did this dictatorship com-
mence and how long did it last ? After this
time what was the government of Rome ?
What was the character of Sylla's dictator-
ship ] How were the Romans freed from
this tyrant ? What motives led him to re-
linquish his authority ?-[What more is re-
lated of him ?i
10. What was the situation of Syeia un-
til it became a province of Rome? When
did that event occur ?-[Who were the first
two of the Seleucida; of the present era,
and what is said of them? Who succeed-
ed, and what occurred in his reign ? Why
diu the Syrians exclude the Seleucidre
from the throne ? How did they accom-
phsh it? Who reigned after Tigranes?
Who reduced Syria to a Roman provmce "i]
11. What was effected for the Jews by
the brothers of Judas Maccabajus? What
was accomplished by John Hyrcanus 1
For what was he celebrated? When and
how long did he reign? What twi; offices
were united in him and continued in his
family ? By what appellation are his de-
scendants distinguished ?-[What more ia
said of Hyrcanus? Who was Aristobulus,
and what is recorded of Jiiin?]
12. What was the state of Egypt during
this period? How many cities did these
states include ?-[ What was the first Ptolemy
of this period called? What was his cha-
racter? Who was his successor, and what
is recorded of him .']
13. What was the situation of Parthia
during this period ( Who were its prin-
cipal sovereigns ?-[On what occasion were
the Chinese first known to appear abroad ?J
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished ciiaractera
in this period, and for what were they
ANCIENT HISTORY.
11
eminent ?■[!. Kelate tlio principal circum-
stances in ttic life of Polybins. What his-
tory uict he write, and wliat is its cliarac-
ter i
2. When did Apollodorus flourish, and
what did lie write (
3. Of what kind of writing was Liicilius
tlie founder ! What is said of hiui by
Black we U I
4. What anecdote is recorded of Ma-
riusl]
PERIOD X.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod I
1. Wliat was the state of Rome at the
commencement of this period'? What dis-
tiiiftuished character made his appearance
at this time ! What was his first military
enterprise, and how was it rewarded \
What were his next exploits 1-[What ap-
ppared from this time to be his object'!
What advaiitages did Cresar possess for ob-
tainins office and popularity 7 What remark
was made of hini by Cicero ?]
2. What contentions broke out after the
death of SyUa ! How were tliey termina-
ted l-[What was the occasion of the war
between Catulns and Lepidus ? What was
the ri'sulil Wlio was Sertorius? What
was the origin of his war ! By whom was
it terminated 1 Relate the cause, progress,
and close of the Servile war.]
3. Which was one of the most important
wars in which Rome was ever engai;ed \
By what means had Mithridates rendered
himself formidable to the Roman power 1
By whom was he defeated 1 To what
were his succrsses afterwards owing"! By
what general was this powerfvU enemy
finally subdued? When diil the war ter-
minate ?-[How long was Mithridates the
enemy of Rome "! How was he enabled to
maintain so long a contest ? By what
means had Pompey acquired his populari-
ty 1 Why did not this great authority
which was given him by the people, render
him dangerous to their liberties'! Relate
the events of this war. What was the fate
of Mithridates?]
4. After the defeat of Mithridates, what
dill Pompey accomplish ! When, and how
did he enter Rome ?[What nations did
Pompey make experience the power of
Rome in this expedition ! What is said of
his triumph? WTiat was the amount of
treasures carried to Rome? Was the real
prosperity of Rome increased by these vie
lories?)
5. Who wa.<; Sergius Catiline? By what
is he reiidi-red conspicuous? How was his
Eroject frustrated? What became of Cati-
nc? What gave Cicero so nmch renown?
6. What was the occasion of Pompey's
contention with Crassus? For vvliat was
Ca;sar aspiring? How did he endeavour to
accomplish his object ? What arose out of
tliis union? When did tliis occur? IIow
•were tlie power and popularity of Caesar
strengthened ? \Miat effect had the trium-
virate on the liberties of Rome !
7. How did these thnc individuals divide
the empire ? Of what base acts was Caisar
guilty before he deparli;d to his govern-
ment? On what pretext was this accom-
plished ? By whom was he recalled from
exile !-[What was the character of Cicero?
How was his banislmunt accomplished?
When, and why was he jecalled by Pom-
p.-y !J
8. Of what country was Caesar the go-
vernor? How did be conduct himself
there? When did he invade and subdue
Britain ?-[Give an account of his conquests
during the nine years he remained governor
of Gaul.]
9. What put an end to the Triumvirate?
To what did Ca!sar and Pompey aspire Eifter
this event ? What was the comparative
strength of each ! What was the result of
the ambilion of these two individuals ?
Where did they meet in battle ? What was
the consequence to Pompey and his army")
What is the date of this event ?-[What
propositions were made by Ccesar to the
senate before ho turned his arms against
his country ? Why did they not comply
with them ! What circumstances are men-
tioned respecting Cssar's entrance into
Italy ? What was hi^ reception there ?
Where did Pompey go ! How long was
CcBsar in subduing Spain ? To what offices
was he chosen ? What was the situation of
Pompey's army ? Where did the opposing
armies first meet? What was the result?
What anecdote is related to iUustrate the
character of Cwsar ! Where was their
next meeting? What was the dilTerence
in the respective ai'mies ! What determin-
ed the fate of the battle ? What was the
loss on the part of Ciesar ? How were the
vanquished treated by him? Relate the
tragical fate of Pompey ?]
10. By what means, and when, did Egypt
become a Roman province ? Whom did he
subdue two years after lhis?-[What indu-
ced Caesar to engage on the side of Cleopa-
tra? How did he convey the report of tlie
reduction of Pharnaces to Rome?]
11. Why was it necessary for Ca;sar to
hasten to Rome ! Who had taken up arms
in Africa? W' hat was the result? When
did CKsar rot\irn in triumph to Rome 1
How did he obtain the favour of the peo-
ple ? What honours and titles were be-
stowed upon liim ?-LRclate the story of
Cato]
12. When, and why <lid Cresar go again
into Spain ? What was his succe.'-s? To
what did he now turn his attention ? How
did he use his power ? What did he ac-
complish?
\'^. How and when was his brilliant course
ended? What was the cause of this con-
spiracy against him?-|.\s C.-esar possessed
the power, why was it supposed that he
wished the title of king ! I!y whom was the
conspiracy headed? Was there any rea-
son for supposing tlut Brutus would not
12
aUESTIONS ON
have been engaged in it ? Mention the par-
ticulars of the death of Ccesar. How many
lives were sacnficefl before Csesar reach-
ed his elevation l By what is the darkness
of his character relieved *]
14. What peculiar slate of things was
produced by the death of Caesar? What
obliged the conspirators to flee"! When
was the second triumvirate formed 1 Of
■whom did it consist? What stipulation
did they make among themselves ?-[Who
suffered in consequence of this stipula-
tion ?]
15. What engagement took place at Phi-
lippi, which decided tlie fate of the empire 1
Wiien did it occur 1 By whom was it won 1
What effect liad this buttle oi: Roman liber-
ty ■? How did Brutus and Cassius escape
the hands of their enemies ?-[How was
this battle lost by the republicans 1 How
was Brutus affected by the death of Cas-
sius 1 Why did Brutus take the field again 1
What was his fate 1 What were the mili-
tary talents of Octavius 1 How did he gain
his popularity ?]
16. In what way did Octavius and An-
thony employ themselves, after they liad
banished Lepidus 7-[Who had been admit-
ted into a share of power and possessions of
the triumvirate ? How was he disposed of 7]
17. What was the consequence of Antho-
ny's summoning the queen of Egypt to an-
Bwcr for her disaffection to the Roman go-
vernment 1 What were the immediate
causes of the war between him and Octa-
vius? Where and when did they come to
an engagement ? What was the conduct of
Cleopatra and Anthony on this occa.«inn ?
What terms did she offer Octavius ? What
were the designs of Octavius respecting
Cleopatra? How were they frustrated?
What became of Anthony ? What was
now the situation of Octavius? When did
Egypt become a Roman province ?-[What
was the character of Anthony ? What was
the amount of forces collected at the battle
of Actium? What decided the fate of this
battle ?]
18. What was now the state of the Ro-
man empire ? What was Octavius called ?
What was his power ? In what way did
he almost efface the memory of his former
cruelties ? For what was his reign remark-
able ? What is the mo.st important event
which ever took place in our world ?-[At
what peculiar crisis did our Saviour appear ?
Was the administration of Augustus favour-
able to liberty ? Why was an absolute
government necessary to the tranquillity of
Rome ? What offices and titles did Augus-
tus take? Through whose advice did he
retain his usurped authority ? Of what was
MecKnas a patron ? What anecdotes are
related of Augustus? How long was his
reign? For what purpose were the few
wars in which he was engaged carried on ?
What was the most serious disaster he ex-
perienced ? Give an account of his domes-
tic life. When and where did he die?]
. 19. Why ean little be eaid respecting
other nations during this period? What
was the state of the Asmonean dynasty at
this time? When and how was Antipater
placed upon the throne ?-[What became of
Aristobulus ?]
20. When did Herod the Great becomo
king of Judea? Who was he, and what
was the character of his reign ?-[What oc-
currences of his reign are noticed?]
21. What kings of the Lagidas family oc-
cupied the throne of Egypt during this pe-
riod? With whom did it end? How long
had they reigned in Egypt ? How was it
governed afterwards ?-[What was the his-
tory of Cleopatra, before the arrival of
Anthony in Egypt? What is said of her
personal appearance and manners? What
is related of her by Pliny ? Mention tho
remaining circumstances of her history.]
22. What is said of Parthia, during this
period ?-[What was the result of the expe-
dition of Crassus against Parthia? What
is said of Orodes and Phraates ?]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
in this period, and for what were they emi-
nent ?-[l. Of what country was Lucretiua
a native? What were his tenets? What
is the character of his writings?
2. From whom was Julius Csesar de-
scended? What did Sylla say of himi
Mention the principal events in his hfe.
Was he distinguished except in war 1
What writings of his are extant, and for
what are they admired?
3. Who was the father of Latin elo-
quence, and the greatest orator Rome ever
produced? For what was he styled the
father of his country ? Why was he ba-
nished ? How did he incur the anger of
Anthony ? How did he die ? For what is
he to be admired ?
4. Against whom was the satire of Ca-
tullus directed? How was he repaid 1
What did he introduce into Latin poetry?
5. What offices were held by Sallustl
What was his character? What was tha
cause of the hatred between him and Cice-
ro ? What did he write 7
6. How many volumes were written by
Varro 7 When did he die ?
7. What is said of Cornelius Nepos?
8. When, and where was Virgil bom 1
How did he lose his farms 7 Through
whose interest did he recover them 7 Why
did he write his Bucolics and Georgics J
What was the design of the jEneid ^
Whose friendship did he enjoy? Whera
and when did he die 7 Where is his tomb
still seen?
9. Where was Horace educated? AVhy
did he turn his attention to poetry 7 When
did he die?]
GENERAL VIEWS.
[To what does the knowledge derived
from the Bible respecting the Autediluviaa
ANCIENT HISTORY.
13
world relate 1 By what are we guided on
other subjects?]
1. Is there any reason for believing that
the surface of the earth diflVred tVoin what
it is at present ! To what purposes was it
probably better adapted .'-[Wliat was the
opinion of Dr. Burnet respectins it ? What
would have been the natural consequence
of an universal deluge .' Does the appear-
ance of the earth's surface favour such a
conjecture J]
^. What season has conjecture assijrned
to tlie Antediluvian world i How niishi
this have lieen the fact ! Is there any
other reason for supposing a change took
place at the time of the flood !-[ln what
way has St. Pierre accounted for the de-
luge 7]
3. What inference has been drawn with
respect to the population belbre the Hood
from the longevity of its inhabitants .'
What is the probability respecting it !-
(What is the opinion of Cuvier on this
subject ! Can the causes of the longevity
of the Antediluvians be known with cer-
tainty i What reason is mentioned % Is it
necessary for us to discover a physical
cause !]
4. What is known relative to the observ-
ances of religion before the Hoodl-[How
were the descendants of Seth and Cain dis-
tinguished ) How did the whole world be-
come corrupted !]
5. Wliat circumstance was favourable to
the cultivation of the arts and sciences 1
Is it probable that many of them were
known? What arts were understood by
them ?-[ Wliat is further said on this article ?]
6. What was the most probable form of
government ? Describe it ?-[What was
probably the state of mankind, after the
union of the families of Cain and Seth?]
7. Why might the intercourse of the an-
tediluvians have been easy ! What reason
is there for supposing they were unac-
quainted with navigation ?
8. What did ^Issi/rm comprehend? What
was its capital ? Where was it ? What
is the country now called ?-[Describe this
city?] What composed Babylonia? What
is it now called? What was its capital,
and how was it situated? Describe it.
-[What more particular description may be
given of it ! How were the hanging gar-
dens built ? What is said of the Temple of
Belus !]
9. What was the government of these
nations? What was claimed by the king ?
-[Why did they live in retirement ? By
what three classes of officers was the go-
vernment administered ?]-rpoa what 'lid
the lairs of the empire depend ! What one
was irrevocable ?-[Wl\at were their piuiish-
nients ?]
10. Who were the Chaldeans ? How
were they employed ! How, and when did
idolatry arise ?-[\Vliat reason is there for
supposing this was the origin of image wor-
ship ? 1 By whom was the custom of human
sacrifices first practised?
11. What was the most singular of their
customs ? What other custom is mention-
ed?
12. What was the state of learning among
the Babylonians? What science was first
cultivated among them ? What arose from
their knowledge of Astronomy ?-[In what
manner was the learning of the Chaldeans
acquired ? Why did they never make
great advances in the sciences /]
1'3. What do the immense buildings of
the Babylonians prove ? What was the
state of painting, statuary, music and po-
etry among (heui !-[How did they treat their
sick ? In wliat were they particularly in-
genious ?]
14. What did China anciently include t
What reason is there lor thinking that their
ancient territory was nearly the same as it
is at present ? In what part of Asia was it
situated ! How was it separated from Tar-
tary ?
l.'i. Describe their government.
16. What was the religion of the ancient
Chinese ?
17. What was the state of the sciences
among the Chinese ? With what arts were
they early acquainted? In what state
were these arts ? In what were they dis-
tinguished ?-[What was their character?
When was Egypt one of the most distin-
guished countries of the ancient world {
Why was it distinguished ?]
18. How was Egypt situated? What was
its ancient name ! What is it called by the
Turks ! How was it divided ?
19. What were among their most magni-
ficent cities ?-[Describe Thebes. What is
said of its ruins ? By whom was Mem-
phis founded, and where was it situated?
fSive a description of Alexandria. What
was the principal cause of its eminence?
In what other respects was it distinguish-
ed ?]
20. What is said of the monuments and
works of art of ancient Egypt ? Which are
the most celebrated of these ?-LWhat was
the size of the I^ke Mceris? For what
purpose was it built? How was the Laby-
rinth built? For what was it designed?
What were the Catacombs ? For what pur-
poses were they used ? Describe the Pyra-
mids.]
21. What was the government of Egypt?
-[To what course of lite were their "mo-
narchs restricted ?] Hnw were the pulilitj
affairs administered? For what did they
become more famous than any other peo-
ple !
22. Who were the principal gods of the
Egyptians ?-[ What is said of their idolatry ?]
2i3. How were their children educated?
24. What was their usual drink 1 For
what are we probably indebted to them ?
[What siusular customs are noticed?]
25. What was the state of literature
among them ? How is it supposed that
Geometry was discovered !-[How did they
adjust the length of the year .' What arts
were early cultivaied among them?]
14
QUESTIONS ON
26. What proof have we that the Egyp-
tians early engaged in commerce'?
27. Wlial is said of tlie Egyptian lan-
guage •?
28. What was the country of the He-
brews called? How was it situated, and
what was the extent of its territory ^-[What
other names are given to this country
and people "?] How was Palestine di- 1
vided "?
29. What are among the remains of an- 1
cient works 7-[How is Jacob's well con-
structed? Describe the Pools of Solomon,
Gihon, and Belhesda.]
30. Had they many large cities'? Which
were the most celebrated 7 How was Je-
rusalem built 1 Where did the temple
stand ?-[Under what kings did it become a
renowned city ? How many times was it
destroyed'? When, and by whom ? What
is its present state ? What is said of He-
bron 7 Give an account of Gaza and As-
calon ?]
31. What does the history of the religion
of this people comprise'? What now sup-
plies its place"? What effect had the gos-
pel upon it7-[How did religion flourish
among them? To what as a nation were
they continually inclined 7 What judg-
ments were inflicted on them on this ac-
count 7 How arc the tribes of Jvidah and
Benjamin now knovrn 7 What knowledge
have we of the other ten tribes 7]- What
truths were revealed to this people, and to
Ihem alone 7 What was tlie design of the
peculiarities of their ritual worship 7-[To
v/hat were the peculiar rites of Judaism
adapted 7 What was the meaning of its
sacrifices 7]
32. What was the government of this
people 7 What is a Theocracy 7
33. To what did the most interesting of
their manners and customs relate 7-[How
was the rite of circumcision celebrated 7
What was their diet 7 What were their
diversions 7 What is meant by high pla-
ces ? How did they e.xpress their mourning
for their friends 7 How did they estimate
burial 7]
34. In what knowledge did the Israelites
cxcel7 What were their places of public
instruction called 7 What was the charac-
ter of their language 7 On what materials
did they write 7
3.5. In what arts did the Israelites make
the greatest proficiency 7-[What made
them a warlike people 7 Describe their
arms. To what was their attention chiefly
confined before the reign of Solomon 7
What change took place in his time? In
which of the fine arts are they inimitable?]
36. What was the state of commerce
among them7-[What country did the Ca-
•naaniles inhabit? How were they driven
out of it?]
37. Was there a uniformity of customs,
maimers, arts, sciences, and languages,
among this people 7-[ Where did the differ-
ent classes of people reside? What was
liieir knowledge of war?]
38. What reason is there for supposing
that their religion was pure in the days of
Abraham 7 What was it afterwards?
39. What rendered Greece illustrious?
What was the face of the country 7 What
was its chmate and soil?-[Whal places are
connected with agreeable associations to
the classical reader?]
40. What was the situation and extent of
Greece 7-[What two countries were after-
wards considered a part of Greece 7]-What
were the two principal divisions of Greece 7
-[What did Greece proper include 7 AVTiat
states were included in Peloponnesus 7J-
What were the principal islands connected
with Greece?
41. By what name was Greece and its
inhabitants called by the natives? What
were they denominated from their different
tribes by the poets?
42. What is meant by the interesting lo-
calities of Greece ?-[From what did Pelo-
ponnesus take its name 7 For what were
Mycenn>, Nemea, Epidaurus, and Lerna re-
markable 7 With what was Amyclae ho-
noured ? Why were the Spartan slaves call-
ed Helo'tes 7 For what were Teenarus and
Taygetus noticed? For what were Elis,
Olympia, and Corinth famous? Of what
was Arcadia the country 7 WTiere was
Mercury born? Why was Stymphalus
and llie Isthmus famous? For what was
Eleusis remarkable? What mountains in
Attica were celebrated, and why? What
was the character of tlie Boeotians? For
what was Chperonea remarkable 7 WHiy
is the cave of Trophonius, Thespia, Ta-
nagra and Delium mentioned ? To whom
were Helicon and Aganippe consecrated?
What did the Greeks conjecture of Phocis?
What rendered Delphi and Parnassus illus-
trious? For what was Anticyra famous?
For what was Narix and Thermopylae re-
markable 7 In what did the jEtollans ex-
cel? From what circumstance was Nau-
pactus named? What rendered Leucato
and the lake Acherusia remarkable 7
Which was the most ancient oracle of
Greece ? From what did Cliaonia receive
its name? To what was Pindus sacred?
From what were the Acroceraunian moun-
tains called? Describe the vale of Tempe.
For what was Thessaly reno\\^led7 For
what was Larissa, Heraclea, Othrys, and
Amphrysus remarkable 7 To whom was
Pierus sacred? Why were the women of
Thessaly famed? What renders Athos
and Stagira remarkable 7 Why were
ApoUonia and Strymon celebrated? For
what were the islands of Corcyra and Ithica
remarkable? Why were Strophades and
.lEgina famed? What rendered Delos,
Paros, Naxos, and Crete remarkable 7 For
what was Rhodes famous 7 Why was Pat-
mos celebrated? For what was Scio fa-
mous? What circumstances caused Lem-
nos to be celebrated?]
43. Which were the most renowned cities
of Greece 7 Of what was Athens tlic capi-
tal? From what was it named? WbaX
ANCIENT HISTORY.
15
was it called by the ancients'! Describe it.
[Where was the citadel! What is said
of tlie upper and lower city !]-What edi-
fices were in the citadel ! Which is one of
the noblest remains of antiqu;ty 1 What
magnificent structure was in the lower city !
What was its size l-[How many liarl)ours
had Athens and how were they situated !
VVhere were the principal gymnasia of
Athens'! What was a Gymnasium 7 1-How
was Sparta situated? How was it l)uilt )
When were its walls erected! Wliy did
it not need them before '!-[VVl)y were
the houses of the Spartans destitute of or-
naments ! Was the city entirely unadorn-
ed ? To whom was reliiiious respect shown ?
What is saiii of the environs of the city 7]
How was Curinlh situated! How did it
compare with the other cities of Greece!
By wliom was it destroyed ! Was it ever
rebuilt !-[I*Vom what were Corinthian pil-
lars named! To what did the citizens of
Corinth devote themselves ? Of what was
this city a distinguished seal ! What is its
present slate !]-Describe Thrhes. When
were the Tliebans masters of Greece '! At
what time was it only an inconsiderable
village ■![What is said of its destruction by
Alexander?]
44. What was the general character of
the government of Greece? In what re-
spects did it bear a resemblance to tlie go-
vernment of the U. S. of America ?■[ What
was the government of Athens before
and after the death of Codrus?]-Into what
classes were the inhaldtaiits of Athens di-
vided? What were the privileges of citi-
zenship ? How were they ubiained ?-f How
were the citizens of Athens divided !]-
What was the situation of sojourners ?
What was the distinction between the
slaves of Athens? How were the magis-
trates divided ? How were they distin-
guished ? Mention them, with the different
methods of their election. -[Who were
usually appointed to th^ offices of the state?
Wliat was required of the magi.strates be-
fore their election, and after their term of
office had e.xpired!]-How was the usual
government of Athens carried on ? What
power was held by the Archons ? How
were they elected, and what were their
privileges ?-[ What was the number of
Archons? What was the first called, and
what concerns were as ;igned to him?
What were the others called ? What was
their duty?]-How was the Senate of five
hundred elected ? What was the Dusiness
of this liody?-[What was the power of
the Si>nate ?]-For what purpose were As-
semljlirs of the people convened? Who
composed them? How often were they
hp|d?-[Wliat was the smalle.st number of
which they co'.dil consist? What was
their Imsiness? Where did the orators of
Alliens exert their inlluence?]-What other
celebrated body of men was there at
Athens ?-[Froin what was the name of this
court taken? Why was its repute hieh?
Of what did it take cognizance? What
was required of its members?]- What ab-
surd peculiarity was there in the govern-
ment "of Athens?
How were the inhabitants of Sparta di-
vided? What were the two classes of
citizens called? What were their privi-
leges ! What was the number and situa-
tion of the Helots ? How many kings
had Sparta? What was their power'?
-(What were their duties ?]-Of what did
the senate consist? What was their duty I
Who were the Ephori ? For wliat purpose
were they elected? For what purpose
were assemblies held? How many were
there, and what were they called ? Who
composed them? What was the govern-
ment of the otlier sovereignties of Greece?
What was that of Thebes ?-[For what
were many of the sovereigns of Thebes
celebrated !]-What was the Amphictyonic
Council ?-[How many deputies were sent;
from each state ! V/here did tliey meet?]
45. Of what were the armies of Greece
composed ?-[Of what did the main body
of the armies consist ?]Of what were the
Greek arms made ? What were their de-
fensive arms ! What their offensive ■?
[In what kind of warfare were the armies
inefficient ! What [lunishments were in-
flicted on deserters by the Lacedtemo-
nians? Why was Archilochus banished?]
46. How many kinds of ships had the
Greeks i-[For what purposes were the dif-
ferent kinds used?]
47. What was the religion of the Greeks'?
How were their gods divided? Who was
Jupiter considered ?-[What was the only
authority for the popular behef? How is
the account here given to be regarded'?
Why is it particular?]
Who were the celestial deities ?-[Who
was Jupiter, and where was he born'?
How did he become possessor of the world '?
How did he divide it? What was one of
his greatest exploits ? ^Vhat was his cha-
racter? How is he represented? Who
was Apollo and where was he born ? Over
what did he preside ? 'What was the con-
sequence of his killing Cyclops ? Relate
some of his adventures on earth. How is
he represented? Who was Mars? Of
what was he the god ? What was offered
to him? What is recorded of him? How
is he represented? Who was Mercury'?
What was his office, and of whom was he
the patron? Wlat is said of him? How
i.-3 he rei)resonted? Who was Bacchu.s,
and of what was he the god? How were
his festivals celebrated? How is he de-
picted? Of what was Vulcan the god,
and of whom was he the patron? ^^^^ose
son was he? How did he become a crip-
ple? What was his business in heaven'?
Of whom was he llie husband and father'?
Hf)w is he rein'escmled ? Wlio was Juno,
and what is slie styled? Where was she
born ? Why was she held in great venera-
tion by the ancients? What is said of her
person and worship? How is she repre-
sented? Of what was Minerva the god-
16
QUESTIONS ON
dess 1 How did she compare with the
other divinities ■? In what did she instruct 1
What city claimed her particular attention !
How is she representea? Of what was
Venus the goddess t Who were her pa-
rents 1 What was the character of the
worship paid to her? Where were her
most beautiful temples'? Where was her
favourite residence i How is she represent-
ed? Of what was Diana the queen? To
what was she and lier attendants devoted ?
What plants were sacred to lier ? How is
she represented ? Of what was Ceres the
goddess, and who were her parents ?
Wliat was her life ? What mysteries were
celebrated to her honour ? How is she re-
presented ? Of what was Vesta the goddess
and guardian? How is she represented?]
Who were the -niarine deities ?-[What
was tlie ranli of Neptune among the gods ?
Over what did he reign? What was the
consequence of his conspiring against Ju-
piter? How is he represented? Who was
Oceanus? Of what was he the father?
How many sons had he and his wife The-
tys? Who was Triton, and what was his
office? Describe liim. Who was Nereus ?
How many daughters had he, and what
were they called 1 Who was Proteus ?
What power did he possess?]
Who were the infernal deities ?-[ Who
was Pluto, and over what did he exercise
dominion? What is related of him?
Were any temples raised to his honour ?
ITow is he" represented ? Who was Plutus ?
What was Charon's olBce ? What is said
of his person and character? What was
requisite in order to enter his boat ? Where
were departed souls carried by him ? Who
were the Furies? How are they repre-
sented? What is their office ? Who were
the Fates? On what did they decide?
How was it accomplished ? Who were the
judges of the dead ?]
What other divinities were there ?-[How
was Cupid represented? Who were the
parents of the Muses? How many were
there, and what were their names? Over
what did each preside? Who were the
Graces ? What are they supposed to do ?
How are they represented?]
Wlio were the rural deities ?-[Of
what was Pan the god? Over what dirt
Pylvanus and Priapus preside? What did
AristKus invent and discover? What did
Termineus watch over? What is said of
tlie Sirens? Who were the Gorgons?
Wliat are the Harjiies said to have been ?
Wlio were the Dryads, Naiads, and Nere-
ids? Who were the Tritons? Over what
dill the Lares and Penates preside ? Who
were the Fauns and Satyrs? Who was
Pales? What is said of the Nymphs?]
How was the worship of these divini-
ties conducted ?-[From whence did the
Greeks derive their religion? By whom
was it extended ? How many gods did they
worship? How are they rejiresented ? In
wliat did the religion of the common people
consist? What was the belief of their
poets and philosophers with respect to a
future state ? What did they think rela-
tive to the immortality of women ?]-Wliat
picture have tliey drawn of Hell? How
did they describe Heaven ? What was
connected with tlie religion of the Greeks?
Where were their principal temples situa-
ted and how were they built? Which was
the most celebrated ?-[Where were the
statues of the gods placed, and the sacri-
fices performed? To what do templea
among the heathen probably owe their ori-
gin ?]-In what estimation were oracles held
by the Greeks? How was the will of the
superior powers communicated ?-[What
may tiiey be called when compared with
the predictions of the Scriptures? Which
were the most celebrated?]- What were
the public Games in Greece? What were
the contests in these games? How were
the victors treated ?-[By whom, and when
were the Olympic games instituted? What
was an Olympiad ? How were the victors
crowned ? What is said of the celebration
of the Pytliian games? What of the Ne-
mean and Isthmian ?]
48. What was the state of literature in
Greece? In what are they still unrivalled?
-fDid the Greeks derive any part of their
learning from foreign nations ? In what
did their peculiar glory consist? What
contributed to the rapid advances niade by
them in civilization and knovilertge ?]-IIow
early did they cultivate poetry ?-[What
celebrated names do we find in each de-
partment of poetry ?]- Where, and with
what success was oratory cultivated 1
Where did it become an object of attention?
-[Who were the most distinguished ora-
tors, and what were their peculiar excel-
lences ?]- When was history ctdtivated,
and witii what success ?-[ What is said of
their historians?]- What was the state of
philosophy among the Greeks ? From
what did "the professors of philosophy ori-
ginate ? What were they called? What
was the character of the Grecian philoso-
phy ?-[What were the principal sects, and
byVhom were they founded? What were
some of the pecuharjties of doctrine which
distinguished these sects? What was a
subject of special research among the Gre-
cian philosophers ? What was the opinion
of some of thein upon this topic? Who
were the seven wise men of Greece?]
49. When did Greece abound in archi-
tects, sculptor.s, and painters? What im-
provement did they make in the useful and
necessary arts? In what did they excel all
other nations? What did they carry to
perfection ?-[What system of architecture
did thev invent ? Of what orders did it con-
sist? Describe them. What specimena
of their sculpture are mentioned ? Who
among tlieir painters have been highly ex-
tolled ? Did thev excel in music ?]
50. Was the dress of the ancients simi-
lar to that of the moderns? What was the
dress of the men among the Greeks ? What
of the women? What covering did they
ANCIENT HISTORY.
17
wear on their hcail3 7[What did the Athe-
nians wear in thoir hair? What was the
external appearance of the higher classes
among the Spartans 1 Wliat was the
military costume 7 Upon wliat did tlit-y
set a hi?h value !]-Describe the meals of
the Grceks.-[\Vhat were convivial enter-
tainnii-nts in the earliest ages 1 Wliat was
used fur (Irinlving and lor food by the
Greeks 1 What were some of their cus-
toms relative to feasts'!]- When were mar-
riages lawful ! How were they esteemed
among the Greeks ?-[Was polyg;uuy ever
allowed 1 What were the liabits of tlie
Grecian women 1 What was required of
parents and children i]-IIow were funerals
attended 1
51. How was Phankia situated'?
52. What was the capital, and for what
xvas it distinguished .' How was Tyrus situ-
ated ?-[ What is said of it ! Were there any
other cities in Phoenicia ?1-What vestiges of
splendour still remain ^
53. What effect had the situation of the
Pliojniciaus on their pursuits'! How early
were they known as a commercial peo-
ple ?
54. What improvement did they make
in tlie sciences !-[What euiiiient pliilnso-
phers were there among theiii!]-In what
manufactures were they skilled ! What
proof have we of their skill in architect-
ure 1
55. Why is it probable that they were in-
structed in the worship of the true God 1
-(Wliat were the principal objects of their
mistaken adoration 7]
56. Where was Lydla situated 7-[What
is said of the inhabitants on the coast 7]
57. What were the principal cities 7-[For
what was Ephesus famous 7 By whom,
and why was it burnt 7 What otlier cir-
cum.slances rendered it famous 7 What is
its present situation 7 Of what prediction
is that a fulfilment 7J
5vS. What was the character of the Ly-
•lians, before and after the introduction of
Persian lu.xuries7
59. What were some of their customs 7
(30. Wliat country did the Roman.^ inha-
bit 7-[What other names had Italy 71-How
was it situated? How was it divided?
•[What were its principal districts?]
61. Does Italy furnish any interesting lo-
calities 7-[For what are Andes, Comum,
Verona, and Patavium celebrated ! Why
are Ravenna and the river Po 7 What ren-
ders Padusii. Rubicon, and Etruria famous !
Why are Circeii and Tuseulum noticed?
For wh.at are Capua and Cumaj celebrated ?
What was first invented at Nola ? Wliat
rendered the eruption of Vesuvius, in 79,
A. C, remarkable? Bv whom was the
city of Arpi founded ? Where was Horace
born? Whv are .\.pulia, Brundii.^ium, Ru-
diae, and Tarentum iiienliimed ! Why
were Pastum, Mctaponluin, Thurium, and
Petilia famous? For wliat was Sicily cele-
brated ! For what were Lipara, Sardinia,
Corsica, and Urcinium famous ?]
62. What was the seat of the Roman em-
pire? How was it built? Where were the
residence of the kini;s, the Capitol, and
the Tarpeian rock ?-[Why are not the in-
e(|ualities in the surface of Rome, as dis-
tinctly marked as formerly ? How was
water conveyed for tlie use of the city 7
What was the Circus Ma.ximus 7 Mention
some of the magnificent rums which still
remain. What was the extent of its walls 7
WTiat is its present state? De.-^cribe the
Forum. For what purpose was it used 7
What was the Campus Martius 7]
G.3. What were the several governments
under which the Romans lived? When
does ancient history end? How were the.
kings chosen, and what was their power?
-[What were their external distinctions,
and what were their prerogatives 7]-How
were the Roman people divided! Who
composed the Senate 7 What was their
business and rank?-[What changes did
the Senate undergo?]- Who were the
Knights ?-[What was their business ?]•
What were tlie remainder of the Roman
citizens called? How were they divided?
-[What division of the citizens was call-
ed centuries?]- What was the situation of
the s/ai'ejj?-[Wliat punishments were in-
flicted on them 7 Wliat privileges had the
slaves?]- What provision for uniting the
different orders, was made by Romulus?
How many, and what names had the Ro-
mans ?-[What did each signify ?]-Did the
privileges of citizenship extend out of the
city 7 Where was the power of the Ro-
man people expressed ? What were they
called 7 For what purpose were they sum-
moned ?-[How manv kinds of Comitia
were there? Which was the principal,
and what was their business 7 Where did
they meet 7 Who created the subordinate
magistrates 7 Who were called candidati 7
When did the Comitia fall into disuse 71-
How were the Roman magistrates d\v\ded%
Who were the ordinary 7 ^Vlio the ex-
traordinary ? Who the provincial 7-[What
officers performed the dirties of^ kings af-
ter their banishment? At what age were
they eligible to office 7 What was the
duty of the Tribunesof the people? What
was the duly and power of the Censors 7
For what were Pra»tors appointed 7 What
was the duty of Proconsuls and Pro-pra;-
tors7 Who were the .T^diles? For what
were Quaistors appointed ? Wlien were
Dictators created? What was their pow-
tir? Wh.it check was given to it? Wlio
were the Decemviri 7 What was the pow-
er of Military Tribunes? What was an
Interrex?]
6-1. What gods did the Romans worship 1
How were their jiriesfs selected? How
were they divided ?-[What were the tirin-
cipal of the first of these divisions? Men-
tion the respective duties of each ?]-Give
an instance of the kind of priests appropri-
ated to particular deities.-[Wliat was their
duty?)
65. Wliat was the tendency of all the
18
dUESTIONS 6ii
Roman institutions'? What was tlie duty I
oi" every citizen .' IIow long after tlie build- 1
ing of Rome did tlie soldiers serve without
pay ^-[What way was necessary to be ap-
pointed to any honourable office 7]- What
change took place about tlie time of Marius 1
What was the appearance of a Roman le-
gion ■? Of how many men did it consist 1
How were they divided ? On what was the
dependence of Rome placed ?-[Of what did
tlieir defensive arms consist! What were
their weapons of assault 'i What was the
pilum7 What was the Roman sword!
Describe their method of drawing up an
army, and attacking an enemy. ]-What
were their engines of attack in besieging
a town'!-[Describe the aries. IIow were
the soldiers protected IJ-How was a Ro-
man camp formed ^-[Did they ever ne-
glect a regular encampment 7 What could
each soldier accomplish, when it was ne-
cessary to leave their camps! Wliat was
the character of the Roman soldiers 1]-
What were the rewards of distinguished
soldiers'! What was the liighest object of
Roman ambition '! By whom was it de-
creed '!-[Describe a triumph. What was an
ovation?]
66. What is said of the Roman ships'!
To what was the success of the Romans at
sea, owing 7-[What was their object in sea
battles'! From what model did tiiey first
construct their ships 1 In how short a time
could they fit a fleet for sea'! By what
was the size of their ships reckoned'!
67. When did the Romans pay much at-
tention to agriculture '! What two profes-
sions did they unite '! What distinguished
generals were called from the plough to the
army 7 When were the pursuits of agri-
culture abandoned 7-[How often did the
farmers visit the city 7 What were some
of their common maxims on agriculture 7J
68. What is mentioned as an amusement
of the Roman people 7 Which were the
most popular, comedies or tragedies 7 What
oiJier entertainments were in use on the
stage ?-[By whom and when was the first
regular play written 7 Wliat distinguished
tlie comic and tragic actors 7 Why were
the Senate opposed to theatres 7 When
was the first, of stone, built 7 For what is
it now used7]-Which of the public games
were most frequented 7 Wliat did these
sliows exhibit 7-[With what was the fe-
rocious taste of the Romans gratified 7]-
What had superior attractions for them 7
By whom were these attended7-[By wlioni
were they first exhibited 7 What liiil
Ihey become 1- When were they entirely
al)olislied7 Wliat numbers fought at the
fiuiies exhibited by Trajan and Claudius?
Wild were the gladiators? What mode of
figliling is mentioned? Which was the
most celebrated Amphitheatre for this pur-
pose?]
69. What is said of the system of edu-
cation among the Romans? To what was
their attenti'jn priiiripally directed? In
what way did the politeness of the Romans
show itself ?-[What improvement Was made
in education, after their intercourse with
the Greeks ! To what were children
habituated in the family 7 Where were
the young men placed at the age of 17 7
What were the chief objects of pursuit of
tlie Roman youth 7 To what may be at-
tributed the great number of eminent men
and women during the republic 7 What
swept away the most valuable of their in-
stitutions?]
70. What was the state of Roman litera-
ture, previous to their intercourse with
Greece 7 How did it compare with that of
Greece in tlie Augustan age ? What was
cultivated -with success ?-[ What writers
improved their language ?]-What appears
to have been their earliest intellectual ef-
fort 7-[What names adorned the Roman
drama? Who were their Lyric poets 7
Who excelled in elegies, and who in satiric
poetry? In what did Lucretius and Virgil
excel'?]-With what success was history
cultivated 7-[Who were tlie most eminent
of their historians?]- What was a favourite
study at Rome 7 How did the most dis-
tinguished orators often exercise their
talents 7 What were the characteristics
of Roman eloquence?- [Wliat is saiil of
Cffisar, Hortensius, and Cicero 7]-When
did philosophy first appear at Rome 7
From wlience was it derived ?-[IIow was
it introduced? Why was the philosophy of
the stoics at first generally received 7 Who
were among the Roman stoics? Who
were disciples of the old, and who of the
new academy 7 What made the Epicurean
philosophy fashionable 7 Who were devo-
tees to this system?]- Was natural philoso-
phy much cultivated by the Greeks or
Romane ? Whose name is the only one
conspicuous in this department? What
contributed greatly to the advancement of
learning at Rome 7-[For what was the li-
brary of LucuUus remarkable 7]
71. How did the Romans compare with
the Greeks in the fine arts?-[How were
their temples and private dwellings adorn-
ed 7]-WTiat was the state of the mechanic
arts7-[IVIention some conveniences which
they did not possess.]
72. How were tlie houses of the Romans
constructed before luxury reached its ut-
most bounds 7-[What is said of them in
the time of the emperors 7 How were their
tables made 7 What was a Roman villa ?]-
What change took place in the meals
of the Romans? How many meals had
they, and in what manner were they taken ?
-fOf what did the diet of the earlier Ro-
mans consist 7 Wliat were esteemed great
delicacies? Wliat wines were used'? Of
what were the services of their tables
made? Describe their manner of taking
their meals.]- What is said of their hnt/is?
-[What rendered their frequent balliiiigs
necessary ?]-Of what did the dress of the
Romans consist? What was the toga 7
What was the toga virilis 7 What was
the timica7-[What was the difference be-
ANCIENT HISTORY.
19
tween the dress of the women and the
men? When were hats and caps worni
Were ornaments, pins, and mirrors, in
uselj-la wliat estiinatiun was marriage
held by the Romans? On what did tiie
validity of tlie transaction depend !-[\Vhal
was always attended to before a marriage
was solenniized ■? W'liat power had fathers
over their children iJ-What were the fune-
ral ritea of tlie Romans ? When did the
practice of burnim; llie dead fall into dis-
use !-[Why did tliey slaughter animals at
the tomb of the deceased !J
7'2 1-2. What was the commerce of Rome 7
What circumstance ri'siricted their com-
mercial dealings !-lIn what estimation was
tralhc held ! Wlial was the size of their
largest merchant ships >]
73. Wliat was the situation of Syria ?
What were its principal towns 7-[How did
Aniioch compare with other cities ! Wliat
is said of Daplme and Seleucial What
rendered Damascus famous 7 Why are
the remains of Heliopolis interesting ! 15y
wiunu was Palmyra foimded ) What shows
its former magnificence >]
"4. What was the character of the an-
cient Syrians?
7^). When did the Syrian language be-
come a distinct tongue 1 Where was it
spoken ?-[What is its character?]
7(3. What was the extent of Carthage 7
-[By wliom was it rebuilt after its destruc-
tion by tlic Romans 7]-From what time may
its decay be traced?
77. What was the government of Car-
tilage ? What was their chai-acler ?
78. What was the situation of Parlhial
IIow were tlie people governed ?-[Who
were tlie ancient Parthians? To what
were they accustomed from infancy ? For
what were they celebrated by the ancients ?
What was the state of their morals and re-
ligion ?1
79. What was the extent and situation of
ancient Persia?
80. What was their government ?-[How
were the kings of Persia treated by their
subjects ? What anecdote is mentioned as
a proof of this ? What is said of the royal
palace ? For what purpose did the Persian
monarchs live ?]
81. Wliat was there peculiar in the edu-
cation of the Persians?
82. What were their punishments ?•[ Wliat
was the most severe?!
83. To what kind of military exercise
were they |)articularly trained? Upon
what dill Iliey di pend for success ?-[ What
singular custom prevailed?]
81. What was their religion ?-[Is it proba-
ble that they were ever acfpi.ainted with
the worship of the true God? Who was
Zoroaster?]
Mythology of Ancient Nations.
I. What was the religion of the nations
of antiquity? Wliat was their systcin
called f
2. Wlio were esteemed deities among
them?-[Wliat was the character of the
religion of Egypt ? What did the Babylo-
nians and Arul)ians worship? Xyho were
the gods of the C'aiiaanites, Syrians, Phceni-
cians, and Carthiigiuians? Whom did the
Moabites and Pliilistines worship? Who
was the favourite deity of tlie Scythians'?
What was there peculiar in the religious
riles of the (,'elts? What is said of the re-
ligion of the Persians ? What was the my-
thology of the ancient Hindoos .']
3. VVhat is said of llie worship of a mul-
titude of gods? To what were the agree-
able fictions of mytliology adapted ?-| IIow
was the Pagan theology divided 7 Wliat
was the first 7 How was this estimated by
the wiser heathens? What was tlie se-
cond I Who were the writers of this class,
and to what did their speculations relate?
What was the third?]
4. How were the systems of mythology
explained by the refined and liberal ? What
use is to be derived from the study of the
Pagan systems of religion? What other
advantages are mentioned 7-[What was
meant by mundane and super-mundane
gods I Into how many orders were they
distinguished ? What duties were assigned
to each ] Why was it necessary that the
governors of the mundane gods should be
twelve 7 Who were they ? How may
this truth be seen in the statues of Apollo,
Minerva, and Venus ? How did the other
mundane gods subsist 7 Give some exam-
ples. What was the genuine pagan creed
as given by a heathen philosoiiher 7]
5. What docs a survey of the heathen
mythology present ?-[How long did this
state of things continue ? What effect
has the Bible produced in the moral
world?]
Discoveries, Inventions, and Improve-
ments of Early Ages.
1. To what is special reference had in
this article 7-[Wliat evidence exists of the
early progress of mankind in the arts of
life I]
2. What urged the cultivation of the arts
at first? What are among the earliest arts ?
What is said of astronomy ? Of geometry ?
Of medicine? Of agriculture? | How did
asriculture llourish among the Romans?
How among the Israelites and Egyptians?
How do the moderns compare with the
ancients in this respect 7]-What is said of
architecture 7
3. What was one of the minuter divisions
of ancient art? What articles did the an-
cients generally use in embalming dead
bodies? Did they know all that the mo-
derns know on this .subject ? What is said
of the Egyptiuus JfWliat way of embalm-
ing was most aiu-irnt? What was the
Egyptian method .M-Wliat is said of the
strl'cts of ancient Rome? What attention
did the Greeks and Romans pay to their
public roads 7-tWhat is further said of the
20
aUESTIONS ON ANCIENT HISTORY.
Roman roads 1 What was the ordinary
rate of travelling compared with the pre-
sent ■?]-What was the oldest method of
conveying news "! Wliat was another
mode !-[What is further said of public
criers'! What of the mode of posting 7]-
To what is the origin of making glass
probably due t Where is it said to have
been discovered 7-[Relate the history of the
discovery of glass f]
What were the oldest mirrors mentioned
in history made ofl Of what were they
afterwards made 1 Were glass mirrors
known to the ancients ?-[ What were the
looliing glasses mentioned in our English
Bible ? What is said respecting the date
of the invention of glass mirrors 'Jl-Wliere,
as is supposed, was linen first manufactur-
ed 1 Were the Greeks acquainted with it ^
When was it introduced into Rome 1 What
is said of the arts of spinning and weaving 7
By what people was wool in Europe first
manufactured i-[From what country aid
sheep originally come f With what were
the early inhabitants of northern Europe
forages clothed 7]-Is the art of dyeing an
ancient one 1 By what nations was it
known 1 What articles did they dye 1 To
what ancient people was steel known"!
What names did the Greeks give to it"!
-[How does the steel of the ancients com-
pare with that of the moderns'!]
aUESTIONS
ON
OUTLINES OF MODERN HISTORY.
BY REV. ROYAL ROBBINS.
INTRODUCTION.*
1. What event have some writers taken
as the divitlma: period between Ancient and
Modern Hi.story ! What have others l;vken !
Mention that whicli i.s assumed in this book.
2. Why is the Cliristian era the most pro-
per separating point 1-[Wliat made it re-
markable, in divine providence % Describe
the state of the world in a political view ?]
3. What is saidof tlie materials of Modern
History 7 What lias diminished our means
of infonnalion on this subject ^-[Mention
the causes which have rendered portions
of Ancient History obscure. What pai'ticu-
lars can you relate of the hbrary at Alex-
andria 1 What has happened to some li-
braries since t]
General Division.
-[How may Modern History be divided I
By what may eacli period lie remember-
ed !1-What is the name and e.vtent of the
first period J Repeat this question m every
period.
PERIOD I.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod?
1. With what great event does this pe-
riod commence ? Why does itbelong to tlie
Roman history? When did the birth of
Jesus occur, in common reckonina 1 What
is the general opinion of the learned on this
subject? According to tliis opinion, how
old was Jesus at the vulgar date ?-[What
is said of the temple of Janus, at this time 7]
2. How long had Rome been an empire f
What was it.< slate at the birth of Christ?
What afterwards ? What was one of the
causes of its down M\ ! \V'hy did ambassa-
dors daily arrive at Rome ?
3. Who was the first Roman emperor,
and when did he die ? What were the
events between the birth of Christ and the
death of Augustus?
4. What was the political condition of the
Romans at this time ?-(On what accounts
are we inclined to undervalue antiipiily?
How does this subject appear to a contem-
plative luind?]
5. Who now assumed the government?
Who was Tiberius ? How long did he ap-
pear just and moderate ? After this, what
was his character? Who were the first
oljjects of his suspicions ? What is said of
the Roman people, upon the death of Ger-
manic us ? What did Tiberius afterwards?
How did he die ?-[Whcn did he abandon
Rome, and whither did he repair? What
is said of his person and habits i How long
did he live and reign 7]
6. Wliat Wits the character of the Ro-
mans at this time ?-[IIow did Tiberius feel
in view of their character? What formed
a part of the festivities of the Romans?]
7. Whom did Tiberius adopt 7 ^\'ho was
Caligula, and why so called ? When did he
begin to reign, and in what manner 7 How-
did he at length act? What was s^eneca's
idea of him? When, and how did he die?
-[What were his cruelties, impieties, folly,
and prodigality? What does Heeren re-
mark concerning his prodigality? By
wlioni, and in what manner was his death
accomplished?]
8. What followed the death of Caligula 7
Who wa.s proclaimed emperor 7 Wlio was
Claudius? What was his character?
-[What became of his family ? By whose
jealousy was he instigated to acts of cruel-
ty 7]- What particular enterprise marked
his reign 7 How did it terminate 7 Wliat
became of Messalina his wife 7 Wliom did
he afterwards marry ? What did Agrippi-
na do? When was t'iaudius jiut to death?
-[Repeat the story of Petus and .\rria.]
'J. How many inhabitants did Rome at
this time contain? What was its moral
condition 7
10. Who succeeded to the empire ? To
whom had Nero's education been entrust-
ed ? How long did he appear just and hu-
mane? Whatdidheafterwai-dsdo? What
is said of his flagitiousness, his meanness,
and puerility? By whom was he slain?
How long did he live and reign ?-[What
was the cause of the burning of Rome?
What is said of Piso's conspiracy against
him? What was tlie state of Rome, and
the surrounding cfluntry i Why was the
despotism of tlie Roman emperors quietly
borne by the people 7].During the reigu of
Nero, what occurred among the Britons?
What among the Parlhians? The Jews?
11. Who succeeded Nero in the empire?
Who proclaimed Galba? What body sanc-
« It will l)C noticed, tlmt the same onler which provail.s through tlio Hi.story, is proson-ed in the
followiiii: Questions— and also tlmt the Huestions on that part of the work vsliich is printed on
the tmaller type, are included in brackela. llms -[ J.
at'ESTIONS ON
tioned this measure? What was the cha-
racter of Galba, before his elevation '! How
did lie manifest his severity 7-[What would
have made him more acceptable as an
emperor ? Mention an instance of his se-
verity. What is said of his parsimony 1]-
How long did Galba reign ! On what ac-
count was he slain? What did Otho ex-
pect ? Did the emperor favour this design 1
What followed 1
12. ^\^^o was raised to the throne 1 What
was the character of Otho? How long did
he reign? What did Vitellius do?-[From
whom was Otho descended? What has
been obser\'ed respecting the last moments
ofhishfe?]
13. Who now assumed the government?
How long did Vitellius retain it? What
was his character? Under what circum-
stances did Vespasian appear in Italy at
this time? What became of Vitellius?
-[What instances of his cruel disposition
are here recorded? What is said of his
gluttony ?]
14. When and by whom was Vespasian
declared emperor? By what was he dis-
tinguished? What is said of the Jewish
war, during his reign ? After this, what
was the state of the empire ?-[What were
the acts of his administration ? What were
his feelings in regard to learning? How
did he die?]
15. When did Titus succeed to the em-
pire? What was his character? What is
said of his reign? When did he die?
-[What is related as an instance of the go-
vernment of his passions ? What is said of
his tenderness ? Mention some events that
happened during his reign. What were the
circumstances attending his last sickness ?
Who was suspected of having hastened his
death ?]
15i. \Vhen did Domitian assume the pur-
ple?" What were his acts after a short pe-
riod? WTiat is said of his reign? What
most occupied his private hours ? What is
said of the persecution of Christians ? Did
he derive renown from the success of his
general, Agricola?-[To whom was Domi-
tian particularly hostile ? What did he do
to the senators, at particular times? By
whom had his death been predicted ? How
did that circumstance affect him? What
docs Heeren say of the fall of Domitian ?
Who concerted measures to destroy him ?]-
What race ended with Domitian? Who
was the first, and who the last emperor of
tlie Augustan family ?
16. Who was now elected emperor ?
Who was Nerva? What unfitted him to
cure the disorders of the empire ? Whom
did he adopt as his successor? When, and
in what year of his age did he die ?-[During
his reign, what commendable things did he
do? Relate an instance of his lenity?!
17. Who now possessed the throne?
What was the character of Trajan? In
what ])articular was his equity implicated?
VVliat is said of the extent of the empire at
tlii.s time? What of Trajan's liberality
towards learning? What of his column?
How long did he reign, and when did he
die ?-[Did Trajan fear his enemies? Men-
tion an anecdote in point. What war did
he first engage in? Whither did he turn
his arms aftei~wards ? Where and how did
he die ? How was the estimation in which
Trajan was held, shown ?]
18. Who succeeded Trajan? When?
How was Adrian declared ? Who was he ?
What did he do on his accession? De^
scribe his character. When did be die?
-[What did he achieve in Britain"; What
in a war with the Jews ? In what manner
did he travel? What is said of his endow-
ments? Why did he wear a long beard?
Whom did he adopt for his succes.sor? Iti
what manner did he bear the pains that pre-
ceded death? What was the character of
his reign ?]
19. Who succeeded to the empire?
When? Wliat was the character of An-
toninus? How was his reign marked 7
What were the most remarkable foreign
occuiTences ? What was the extent of his
age and reign ?-[What i.s said of his munifi-
cence— his humanity — his love of peace —
his regard of Christians ? What, neverthe-
less, took place respecting them? What
was his patronage of learned men ? Relate
the circumstance respecting Apollonius.
How did the emperor die ?]
20. Who now came to the throne ? When ?
Who had been designated with Marcus 1
Was Verus admitted as a partner ? What
was the character of the two brothers ?
How did Marcus illustrate his attachment
to philosophy ? How did Verus conduct in
war? What is said of the Parthians and
Germans ? After the death of Verus, what
did Aurelius do? Where and when did
Aurelius die ? What was an infelicity of
this emperor's reign ? Who were the in-
struments in the persecution of Christians?
•[What is said of this emperor's love of re-
tirement? Relate the story of a " Christian
legion."]-Upon the death of Aurelius, what
was the state of the empire ? At the period
of Trajan's death, what countries did the
empire comprehend ?
21. Who now mounted the throne ?
When ? Who was Commodus, and what
his character ? What is said of his admi-
nistration ? How Euid when did he perish ?
-[What is further said respecting his
cruelty?]
22. Vvho was the successor of Commo-
dus ? When was Pertinax proclaimed ?
Who was he ? When, and by whom was
he murdered ?
23. Who next succeeded to the empire ?
When? How did Didius obtain it? What
happened at the same time ? Who seized
the government ? Wlien and by whom was
Didius put to death ?-[Relate the circum-
stances of his purchase of the empire. From
this period to what was he cxiioscd? What
at the crisis of alTairs did the senate do ?)
24. Who was now at the head of the Ro-
man world ? Who was Severus ? What
is said of his military talents ? His admi-
nistration of government ? What work did
MODERN HISTORY.
be accomplish in Britain! Where and
when did he die 1 To whom did he leave
the empire .'-[VVliat was the first act of Se-
verus ! Witli whom diil lie soon after en-
gage in war 7 What is said of his activity
and love of conquest f What of the wall
he built in Britain 1 What circumstances
preceded his death 1]
25. Who were now established in the em-
pire ! What were the characters of Cara-
calla and Geta J What was the end of Car-
acal la .' During his reign what was the state
of the empire (-[Detail some of his bad ac-
tions; his feelings in respect to death.]
2o. When was Macrinus proclaimed 1
How did he lose the atfeclions of his army,
ajid finally his life f How long was his reign?
27. Who was now raised to the throne 1
Wliat was the character of Heliogabalus 1
How long did he reign 1-[Mention some
facts respecting his elfeminacy, prodigality,
and cruelty. How was his death accom-
plished!]
28. When was Alexander Severus pro-
claimed I What is said of his character and
qualities ? How was he cut olf *-[What was
a specimen of his virtuous character ; his
remark on a certain occasion; his intellect-
ual endowments? Mention some of the acts
of his reign ; his manner of living.]
29. How and when did Maximinus ascend
the throne ? What is said of his de.scent
and person 7 What was his character as a
sovereign? To what end did he- come?
How long was his reign, and what took
place during it ?-[In what diil this emperor
di-ligtit ? How did he act wlion the senate
appointed others to the supreme power ?
What is said of his strength and voracity?]
Who was now proclaimed I
30. When did Gordian assums tho rm-
pire? How old was he at this time ! St;ite
what he did. What part did I'hilijt tlie
Arabian act?-[How was Gordiaii's fondness
for learning shown ?]
31. When did Philip acquire the empire?
How long did he reign ? What was the
manner of his death ?
32. Who succeeded in the empire?
When ? Wliat is said of Decius in respect
to his activity ? What causes were enfee-
bling the empire ? When and how did his
reign terminate 7
33. When and how was Callus raised to
the throne ? Give an account of his char-
acter and the manner of his death.-[What
Jiappened during his reign ?]
3^1. When did Valerian succeed to the
throne ? What did he sufTcr ?-[To what
use was he put by Sapor ? What was the
mannf^r of his death ?]
Si). Who was Gallienus, and when was he
chosen emperor ? Wliat is said of him af-
ter his elevation? Of thirty pretenders?
Of the emperor's death?
36. Who was now invested willi the pur-
ple ? When ? What was the character of
Claudius ? What kind of death did he die ?
-[What is said of his military exploits ?]
37. How and when was Aurolian chosen
emperor? Wliat is said of liis parentage ?
How did he pass his time after his elevation 1
How did he fall ?-( What is said of hia
strength ? Relate a further particular con-
cerning him?]
38. Was a new emperor innnediatcly
elected? Wlien did Tacitus take the reins
of govurnment ? What was his character 7
How and at what age did he die ?
39. Who succeeded Tacitus? Who, how-
ever, was chosen by the army ? How long
did Florian enjoy this distinction? What
became of hmi ? What was the character
of Probus ? Why and by whom was he
slain ?-(What is said of his parentage? Of
his energy and virtue ? Repeat the story
of Bonosus.]
40. Who succeeded Probus? When?
Who was Carus ? Who were associated
with him in command ? Wliat was the char-
acter of Carus ? Of his two sons? What
is said of their reign ? What became of
Carus and his sons ?-[Tcll the story of Nu-
merian.]
41. When did Diocletian begin his reign?
Whom did he associate with himself in the
empire ? What did they achieve ? What
step did they soon take ? What was the
state of things at this time ? What did the
two emperors do in a few years ? How did
they feel and act from that time ? When
did each die ?-[What was Diocletian's pa-
rentage ? Why dill he choose Galerius for
his as.sociate 1 What is further said of
Diocletian ? Of Maximian ?]
42. Who were now universally acknow-
ledged emperors? Who ruled the eastern ;
who the western parts of the empire 1
Who were the two partners whom (.'on-
stantius and Galerius took in with them?
What was the character of the two empe-
rors respectively ? When did Constantius
die, and whom did he leave as his succes-
sor ? When and how did Galerius die 1
What did he instigate Diocletian to do 1
-[Of what did the western parts of the em-
pire consist? Of what the eastern ? Re-
late an anecdote of Conslantius.]
43. What is said of the prevalence, and
number of the persecutions of Christians
during this period ? Name the persecuting
emperors. From what motives did they
act thus?
44. When did Judea become a province
of the Roman empire ? When did the
l)irth of our Saviour take place ? What
did Herod do in reference to this occur-
rence? What happened to him ?-[In what
vear of the world was our Saviour born 1
What era do we nevertheless adopt ? Can
the mistake now be rectified ! Who were
troubled by his birth ? How was Jesus in
his infancy saved from the designs of He-
rod ? What kind of life did our Saviour
lead? Under whom ilid he suffer? What
is further said of Christ ?]-Are the affairs
of the Jews at this period sufficiently im-
Sortant to be particularized ?■( How was
udea divided at this time ? What is a te-
trarchy ? Who held the difl^erent tetrarch-
ies? Who was the successor of Arcliclausl
What is related concerning him ? Who
QUESTIONS ON
was the successor of Ilerod II. ? Mention
what is said in connexion with his name.
Who was his successor, and what is said
of him ?]
4o. When and by whom was Jerusalem
atiacked 1 What was the cause 1 How
Wisre the Jews treated ! How many of
them perished 1 Wliat did they suffer 1
What will the reader of the Bible see and
learn in these events founder what em-
peror did the Jewish war commence 1 Who
was his general 1 Who at length prosecuted
the war ; Mention the particulars narrated]
46. Was Jerusalem rebuilt after this 1
What foUowed .' When was the city finally
destroyed ! When it was afterwards built
over aiiew, what was it called !
47. At thebeginningof this period, under
what sway did Parthia continue ! When
did the second branch of the Arsacidae
commence !-[What is said of Veronesl.?]
48. Under whom did the second branch
commence"! How long did it last ? What
is funher related of the Parthians '![What
is said of Artabanus V. ?]
49. How long had Persia been subject to
the Parthians from the time that it was
brought under the Macedonian yoke 1
When and by whom was the Persian em-
pire restored ? What happened between
the Persians and Roiuans under Artaxares 7
What is said of Sapores 1. 1 By what name
was the present dynasty called l-[What is
further said of Sapores J What is said of
Hormisdas II. •?]
50. When did the fifth dynasty of China
commence 1 When did it terminate ?
What is it called 1 During how many years,
and under how many emperors did it last ?
Who was the head of it ?-[ What is related of
Kao-Tsou ^ What of Vuti ?]- When did the
sixth dynasty beghi and end 1 What is it
called .1 How was China divided at this
time?
Distinguished Characters.
Who were tlie distinguished characters
of this period, and in what respects distin-
guished ?-[!. What is said of the fame of
Livy 1 What of his Roman history !
2. To what study was Ovid irresi.stibly
inclined? What was his fate in life i How
are his poems characterized ?
3. Relate what is said of Tibullus.
4. What only remains of Strabo's works ?
Describe it.
5. Mention the circumstances in tlie life
of Seneca.
6. Relate the facts in I.ucan's life. What
is the character of his Pharsalia 1
7. What is said of the studiousness of
Pliny 1 Give an account of his work on
Natural History. How did he lose his life l
8. Give the history of Quintillian. What
is said of his Institutions'?
9. Give the particulars of the life of Ta-
citus. Describe his writings.
10. Mention the facts in Plutarch's life.
What is said of his Lives of Illustrious Men ?
11. What can you say of Juvenal's hfe ?
What of his pieces?
12. Give an account of the character of
M.Antoninus. Of his Meditations.
13. Who was Tertullian, and what do liis
writings evince? Which are the most es-
teemed of his works ?
14. Give an account of the life, character,
and writings of Origen.
15. What is said of Cyprian?]
PERIOD n.
Wliat is the name and extent of tliis pe-
riod?
1. When was Constantine proclaimed?
Who had been proclaimed before him, and
who had declared himself at the same time?
Whom did Galerius create emperor? Were
these rivals of Constantine soon removed?
What has Constantine been styled ? What
did he do in this character? What has
been assigned as the cause of tliis ? If the
cause were real, would it account for his
conduct ?-[Give an account of his seeing
the cross. What occurred in 314?]
2. How was Constantine's administration
at first, compared with what it was after-
wards ?-[In what light has his character
been considered ? What ought we to think
of it?]-Of what change in the empire was
he the author, aside from its religious
change ? Can his motives for this be ascer
tained? What was the effect of the mea-
sure ? How and when did he die ?-[How
was the new seat of empire said to have
been pointed out?]-How long are the histo
ries of Rome and Constantinople blended?
3. What is said of the comiption of Rome
at this time ? What held the empire longer
together ? What specially tended to over
throw the fabric at this period ?-[Whal is
said of the Roman armies ?]
4. On whom did Constantine settle the
empire ? When did their sovereignty com-
mence? Who of these remained in pos-
session of the whole empire, and how did it
happen ? How long and in what manner
did Constantius reign ?-[By what enemiea
was the West annoyed? By what the East?
Whom did Constantius create Ca?sar ? De-
scribe his person and character.]
5. On what account was Julian called the
apostate ? When was he acknowledged by
the senate ? How was he situated in re-
spect to Constantius? Describe his char-
acter. What did he do in favour of pagan-
ism ? What did he attempt in respect to
Jerusalem ? How and at what age did he
die ?-[In what manner did he treat the
Christians? Which is the most famous of
his compositions ? How were his last mo-
! ments spent ? Why did he attempt to re-
build the temple at Jerusalem ? What is
further said on this subject.]
6. What was the condition of things on the
death of Julian ? Who was finally fixed on
as emperor? When? What did Jovian do
in respect to the Persians ? What in res-
pect to the church ? How lone was his
reicn and age ^-[Mention a circumstance
respecting his death.]
7. When was Valentinian I. elected?
Whom did he associate with him ? When
MODERN HISTORY.
was the division of the empire perfected 1
Was it still considered as one 1 vVliat ene-
mies attacked the empire 1 How did tlie
emperor demean himself? When. did lie
die 7-[Mention the m;mner of his death. 1
What is said of Valens ?[What did he do iti
respect to the Huns 1 How did he pe-
rish?)
6. When did Gratian succeed his father?
Upon the death of Valens wliom did Gratian
associate with him ? How lonsi did he reign ?
What was liis character ?-(What was the
occasion of his death 1 In what year ?]
9. Who succeeded Gratian i What oc-
f urrod to Valentinian H. ? What became
of the tyrant Eugenius?
10. hi tVie East who succeeded after Va-
lens ? When ? What was Theodosius sur-
nained? Why so? What Is said of Chris-
tianity at this time ? When did Theodosius
possess the whole empire ? Did any em-
peror afterwards reign over both the East
and West ?-| WIhi wiis Tln-odosius ? What
victory did lie obtain soon alii'r his election?
What did he do in 3'JU? Which religious
party did he espouse? By what was his
faith said to be confirmed ?]
11. What circumstance favoured the pro-
jects of the barbarians ? Wlio were the
Huns ? Where did a part of them settle?
•[What is further said of them?] Who were
the Alains ? How early did they invade the
empire ?-[What is further said of them?]
Whence came the Vandals? Where did
they settle once and again ?-[Wliat is further
said of theni ? Whence originated the
Goths ? Where did they first settle ? What
division did they form ?-[What is further
said of them ?] Whence did the Htruli
originate? Where did they emigrate first
and last?-[What is further said of them ?]
Wlio were the Gepidie ? Where did tliey
fix finst and last ?-[Wliat is further said of
them ?] Who were the Suevi, and where
did they live?-[Wliat is further said of
them?) What was the coimtry of the Bur-
pmdians ? Name a few others of the bar-
barians 1
12. In the West who held the sceptre ?
To whose vigour was it owing that the bar-
barians were repelled for a time ? Whom
did Stilicho defeat ? When did Alaric take
Rome ? For how many years had the city
been unmolested by a foreign enemy ?
•(What was one cause of the attacks of the
barbarians t From what regions did they
issue ? How did Stilicho act against them ?
What fate did he experience ? What tribe
joined Alaric? What was the numlier and
character of Rome's population at this time ?
What hastened the fate of the city ? What
completed the work )) Wliat became of
Alaric? What did Ilonorius now do 7 To
wliat year did he continue to ri'ign ?
I'.i. When was ValentiniaVi III. crowned ?
Who was he ? What resulted from the re-
volt of Count Boniface ?-rnow was Boniface
<lrawn into a revolt ? Whom did he call to
his assistance ? What did fienseric do ?]
What is said of the Iltms under Attila?
Who checked their progress for a time ?
What saved the Western empire from im-
mediate destruction ?-[Give an account of
Attila!) What became of Aetius 7 What of
I lie emperor 1
14. \Vhen was Maximus \1. proclaimed t
To wliat circumstance did he owe his death?
■[What is further said of Maximus 7] How
came Genseric into Italy? How did he deal
with Rome 7 How with the Empress Eu-
doxla 7
15. In what year did Maximus die 7 How
many emperors were there from that time
to the termination of the empire ?-[What ii:
said of Avitus 7 Of Majorian? OfServe-
rusIII. 7 OfAthemius? OfOlybrius? Of
Glycerus? Of Julius Nepos ? OfAugus-
tuhis ?)
16. W^len was the Eastern empire finally
separated from the Western 1 What was
the character of Arcadius ?
17. When did Theodosius 11. succeed to
the empire 7 What was his character?
By whom were his deficiencies supplied ■?
-[Relate the story of Athenais.)
18 When and by whom was Marcian called
to the throne ! How long was his reign?
■[What was the reply of Marcian to Attila?)
19. When was Leo I. called to the em-
pire 7 What is said of his domestic ene-
mies 7 what of the Goths ? When did he
die ?-[Repeat an anecdote of Leo.)
20. By how many princes was Persia
governed during tliis period 7 When was
the nation at war with the Romans, and
when at peace with them ?-[What is said of
!*apores II. 7 What of Sapores III. ?]
21. When did the seventh and eighth dy-
nasties of China end 7 Under which of
these did the empire become united? Men-
tion particulars concerning this and tho
eighth 7-[What is said of Venti and his
brother 7]
Distingmshed Characters.
Wlio were the distinguished characters
in this period, and in what were they emi-
nent7-[l. What was the character of Lac-
tantius as a writer? What were his prin-
cijial works 7 When did he die 7
2. Who was Ossian 7 What is the char-
acter of his poems 7 Is not their authenti-
city doubtful?
3. What is said of the life, character and
writings of Eusebius 7
4. When did Eutropiiis live 7 What is
said of his Roman history ?
?i. To what has the change in Julian's re-
ligious opinions boen ascribed ? What
powers has he sho\vn in his writings ?
6. Wlio was Basil ? What does Mosheim
say of him 7
7. What is said of the life and -writings of
Gregory Nazianzen 7
a When did Claudian flourish 7 What
is the character of his poems 7
9. Give an accountof the life and writings
of St. Chrysostom.
10. Who was St. Augustine? By what
was he characterized 7 Wliat has been
pronounced respecting his book of the City
of God 7)
aUESTIONS ON
PERIOD m.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod ■?-[ When did the dark ages commence?
How long did they last ? What is a proper
view of them 1]
1. When was the Western empire extin-
guished ! By whom was tliis done 1 Who
was emperor at that time ?-[What cause led
to the invasion of Rome under Odoacer 1
What became of Augiistulus ?] How long
liad Rome existed as an empire 1 How long
from the building of the city ? What was
the cause oftlie ruin of the empire 7-[Must
Rome have fallen without the agency of the
Northern invaders 1 Why 1 What was
the situation of the Eastern empire after
the fall of the Western? Mention one rea-
son why the Eastern empire contmued so
long?]
2. Wliat is the Eastern empire sometimes
called ? Under whose sway was it in 474 ?
On what account was he otlious, and how
did he perish ? How long was his reign ?
[What is said of Verina ? Mention the
manner nfZeno's death?]
3. When was Anastatius raised to the
throne ? How long did he reign, and what
was the character of his reign?
4. Who now ascended the throne? How
did Justia govern? In what war did he
engage ?-[Meiition some further particulars
resuecting him.]
5. When did Justinian I. assume the go-
vernment? What is said of his personal
character? What of his reign? Whatform
an era in history ? What is said of Belisa-
rius, and of Justinian's treatment of liim ?
-[Wliat is further said of Belisarius in the
war with the Persians ? What in the sedi-
tion of Constantinopte ? In the war with
the Vandals ? In the war with the Goths ?
Where and how were his declining years
passed ?]- What is said of Narses ? At what
age did Justinian die ? What were his vices,
and what Ids virtues ? What was the char-
acter of the age in which he lived? What
the condition of the empire?
6. When did Justin II. ascend the throne ?
What was his character, and what befel
liun ? Who was associated with him in the
empire ? With what losses and evils was
it atrected?-[Wliat advice did he give to Ti-
berius ? How long was his reign ?]
7. When did Tiberius possess the throne ?
By what was liis reign rendered glorious ?
What was his character ?-[On whom did he
bestow his diadem ?]
8. When did Mauric e ascend the throne ?
How long was his reign? What was his
character ? What did lie do in 602? Wliat
ensued '-[Give an account of his trials at
last?]
9. Who now took the throne? When?
What was his character and end?-[Whatis
said of his cruelty?]
10. When was Heraclius I. crowned?
What is said of his war with the Persians?
How long was his reign ?-[What occurred
during the last of his reign ?] j
11. What was the kingdom called which I
was built on the ruins of the Western em-
pire ? How long did the conquerors hold
it ? Mention the transfers from one tribe to
another, and the length of time each one
held the sovereignty.
12. What is said of the kingdom of the
Heruli ?-[Mention particulars respecting
Odoacer]
12^. When did the kingdom of the Ostro-
goths begin? Who was their king? Whero
did he tix his residence? How long was his
reign ? What was his character ?-[Mention
other particulars of him.]
13. How many kin^s succeeded Theodo-
ric? Wlio are' the best known of them?
When did Narses retake Italy ?
14. When did the kingdom of the Lom-
bards follow? Who invited Alboin their
king into Italy ?-[Mention the circumstances
of Alboin's death.]
1.5. What is said of Alboin's successors 7
-[What is considered by some as the origin
of the feudal system?]
16. In Persia how many kings reigned
during this period? Of these who was the
most conspicuous? What is said of the
war between the Persians and Romans ?
-[Give an account of Chosroes II. Of Chos-
roes III.] Did Persia soon become a part
of the empire of the Caliphs ?
17. In China how many dynasties were
there during this period? What was the
character of several of the sovereigns?
What occurred in the reign of Yang-ti ?
-[What is said of one of the sovereigns ?
Before the subversion of the Western em-
pire what occurred to some of its nations ?
What two nations may date their separate
existence from that event? Did the seve-
ral nations then become detached from one
another? How are they here considered?]
18. What is said of Spain while consti-
tuting a portion of the empire? What is
said of the Alains in 418? Of the Suevi ?
Of the Vandals ? Of the Visigoths ?-[What
is said of the names of Spain ? Of its in-
habitants ? Of its subjugation at difTerent
times ?]
19. What was France anciently called ?
When and among whom was it divided )
Who is the founder of the French mon-
archy ? When ? Into how many and what
dynasties have the French kings been divi-
ded ? Who gave name to the first dynasty ?
To what year did it continue ?-[Give an ac-
count of the Franks. What is said of Clo-
vis ? By whom was Clovis followed ?]
20. What was the ancient name of Eng-
land ? How long had the Romans abandon-
ed it before the subversion of the empire ?
Wliat happened to the inhabitants in the
mean time? Whose assistance did they
seek? WTiendid the tribes from the conti-
nent arrive ? What followed ? How long
were the Saxons in subduing the Britons %
What is meant by the Heptarchy ?-[De-
scribe the original inhabitants. Whence
was the name England derived ? By whom
was the island first settled ? When and by
whom was the Roman dominion in Britain
begun ? Describe the successive tonquesta
MODERN HISTORY.
and acts of the Romans there under Claudi-
us and Nero. Hy Agricola, and Adrian.
Who invited the (Jeriuaa tribes to Britain t
Who were their leaders 1 Who first be-
came sole king of England 1 When I]
Di.itinguis/ied Character's.
Who were the distinguished characters
of this period, and for what were they cele-
brated l-[l. What is said of Proclus as a
pliilo.sopher ! What of his industry ?
\Vhal vain labour did he undertake 7
2. Mention particulars respecting the life
and writings ot BdciIiIus.
3. Willi \v;is Prcicopius, and when did he
Ilourisli I Wliat is s lid of his History of
the reign of .lustiiiian 7
4. Who wasCassiodoius, and to what did
his writings relate !
5. What can you further say of Belisari
us 7
6. Who was Gildas 1 What is said of his
Epistle ?J
PERIOD IV.
What is the nan.e and e.vtent of this pe-
riod 7-[What is said of the darkness in Eu-
rope during (his period ? How was the case
in the East 7]
1. Give an account of the character and
origin of the Arabs. Whence is their name
Saracen derived 7 Wliat is said of them in
reference to Rome and Persia 7 Where
and when was Mahomet born 7 In 609 what
did he begin to do 7 How were his impos-
tures nci'ived ! What year was the hpgira7
Wiiat led to that 7 What countries did he
conquer ! When did he die 7 How ;nany
branches of his family did he leave 7-(What
is the opinion of some historians respecting
Mahomet 7 What great men were among
Jiis followers 7 How were the Arabs and
Greeks brought into contact 7 To what
causes did Mahomet owe his success in
part 7]-What are the followers of this im-
postor called 7 What is the book containing
iheir creed called 7 What are their priests
called 7 How did Mahomet propagate his
religion 7
2. What arc Caliphs 7 Who was the first
Caliph 7 Whom did Muhouiet appoint 7 To
what (lid this give rise 7 How many sects
are tbere 7 What are their names 7 Men-
tion what they believe, and who they are.
What course did A bu-bekerpursue7-f What
occurred between him atid Omar 7]- When
did Omar begin to reisrn f What did he
achieve in his first and second campai2n7
-[What did his general, Amrou, do71-What
is said of Othman 7 Wli.ai. of Ali 7-[Rolate
the story of Ayesha.l
3. In whai time did the Saracens rear a
powerful empire 7 la a cenuiry how far did
their dominion e.ttend ) How many caliphs
were there of Omar's race 7 What dynasty
succeeded 7 What is said of AIin,-in7or"7
-[Relate the slory of Abu H.anifa.l-Who
ascended the throne in 7ft"i 7 fly what was
he distinguished 7 Wlmn flid he die 7 To
what sciences were the Arabians chietly
devoted 7-[MentiQn the conquests of Al
Raschid. Repeat two anecdotes concern-
ing him. ]
4. What inroads did the Saracens make
upon the Eastern empire 1 With what
success did they l)esiege Constantinople 1
-[Give an accountof the Greek fire.]- When
did .lustinian II. succeed to the empire 7
What of his character 7 What became of
him 7 Who were some of the emperor.-?
that followed 7 What is said of Leo 111. 7-
[What can you say of the conduct and end
of Irene 7]
5. To whal year did the King-dom of Italy
continue 7 How long had the Lombard
kings ruled it 7 How many kings reigned
during the remainder of its existence f
Name the principal of them. By what
means did tlie kingdom come to an end 7-
[Mention particulars respecting Cunibert,
Luitprancl, Rachisius, Aslolphus, Didier.]
(j. How long ilid Spain continue under
the dominion of the Visigoths 7 By whom
was it then conquered 7 What part re-
mained free from the Moors 7 What small
kingdoms were founded there 7-[Who was
sent to conquer .Spain 7 How was a imion
formed between the conquerors and the
vanquislied 7]
7. When was Spain formed into an inde-
pendent kingdom 7 What part remained
true to the Christian failh 7 By wliom and
where was learning encouraged 7
8. In what way did the Merovingian kingi?
of Prance enjoy scarcely more than the
name 7 Who was mayor of the palace in
the time of Thierry 7 What did he do ?
What is said of Pepin's son 7
9. To whom is it uwiiig under Providence
that the Malidmetaii dominions did not ex-
lend over Euiiiiic 7 [How was this achiev-
ed 7]-What more is said of Charles 7 Who
were mayors of the palace after his de-
cease 7 On wliom did the sole administra-
tion at length devolve 7 Why 7 When was
Pepin Le Bref made king, and what race
now succeeded 7-[ What did he do soon aller
he was crowned 7]
10. How did the temporal authority of the
popes commence 7 How were the limits of
France extended 7 When did Pepin die 1
■[Relate an anecdote of him.]
11. Between wliom where the dominions
of Pepin divided 7 Who soon obtained the
whole 7 By what name is Charles known
in history 7 What is said of his character 7
Of his treatment of the Saxons 7 Against
whom was he successful in war 7-[What is
said of his person and mind 7 Of his efforts
in correcting the habits ot his subjects 7
Wliendidhe experience a disaster in war 7]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
in this period, and for what were they cele-
brated 7-[l. What kind of knowledge had
Mahomet 7 Describe the arguments he
em|)loyed to persuade men to embrace his
religion. What peculiar doctrine did he
invent 7 What is said of his person, and
intellectual and moral qualities 7 Mention
particulars respecting his death.
QUESTIONS ON
2. \\Tio was Adhelme 7 When did he
die ■? What is related of him as a writer ?
3. Who was Bede 1 On what subject is
he celebrated as a writer 1 Did he write
on other subjects 1 What is said of his last
sickness, and when was his death 1
4. Give some further account of Charles
Martel.
5. When did John Damascenus flourish 1
Give some particulars of his Ufe. What
does ftlosheim say of him?]
PERIOD V.
WTiat is the name and extent of tliis pe-
riod?
1. What was included in the New West-
administration '!-[Who was true heir to tlie
crown "!]
8. When did Robert succeed t Mention
the circumstance of his excommunication
by the pope. -[What is said of the supersti-
tion of the times % Was the king happy in
his second marriage 1 What remarkable
fact is mentioned in regard to Languedoc 1]
9. How and when did Henry secure tlie
throne 7 What was his character ?-[What
is said of a famine 7]
10. To whom did Henry leave his crown 7
When 7 What is said of him as a sovereign 7
11. When was Charles the Bald pro-
claimed king of Italy ? What was the state
of Italy after his death 7 When did Otho
er7i empire ? When was the title of the the Great, reunite it to the German empire )
emperor of the West conferred on Charlc- What however happened to it during two
magne 7 What should he have done in centuries 7-[What anecdote is related of
order to restore the empire of the Romans
\Vhat countries were included under the
New Western etnpire 7 Did it long conti-
nue 7-[Mention the manner in which Charle-
magne was crowned.]
2. Who succeeded him 7 'Wlien 7 Wliat
part of the empire did not come into the
hands of Louis the mild 7 Whom did he
associate with him in the empire 7 On what
account did Louis do penance 7 What is
aaidof his children in conne.xion with liim !
-[What was the cause of their disaffection 7
Relate a circumstance connected with the
death of Louis.]
3. Who succeeded Louis in a part of his
dominions 7 When 7 What was the occa-
Bion and result of the battle of Fontcnay 7
Which of the brothers retained the title of
emperor 7 How did they divide the empire
among themselves 7 How did it become
lost to France 7-[What further is said of the
battle of Fontenay 7 What of the Normans 7]
(1) When did Lothaire, the emperor, die 7
V\nio was his successor 7 (2) What was
the character of Louis 7 When did he die 7
(3) When did Charles assume the empire 7
What is said of his reign 7 What is the
condition of the grandees under the Carlo-
vingian kings 7 Why is it necessary to re-
sume our narrative of individual coimtries7
4. Upon the death of Charles (the Bald)
who succeeded as king of France 7 When 7
How long was his reign 7 Who were his
successors 7 What is said of their reign 7
-[Mention the manner of their death.]
5. When and how did Charles the Fat
come to the throne 7 Who was he 7 When
was the imperial dignity transferred to
Germany 7 On what account 7 Who was
then chosen king 7 Who next in 8987
Who became king in 9227 When did
Ralpho succeed 7-[Whence was Normandy
named 7]
6. Who was Louis IV. and when did he
come to the throne 7 Wliat is said of Hugh
the Great and Hugh Capet under several of
the French kings 7-[What does the fact
(hat two of these kings were poisoned by
their queens show 7]
7. Who was the head of the third dynas-
ty of French kings 7 When did he begin
lo reign 7 What was the character of his
Otho II. 7]-When was the temporal power ol
the popes founded 7 Relate the history of it.
12. What proportion of Spain did the
Christians possess 7 Mention the provinces.
By whom was the remainderof the peninsula
occupied 7 What is said of Cordova 7 What
circumstance would have favoured the
Christians in regaining the whole kingdom,
had they been disjiosed 7-[How long did the
splendour of Cordova last 7 What added to
the divided state of Spain 7 Who was the
most distinguished of the knights-errant 7]
13. Whaf was the condition of Germany
previously to the era of Charlemagne 7
When was it separated from France 1
How has it stood related to Charlemagne"s
empire 7 Who is now nominally regarded
as the successor of the Roman emperors 7-
[Relate some of the particulars in the early
history of Germany.]
14. Who succeeded Charles the Bald 7
When 7 What other country did he go-
vern 7
15. When was Arnold proclaimed 7
What occurred during his reign 7 M'ho
was the last emperor in the male line from
Charlemagne 7-[How did he die 7]-Froni
what time did the empire become elective 7
16. When was Conrad elected? What
did he do 7
17. Who succeeded Conrad? What were
the chaiacter and deeds of this prince 7-
[Was he zealous for religion 7]
18. Who was Olho I. the Great? When
was he elected? What events marked his
reign 7 What is his reputation 7 How long
was his reign 7 Where was he interred 7-
[To what did Otho owe his ascendency in
Italy 7 For what purpose dirt he visit Italy 7
Relate an incident in Otho's life, showing
the power of parental love.]
19. Who were the successors of Otho I.
down to the time of Henry IV. 7
20. Who succeeded in 1056 7 Detail his
history in regard to his contests with the
popes. How long did he live and reign 7
What was his character 7-[What story is
told of his treatment from one of the
popes?]
21. When did England become one entire
kingdom? By whom was this cliange ef-
fected 7 What was the occasion of it J
MODERN HISTORY.
22. What disturbed the prosperity of the
English fir a long time i Between whom
was Eiiiiluiul (livideil by EtheKvolf?-[\Vliat
did he fjraiit to the priesthood 7]- What bro-
ther succeeded Ethelbald and Elhelbert ?
When did Alfred succeed !
23. What was the slate of his kingdom at
first ? What is said of liis talents, &c. !
What dill he do for his reahn !-(What plan
showed the wisdom of his civil institutions !
Describe it. ]• What contests had he wuhthe
Danes ! What was his situation at one
time t How long wa.s his reism l^ln what
manner did he cut otf the Danes 1]
24. Who was the successor of Alfreds
IIow did he conduct atfairs ? How long was
his reign !
2ij. Who .succeeded Edward? What was
hiis character.' What diil he encourai^e 7
How lona; was his reign 7-[W'hat is said of
the translation of the Bible 7]
26. Who succeeded Alhelstan 7 When?
How did he die? Who succeeded Ed-
mund? When? What was his character 7-
[What is said of Duristan 7]
27. Who now filled the throne? ViThy
was he persecuted by the monks ?-[What
became of hi.s wife 7)
28. When did Edgar come to the throne?
What is said of his private character 7
What of his administrations ?-[now did Ed-
ijar obtain his wife, Elfrida?]
29. Who succeeded Edgar? WHio was
Ethelred H. ? What was his surname 7
What barbarous deed did he order? How-
was it revenged 7 To whom did the Eng-
lish olTer the kingdom ? Who at length as-
serted it by arms? Who was the succes-
sor of Ethelred ? With whom was he
obliged to divide his kingdom 7 When did
Canute become sole king? Wliat is said of
him as a sovereign ?-[ How was he affected
towards the latter part of his life?]
30. Which two oftlie sonsof Canute suc-
ceeded liim? Did they reign long? Upon
their death, what didtlieEnghshdo? When
dill Edward the Confessor begin to reign?
What was his merit I Whom did he ap-
point to the throne ?-[What did Edward do
as to the laws ?]
31. On tlie death of Edward, who took
possession of the throne 7 Describe the
contest between him and William, duke of
Normandy. What w;is the character of
William's administration 7 By what means
did he alienate the mind.s of the conijuered ?
-[Of what other regulations was he the au-
thor? What is the Doomsday book?]- What
other events are recorded of him? Describe
his character.-! What is said of his person?
Relate an incident in his contest wth his
son.]
32. Who next ascended the throne ?
When ? What was the character of Rii-
fus? ir.)w was his hfc terminated ?-[By
what is his name jierpetuatcd ?]
3.3. In the Eastern empire, how many
emperors were there during this period?
What is said of their character? How did
the Greeks compare witli the other nations
of Europe at this time (.[What regions re-
mained to the empire in the tenth century "{
Wtiat is further said of the arts, ikc. of the
Greeks? What was the character of Ba-
sil I. ? What incident is related of his
reign ! What was the reputation of Nice-
phorus Phocas? Relate an instance of cru-
elty in Basil H.]
34. In the history of China, how many
dynasties and emperors were included ia
this period? What occurred in the reign
of Ta!-tsong?-[What was the character of
this prince ? What is said of Chwaug-tsong 1]
35. What was the condition of the Sara-
cens, as to science, &c. at the begmning of
this period ? How did Arabia lo^e much of
its importance after a time 7-[What pre-
vented the Saracens from perpetuating an
immense empire?]
30. In what mihtary expedition did the
African Saracens engage during this peri-
od 7 What was the rcsidt ?
37. When was Bagdad taken by the
Turks 7 What ensued 7-[What is said of
Adadodawla 7 What striking anecdote is
related of Mahmud Gazni?]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
of this period, and for what were they dis-
tinguished 7-[l. What more particulars caa
be given of Charlemagne as a sovereign'?
As to his private character?
2. Who was Photius 7 What did he
write 7 When did he die ?
3. Mention some particulars respecting
Erigena. What did he write 7
4. What issaidof Alfred, as to his wisdom
and piety ? IIow did he usually divide his
time 7
5. What is said of the learning of Al Ra-
zi? When did he die 7
6. At what time did Avicenna live 1
What is said of his study of Aristotle?
7. When did Suidas tlourish ? By what
only is he known 7]
PERIOD VI.
What is the name and e.xtent of this pe-
riod ?-[By what was the age pecuUarly cha-
racterized?]
1. In describing the Crusades, what do
we include ? Who participated in them ?
2. What were the crusades 7 What their
object? What their cause or origin 7 Who
instigated them?-[Why is Judca interesting
to the Christian world ! Is the fanaticisui
of the crusaders, considering the age, much
to be wondered at ?]
2J. How many, and how long continued,
were the crusading exjieditions? What
nation was the most enthusiastic in them'?
By whom was the first crusade preached ?-
Who had previously contemplated the same
design ? How many coimcils were held for
this object? Was Peterfitteil for his place'?
How many persons did he lead to the East t
When did they commence their march?
How many soon followed them? What be-
came of them ?-(Who was Peter 7 Homt
c.une he to conceive of such a project t
What did he do to engage Christians in it t
10
"btTESTIONS ON
Wliat sort of characters followed him !
How did they conduct themselves on theii
route 1 What portion of them reached Pa-
lestine 1 Where were the remainder de-
feated H
3. When did a new host arrive at Con-
stantinople ■? What was the character of
its commanders 1 Mention them. What
was the number of the warriors, &c. 7
With what result did they meet the Sara-
cens 7-[What was the condition of Constan-
tinople at this time 7 How did the crusa-
ders and the Greelis mutually regard each
other 7 How did the emperor treat the
Croises7 Describe the qualities of their
leaders. By what means did Nice fall 7
How was Edessa conquered 7 How was
Antioch taken 7 What was tlie conduct of
the Croises here 7 What followed7]
4. How and when was Jerusalem taken 7
How many of the tirst expedition were left
to encamp about Jerusalem 7 How many
Europeans had by this time been sacrificed 7
What places had been gained 7-[Were the
victories of the crusaders easily gained 7
What embarrassments did they meet with 7
In taking Jei'usalem, how did they treat their
lbes7]
5. Who was placed at the head of the
kingdom which the crusaders established
in Palestine 7 To whom was he soon com-
pelled to resign his kingdom 7 What act
weakened the power of the crusaders 7-
|What was obtained by the first crusade 7]
6. What is the date of the second cru-
sade 7 Who was the preacher of this cru-
Bade7 What sovereigns were engaged in
it 7 How large. was their force 7 In what
way did the enterprise end in disaster 7
(Give an account of St. Bernard.]
7. What was the state of the Holy Land
uetween the second and third crusades 7
8. What was the occasion of the third
crusade 7 When was Jerusalem taken by
Saladin7 How were the inhabitants treated 7
9. How was Europe affected by the loss
of Jerusalem 7 Was a third crusade easily
excited 7 What sovereigns were prevailed
on to engage 7 How many forces liad Philip
and Richard 7 What became of Barbarossa
and his army 7 From what cause was it
that Richard was at length left alone to sus
tain the conHict7 Whom did he dffeat7
What befel him in attempting to return
home 7-1 What is said of the treaty between
Itichardand Saladin7 Relate the story of
Richard's captivity.]
10. How much did Richard do for Pales
tine 7 When was a fourth crusade fitted
out 7 Who was its leader 7 What enemy
did they meet with 7 What city did they
take % What did the Venetians do in this
enterprise 7-[Wliy is it ditTicult to designate
distinctly tlie several crusales7 What did
the present crusade spring from 7 Who
was its preacher7 What is said of him 7
What was the condition of Constantinople
at this time 7 What was the force of the
allied army brought against it ! By what
excesses was tlipir victory marked 7]
11. How was Baldwin r::v«rdi-d ! What
soon became of him 7 How were the Im-
perial dominions shared 7 How long did
the dominion of the Latins last 7
12. What e.x-peditions were fitted out suc-
ceeding the crusade against the Greek em-
pire 7 What seems to have been their ob-
ject 7 Did their acquisitions avail any thing
in the end 7
1.3. By whom was the last of the crusades
led 7 Was the spirit now dying away'?
Who kept it alive for a few years 7 What
was his character 7 When did Louis set
out on his adventure 7 What was his suc-
cess in invading Egypt 7 What did he do
on returningto France 7 In what crusading
project did he again engage 7 How did it
end7-[What circumstance influenced Louis
in the course he took 7 What incident
howed his zeal 7 What did the ransom of
Louis and his army cost him 7 By what
people was he joined in his second expedi-
tion 7 Whither did the English portion of
the forces afterwards go 7 Were they
finally successful 7]
14. Mention some of the causes of the
decHne of the crusading spirit.
15. What different opinions have been
entertained respecting the effects of the
crusades 7 What opinion is here maintain-
ed 7 Might not the good which they are
sometimes supposed to have produced,
been more effectually realized in other
ways 7 What considerations lead us to be-
lieve that the evil greatly overbalances the
good 7
16. \\Tien did Louis VI. ascend the
throne of Frayice 1 What was the issue of
his war with Henry I. of England 7
17. Who succeeded him 7 When 7 How
long did he reign 7 In what way did he
lose a portion of his monarchy 7-[To what
superstition was he inclined 7]
18. Who ascended the throne in 11607
How long was his reign 7 What is said of
him as a sovereign 7 What were the most
signal events of his reign 7-[How and when
was Normandy re-united to t)ie crown of
France 7]-What institution may be dated
from his reign 7
19. When did Louis VIII. mount the
throne? When did he die 7 What is said
of him?
20. When, and under whose regency did
Louis IX. become king 7 What were his
moral qualities? What is said of his war
with Ensrland 7
21. Who succeeded? When? For what
had he a passion 7-[What circumstance
caused his death?)
22. Who ascended the throne in 1285?
How did his disposition contrast with hi3
person? What resulted from his contest
with the pope? What did he do in 1314 7-
[Mention some particulars of his contest
with the pope.]
23. Who secured the throne of £'n^/anrf,
in 1100? Wlio was the rightful heir?
How was Robert induced to foreijo his
right 7 How was he treated by Henry 7
Was Henry's iniusdce visited upouhim by-
Providence 7 What was his character?-
MODERN HISTORY.
11
(IIow ilid Hpnry unite the Norman and
Saxon blood 1 Tell the story of las son's
death?]
^4. Who was crowned in 113o? To whom
did the crown helonj; of right) How did the
contest which the Karl of Gloucester car-
ried on against Stephen, end t By what
means was the succession securcdlo Hen-
ry, sou (if Maud ( Wliat is saiti of Stephen's
rei;;u .'-[Wlial gave to the aristocracy great
power, during his reign 7]
•2.). When did Henry U. succeed 7 Of
what race was he the first 1 What is said
of his power and dominions! What did
England owe to him ! In what respect was
Henry unfortunate !-[How was Becket pro-
moted ? What design had he in view !
What is said of the erclesiaslics of those
times! What are call.-il Uw Consliliilions
of Clarendon'! Did BeclvOt subniittc] them ;
What ensued in respi'ct to him ! To what
superstitions did his death give rise !]-What
is said of Henry's conquest of Ireland 7-
(Wliat were the Irish in early times ! How
did Henry divide IrelaiuHJ-What is said of
his last years ! What contests had lie w^ith
his sons i By what means was his life ter-
minated ?-[Tell the story of young Henry's
death. J- What is said of the character and
reign of Henry II. 1
26. When didRicliard I. succeed? What
was his character ! How did his chivalric
wars atTect his country !
'S. Who now succeeded? When did his
reign commence and end ? By wliat was it
marked ! What occurred between him
and the pope ? When, and by what means
<lid John's subjects obtain the famous Mag-
na Charta ![Of what did this charter con-
sist ? What other charter did John grant?]-
In what state of affairs was John suddenly
called from life ?-[What was his character ?]
28. Who was John's successor? What
is said of his disposition and understanding !
What of his reign ? Who attempted to wrest
the sceptre from Henry ? What ensued ?-
(From what era is dated the House of Com-
mons ? What occurred in the battle be-
tween Prince Edward and Leicester ?]-
What was the state of the kingdom during
the latter part of Henry's reign? What
was its length ?
29. When was Edward I. crowned? What
was his first object? What was his next
project ?-[Wlience is it that the eldest son
of the king is stylerl Prince of Wales? Who
are the Welsli?]-Whal was Edward's ne.\t
project ?-[What was the northern part of
the island anciently called? When does
the history of Scotland become more cer-
tain ? What is said of Malcom III. ? What
was the state of Scotland under Alexander
I., David I., and William I. ? What part did
Edward take in a competition between
Bruce and Haliol ^l-How long did the war
with Scotland conliiiMi' ! Was the country
finally conquered ! What was Edward pre-
paring to do at the time of his death? How
long did he live and i eign ?-fTell the story of
Wallace. What is said of Robert Bruce ?]-
What wad the character uf Edward ? What
is said of the constitution of England, during
his reign ?
30. What was the state of Germany,
iluring this period ! How were the empe-
rors tredcrick I. and Henry VI. treated by
the popes? What is said of the claims of
the popes upon the empire ? What was a
consequence of the contentions between
the imjierial and papal powers? What is
said of Frederick II. ? What was the state
of the empire after his death '-[Who was
at one time a nominal sovereign? What
was the condition of the empire then? Re-
late an anecdote of Henry VI. Wliat was
remarkable during the reign of Lotliarius?]
131. Where have some of the affairs ot
the Eastern empire been already narrated 1
How many emperors were there during
this period? When was Constantinojilc
recovered from its Latin conquerors ? By
whom ?-[Tell how Constantinople was ta-
ken. Describe the distinguished men be-
sides Palffiologus. Detail the fate of Aa-
dronicus.]
32. Did the empire of the Saracens corns
to an end before the conclusion of this pe-
riod? How long did they hold their do-
main after it was recovered from the cru-
saders 1 When did the Tartars blot out the
Saracen empire? Who was the last of the
caliphs ? Wliat is said of the taking of Bag-
dad !-[What is related of the caliph Moham-
med? What of AlMoktafi? WhatofMos-
tasem?]
33. When did Genghis Khan and his snc-
cessors establish their dominion in China 7
What is said of Kublay, his son ? Who were
the last sovereigns of the nineteenth dynas-
ty ? How long did the Chinese dominion
cease ? How did Kublay govern the Chi-
nese ?-[Give an account of the Moguls and
their conquests.]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
in Period VL, and for what were they emi-
nent ?-[Where and when was Abelard born ?
What were the weak points in his charac-
ter ? On what subjects did he write ?
2. Who was Walter de Mapcs ? What is
said of his poetry?
3. What is said of Avcrroes, in respect to
his knowledge ? What was he in private
life?
4. Relate the particulars of the life of
Genghis Khan.
5. What is said of the scholarship of
Matthew Paris? For what work was he
peculiarly fitted? What is his great pro-
duction ?
6. Give the history of Thomas Aquinas.
Are his writings valuable ?
7. When and where was Roger Bacon
born ? What happened to him on account
of his great attainments? Give some par-
ticulars respecting his knowledge.]
PERIOD VII.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
rioil?
1. On what account is the empire of tho
12
QUESTIONS ON
Turks to be noted 1 When and under
whom was their empire established ■?-[ What
is said of the origin of the Turks J Where
did the Seljukide Tuiks found an empire?
When, and by whom was it destroyed 7]-
How did Othman effect his object ? What
prevented the Turks from subverting the
Greek empire at an early period? Who
■were their principal sovereigns during this
period 7-[What is said of Orchan'! Who
was Tamerlane? Describe the contest be-
tween him and Bajazet I. What is said of
Amurath II. 7]
2. What were the principal of the States
of Italy 1 When were most of them found-
ed?
3. When had Venice become considera-
ble ? What conquests did the Venetians
make aftenvards? "What is said of them
as merchants? When and how did they
lose many of their possessions ?-[Relate an
incident in Venetian history ?]
4. When did Florence become a republic?
How long did it mainiain its independence?
By what was it distinguished ? What is
said of the family of Ihe Medicis?
5. What relation did Naples and Sicily
bear to each other ? Between what powers
were they the seats of war ?
6 What was the condition of the Estates
of the Church during this period? What
event took place in regard to the popedom,
in the time of Henry VII. ? By whom, and
when was the change made ? When smd
by whom was the See removed back to
Rome? What factions existed in regard
to the popedom? How were they ended ?
What has this division been called?
7. When did Genoa become a republic?
What afterwards befel the Genoese ?-[What
is said of them as a commercial people?]
8. Who succeeded Philip on the throne
oi France! When? Who was Philip V.,
and how long did he reign ?-[For what was
Philip V. notorious?]
9. Who was his successor ?-[What is said
of the Salic law?]
10. When did Philip VI. come to the
throne ? On what ground did Edward III.
of England, claim it? What ensued ? What
was Philip's character ?-[Why is the eldest
son of the French king styled Dauphin ?
What is said of a plague at this time ?]
11. When did John the Good succeed?
In what respect was he unfortunate ?-
[What is said of his captivity ?]
12. Who succeeded? What was achiev-
ed in his reign ? What is said of him as a
sovereign ?
13. When did Charles VI. succeed to the
kingdom? Mention some of the events of
his reign. What was the consequence of
the battle of Agincourt ? What was the
character of Charles ?-[Descril)e the fleet
which was fitted out to invade England.]
14. When and where was Charles VII.
crowned ? Where was Henry VI, of Eng-
land crowned, at the same time ? What
ensued from this competition ? What re-
markable transaction occurred at the siege
of Orleans ?-[TeU the story of Joan of Arc ]■
How was most of the French monarchy
placed under Charles's sway?-[H()v» *va8
the death of Charles hastened? What is
said of the Pragmatic Sanction?]
14J. When did Edward II. ascend the
throne of England^ What was liis cha-
racter? What is said of his defeat at the
battle of Bamiockburii? To whose wick-
edness did he fell a victim ?-[Describe his
battle with the Scots. Relate the circum-
stances of ills death.]
15. Who succeeded him? When? Un-
der whose regency? Where did he van-
quish the Scots ? How long did war rage
between France and England? Describe
the two famous battles that were fought.
-[How many of the French fell m the battle
of Cressy ? In the baltle of Poictiers, what
happened to the French king? What was
the result of the battle of Durhani, between
the Scots and Englisti?]
16. What evils did Edward experience in
tlie decline of life ? What was the charac-
ter of the Black Prince? In what year of
his age and reign did Edward die ? What
was his character?
17. Who was Richard II.? When did
he succeed? What was his character?
What was the condition of his kingdom?
How was he deprived of liis sceptre and
life ?-[How were the people disaffected to-
wards the administration ? What number
of people were headed by Wat Tyler, &.c. t
In what way was Tyler destroyed, and or-
der restored? What was the ground ot
controversy between the houses of York
and Lancaster?]
17i. Who was Henry IV. ? What is the
dateof his reign? What trouble did he ex-
perience? Where did he defeat tlie male-
contents ?-[Describe the battle.]
18. What is said of Henry as a persecu-
tor ? By what was tlie latter part of his life
embittered ?-[Repeat an incident here nar-
rated.]-When did Henry die? What was
his character?
19. When did Henry V. ascend the
throne ? What is mentioned respecting his
reformation? With what force and suc-
cess did he invade France ?-[How was the
battle of Agincourt gained H-With what
force and success did he invade France
again? At what age did lie die?-[What
was agreed on at the treaty of Troyes 5
What was Henry's character?]
20. At what age, and year, and under
whose regency, did Henry VI. succeed his
father ? At what age was he crowned king
of France? By what event was France
saved ? When an adult, what did Henry
prove to be ? What is said of his queen
Margaret? What insurrection occurred
during his reign ?-[R(late the story of Jack
Cade ?]-What encouraged the duke of York
to assert his claim to the throne?
21. In the history of the German empire,
what important event occurred in 1274?
Give an account of it. What was the slate
of the empire when Rhodoljihus ascended
the throne? What was his character'
-[What anecdote is related of hiiaV]
MODERN HISTORY.
13
22. Wlio was the next emperor'! WTien')
When did Albert 1. surceed liiint What
resulted from his ill tn-alment olthe Swi^js 1
How many pitched battles did their liberty
cost! Wlio was the instrument in pro-
ducing this revolution ^-[Relate the story of
William Tell.]
33. How many emperors succeeded Al-
bert during the remainder of thi.s period?
-IWhat is said of the infelicity of the coun-
try in the reign of Henry ViU. What in-
stance of fanaticism occurred in the reign
ofLoui.? V.7]
34. What dynasties of the empire of
China are included in this period 1 When
was the famous canal dug f What is said
ofthe establishment of Fo's religion 1 How
long did th(- 21st dynasty last ! How many
emperors /-[What is said of Chut What
is related of Ching-tsu 7]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
of this period, and for what were they cele-
brated !-[l. What are the incidents in
Dante's lifel Wliat is said of his literary
works 7
2. For what is Petrarch deservedly cele-
brated? What is said of his genius and
writings? What was a very singular event
of his hfe 1
3. What is mentioned in the life of Boc-
cace ? What was the character of his poet-
ry and prose ?
4 What exposed Wickliffe to the jealousy
of the monk.') f Did they displace him?
What ensue<l ! When tried as a heretic, to
what cirruiiistance did be owe his safety?
What work did lie leave in print?
5. Wliat was Froissart as a historian?
Of what was he fond?
6. Give an account of Gower.
7. What is the character of Chaucer's
poetry ? How did he spend the latter part
of his life?]
PERIOD vni.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod ?
1. By what is the history of the Turkish
empire signalized at this era? Who was
the last emperor of the East? What was
the state of his dominions ? Who was the
leader on this occasion ? Was it a ditTicult
conquest? How long had the Eastern em-
pire subsisted? What countries were af
forwards subdued ? Hy what means did
Italy escape?-! What was Mahomet's age at
this time? What his force? How did the
(Jreeks behave themselves?]- What is said
of Mahomet as a patron of arts? Who weie
his successors during this period?-] What
is said of Bajazet H. ? Of Selim I. ? Of So-
Ivmanl.? Of Selim H.? Of Amurath III. ?
OfMahomet HI. ?]
2. In what resfiect chiefly are the events
in Italian history important? What was
the condition of Florence during this pe-
riod? What family held sway there? How
long? What was included iinder the title
ofthe Republic of Florence ?-|,What is said
of Cosmo de Medici, as a man of wealth,
taste, &c. ? What is said of Lorenzo? Of
Cosmo, the second of that name .' Relate
the story respecting himself and his sons.]
3. What was the condition of the Pope's
dominions during this period? What was
now the power of the papacy ? What was
the conduct of Pope Alexander VI. relative
to Charles VHI. ? How did Charles lose his
conquest ?-[What lesson did Europe learn
from the effect of this confederacy ? Re-
late an anecdote illustrating the crimes and
the punishment of Alexander and Caesar
Borgia.]
4. Who began to reign in Prance in 1461 1
What course did he pursue? What was
his character? What good regulations did
he leave? From his time, what was the
French king styled ?-(What instance of bar-
barity can be mentioned .']
5. When and imder whose regency did
Charles VIII. succeed ! How long did he
reign ?-[What was his character ?]
6. Who was Louis XII. ? When did he
ascend the throne ? How was he regarded
by the French ? How did he lose his Italian
possessions ?-[ What did he say in justifying
himself for the pardon of his enemies )
Also in vindication of his economy?]
7. Who was Francis I. ? When was he
called to the throne ? State the cause and
the consequences of the enmity between
Francis and Charles V.-[In what particu-
larly had Charles the superiority ? Which
party was defeated in the battle of Biagras-
sa? What is related ofthe battle of Pavia?
What was the occasion of a league against
Charles ? What was his success in invading
France ? What occasioned a renewed con-
test? Wliat saved France from ruin?]
8. When did Francis die ? What is his
reputation? What is said of the French
court ?-]What does Millot say of his good
and bad qualities?]
9. When did Henry II. succeed his father'?
What was his character ? Did he continue
the war in which his father engaged ? What
was the event most glorious to his reign?
Whence may the origin ofthe civil wars in
France be dated ?-[By what accident was
Henry deprived of life?]
10. When was Francis II. raised to the
throne? Whose husband was he? Give,
an account of the only important event in
this reign ?-[What had the Protestants re-
solved to do ? By whom were they secret-
ly abetted?]
11. lIiiMer whose regency did Charles IX.
succeed his brother? When! What is
said of the difficulties lietween the Catho-
lics and Protestants? From what cause did
they go at lensth towar?-[What is said of
the extent of the Protestant religion under
Francis I. ? Of its persecution under Hen-
ry II. ? Oflhecoufi-renceatPoissy? What
did the Protestants obtain by the war 'J
Give an account ofthe massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew. What was the effect of this on
Calvinism?]
12. Who was the successor of Charles
IX. ? What was his character ? What did
14
QUESTIONS ON
the Catholics do against the Huguenots in
bis rei;!rii '?-[Of wliat weak policy was the
king guilty.' How did he meet with his
death !]
13. T") what house did the sceptre now
passi As kmg of France, by what name
■was Henry HI. of Navarre known 1 What
particulars are mentioned concerning him
during the present period !
14. By what means was Henry VI. of
England at length hurled from his throne 1
On which side was justice"? What were
the symbols of the parties into which the
English people were divided 7 When did
hosdlities commence '?-[Mention the princi-
pal battles that were fought previous to the
accession of Edward IV.']
1.5. When did Edward IV. fully consider
himself as king 1 Who was he .' In what
battle did he finally triumph over the Lan-
casterians7 What became of King Henry
and the Prince of Wales 7-[Relate the story
of the youngprince.]-What was the charac-
ter of Edward, when secure on the throne?
How and at what age did he die 1
16. When, and under whose protection,
did Edward V. succeed his father 7 What
soon became of him and his brother 7 Who
caused himself to be proclaimed at the same
time ?-[Ilelate the story of the two young
princes.]
17. Who avenged the crimes of Richard?
When was the battle of Bosworth fought 7
What did it terminate !-LWhat is said of the
person of Richard?]
18. What tide did the Earl of Richmond
assume? When? How did he unite the
rights of the two houses? Of what house
was he the first king ? By what means did
Henry produce a degree of discontent
among his people ? Was the general tran-
quillity of his reign sometimes disturbed?
-[What is related of certain impostors ?J-
What was characteristic of all the Tudor
sovereigns ? How was Henry useful to the
nation ? What was the greatest stain in his
character?
19. Who succeeded to the throne?
When? What were his prospects? Were
the hopes entertained respecting him, ful-
filli'd? Wliat did he prove to be? What
inllurnce had Wolsey over him?
2<J. What is said of Henry's war with
Louis XII. of France? What was the issue
of the battle of Flodden Field? In what
other wars was Henry engaged? From
what di<l the most important events in Hen-
ry's reign proceed ? What was one of those
events? Give an account of it7-[What be-
came of Wolsey ? At what age did Henry
dip?]
20i. Who was Edward VI. ? When did
he ascend the throne? Under whose re-
gency? What is -aid of his character and
death? Wliat was the religious slate of
the people? Fi-oiu what circumstance did
a war with the Scots ensue ?-[Relate what
is said of his tender and benevolent turn of
mind.]
21. Who succeeded him? Why is she
called " bloody Mary ?" What was her did- 1
position ? What object had she in view 1
-[What was the effect of her cruelties, in
putting some of the most eminent relbrm-
ers to death ?] By what was the beginning
of Mary's reign stained ? Who was Mary's
husband? iJad he any share in the admi-
nistration ? What occasioned her death ?
-[Relate the story of Jane Grey. In what
estimation was she held ?]
22. When did Elizabeth succeed to the
throne ? How did the EngUsh people view
this event? What proceeded from her wise
counsels and administration ? Did she ever
employ questionable means ? What dispo-
sition difl she often manifest ? How is her
fame affected by her treatnlent of Mary,
queen of Scots ?-[Give an account of the
defeat of the Invincible Armada. Relate
the story of Queen Mary. For what was
she celebrated ? How has her lot in life
been viewed by mankind? Who was Eliza-
beth's favourite, in the early part of her life?
Who after Leicester's death ? How did
Essex incur the resentment of Elizabeth ?
What became of him ? How did his fate
affect the queen?]
23. What were the moral and intellectual
traits ofEhzabeth?
24. Who ruled Germany, at the com-
mencement of this period i What did he
do relative to Austria, and his own family ?
How long was his reign ? '
25. Who succeeded him? When? What
is said of his qualities ? What did he
achieve for Germany ?-[What is said re-
specting his memory ?1
2fi. Who succeeded him ? When ?
-[Whose son was Charles ?]-Mention some
of the acts of his administration. What
was the most extraoriiinary event pertain-
ing to him ? In what place did he end his
days ?-[What was the power of Charles as
a sovereign? For what reasons could he
not attain to universal empire ? Relate the
account of his resignation.]
27. Who were the successors of Charles,
during the remainder of this period ? What
part did they act in the religious disputes
that prevailed ?-[Whnt is said of Ferdinand
and Maximilian ? Of Rodolph ?]
28. What is the most important event of
this period, in the history of Germany ? In
what country, and when, did that event com-
mence ? Who was the instrument, under
God, of this revolution ? What was the oc-
casionofit? What opened Luther's eyes
to the enormity of llu- whole system of in-
dulgences? What cnciiunigrmeut did Lu-
ther receive ? What was tlie efiect ofper-
secution on him ? How did Luther appear
at the imperial diet ? When he left the diet
and arrived at Saxony, how did he find
things there? To what degree did the spirit
of reformation soon extend ? What was the
effect of persecutions by the papists ?
29. In ii'pcu'n, what (irovince alone re-
mained to the Moors, at the close of the 15lh
centurv ? Upon what occasion did all the
Christian principidilirs "if Spain find them-
selves under one scc))tre? Wlien and by
whom was the conquest of Grenada effect-
MODERN HISTORY.
15
cd 1 Wliat became of the Moors ?-[Of what
institution in Spain were Ferdinand and
Isabella flie aulliors !J
30. Wlio sine. cited Isabella in Castile 'f
When and ii|r(iiiwliiit in-r;isioiiilidCharlesV.
ascend tin- ihrcini' ot Spain !•[ Hy what means
were the Spanisli douiinion.s extended!]
31. Who suceeiilrd in 1556! By what
nations wa.s tlie lialaiiee of power now sus-
tained ! Of what countries was Philip the
sovereign !-[What was the result of a plan
projected by Pope Paul IV. to deprive the
ftpaniai'dsof Milan and the Sicilies f]
3'2. When did Holland become a republic 1
On what account did the States combine 1
How many of them came into the measure"!
How were the remainiiif; provinces situa-
ted ]-[What nuinbir of provinces does Hol-
land include! What number Flanders'!
How much of the Netherlands was annexed
to the German empire, in 1477 ! To what
power were they afterwards resigned !
What is said of the history of the Holland-
ers, preceding this event ! What was the
occasion of tlieir revolt against Philip U. !
Who was their leader'! When was he pro-
claimed stadthnlder t What prevented the
whole 17 provinces from forming one re-
public 1 What did ttie Spaniards do, to re-
cover the 17 provinces! By what means
did the Hollanders succeed ! What was
tlie character of Maurice ^
33. Till what lime was America unknown '!
Who then discovered it! What was his ob-
ject !-[On what accounts was the discovery
of America an important event '! Is the
llieory that America was known to the an-
cients, well grounded ? What led Columbus
to conceive llie existence of a new conti-
nent'! Did he readily obtain assistance in his
project to discover it 1 Who lirst afpirdcd
him assistance '! What great motive in-
fluenced him in liis undertaking 1 Give an
account of his voyage.]
34. What place was first discovered?
What places next ! Why did he call tlie re-
gions West Indies ! What was the result
of a second voyau'e! What of athinll When
did John Cabot tind the cmitinent of Nortl\
America! In whuse behalf did helakepcjs-
session 1 Of what were the Spaniards sruilty,
in their settlement of the New World'!
When, and by whom was the coast of Brazil
discovered ?-[now and when was the New
World proved to be not a part of Asia'!
Tell the story of Fernando Cortez. Of
Francis Pizarro. When was Las Casas
sent as viceroy from Spain What was the
effect of his administration 1 Describe the
inhabitants of America. What mean.s did
the Spaniards employ to convert these
people to Christianity ! What object did
the Spaniards have in view, more than their
conversion '! Before the late revolution, to
whom did the Spanish ac(|ui.-<itions in Ame-
rica belong f How govenied 1]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were tlie distinguished characters
in this period, and for wliat were they ilistin-
guishcd1-[l. When and where was C^oluui-
bus born 1 What fitted him for the part he
was to act in the world I What elTect had
his discovery on S]>aiii and Europe ! What
happened to Columbus through the influ-
ence of his enemies i When and how did
he die 1
2. When and where was Raphael bom 1
In what arts was he eminenf! What place
has been assigned to him as a painter'!
3. What was Angelo Buonaroti 1 In what
has he surpassed all the moderns 7 What
is his style ? How long did he live ?
4. What was Erasmus as to learning'?
In what estimation is he held by his coun-
trymen 1 On what side was he in the ques-
tion of Protestantism and popery 1
5. What is related of the life of Coperni-
cus f Of his great discovery % In what
manner did he die ?
6. Where and when was Luther born '?
By what incident were his views directed
to the church '! What station did he occupy
in the university at Wittembeig'! Where
did he learn more particularly the igno-
rance, &c. of the church dignitaries ! What
was the occasion of commencing a reform-
ation'! When and where did he die! In
what respects was he qualified for the ser-
vice he performed !
7. Give an account of Calvin's life. On
what accotmt did he attract the attention of
the world ! What is said of him as a man
of piety and talents !
8. What work didCamoens write'! What
did he meet with in life !
9. What is said respecting the life of Bu-
chanan '! What was he as a writer!
10. Give an account of Montaigne.
11. What great work was written by
Tasso ! What period of hfe did he live 1
What was there peculiar in his death!
12. What was the character of Spenser,
as a poet ! How was his hfe concluded !]
PERIOD IX.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod !
1. Who was now on the throne of Franc el
What act of justice did Henry do to the
Calvinists! How did be repair the desola-
tions of a long civil war ! What is said of
his talents, <&c, '! What was the manner of
his death !-lState the circumstances of it.
What project had he in view about the time
of his death!]
2. When, and under whose regency did
Louis XIII. come to the throne! How did
Richelieu arre.stthat decline of affairs which
had begun to take jilace ! What were the
principal evcntsof the reign of Louis!-[Did
the Protestants attempt to throw off their
allegiance ! For what reason ! What was
their head quarters ! How long did they
endure the miseries of a siege ! What was
the result! How did Richelieu endeavour
to humble the Austrian greatness ! Were
his plans attended with success ! Was this
minister a patron of learning ! At what
age did Louis die!)
3. When and under whose regency did
Louis XIV. ascend the throne! What haa
16
QUESTIONS ON
given a deep interest to his reign ? Name
tlie most conspicuous events of his reign.
• [Wliat battles did the duke of Enghein gain
in the war with the Spaniards 1 Give an ac-
count of the commotions of the Fronde.
What did Louis do upon the deatli of Maza-
rine 1 What great generals had he in the
war with Holland I liy wtiom were the
Hollanders assisted? What battles were
gained'.' Was England gained to the alh-
ance 1 What nevertheless was the success
of Louis? Give an account of the revocation
of the edict of Nantes. Who brought about
the league of Augsburg 1 What victories
were obtained by Louis in this war'! What
nations were engaged in the war of the
succession 1 What was the object of it 1
On whose side was the advantage now 1
What battles did the duke of Marlborough
gain?]
4. What was the age of Louis, ami the
length of his reign 1 What constitutes his
chief claim to the admiration of posterity 1
Wliat was the result of it? In what was
Louis's sagacity peculiarly manifest'! Give
an account of some of his generals and mi-
nisters. What were his accomplishments
and character?
5. By whom was the throne of England
ascended in J603? To what house did the
ece])tre now pass? What is said of this
event ?-[How did Elizabeth point out her
succes.sor ? In the history of Scotland what
is said of David Bruce ? Of Robert II. ? Of
Robert III. ? Who was James I. ? Wiiat
were his quahties ? What did he accom-
plish for his people ? What is said of
James II. ? Of James III.? Of James IV.?
What was the character of the reign of
James VI. ? What occasioned his death?
By whom was he succeeded?]
6. What conspiracy soon tended to dis-
turb James's reign? What baser project
followed ?-[Relate the story concerning the
plot.]
7. What expectation had the puritans
fonned at the accession of James? What
evils drovemany of them to the new world ?
What pohcy did James pursue ? Why was
he prejudiced against the puritans ? What
change were the minds of Englishmen un-
dergoing? How long did James reign over
England 1 How long over Scotland ? What
is said of his character, disposition, and
reign ?-[What incident shows his love of
flattery ! Was he not on the whole a va-
luable prince ?]
8. When did Charles I. ascend the throne?
What was there in the state of the English
people which demanded a more liberal ad-
ministration than had before been observ-
ed? Did Charles regard this state of feel-
ing? What led Charles to certain tyrannical
measures ?-[now began the quarrel be-
tween Charles and his parliament? What
acts were passed by a new parliament de-
termined on reformation?]
9. What class of people were now em-
barking for America ? Why? What pro-
vjdentiallv proved an unhappy afTair for
Charles ?-[What is said of Hampden ? What
did Laud attempt against public feeling?
What was the national covenant of the
Scots? What other evils did the king and
his party meet with ?]
10. Was the sword now to decide the
contest? What did the parliament do?
What the king? What was the issue of
several battles ? Who were the supporters
of Charles ? Who of the parliament ?-[With
whom did the parhauient enter into a con-
federacy ? Who directed the measures of
the army? Which battles were favourable
to the royalists ? Which to the Parliament 1
What was the religious state of Cromwell's
army? Relate how the king was taken,
tried, and punished. What was the cha-
racter of Charles? Did God seem to over-
rule events in this instance for the advance-
ment of civil liberty ? What is said of
Charles as an author ?]
11. What took place in England on the
death of Charles ?-[ What religious interest
began now to prevail ! By whose influence
alone could the confusions of England be
settled? What was the state of things in
Ireland and Scotland ? What did Cromwell
do to establish his authority in those coun-
tries? Relate tlie story of king Charles II.
in attempting to escape. How did the re-
public act at this era I What was its suc-
cess in a war with Holland? How and
where did Cromwell annihilate the repub-
lic? What kind of parliament did he then
assemble? What did they finally do?]
13. When was Cromwell declared Pro-
tector? What was his power? What was
the condition of the nation ? Why was he
not popular ? How, at length, did he feel
in his elevation ? When did he die ?-[Whal
was his character?]
14. Who succeeded in the protectorate 1
Did he continue long in it?
15. What took place after the abdication
of Richard Cromwell ?-[How was the resto-
ration effected? Who was the instrument
in it?]
16. How was Charles regarded by the
English people? What had he to recom-
mend himself to them ? Why and when did
his government become unpopular? In
what way was he screened from odium 1
What evils became prevalent during his
reign ? What change was there in the peo-
ple, by which Charles's tyrannical disposi-
tion was more submissively borne than It
had been ? What was the origin of the dis-
tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory'?
What do they stand for? To what act did
the prevalence of tory principles lead?
•[What events of this reign are recorded 1
What party became predominant before the
end of it? How was England now thrown
into a flame? How did the king act?]
17. When did Charles expire ? In what
year of his age and reign ?-[What things
are added concerning the character of
Charles?]
18. Who was proclaimed on his death 1
When? What does the history of this
reign consist of?-[Wbat is said of the capa-
city and conduct of this prince '!]
MODERN HISTORY.
17
W. What wa? one of tho principal events
of his reisn ! Wlial led the kins to his
ruin 7 Wliat application was maile for re-
lief from the tyranny of .lauics !|()ii his
arrival, hy whom was William joIikhI !]-
Whitlier did James flee ^ What did a con-
vention-parliament do on this occasion 7
-[What character was given hy the duke of
Buckingham of Charles and James 7)
'JO. Wlio now ascended the throne 7
What is this event often called 7 What was
accomplished by the revolution 7-f Why was
a revolution indispensable 7 Who were
Btyled non-jurors, &c. 7]
21. How were the Irish affected towards
James 7 In what battle wore they subdtied
by William 7 What was the principal
cause of the wars in which this prince en-
gaged 7 When did the peace of Ryswick
take place 7 On what principle did William
act in his foreign wars !-[State the circum-
stances of the naval battle of La Hoirue.
What is said of James in the latter part of
his life!)
22. After the death of James, who was
proclaimed at St. (!ermains7 What effect
had this act on the British nation ! Under
what circumstances did William die 7
-[What is said of his person, <fcc. 7 What
two new measures commenced during this
reign 7]
23. On whom did the crown devolve in
17027 What was the character of her
reign 7 For what was she respected 7 What
were the principal events in her reign 7
■(Give an account of the war against France.
In the treaty at Utrecht, what did Spain anil
Knglanil yield 7 What has been said of
Marlborough ! In the constitutional union
of England and Scotland what was stipu-
lated i What is said of the strife between
the Whigs and Tories after the peace 7
Who was sacrificed inconsecpience of these
<lissensions7]
24. When did Anno die 7 What occa-
eioncd her death 7-[ Describe her person.]
25. Who was at the head of the German
empire in 10127 What did he attempt to
do 7 What brought on a civil war 7 What
occasioned the death of Matthias 7
26. When did Kerdinatid II. become em-
peror 7 What attempts did Austria make
during his reign 7 By what were two of
them frustrated 7 Has Austria usually held
the sceptre 7-[What was the character of
Ferdinand 7]
27. When did Ferdinand III. succeed 7
By whom were the protestants supported
during the former part of this reign 7 What
is said of the peace of Westphalia7[What
followed this peace 7]
28. Wlio was next elected 7 When 7
Who succeeded him 7 In what war were
both of these emperors engaged7 Mention
its particulars. What happened to Vienna
in 16837 Who was elected in 17117 What
occurred during his reign 7
29. On the throne of Spain who succeed-
ed in 1.'5987 By what causes did Spain de-
cline in power from the commencement of
this reign 7
,m When did Philip IV. succeed? What
is said of his reign f
31. When did the revolution in Portugal
takeplace7 Give an account of it 7-(Men-
tion the events in the history of Portugal
previously to the above.]
32. Who succeeded in 166.^) on the throne
of Spain 7 On what account did he leave
his dominions to Philip, duke of Anjou7
-[By what was this prince said to have been
debilitated 7]
33. Who was the first Spanish monarch
of the house of Bourbon, that ascended tlie
throne 7 When 7
31. Which was the most splendid period
in the history of Ttirkeij ? What is said of
it at the present period 7 !low many sul-
tans reigned through it 7 With whom were
they generally at war7-[What power proba-
bly prevented the Turks from overspread-
ing Europe 7 For what reasons were they
superior for a long time to the Christian
powers 7 What occurred during the reign
of .\chmet I. 7 What is said of Othman II. I
Of Amurath IV. 7 Of Mahomet IV. 7 De-
scribe the siege of Candia. Relate the
particulars concerning the siege of Vienna.
What is said of Solyman II. and Mnstapha
II. 7 What resulted from the Turkish war
with Austria7]
35. What is intended by the British colo-
nies in America 7 During what periods
were they so known 7 To whom did they
belong 7
30. What is the date of the grant under
which English settlements were first made 7
How long was this from the discovery made
by Cabot 7 What is said of the London
and Plymouth companies 7 Were there
any projects before this, to settle the coun-
try 7 Give an account of the settlement of
Jamestown.
37. When and by whom was the present
island of New York settled 7 When did
the English obtain possession of it 7
38. When and by whom was Plymouth
in Massachusetts settled 7 With what other
colony was this aftenvards united 7
39. Mention the first settlements in New
Hampshire.
40. When and by whom were New Jer-
sey and Delaware settled 7
41. Whence was the name of Maryland?
When and by whom was it settled 7
42. When and by whom was Connecti-
cut settled 7 Whjch were the earliest
towns?
43. When was Rhode Island settled?
What event occasioned it 7
44. When was the colony of New Haven
formed 7 Under what circumstances?
Vi. When and by whom were North and
South Carolina founded? Whence the
name Carolina?
46. Who first settled in Pennsylvania?
When did William Penn arrive? Under
what circumstances?
47. When and by whom was Georgia
settled?
48. Which states have been the most im-
portant in the confederacy ?
18
QUESTIONS ON
49. What is said of the causes of the set-
tlement of the American States t
50. In wliich of the states was the free
toleration of religion recognized 1 What
was the state of things in the other colonies
in this respect 1 Had the world, however,
ever seen any states so free before 1 In
New England, how did they justify them-
selves'!
51. What was the character of the first
settlers of this country 1 What objects
engaged their attention in a remarkable de-
gree !
52. How did the colonists obtain their
lands 7
.53. Which of the states at first experi-
enced but little trouble from the Indians 1
IIow was it with Connecticut and Virginia,
in this respect 1 Did all the colonies suffer
sooner or later from this source? What
may be remarked of the colonists as a body,
during this period'? What may further be
added respecting the colonists '?-[Tell the
story of the Pequot war. Describe the
condition of Virginia.]
.5h What were the principal events rela-
ting to the colonies as a borfy, during this
period ?-[Tell the story of Philip's war,
What were the oppressive measures under
the Stnart family, owing to'?]
55. When was Russia brought into no-
tice with the civilized world? What is
iier rank now 1 To whom does the country
owe its greatness ?-[Give some account of
the early history of Russia. How did Peter
become master of tlie empire?]
.56. What are the principal events of his
reign?-[Relate the circumstances of Peter's
visit to Holland and England. In the war
with Charles XII. of Sweden, how did Peter
succeed at tirst 1 Where did he overcome
Charles at last ?]- When did Peter die'?
What is said of him as a sovereign and a
man?
57. When does the history of Sweden be-
come important 1 How many sovereigns fol-
lowed Gustavus Vasa, to the time of Charles
XII. 1 When was the crown rendered he-
reditary ? How long were Sweden, Den-
mark, and Norway, united into one king-
dom 7 On what occasion did Gustavus
Vasa take up arms? What did he do as a
king? What is said of Gustavus Adolphus
and Christiana?-[What is said of Sweden,
as to its history, to the time of Vasa? Tell
the story of Vasa. What is said of Gusta-
vus Adolphus ? Give an account of Christ-
iana.]
.58. When did Charles XII. succeed ?
Wliat is said of his exploits and character?
What was his success in a war with Russia,
Poland, and Denmark? From the battle of
Pultowa, whither did Charles flee 1 What
was his conduct there ?-(What issaidof the
war with Denmark? What was the result
of the battle of Narva? What are the cir-
cunistances of his conquests of Poland?
Mention the conduct of Charles, in Turkey.]
Dislin^uislied Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters
in period IX., and for what are they emi-
nent ?-[l. What are the events in the life of
Tycho Brahe ? What did his learning, &c.
make him? What are his best works?
2. Give an accoimt of the life of Cervantes.
What is he as a humorist?
3. Detail the events in Shakspearc's life.
When did he die? What rehcs are there
of him ? What has been thought of his in-
tellectual superiority?
4. What evils did Gahleo experience
from th(^ ignorance and intolerance of the
age ? What are some of the discoveries
that have rendered his name immortal?
How long did he hve, and what happened to
him at last ?
5. What has given renown to Raleigh ?
How was he treated by King James?
6. Mention the events in Bacon's life.
What was he as a genius and author ? On
wliat account has he been called "tlie pi-
oneer of nature," <kc. ?
7. Of what school of philosophy was
Kepler? What did he first Drove concern-
ing the planets?
8. Relate a singular event in the life of
Grotius. On what subjects did he write?
9. Give an account oi Des Cartes.
10. OfGassendi.
11. Mention a circumstance in the life of
Paschal. What were his other intellectual
achievements ? To what did he consecrate
all his powers ?
12. What is said of the writings and ge-
nius of Milton ? What incidents of his life
arc mentioned? What was he as to his
person, habits, &c. ?
13. Give an account of Corneille.
14. To what objects was Boyle devoted 'J
How did he show his regard for religion ?
15. What is said of Dryden, as to his im-
provement in writing ? Was he a volumin-
ous writer? What was the character of his
prose ? How do the Edinburgh reviewers
consider him?
16. Give an accountof Locke.
17. OfLeibnitz.]
PERIOD X.
What is the name and extent of this pe-
riod?
1. Wlien and how did Charles XII. dicT
What did this event do for Sweden and Eu-
rope ?-[What made Charles, when in Tur-
key, at length desirous of returning to lii*
own coimtry ? What project did he at-
tempt, but abandon? What other project
would he probably have commenced, had
he lived ? Tell the occasion and manner
of his death. Describe the predominant
trait of his character.]
2. Who succeeded Charles XII. ? To
whom did she soon resign the throne 1
When was Adolphus Frederick elected 7
By what was his reign disturbed? Ujjon
his decease, to whom was tlie sceptre given?
Of what violation of liis coronation oalh was
he guilty 7 When and how did he perish?
-[In what manner did Gustavus efl'cct the
change in the government ?]
3. Who succeeded, and under whose re-
MODERN HISTORY.
19
Rency 1 Wliat did he do in 1800, and in
1815 ? Wliat provinces did lie soon after
lose? When was he itetlironed ! To when
was the crown given '.'-[On wliat account
was Giisiavus di'llironed i]
4. Wliat title dill the Duke of Sudermania
take ■? Who, through his inlluence, was
declared crown prince ) Has Ueniadotte
been failhl'iil to his adopted country ?•
[When di<l the crown prince succeed?
What kind of sovereifin is he ?]
5. Who raised Prussia to a high degree
of splendor? From what year hail it exist-
ed as a kingdom? What was it before
styled ?[B_v whom was this country in-
habited ! Hy whom were they conquered ?
Of what is modern Prussia formed? What
house occupies the llirone ? Who were
t.'ie more dislinjjuislied predecessors of the
irreat Frederick ? What is said of Frederick
William, the Elector? Relaie some particu-
lars of Frederick William I.]
6. When did Frederick II. the Great as-
cend the throne? What was the number
and character of his army ? On what were
his views bent ? When, and how did he
eliect the conquest of Silesia ? What alarm-
ed the neighbouring states ? What confede-
racy was formed against him ?-[Give an ac-
count of the "seven years' war."]-When,
and under what circumstances was New
Prussia added to his dominions ? When
did he die? What reputation has he ?-
[Mention the practical qualities of this
prince. Relate the story which shows his
decision of character. What is said of his
inlellectual powers, knowledge, and wri-
tings? What was he as to morals and reli-
gion ?]
7. By whom was Frederick the Great
succeeded ? When ? What is said of him ?
When did Frederick William III. come to
the throne? On what occasion did he go
to war with Napoleon ! When was the
battle of Jena fought? What was the re-
sult ?-[How came Germany !o fall under the
dominion of Napoleon ? Was Prussia wise
in meeting her enemy a.=i she did?]
8. What part did the Prussian monarch
take in the Russian campaign? What did
he afterwards do? WTiat is said of his ar-
my in the battle of Waterloo? What has
engaged his attention since ?-[What have
pohticians conjectured in regard to Prus-
sia?]
9. What are we most concerned with, in
the history of German;/, during this period ?
What was the first war of importance in
this perioil ?-[Mention the state of things in
regard to this war.]
10. When and where was Francis I.
crowned? IIow long did he continue the
war? What ensued? IIow had iVIaria
Theresa been sustained ?-[ Who was Maria
Theresa? What was her character?)
11. Who succeed! li to the empire, in 170.')?
What did he do? What character did he
maintain ?-[What is said concerning his fa-
vouring the liberty of the press? Describe
tile fimiine and inundations that took place
during his reign.]
12. Who was invested witli tlie empire,
in 1790? What was his conduct in refer-
ence to tlie French revolution? Did h»
reign long?-[What was the state of Germa-
ny after the seven years' war, to the French
revolution? What afterwards, to the res-
toration of the Bourbons ? IIow came Ger-
many thus to suffer? Has Austria had a
share in nearly all the wars? With what
success? What is said of the Archduke
Charles?)
13. Who was crowned in 1792? \Vliat is
he as a prince ? What is said of his war
with the French republic?
14. When and where were hostilities re
newed? Who assisted Austria? By whom
were the Russian forces commanded'?
What was achieved ? What might have
been ?-[How was the jealousy of Austria
excited? What was the result to Austria?
What did Francis do during the peace?]
15. What is said of the third coalition
against France ?-[Wliat imprudences did
the Austrians commit ?]In 1806, what took
place in regard to several of the German
states? What was Francis compelled to
do ?-[What was the nature and effect of the
confederacy of the Rhine?]
16. When did Austria take the field the
fourth time ? What is eaiil of the battles of
Kssling and Wagram? What was the re-
sult of the contest ?•{ IIow came Austria to
be overcome, after the wise measures she
had taken?]
17. Give an account of the fifth coalition.
[T'nder what circumstances was Napoleon
attacked this time? After the battle of
Leipsic was announced to the allied sove-
reigns, what did they do ?]
18. What was effected by tlie last coali-
tion, in 1815? What was the Germanic
Confederation? What is to be expected
from it?-[Were the rights of the Germanic
body duly regarded by Austria? When,
and'between whom was ,the Holy Alliance
formed? On what occasion were the im-
proper views of this alliance manifest-
ed?)
19. When do we first feel much interest
in the history of Poland ! Have the Poles
been a happy jieople? What has caused
their sufferings? What are some of their
characteristics?) What is Poland called by
the natives? What does it mean? What
maxim did Lech V. use to utter? When
and by whom had the Poles written laws?
What was the epitajih of Sigismund I. ? To
what did he apply himself? Who was
among the most distinguished of the Polish
monarchs? Give an account of him. WliSj
is said of Frederick Augustus? What of
Frederick Augustus II. ? Who was the last
king of Poland ?]
20. What took place in regard to Poland,
in 1772? What is thccliaracterof this act?
What encouraged the plunderers to do it?-
[Mrntion the particulars of the dismember-
ment of Poland 1- What part of Poland did
each power lake?
21. In 1791, what look place ) How was
this done? What ensued? When was a
20
aUESTIONS ON
US-
new division agreed on^^How did Catha-
rine and Frederick William view the act of
thePnlesI]
2'2. Wliat effect was produced on the
Poles ? What is said ot the capture of
Warsaw ?-[What was done by the Russians
after the victory 7 Give an account of
Kosciusko.]
23. What is said of the third and final dis-
memberment of Poland '! What was done
in regard to a part of Poland, at the con-
gress at Vienna, in 1815 '?
24. Who was on the tnrone of Mtissia,
rear the commencement of this period 1
How long, and in what manner did she
reign 7-[Relate some particulars of Catha-
rine.]
obliged to do, in consequence of the burn-
ing of IMoscow'!]
32. How did the subjugated nations of
Europe now act 1 What power was the
last to join against the common foe 1 What
is said of the campaign of 1813 ■? What
does Heeren say ot the battle of Leipsic ?
Wlien did the allied sovereigns enter Pa-
ris! What did they do there 1-[When did
Alexander die '! What is his character '?
What is said of the afiairs of Russia, of
late 7]
33. Who had been proclaimed king of
E?igla7id, on the death of Anne 7 When 7
What is said of the accession of George 1. 7
What had Protestantism to do in regard to
the liouse of Brunswick 7 How was har-
25. Who succeeded in 1727 7 What was i mony established between the nation and
the extent and character of his reign 7-
iWhat is said of the princes that (bllowed
Peter the Great through several reigns 7]
'X. When, and under what circumstances
the government 7 How did the tory minis-
try faH7-[Who was George I. 7 Give an ac-
count of the Pretender.]
34. In 1720, wViat did the king recom-
did Anne, Duchess of Courland, ascend the ! mend 7 To what did this nrove a prehidc 7
throne 7- [What is the character of her j What was attempted to be done by this
reign 7 What did it comprise 7] act 7 How was tlie credit of the govern-
1^. Who was elected emperor, in 1740 7 ' ment preserved 7-[Wliat was the character
What occurred the next year, and who was
elected emperess 7 What was the charac-
ter of Elizabeth 7 How did she act her part
in the seven years' war7-[What other par-
ticulars are mentioned of her 7]
28. Whosucceeded, in 17627 How did his
people regard him at length 7 What be-
came of him 7 Who is supposed to have
been the mover of the conspiracy 7-[By
whose help did Catharine put her husband
to death 7]
29. Who was now proclaimed 7 What
was she as a woman and a queen 7 What
was the character of her reign 7 From
what nation did she acquire territory 7-
[Wliat did one of her wars with Turkey
cost 7 Mention some circumstances re-
specting the capture of Ismail.]
30. Who succeeded in 1796 7 Was his
reign like that of his mother 7 What did
he do in 17997 What in 18017 What be-
came of hnn7
31. When, and at what age was Alexan-
der I. proclaimed7 Forwhat will he be re-
ii<)wned7 What is said of his reign at first 7
When did he form a coalition with Austria,
against Napoleon 7 What circumstance
contriDuted to his defeat at Auslerlitz 7
How happened It that Russia was left alone
to contend with the French emperor 7
What battle obliged Alexander to sign the
treaty of Tilsit 7 What did he do in 1808 7
What in 1811 7 What act of his displeased
Napoleon 7 With what force was Russia
invaded 7 How did the Russians manage
this war 7 What is said of the battle of Bo-
rodino 7 Under what circumstances did the
French army enter Moscow 7 What was
tlie consequence to the French 7-[Did Alex-
ander's forces equal those of his enemy in
number 7 With what preparation did he
and his people meet the crisis 7 What ef-
fect did the constant rctu-ine of the Rus-
sians produce 7 When was Moscow enter-
ed by the French? What was Napoleon
of George 1. 7 Where and at what age did
he die 7]
34^. When did George II. succeed his
father? In what respects was he hke his
father? What was his character? What
is said of his administration 7 In what wars
did he engage 7-(What is said of his minis-
ter. Sir Robert Walpole?]
3o. What took place during the absence
of the king on the continent 7 In wliat
battle did young Charles beat 7 In what
was he beaten? What effect did Charles's
failure have on the Sluart family 7 When
and on what account was war renewed be-
tween England and France? What was
its result? What brave general then per-
ished 7-[Give some particulars concerning
him.]
36. What is said of the arms of Great Bri-
tain at this period? How long did George
II. live and reign 7
37. Who succeeded in 1760? What is
said of the extent of his reign? For what
was it distinguished? Under what favour-
able circumstances did George III. com-
mence his reign ?-[What is said of Chat-
ham's ministry 7]
38. How came the American colonies to
separate from the mother country 7 When
did the war commence ! Who opposed the
measures of parliament on this occasion''
When did Great Britain acknowledge the
independence of the States? What was the
consequence ?-[What powers took part with
the American government? What was the
residt to England?]
39. What was another important feature
of the present reign 7 Give an account of
the conquests of the East India Company in
India.
40. What other important events were
there? Who were the rebels In Ireland?
What is said of the Act of Union ?-[What
countenance did the government of France
give to the Irish ? When did soiue parts of
MODERN HISTORY.
21
Ireland bpcome insurrectionary'? What
iv;is tlio c<insequeiice '()
41. What is said of this reign as conr>ect-
ed witli llie l"reiu:h revolution ! What was
tlie character ol' that revolution )-lWhat
were the views, the spirit, and the eti'orts of
the British nation in lliis war ! Wliat vic-
tories did they gain on the land and on the
sea 7 When was there an interval of peace 7
Wlml caused the renewal of the war 1
What is mentioned of the battle of the
-Nile 3 Of Trafalgar!]
42. What other war was Oreat Britain
engaged in at this lime ! What was the
cause of this war I When did it coni-
ijiencp and terminate ! What was its cha-
racter?
43. What happened lo George III. during
(he latter part of his life? Who acted as
regent in the mean time7-[VVhen did the
old king die 7 What is supposed to have
bruughl on his insiuiity ? What is his cha-
racter 7 Who succeeded him 7 What is
said of his reign 7]
43i. Who was the successor of I,ouis
XlV.'on the throne of France 1 When did
Iio begin lo reign 7 Who was regent during
tile kiim's minority 7-[What was the charac-
t' r of the Duke of Orleans 7 What ruined
the credit of the government 7]
44. Who was the minister of Louis after
he came of age 7 What did Henry's ad-
liiiiii.slralion etfect 7 How long was the
ni.'u of Louis 7 What was its charatter7-
IMeiulon some particulars of his conduct.
What did his profusion iead him to under-
take .' How did his conduct aflect his peo-
ple?]
45. Who ascended the throne in 1774 7
What was his situation 7 Was his temper
fined for the evil days on which he w.as
lalji u7-fWliat course did Louis pursiic 7
What led directly to the revolution? What
other concurrent causes were there? What
is thi.-: period now called ? What may it be
liereallnr?]
46. What steps did the king take when
the government was destitute of supplies !
Il.nv wa.s the National Assembly constitu-
ted ? When and with what event did the Re-
volution, properly speaking, begin 7-[What
did the States General consist of? When
the National Assembly was called, what be-
came of the monarchy 7 What wa.5 the
situation of the king and royal family 7 What
important acts did the Assembly pass ?
What appeared in 1790 7]
47. When was the regal government abol-
ished 7 By what body was this done 7
What became of the king 7 What was his
charactf-r ?-[ What were some of the charges
alleged aL'ainst th(! king 7 Who exerted the
most influence against him 7]
48. What coiiimi need after the death of
the king? Wliat did the factions in the
Convention do 7 What act in particular has
given immortal infamy to that ljo;ly 7 When
and how did the queen of France perish ?
When did the sister of the king7.]\Vho was
the most execrable of ths revolutionary
leaders 7 Who were his accomplices 7
What is said of the death of the Duke of Or-
leans 7 What of Kobesjiierre !]
49. After the fall of Kubespierre, what,
took place? What is said of the suftering
caused by the Convention 7 When were
the Directory and the two Councils esta-
blished 7
00. What is said of the e.xternal relations
of France at this lime 7 Why did Austria
and Prussia take the part of Louis 7 What
is said of the emigrants 7 What was the
republic able to do 7 How many fighting
men had it at command in 1794 7
51. How long did the government of the
Directory cotuinue7 In what was the ex-
ecutive power then vested 7 What was the
design of the consulate 7 What were the
coalitions against Knmce 7 How many were
there ? What does the first of these coali-
tions include 7-[Who was the founder of
these combinations 7 What effect was pro-
duced on France 7 Were the French suc-
cessful ? What held the coalition together
after the retirement of some of the powers'?
Against what nation was the war most vigo-
rously carried on 7 Through what country
chielly7 To whom was the array of Italy
entrusted in 1796 7 What did he soon
achieve 7 What is said of the invasion of
Egypt 7]
52. When and by whose means was the
second coalition carried on 7 Was it more
extensive than tlie other 7 From what
cause was the allies victorious 7-[Give a
brief account of Switzv>rland.]-When was
it a critical period with France ? Upon his
return from Egypt, what did Bonaparte ef-
fect ? What was so(m the state of things'?
\\ hat led the way to the peace of Amiens7
What is said of Bonaparte at this time'?
When was he proclaimed emperor 7. [Why
was the peace of Amiens enjoyed only for
a short time 7 When and by what means
was Egypt restored to the Porte 7 What
was the condition of France at this time 7
What project had Napoleon formed?
What resources had he for accomplishing
it?]
53. When and by whom was the third
coalition formed 7 Wliat was the plan 'J
How long had England been already at war
with France 7 What happened to the coa-
lition 7-[What brought on the war between
France and England7 What was the first
royal family dethroned by Napoleon's proc-
lamation? What was the condition of Prus-
sia in this war 7 What step did she at length
take 7]
54. When and by whom was a fourth
coalition matured? What was the result
to Prussia? What battles were foughtv\'ith
the Russians 7 What did Russia and Prus-
sia agree to 7-[Why and how did the British
secure the fleet of Denmark ? What two
consequences flowed from this act? Give
an account of the various decrees by which
France and England destroyed the com-
merce of neutrals. What was the conse
qu(;nce (o Europe 7]
5.'5. Relate Napoleon's schemes for ag-
graudiaing his family. IIow did his design
22
QUESTIONS ON
on Spain become the first fatal step in his
downfall'? Who were called to the aid of
Spain ? How long was the war carried on ■?
Were the French driven out of Spain?
5(5. While the war continued in Spain,
what other war did the conqueror project '.'
What did this war do ?
57. What did Napoleon do after his de-
feat ■? Why was the tilth coalition formed 7
Of what powers was it formed? When did
Pans capitulate?
58. What were the results of these suc-
cesses 7-[Give an account of Napoleon's ab-
dication. Whither was he afterwards con-
veyed, and under what circumstances 1
Where had Louis XVIIl. spent his time?
What other kings were restored at this
time ?]
59. For what purpose was a general con-
gress assembled at Vienna? When was
this? What extraordinary event occurred
during the sesi-ion ? Did it occasion ano-
ther coalition I Was the nation with Bona-
parte at this time ? What event defeated
his hopes for ever?-[What became of the
French king upon Bonaparte's return ?
Relate particulars of his return ? What did
the congress of Vienna do on this occasion ?
What army was now assembled against
him? Relate what is said of the meeting of
Napoleon and his toes. What became of
him after his defeat? When did his death
happen? W^as he the author of several
valuable institutions ? What evil, never-
theless, did he do? What indemnity did
the allies require of France ? What sort of
raonarch was Louis XVIIl. 1 Who suc-
ceeded him?]
60. What is said of the history of Italy in
modern times? How was Italy divided at
the congress of Vienna?
61. To what year did Philip of Spain
reign ? From what causes did the nation
degenerate ?
62. W^ho succeeded Philip ? When ?
What was his character ? How long did
Charles III. reign? What was liis charac-
ter? What were the principal events of his
reign ?-rDescribe the siege of Gibraltar.]
63. VVho possessed the crown in 17ffi!?
Give his character. What did he do in
1792? What was the condition ofSpain after
the treaty of Amiens was broken ? To whom
did Charles and his son make an appeal?
What ensued ?-[In what respects has Spain
been unfortunate since the peace? What
also has been the condition of Portugal?
Are the Portuguese rich in colonies ?]
64. What was the most important portion
of the Lotc Countrirs or Netherlands 7
What is said of the commerce, &c of Hol-
land before the French revolution? When
and how did the Dutch begin to degenerate ?
How has Belgiiun usually been divided
since its freedom from the Spanish yoke?
65. What was the condition of the United
Netherlands after they were overrun by the
French ? How was Holland atfected as to
her colonies? When and under what cir-
cumstances did the prince of Orange as-
sume the title of king of the Netherlands?,
-[Why was it necessary for the congresaat
Vienna to unite Holland and Belgium?]
66. In the history of Turkey, what do we
perceive about this time ? What changes,
however, have been lately effected? How
has Turkey generally retired from its con-
flicts with Russia ? Who was sultan at the
conanencement of this period ? When was
he deposed? How many sultans have there
been since ?-[What occurred under Musta-
phalll. ? What under Achmet IV., Selim
III., (fee. ? How far did the Porte escape
from the convulsions of the French revolu-
tion ? What has happened to Turkey since
1S21 ? What have the inhabitants of Greece
effected within a few years? When did the
spirit of insurrection first show itself?
What was accomplished at the end of the
year 1821?]
67. Who now occupied the throne of Chi-
na? What two of the Tartar dynasty had
preceded him ? What is the date of the
present dynasty ?-[What occurred in the
reign of Yong-Tching? Relate the particu-
lars concerning Kien Long. What is said
of the famous Russian mission in the reign
of KiaKhing?]
63. Who was the sovereign of Persia
near the beginning of the present period?
What had Kouli Khan been before ? What
did he do in 1739? What was the stale of
Persia after his death till 1794?-[Givean ac-
count of the origin of the Sophis. What is
peculiar to Persia in respect to its form of
government, &c. ?]
69. What figure does India make in his-
tory ? W^hy caimot historians easily give a
regularaccount of it? Doesit much deserve
our attention till modern times? What are
thepiMiple as to civilization, arts, character,
&c. /-[What is said of India in ancient times'?
What occurred in 710? What in 11.55 ? What
after this till 1660 ! Who then conquered
Bengal ? What was the state of his empire
at his death? What did it become in 50
years? What took place in 1739? Give am
account of the British possessions.]
70. What event took place in regard to
the United Status during this period ? In
what war were the colonies involved in the
year 1744? What was its result ? Where
were the troops mostly obtained ?-[In what
condition were the fortifications at Louis-
burg? Why was it deemed essential to
take this place?]
71. What became of a powerful French
armament sent against America in 1746 1
How long did the peace of Aix-la-Chapello
last? When did the French and Indian war
begin and end 1 What was the issue of it 1
Who first came into notice during these con-
tentions ?-[What is further said of the
French armament? What was the effect
of the return of peace ? What was the occa-
sion of the French and Indian war ? What
sen'ice was entrusted to George Washing-
ton? What is said of the result? Ilowmany
and what expeditions were planned against
the French in 1775? Give the details of
each one. When was war formally decla-
red? What ensued in the early and what
MODERN HISTORY.
23
in the latter part of the year I'/SSI V/hat
was the object an<i what the result of the
catnpaiiin of 17o9 .' What occurred at
tiuehec 7]
"2. What were among the causes of the
8lru^'!,'le after independence'?
7'i. Mention what is said concerning the
origin of the dispute 7
74. When diil the dispute arise 1 What
was its immediate occasion 7 What was
the; chiiract( r of the stam^ act7 What con-
soquenri' follcjwed it 7 What is said of the
rept>an-(What took place in Boston and
Portsiuoutli 7 Were similar manifestations
made elsewliere !]
75. What did the British ministry now do 7
On what were duties laid in 1767 7' What re-
sulted from the opposition made to these
duties ? Could tea be sold in America 7
Wliat was done with acar^o of it in Boston
harbour !
J(j. To what acts did England now resort 7
When was the Boston jiort b 11 passed 7
"(What is further said of the port bill, and
other bills 7]
77. When and where was there a congress
opened 7 What diil it resolve to do 7 What
alternative diil England choo.'e 7-[What is
further said of this congress 7J
7.S. When and where did hostilities begin 7
What did the British hope in the commence-
ment of this contest 7-lGive an account of
the battle of Lexington 7]
79. By what was the war soon signalized 7
Whatw^as the fate of an expedition against
Cana'la7 What was the character of t)ie
war 7 Who only seemed to be cap-xble of
waging it 7-[What is sai.! of the bailie of
Bunker's Hill 7 Who was chosen leader of
the American forces 7 What did Washing-
ton do on his arrival at Cambridge 7 What
is said of the northern expedition 7 What
befel Norfolk in Virginia7 When and why
did the British evacuate Boston? Wliat at-
tempt did ihey make on Sullivan's Island?]
80. When was the Indepf^ndence of Ame-
rica declared 7 When was Uuruoyne taken 7
By what was this event i^receied? Upon
the capture of Burgoyiie, wi.at did the
French court do 7 'Who were allies of
France ?-[ Wlien and by whom was the mo-
tion made to declare the states independ-
ent? What were the character and effects
of this measure ? Describe the depressed
condition of American affairs? What did
many ofthe Americans do in the neighbour-
hood of New- York ? What fort was taken
at this tiiue 7 What wa-5 the force under
Washington on the '>,M of November? What
In the early part of December? How did
congres.s appear at this time 7 When were
the articles of confederation adopted 7 How
did the piople feel? What force did Con-
gress determine to raise? What achieve-
ment did Washington make at Trenton?
What at Princeton 7 How lar:;e was the
American aiiiiy in 1777 7 Wiien was the
battle of Brandywine fouaht? With what
result ? Wliat is said of the battle of Ger-
mantown ? Give an account of the capture
of Burgoyne 7]
81. How was America affected by the al-
liance of France? Who, nevertheless, has
the glory of having struck the decisive
blow 7 When did C(u'nwa!lis capitulate 1
By what had this event been preceded?
VVhat was now the financial state of the
country ? When was the independence of
the United Stales acknowledged by Great
Britain 7 When did a definitive peace take
place ?-[Where did the Britisli resolve to
concentrate their force 7 Give an account
of the battle of Monmouth. What part of
the country before the close of 1778 became
the principal theatre of war? What state
fell under the power of the British? What
depredations did the British make in 1779 1
Were there any important cx])editions made
by the Americans 7 To what causes was
the deficiency of exertion owing? De-
scribe the second cause at large? What
events took place in South Carolina in 17601
At this time what was doing at the north 1
Describe the battle of Cowpens : also that
of Guilford Court House. Where was La
Fayette called to oppose CornwalUs ? Give
an account ofthe battle of Yorktown. When
was the American army disbanded 7]
82. What was the cliaracter of the first
con.stitution ? What was effected by the
constitution of 1789. Who was the first
president? By what perhaps nmst t)ie
union be preserved? Describe the com-
mercial prosperity of the United States.-
[What was the danger of the country at
first ? Under the old confederation why
was the nation unable lo pay its debts'?
When w^as the Federal Constitution pre-
sented to Congress 7 How many states at
first adopted it? Wlien was Washington
chosen president ? How did he conduct
the government? Did he meet with any
opposition? Was he chosen the second
time 7 What were among the important
events during his admiiiisrration?]
83. Who succeeded Washington 7 When!
How long did John Adams retain the presi-
dency ? " What is said of the pohtical strife
at this time? When was Mr. Jefferson
chosen president? What occurred under
Adauis's administration ? Was Jefferson
chosen the second time ? What was the
stale of the country at this lime? Did
difficulties at length occur with the bellige-
rents of Europe'! What did congress do on
December 22d, 1307? What on the 1st of
March, 1S08? How long did the restrictive
plan continue in resi^^ct to France? How
long in respect to Great Britain 7 When did
the United States declare war against Great
Britain? What did the navy do? What
the army? When did peace take place ■>
Under whose presidency did this war oc-
cur? When was Mr. Madison elected, and
how long did he continue 7 What were the
principal events that marked the adminis-
tration of Jefferson and Madison ?-( What
were the principal grounds of the war7
Was there an agreement in Congress and
among the peojile on the subject? How did
the war coiniiience? Give an accoimt of
the battle of Queenstown. When 'was the
24
QUESTIONS ON
frigate Guerriere captured 1 What other
tiaval victories were obtained during the
year? What is said of the battle of the
river Uaisin 7 Give an account of the naval
operations during the year 1813. What is
said of llie battle of York 7 What did the
British do on the seaboard 7 What events
occured during the remainder of the year ?
When was the battle of New Orleans
fought 7]
&!. What did the war with England ef-
fect 7 How long did the presidency of Mon-
roe continue 7 How many States were added
to the Union during his administration 7
What is said of party spirit 7 When were
John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson
elected 7 What may be remarked general-
ly 7-[Soon atler the conclusion of the war, to
what was the attention of congress turned 7
Was this easily accomplished? W^hen did
the bill receive tlie signature of President
Madison 7 To what sum was the capita! of
the bank fixed 7 What is said of the eflforts
that have lately been made to obtain a re-
charter of the 'bank 7 What did President
Madison do soon after his accession? What
did his tour serve to effect? What was
done early in the presidency of Monroe?
Under whose authority did the adventurers
claim to be acting? Where had they form-
ed an establishment? Why did the United
States deem themselves authorized to take
possession of Amelia island? Under whose
command was a naval force despatched?
When was Ameha island surrendered 7
What followed soon after 7 What States
were admitted into the ITnion during the
administration of Monroe ? When was
Mississippi received? How long did the
French claim the country 7 To whom did
they cede their possessions eastofthe river?
When did Illinois adopt a State convention 7
When was it admitted into the Union ? What
became of the tirst settlements made by
the French in Illinois? What took place in
1762? What happened after the war of the
revolution ? When was Alabama admitted
into the Union 7 How long did this country
continue the Imnting ground of savages?
What event occurred in 1817 7 When was
Maine admitted as an independent State into
the Union 7 What had it formerly been 7
AVhen was a separation accompUshed ?
When was Missoini declared to be a mem-
ber of the Federal Union ? What is said
of its previous condition 7 What occasion-
ed the difficulty in the admission of Missou-
ri? Describe the circumstances respecting
the Seminole war, and the conduct of Gen.
Jackson. When was there a convention
concluded between Great Britain and the
United States 7 What is said respecting the
cession of Florida to the United States 7
Where were the territorial governments
formed for Arkansas and Florida? WHiat
is said of the suppression of piracy in the
West Indies 7 Describe the visit of La Fay-
ette to this country. Wliat is said of the
presidency of John Q. Adams 7 What was
the situation of the country at the time of
Jackson's entrance on the presidency?]
' What is said of his cabinet? Describe the
I Indian controversy in respect to the remo-
val of the tribes. Mention the acts of Con-
gress in 1831. Describe the South Carohna
difficulties.]
85. What was the condition of the pro-
vinces of South America till the time of the
French revolution? What have they be-
come within the present century? What
is Brazil styled ? How many and what are
the names of the free States 7-[In what did
their struggle for freedom originate ? Give
a further account of it.]
Distinguished Characters.
Who were the distinguished characters of
this period, and tor what were they distin-
guished 7-[l. Mention particulars in Addi-
son's life? What is said of his writings,
their style, Ac. 7
2. What was the time of Newton's life
and death ? What is said of his early
studies? What wa.i his greatest discovery 1
When w-as his Pri.icipia published? How
did he endure the sickness preceding his
death? What was his character? Wiiat
has a celebrated writer said of him?
3. Give an accoim' of Boerhaave.
4. Where was P jpe born 7 Give an ac-
count of his different productions. What
was he in person, disposition, and man-
ners ?
5. Mention some par'iculars in the life of
Swift. What is said of his writings? How
was the eccentricity of his character
shown ?
6. Give an account of Montesquieu.
7. Mention events in the life of Edwards.
Wliat is said of his character and writings?
8. What particulars are mentioned in the
life of Hume ? What is said of him as a
writer ?
9. What influence had the writings of
Voltaire in regard lo the revolution 7 Give
the particulars of his lite and writings. How
did he die? What is said of his person,
&c.?
10. Give the life of LlnnEeus. In what is
science indebted to his sagacity? Wliat is
said of his knowledge and industry?
11. Where was Rousseau born? Did he
enjoy much happiness in life ? Where and
in what manner did he end his days ? What
is said of his genius and works?
12. Give the particulars of Pitt's life.
What was he as an orator and statesman?
13. Give an account of the life and wri-
tings of Metastasio.
14. What is related in the life of Euler7
Describe his menial powers. How did he
appear in society?
1.5. Give the history of Johnson's life,
and of his works. In what manner did ha
approach death ? How are his works cha-
racterized 7
16. Tell the circumstances of Frankhn's
hfe.
17. Why was not Gibbon at first distin-
guished as a scliolar? When did he pay
special attention to classical Lterature?
MODERN HISTORY.
25
What is said of his Decline and FaJl of the
Roman Empire"! What is further said of
his writmgs f What wiTe the characteris-
tics of his intellect, as he descrilies themi
18. Give an account of ({urns.
19. Kelate the jiarticulars of Uurke's life.
What was he as an aullior !
20. Where was VVashJnjilon borni In
what situation did he first show his talents 7
What was he as a military captain 7 What
was his public life after the revolution'!
What was his character generally 7
21. Give the particulars of the life and
writings of Cowper. What is said of his
Task!
22. Relate the circumstances of Klop-
stock's life. By what is he characterized
as a writer 7
23. Relate the history of Heyne.
24. What is said of Madame de Stael7
25. What are the particulars in the life of
r)wight7 How was his death resarded?
How have his works been received iince
his death 7
2G. Give an account of Bonaparte's life.
How will maiikmd couliime to regard him 7]
GENERAL VIEWS.
The Feudal System.
1. What was the peculiar state of society
among the ancestors of modern Europe
called 7 What does tlie Feudal system
mean 7-[Detail the plan on which the feucjal
policy was arranged !)
2. By some writers to whom has the ori-
gin of the Feudal system been attributpd7
"What is its real source !-[What is said of
the subordination of the • lembersof a tribe
to their chief among the Gauls 7 What
was the practice when in peace? What in
war 7]- Among what ol her nations did such
a relation subsist 7[ When the F'rank's over-
ran Gaul what was the condition of the
country in this respect ! Were the fiefs at
first revocable 7 When did they become
otherwise 7 What was a consequence of a
fief becoming hereditary 7]
3. What w-as the principle on which this
establishment was founded? Mention tlie
effects produced by tiie feudal system 7
-fWhat was the state of Europe through
the feuds of the barons 7 What was the
condition of England in this respect in the
reign of Stephen 7 Which was the urdiap-
piest period in the annals of Europe !
What causes operated to produce a better
State of things 7 What .■rionarch first adopt-
ed the measure of having a standmg army 7
Who followed his example 7]
Chivalry.
1. What was chivalry or knighthood?
Was some such instilulion necessary, if a
better could not be found ! Of what was it
designed as a corrective 7 What did it aim
to do 7-[What is said concerning the source
of the term chivalry 7 Willi what is chival-
ry not to be confounded ?]Iii what had
chivalry its origin? From what practice
did it grow into the form it aflerward.s as-
sumed 7 Caji we tell ihe exact lime of this7
When was religion united with chivalry !
-(Were religious rites used in the days'of
Charlemagne? What do we read concern-
ing Edward the Elder? What does the
story of Hereward show us 7 Was knight-
hood a personal distinction only 7 What
was every per.son of noble birth required
to do at 12 years ?]-In what countries did
chivalry flourish most?
2. How many and what were the degrees
of chivalry 7 Who could be classed with
the knights bannerets 7-[What is said of
the privileges of a knight banneret ?]-What
was the second class of chivalric heroes?
What was a general qualification for knight-
hood ?-[Was it a cosily dignity? Was it
always a reward of merit?]- What was the
last class of chivalry 7
3. When did the education of a knight
generally commence? At what place?
Mention the particulars. What was the
youth called during the first 7 years?
-[What was taught during this period ?]-
What took place at 14 years? When was
his education completed ?-[Mention some
of the duties of esquires. How did they
strengthen their bodies?]
4. At what age was knighthood confer-
red? What was the preparation for itl
What was the place of inauguration 7
When did the candidate take his oaths of
chivalry ?-[What did he swear to do7]-
What followed in the ceremony? What
concluded it?-[What exemptions were there
from these rites ?]
5. What is said of the cavalier's horsel
Mention his offensive weapons — his defen-
sive ?-[How was his defensive armour some-
times carried? Was it easy to kill a knight
in full armour? How could it be done "7
Was his horse defended?]
6. Mention the virtues in the chivalric
character ?-[What was the strongest fie
of chivalry 7 What is said of a thirst for
renown? Of a knight's humility 7 Of his
clemency 7 Towards whom, nevertheless,
was he ruthless 7 What is said of his fideli-
ty? Of his courtesy?]
7. Give an account of his every-day life.
-(What did the minstrels do? What was
there pecuhar in the entertainments of
kniglits?]
H. How was the knight's lady educated 1
[What tasks were imposed on her intel-
lect? What is said of the influence of
love in chivalry ?]-What consideration was
there ofwoman in chivalry ?-[Relate a piece
of hi.story on this poiiil,]
9. In what amusements did knights and
ladies most delight? What were tourna-
ments 7-[Mcntioii the manner in which they
were got U)). When might a knight tour-
ney ?]- Describe the place of combat. Who
were the judges? What were Ihf rewards?
[Give an account of the combat. ]-IIow
many kinds of jousts were there 7 Describe
the joust of utterance. What absurd prac-
tice grew out it? De.scribe the joust of
26
QUESTIONS ON
peace. Were jousts more martial than
tournaments ^-[How long did these pastimes
last?]
10. How many orders of chivalry remain
to the present time? What is said of mosi
of the present orders of knighthood? Of
what general description were they ? Over
what countries did they extend? What
were some of the religious orders? What
is said of the military orders?
11. How is chivalry related to the age in
which it arose? What did the good it in-
cluded spring from? Were its theory and
practice so good as they should have been?
-[What is said of the gayety and imagination
of the early ages of Europe ? Mention the
beneficial efl'ects of chivalry in regard to
civilization, &.c. What opposite tendencies
had it ? Were not these mostly excep-
tions ?]-When did the hght of chivalry go
out ? By what causes in particular did its
power cease ?
Romances.
What were romances? Why so called?
When did they first appear? What their
origin ?-[What were the subjects of the
early romances? Mention some of the ce-
lebrated ones. What progeny sprung from
these ? What new order arose afterwards ?
What was the last form of the Romance ?
What has an author observed concerning
these books? What is said of them aa re-
epecls Italy and England?]
Pilgrimages.
What were pilgrimages? In what light
were they considered ? At what time did
they prevail ? What places were most
visited ?-(What is said of Jerusalem as a
resort? What of Composfella? In what
countries have pilgrimages been common?]
Manners and Character of the Gothic Na-
tions.
[Why are the manners, &c. of these
tribes curious objects of inquiry ?]-Who
were the Gothic or Scandinavian nation ?
What were the other barbarous tribes from
northern Europe or Asia? (1) Were some
characteristics common to them all? What
did their habits and education form them
for? Why could the Roman world but fall
before them ?-[What reasons are there to
believe that the Scandinavian and Prythian
nations had the same origin ? How was
the theology of the Scandinavians an index
of their manners ? Mention the names and
attributes of their divinities. What joys
did they ex-]3ect hereafter? Was there a
similarity between their manners and those
of the Germans? Whence were the Ger-
mans drrived ? What was the religious
system of the Cellae? When did the Goths
nominally embrace Christianity ?]-(2) What
is said of the diver.^ities of character that
existed?-[Mention some particulars respect-
ing the Goths properly so called. When
they were divided into Ostrogotlis and Visi-
goths, in what respects did their policy
vary ? Mention some particulars from the
Visigoths' code of laws. Give an account
of the Heruh. Of the Huns.]
Learning and the Arts.
1. Why are these topics to be treated ac-
cording to certain eras ? Describe the three
eras included in this sketch. -[Did the Au-
gustan age extend a little into this period?]
2. What is to be noticed in the first era?
What style of writing soon prevailed 1
Were the writers, however, inferior in ge-
nius to their predecessors? Was there a
decline in science and philosophy ?-[Men-
tion some particulars of the poets on this
subject. What is said concerning several
other authors in science, philosophy, <S:c. ?]
3. Were the successors of Augustus ene-
mies to literature? Why then was genius
cramped?-[In what state was learning, &c.
towards the conclu.^ion of this era? What
is said of the poets? Between the age of
Constant ine and the destruction of the em-
pire, were there any very distinguislied
names in philosophy, &c. ?]
4. What is said of the seminaries of
learning in Rome and Italy ? Which school
was next to that at Rome? What schools
flourished in Greece ? What is said of
Constantinople as a seat of literature 1
What is said of the schools in Judea?
What were taught in the schools of Egypt?
-[What prepared the way for the depres-
sion of the inteUect ? From what cause did
the arts decline?]
5. What is included in the second era?
What was presented during a thousanri
years ? What intervals of light were there 7
Which was tlie darkest period? When
did the classic authors and the spoken
Latin tongue cease? Did the northern in-
vaders originate the catastrophe ? What
was their influence on learning? What
causes must of necessity have produced a
state of darkness ?-[What does Gibbon say
on this subject ? What bright side is there
to this picture? How did false Christianity
operate to the depression of learning? By
what was the number of manuscripts re-
duced? After the sixth century, wliat was
the state of things as to learning? What is
said of the clergy ? What was the efTect of
the exertions of Charlemagne and Allredto
dispel the darkness ? By what was the
singular dearth of learning evinced? To
what class of people was learning confined ?
What can be said to their honour? Wliat
influence had Cassiodorus on this subject .'
Descrilte the intellectual condition of tln'
Arabians. Of the Moors of Cordova. What
is said of the arts in this era? When wa.-^
the dawn of literature in England ? De-
scribe the influences which soon triumph-
ed over it]
6. Can we easily fix the period when the
darkness ended and the light began ? What
is said of Roger Bacon in t)ie thirteenth cen-
tury ? What IS said of some learned Ita-
MODERN HISTORY.
?7
lians in the fourteenth century? At the
same period, wlio nourished in England and
Scotland? What is said of f'pain ! Why,
on the whole, do we fix on the fifteenth
rather than the fourteenth century as the
era of the reviva^l of learnins f What cir-
cumstances favoured tlie development of
the uiind a century after Petrarch ! What
first felt the inlluence of these cailsos ?
When were phil<>>ophy and science advan-
ced ! What it said of iuiprovenients since ?
-(Of what is the following account designed
as a sketch ! Wliat resulted from the fall
of Constaiiljtiople / In the restoration of
learning, what was the most important step !
Who were engaged in looking up manu-
scripts ! What pope was distinguished for
encouragement of learning .'
What was one great cause of the restora-
tion of learning? What people led in this
restoration ? What other nations soon felt
the influence? Who is considered as the
father of French poetry ? What is said of
English scholars ? Give an account of the
progi-oss made in hterature in Europe ?
What is said of the progress of philosophy 1
Oivesome details concerning the fine arts
at this period. When did the human mind
put forth its greatest eftbrts ? For what was
that period distinguished ? Who taught the
true method of philosophizing? Was the
progress of philosophy rapid at first? Who
at length dispelled the darkness that rested
on philosophy I What is said of Locke I
Give an account of the philosophers on
the continent before the time of Bacon.
What is said of Kepler, Tycho Brahe, and
Hiiygens ? Mention the instruments that
were invented, connected with the advance-
ment of knowledge. What learned socie-
ties were established in the seventeenth
century ? What is saiil of tlie useful and
mechanic arts in this century ? What was
the progress of literature in the middle por-
tion of this era? Give the names of some
fine writers in England and France. What
was the culture of the fine arts at this pe-
riod?
What is said of the last portion of the
present era? What sciences during this
Eeriod have been fixed on a new and firm
asis? What is here said of astronomical
science? Have the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries been distinguished in po-
lite learning? When is the Augustan age
of English literature said by some to have
begun? Mention some names. What is
here said of poetry ? What is said of litera-
ture in the United States? What of peri-
odical literature?
Give an account of the fine arts inthis pe-
riod. What is the character of the inven-
tions of these times ? Mention some disco-
veries and inventions. On what does the
further improvement of mankind in know-
ledge, depend ? What societies arc there
fitr this object in England and France ?
Where else are there literary associations ?
What is said of the power of association?
What is efl^scted by newspapers ? Give a
further account of them.
In what di<I the ancients excel t But
what was reserved for the moderns in in-
vention ! In wliai branches of knowledge
did the ancients fail ij
Discoveries and Inventions.
[2. What account can you give of corn
mills ?
3. What did the ancients know concern-
ing clocks of mechanical structure? How
old is the invention of clocks ? When ia
the first mention made of watches .' What
other particulars can you mention?
4. \\ hat is said of linen, used as clothing t
5. Give an account of glass windows.
G. Of glass mirrors.
7. Wlien was the mariner's compass in-
vented ? Who was its author or improver ?
What are we to think of the Chinese pre-
tensions to the discovery ? What has re-
sulted from this invention ?
8. What is said concerning the knowledge
of gunpowder ?
9. What particulars can you mention con-
cerning fire-arms?
10. llention the various substances on
whicli letters were written, previously to
the invention of paper from cotton or linen
rags. When was cottoi; paper first made ?
When was its use general I When was it
superseded by paper from linen?
11. Were wooden types ever used for
printing ? Who discovered the ai't of print-
ins with moveable metal types? When?
What circumstances prove Guthenberg as
the inventor ? What was the state of the
art at first? Who probably invented the
art of casting characters in metal? How
was the art spread throughout Europe?
What facts show that Holland is entitled to
the merit of inventing titereotype printing?
12. Relate the history of the steam en-
gine? What people first applied them to
navigation? Mention further particularB.]
Incidents and Curious Particulars.
[1. What matter is here included ? 2. What
is said of the library founded by Trajan )
3. What is said concerning schools in Eu-
rope? 4. Mention what we Icani from
Seneca, of the journeys of the Romans.
5. What is said of the use of breeches or
trowsers? 6. What was the state of agri-
culture in Italy, after the age of Tiberius ?
7. Describe the habitations of our English
ancestors in early times. 8. What is said
of an inundation in 1100? 9. Mention some
instances of the wild m;ignificence or bar-
barity of the middle ages. 10. Give the
history of banking institutions. 11. How
was Arabian magic introduced into Europe?
12. What is said of the building of Windsor
castle? 13. Give a history of the lighting
of London by night. 14. Relate what is
said of the warders, in the times of feudal
strife. 1.5. What happened to Germany,
between the years 1312 and 131.")? 15. What
is said of the introduction of potatoes into
Europe ? 17. What is said of a plague in
28
Q.TJESTIONS ON MODERN HISTORY.
England, in 1500 7 18. Relate some instan-
ces, showing the slow progiess of improve-
ment. 19. What is said ot the fixing of the
interest of money hy lawl 20. What two
awful calamities befel London, between
16G0 and 1070 ? 21. What took place among
the Indians, a few years before the landing
of the puritans at Plymouth 7 22. How
many acres of waste lands are there in
Great Britain and Ireland? 23. What is
said of American shipping, &c. 7 31. How
many volumes were there in the public h-
braries of Europe, in 1829 7 25. Detail the
expenses of Great Britain, in war, since
16887]
Present state of several nations, in respect
to Agriculture, Roads, ^c.
[2. Give an account of agriculture. 3. What
was the condition of the roads in the dark
ages 7 In what country, in modern times,
were they generally improveil7 What is
the state of the roads and bridges in Eng-
land 7 What improvement has recently
been made throughout Europe, in this re-
spect? Mention the new roads that have
been constructed. State what has been
done in the United States, in respect to
roads and bridges. 4. Relate what is said
of canals in various countries. What is
said of the employment of steam vessels 7
5. Give an account of travelling in modern
times. 6. What is said of the increase of
education 7 As knowledge extends, has it
become more profound? 7. Mention the
points of improvement in external condi-
tion. What is said of the alteration in Eng-
land 7 8. What has caused the increase
of population of late 7 Mention the places
that are increasing. What is said of Eng-
land, in this re.spect7 What of the United
States 7 9. What is said of the approxima-
tion of the lower classes to the higher, es-
pecially in European society 7 10. Give an
account of the various trades and manufac-
tures that have sprung up of late, in conti-
nental Europe. What is said, also, of the
present manufacturing industry of Great
Britain 7 What of the United States 7
11. Give an account of governmental re-
forms. 12. Relate what is doing in tlie way
of religious enterprises.]
The Christian Church.
1. Mention the three distinct heads under
which the affairs of the church are to be
considered.
2. Describe the state of the church in
the first era. What leading events arc to
be noticed in this period 7-[What is said of
the appearance of Jesus Christ on earth?
Describe the general success of the Gospel,
under the preaching of the apostles ami
others. What is said of the ten great per-
secutions of the church 7 Give an account
of each. Under these persecutions, how
was religion exemplified by christians?]
3. At the commencement of the second
era, what was the external condition of the
church 7 When did evils begin to arise
from within 7 What did worldly prosperity
produce 7 In what particulars were the
disorders of the Church, &c. manifested?
4. At the commencement of the third
era, why was the Reformation of religion
needed 7 What proportion of the Christian
body adhered to the papacy 7 How did the
Protestant religion spread at first 7 How \g
it now spreading 7 What is the date of the
Reformation? Wlio was the instrument
employed in it? What was the immediate
occasion of it7-[Who were among Luther's
fellow labourers and patrons 7 Into what
countries did the new opinions extend 7
When was the Reformation established in
Germany 7]
5. What countries soon become Protest-
ant? What countries adhered to Rome!
Was the Greek Church affected by the re-
volution in the West? W'hat countries are
the seat of this religion 7 In 1589, what did
the Russian church do7-[What is the cha-
racter of the Russian and Greek church?
What their numbers 7 In what countries
are they scattered? What means did the
Roman church use toregain their lost pow-
er? What causes have contributed to
weaken her power, &c. 7 What are the
temporal dominions of the pope? What
the number of his ecclesiastical subjects?
Which are papal countries wholly? Which
chiefly 7 In %vhat other countries are pa-
pists found? What is a general division of
the Protestants?
1. Relate the history of the Lutheran
church. What is said in regard to the sta-
tistics of this church?
2. Give an account of the Reformed
churches. Which are they principally 7
1. What can you say of the Calvinistst
2. Describe the Cliurch of England. 3. What
is saido the Presbyterian Church of Scot-
land 7 4. What of the Moravians? 5. Give
an account of the Congrcgationahsts of New
England 7 6. Describe the Presbyteiian
church of the United Slates.]
THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below
APR 17 1947^^
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