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OUTLINES   OF   JAINISM 


CAMBRIDGE     UNIVERSITY    PRESS 

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Toronto  :   J.  m.  DENT  AND  SONS,  Ltd. 

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Jain  literature  Society 


OUTLINES  OF  JAINISM 


JAGMANDERLAL    JAIN  I.    M.A. 

IiARRISTF.R-AT-I.AW.    JUDGE    OF    THK   HIGH  COTJBT    OF  JUDICATURK,   INBOKF.  STATK  ; 

I-HESiDENT   OF    THK    ALL    INDIA    JAINA    ASSOCIATION;    LATK     F.DITOR    OF    THK    "  JAINA 

GAZETTE";    AUTHOR    OF    "ROMAN    LAW". 

THE  LIBRARY 

LOS  AMi^L*'" 


Edited    {with    PRELIMINARY    NOTE)    hy    F.    W.    THOMAS 


Cambridge  : 

at   the   University   Press 

1916 


JAIN   LITERATURE   SOCIETY 


WORKS  IN  PREPARATION 

1.  The  SYADVADA-MANJAEI   of   Malli-shena:    English 

translation    by    Dr.    N.    D.    Mironow,    of   the    University    of 
Petrograd. 

2.  The  SADDARSANA-SAMUCCAYA  of  Hari-bhadra  Suri : 
English  translation  b}'  Professor  L.  Suali,  of  the  University 
of  Pavia. 


DEDICATED 

WITH    PROFOUND    RESPECT    TO 

H.H.    MAHARAJADHIRAJA   RAJA    RAJESHWARA 

SAWAI    TUKOJI    RAO    HOLEAR    BAHADUR.    MARATHA, 

OF    INDORE, 

BY    HIS    DEVOTED    SERVANT 


5570 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


Preliminary  Note  by  F.  W.  Thomas 

Preface       ...... 

Bibliographical  Note 

Introduction  and  History 

Outlines — Chapter     I  :  Theology 

Table 

,,  ,,         II  :  Metaphysics 

Table 


PAGE 

ix 


1-6 

facing  page  6 

7-GG 
facing  page  36 

.       67-73 

74-76 


„  „        III  :   Ethics 

,,  ,,        IV :   Ritual 

Texts — Chapter    I  :  Theology       ....  77~81 

II:  Metaphysics           .          .          .  82-111 

Appendix     I :  Jain  Logic             ....  112-11H 

,,           II:   Cosmogony,  Cosmology,  Astronomy  119-125 

,,         III :   Sixty-three  Great  Persons,  etc.        .  126~12K 

IV:   143  Qualities,  etc.,  of  Saintly  Souls.  129-134 

,,           V:  The  Ancient  Jaina  Sacred. Literature  185-146 

Index 147  156 


STEPHEN   AUSTIN    AND    SONS,    LTD. 
PRINTERS,    HERTFORD. 


PRELIMINARY    NOTE 

The  fact  of  Jainism  cannot  have  been  unknown 
even  to  the  earliest  European  students  of 
Sanskrit  ;  indeed,  it  is  more  than  once  mentioned 
by  Sir  William  Jones  himself.  But  the  con- 
temporary existence  of  the  monuments,  litera- 
ture, and  adherents  of  the  religion  seems  to  have 
been  first  brought  to  light  by  those  two  in- 
defatigable pioneers  of  Indian  research,  Colonel 
Colin  Mackenzie  and  Dr.  Buchanan-Hamilton  : 
it  was  not  long  before  its  main  tenets  were 
expounded  by  Colebrooke,  whose  library  of 
Sanskrit  MSS.  comprised  a  fair  number  of  Jaina 
texts.  The  full  exploration  of  the  canonical 
literature  and  the  determination  of  the  true 
chronology  were  reserved  for  a  later  generation 
of  scholars,  among  whom  the  greatest  merit 
belongs  to  Professors  Weber,  Jacobi,  Leumann, 
and  Dr.  Hoernle  as  regards  the  former  task,  and 
to  Professors  Btihler  and  Jacobi  as  regards  the 
latter.  In  all  systematic  accounts  of  Indian 
literature  and  religion  the  Jaina  doctrine 
has  necessarily  found  a  place  ;    but  the  present 


X  PRELIMINARY    NOTE 

position  of  studies  in  relation  thereto  should  be 
viewed  in  the  light  of  Professor  Jacobi's  articles 
in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics. 

The  present  volume  of  Outlines  is  issued 
by  the  Jain  Literature  Society  in  advance  of 
a  series  designed  to  consist  principally,  but  not 
exclusively,  of  translations  from  authoritative 
texts.  We  are  not,  indeed,  without  convenient 
manuals  in  English  treating  of  the  subject,  such 
as  Dr.  J.  Burgess'  edition  of  Blihler's  On  the 
Indian  Sect  of  the  Jainas  (London,  1903). 
Mr.  A.  B.  Latthe's  An  Introduction  to  Jainism 
(Bombay,  1905),  Mr.  U.  D.  Barodia's  Histomj 
and  Literature  of  Jainism  (Bombay,.  1909), 
Mr.  Hirachand  Liladhar  Jhaveri's  First  Prin- 
ciples of  Jaina  Philosophy  (London,  1910),  and 
Mr.  H.  Warren's  Jainism  (Madras,  1912)  ; 
to  which  there  has  recently  been  added  the 
substantial  treatise  of  Mrs.  Sinclair  Stevenson 
(The  Heart  of  Jainism,  Oxford  and  London, 
1915,  following  upon  the  same  author's  Notes 
on  Modern  Jainism,  Oxford  and  Surat,  1910)  : 
but  there  is  still,  we  think,  room  for  a  work  like 
the  present,  furnishing'  in  a  moderate  compass 
a  thorough  exposition  of  the  system  and  its 
terminology  ;  while  the  Texts  (in  several  cases 
I  >igambara)   which  follow  the    Outlines  will    be 


PRELIMINARY    NOTE  XI 

found,    if  we    are  not   mistaken,   an    interesting 

and  valuable  feature. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  author,  though  his 
aim  is  not  propaganda,  does  not  conceal  his 
personal  adherence  to  the  Jaina  faith  ;  and  he 
is,  in  fact,  an  influential  member  of  the  lay 
community.  In  the  case  of  a  doctrine  which 
is  also  a  religion  there  seems  to  be  an  advantage 
in  a  treatment  by  one  who  is  in  a  position  to 
appreciate  practically  the  several  and  relative 
values  of  the  different  parts. 

Mr.  Jaini  has  generously  placed  his  work  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Jain  Literature  Society,  to 
which  he  has  further  entrusted  the  task  of  editing" 
it.  While  performing  this  duty  according  to  our 
lights  (and  with  a  view  to  readers  in  the  west 
as  well  as  in  India),  we  have  not  modified 
Mr.  Jaini's  text  to  the  extent  of  impairing  his 
full  responsibility  for  the  arrangement,  the 
matter,  and  .  the  form.  On  p.  8  it  should 
perhaps  have  been  more  explicitly  stated  that 
the  souls  in  air.  water,  fire,  etc..  have  for  bodies 
the  parts  of  these  elements. 

The  Index  is  the  work  of  Mr.  H.  Warren. 

F.  W.  THOMAS, 
Preside.nt  of  the  Jam  Literature  Social y. 


PKEFACE 

Contact  between  the  East  and  the  West  is  of 
a  comparatively  recent  date  :  but  it  has  already 
borne  fruit.  The  East  has  shed  its  merely 
contemplative  mood,  while  the  West  has  outlived 
its  merely  materialistic  tendencies.  There  is 
indeed  a  general  willingness  to  exchange  ideas, 
whereby  the  whole  of  humanity  is  benefiting. 

About  a  century  and  a  half  ago  there  arose 
in  Europe  a  great  desire  to  explore  the  buried 
and  current  treasures  of  the  East.  Among  the 
religions  of  Indian  origin  Brahmanism,  or 
Hinduism,  was  the  first  to  attract  attention,  but 
Buddhism  soon  followed.  Jainism,  which  came 
last,  made  its  advent  in  unfavourable  circum- 
stances. The  Jainas  of  India  were  ignorant  of 
the  west  and  of  western  methods  of  study. 
Worse  than  this,  they  were  religiously  averse 
to  letting  non- Jainas  read,  or  even  see  or  touch, 
their  sacred  books.  In  consequence  Jainism 
was  misunderstood  and  misrepresented.  Its 
tradition  and  teachings  suffered  from  the  scholar's 
partiality  for  his  older  and  accustomed  studies  in 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism.    But.  by  the  labours 


PREFACE 


of  men  like  Weber,  Blihler,  Jacobi,  Hoernle, 
and  others,  the  credibility  of  its  tradition  has 
been  established,  and  it  has  been  accorded  the 
recognition  due  to  its  antiquity  and  importance. 
There  are  also  evidences  of  a  more  general 
interest  in  Jainism  as  a  practical  religion.  Many 
persons — Europeans  and  others — have  asked  for 
a  small  and  reliable  book  on  the  subject,  and 
not  being  aware  of  any  work  which  precisely 
answers  the  requirements,  I  have  ventured  to 
put  together  these  Outlines,  addressed  to  a  public 
in  India  and  Europe.  The  vastness  of  the 
subject  may  help  to  excuse  the  inadequacy,  of 
which  I  am  fully  conscious. 

The  Outlines  were  sketched  in  England  in 
1908  9,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  to  Brother 
H.  Warren  wrhat  little  I  knew  of  Jainism. 
Mr.  Warren  typed  his  notes,  which  helped  me 
considerably  in  preparing  the  English  portion  of 
the  book.  My  friend  Brother  Jaina-bhushana 
Brahmachari  Sital  Pershadji,  of  Bombay,  helped 
me  to  select  the  original  texts  at  Allahabad  in 
1913.  In  the  same  year  in  London  Dr.  F.  W. 
Thomas,  of  the  India  Office  Library  and  President 
of  the  Jaina  Literature  Society,  London,  most 
kindly  undertook  to  help  me  with  the  publication 
of   the    book.      For    the    labour    which    he    has 


THE FACE 


bestowed  upon  the  revision  of  the  manuscript, 
and  upon  the  arrangements  for  printing  and 
publication,  I  now  beg  to  tender  my  cordial 
thanks.  Without  the  help  of  these  three  friends. 
Dr.  F.  W.  Thomas,  Brothers  Sital  Pershad  and 
Warren,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  the 
book  to  have  seen  the  light. 

Last  but  not  least,  I  must  express  my  heartfelt 
obligation  to  His  Highness  Maharajadhiraj  Raja 
Rajeshwara  Sawai  Shrl  Tukojl  Rao  Holkar 
Bahadur.  Chief  of  the  Native  State  of  Indore  in 
Central  India,  for  his  gracious  permission  to 
dedicate  the  book  to  him.  In  this  connexion, 
I  must  thank  also  my  friends,  Rai  Bahadur 
Mr.  Seraymal  Bapna,  B.A.,  B.Sc.  LL.B.,  Home 
Minister,  and  Rai  Bahadur  Major  Ram  Prasad 
Dube,  M.A..  B.Sc,  LL.B.,  Revenue  Minister, 
both  of  Indore  State,  for  reading  through  the 
manuscript  in  London  in  1913,  before  His 
Hig'lmess  the  Maharaja  Holkar  accepted  the 
dedication. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  confess  that  the  book 
is  a  very  humble  attempt  to  give  a  brief  but 
accurate  and  authoritative  sketch  of  Jainism. 
I  am  convinced  that  in  its  spirit  and  essentia! 
doctrines  Jainism  has  that  in  it  which  satisfies 
the  deepest  and  the  most  varied  wants — mental 


PREFACE 


and  spiritual — of  the  men  and  women  of  our  age; 
and  if  these  Outlines  should  lead  any  of  them  to 
an  understanding  of  the  message  and  inspiration 
of  Jainism,   I  shall  be  amply  rewarded. 


JAGMANDERLAL   JAINI. 


Sadak  Court,  Indork. 
October,  1915. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    NOTE 

Two  works  by  M    A.   Guerinot  enable  us  to  dispense 
with  a  special  bibliography  ;  these  are — 

Essaide  Bibliographic  Jaina  (in  Annales  clu  Musee  Guimet, 

Bibliotheque  d'Etudes,  tome  xxii).     Paris,  1906. 
Repertoire   d'Epigraphie    Jaina   (Publications  de   l'Ecole 
Francaise  d'Extreme  Orient,  vol.  x).     Paris,  1908. 
Some  more  recent  works  in  English  are  named  in  the 
Preliminary  Note,  and  we  may  add — - 
Life o/Malidvlra,  by  Manik-chand  Jaini.    Allahabad,  1908. 
The    Antagada-dasdo  and  Anuttarovavdiya-dasao,  trans- 
lated   from    the    Prakrit    by    Prof.    L.   D.    Barnett 
(Oriental  Translation  Fund,  New  Series,  vol.  xvii). 
London,  1907. 
Also,  from  Germany — 

Die  Lehre  vom  Karman  in  der  Philosophie  der  Jainas,  by 
Helmuth  von  Glasenapp.     Leipzig,  1915. 

There  are  also  numerous  Indian  texts  and  transla- 
tions, and  articles  in  journals,  etc.,  such  as  those  by 
Professor  Jacobi  in  the  Encyclopedia  of  Religion  and 
Eih  ics  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Congress  for  the 
History  of  Religions  (Oxford,  1908),  by  Professors 
Ballini,  Belloni-Filippi,  Pavolini,  and  Tessitori,  in  the 
Giornale  della  Societa  Asiatica  Italiana.  In  India  there 
are  several  Jain  periodicals,  such  as  the  Jain  Gazette, 
published  at  Allahabad. 

The  Indian  texts  cited  on  pp.  77-111  are  the 
following  : — 

1.  Anuprekshd,  by  Swami-Karttikeya  (in  Jaina  Grantha 

Ratnakara).     Girgaum. 

b 


XV111  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    NOTE 

2.  Brihat-Svayambhu-stotra,     by     Samanta-bhadra     (in 

Sanatana  Jaina  Grantha  Mala  I).     Bombay,  1905. 

3.  Dravya  -  samgraha,     by     Nemi  -  chandra     Siddhanta- 

Cbakravartin  (Jaina  Siddhanta  Pracbaraka  Manrlali 
of  Deoband).     Benares,  1909. 

4.  Gommata-sara,  by  tbe  same  (witb  Sanskrit  version  by 

Pandit  Manobar  Lai).     Bombay,  1911. 

5.  Niyama-sdra,  by  Kunda-kunda  Acbarya  (MS.). 

6.  Panchdstikdya-gdthd,      by       Kunda-kunda       Acbarya 

(edited  by  Professor  P.  E.  Pavolini  in  tbe  Giornale 
della  Societa  Asiatica  Italiana,  Florence,  1901 ;  also 
Raya-chandra  Jaina  Sastra  Mala,  Bombay,  1904). 

7.  Paramdtma-prakdsa,     by     Yogindra     Acbarya     (MS. 

translation  in  tbe  Jain  Gazette  for  1912). 

8.  Purushd/rtha-siddhy-updya,  by    Amrita-cbandra    Siiri 

(Raya-cbandra  Jaina  Sastra  Mala  I,  and  also  in 
Sanatana  Jaina  Grantba  Mala  I).     Bombay,  1905. 

9.  Batna-karandaka    Srdvakdchdra,  by    Samanta-bbadra 

(in  Sanatana  Jaina  Grantba  Mala  I).    Bombay,  1905. 

10.  Samaija-sdra-kalasa,  by  Amrita-cbandra  Suri    (in  the 

same).     Bombay,  1905. 

11.  Samdyika-pdtha  (MS.;  also  several  editions). 

12.  Tattvdrtha-sdra,  by  Amrita-cbandra  Suri  (in  Sanatana 

Jaina  Grantha  Mala  I).     Bombay,  1905. 

13.  Tattvartha-sutra ,  by  Uma-svati  (in  the  same,  Bombay, 

1905  ;  text  with  commentary  Sarvdrtha-siddhi,  by 
Pujya-pada,  Kolhapur,  1903 ;  with  commentary 
Tattvdrtha-rdjavdrttika,  in  Sanatana  Jaina  Grantha 
Mala,  iv,  Benares,  1913  ;  text  with  German 
translation  and  commentary  as  Eine  Jaina - 
Dogmatik  by  Prof.  H.  Jacobi  in  the  Zeitschrift  der 
Deutschen  Morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft,  1906). 

F.  W.  T. 


INTRODUCTION    AND    HISTORY 

Two  facts  stand  at  the  basis  of  all  philosophy  and 
science.  One  of  these  is  Man;  the  other,  the  Universe. 
All  speculation  attempts  to  answer  the  question  :  What 
is  the  relationship  that  exists  between  Man  and  the 
Universe  ?  All  practical  wisdom  tries  to  solve  the 
problem  :  In  the  light  of  such  relationship  what  is 
the  best  mode  of  living  for  man  ?  All  religions  and  all 
systems  of  ethics  and  metaphysics  are  attempts,  more 
or  less  successful,  to  deal  with  the  various  aspects  of 
the  above  two  questions. 

The  object  of  these  pages  is  to  try  to  reconstruct  the 
answer  which  in  India  Lords  Parsva-natha  and  Maha- 
vira  gave  to  these  questions  in  the  eighth  and  sixth 
centuries  B.C.  respectively.  The  work  has  no  very  great 
antiquarian  pretensions.  It  seeks  rather  to  expound  the 
main  features  of  an  ancient  creed,  which  still  retains  the 
allegiance  of  an  important  section  of  the  Indian  people. 
A  word  as  to  the  plan  of  the  Outlines.  The  contents 
may  seem  to  be  almost  presumptuously  encyclopaedic. 
But  the  all-comprehensive  nature  of  the  questions 
makes  it  imperative  to  cast  if  only  one  glance  upon  the 
various  points  of  view  from  which  men  and  matters  are 
looked  at  by  the  different  sciences  —  practical  and 
speculative. 

The    subject    might    be    divided    into    two    parts: 
Part  I :  Religion  ;     Part  II  :    Secular  Knowledge,  e.g., 


XX  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

Logic ;  Mathematics ;  Science,  including  Cosmogony, 
Cosmology,  Astronomy,  Astrology,  Palmistry,  etc., 
Chemistry,  etc.,  Medicine,  Occult  Sciences,  Arts  and 
Practical  Sciences ;  Law  ;  Language ;  and  Grammar. 
But  the  Outlines  deal  systematically  only  with  Part  I ; 
the  second  part  is  just  touched  in  the  Appendices. 

Part  I.     Religion 

The  word  "religion"  is  here  used  in  the  sense  of 
its  popular  synonym  "  creed  ",  one's  set  of  beliefs. 
As  soon  as  man  begins  to  think,  he  consciously  or 
unconsciously  asks  himself  certain  questions  about 
himself,  about  the  universe,  about  his  destination, 
and  about  his  duties.  Equally  consciously  or  un- 
consciously he  answers  his  questions,  in  a  lucid  or 
indistinct,  in  a  partial  or  thorough,  in  a  cogent  or 
unconvincing  manner.  These  sets  of  answers  are  his 
religion.  Even  if  a  man  denies  God,  this  means  onl\- 
that  he  expresses  his  disagreement  with  the  answer  of 
a  believer  in  God,  and  thus  implicitly  gives  a  different 
answer  to  the  question  "  How  has  the  universe  come  to 
be  what  it  is  ?  "  Accordingly  a  man's  "  religion  "  means 
his  accepted  answers  to  questions  about  himself,  the 
universe,  and  his  destiny  and  duty  in  life. 

The  question  "  What  am  I  ?"  may  be  split  up  into  its 
two  aspects  :  theological  and  metaphysical.  Theology 
teaches  not  only  what  our  "  I "  or  "  ego  "  is,  but  also 
the  relationship  of  this  ego  to  God.  Metaphysics 
teaches  us  the  relationship  between  the  "  I "  and  the 
"  non-I  ",  i.e.  between  man  and  the  universe. 


INTRODUCTION  :    GENERAL  XXI 

The  question  "How  best  to  live?"  may  be  split  up 
into  its  two  aspects  :  ethical  and  ritualistic.  The 
problem  of  ethics  is  the  problem  of  man's  conduct  in 
society  ;  ritual  deals  with  man's  life  with  reference  to 
his  conception  of  God. 

Thus  the  subject  may  most  conveniently  be  arranged 
under  four  heads — 

1.  Theology  :    man's   idea   of  God   and    his   relation 

to  Him. 

2.  Metaphysics  :     man's    conception    of    matter    and 

force,  life,  time  and  space,  etc. ;  specially 
the  problem  of  the  physical  universe  and  the 
thinking  mind,  to  which  through  thought  at 
least  it  is  subject. 

3.  Ethics :     man's    duty    in    life    to  himself  and    to 

society. 

4.  Ritual  :  the  way  of  manifesting  his  theology  in 

the    company    of    those     who     hold     the     same 
theological  views. 
These  four  aspects  may  be  considered  one  by  one. 

Theology 

These  questions  which  we  put  to  ourselves  in  theology 
proper  are  :  "  What  is  God  ?  "  "  What  is  our  relation 
to  God  ?  "  The  answer  to  the  first  question  is  :  God 
is  the  highest  ideal  which  man  can  think  of.  To  the 
second  question  :  We  stand  to  God  as  the  actual  does 
to  the  ideal,  and  it  is  our  duty  to  try  and  rise  as  far  as 
we  can  to  that  ideal. 

The  highest  ideal  is  that  which  is  best  for  the 
individual    and    for    humanity.       Xow    it    so    happens 


XX11  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

that  what  is  best  for  the  former  is  also  the  best  for 
the  latter.  It  is  something  like  the  selfishness  with 
which  Goethe  was  charged.  If  every  atom  of  humanity 
■ — and  man  is  no  more  than  that — were  so  to  live  as  to 
put  forth  the  best  that  is  in  him,  he  would  discharge 
his  duty  to  mankind.  Thus  our  inquiry  is  limited  to 
finding  out  the  best  ideal  for  the  individual.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  in  all  ages  and  climes  man  has  sought 
happiness  and  avoided  pain  and  misery.  "The  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number  "  is  only  a  practical 
paraphrase  of  the  Jaina  doctrine  "  absolute  and  eternal 
happiness  for  all  living  beings".  So,  in  the  highest 
ideal,  happiness  and  virtue  are  identified.  The  Jaina 
god  is  the  soul  at  its  best,  i.e.  when,  freed  from  all  that 
is  material,  it  has  attained  perfect  knowledge,  faith, 
power,  and  bliss. 

Metaphysics 
In  metaphysics  man  through  different  ages  and 
.stages  of  philosophy  has  observed  the  self  and  the 
non-self,  and  has  always  tried  to  apotheosize  the  one 
or  the  other,  or  to  strike  a  sort  of  compromise  between 
the  two.  He  has  formulated  either  one  substance,  like 
the  Brahma  of  the  Vedantist  or  the  matter  of  the 
materialist,  or  else  many  substances  like  the  Sarikhya, 
or  else  two  substances.  Jainism  takes  its  stand  upon 
a  common-sense  basis,  which  can  be  verified  by 
everyone  for  himself.  Jaina  metaphysics  divides  the 
Universe  into  two  everlasting,  uncreated,  coexisting, 
but  independent  categories — the  soul  (jiva),  the  non- 
soul    (ajiva   or    non-jlva).       Logically    it    is    a    perfect 


[NTRODUCTION  :    GENERAL  XXlll 

division  and  unassailable.  The  non-soul  is  dis- 
tinguished under  five  heads:  matter,  time,  space,  and 
the  principles  of  motion  and  stationariness.  The  soul 
is  the  higher  and  the  only  responsible  category. 
Except  in  its  perfect  condition  in  the  final  stage  of 
liberation  (nirvana),  it  is  always  in  combination  with 
matter.  The  bod}'  —  the  non-soul — -is  the  lower 
categoiy,  and  must  be  subdued  by  the  soul.  The  link 
of  union  between  the  soul  and  the  non-soul  is  karma  : 
and  the  production,  fruition,  and  destruction  of  karma, 
together  with  the  soul  and  the  non-soul,  are  called  the 
Principles  (tattvas)  of  Jainism. 

Eth  ics 
Jaina  ethics  is  the  most  glorious  part  of  Jainism,  and 
it  is  simplicity  itself.  There  is  no  conflict  between 
man's  duty  to  himself  and  to  societ}\  The  highest 
good  of  society  is  the  highest  good  of  the  individual. 
The  soul  is  to  be  evolved  to  the  best  of  its  present 
capacity,  and  one  means  to  this  evolution  is  the 
duty  of  helping  that  of  others  by  example,  advice, 
encouragement,  and  help.  The  Jaina  discipline  is  hard. 
The  rigour  of  this  discipline  will  be  evident  from  the 
rules  of  conduct  given  in  the  following  pages  under 
Ethics,  for  example  the  eleven  stages  of  a  householder's 
life  (pp.  67-70)and  the  fourteen  stages  of  the  evolution  of 
the  soul  (pp.  48-52).  The  first  stage  of  a  Jaina  layman's 
life  is  that  of  intelligent  and  well-reasoned  faith  in 
Jainism  ;  and  the  second  is  when  he  takes  a  vow  not  to 
destroy  any  kind  of  life,  not  to  lie,  not  to  use  another's 
property  without  his  consent,  to  be  chaste,  to  limit  his 


xxiv  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

necessaries,   to  worship  daily,   and  to  give  charity  in 

the   way  of    knowledge,  medicine,   comfort,   and   food. 

And  these  virtues  are  summed  up  in  one  word  :  ahimsd 

(not-hurting).     "Hurt  no  one"  is  not  a  merely  negative 

precept.     It  embraces  active  service  also  ;  for,  if  you  can 

help  another  and  do  not — your  neighbour  and  brother 

— surely  you  hurt  him,  although  on  the  analogy  of  the 

legal    damnum  sine   injuria   it    may    be    said    to    be 

a    non-moral    omission,    for    which    you     may    not    be 

condemned. 

Ritual 

Jaina  ritual  is,  like  all  priestly  matters,  very 
elaborate  and  complicated  ;  but  its  principle  is  in 
conformity  with  the  -  simplicity  of  the  whole  creed. 
Its  practical  aspects  are  two  :  the  devotional  and  the 
ecstatic.  The  devotional  is  like  the  devotion  of  wife 
to  husband,  or  of  child  to  father.  The  devotee  feels 
near  to,  and  in  the  presence  of,  the  great,  rich,  brilliant, 
burning  ideal  which  has  presented  itself  to  him 
as  an  ever-inspiring,  ever-vivifying  infinity  of  purity 
and  joy.  In  the  ecstatic  it  is  the  husband  or 
father  conscious  of  his  power,  of  his  reception  of 
the  devotion  of  wife  or  child.  The  soul  in  ecstasy 
feels  itself  to  be  the  light.  The  Jaina  ritual  also 
circles  round  the  one  central  Jaina  ideal — the  perfect 
sou] — which  is  at  once  the  goal,  glory,  duty,  and 
destiny  of  the  best  of  humanity. 

Part  II.    Secular  Knowledge 
Jaina  literature,  even  in  its  ruins,  is  very  rich  and 
varied.     Professor  Dr.  A.  Guerinot,  of  Paris,  remarks 


INTRODUCTION  :    GENERAL  XXV 

as  follows : — "  Tous  les  genres  y  sont  representes  : 
d'abord  la  dogmatique,  la  morale,  la  polemique,  et 
l'apologetique  ;  mais  aussi  l'histoire  et  la  legende, 
L'epopee  et   le  roinan,  la  grammaire,  la    lexicographie 

et  l'astronoinie.  voir  le  theatre"'  (Essui  de  Bibliographie 
Jaina,  p.  xxxi).1  The  Outlines  only  touch  in  the 
Appendices  a  few  out  of  this  vast  variety  of  topics.  ■ 


1  Professor  Jacobi  in  his  article  Jainism  [Encyclopaedia  of  Religion 
and  Ethic?)  mentions  in  particular  the  numerous  tales  in  Prakrit 
and  Sanskrit  employed  to  illustrate  works  of  a  dogmatical  or 
edifying  character;  further,  Sanskrit  poems,  in  plain  or  ornate 
style,  and  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit  hymns.  ••Jain  authors  have  also 
contributed  many  works,  original  treatises  as  well  as  commentaries, 
to  the  scientific  literature  of  India  in  its  various  branches — grammar. 
lexicography,  metrics,  poetics,  philosophy,  etc." 

The  original  language  of  the  canon  was  a  Prakrit,  i.e.  an  early 
derivative  of  Sanskrit,  spoken  in  Bihar  :  it  is  known  as  Arsha  or 
Ardha-Mdgadhi.  In  the  existing  Svetambara  texts,  modified  by 
time,  two  dialects  are  distinguished,  one  being  confined  to  verse  : 
while  the  Digambaras  employ  a  third.  The  early  commentaries 
were  in  Prakrit.  Sanskrit,  first  employed  by  the  Digambaras,  has 
been  predominant  since  about  1000  a.d.,  although  the  Prakrit  has 
continued  in  use.  Of  modern  dialects  the  Marwarl,  a  special  form  of 
Hindi,  and  Gujarat!  are  preferred. — F.  W.  T. 


xxvi  outlines  of  jajn1sm 

Jaina  History  and  Chronology 

Time  is  infinite  ;  but  there  are  in  it  {eons  (Icalpas)  or 
cycles.  Each  geon  has  two  eras :  the  avasarpini,  or 
descending  era,  in  which  piety  and  truth,  etc.  (dharma) 
go  on  decreasing,  until  in  the  end  chaos  and  confusion 
reign  over  the  earth  ;  and  the  utsarpini,  or  ascending 
era,  in  which  there  is  an  ever-growing  evolution  of 
piety  and  truth,  etc.  Each  of  these  two  equal  eras 
is  subdivided  into  six  ages  (Icalas)  of  unequal  length, 
which  have  their  distino'irishin£  features  fixed  for  them 
for  ever.  The  six  ages  of  the  avasarpini  (the  present 
era)  are  :  (1)  sushama-sushamd,  the  period  of  great 
happiness  ;  (2)  sushama,  the  age  of  happiness ; 
(3)  sushama- duhshamd,  the  age  of  happiness  and 
some  misery  ;  (4)  duhshama-sushamd,  the  age  of 
misery  and  some  happiness  ;  (5)  duhshama,  the  age  of 
misery  (this  is  the  particular  period  in  which  we  are 
living  ;  we  have  passed  through  about  2,400  years  of  it) ; 
(6)  duhshamd-duhshaTnd,  the  age  of  great  misery. 
The  six  ages  of  the  utsarpini  have  the  same  names,  but 
they  occur  in  the  reverse  order,  duhshamd-duhshaTnd 
being  the  first  age.  Thus  the  first  three  ages  of  the 
avasarpini,  and  therefore  also  the  last  three  ages  of 
the  utsarpini,  are  of  enjoyment  (bhoga-bhumi).  In 
these  men  have  their  birth  and  live  and  die  without 
trouble  or  cai-e.  Everybody  gets  what  he  .wants 
from  the  wishing-trees  (kalpa-vrikshas).  This  means 
that  in  the  earliest  periods  of  their  existence  men  knew 
neither  the  arts  and  industries,  nor  the  pastoral 
pursuits,  nor  agriculture,  and   that  they  kept  bod}T  and 


INTRODUCTION:    HISTORY,    ETC.  XXVI] 

.soul  together  by  a  diet  of  fruits,  roots,  etc.,  wearing 
leaves  and  the  bark  of  trees.  It  was  in  this  way 
that  the  kalpa-vrikshas  yielded  food  and  clothing 
to  the  people  of  the  bhoga-bhumi.  The  remaining 
three  ages,  however,  are  of  Icarma-bhvimi,  the  age  or 
land  of  work.  In  these  men  have  to  work  for  their 
subsistence  in  this  life  and  also  for  their  comforts  and 
blessings  in  the  life  to  come.  It  is  in  the  first  of  these 
last  three,  or  in  the  fourth  age  of  the  era:  that  twenty- 
four  Tirthankaras,  or  guides,  arose.  By  pursuing  the 
Jaina  course  of  life,  as  laymen  and  ascetics,  they 
obtained  perfect  knowledge  and  absolute  and  eternal 
freedom  from  the  bondage  of  karmas,  which  alone 
keep  a  man  in  samsara  (cycle  of  existences);  and  they 
preached  and  published  the  Jaina  religion  to  the  world. 
The  last  of  the  Tlrthankaras  in  the  fourth  age  of  the 
current  cycle  was  Vardhamana,  otherwise  Mahavira. 
He  was  born  in  599  B.C.,1  in  the  family  of  a  ruling 
Kshattriya  chief  of  the  Naya  clan  (hence  in  Buddhist 
books  he  is  called  Nata-putta,  a  son  of  the  Natri,  or 
Naya  lineage), in  the  republic  of  Vaisali  (modern  North 
Behar),  in  the  town  of  the  same  name  (hence  he  is  called 
also  Vaisajika),  at  the  site  of  the  modern  village  of 
Besarh,  about  27  miles  north  of  Patna.  After  living 
with  his  family  during  twenty-eight  years  as  a  married 
man   with  a  daughter,2  a   wife,   a   brother,   and  sister, 

1  Traditional  date  for  the  Svetambaras,  the  Digambara  tradition 
working  out  at  00  years  earlier.  Professor  Jacobi  would  place 
the  death  of  Mahavira  in  477  0'  B.C.  and  adjust  the  other  dates 
accordingly. 

-  According  to  the  Digambaras  Mahavira  never  married  and  was 
a  celibate  throughout  his  life. 


XX  Vlll  OUTLINES    OF    JAIN  ISM 

Vardhamana,  who  had  been  from  the  beginning  of 
a  reflective  turn  of  mind,  bade  a  final  farewell  to  his 
home  and  kindred,  and  retired  into  the  solitude  of  the 
forests,  very  likely  the  Maha-vana,  which  skirted  the 
village  of  his  birth  on  its  northern  side.  There  he 
meditated  upon  the  misery  which  tilled  the  earth,  and 
sought  to  discover  the  means  to  a  permanent  release 
from  the  grasp  of  this  eternal  and  inevitable  suffering. 
After  fourteen  years  of  asceticism  Mahavira  felt  that 
he  had  solved  the  riddle  of  human  misery,  and  was 
prepared  to  preach  it  to  the  world  as  Jainism.  This 
he  did  during  a  wandering  life  extending  over  thirty 
years  from  557  B.C.  to  the  year  of  his  nirvana,  or  final 
liberation,  527  B.C.,1  at  Pava-puri  in  modern  Behar. 
Pava-puri  is  a  place  of  pilgrimage  :  it  is  reached  from 
Bakhtiarpur,  a  station  on  the  East  Indian  Railway. 
The  country  abounds  in  clumps  of  tall  palm-trees, 
which  stand  prominent  and  majestic  against  a  calm 
and  mild  sky.  A  small  river,  now  dried  up,  called  the 
Paimar,  is  in  the  middle  of  the  road  to  Pava-puri. 
Crossing  the  Paimar,  we  come  in  sight  of  the  Paficha 
Paharl,  the  five  hills  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Raja-griha,  which  also  is  a  resort  of  Jaina  pilgrims 
visiting  Pava-puri.  About  3  miles  from  the  Paimar 
the  journey  is  ended,  and  we  near  the  calm  and 
beautiful  temples  which  constitute  Pava-puri.  It  is 
a  small  place,  rendered  attractive  by  its  simple 
surroundings  and  its  sacred  traditions.  There  are 
several  resting-houses  for  Jaina  pilgrims,  and  about 
half  a  dozen  temples  erected    by    pious    Svetambaras 

1  Traditional  dates  :  see  preceding  page,  note  1. 


INTRODUCTION  :    HISTORY,  ETC.  XXIX 

and  Digambaras.  The  pilgrims  are  of  both  sexes  and 
are  numerous,  chiefly  on  the  occasion  of  the  Dewali,  the 
day  on  which  Lord  Mahavira  attained  nirvana.  This 
is  the  great  Indian  illumination  feast,  which  falls  early 
in  winter.  The  pilgrimage  continues  till  the  end  of 
March,  when  the  attendance  begins  to  decrease.  The 
main  temple,  which  contains  the  sacred  footmarks  of 
Mahavira,  stands  in  the  middle  of  a  tank,  covered  with 
lotuses  and  other  aquatic  plants,  and  thronged  with 
fishes  of  various  kinds.  The  insulated  temple  of  our 
last  lord  is  reached  by  a  bridge  of  stone.  In  the  temple 
itself,  in  a  low  chamber  facing  the  east,  there  are  three 
niches.  The  central  one,  the  largest  of  the  three, 
contains  the  footmarks  of  Lord  Mahavira  ;  the  niche 
on  the  right  of  it  those  of  his  disciple  and  apostle 
Gautama  ;  and  that  on  the  left  those  of  his  other 
great  apostle  Sudharma  Acharya.  Both  these  saints 
flourished  in  the  time  .of  Mahavira  and  attained 
nirvana  within  sixt}*-two  years  of  his  death  at  Pava. 

It  is  not  long  since  in  the  west  both  the  personality 
of  Mahavira  and  the  originality  of  his  doctrine  were 
denied.  His  personality  was  merged  in  that  of  his 
great  contemporary  and  rival,  Gautama  Buddha.  His 
doctrine  was  stated  to  be  an  offshoot  of  Buddhism, 
or  a  rebellious  variety  of  Brahmanism.  Both  these 
errors  of  western  savants  have  now  been  abjured.  As  to 
the  historicity  of  Mahavira,  Professor  Guerinot,  among 
others,  has  emphasized  five  great  points  of  difference 
between  Lord  Mahavira  and  Gautama  Buddha,  relating 
to  their  birth,  the  deaths  of  their  mothers,  their 
renunciation,    illumination,   and   death.      To    this    may 


XXX  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

be  added  the  actual  testimony  of  the  Buddhist  scrip- 
tures, which  refer  to  Nata-putta  and  the  sect  of 
Nirgranthas.  This  almost  alone  is  enough  to  establish 
the  individuality  of  Mahavira  and  his  sect. 

As  to  the  relative  antiquity  of  Jainism  and  Buddhism, 
Jaina  study  is  deeply  indebted  to  Professor  Jacob! . 
His  introductions,  in  1884  and  1894,  to  vols,  xxii  and 
xlv  of  the  Sacred  Boohs  of  the  East  historically  proved 
that,  if  there  was  any  borrowing  between  Jainism 
and  Buddhism,  it  was  not  on  the  side  of  Jainism. 
Dr.  Jacobi's  researches  ma}'  be  briefty  summarized : 
for  details  reference  must  be  made  to  his  learned 
discussions.  He  lays  down  four  distinct  lines  of 
evidence  to  prove  the  antiquity  of  Jainism: — 

1.  References  in  old  Buddhist  books  to  well-known, 
acknowledged  doctrines  of  Jaina  theology,  metaphysics, 
and  ethics  :  for  example — 

(1)  A  reference  to  cold  water  possessing  a  soul  (i.e.  to 
jivas,  or  souls,  of  the  jala-kdya)  in  the  commentary  on 
the  Brahmajala  Sutta  of  the  Digha  Nilcaya. 

(2)  A  reference  in  the  same  work  to  the  Jaina 
rejection  of  the  Ajlvaka  doctrine  that  the  soul  has 
colour. 

(3)  A  reference  in  the  Samanna-phala  Sutta  of  the 
same  Nilcaya  to  the  four  vows  of  Parsva-natha.  This 
is  of  special  importance,  as  showing  that  the  Buddhists 
were  also  aware  of  the  older  tradition  of  the  Jainas 
with  regard  to  the  time  and  teachings  of  Parsva- 
natha. 

(4)  A  reference  in  the  Majjhima  Nilcaya  (56)  to  the 
conversion  of  Upali,  a  lay  disciple  of  Mahavira,  after 


INTRODUCTION:    HISTORY",   ETC.  xxxi 

a    dispute    with    the    Buddha    as    to    the    comparative 
iniquity  of  the  sins  of  the  body  and  the  mind. 

(5)  A  reference  in  the  same  work  (56)  to  the  three 
sorts  of  dandas,  '  hurtful  acts,' namely,  of  body,  speech 

and  mind,  in  which  the  Jainas  believe. 

(6)  In  the  Anguttara  Nilcayd  (iii,  74)  Abhaya,  a 
prince  of  the  Lichchhavis  >>i  Vaisall,  refers  to  the  Jaina 
affirmation  of  ability  to  attain  full  knowledge  and  to 
annihilate  kat^mas,  old  and  new,  by  means  of  austerity. 

i  7  i  A  reference  in  the  same  NiJcdya  (iii.  70.  3)  to  the 
Dig-virati  vow  and  the  Uposatha  day.  The  Dig-virati 
vow  is:  :;  I  shall  go  only  in  certain  fixed  direction- 
to-day."  Uposatha  is  keeping  a  fast  in  which  the 
layman  is  supposed  to  be  in  his  thought  and  behaviour 
like  an  ascetic. 

(8)  In  the  Maha-vagga  (vi,  31)  Siha,  the  general  of 
the  Lichchhavis,  and  a  lay  disciple  of  Mahavira,  goes, 
against  his  master's  prohibition,  to  see  the  Buddha, 
and  is  converted  by  him  on  being  taught  the  alcriyd- 
Vdda  doctrine  of  Buddhism,  which  made  him  relinquish 
the  Jaina  doctrine  of  kriyd-vdda,  inculcating  a  belief 
in  soul,  in  the  world,  and  in  action  (believed  to  be  our 
own.  either  by  our  performing  it,  by  our  having  it 
performed,  or  by  our  allowing  it  to  be  performed). 

2.  Indirectly  also  the  Buddhist  records  attest  the 
importance  and  probable  high  antiquity  of  Jainism  : — 

(1)  They  mention  the  Jainas  (Nirgranthas)  as 
the  opponents  and  converts  of  Buddha,  and  never 
imply,  much  less  assert,  that  they  are  a  newly 
founded  sect. 

(2)  Makkhali     Gosala     divides    mankind     into    six 


XXxii  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

classes,  of  which  the  third  is  the  Nirgranthas.  A  new 
sect  could  not  have  held  such  an  important  place  in 
a  division  of  mankind. 

(3)  The  Buddha  had  a  dispute  with  Sachchaka,  who 
wras  a  non-Nirgrantha  son  of  a  Nirgrantha  father. 
This  also  proves  decisively  that  the  Jainas  were  not 
an  offshoot  of  Buddhism. 

3.  The  third  line  of  evidence  consists  of  the  Jaina 
books  themselves.  There  are  no  reasonable  grounds 
for  rejecting  the  recorded  traditions  of  a  numerous 
class  of  men,  as  being  a  tissue  of  meaningless  fabri- 
cations. All  the  events  and  incidents  relating  to  their 
antiquity  are  recorded  so  frequently  and  in  such 
a  matter-of-fact  way  that  they  cannot  be  properly 
rejected,  unless  under  force  of  much  stronger  evidence 
than  that  adduced  by  scholars  who  are  sceptical  as  to 
the  antiquitj^  of  Jainism.  In  the  Uttaradhyayana  Sutra 
(xxiii)  an  interview  between  Gautama  and  Kesin,  the 
followers  of  Mahavlra  and  Parsva-natha  respectively, 
is  held  in  a  garden  :  after  a  conversation  carried  on  in 
more  or  less  occult  terms  the  two  leaders  recognize  the 
fundamental  unity  of  the  doctrines  of  their  respective 
teachers,  and  leave  the  garden  fully  convinced  that 
they  are  workers  in  the  same  field.  This  again  points 
to  an  older  Jaina  faith,  which  prevailed  before  the 
advent  of  Mahavlra  and  which  was  so  vigorously 
reformed  by  him. 

4.  The  last  line  of  evidence  is  the  ancient  character 
of  Jaina  philosophy,  e.g. : — 

(1)  The  "animistic  "  beliefs  of  the  Jainas. 

(2)  The  absence  of  the  category  of  Quality  in  their 


INTRODUCTION  :     HISTORY,    ETC.  xxxiii 

enumeration  of  the  principal  constituent  elements  of 
the  Universe. 

(3)  The  inclusion  of  dharma  and  adharma,  the 
principles  of  motion  and  stationariness,  in  the  class  of 
substances. 

From  the  above  considerations  Professor  Jacobi 
concludes  that  Jainism  was  evolved  at  a  very  early 
period  of  Indo-Aryan  history.  It  is  evident  that  the 
.Taina  creed  has  at  least  as  many  centuries  as  Buddhism 
between  its  present  state  and  its  origination. 

Thus  we  see  that  Mahavlra,  a  prince-ascetic  of 
VaisalL  breathed  his  last  at  Pava-puri  in  527  B.C.  after 
having-  preached  Jainism  for  thirty  years  in  Northern 
India  :  also  that  he  was  not  the  founder,  but  only 
a  reformer  of  a  previously  existing  creed,  whereof 
Parsva-natha  was  the  head.  Parsva-natha  died  in 
776  B.C.  This  is  in  accordance  with  Jaina  tradition. 
Epigraphical  evidence — chiefly  the  Mathura  inscrip- 
tions dealt  with  by  Dr.  Fuhrer- — shows  that  there  are 
dedications  and  offerings  of  a  very  ancient  date  made 
to  Rishabha.  Xow  Jainism  claims  that  it  was  founded 
by  Rishabha  many  and  many  a  long  century  ago.  and 
that  this  first  preacher  was  followed  by  twenty-three 
others,  of  whom  Parsva-natha  was  the  twenty-third. 
being  followed  by  Mahavlra,  the  last  Tirthankara,  who 
attained  nirvana  250  years  after  Parsva-natha.  Thus 
historical  research  allows  the  beginning  and  confirms 
the  conclusion  of  the  sacred  Jaina  tradition.  Its  main 
tenour  has  yet  to  be  verified.  The  next  Jink"  in  the 
Jaina  tradition  is  the  historicity  of  Nemi-natha,  who 
was    a    prince    in    Kathiavadh    and    flourished    before 


xxxiv  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

Parsva-natha.  He  is  said  to  have  preceded  Parsva-natha 
by  5,000  years.  But  Indian  history  before  827  B.C. 
is  mostly  a  reconstruction  Irv  analogy  ;  and  we  need 
not  pause  to  reject  or  defend  the  exact  five  millenniums 
which  are  said  to  separate  Nemi-natha  from  the 
historical  Parsva-natha.  But  the  authenticity  of  his 
life  need  not  be  rejected  without  strong  evidence.  He 
was  a  prince  born  of  the  Yadava  clan  at  Dwaraka, 
and  he  renounced  the  world,  when  about  to  be  married 
to  Princess  Rajamati,  daughter  of  the  Chief  Ugra-sena. 
When  the  marriage  procession  of  Nemi-natha  approached 
the  bride's  castle,  lie  heard  the  bleating  and  moaning 
of  animals  in  a  cattle  pen.  Upon  inquiry  he  found 
that  the  animals  were  to  be  slaughtered  for  the  guests, 
his  own  friends  and  party.  (It  must  be  remembered 
that  he  was  a  Kshattriya  and  that  the  Kshattriyas 
as  a  rule  hunt  and  take  meat ;  although  many  of  them 
renounce  it  altogether,  and  their  women,  even  in  modern 
India,  do  not  partake  of  it.)  Compassion  surged  up  in 
the  youthful  breast  of  Nemi-natha,  and  the  torture  which 
his  marriage  would  cause  to  so  many  dumb  creatures 
laid  bare  before  him  the  mockery  of  human  civilization 
and  its  heartless  selfishness.  He  flung  away  his 
princely  ornaments,  and  repaired  at  once  to  the  forest. 
The  bride  who  had  dedicated  herself  to  him  as  a  prince 
followed  him  also  in  his  ascetic's  life  and  became 
a  nun.  He  attained  nirvana  at  Mount  Girnar,  in 
the  small  state  of  Junagadh  in  Kathiawadh;  and  on 
the  same  lovel}7  mountain  Js  shown  a  grotto  where  the 
chaste  Rajamati  breathed  her  last,  not  far  from  the 
feet  of  Nemi-natha.     There  is  a  romance  and  idealism 


INTRODUCTION:    HISTORY,    ETC.  XXXV 

in  the  lives  of  these  two  wonderful  souls  :  bui  the 
tradition  is  perfectly  matter-of-fact,  and  there  is  no 
ground  for  rejecting  it.  As  to  the  question  of  date, 
Nemi-natha  was  a  cousin  of  Krishna,  the  Lord  of  the 
Bhagavad-gita,  and  the  great  guide  and  friend  of  Arjuna. 
Krishna,  and  his  clan  the  Yadavas,  are  known  to  have 
been  in  Dwaraka,  a  maritime  city  not  far  from  the 
seat  of  Nemi-natha's  activity  and  nirvana.  Scholarsof 
Hindu  literature  may  be  able  to  throw  light  upon  the 
activity  of  Jainas  or  Nirganthas  (or  had  they  still  a 
third  name  in  Kathiawadh  under  Nemi-natha?)  of  about 
the  time  of  the  Maha-bharata.  A  little  more  confirma- 
tion of  the  plausible  and  uncontroverted  Jaina  tradition 
will  be  a  great  point  gained,  as  it  will  push  back  the 
light  of  knowledge  of  Jaina  history  by  at  least 
a  thousand  or  more  years. 

As  the  last  Tirtharikara,  then,  Mahavlra  is  the  direct 
source  of  the  existing  Jaina  sacred  books.  Mahavlra's 
speech  is  stated  to  have  been  intelligible  to  all — even 
to  the  animals  and  birds — who  were  present  at  his 
sermons.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  Jainism  is 
perhaps  the  only  religion  said  to  have  been  expounded 
to  all  living  creatures,  all  understanding  in  their  several 
wav's  the  message  of  peace  and  freedom  which  it 
brought.  To  the  absent,  and  to  all  who  came  after  his 
nirvana,  Mahavlra's  chief  disciples  and  apostles,  the 
Gana-dharas,  explained  the  truth  of  things  in  accordance 
with  the  Jina's  speech.  Up  till  now  the  faith  was 
promulgated  only  by  word  of  mouth  and  by  tradition, 
of  which  memory  was  the  chief  repository  and  means 
•of  continuance.      The    preceding  Tirtharikaras    are,  it 


XXXVI  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

may  be  said  in  passing,  credited  with  having  taught 
the  same  articles  ot*  faith  and  practice  as  Mahavira. 
Only  a  sarva-jna,  one  who  knows  all,  can  fully  under- 
stand the  whole  truth  as  expounded  by  Mahavira;  and,. 
as  men's  capacity  of  becoming  omniscient  goes  on 
decreasing,  so  the  real  tradition  of  Jainism  also  becomes 
every  day  dimmer  and  more  and  more  inaccurately 
represented.  The  whole  of  Mahavira's  teachings, 
when  systematized,  consisted  of  (I)  twelve  Angas,  the 
last  Aiiga,  the  Drishti-vada,  being  subdivided  into 
(a)  fourteen  Purvas,  (b)  five  Parikarmas,  (c)  Sutra,, 
(d)  Prathamanuyoga,  and  (e)  the  five  Chulilcas;  and 
(2)  the  Anga-bahya  Sruta.  A  brief  account  of  these  is 
given  in  Appendix  V. 

After  the  nirvana  of  Mahavira  in  527  B.C.  the 
knowledge  of  the  eleven  Angas  and  fourteen  Parvas  was 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  extant  during  683  years, 
i.e.  down  to  a.d.  156.1  The  tradition  continued  to 
disappear,  and  its  history,  as  recorded  in  the  Jaina 
Pattavalw,  is  as  follows  :  During  sixty-two  years  after 
Mahavira.  i.e.  until  465  B.C.,  three  Kevalins,  Gautama, 
Sudharma,  and  Jambu,  were  the  propagators,  and  all 
these  three  attained  nirvana,  Jambu  being  the  last  in 
the  present  era.  After  these,  during  100  years, 
i.e.  until  365  B.C.,  five  Sruti -kevalins,  Vishnu-nandin, 
Nandi-mitra,  Aparajita,  Go-vardhana,  and  Bhadra-bahu, 
carried  on  the  tradition.  So  far  the  different  Pattavalls 
agree  in  dates  and  names,  as  well  as  in  the  number  of 
Munis  who  flourished  in  the  two  periods.  But  hence- 
forward  the  different   traditions  divide  the  remaining 

'  Concerning  this  and  the  following  dates  see  note  1  on  p.  xxvii. 


INTRODUCTION  :    HISTORY,    ETC.  XXXV11 

521  years  into  different  sub-periods  and  with  different 
ascetics  in  them.  But  they  generally  agree  in  holding 
that  the  Sruti-kevalins  were  followed  by  the  Dasa- 
Purvins,  the  Dasa-Purvins  by  the  Ekadasa-Angins,  and 
the  Ekadasa-Angins  by  the  minor  or  Catur-Arigins  and 
Eka-Angins.  After  this  all  the  Pattavalis  agree  that 
no  one  was  left  with  the  knowledge  of  even  one  Aiiga, 
as  it  was  first  preached  by  Mahavira  and  then  explained 
to  the  world  by  his  chief  disciples,  the  Gana-dharas.1 

In  the  time  of  Mahavira  and  the  Kevalins  writing 
was  not  employed  to  record  the  teachings  of  Jainism. 
Like  the  Brahmans,  Buddhists,  and  others,  the  Jainas 
(they  were  called  the  Nigganthas  or  Nirgranthas)  also 
had  recourse  to  a  highly  trained  memory  for  the 
preservation  and  propagation  of  their  faith.  But,  as 
we  have  seen  above,  the  knowledge  of  the  Jaina 
scriptures  was  decaying  generation  after  generation  ; 
and  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  the  Jainas  had  also 
begun  to  split  up  into  the  Svetambaras  and  Digambaras. 
The  Jaina  Siddhanta  was  considered  to  be  in  imminent 
peril  of  being  quite  destroyed,  if  matters  were  left  as 
they  then  were.  Recourse  was  had  to  the  art  of 
writing,  which  for  about  four  centuries  had  been 
progressing  in  the  land. 

According  to  the  Svetambaras,  the  Canon  was 
reduced  to  fixity  by  the  Council  of  Patali-putra 
(modern  Patna,  in  Behar)  near  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  But  its  final  form  was  due  to 
the    Council    at    Yalabhl,    under    the    presidency     of 

1  For  the  whole  subject  see  Dr.  Hoernle"s  articles  in  Indian 
Antiquary,  vol.   xx.  pp.   341  sqq.  ;   and  vol.   xxi.  pp.   57  sqq. 


xxxviii  OUTLINES  OF  jainism 

Devarddhi  ganin,  nearly  eight  hundred  years  later,  about 
454  A.D.1  Eighty-four  works  were  now  recognized : 
forty-one  Sutras,  thirty  Painnas  (or  Praklrnakas,  or 
unclassified  works),  twelve  Niryuktis  (or  commentaries ), 
and  one  Mahabhdshya.  The  forty-one  Sutras  contain 
the  eleven  Aiigas  (according  to  the  Digambaras  they  are 
lost),  twelve  Upangas,  five  CJthedas,  five  Mains,  and 
eight  miscellaneous,  of  which  one  is  the  Kalpa  Sutra 
of  Bhadra-bahu,  translated  by  Dr.  Jacobi  in  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,  vol.  xxii. 

The  Digambaras  seem  to  hold  that  their  sacred 
books  came  to  be  written  after  the  Vikrama  year  114, 
or  A.D.  57,  when  the  almost  total  extinction  of  men 
learned  in  the  Aiigas  made  it  necessary  to  have  the 
sacred  lore  reduced  to  writing.  And  then  they  took 
down,  according  to  the  remembered  words  spoken  by 
Mahavira  and  the  Kevalins  who  followed  him,  the 
scriptures  relating  to  the  seven  tattvas,  the  nine 
paddrthas,  the  six  dravyas,  the  five  astilcdyas,  the 
hells,  the  heavens,  the  siddha-kshetras,  the  madhya-loka 
with  its  many  seas  and  continents,  the  jivas  with  their 
classes,  and  the  eighty-four  lakhs  (  =  8,400,000)  of 
conditions  in  the  cycle  of  existences. 

As  to  the  later  history  of  these  scriptures,  the  Jaina 
tradition  proceeds  to  relate  that  they  were  sunk  in 
boatfuls  by  Sarikara  Acharya  (A.D.  788-820)  about 
the  Vikrama  year  846  (a.d.  789).  Some  of  the  books, 
however,  were  saved  in  Nepal  in  the  North,  in  Sravana 
Belgola  (Mysore),  and  in  the  Mewar  country  by  pious 
Rajas  and  Maha-rajas.  After  Sarikara  Acharya's  death 
1  Professor  Jacobi  would  correct  this  date  to  514  a.d. 


INTRODUCTION  :    HISTORY,  ETC.  xxxix 

and  under  more  tolerant  kings  the  followers  of  Jainism 
sought  out  these  books  and  published  them  all  over 
the  country.  These,  then,  are  the  direct  originals  of 
the  man\'  translations  and  commentaries  which  con- 
stitute the  largest  proportion  of  the  books  in  the 
Jaina  libraries  attached  to  the  temples  or  established 
apart.1 

Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  Jaina  Sastras  are  very- 
far  from  being  the  direct  representatives  of  the 
teachings  of  the  last  Tlrthaiikara,  whose  word  alone, 
according  to  them,  is  infallible  and  deserving  of 
unquestioned  faith.  The  above  sketch  of  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  Jaina  sacred  literature  is  sufficient  to  make  us- 
think  twice  before  accepting  the  trite  saying  of  Jaina 
pandits  and  others  that  the  word  of  Kevalins  must  be 
taken  as  truth  itself.  Jainism  claims  to  be  eternal. 
But  Jainism,  or  the  spirit  of  Jainism,  is  not  identical 
with  the  body  of  written  Jainism,  as  it  exists  to-davr. 
Twenty-four    centuries    have    passed     since    Mahavira 

1  The  division  of  the  Jain  community  into  the  two  seel-  of 
Svetambaras,  "White-robed,'*  and  Digambaras,  "Sky-robed,"'  i.e. 
naked,  took  place,  according  to  their  concurrent  testimony,  609  years 
after  Mahavira,  i.e.  about  SO  a.d.  But  in  germ  it  existed  as  early 
as  the  time  of  the  First  Council.  The  points  of  difference  are  minor 
ones,  the  Digambaras  holding  that  the  Perfect  Saint  lives  without 
food,  that  a  monk  should  not  own  anything,  even  clothes,  and  thai 
salvation  is  not  possible  for  a  woman,  for  which  last  reason  they  do 
not  admit  of  nuns.  They  also  disown  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Svetambaras. 

Later  divisions  gave  rise  to  various  other  sects,  such  as  that  of  the 
Lm'ikas  1 1452  a.d.),  which  denounces  idols,  and  that  of  the  still 
somewhat  numerous Sthanaka-cdsis,  orDhundhias  (165.3  a.d.),  holding' 
the  same  view.  Other  sects,  ancient  and  mediaeval,  are  mentioned 
in  literary  and  epigraphical  documents. 


xl  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

taught  his  simple  creed.  And  many  minor  points  in 
Jainism  will  be  found  to  be  additions  and  excrescences 
upon  the  parent  stock  which  was  planted  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  To  my  mind  three  doctrines  of 
Jainism  must  be  specially  noted  as  being  the  basic 
principles  of  the  faith. 

In  theology,  in  addition  to  the  beliefs  in  karma, 
reincarnation,  etc.,  which  Jainism  held  in  common  with 
other  Indian  religious  and  metaphysical  systems,  it 
boldly  laid  down  the  principle  that  man,  by  following 
the  requisites  of  faith,  knowledge,  and  conduct,  can 
attain  divinity  ;  that  God  is  only  the  highest,  the 
noblest,  and  the  fullest  manifestation  of  all  the  powers 
which  lie  latent  in  the  soul  of  man. 

In  philosophy  Jainism  holds  the  doctrine  of  many 
points  of  view.  The  universe  may  be  studied  in  many 
aspects,  and  different  view-points  give  rise  to  different 
statements  and  conclusions.  As  to  details,  the  most 
important  sections  of  Jaina  philosophy  deal  with  the 
three  jewels,  the  seven  tattvas,  the  nine  padarthas, 
the  six  dravyas,  and  furnish  a  detailed  description  of 
the  first  tattva,  soul,  and  of  the  last,  nirvana,  the  souls 
final  liberation. 

In  ethics  the  first  principle  is  aJtimsd,  non-hurting  of 
any  kind  of  life,  howsoever  low  may  be  the  stage  of  its 
evolution. 

It  is  upon  these  three  doctrines  that  the  whole  of 
Jainism  is  found  mainly  to  rest. 


Chapter   I.— THEOLOGY 

The  fundamental  principles  of  Jainism  are  these  : — 

I.  Man's  personality  is  (hud,  material  and  spiritual 
(1,  2  l).  The  duality  of  the  dead  matter  and  the  living 
principle  which  animates  the  human  body  is  evident. 
There  may  be  differences  as  to  the  nature  of  it ;  but  as 
to  the  fact  of  the  duality  there  cannot  be  any  question. 
This  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  Hindu  doctrine  of 
Brahman,  or  one  soul  which  is  all  and  in  all. 

II.  Man  is  not  perfect.  He  can  improve,  i.e.  he  can 
advance  in  the  direction  of  perfection.  The  human  soul 
can  attain  perfection.  In  its  perfect  condition  the  soul 
enjoys  its  true  and  eternal  character,  whereof  the 
characteristic  is  the  four  infinities :  infinite  perception 
or  faith  ;  infinite  knowledge  ;  infinite  power  ;  and  infinite 
bliss  (3). 

The  four  infinities  are  respectively  named:  ananta- 
darsana,  ananta-jndna,  ananta-virya,  and  ananta- 
sukha. 

III.  By  Ids  spiritual  nature  man  can  and  must 
control  his  material  nature.  It  is  only  after  the  entire 
subjugation  of  matter  that  the  soul  attains  perfection, 
freedom,  and  happiness  (4,  5). 

It  is  such  a  free  and  happy  soul  that  is  called  Jina 
(Conqueror)  or  Tirthankara  (Guide)  (6). 

1  The  thick  numerals  in  brackets  correspond  to  the  order  in  which 
the  original  texts  are  numbered  below.  The  texts  are  the  authority 
for  the  statements  in  the  Outlines. 


OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 


These  free  souls  are  of  two  kinds — ■ 

1.  Disembodied  and  in  nirvana  at  the  summit  of  the 
Universe,  steady  and  in  bliss  unending.  These  are  called 
Siddhas  (9).  They  are  also  distinguished  into  two 
kinds  according  as  in  their  embodied  condition  they  did 
or  did  not  preach  and  propound  the  Truth.  If  they  did, 
then  in  nirvana  they  are  Urthankara-siddha  (8).  There 
have  been  twenty-four  such  in  the  current  cyclic  period, 
avasarpini  (10).  (See  below,  p.  15.)  If  they  did 
not  preach  and  propound  the  truth,  they  are  samanya- 
s  iddha. 

2.  Embodied  souls  which  have  attained  omniscience, 
but  have  not  yet  discarded  the  last  vestments  of  human 
body.     These  are  the  Arhats  (7). 

Both  these  classes  have  innumerable  qualities, 
but  eight  of  the  first  and  forty-six  of  the  second 
class  are  specially  mentioned.  (These  are  named  in 
Appendix  IV.) 

Besides  the  omniscient  Arhats,  there  are  sages,  or 
human  souls  in  a  higher  spiritual  condition  than  other 
men  :  these  are  saints,  sadhus  or  munis.  They  are 
distinguished  into  three  classes — 

1.  Acharya — the  head  of  the  saints.  He  has  among 
others  thirty-six  qualities  (11).     Appendix  IV. 

2.  Upadhyaya.  This  is  a  teaching  saint ;  he  has 
twenty-five  qualities  (12).     Appendix  IV. 

3.  Sadhu.  This  is  the  saint  or  ascetic  simply  ;  he 
has  twenty-eight  qualities  (13).     Appendix  IV. 

The  above  five  classes — siddha,  arJtat,  acharya , 
upadJtyaya,  and  sadhu — are  called  the  pancha-'para- 
meshthin,  or  the  five  supreme  ones,  of  Jainism.    To  these 


THEOLOGY  :    PRINCIPLES.  6 

the  most  popular  Jaina  invocation  is  addressed  millions 
of-  times  every  day  in  India.     It  runs — 

Namo  arahantdnam,  namo  siddhdnam, 
run/mo  dyd  r  iyd  n  a  n  i,  namo  u  vajjhd  yd  nam, 
namo  loye  sabbo -soli  u  nam. 
"  I  bow  to  the  arhats,  I  bow  to  the  siddhas,  I  bow  to 
the  dclidrya8,  I  bow  to  the  upddhydyas,  I  bow  to 
all  the  sadhus  in  the  world." 
The  repetition    of    these    words    is    accompanied  by 
bowing  with  folded  hands  in  all  four  directions  :  east, 
north,  west,  and  south. 

Four  points  must  be  noticed:  (1)  The  catholicity  of 
the  Jaina  attitude.  The  worship  and  reverence  are 
given  to  all  human  souls  worthy  of  it,  in  whatever 
country  or  clime  they  may  be.  (2)  The  worship  is 
impersonal.  It  is  the  aggregate  of  the  qualities  that 
is.  worshipped  rather  than   any  particular   individual. 

(3)  The  arhat,  the  living  embodiment  of  the  highest 
goal  of  Jainism,  is  named  before  the  free  soul  who  has 
left  the  world  and  cannot  be  approached  by  humanity, 
which    requires   to    see   truth   before    it    can    seek     it. 

(4)  The  Jaina  incantation  Aum  or  Om  is  composed  of 
five  sounds  :  a,  a,  a,  u,  and  m,  which  stand  respectively 
for  arhat]  asarvra  =  " disembodied ",  i.e.  the  siddhas; 
dchdrya;  upddhydya;  and  muni  =  the  silent,  or  the 
sad /hi. 

IV.  The  last  basic  principle  of  Jainism  is  this:  Man 
himself,  and  he  alone,  is  responsible  for  all  that  is  good 
or  bad  in  his  life  (14,  15). 

Jainism,  more  than  any  other  creed,  gives  absolute 
religious  independence  and  freedom  to  man.     Nothing 


4  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

■can  intervene  between  the  actions  which  we  do  and 
the  fruits  thereof.  Once  done,  they  become  our 
masters  and  must  fructify.  As  my  independence 
is  great,  so  my  responsibility  is  coextensive  with  it. 
I  can  live  as  I  like ;  but  my  choice  is  irrevocable,  and 
I  cannot  escape  the  consequences  of  it.  This  principle 
distinguishes  Jainism  from  other  religions,  e.g.  Christi- 
anity, Muhammadanism,  Hinduism.  No  God,  nor  His 
prophet  or  deputy,  or  beloved,  can  interfere  with 
human  life.  The  soul,  and  it  alone,  is  directly  and 
necessarily  responsible  for  all  that  it  does. 

A  tabular  account  of  classes  of  souls  in  Jainism  may 
now  be  given  : — 

Souls  are 


liberated  and  in  nirvana 
Siddhas 


or  mundane,  or  entangled  with  matter 


Ascetics 


Non-ascetics 


Tirthankara-  Sdmdnya- 
siddhas,  siddhas, 

those  who  all  other 
preached  liberated 
Jainism  souls, 

in  their 
embodied 
condition. 


Ariiats, 

perfect 

souls, 

which 

await  their 

going  to 

nirvana  after 

shedding  the 

kdrmana  body. 


Others 


ACHA.RYAS,  TJPADHYAYAS,  SaDHUS, 

heads  of  teaching  all  other 

groups  of  saints  or  saints  or 

ascetics.  ascetics.  ascetics. 


As  compared  with  most  other  religions,  it  is  important 
to  notice  that  Jainism  has  a  very  definite  and  uncom- 
promising attitude  towards  the  conception  of  God.  It 
is  accused  of  being  atheistic.  This  is  not  so,  because 
Jainism  believes  in  Godhood  and  in  innumerable  gods  ; 
but  certainly  Jainism   is  atheistic   in  not  believing  its 


THEOLOGY  :    SACRED    PERSONS.  5 

gods  to  have  created  the  Universe.  Creation  implies 
volition,  a  desire  to  create.  A  desire  can  only  relate  to 
some  thing  or  fact  which  is  not, but  ought  to  be:  therefore 
it  implies  imperfection.  And  God  cannot  be  imperfect. 
This  is  the  most  common-sense  argument  against  the 
theory  of  God  as  the  creator  of  the  universe.  In 
a  word,  believers  in  the  creation  theory  make  God 
a  man,  bring  him  down  to  the  level  of  need  and  imper- 
fection ;  whereas  Jainism  raises  man  to  Godhood  and 
inspires  him  to  reach  as  near  Godhood  as  possible  by 
steady  faith,  right  perception,  perfect  knowledge,  and, 
above  all,  a  spotless  life. 

In    Jaina    hagiology   sixty-three     persons    are    pre- 
eminently spiritual.     They  are — 
24  Ththarikaras. 
12  Chakravartins. 

9  Narayanas  or  Vasudevas. 

9   Prati-narayanas  or  Prati-vasudevas. 

9  Balabhadras. 

63 
These  are  not  all  "  saints",  i.e.  sadhus,  but  spiritually 
great  souls.     Besides  these  a  few  other  important  classes 
are  recognized,  e.g. — 
9   Xaradas. 

11   Rudras. 

24-  Kamadevas. 

24  Fathers  of  the  Tirthahkaras. 

24   Mothers  of  the  Tirthahkaras. 

14  Kulakaras. 

106 


Q  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

It  is  impossible  to  deal  with  all  the  details  of  the 
lives  of  Jaina  Tirthahkaras.  A  friend  in  India  showed 
me  a  mammoth  map,  recording  in  tabular  form  sixty-four 
points  concerning  each  of  the  twenty-four  Tirtharikaras. 
I  wonder  if  the  map  will  ever  be  complete  and 
published!  I  content  myself  with  giving  (in  the 
folding  Table  annexed)  after  the  name  of  each  Tirthari- 
kara  nine  points  concerning  his  life  in  the  following 
order :  his  father's  name  ;  his  mother's  name  ;  birth- 
place ;  nakshatra,  or  the  zodiacal  sign  of  his  birth ; 
his  height ;  his  colour ;  his  age  ;  the  number  of  his 
ganadharas,  or  apostles ;  his  place  of  nirvana ;  the 
sign  or  emblem  on  his  statues  or  images;  and  the 
interval  between  him  and  the  next  Tirthahkara. 


rilAXKAKAS. 


K)of  purvas 

of  pi'irras 


of  y.ears 


Number  of 
Danadharas 


S4 

!ll ) 

ID.") 

103 

lit] 

111 
95 
«.»:; 
88 
81 
77 
66 
55 
50 

4:5 

36 
35 
30 

28 
IS 
17 
11 
10 
11 


Place  oi 


Mount  1 

Mount  J 
( =  Samei 


Champa 
Mount 


Mount 
Mount 
Pava-pi 


ira,  palya,  are  names  of  very  high  nu 


PAliTUVLAKS     m.Vi   l.iiMNi.     THK      rWKNTY  -F<  H"  K     TIUTH  AXK  AK  AS 


1  NambopTFrtdakkab; 

].  Rishabha  or 
Adi-nfil  ha 

_•       \  |i{  'i    n.it  In 

;{.    Sftinbluii-a-nulliii 

i    abhinandana- 

ii.-.i  I, .1 
".    Samabi  nntha 

6  Padmo  i ih(i 

;    SupursVn  nntlin 

8    Chandra  prubha' 
■  i  dauta  or 

Hilvirlln-imHiii 

0  Sltala-n  Ltha 
3,    Vimala-natlm 

1  \  i... Ill  .,    n.il  ho 

5.  Dhurmn  nathti 

I]  Santi-iitttha 

7  K I, u  niitlia 

s.  Ara-nittha 

'.<  Hall ha 

20  Muni-suvrata 

21  Nami-nutha 

3  :  Ne ha 

natha 

-I    Mahu  virtu 

-.,■...    

1  Thevatia 


Nabhi  raja 

.III. ...■or  i  n 

Megha  prabhn 


\  ishnu 
Vaeu  pajya 
Krifca-varman 
Siinha  seno 
Bhanu 

SGrya[Sura] 
Sudai  Sana 

K ha 

Sumitra 
Vijaya 

Niiniinlia  \  ij:i\  ,. 


M:u  udt- 
Vijiiyn  -I 


Sumangalii 

[Mangula] 
SuelmS 

Prithivi 

Lakshmana 


Viehnudri 

[Vishna] 
\  ijayii  [Jaya  I 

Suramyu 


Vapra  [Vipra] 
Siva-devi 

Vain.. 

Pi  iya-karii 


Kaufiambi 

Ka-i 

Chandra-pun 

Kakaudi 

Bliadriku  pui  I 

[Bhadila] 
Biii  ha-pui  i 

Churapu-purl 

K pilj  .i 

Ayodhyfi 

Km  na-pui  i 

M- pura 


Mithilii-puri 

[iMatburu] 

Kn  iogra-nagara 
-.i  Raja-griliu 

Mithila-pui  i 
[Mathura] 

Saui  E-puro  oi 


l  i  barushadhii 

Rohinl 

Parvasliadlia 

Punarvanu 

Magha 

I 

Visaklia 

Mula 

Pun  Lshudha 

Srovann 

Satabhishu 

UttaraaliOdbS 


Knit  ika 


Mounl  Katlasn 


|Tn.al;V| 

i  square  brack 


iinK  jvetarabara  bradition. 


1 
95,000  ye 
84,000 
.  [Blue]    55  000 


Black  wuli  i c         I. 

tinge  of  lotus  i  ed 
Blue  100      ,, 

(ioldon  yellow  72 

I  cubil  ■        . 


SOlakhso! 

0 

9  lakhs  ol 




M i  Parasnatli 


Bull 

Elephant 

Monkey. 

<  'in  leu 

IA i) 

K'  'I  L - 

Si  astika 
Dolphin 


Spike  he  ided 


-  of  n'lv  high  nuinbei  8      1  c 


l'»l   li'Uls  III. 't 


Chapter   II.— METAPHYSICS 

Jaina  pliilosophy  is  characterized  as  much  by  logic, 
comprehensiveness,  and  cogency  as  Jaina  theology  is  by 
its  simplicity,  common-sense,  and  straightforwardness. 
The  topics  of  Jaina  Metaphysics  may  be  arranged  as 
follows : — 

i.  The  soul  and  the  non-soul;  ii.  the  kinds  and  qualities 
of  soul;  iii.  substance  and  attributes;  iv.  the  six 
.substances;  v.  the  five  magnitudes;  vi.  the  karmas,  or 
actions;  vii.  their  kinds;  viii.  the  seven  principles  ;  ix.  the 
nine  pada/rthas  (categories) ;  x.  the  effect  of  karmas  on 
the  body  and  soul;  xi.  the  live  kinds  of  bodies;  xii.  the 
four  forms  of  existence  ;  xiii.  the  six  tints  of  the  soul  ; 
xiv.  the  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  soul. 

In  conclusion  we  give,  xv,  the  Three  Jewels  of  Jainism. 

I.  Jivajiva  :  the  Soul  and  the  Xox-Soul 
There  are  two  great  categories:  soul,  jiva  ;  and  non- 
soul,  ajiva.  The  whole  universe  falls  under  this  division, 
which  is  logically  perfect ;  it  is  division  by  dichotomy. 
The  division  is  not  the  same  as  that  into  "  the  I  and 
non-I "  :  the  jiva  class  includes  much  of  the  non-I  class. 
It  is  when  we  look  upon  the  universe  from  the  point  of 
view  of  life  or  consciousness  that  we  divide  all  things 
which  it  contains  into  living  beings  (jiva)  and  non- 
living beings  (ajiva).  The  division  into  the  I  and 
non-I,  or  into  self  and  non-self,  helps  us,  however,  to 
understand  the  division  into  jiva  and  ajiva,  since 
"  self"  or  "  I  "  is  the  most  immediate  and  ever-available 
kind  of  jiva  that  we  can  study,  and  one  which  from 
the  earliest  times  we  have  been  advised  to  stud}*  (1). 


8  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

II.   Kinds  and  Qualities  of  Soul 

Souls  are  of  two  kinds  according  to  the  bodies  which 
they  inhabit. 

A.  Sthavara  souls,  literally  "immobile"  souls,  but 
probably  rather  souls  with  hardly  more  than  a  kind 
of  tactile  perception.     These  are  of  five  kinds — 

(1)  Souls  of  mineral  bodies,  e.g.  stones  in  a  quarry, 
diamond  or  coal  in  a  mine,  etc.  It  includes  only  what 
has  the  capacity  of  growing. 

(2)  Souls  of  water.  Modern  science  has  demonstrated 
the  wonderful  living  organisms  in  a  drop  of  water. 
It  is  interesting  to  remark  how  Jaina  philosoph}T — 
in  its  way — divined  this  marvel  of  nature,  and  how 
more  than  two  thousand  years  ago  the  Jainas  preached 
and  practised  compassion  towards  these  tiny  and 
invisible  fellow-beings  of  man  by  prohibiting  an 
extravagant  or  careless  use  of  water. 

(3)  Souls  of  living  beings  in  fire  :  the  salamander  of 
olden  days  is  an  illustration. 

(4)  Souls  of  air :  the  air  that  we  breathe  is  held  to 
be  full  of  little  living  creatures. 

(5)  Souls  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  :  the  recent 
researches  of  science,  and,  curiously  enough,  very  much 
indebted  to  the  exertions  of  an  Indian  scientist 
(Professor  J.  C.  Bose,  of  Calcutta  University),  have 
demolished  the  hard  and  fast  distinction  between 
organic  and  inorganic  biology.  This  is  the  result  of 
experiments  showing  that  plants  live  and  grow  and 
respond  to  human  and  other  forces  applied  to  them. 
Jainism  has    long    credited   plants,    and,    indeed,    even 


METAPHYSICS:    II.    KINDS,    ETC.,    OF    SOUL  9 

minerals  (as  above),  with  the  possession  of  a  soul  having 
consciousness  of  a  very  low  order. 

B.  The  other  class  of  souls  is  trasa,  or  mobile.  The 
distinction  is  that  the  sthdvara  soul  cannot  move  at  its 
own  will,  while  the  trasa  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent 
can.  The  trasa  souls  have  sense-organs,  and  are 
classified    accordingly   into  four    classes:    namely,  into 

(1)  those  which  have   two  senses,   of  touch  and  taste  : 

(2)  those  which  have  three  senses,  i.e.   of  smell  also  : 

(3)  those  which    have  four    senses,  i.e.   of    sight  also  ; 

(4)  those  which  have  five  senses,  i.e.  hearing  also  (2). 
Nine  qualities  of  the  soul  are  given  (5);  but  the  chief 

of   them    is    consciousness   (or  chetand).     Jiva   is  that 
which  lives,  whether  a  worm,  an  ant,  a  rose,  a  nightin- 
gale, a  horse,    or  a  man.     It  is  capable  of  seeing  and 
knowing  all,  and  it  desires  happiness  and  avoids  pain. 
Of  the  mundane  form  of  body  and  soul  the  soul  is  the 
higher,  and  the  only  responsible,  partner.    Or  rather  the 
bod}',  except  in  the  drag  of  its  dead  inertia,  is  merely 
the  sleeping  partner  (3).     The  powers  of  the  soul  are 
limitless,  as  we    have    seen    in    theology.     The    whole 
universe    is  its    scope.     Its  knowledge    and  perception 
cover    all ;     its    happiness    is    not    measured    by    time, 
because  time  cannot  run  beyond  it;  and   its  power  is 
divine,  because  it  is  joined  to  omniscience.     This  oreat 
principle  of  Jainism,  this  little  "I  ",  which  is  the  ever- 
agitated  centre  of  our  brief   lives,  is  eternal.     Matter 
may    capture    it,    keep    it     back    from    its    light    and 
freedom  and  bliss  ;  but  matter  cannot  kill  it.     Jainism 
exposes  the  hollowness  of  death.     The  string  of  life  is 
continuous  ;    the  migrations  are  only  knots  in  it.      Or 


10  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

life  is  a  journey  on  a  long  line  of  railway;  we  stop  at 
different  stations,  the  soul  looks  out  of  the  carriage 
window,  long  at  one  station,  a  mere  glance  at  another, 
attentively  and  interestedly  at  one  group  of  men  and 
things,  carelessly  and  casually  at  another.  The  six  to 
ten  decades  of  time  are  not  the  span  of  all  our  lives. 
An  unremembered  aeon  preceded  the  moment  when  the 
mother  brought  us  into  the  world ;  and  an  endless, 
unknown  road  lies  before  the  soul  when  the  janitor  of 
death  turns  the  key  and  we  enter,  not  the  limited  hall 
of  Yama  or  Mors,  but  those  free  fields,  for  the  journey 
across  which  these  six  to  ten  decades  are  our  time  of 
preparation  !  The  soul  is  immaterial,  of  course;  it  has 
neither  touch,  nor  taste,  nor  smell,  nor  colour.  It  is 
the  essence  of  wisdom  and  power,  and  eternally  happ}T. 
Who  will  gauge  its  possibilities  ?  It  is  a  king  in  rags. 
It  has  faint  memories  of  the  richness  and  glory  and 
power  that  were  its  own.  But  the  rags  are  tangible, 
and  make  it  feel  incredulous  of  ever  having  been 
a  king.  "How  can  I  be  a  king  and  in  rags?  No 
one  would  allow  that."  Long  accustomed  to  nothing 
but  pain  and  limitations,  the  human  soul  is  sceptical 
about  its  power  and  bliss.  The  hurry  of  modern 
civilization,  the  proud  materialism  of  science,  and  the 
brilliant  applications  of  inventions  and  discoveries 
to  the  creature  comforts  of  man  are  feeding  this 
scepticism.  These  things  are  not  against  religion  : 
the}'  make  material  life  easier,  brighter.  But  they  go 
beyond  their  province  in  trying  to  scoff  or  laugh  out  of 
existence  the  non-material  aspect  of  human  life.  It 
is     the    beautiful     and     well-dressed     maid    becoming 


METAPHYSICS:    II.    KINDS,    ETC.,    OF    SOUL  11 

impertinent  to  the  good  mistress  who  brought  her  up 
and  allowed  her  to  dress  well  and  develop  her  charms. 

III.  Substance  and  Attributes 
Let  us  see  what  we  mean  by  dravya,  which  is  the 
generic  name  for  soul,  matter,  time,  and  space,  and  the 
principles  of  motion  and  stationariness.  A  dravya 
exists  in  its  own  nature,  and  has  its  own  attributes  and 
modifications  (7).  It  has  what  is  technical^  called 
sattd.  This  sattd  connotes  three  accidents:  utpada, 
coming  into  existence,  or  origination  ;  vyaya,  going  out 
of  existence,  or  perishing;  and  dhrauvya,  continuous 
sameness  of  existence,  or  continuance.  The  utpada  and 
vyaya  relate  to  modifications  (paryaya)  of  substances  ; 
dhrauvya  relates  to  its  inner  nature,  to  its  essential 
attributes.  SoxA-dravya  exists,  or  has  sattd,  which 
means  that  the  soul  exists  with  its  soul-ness,  and  with 
its  qualities  and  modifications.  These  qualities  may 
refer  to  its  essential  nature,  e.g.  that  the  soul  has  con- 
sciousness ;  or  to  its  transitory  condition,  to  its  paryaya, 
e.g.  that  the  soul  of  Mahavlra  is  the  most  white  of  all 
(see  lesyds  below,  pp.  45-7).  The  soul's  sattd,  in  the 
utpada  and  vyaya  aspects,  relates  to  its  embodied  con- 
dition in  samsdra.  It  comes  into  existence  and  goes  out 
of  it,  as  A  or  B.  But  as  soul  itself,  it  has  continuous 
existence  throughout  time  :  it  is  the  same  soul  now  as 
when  it  animated  the  body  called  A  or  B.  Before  our 
birth,  in  our  life  and  after  death,  until  our  highest 
evolution,  the  soul  remains  the  same  individual.  This 
is  the  dhrauvya  aspect  of  the  soul's  sattd. 

The  important  matter  is  this  :  birth  or  death  (utpada, 


12  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

and  vyaya)  are  of  a  condition  of  a  dravya.  The 
dravya  is  uncreated  and  indestructible;  its  essential 
qualities  remain  the  same  (dhrauvya) ;  it  is  only  its 
parydya,  or  condition,  that  can,  and  does,  change.  And 
it  is  logically  necessary  from  the  first  position  taken 
up  by  Jainism  :  namely,  that  substances  and  attributes 
are  distinguishable,  but  not  distinct.  The  attributes 
are  not  all  fixed  ;  they  come  and  go  (utpdda,  vyaya)  ; 
but  the  substance  remains  (dhrauvya). 

As  to  the  threefold  consideration  under  substance, 
attribute,  and  condition  or  modification,  in  the  light  of 
satta  substance  is  dhrauvya,  the  modification  or  con- 
dition is  utpdda  and  vyaya,  and  the  attributes  are 
partly  one  and  partly  the  other.  Substance,  even  in 
its  dhrauvya  aspect,  is  only  a  sum-total  of  eternally 
existing  attributes,  e.g.,  the  soul  is  consciousness,  matter 
is  non-consciousness,  and  space  is  the  capacity  of  giving 
place  to  substances.  Thus  the  attributes  of  conscious- 
ness, etc.,  are  dhrauvya.  But  the  conditions  of  sub- 
stances are  also  the  sum-total  of  attributes  which  attach 
to  the  substances  and  then  leave  them.  The  soul  in  the 
condition  called  A  had  certain  attributes  as  A,  e.g.,  name, 
size,  colour,  nationality,  character,  religious  tendency, 
scholarship,  etc. ;  all  these  attributes  attached  to  it  at 
some  time,  at  its  birth  or  after,  and  then  ceased  at 
its  death.  These  attributes  come  under  the  utpdda 
and  vyaya  of  the  condition  or  modification  of  the  soul 
called  A.  The  other  dravyas,  besides  soul,  may  in  the 
same  way  be  considered  with  reference  to  satta  and  with 
reference  to  substance,  modification,  and  attributes  (8  9). 
Let  us  deal  with  the  six  separately. 


METAPHYSICS:    IV.    THE    SIX    SUBSTANCES  13 

IV.  The  Six  Substances 
The  Soul 
This  is  the  only  knowing  substance  ;  its  essential 
characteristic  is  consciousness.  The  other  substances, 
matter,  time,  space,  and  principles  of  motion  and 
stationariness,  are  devoid  of  consciousness  (10).  I  know, 
the  table  does  not  know;  the  pen  with  which  I  am 
writing  is  not  conscious  of  my  using  it  or  of  its 
existence.  The  month  and  date  of  my  writing  are  not 
conscious,  nor  are  the  principles  or  forces  which  make 
it  possible  for  me  to  stand  up  or  sit  down.  Matter, 
time,  dharma  and  adharma,  and  space  are  devoid  of 
consciousness.  But  of  these,  matter,  soul,  and  time  are 
innumerable;  whereas  dharma  and  adharma  and 
space  are  only  one  each. 

Matter  (11) 

That  which  has  not  consciousness,  but  can  be  touched, 
tasted,  seen,  and  smelled  is  matter.  Things  enjoyable 
by  the  senses,  the  five  senses  themselves,  the  body,  the 
mind,  the  karmas,  and  all  other  material  objects  are 
called  pudgala,  or  matter.  This  will  be  dealt  with 
more  fully  under  astiJcdyas,  or  magnitudes. 

Of  course  material  objects  are  innumerable. 

Dharma  (12) 
This  is  devoid  of  taste,  touch,  smell,  sound,  and  colour, 
and  is  conterminous  with  the  universe  (loka).  It  is  the 
principle  of  motion ;  the  accompanying  circumstance 
or  cause  which  makes  motion  possible,  like  water  to 
moving    fish.     The    water  is    a    passive    condition    or 


14  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

circumstance  of  the  movement  of  a  fish,  i.e.  it  is 
indifferent  or  passive  (uddsina)  and  not  active  or 
solicitous  (preraka)  cause.  The  water  cannot  compel 
a  fish  at  rest  to  move  ;  but,  if  the  fish  wants  to  move, 
water  is  then  the  necessary  help  to  its  motion. 
Dkarma  cannot  make  soul  or  matter  move  ;  but,  if  they 
are  to  move,  they  cannot  do  so  without  the  presence  of 
dharma.  Hence  it  is  that  at  the  end  of  the  loka  or 
universe,  there  being  no  dharma,  the  soul  which,  urged 
by  its  natural  tendency  to  move  upward,  has  risen 
to  the  siddha-sild,  or  the  place  of  liberated  souls,  attains 
perfect  rest.  It  cannot  move,  because  there  is  not  the 
necessary  motion-element,  dharma. 

DJtarma  is  one  only,  like  adharma  and  space,  and 
unlike  soul,  matter,  and  time,  which  are  innumerable. 

Adharma   (13) 

This  is  the  opposite  of  dharma,  equally  coeval  and 
conterminous  with  the  universe.  It  is  also  an  indifferent 
or  passive  cause  of  stationariness ;  like  the  earth  to 
falling  bodies.  Its  nature  and  substance  are  the  same 
as  those  of  dharma.     It  is  immaterial,  and  one. 

Space  (14) 

This  is  what  gives  to  all  souls  and  to  all  other 
substances  their  places  in  the  universe. 

Like  dharma  and  adltarma,  space  is  one  only. 

Space  includes  our  universe  and  beyond.  The 
universe  is  loka,  and  the  beyond  is  aloha.  The  five 
substances,  dharma,  adharma,  soul,  matter,  and  time, 
are  found  in  the  universe  only. 


metaphysics:  IV.  the  six  substances  15 

Time  (15-18) 

That  which  is  the  cause  or  circumstance  of  the 
modification  of  soul  and  other  dravyas  is  time:  it 
is  immaterial,  and  is  the  necessary  element  in  our 
dealings  with  other  dravyas.  It  is  without  taste, 
colour,  smell,  or  touch.  It  has  only  its  own  attributes, 
and  the  peculiar  attribute  of  helping  the  modification 
of  the  other  substances.  Like  the  souls  and  matter, 
it  is  innumerable. 

The  two  divisions  of  time  into  avasarpini  and 
utsarpinl  eras,  and  the  six  ages  of  each,  have  been 
noticed  above  in  the  Introduction.  In  practice  time  is 
divided  as  follows  : — ■ 

samaya  is  the  unit  of  time  ;  its  measure  is  the  time 
taken  by  a  unit  of  matter  in  going  from  one  unit  of 
space  to  the  next  unit  of  space  with  slow  motion. 

iiimisha,  time  taken  in  raising  the  eyelid.  It 
consists  of  innumerable  samayas. 

kashtha  =  15  ni  m  ishas. 

kala  =  20  Jcdshthas. 

nali  or  <jhafl=  20  leal  as  and  a  little  over. 

m  n  h  u  Ha  =  2  ghatis. 

ahordtra  (day  and  night)  =  30  muhiirtas. 

mdsa  (month)  =  30  days. 

ritu  =  2  months. 

ayana  =  6  months  or  3  ritus. 

samvatsara  (year)  =  2  ayanas  (16). 

V.    The  Five  Astikayas  (Magnitudes)    (19-32) 

Jaina  philosophy  really  starts  with  a  perfect  division 
of  the  universe  into  living  and  non-living  existences,. 


16  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

jiva  and  ajiva.  But  the  contents  of  this  division  are 
arranged  and  considered  in  two  more  ways.  Ajiva 
being  sub-classified  into  matter,  space,  time,  dharma, 
and  adharma,  we  get  the  six  dravyas,  substances,  of 
Jainism.  These  six  are  then  considered  as  having  or 
not  having  constituent  parts  (pradesas).  From  this 
point  of  view  time  is  the  only  continuous  substance 
which  does  not  consist  of  many  i^radesas,  like  our 
bodies.  A  pradesa  is  an  infinitesimal  unit  of  space  ; 
kdya  (or  body)  is  the  technical  name  given  to  a  thing 
which  has  pradesas.  Time  has  only  one  pradesa  ; 
therefore  time  has  not  kdya,  is  not  an  astilcaya,  or 
a  magnitude.  The  other  five  are  astikdyas  (19-21). 
These  astikdyas  are  uncreated ;  they  have  the  quality 
of  sattd  or  the  characteristic  of  modifying  their  con- 
dition and  continuing  their  substratum  (utpdda,  vyaya, 
and  dhrauvya)  (22).  They  are  also  the  constituent 
elements  of  the  Universe(24).  They  are  called  astikdyas, 
because  they  have  sattd  and  are  therefore  asti ;  and 
because  they  have  many  pradesas  and  are  therefore 
kdya  (20).  Dharma  and  adliarma  have  innumerable 
pradesas  (units  of  space).  Matter  has  pradesas  which 
may  be  numerable, innumerable, or  infinite.  Thus,  a  mole- 
cule (or  skandha)  may  be  numbered  as  to  its  atoms. 
But  some  masses  cannot  be  numbered  as  to  their 
atoms,  e.g.  a  mountain.  Some  other  skandhas  may 
contain  an  infinite  number  of  atoms,  as  an  ocean,  the 
world.  Space  has  infinite  pradesas.  But  the  soul  has 
innumerable  pradesas  (22-3). 

The  soul,  space,  dharma,  and  adharma  are  immaterial 
(a  hi \Rrtika),  unbreakable,  and  cannot    be    said  to  have 


METAPHYSICS:     V.    THE    FIVE    MAGNITUDES.  17 

parts.  The  soul  has  great  elasticity  :  it  can  expand, 
if  need  be,  and  fill  the  whole  universe.  But  its  pradesas 
cannot  be  divided. 

The  Soul  (5,  30-1) 

The  soul,  we  remember,  is  either  liberated  (siddha) 
or  mundane.  The  mundane  soul  is  in  combination  with 
karmic  matter.  We  are  not  perfect :  we  can  improve. 
These  two  facts  are  the  cogent  indications  of  the 
capacity  of  the  human  soul  to  evolve.  Evidently  it  is 
in  an  impure  state,  and  the  cause  of  impurity  is  not 
far  to  seek  :  the  gross  body  speaks  for  the  demand  of 
dead  matter  on  the  living  man.  What,  then,  is  the 
pure  soul  (  Every  soul  is  potentially  pure.  Matter  is 
only  a  cruel  parasite,  an  unclean  veil.  The  soul  is 
ever  all-perfect,  all-powerful.  By  ignorance  it  identifies 
itself  with  matter,  and  hence  all  its  troubles  and 
degradation.  In  its  pure  condition  it  has  four  enjoy- 
ments :  those  of  perfect  perception,  perfect  knowledge, 
infinite  power,  and  infinite  bliss. 

In  the  impure  state  nine  properties  of  the  soul  may 
be  mentioned — 

1.  It  lived  in  the  past,  is  living  now.  and  shall  live 
for  ever. 

2.  It  has  perception  and  knowledge. 

3.  It  is  immaterial,  i.e.  has  no  touch,  taste,  smell, 
or  colour. 

4.  It  is  the  only  responsible  agent  of  all  its  actions. 

5.  It  completely  fills  the  body  which  it  occupies, 
e.g.  that  of  an  ant  or  an  elephant  (30-1). 

6.  It  enjoys  the  fruits  of  all  its  karmas. 

c 


18  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

7.  It  wanders  in  samsdra. 

8.  It  can  become  in  its  perfect  condition  siddha. 

9.  It  goes  upward. 

The  cause  of  its  impurity  being  karmic  matter,  the 
nine  qualities  may,  more  or  less,  be  derived  as  con- 
sequences of  this  eternal  combination  of  life  and 
lifelessness.  The  soul  is  a  dravya  ;  therefore,  like  every 
other  dravya,  it  is  eternal.  Its  peculiar  attributes  are 
perception  and  knowledge.  It  is,  of  course,  different 
from  karma,  or  matter  ;  therefore  it  must  be  immaterial. 
It  has  identified  itself  with  matter;  therefore  it 
assumes  a  body,  which  it  must  fit.  It  is  responsible 
for  its  Jcarmas,  because  it  has  the  power  to  get  rid  of 
them  all.  It  must  reap  the  harvest  of  all  seeds  that  it 
has  sown ;  and  therefore  must  remain  in  the  field  of 
samsdra,  or  cycle  of  existences.  And  still  all  these 
evils  are  self-assumed  ;  and  in  its  pure  condition  the 
soul  is  siddha  (5). 

To  get  at  even  a  working  conception  of  our  innermost 
nature  is  as  difficult  to-day  as  when  the  philosopher 
taught  his  pupils,  "  Know  thyself."  After  all,  there 
is  a  good  deal  of  truth  in  the  saying  "  After  me  the 
deluge  ".  Nothing  can  interest  me,  unless  it  directly 
or  indirectly  relates  to  me,  to  the  "  I  ".  This  "  I  "  is  for 
me  the  centre  of  all  life  and  of  all  theories  and  ideals 
of  life. 

In  the  Introduction  (p.  xvii)  we  have  seen  the  first 
great  question  of  philosophy  and  theology  to  be : 
"  What  am  I  ?  What  is  this  soul?"  The  duality  of 
matter  and  life  is  evident,  except  perhaps  to  the 
extreme    monism    of    materialism    or    idealism,   which, 


METAPHYSICS:     V.    THE    FIVE    MAGNITUDES  19 

in  Hume's  phrase,  may  be  said  to  be  "  subversive  of 
all  speculation".  Thus  the  soul  is  this  life  only  when 
identified    with    a    particular    individuality.       Jainism 

here  steps  in  to  elaborate  the  characteristics  of  this 
spiritual   man   within  the  man  of  flesh. 

In  every  man,  every  living  being,  a  demand  for 
happiness  and  aversion  to  pain  or  trouble  is  the  first 
universal  feature  of  life.  Jainism  seizes  this  as  the 
most  important  characteristicof  soul.  It  seeks  happiness. 
It  seeks  this,  because  it  has  it  not.  To  science  soul  or 
life  is  only  a  mysterious  something  that  lurks  behind 
the  marvel  of  matter.  To  Jainism  and  to  all  religions 
this  is  an  incomplete  account  of  reality  :  the  soul  is  as 
real  as  matter  itself.  The  body  is  rough  and  gross  : 
it  is  fit  only  for  the  struggle  with  its  own  kin — matter. 
The  soul  is  subtle  and  refined,  not  meant  for  struggle 
with  matter  :  it  is  what  feels  pain  and  pleasure.  The 
senses  and  the  mind  bear  messages  to  it.  It  is  the 
entity  between  which  and  the  phenomena  of  life  the 
body  is  the  visible  link.  It  is  the  something  which 
still  feels  discontented  when  the  body  and  even  the 
mind  have  found  all  that  they  want.  It  is  a  more 
inner  principle  of  life  than  even  mind.  It  is  that 
which  has  the  instinct  of  peace  and  bliss.  Despite  all 
our  pangs  and  sorrows  we  still  hope  for  the  best.  This 
unkillable  hope  is  the  faintest  index  to  the  eternal  bliss 
which  is  an  ever-present  characteristic  of  soul.  The 
hurry  and  competition  of  life  soon  tire  us.  This  is  due 
neither  to  laziness  nor  to  love  of  weakness.  It  is  only 
the  germ  of  compassion  which  is  the  soul  of  man.  It 
is   the   pursuit  of    peace,  of  undisturbable   tranquillity, 


20  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

that  is  a  great  feature  of  the  soul  in  its  pure  condition. 
The  peace  and  bliss  are  the  twin  goals  aimed  at  by  the 
soul.  They  cannot  be  everlasting,  unless  based  on 
deep,  detailed,  and  well-digested  knowledge.  Perception 
and  conviction  are  conditions  of  perfect  knowledge. 
Thus  perception,  knowledge,  peace, and  bliss  are  the  great 
characteristics  of  soul.  In  combination  they  imply  an 
enormous  power  in  the  fully  evolved  soul.  Thus  we 
come  once  more  to  the  Infinite  Quaternary  (ananta- 
chatushtaya)  of  Jainism.     (Theology,  p.  1  supra.) 

The  doctrine  of  soul  is  not  in  the  Jaina  view  a  mere 
matter  of  faith,  it  is  a  matter  of  observation  and 
common-sense.  If  people  shut  their  eyes  to  the  noon- 
day sun  and  go  on  asking :  "  Where  is  the  sun,  we  can't 
see  it.  There  is  no  sun,"  there  is  no  remedy ;  they 
cannot  see  the  light.  By  shutting  one's  eyes  to  facts, 
or  explaining  them  away,  if  they  oppose  our  pet 
theory  or  scepticism,  we  cannot  kill  facts,  although 
truth  is  shut  out,  in  part  or  wholly.  I  try  to  make  this 
clear,  as  Jainism  cannot  be  properly  understood  and 
followed,  unless  we  believe  in  a  soul  and  clearly  realize 
our  belief  and  analyse  in  details  the  meaning  thereof. 

Matter  (Pudgala)  (11,  25-9) 

Wedded  to  the  soul  is  the  great  lifeless  substance 
of  matter.  Whereas  the  soul's  qualities  are  life, 
consciousness,  knowledge,  perception,  peace,  bliss,  and 
power,  matter  has  for  its  characteristics  lifelessness  (6), 
touch,  taste,  smell,  and  colour  (25). 

The  distinction  of  matter  into  atoms  (anu)  and  mole- 
cules (skandha)  has  been  known  to  Jainism  for  centuries. 


metaphysics:    v.  the  five  magnitudes         21 

"  In  an  atom  there  is  only  one pradesa  (or  unit  of  space)" : 
so  says  the  Bravyasamgrahou-gaiha  26  (27).  But,  as 
atoms  unite,  they  become  a  molecule.  The  finest  kind 
of  matter  is  that  of  the  karmas,  forming  the  karmic 
body,  which  always  attends  the  soul  and  is  the  last 
to  be  discarded  before  the  entry  into  the  region  of 
liberated  souls.  A  group  of  karmic  atoms  is  technically 
called  a  karma-vargand  (28). 

Science  recognizes  three  conditions  of  matter:  solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous.  Jainism  recognizes  six  con- 
ditions— ■ 

1.  Gross-gross,  or  very  gross  matter  (  =  solid),  e.g.  a 
mountain,  a  pillar  of  iron,  etc.  This  class  of  matter, 
when  divided,  cannot  be  united  without  the  use  of 
a  third  something  ; 

2.  Gross  (  =  liquid),  e.g.  water,  oil,  etc.  On  division 
this  can  be  united  without  the  intervention  of  a  third 
thing  ; 

3.  Gross-fine,  e.g.  shade,  sunshine.  It  is  interesting 
to  compare  this  with  the  corpuscular  theory  of  light  in 
Western  physics,  before  it  was  replaced  by  the  modern 
wave-theory  of  Huygens.  It  is  matter  which  looks 
gross  or  tangible,  but  cannot  be  grasped  ; 

4.  Fine-gross,  e.g.  fragrance,  sound,  sweetness,  etc.; 
the  distinction  between  this  and  gross-fine  being  that 
gross- fine  is  more  gross  than  fine,  because  it  can  be  seen 
as  light,  shade,  etc.  ;  whereas  fine-gross  cannot  be  seen, 
although  its  origin  may  be  gross.  The  gases  of  science 
would  be  fine-gross.  Fine-gross  includes  all  things  that 
may  be  perceived  by  the  senses  of  touch,  taste,  smell, 
or  sound  ; 


22  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

5.  Fine  :  matter  capable  of  becoming  karmic  matter. 
It  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  senses  (28) ; 

6.  Fine-fine  :  still  finer  molecules,  in  the  karmic 
body,  which  is  the  finest.  Fine-fine  matter  has  for  its 
atoms  the  combination  of  two  or  more  ultimate  atoms 
(paramanu).  (According  to  some  it  is  the  ultimate 
atom  itself.) 

Space  (Akdsa)  (14) 

Things  in  the  universe  occupy  each  some  place.  That 
which  gives  things  their  places  is  space. 

Space  has  two  divisions  :  (1)  the  universe  (loka),  (2)  the 
non-universe  or  the  beyond  {aloha). 

In  the  universe  all  the  six  dravyas  (magnitudes  and 
substances),  soul,  matter,  space,  time,  principles  of 
motion  and  stationariness,  find  their  places.  In  the 
aloha  there  is  only  endless  space. 

In  the  universe  also,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  human 
body  standing  akimbo,  there  is  only  a  small  portion  of 
space  occupied  by  living  beings.  Of  these,  again,  onlj* 
a  small  part  form  the  miserable  and  active  mankind, 
which  inhabits  the  madJiya-loha.  (See  under  Cosmology, 
Appendix  II.) 

Principles  of  Motion  (Dharma)  and  Stationariness 
(Adharma)  (12-13,  32) 
This  and  the  next  substance  are  the  greatest 
peculiarity  of  Jainism.  There  is  no  other  system, 
religious  or  speculative,  which  has  anything  corre- 
sponding to  the  Jaina  dharma  and  adharma.  These 
must  be  considered  in  some  little  detail. 


METAPHYSICS  :     V.    THE    FIVE    MAGNITUDES  23 

The  term  dharma  is  used  in  many  senses.  In  Indian 
philosophy  it  meant  "property  ",  "  quality'",  "character- 
istic ",  and  in  theology  "  duty  ",  specially  religious  duty, 
and  thus  religion  itself.  In  modern  times  it  popularly 
means  "  religion  ",  and  sometimes  the  "  highest  duty  " 
of  a  man  or  a  community.  Originally  it  meant  "rule", 
"  law  "  also,  as  in  dharma-sastras,  "law-books"  ;  but  now 
this  use  is  obsolete,  except  in  that  phrase.  Dharma  is 
also  used  as  equivalent  to  piety  ;  a  dharmdtman  is  a  man 
who  is  pious,  good,  benevolent.  Further,  dharma  means 
meritorious  deeds  ;  as  so-and-so  has  done  a  work  of 
dharma,  e.g.  by  feeding  or  clothing  the  poor,  by  building 
a  temple,  etc.,  etc. 

This  variety  of  uses  has  had  a  confusing  effect  upon 
all.  Jaina  philosophy  has  suffered  especially.  The 
technical  and  peculiar  sense  in  which  dharma  and 
adharma  are  employed  in  Jaina  metaphysics  is  some- 
times entirely  missed,  even  by  leading  Orientalists : 
e.g.,  in  Dr.  Guerinot's  excellent  Essai  de  Bibliographie 
Jaina,  at  pp.  xvii  and  xviii,  we  read  :  "  D'autre  part 
Vajiva,  qui  se  subdivise  en  cinq  especes  : 

1"'  Le  dharma,  la  loi  religieuse,  le  merite,  la  droite 
conduite. 

2°  TJadharma,  ou  principe  contraire  au  precedent, 
soit  le  demerite,  le  peche." 

The  universe  is  divided  into  jiva  and  ajiva.  "  Ajlva 
is  subdivided  into  five  species:  (1)  dliarma,  religious 
law,  merit,  right  conduct ;  (2)  adharma,  or  the  principle 
contrary  to  the  preceding,  say,  demerit,  sin." 


24  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

Here  the  meaning  of  the  terms  dharma  and  adJtarma 
in  Jaina  philosophy  is  quite  misconceived.  The  popular 
and  modern  connotation  of  the  terms  is  certainly  most 
misleading.  These  facts  are  significant.  Why  should 
the  Jainas  adopt  such  misleading  terms  for  their 
peculiar  doctrines  ?  If  the  term  dharma  had  been 
fixed  as  signifying  even  law  or  merit  when  the 
Jaina  doctrine  arose,  it  is  impossible  to  see  why 
Jainism  should  adopt  it  as  meaning  the  principle  of 
motion.  A  better  suggestion  is  that  dharma,  in  its 
technical  Jaina  sense,  must  have  been  used  before  the 
meaning  of  it  as  law  and  merit  was  fixed.  This  is 
another  indication  of  both  the  great  antiquity  and 
genuineness  of  the  Jaina  system,  and  must  be  added  to 
Professor  Jacobi's  classical  lines  of  evidence  set  forth 
in  the  Introduction. 

To  come  to  the  usage  of  the  two  terms,  an  ancient 
text  says  :  "  dharma  is  devoid  of  taste,  colour,  smell, 
sound,  and  touch,  is  conterminous  with  loka  (the 
universe),  is  unbreakable  or  indivisible,  is  all-pervading 
by  its  nature,  and  has  innumerable  pradesas  (or  units 
of  space) "  (12). 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  astikaya,  =  magnitude, 
does  not  mean  material  something.  There  are  five 
astikayas — matter,  time,  space,  dharma,  and  adharma. 
And  of  these  only  one,  pudgala,  is  matter,  i.e.  capable 
of  touch,  taste,  smell,  and  colour  (25).  All  the  other 
as/ikdi/as  are  devoid  of  these  four  distinguishing 
attributes  of  matter.  The  five  astikayas,  or  along  with 
jiva  (soul)  the  six  dravyas,  all  exist  eternally.  They 
cannot  be  destroyed  ;  they  were  never  created.     They  are 


METAPHYSICS  :     V.    THE    FIVE    MAGNITUDES  25 

independent  of  one  another,  except  of  course  that  in 
a  sort  of  neighbour]}'  contact  or  conflict  they  keep  the 
universe  going.  They  are  not  ignorant  of  the  principle 
of  division  of  labour.  Matter  goes  to  struggle  with  the 
unwary  or  infatuated  soul ;  time  times  the  conflict  ; 
space  makes  possible  the  arena ;  dharma  helps  the 
combatants  to  struggle  on  ;  and  adJtarma  assists  them 
when  they  are  inclined  to  rest.  This  is  the  whole 
struggle  for  existence.  This  is  the  genesis,  the  evolution, 
and  the  destiny  of  the  universe.  It  cannot  be  changed, 
it  cannot  be  stopped.  The  soul  seeks  to  act,  to  move 
itself  or  matter,  and  dharma,  which  is  omnipresent  in 
the  univei*se,  is  ever-ready  to  assist  it  to  move  itself  or 
its  adversary  matter.  If  the  soul  seeks  to  cease  moving, 
or  matter  loses  its  grip  and  drops  down  inactive  in  the 
form  of  a  matured  and  fallen-off  karma,  there  is 
adharma  to  help  the  soul  and  matter  to  cease  work  and 
to  be  in  a  condition  of  stationariness.  Accordingly 
dharma-dravya  is  eternal,  indestructible,  the  essential 
circumstance  for  all  moving  bodies,  and  itself  the 
product  of  the  activity  of  none  (12). 

Itis  noticeable, too,that  the  most  in.portantmagnitudes 
and  substances  are  two :  soul  and  matter.  The  other 
four  are  a  sort  of  setting  to  these  two.  Space  and 
time  are  the  necessary  conditions  to  make  the  drama 
visible  to  knowledge;  dharma  and  adharma  are  the 
necessary  conditions  of  its  continuance  in  its  endless 
vicissitudes,  merit  and  demerit,  high  and  low,  happi- 
ness and  misery,  as  far  as  disturbance  and  tranquillity. 
Of  course,  dharma  and  adharma  are  in  their  nature 
and  modus  operandi   the   same  (13).     It  is  the  same 


26  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

sword  in  the  hand  of  a   devoted  soldier  or  a    fanatic 
rebel. 

Finally,  dharma  and  adharma  are  everywhere  in 
the  universe.  Beyond  the  universe  they  are  not:  there 
is  only  empty  space,  extending  on  all  sides  in  its 
undisturbed,  eternal  void  and  eternal  unchangeableness. 

VI.  Karma 

The  two  most  important  substances  are  soul  and 
matter,  as  the  two  real  categories  are  soul  and 
non-soul,  matter  being  only  one  of  the  five  classes 
which  make  up  non-soul.  Soul  is  living,  matter  is 
not.  The  union  of  the  two  cannot  conduce  to  freedom, 
perfection,  or  peace.  The  mind  desires  to  pursue 
a  train  of  thought  or  action  ;  the  body  obeys  up  to 
a  certain  point,  then  refuses  to  work  further.  The 
mind  is  impotent  to  goad  it  on  ;  and  is  pained  at  being 
so  dependency  mated  to  a  partner  of  such  grossness  and 
limitations.     This  is  a  matter  of  everyday  experience. 

Matter  is  without  consciousness  :  soul  is  conscious. 
Matter  has  no  choice  but  to  be  moulded  by  the  soul. 
The  connexion  of  soul  and  matter  is  material  ;  and  it 
is  effected  by  the  soul's  activity.  The  bondage  is  called 
karma,  since  it  is  the  karma  or  deed  of  the  soul.  It  is 
material,  forming  a  subtle  bond  of  extremely  refined 
karmic  matter  which  keeps  the  soul  from  flying  up  to 
its  natural  abode  of  full  knowledge  and  everlasting 
peace. 

VII.    Kinds  of  Karma  (33-5) 

In  this  last-mentioned  condition  the  soul,  we 
remember  (pp.  1,  20  supra),  has  four  great  attributes: 


METAPHYSICS  :     VII.    KINDS    OF    KARMA  27 

perfect  perception  of,  and  faith  in,  the  reality  of  things  ; 
perfect  knowledge;  perfect  power;  and  perfect  happi- 
ness. Karmic  matter  keeps  the  soul  from  the  realization 
of  this  fourfold  greatness,  obscuring  its  perception  and 
knowledge,  obstructing  its  progress  and  success,  and 
disturbing  the  equanimity  of  its  existence.  It  is  there- 
fore called  the  four  ghatiya  or  destructive  karmas. 
Their  names  are — 

jiidndvaraiiiya,  or  knowledge-obscuring  karma  ; 
darsandvaraniya,  or  faith-obscuring  or    perception- 
obscuring  karma  ; 
antardya,    that    which     hinders    or    obstructs    the 

progress  or  success  of  the  soul  ; 

mohaniya,    that    which    infatuates    or    deludes    the 

soul  (or  makes  it  lose  equilibrium  of  thought  and 

feeling). 

These  destructive  karmas  retain  the  soul  in  mundane 

existence,   the   character    of   which    is    conditioned    by 

another  quartet  of  karmas,  the  latter  not  destructive, 

but  determining  merely  the  body  and  the  environments 

in  which  the  mundane  soul  must  exist.     They  are  called 

ar/hatiya,  or  non-destructive,  karmas.  Their  names  are — 

dyus,    the    karma    which    determines  the    duration 

of  our  lives  or  other  conditions  ; 
ndma,  that  which   determines  the  character  of   our 
individuality,      i.e.      our     body,      height,     size, 
colour,  etc.  ; 
gotra,    that    which   determines    our    family,    nation- 
ality, etc.  ; 
vedaniya,    that    which    gives    pleasure    or    pain    in 
mundane  life. 


28  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

This  division  of  Jcarmas  is  neither  arbitrary  nor 
fantastic  :  it  is  based  upon  everyday  observation  and 
experience,  and  it  is  necessary.  In  Jainism  every 
effect  has  a  cause.  The  obvious  differences  in  people's 
conditions  are  not  for  nothing  :  they  are  the  effects  of 
some  cause.  Three  possible  causes  suggest  themselves  : 
(1)  a  personal  God,  who  for  some  mysterious  reasons  of 
His  own,  or  for  His  whim  merely,  brings  about  these 
differences  in  mankind  ;  (2)  the  constitution  and  modi- 
fication of  matter  itself ;  (3)  the  soul.  A  personal  God 
has  no  place  in  Jainism  :  He  is  not  needed.  Matter 
is  dead,  inert,  and  cannot  be  the  responsible  agent 
of  these  differences.  There  remains,  therefore,  the 
conscious  soul,  which  by  its  actions  (icarmas)  is 
responsible  for  the  changes  in  our  status  of  life,  etc. 
Once  this  position  is  realized,  the  classification  of 
Jcarmas  is  readily  understood. 

Connected  with  the  idea  of  karma  is  the  famous 
doctrine  of  incarnation  or  transmigration  of  souls. 
Much  unnecessary  difficulty  is  raised  about  this. 
There  are  two  aspects  of  it.  In  one  the  very  existence 
of  the  soul  is  denied  ;  and  to  this  Jainism  has  nothing 
to  say.  In  the  other  the  soul  is  believed  to  exist,  but 
its  full  possibilities  are  not  considered.  Simplicity  is 
gained  at  the  expense  of  exactness  and  truth.  The 
soul's  life  is  cut  up  into  two  sharp  and  arbitrary 
divisions  :  this  life  and  the  life  beyond  until  eternity. 
Man  sows  here,  and  he  reaps  here  and  in  the  existence 
after  death,  in  hell  or  in  heaven,  till  the  day  of 
judgment.  This  is  the  Muhammadan  and  Christian 
doctrine.    The  reward  and  forgiveness  are  also  dependent 


METAPHYSICS  :     VII.    KINDS    OF    KARMA  29 

upon  the  will  of  God,  wlio  may  be  guided  b}^  what 
His  beloved  Muhammad  or  His  Son  Christ  may  interpose. 
To  Jainism  this  simple  and  anthropomorphic  doctrine 
seems  unsatisfactory.  There  is  double  intermediation 
and  arbitrariness  in  it ;  a  sinful  life  can  be  purged  of 
its  bitterness  and  sorrow  by  the  simple  intermediation 
of  Christ  or  Muhammad  ;  and  the  working  of  the  divine 
law  is  arbitrary,  for  no  one  can  know  the  results  of  his 
actions  till  the  Day  of  Judgment  is  over  !  Jainism 
denies  both  intermediation  and  forgiveness ;  of  what 
we  have  done  we  must  bear  the  consequences.  It  is 
not  fate,  nor  even  predestination  ;  but  it  is  the  ever 
continuous  balancing  of  the  different  accounts  that  we 
keep  with  the  forces  of  life.  There  can  be  no  mistake, 
no  suppression,  and  no  evasion.  The  credit  and  the 
debit  side  go  on  automatically  ;  and  whatever  is  due 
to  us  is  paid  us  ungrudgingly  and  without  demand. 
The  continuity  cannot  be  broken  by  change  of  house  : 
the  debts  of  London  are  not  extinguished  by  going  to 
Berlin ;  nor  is  liquidation  suspended  till  the  Day  of 
Judgment.  The  karmas  are  not  extinguished  simply 
because  we  give  up  the  body  called  A.  When  we  are 
dead  as  A,  the  karmas  must  still  bear  full  fruits.  The 
karmas  constitute  the  karmic  body  ;  and  it  drags  us 
into  another  state  of  being,  it  maybe  the  ethereal 
structure  of  a  god's  luminous  and  plastic  embodiment, 
or  the  grosser  and  limited  frame  of  a  human  or  a  sub- 
human being.  The  last  day  of  Jainism  is  the  day 
when  the  last  karma  falls  off;  matter  bids  good-bye  to 
the  soul,  and  the  jiva  enters  nirvana.  It  is  a  day  of 
perfect  calm,  of  serene  being,  of  everlasting  happiness. 


30  OUTLINES    OF    JAIN1SM 

By  the  experiences  and  sufferings  of  innumerable  lives 
every  error,  every  weakness  has  been  detected,  outlived, 
and  purged  ;  in  the  light  of  samyag-jndna  the  substances 
shine  forth  transparent  and  mysteryless  in  their  eternal 
attributes,  and  their  power  to  fascinate  is  exposed  as 
the  child  of  infatuation  and  ignorance.  Reincarnation, 
then,  instead  of  being  an  evil  or  a  terror,  is  the  necessary 
principle  of  enabling  the  soul  to  go  on  rectifying  its 
errors  and  realizing  its  powers  and  purposes  in  life. 
Karma  stands  to  reincarnation  as  cause  to  effect. 

The  eight  varieties  of  this  cause  have  been  given 
above.  There  are  four  points  of  view  from  which  the 
bondage  of  soul  by  matter  may  be  considered  :  from 
the  nature  of  the  bondage  (prakriti) — of  this  there  are 
eight  kinds,  as  given  above  ;  from  its  duration  (sthiti) ; 
from  the  intensity  with  which  the  karmic  matter  binds 
the  soul  (anubhaga)  ;  and  from  the  number  of  particles 
or  quantity  of  matter  attaching  to  the  soul  (pradesa). 
Sthiti  may  be  said  to  be  karma  considered  with 
reference  to  time  ;  anubhaga,  with  reference  to  space  ; 
pradesa,  with  reference  to  matter ;  and  prakriti  with 
reference  to  soul. 

The  eight  kinds  of  /carinas  from  the  prakriti  point 
of  view  are  subdivided  into  148  main  classes  called 
the  "  148  prakritis  "  of  karmas.  They  are  as 
follows  :  — 

I.  Jnanavaraniya :  jndna,  knowledge,  is  of  five  kinds 
(see  pp.  59-60),  and  so  also  the  knowledge-obscuring 
karmas  are  of  five  kinds  according  as  they  obscure 
(1)  mati,  (2)  sruti,  (3)  avadhi,  (4)  manahparydya, 
or  (5)  kevala  jndna. 


METAPHYSICS:     VII.    KINDS    OF    KARMA  31 

II.  Darsandvaranlya,  faith-obscuring  or  perception- 
obscuring  karmas,  are  of  nine  kinds — 

chaksltur-darsartdvaraniya,  that  which  obscures  the 

physical  sight,  which  is  perception  by  means  of 

the  eyes ; 
acliakshur-darsandvaranvya,    that    which    obscures 

other  kinds  of  perception  ; 
avadhi-darsandvaraniya,  that  which  obscures    per- 
ception of  the  past; 
kevala-darsandvaraniya,   that    which   obscures    full 

perception  ; 
nidrd-vedaniya,   that  condition  of  sleepiness  which 

obscures  perception  ; 
nidrdnidrd-vedaniya,  condition  of  heavy  sleep  which 

obscures  perception  ; 
p rachald-vedaniya,  condition  of  restless  sleep  which 

obscures  perception  ; 
prachalaprachald-vedaniya,  condition  in  which  sleep 

is  very  restless  and  which  obscures  perception  ; 
stydnagrddhi-vedaniya,     somnambulistic    condition, 

in  which  there  is  hardly  any  perception   of  the 

acts  done. 

III.  Of  the  obstructing  (antardya)  karmas  there  are 
five  kinds — 

ddna-antardya,  that  class  of  karmas,  which  obstructs 
charity  ; 

labha-antardya,  which  obstructs  profit  of  any  kind; 

bhoga-antaraya,  which  obstructs  enjoyment ; 

upabhoga-antardya,  which  obstructs  the  circum- 
stances attending  enjoyment ; 

vlrya-antardya,  which  obstructs  power. 


32  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

IV.  Of  the  delusive  (mohaniya)  karmas  there  are 
twenty-eight  kinds.  According  as  the  infatuation  affects 
perception  or  conduct  it  is  called  respectively  perception- 
infatuating  (darsana-molianiya)  or  conduct-infatuating 
(cJidritra-mohaniya). 

A.  Darsana-mohaniya  is  of  three  kinds:  (1)  sam- 
yalctva-,  infatuation  which  affects  or  blurs  perfect 
perception ;  (2)  mithydtva-,  infatuation  which  occasions 
fals%e  perception  ;  (3)  misra,  infatuation  which  is  a 
mixture  of  the  first  two. 

B.  Chdritra-mohaniya  is  of  twenty-five  kinds.  It 
relates  partly  to  the  four  passions  (kasltaya) — -anger, 
pride,  deception,  and  greed,  each  one  of  which  may  (1) 
accompany  false  belief  (anantanubandhi) ;  (2)  obstruct 
partial  renunciations,  i.e.  the  rise  of  soul  to  the  fifth  stage 
of  its  evolution  (see  guna-sthdnas,  pp.  48-52),  then  it  is 
called  apratydkliydna-dvaraniya  ;  (3)  obstruct  total 
renunciation,  i.e.  the  sixth  guna-stJtdna,  then  it  is  called 
pratydkhydna-dvaranlya;  and  (4)  keep  self-restraint 
(samyama)  impure  (sanjvalana).  These  give  us  sixteen 
kinds  of  conduct-infatuation.  The  remaining  nine 
(akashdya)  are:  hdsya,  frivolity;  rati,  sentiments  of 
attachment  (or  Eros);  arati,  sentiment  of  aversion;  solca, 
sorrow;  bhaya,  fear;  jugupsd,  dislike;  stri,  effeminacy; 
purusha,  masculine  behaviour  in  women  :  napumsaka, 
spadonic  behaviour  in  man  or  woman  (35). 

The  classification  of  the  four  non-destructive  karmas 
is  :  I.  Ndma,  which  determines  the  character  of  our 
body,  size,  colour,  height,  etc.,  etc.,  is  of  two  kinds:  pinda- 
prahriti,  concrete  qualities,  and  apinda-prakriti,  non- 
concrete    qualities.      A  piiida-prakriti  is  of  sixty-five 


METAPHYSICS  :     VII.    KINDS    OF    KARMA  33 

Four  gat  is,  or  kinds  of  states  of  existence  :  (1)  of 
gods,  (2)  of  denizens  of  hell,  (3)  of  human  beings,  (4)  of 
non-human  beings,  as  animals,  insects,  plants,  and 
mineral  beings  : 

Five  jcitis,  or  kinds  of  living  beings  :  (1)  with  the 
sense  of  touch  only,  (2)  with  senses  of  touch  and  taste, 
( 3 )  with  touch,  taste,  and  smell,  (4)  with  touch,  taste, 
smell,  and  sight,  and  ( 5 )  with  touch,  taste,  smell,  sight, 
and  hearing ; 

Five  sarlras,  or  bodies:  (1)  anddrika,  the  physical 
body  of  all  men  and  animals,  (2)  vailcriyika,  the  body 
of  gods  and  denizens  of  hell,  (3)  dhdraka,  the  special 
body  of  saints  in  doubt  (see  p.  44),  (4)  taijasa,  the 
magnetic,  and  (5)  kdrmana,  or  karmic,  bodies  of  all 
embodied  souls ; 

Three  angopdngas,  members  and  sub-members, 
relating  to  (1)  auddrika,  (2)  va  ikriyika,  and  (S)dhdraka, 
bodies.  The  aiiga-ndma-karma  is  of  many  kinds,  as 
being  Hro-nd/ma  (head),  uro-ndma  (breast  or  chest), 
prishtha-ndma  (back),  bdhu-ndma  (arms),  udara- 
rulma  (stomach),  and  pdda  -  ndma  (feet).  The 
upd  iiga-ndma-karma  is  sparsa-ndma  (touch),  rasa- 
ndma  (taste),  ghrdna-nama  (smell),  chakshur-ndma 
(sight),  and  srotra-ndma  (hearing) ;  the  updngas  of 
siro-ndma  (head)  are  also  many,  as  forehead,  skull, 
palate,  cheek,  chin,  teeth,  lips,  brow,  eyes,  ears, 
nostrils,  etc. ; 

Two  sthdna(or  vihdyah)-ndma-karmas,  relating  to 
pramdna,  size,  and  nirmdna,  position  of  members. 

To  "  bind  ",  i.e.  keep  these  members  and  sub-members 


34  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

together,  we    need    a    binding    force,    which    is    called 
bandhana-ndma-karma,  and  is  of  five  kinds— 

Five  bandhana-ndma-karmas,  according  as  they 
keep  together  the  five  kinds  of  bodies  ;  e.g.  the  nervous 
system  in  the  physical  body  ; 

Five  sanghdta-ndma-karmas,  which  relate  to  the 
unifying  principle  in  the  five  bodies ; 

Sixsamsthdna-ndma-karmas,re\ixtingto  proportionate 
form  or  build  of  the  body  :  (1)  sama-chatura,  all-round 
symmetry  ;  (2)  nyagrodha-parimandala,  more  or  less 
round,  like  the  banyan  or  vata-tree,  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  body,  and  small  or  short  in  the  lower  limbs; 
(3)  sdchi  (svdti),  the  reverse  of  (2),  i.e.  short  at  the  top 
and  long  in  the  lower  limbs  ;  (4)  Jcubja,  hunchback  ; 
(5)  vdmana,  dwarf;  (6)  hundaka,  with  knotty  limbs; 

Six  samhanana-ndma-karmas,  relating  to  the  joints, 
bones,  and  sinews  of  the  body:  (1)  vajra-vrishabha- 
ndrdcha-samhanana,  unbreakable  and  strong  like 
adamant;  (2)  vajra-ndrdcha,  like  stone  ;  (3)  ndrdcha, 
unbreakable ;  (4)  ardha-ndrdcha,  semi-unbreakable ; 
(5)  kllikd,  as  strong  as  a  riveted  body ;  (6)  sphatika, 
crystal-like,  or  asamprdptdsrpdtika ; 

Five  varna-ndma-karmas,  determining  the  colours  of 
the  body  :  (1)  krishna,  black  ;  (2)  harita,  green  ;  (3)  pita, 
yellow  ;  (4)  rohita,  red  ;  (5)  sveta,  white  ; 

Two  gandha-ndma-karmas,  determining  the  odorous 
or  malodorous  character  of  the  body ; 

Five  rasa-ndma-karmas,  determining  the  taste  ; 
(1)  pungent,  (2)  bitter,  (3)  saline,  (4)  acid  or  sour, 
(5)  sweet ; 

Eight  sparsa-ndma-karmas,  determining  the  qualities 


METAPHYSICS  :  VII.    KINDS    OF    KARMA  35 

of    touch:     (1)   light,    (2)    heavy,    (3)   soft,   (4)    hard, 
(5)  rough,  (6)  smooth,  (7)  cold,  and  (8)  hot; 

Four  dnupurvi-ndma-karmas,  determining  the 
condition  and  character  of  the  state  of  existence  to  which 
the  soul  is  proceeding  after  leaving  its  present  body. 

B.  The  next  large  division  of  ndma-Jcarma  com- 
prises apinda-prakritis,  non-concrete  qualities.  These 
have  twenty-eight  main  subdivisions  as  follows  : — 

Eight  kinds  of  prakritis:  (1)  upaghata,  having  a 
body  fatal  to  oneself,  as  ostrich's  feathers,  ante- 
lope's antlers,  the  navel  of  the  musk-deer,  etc.  ; 
(2)  paragliata,  having  a  body  likely  to  be  fatal  to 
others,  e.g.  lion's  teeth,  claws,  etc. ;  (3)  dtapa,  warm  body  ; 
(4)  uddyota,  brilliant  body  ;  (5)  uchchhvdsa,  respiration  ; 
(6-7)  vihdyo-gati,  the  ability  to  move  or  fly  in  the 
air,  approved  and  not  approved  ;  (8)  agwndaghu,  body 
which  is  neither  heavy  nor  light  ; 

Ten  kinds  of  prakritis,  which  are  :  (1)  trasa,  body  of 
a  movable  soul  ;  (2)  bddara,  heavy  or  gross  ;  (3)  sthira, 
steady  or  stationary ;  (4)  parydpta,  complete ;  (5) 
pratyeka,  peculiar  or  individual  ;  (6)  subfia,  auspicious  ; 
(7)  subhdgya,  fortunate;  (8)  susvara,  sweet- voiced  ; 
(9)  ddeya,  influential ;  (10)  yasah-kirti,  famous  ; 

Ten  opposite  kinds  of  prahritis:  (l)sthd vara, body  of 
an  immovable  soul  ;  (2)  sukshma,  fine ;  (3)  asthira, 
unsteady  ;  (4)  aparydpta,  incomplete ;  (5)  sddhdrana, 
shared  with  others ;  (6)  asubha,  inauspicious ;  (7) 
durbhdgya,  unfortunate;  (8)  duhsvara,  harsh-toned; 
(9)  anddeya,  without  influence;  (lO)apayasah, infamous. 
II.  Ayuh-karma  determines  the  duration  of  existence 
and  relates  to  the  four  kinds  of  existence  of  (1)  gods, 


36  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

(2)  denizens   of  hell,  (3)  human   beings,  (4)  non-human 
beings. 

III.  Gotra-karma  determines  the  high  or  low  family 
and  nationality,  and  is  accordingly  of  two  kinds, 
(1)  uchcha-gotra,  (2)  nicha-gotra. 

IV.  Vedaniya-karma  in  its  working  causes  to  the 
individual  pain  or  pleasure,  and  is  accordingly  of  two 
kinds,  (1)  asata,  (2)  sdta. 

A  tabular  account  of  the  148  prakritis  may  be 
given  here  (see  Folding  Table). 

The  details  of  the  eight  kinds  of  karmas,  or  their 
148  subdivisions,  can  be  worked  out  at  an  infinite 
length.  One  may  call  this  doctrine  of  Jainism  almost 
spiritual  mathematics.  Every  effect  in  the  world,  every 
phenomenon,  every  feeling,  every  hope,  every  disappoint- 
ment is  a  natural  and  necessary  consequence  of  some 
action  or  inaction  of  the  soul.  Ignorance,  infatuation, 
the  passions  may  be  the  cause  of  it.  But  the  cause 
never  was  set  in  motion  by  the  soul  without  the  effect 
being  forced  upon  the  soul's  acceptance.  And  yet  the 
soul's  choice  is  as  unlimited  to-day  as  ever.  The  only 
mode  of  exercising  it  is  to  doff  ignorance,  indetermina- 
tion,  and  weakness,  face  facts,  recognize  in  the  bondage 
of  matter  and  our  identification  with  it  the  sole  source 
of  its  power  ;  and  then  determine  to  suppress  it,  to 
remove  this  alien  matter  from  ourselves.  And  then,  as 
&ri  Amritachandra  Suri  tells  us:  "by  destroying  the 
destructive  and  non-destructive  karma  perfect  freedom 
will  be  acquired,  the  soul  will  shine  out  in  the  fulness 
of  knowledge,  its  sight  of  truth  will  be  perfect,  its 
conviction  in  the  eternity  of  things  will  be  undisturbed 


QUALITIES 


liich  does  not  obscu 


NAM  A,  body,  e 


prakritis. 


Six  Samhananaa 
(bones,  joints, 
elc. )  : — 

83.  Like  adama 

84.  Like  stone. 

85.  Unbreakabl 

86.  Semi -un lire; 

able. 
ST.  Riveted. 

88.  Crystal-like 
Fire  colours : — 

89.  Black. 

90.  Green. 

91.  Yellow. 

92.  Red. 

93.  White. 
Tiro  smells : — 

94.  Odorous. 

95.  Malodorous. 
Five  tastes: — 

96.  Pungent. 

97.  Bitter. 

98.  Saline. 

99.  Sour. 

100.  Sweet. 
Eight  touches : — 

101.  Light, 

102.  Heavy. 

103.  Soft.  * 

104.  Hard. 

105.  Rough. 

106.  Smooth. 

107.  Cold. 

108.  Hot. 
Four  Anupurvis ' 

109.  Angels. 

110.  Men. 

111.  Animals. 

1 12.  Infernal  beii 


lclination  to  choose 


TABI.K    OF     KAUNAS     AMI    I  I  IP.KK..PI  >N]1INC     yl'AUTlKS 
Tlie  soul  is  bound  by  karmir  matter 


\s  liiil<  obscures  tli.'  soul's  essential  nature,  and  1-  enlled  destructive 

1 
which  does  not  obscure  the  •  •s.x.-ntiiil  nut ure  of  s 

ill,  and  is  called 

•jhitiya  karma 

ghatiya  karma  of  four  kinds 

fii  I'uiii  kind- 

1 

l\A\  LVARA 

UARSANAl   u:\\iVA,           MOHANTYA,  or  infatuating. 

ANTARAYA, 

NA.MA,  bodi  .  etc 

AYUH, 

GOTRA, 

\  EDANh 

NIYA,    or    know 

01  percept or 

faith  obscuring, 

obstructive,  of  five 
kinds,  affecting 

life  duration,  of 

family,   etc 
.,(  two  kinds 

Ifit^e-dti-i'iiriiii;-  "I 

i 

1 

five  kinds 

of  nine  kinds:                                 Perception  oi  Couduci 

43 

Charity. 

prakritis, 

Apiiirla-j.raknti- 

belongingto:- 

145.  Higb. 

147.  Pleasu 

8  Chaks Infatuation 

44 

Profit. 

/■Ji'llii  pr/tkritii : — 

II             '.".I- 

146.  Low. 

14S    Pa,ti. 

2,   Srui] 

7.  Aohakshiili-                    of  three  kinds,         offcwenty -five kinds: 

45 

Enjoyment 

Four  Gatit  - 

Sir   S,i  ,„!„< h'OI-i* 

113.  Upagfiata. 

142    Denizens 

3.  Avadhi- 

8.  A;  udhi-                                                           Ka*haya 

is   Gods 

bones,  joints. 

1  14.  Paragluila. 

of  Hell. 

■1.   Manalipaivavi. 

9.  Kevala-                      ),-,.  Full  pei-(M-pri..n              Kc  suiting  in  false 

of  enjoyment, 

49.  Hell, 

1 16,  Atapa. 

..    Kevahv 

)('-  Nidrfi                        [ft,  pai8e  .„.,,.,  !>t belief 

11.  Nidrfi-mdrii              17   ,\i,x.-d  j »f« . ■♦  pt imi      iv  Am^/i 

12.  Prachala-                                                         mi    pride. 

50.  Men, 

51.  X .en, 

Five  Jittit  — 

83,   Like  adamant 

S3.   IT  11  breakable. 

Ulj.  Uddvota. 
117.   Uchcbl.vusa. 

[J*;}vihayo.ga, 

13.  Pracliala-                                                              jn    [nfatuatiou. 

52.  One  sense. 

si;   Semi-un break- 

1 ihalfi                                                      21.  Ureed. 

120     Iguru-Iagbu. 

14    Styana-gnddhi-                                                  obstructing  partii 

1 

54.  Three  sene<  s. 

55.  Pout  senses. 

ss    Crystal-Hke. 

Ten  prakriti*  — 
lL'l    Tras'a. 

^Augel 
23.   Pride. 

56.  Five  senses 

122.  Badara. 

Fivt  bodit* 

89,  Black. 

123.  Sthira. 

_'4.  liifm  uation. 

",7    Men  -  bodies, 

90.  Green. 

124.  Paryapta. 

25.  Ureed, 

"i.s    1. ...Is'  bodies. 

91.   Yellow. 

125.  Pratyeka. 

<  ilisiiii.tiii;.'  tniul 

59.  Aharaka. 

92.   Red. 

126.  fjubha. 

60.  Magnetic 

9.1.   White. 

IJT    Subbagya. 

•26.  Anger. 

61.  Kanmc. 

Two  tmtils   -- 

27.  Pride. 

28.  Infatuation. 

29.  (Jreed. 
Disturbing  reel 

30.  Anger. 

31.  Pride. 

32.  Infatuation. 
33   1  in  1  d 

/':,,-,■    .  1  hgo- 

pdftgat 

(12.  Members"!  nh\ 

sical  bodies. 
63.  Members  of 

94.  Odorous. 

95.  Malodorous. 
! 

96.  Pungent. 

97.  Bitter. 

129.  Adeya. 
130    Vasal 

T-ii  ,,/>/.,.>.'     ..... 

kntit  :— 
131.  Stbavara. 

gods'  bodies. 

98,  Saline, 

132.  Suksbma. 

64.  Members  of 

'."I    s 

133.   Astbua. 

Aharaka 

100.  Sweet. 

134.  Apaivaptu. 

;.-.    1:  ,1, 
36.  Arati 

3S.  Bhaya. 
39,    lugupsa. 
411    St  11 

Two  Sthauaa.— 

65,  Pramana, 

66.  NirmAna. 

Fivt  Bandhawu  — 

67   71    (If  five  kinds 
of  bodies. 

ICi'llil  Imirhm  ■— 

101.  Light. 
102   ffeavj 
10.1.  Soft, 

104.  Hard. 

105.  Rough. 

13.-.    Sldbirana. 

136.  Aiubba. 

137.  Durbhagya. 
1:1s    Dulisvara. 
1.19.  Anadeya. 
im    Apavasali. 

Fir.  Snmtfhdtait  - 

106.  Smooth. 

41.  Purusha. 

72  76  "1  five  kind 

ln7   Cold 

42    Nupumsakn. 

Six  Sayi&tkdnai  ■ 

77.  Perfectly 

78.  Round, 

79.  Animal  inline. 
SO.  Hunchback. 

81.  Dwarf. 

82.  Hundaka. 

ins.  Hut. 

FOUT  Anufitirri*  '    - 

109.  Angels 

110.  Men 

111  Animals 

112  Infernal  being 

1      AllllfJItlil             -Mill-    Ijf    ill.-    Mil)]     1 

pass! 

g  from  one  body 

1  iitmtln'i-.  and  tin-  irn  hunt In  elmose  a  particular  ijuli. 

Q 


METAPHYSICS  :     VII.    KINDS    OF    KARMA  37 

and  undisturbable  ;  pain  and  pleasure  and  their 
attendant  agitation  will  be  no  more  :  calm  and  peace 
with  bliss  ineffable  will  be  the  lasting  and  rightful 
possession  of  the  soul  "  (34). 

VIII.  The  Seven  Principles  (Tattvas)  (36-53) 
Jlva  and  Ajiva 

The  principles  of  Jainism  are  seven  :  jlva,  soul ;  ajiva, 
non-soul;  dsrava.  Icarma-movement ;  bandha,  karma- 
bondage ;  samvara,  karma-check:  nirjara,  karma- 
f ailing  off;  moksha,  fcarma-liberation. 

The  great  importance  of  the  logically  perfect  division 
into  soul  (jlva)  and  non-soul  {ajiva)  has  been  already 
seen  :  it  is  the  basis  of  the  six  substances  and  of  the 
five  magnitudes.  It  is  further  the  foundation  of  the 
seven  principles,  and  later  on,  we  shall  see,  also  that  of 
the  nine  categories  (padarthas).  The  two  great  cate- 
gories are  soul  and  non-soul :  these  are  in  combination  ; 
and  the  link  between  them  is  that  of  karma  (Theology  1). 

The  soul  and  the  non-soul  have  been  considered.  It 
now  remains  to  deal  with  the  forging  and  the  falling 
away  of  the  fetter  of  karma.  There  are  two  steps  in 
the  forging — the  movement  of  karmic  matter  towards 
the  soul  (dsrava),  and  the  actual  inflow  of,  or  bondage 
of  the  soul  by,  karmic  matter  (bandha).  There  are  two 
steps  also  in  the  freeing  of  the  soul  from  matter — the 
stoppage  of  any  fresh  material  ties  (called  sain  vara.), 
and  the  shedding  of  the  matter  in  which  the  soul  is 
actually  entangled.  The  end  of  the  process  is  moksha 
or  nirvana,  the  goal  of  every  true  Jaina's  life. 


38  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

Asrava  (38-9) 

The  soul  is  affected  by  attachment  (raga),  aversion 
(dvesJia),  affection  (rati),  and  infatuation  (moJta),  in  the 
form  of  the  four  passions,  anger,  pride,  deception,  and 
greed,  helped  by  the  activity  of  mind,  body,  and  speech. 
Such  a  soul  is  in  a  state  to  receive  karmic  matter  into 
it  (37).  The  technical  name  given  to  this  activity  is 
yoga;  and  the  attraction  of  karmic  matter  thus  brought 
about  is  called  fcarwia-movement  (asrava),  the  third 
tattva  or  principle  (38). 

The  condition  of  the  soul  which  makes  asrava 
possible  is  called  bliavasrava  (subjective  asrava).  It  is 
of  thirty-two  kinds  (39).  The  actual  matter,  of  various 
colours,  etc.,  etc.,  attracted  by  the  soul  is  dravydsrava 
(objective  asrava). 

The  past  Jcarmas  of  the  soul  affect  its  present  activity. 
Its  present  Jcarmas  help  or  modify  these,  and  the  joint 
effect  determines  the  character  and  tendency  of  the 
actual  surroundings,  etc.,  of  the  soul.  The  soul  must 
pay  for  what  it  has  acquired.  If  it  has  acquired  more 
than  it  can  maintain,  it  must  break  under  the  load  of 
matter,  i.e.  it  must  become  spiritually  bankrupt.  The 
Jcarmas  are  themselves  indifferent ;  they  do  not  desire 
to  come  or  to  stay  away.  But,  if  the  soul  is  in  a  mood 
to  receive  them,  they  are  attracted  to  it  as  readily  as 
fine  iron  filings  by  a  magnet.  It  is  the  vicious,  relentless 
vigilance  of  matter  to  run  to  and  embrace  the  soul,  in 
its  ignorance  and  infatuation  as  much  as  in  its  enlighten- 
ment and  discrimination,  that  is  in  Jainism  called 
asrava. 

The  psychical   condition    which  makes  the   inflow  of 


METAPHYSICS  :     VIII.    THE    SEVEN    PRINCIPLES  39 

karmic  matter  into  the  soul  possible  (hlidvdsrava)  may 
take  the  form  of  false  or  perverse  belief,  an  undisciplined, 
vowless,  characterless  life,  careless  use  of  mind,  body, 
and  speech,  or  yielding  to  the  passions.  The  physical 
matter  which  is  actually  drawn  to  the  soul  (dravyasrava) 
is  invisible.  It  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  senses,  as  it  is 
siikslLina  or  line,  or  even  salcslima-su.ksh,mo.,OT  very  fine. 

Bandha  (40-3) 

The  actual  investing  of  the  soul  by  the  karmic  matter 
which  has  flowed  into  it  is  called  bondage  (ba/ndha  i. 
The  psychical  condition  which  allows  this  is  called 
bhava-bandha.  It  corresponds  exactly  to  bhdvdsrava, 
and  arises  from  false  belief,  want  of  character,  etc.,  etc. 

The  actual  mingling  of  karmic  matter  with  the 
particles  (pradesas)  of  the  soul  is  dravya-bandlta. 

This  bondage  is  of  four  kinds,  according  to  (1)  the 
nature  of  the  karmic  matter  which  has  invested  the 
soul;  (2)  the  period  during  which  it  is  capable  of 
remaining  attached  to  the  soul:  (3)  the  character — 
mild  or  strong — of  the  actual  fruition  of  this  karmic 
matter ;    and  (4)  the  number  of  the  karmic  atoms. 

Samvara  (44—6) 
But  the  inflow  of  karmic  matter  may  be  stopped  ; 
for  the  soul  is  a  free  agent  and  can,  if  it  chooses, 
refuse  to  take  in  any  more  of  this  mischievous  substance. 
Restraint  of  body  and  mind,  a  deliberate  attitude  of 
indifference  to  matter's  traps  and  temptations,  induce 
a  calm  evenness  of  the  soul,  which  gives  no  opportunity 
to  the  Icarmas  to  approach  and  cleave  to  or  dig  into  it, 
The  mind  is  freed  from   love,  hatred,  attachment,  and 


40  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

aversion  ;  there  is  no  yoga  or  asrava  vibration,  and  the 
inflow  of  karmas  is  stopped. 

The  psychical  condition  which  makes  this  possible  is 
bhava-samvara.  This  is  reached  by  following  the  rules 
of  conduct  under  vows,  by  religious  observances,  by 
the  threefold  restraint  of  body,  mind,  and  speech,  by 
performance  of  duties,  by  compassion  towards  all  living 
beings,  by  contemplating  the  true  character  of  the 
world  and  our  relation  to  its  objects  and  persons,  by 
concentrating  the  mind  on  our  chief  purpose  in  life, 
and  by  enduring  all  kinds  of  troubles  and  tortures  for 
the  achievement  thereof  (46). 

Nirjara  (47-50) 
Nirjara  means  the  falling  away  of  karmic  matter 
from  the  soul  (47-8).  The  fetters  may  by  themselves 
gradually  wear  out  and  leave  the  soul  free :  but  it  is 
a  long  process.  Therefore  a  shorter  method  is  adopted  ; 
deliberate  activity  may  hasten  the  ripening  of  a  karma 
and  the  shedding  of  its  matter.  To  illustrate  :  we  wish 
evil  to  our  neighbour  A  ;  the  thought-activity  invites 
the  karmic  matter  into  the  soul  (asrava),  the  matter 
comes  and  binds  the  soul  (bandha).  This  karma 
may  take  two  months  to  bear  its  full  fruits;  in  the 
meantime  it  is  an  evil  load  for  the  soul.  To  gain 
lightness  and  to  get  rid  of  the  karma,  the  soul  may 
deliberately  feel  an  opposite  kind  of  feeling  towards 
other  neighbours  B,  C,  and  D.  A  still  surer  way  is  to 
practise  austerity.  By  removing  the  mind  from  the 
demands  and  impulses  of  the  body,  and  by  mortifying 
the  physical  man  through  not  listening  to  its  greed  and 


METAPHYSICS  :     VIII.    THE    SEVEN    PRINCIPLES         41 

temptations,  matter  may  be  overcome  and  the  soul 
freed  from  the  bondage  (47-8,  50). 

The  natural  maturing  of  a  karma  and  its  separation 
from  the  soul  is  called  savijpdka-nirjard.  Inducing  a 
karma  to  leave  the  soul  by  means  of  a  contrary  karma, 
or  by  means  of  ascetic  practices,  is  called  avvpalca- 
nirjard  (riddance  without  fruition). 

The  terminology  of  the  distinction  is  derived  from 
botany.  A  seed  grows  into  a  fruit.  It  may  ripen  by 
itself  (savipdka) ;  or  it  may  be  plucked  half-ripe,  or 
even  unripe,  and  then  ripened  by  artificial  means  (49). 

Molcsha  (51-3) 

The  complete  freedom  of  the  soul  from  karmic  matter 
is  called  moksha. 

It  is  attained  when  the  two  mighty  entities  part 
and  stand  separate  :  the  soul  in  the  calm  and  bliss  of 
perfect  knowledge  ;  and  the  matter  inert  but  for  its 
mechanical  readiness  to  fasten  itself  upon  some  other 
unemancipated  soul. 

The  separation  is  effected  when  all  the  learmas — the 
four  destructive  (ghdtiya)  and  the  four  non-destructive 
(aghdtiya) — have  left  the  soul,  and  no  more  karmic 
matter  can  be  attracted  towards  it. 

IX.  The  Nine  Padarthas  (54  8) 
The  above  seven  tattvas  together  with  punya,  merit, 
and  papa,  demerit,  are  the  nine  paddrtkas  (54). 

Punya  is  the  meritorious  kind  of  learmas.  The 
desirable  kind  of  thought-activity  is  punya ;  e.g.  love 
for  righteous  living,  devotion  to  Arhats,  etc. 


42  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

Papa  is  the  sinful  kind  of  karmas.  It  includes  acts 
done  with  negligence,  engrossment  in  sense-objects, 
causing  pain  to  others,  talking  evil  of  others,  etc.  This 
results  in  the  movement  (dsrava)  of  sinful  karmas 
and  the  corresponding  bondage  (55-7).  The  matter  of 
punya  and  papa  is  the  same.  It  is  only  the  desirable  or 
undesirable  character  of  the  thought-activity  that  gives 
rise  to  the  distinction  (58).  The  distinction  has  so  much 
reference  to  dsrava  and  bandlta  (inflow  of  karmas 
and  bondage  thereby)  that  sometimes  the  paddrtJtas 
are  not  treated  as  a  separate  topic  at  all,  but  only 
as  a  subsidiary  part  of  those  twro  tattvas  (principles). 
So  it  is  said  :  "  Both  are  the  means  of  bondage  ;  therefore 
they  are  one,  and  are  certainly  by  themselves  the  cause 

of  bondage  "  (58). 

X.  Bodies,  etc. 

The  connexion  of  jiva  and  ajlva,  linked  by  karmic 
matter,  leads  to  two  results  :  (1)  it  causes  the  soul  to  be 
clothed  with  matter ;  (2)  it  imposes  upon  the  soul  the 
duty  of  getting  rid  of  this  matter. 

Under  (1)  three  topics  have  to  be  considered  :  (a)  the 
number  of  bodies  according  to  the  nature  of  their 
matter;  (b)  the  kinds  of  bodies  according  to  their 
form  or  class ;  (c)  the  colours  of  this  bodily  matter  and 
its  reflection  in  the  soul. 

Thus  we  must  deal  with  :  (a)  bodies  ;  (b)  conditions 
of  existence ;  (c)  lesyds,  or  tints  ;  (d)  guna-sthana.8,  or 
stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  soul. 

XL  The  Five  Bodies  (59-60) 

The  non-soul  invades  the  soul  (dsrava)  and  invests  it 
with   the   finest  karmic  matter  (bandha).     This  is  the 


METAPHYSICS  :     XI.    THE    FIVE    BODIES  43 

innermost  body.  It  is  called  the  karma  body  (Jcdrmana 
sarvra),  and  it  is  found  in  all  embodied  or  mundane, 
unliberated  souls.  The  next  grosser  kind  of  body 
is  the  magnetic  (taijasa)  body  :  this  also  is  extremely 
fine  and  invisible,  and  it  is  found  in  all  unliberated  souls. 
Added  to  these  two  bodies,  common  to  all  souls  except 
those  of  siddJtas  in  moksha,  there  are  the  vaikriyika 
and  audarika  bodies — the  former  is  the  plastic  sheath 
of  angels  and  denizens  of  hell,  and  the  latter  the  body 
of  human  and  other  mundane  beings.  Like  Christianity, 
Jainism  gives  to  angels  and  devils  the  same  constitution 
and  origin.  The  angels — gods  or  denizens  of  hell — are  not 
born  like  mortals.  They  simply  rise  into  their  conditions 
— narake  devdndm  upapdtah  (Tattvdrtha-sutra,  ii,  35). 
Another  interesting  comparison  may  be  instituted 
between  Christianity  and  the  very  first  Jaina  principle 
with  which  this  book  opens  :  jivo  ti  .  .  .  kamma- 
samjutto,  "  the  soul  in  the  world  is  in  combination  with 
karma"  {Panchdstikdya,  27).  This  is  the  Christian 
doctrine  of  original  sin,  and  it  has  some  analogy  to  the 
scientific  doctrine  of  heredity.  The  soul  almost  auto- 
matically chooses  the  body  which  it  best  deserves  by 
its  total  condition  in  regard  to  the  karmic  matter  of 
passions,  affections,  tendencies  past  and  present. 

Thus  Jainism  gives  three  bodies  to  all  souls  on 
this  side  of  liberation,  or  vioksha.  The  karmic  and 
the  magnetic  bodies  are  common  to  all ;  the  angels 
have  in  addition  vaikriyika,  and  the  other  souls 
audarika,  or  our  ordinary  physical  bodies,  derived  from 
the  mother's  womb.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the 
karmic   and   magnetic   bodies  are  so  subtle  (finer  than 


44  OUTLINES    OF   JA1NISM 

ether)  that  nothing  can  check  them  ;  they  pass  through 
all  and  they  stand  in  the  way  of  nothing  else.  In  the 
language  of  the  Tattvdrtha-sutra  (ch.  ii,  41)  they  are 
apratighata,  i.e.  there  is  no  resistance  in  them  and 
they  can  pass  through  all.  Their  union  with  the  soul 
is,  of  course,  without  beginning  :  for,  in  the  last  resort, 
they  are  the  bases  of  operation  of  the  binding  forces  of 
karmic  matter  on  the  soul  (60). 

There  is  a  fifth  body,  peculiar  to  Jainism  :  it  is  called 
aharaka.  The  perfect  Jaina  saint  who  has  attained 
full  knowledge  and  is  waiting  to  shed  the  last  body 
(karmana-sarira)  is  rare.  And  the  less  advanced  Jaina 
ascetic  may  be  in  doubt  as  to  certain  points  in  the 
ethics  or  metaphysics  of  Jainism.  By  the  vows  which 
he  has  taken  he  might  be  hindered  from  going  to  see 
the  enlightened  master.  Therefore,  on  rare  and  urgent 
occasions,  in  consequence  of  the  highly  developed  occult 
faculties  of  his  soul,  a  spiritual  man-like  body  emanates 
from  his  head  and  flashes  across  space  to  the  feet  of  the 
master,  where  it  solves  the  doubt;  then  it  rushes  back 
and  re-enters  the  ascetic's  head.  This  body  is  the 
aharaka  body. 

Of  these  five  bodies,  physical,  angelic,  special  saintly, 
magnetic,  and  karmic,  each  is  lighter  and  more  refined 
than  the  preceding,  and  each  surpasses  the  preceding 
by  an  infinite  ratio  in  respect  of  the  number  of  atoms 
which  it  contains  (59).  Of  course,  these  bodies,  except 
the  physical,  are  invisible  to  ordinary  human  eyesight. 
But  that  cannot  be  a  conclusive  proof  of  their  non- 
existence. The  positive  proof  is  in  one  own's  experience. 
Ordinary  experience,  analogy,  and  reasoning  may  point 


METAPHYSICS  :     XI.    THE    FIVE    BODIES  45 

to  the  possibility  of  their  existence,  and  then  reasoned 
faith  plus  an  active  pursuit  of  the  Jaina  doctrine,  for 
some  time  at  least,  will  prove  their  existence  and  their 
limitless  potentiality. 

XII.  Forms  of  Existence  (61) 
The  two  kinds  of   bodies,  angelic  and  physical,  dis- 
tribute themselves  into  four  kinds  of  existence.     Angels 
may  be  gods  or  denizens  of  hell ;  and  physical  bodies  may 
attach  to  men  or  non-human  beings,  other  than  angels. 

Thus  we  have  the  four  gatis  of  Jainism  :  deva, 
celestial;  ndraka,  hellish  ;  mdnushya,  human  ;  tiryag, 
others.  The  process  of  evolution  onwards  into  the 
complication  of  material  bondage  is  described  by  Kunda- 
kunda  Acharya  (61). 

XIII.  Lesyas  (62) 

Lesyd  (tint)  is  said  to  be  that  by  means  of  which 
the  soul  is  tinted  with  merit  and  demerit.  Inflow  of 
karmas  is,  we  know,  effected  by  yoga  and  by  kashdya, 
i.e.  by  the  vibrations  due  to  the  activity  of  body,  mind,  or 
speech,  and  by  passions,  mainly  anger,  pride,  deception, 
and  greed.  The  vibrations  determine  the  nature  and 
material  of  the  bondage,  i.e.  the  kind  of  karmas  and 
kind  of  bodies  which  are  augmented ;  whereas  the 
passions  determine  the  duration  and  intensity  of  the 
bondage.  The  two  processes  correspond  to  the  twofold 
activity  of  the  lesyas. 

The  colour  of  karmas  or  of  the  souls  invested  by 
them  is  determined  by  their  particular  tint  of  merit  or 
demerit,  i.e.  by  their  particular  lesyd.  Six  colours  are 
given  :  black,  blue,  grey,  red,  lotus-pink,  and  white  (62). 


46  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

We  may  consider  lesyas  as  to  their  origin,  as  to  their 
kinds,  and  as  to  their  character. 

As  to  their  origin,  lesyas  arise  from  yoga  or  kashdya, 
i.e.  (1)  the  vibrations  due  to  activity  of  body,  mind,  or 
speech  ;  or  (2)  the  passions. 

As  to  their  kinds,  they  are  meritorious  or  sinful. 
Sinful  lesyas  give  rise  to  black,  indigo,  and  grey  colours. 
Meritorious  lesyas  to  orange-red,  lotus-pink,  and  white 
ones. 

Black.  A  man  affected  with  this  lesyd  wishes 
entirely  to  destroy  anything  that  has  excited  his 
anger,  etc.  In  an  illustration  occurring  in  Jaina  books 
he  is  compared  to  one  who  wants  to  eat  mangoes. 
He  comes  to  a  mango-tree,  and  uproots  the  whole 
tree  in  order  to  eat  a  few  fruits.  Hatred  of  a  man  or 
woman,  say  at  first  sight  from  a  distance,  will  be 
a  good  example. 

Indigo  or  blue.  This  is  a  little  better  than  the  last. 
A  man  with  this  does  not  go  to  the  root  of  the  tree ; 
still,  he  causes  greater  pain  and  loss  than  is  necessary  or 
just.  It  is  like  the  man  sparing  the  root,  but  cutting 
the  trunk  of  the  mango-tree.  In  practical  life,  e.g.  because 
one  foreigner  behaves  badly  in  his  country,  a  man  with 
this  lesyd  might  hate  all  foreigners. 

Grey.  This  is  slightly  better  than  the  last.  A  man 
wishes  to  cause  pain  or  loss,  in  order  to  gain  his  end. 
"  Achieve  by  any  means,  fair  or  foul,"  "  the  end  justifies 
the  means,"  will  belong  to  this  lesyd.  In  the  case  of 
the  mango-tree  it  would  be  the  man  who  spares  the 
trunk  and  the  root,  but  chops  off' all  the  big  boughs  of 
the  tree. 


METAPHYSICS  :     XIII.    LESYAS  47 

The  other  lesyds  are  meritorious.  Coming  to  these  is 
like  dealing  with  the  last  three  periods  of  the  ascending 
era  (utsarpinl)  in  Jainism,  when  intense  demerit  is 
over,  and  a  gradual  elevation  to  merit  and  happiness 
is  in  sight. 

Orange-red.  The  man  here  wishes  to  achieve  his 
end  with  as  little  harm  to  others  as  possible.  But  he 
is  still  rather  careless  and  illogical:  e.g.  the  man  who 
only  cuts  off  small  branches  of  the  mango-laden  tree. 

Lotus-pink.  This  is  a  brighter  hue.  A  man  with 
this  is  careful  not  to  injure  others  even  for  his  own 
good.  The  mango-eater  merely  plucks  mangoes  from 
the  tree. 

White.  This  is  the  colour  of  the  best-thoughted 
persons.  It  indicates  purity,  compassion,  and  a  life 
involving  no  loss  or,  pain  to  others.  The  mango-eater 
merely  picks  up  ripe  fruit  that  has  dropped  to  the  foot 
of  the  tree.  The  man  of  the  world  who  is  near  to  this 
lesyd  is  the  one  who  has  mild  and  necessary  enjoyment 
of  sense-objects,  but  without  hurting  others  in  the  least 
and  without  losing  his  grip  upon  his  own  right  belief 
and  conduct. 

It  may  be  that  the  six  lesyds  are  the  colours  of  the 
aura  of  the  human  body  in  occult  Jainism.  The  theo- 
sophical  view  of  the  colours  of  the  aura  may  be  compared  : 
the  aura  of  the  saint  is  ethereal — bluish,  like  the 
shimmering  blue  of  pure-white  ice  ;  that  of  the  angry 
man  is  red,  that  of  the  wicked  and  sinful  man  black, 
and  so  on.1 

1  The  six  colours  of  the  lesyds  affect  all  embodied  souls.  The 
doctrine  is  treated  by  Jaina  writers  with  their  usual  wealth  of  details 


48  OUTLINES    OF   JA1NISM 

XIV.  Stages  in  the  Evolution  of  the  Soul 

(GUNA-STHANAS)    (63-4) 

In  Jainism  fourteen  stages  are  indicated,  through 
which  the  soul  progresses  from  impurifying  matter  on 
to  final  liberation. 

The  psychical  condition  of  the  soul  due  to  the  rising, 
settling  down,  perishing,  or  partly  settling  down  and 
partly  perishing,  of  karmic  matter  (udaya,  upasama, 
Jcshaya,  Icshayopasama)  is  called  guna-stJtdna. 

The  names  of  the  fourteen  stages  are — 

1.  mithydtva.  8.  apfirva-karana. 

2.  sds(y)ddana.  9.  anivritti-karana. 

3.  misra.  10.  sTikshma-sampardya. 

4.  avirata-samyaktva.  11.  upasdnta-moha. 

5.  desa-virata.  12.  ksltina-moha. 

6.  pramatta-virata.  13.  sayoga-kevalin. 

7.  apramatta-virata.  14.  ayoga-kevalin. 

1.  Mithyatva 
In    this    the  soul,  affected    by    the  manifestation  of 
karmic  matter  which  is  due  to  delusion  or  infatuation 
arising  out  of  false  belief  or  false  perception,  does  not 

and  fondness  for  elaborate  and  symmetrical  classifications  :  e.g.  the 
denizens  of  hell  have  the  black  lesyd  ;  the  inhabitants  of  the  best 
bhoga-bhumi  (like  the  first  age  of  our  avasarpinl  era)  have  white 
like  the  sun  ;  those  of  the  middle  bhoga-bhumi  have  white  like 
the  moon  :  those  of  the  lower  bhoga-bhumi  have  grey  ;  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  heavens  (angels)  have  lesyds  according  to  their 
bhd.va-le.Ayds,  or  the  colour  of  their  thought-matter.  Gross  forms  of 
waterdife  are  said  to  have  white  lesyd  ;  fire-souls  have  orange-red 
lesyd  ;  the  three  atmospheric  envelopes  of  the  world  have  it  respectively 
pale-yellow,  light  emerald  green,  and  a  colour  that  is  avyakta 
(inexpressible). 


METAPHYSICS  :     XIV.    STAGES    OF    THE    SOUL  49 

believe  in  the  right  path  to  salvation.     From  this  stage 
it  always  passes  on  to  the  fourth  stage. 

2.  Sds(v)ddana 

When,  in  the  fourth  stage,  there  is  a  manifestation 
of  the  four  anantdnubandhl  kashdyas,  or  the  four 
conduct-infatuating  passions,  due  to  false  or  perverted 
belief,  the  soul  slips  down  from  the  fourth  stage  to  the 
h'rst.  In  doing  so  it  passes  through  the  second  stage, 
and  the  psychical  condition  in  the  passage  is  called 
sas(v)ddana. 

3.  Misra 

If  from  the  fourth  stage  the  soul  slips  down  to  the 
first,  because  of  the  manifestation  of  the  faith-  or  per- 
ception-infatuating karmas  due  to  blurred  or  false  or 
mixed  r)eYce\)t\cm(samyak,mitliyd-,OYmisra-mohaniya), 
it  passes  through  the  third  stage  on  its  downward  career 
to  the  starting-point. 

4.  Avirata-samyaktva 

Right  perception,  or  samyaktva,  is  produced  by  the 
suppression  of  the  four  passions  (anantdnubandhl 
kaslidyas)  and  one  or  three  kinds  of  faith-  or  perception- 
infatuation.  One  kind  of  faith-infatuation  is  in  the 
case  of  a  man  who  has  been  in  possession  of  samyaktva  ; 
the  three  other  kinds  are  for  one  who  has  never  been  in 
possession  of  such  samyaktva.  In  this  stage  the  soul 
has  faith  in  the  moksha-mdrga,  or  the  path  to  salvation, 
but  cannot  observe  the  rules  of  conduct  necessary  for 
the  pursuit  of  it. 

Here  three  kinds  of  psychical  condition  may  be 
noticed — 


50  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

(1)  Upasama-samyaktd,  or  samyaktd,  by  precipita- 
tion of  karmic  matter,  It  is  attained  by  the 
suppression  of  five  or  seven  prakfitis  of  infatuating 
karmas. 

(2)  Kshdyaka-samyaktd,  attained  by  kshaya,  or 
perishing  of  karmas.  It  is  reached  by  the  annihilation 
of  seven  prakritis  of  infatuating  karmas. 

(3)  Kshayopasama,  or  combined  precipitation  and 
perishing  of  karmas.  It  is  attained  by  the  suppression 
of  six  and  the  continuous  manifestation  of  the  seventh 
(i.e.  samyaktd  -  mohaniy a  -  prakriti)  of  perception- 
infatuating  karmas.  This  is  characterized  by  chala, 
mala,  agddha,  i.e.  the  three  defects  of  (1)  being  shaken 
in  right  belief,  e.g.,  thinking  that  worship  of  Sdnti- 
ndtha  (the  sixteenth  Tirtharikara)  will  bring  sdnti 
(peace)  or  that  of  Pdrsva-tidtha  will  remove  obstacles, 
etc.,  because  all  arhats  are  the  same  ;  (2)  having  an 
impure  psychical  condition,  being  soiled  by  one  or 
more  of  the  defects  :  saiikd,  doubt ;  kdiikshd,  desire  of 
worldly  objects  as  rewards  for  piety  ;  vichikitsd,  want 
of  settled  conviction ;  anyadrisJdi-prasamsd,  praising 
wrong  faith  ;  anyadrisliti-samstava,  holding  a  wrong 
faith  to  be  the  correct  one  ;  (3)  losing  firm  hold  of  the 
right  faith,  e.g.  dedicating  a  temple  and  still  thinking  it 
to  be  one's  own  property. 

5.  Desa-virata 

Partial  renunciation  of  the  world.  Under  this  head 
come  all  the  eleven  pratimds,  or  stages  of  a  layman's 
life.     (For  these  see  under  Ethics,  pp.  68-70.) 


METAPHYSICS  :     XIV.    STAGES    OF    THE    SOUL  51 

6.  Pramatta-virata 

After  renunciation  of  all  worldly  objects  still 
occasionally  to  turn  the  mind  to  the  service  or  needs 
of  the  body.  This  is  pramdda-bhdva.  Henceforth  all 
the  stages  belong  to  the  life  of  a  muni,  or  ascetic. 

7.  Apramatta-virata 

Renouncing  the  pramdda-bliava  of  the  sixth  stage. 
In  this  the  soul  is  absorbed  in  spiritual  contemplation. 

From  here  there  are  two  ways  of  progressing  (two 
irenis,  or  ways  of  ascent):  (1)  upasama,  in  which 
the  conduct-infatuating  karma  is  being  suppressed  ; 
(2)  kshdyaka,  in  which  it  is  being  destroyed.  This  last 
is  the  necessary  way  to  molcsha,  or  final  liberation. 

8 .  Ap  ur  va  -Jeara  na 

Karana,or  bJidva,  thoughts  which  had  not  yet  found 
entry  into  the  saint's  soul.  This  is  the  beginning  of 
the  first  sukla-dhyana,  or  white  contemplation,  i.e.  pure 
contemplation  of  the  pure  soul. 

9.  Anivritti-Jearana 

Special  thoughts  (bhdvas)  of  still  greater  purity  ; 
a  stage  of  the  first  pure  contemplation. 

1 0.  Sulcsh ina-sa niparaya 

All  passions  are  destroyed  or  suppressed,  except 
sukshma-sanjvalana-lobha,  i.e.  the  most  subtle,  nominal 
desire  (of  attaining  molcsha,  for  example).  This  is  also 
the  first  pure  contemplation. 


52  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

11.   Upasdnta-moha 
A  thought  (bhdva),  or  psychical  condition,   which  is 
produced   by   the   suppression    of    the    entire   conduct- 
infatuating    karmas.       This    is    also     the    first    pure 
contemplation.     From  this  a  saint  falls. 

12.  Kshina-moha 

In  this  stage  the  entire  conduct-infatuating  karmas 
are  annihilated,  and  the  psychical  condition  produced 
belongs  to  the  second  pure  (or  white)  contemplation. 
The  saint  attains  this  directly  after  the  tenth  stage, 
without  passing  through  the  eleventh. 

13.  Sayoga-kevalin 

Before  commencing  this  stage  the  soul  must  have 
destroyed  the  three  remaining  destructive  karmas — 
knowledge-obscuring,  faith-obscuring  or  perception- 
obscuring,  and  the  hindering  or  obstructive  karmas. 
Here,  the  soul  becomes  arltat,  or  perfect  soul  in  human 
body,   vibrating  with  the   fast  approaching  glories  of 

moksha. 

11.  Ayoga-kevalin 

This  is  attained  when  there  is  before  the  sayoga- 
kevalin  s  death  just  enough  time  to  speak  out  the  five 
letters  a,  i,  u,  ri,  Iri.  In  this  stage — a  very  brief  one 
indeed — the  vibrations  of  the  holy  body  cease. 

XV.  The  Three  Jewels  (65-7) 
These    are  :    (1)  samyag-darsana,    right  conviction, 
faith    and    perception  combined ;    (2)    samyag-jndna, 
right  knowledge;  (3)  samyak-cliaritra,  right  conduct. 


METAPHYSICS  :     XV  A.    RIGHT    CONVICTION  53 

The  reason  why  right  faith  or  conviction  is  put  first 
is  that  right  principles  of  conduct  are  derivable  from 
right  convictions.  And,  as  precious  stones  and  ordinary 
stones  are  of  the  same  nature,  but  a  whole  load  of 
mountain  stones  does  not  equal  in  value  a  small  piece 
of  precious  stone,  so  conduct  based  on  false  convictions 
may  be  the  same  in  external  manifestation  as  that  based 
on  right  convictions  ;  but  the  former  leads  to  error  and 
waste  of  energy,  whereas  the  latter  leads  to  final 
liberation.  (Atmdnusdsana,  v.  15,  translation  published 
in  the  Jaina  Gazette,  vol.  iv,  1907,  p.  67.) 

All  the  three,  i.e.  right  conviction,  knowledge,  and 
conduct,  combined  together  lead  to  moksha,  or  final 
liberation  of  the  soul  from  karmic  matter  (65). 

A.  Right  Conviction  (66-7) 
Right   conviction  in  Jainism  has  a  twofold  object : 
one  negative,  the  other  positive. 

In  the  negative  aspect  it  is  against  scepticism  of  a 
kind  which  hampers  all  serious  thought.  Such  scepticism 
is  based  on  ignorance  or  weakness — in  the  technical 
language  of  Jainism,  on  the  uprising  (or  udaya)  of 
some  very  gross  kind  of  conviction-obscuring  karmas. 
There  are  always  men  and  women  in  the  world  who 
are  afraid  of  the  truth.  For  such  right  conviction  can 
hardly  ever  exist  in  its  highest  form.  Such  people's 
faith  is  again  and  again  assailed  by  doubt :  they  are 
not  sure  of  their  own  existence,  of  the  existence  of  the 
world,  or  of  their  relation  to  it.  Such  persons  are 
incapable  of  any  kind  of  constructive  effort  to  explain 
the  entirety  of  life  and  see  its  real  aim  and  object.     To 


54  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

such  Jainism  gives  guidance  and  help  in  the  positive 
aspect  of  right  conviction. 

In  its  positive  aspect  right  conviction  in  Jainism 
counsels  the  conscious  retention  of  what  we  have  or 
have  gained.  By  happy  intuition,  or  by  deliberate 
acquisition  of  knowledge,  the  calm  of  faith  takes  rise  in 
the  mind.  Jainism  counsels  us  to  take  hold  of  it  and 
press  this  faith  deeper  and  deeper  in  the  consciousness, 
so  that,  instead  of  being  blighted  by  cold  logic  and 
cunning  sophistry  or  eaten  away  by  the  corrosion  of 
scepticism,  it  may  grow  into  the  tree  of  knowledge  and 
fructify  .  into  the  world-blessing  fruit  of  righteous 
conduct. 

Right  conviction  is  of  two  kinds — 

1.  Right  conviction  from  the  practical  point  of  view, 
or  vyavaJidra-samyag-darsana.  It  is  right  and  steady 
conviction  of  the  true  nature  of  the  six  dravyas,  the 
five  astikdyas,  the  seven  tattvas,  the  nine  padartltas. 
The  man  who  has  this  conviction  knows  also  the  relative 
importance  and  the  true  significance  of  the  tattvas  (66). 
It  also  includes  faith  in  true  ideal,  scriptures,  and 
teacher  (67). 

2.  Right  conviction  from  the  real  point  of  view,  or 
nischaya  -  samyag  -  darsana,  right  conviction  of  the 
true  nature  of  one's  own  soul.  It  is  realization  of 
oneself  as  a  pure  soul — as  something  not  distinct  from 
the  attributes  which  are  peculiar  to  a  perfect  soul, 
namely,  perfect  knowledge,  power,  and  bliss  (67). 

Right  conviction  is  free  from  three  errors  of  con- 
founding it  with  false  (1)  gods,  (2)  place,  and  (3)  teacher. 
The  idea  of  God  should  be  purged  of  all   materialism  or 


METAPHYSICS  :     XV  A.    RIGHT    CONVICTION  55 

anthropomorphism.  It  should  be  the  highest  ideal  of 
the  most  perfect  soul  conceivable.  There  is  from  the 
highest  point  of  view  no  special  sanctity  attaching  to 
any  place.  The  teacher  also  must  be  such  as  knows 
these  doctrines  and  teaches  them  clearly  and  with 
emphasis. 

It  must  be  free  from  all  the  kinds  of  pride.  Eight 
are  usually  given  :  pride  of  one's  mother's  or  father's 
relations  ;  pride  of  greatness,  strength,  beauty,  know- 
ledge, wealth,  authority,  and  asceticism  or  spiritual 
advancement. 

Then  it  must  be  steady  and  with  eight  qualities, 
which  are  given  in  the  text  (67). 

Right  conviction  arises  in  ten  ways  or  in  two  ways. 
In  two  ways  :  nisarga,  or  by  intuition ;  adhigama, 
or  by  external  instruction  (Tattvdrtha-sutra,  ch.  i,  3). 

In  ten  ways  :  e.g.  from  discourses  of  Jaina  Tirthari- 
karas  (djnd),  or  of  learned  men,  or  Jaina  sacred  books, 
from  renunciation  of  worldly  objects  (mdrga),  from 
knowing  the  topics  of  Jainism  in  outline  (jsamkshepa- 
drisJdi),  etc.  [See  Atmdnusdsana,  vv.  11-14;  Jaina 
Gazette,  vol.  iv,  1907,  p.  67.] 

It  may  be  considered  from  six  points  of  view : 
nirdesa,  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  thing ;  svdmitva, 
possession;  sddhana,  means  of  acquisition;  adhilcarana, 
vehicle;  sthiti,  duration  ;  v  idhdna,  mode. 
Nirdesa. 
What  is  samyag-darsana  ?  It  is  tattvdrtha- 
sraddhana,  i.e.  faith  in  the  significance  of  the  seven 
principles ;  in  other  words,  conviction  of  the  inner 
realitv  of  things. 


56  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

Svdmitva 
Who  has  it  ?  The  soul,  of  course.  But  in  details  the 
question  may  be  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of 
(1)  kinds  of  existence  (four  gatis)  ;  (2)  senses  (five  senses 
or  less) ;  (3)  bodies  (possessors  of  living  or  immobile 
bodies) ;  (4)  yoga  (or  asrava,  vibrations  of  body,  mind, 
and  speech,  which  bring  about  the  inflow  of  karmic 
matter  and  make  bondage  possible) ;  (5)  veda,  or 
the  three  sexes  (masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter) ; 
(6)  Jcashdya,  the  four  passions  (anger,  pride,  deception, 
and  greed) ;  (7)  knowledge,  five  kinds  of  knowledge 
(see  under  Second  Jewel) ;  (8)  samyaina,  control  or 
restraint ;  (9)  darsana,  sense-perception,  mental  per- 
ception, etc.;  (10)  lesyds,  six  kinds  of  tints  of  the 
soul;  (11)  samyaktd,  from  the  real  point  of  view; 
(12)  thinking  or  non-thinking  souls  (sanjilin,asanjnin). 

Sddhana 

How  is  it  acquired  ?  In  two  ways,  internally  and 
externally,  i.e.  nisarga  and  adhigama. 

Adhiharana 

What  is  its  vehicle  ?  (1)  In  reality  the  soul ;  (2)  but 
from  the  external  point  of  view,  the  trasa-nddl,  that 
portion  of  space  which  is  1  rajju  wide,  1  rajju  long, 
and  14  rajjus  high.  There  cannot  be  any  right  con- 
viction outside  this.     (See  Cosmology ,  Appendix  II.) 

Sthiti 
What  is  its  duration  ?     It  depends  upon  whether  tin- 
right  conviction  is  due  to  upasama,  or  precipitation  of 


METAPHYSICS  :    XV  A.    RIGHT    CONVICTION  57 

karmic  matter  in  the  soul,  in  which  case  the  maximum 
and  the  minimum  are  each  one  antara-muhurta  ;  or  to 
Jcshaya,  or  perishing  of  karmic  matter ,  when  in  mundane 
souls  the  minimum  is  one  antara-muhurta,the  maximum 
thirty-three  sagaras,  while  in  liberated  or  disembodied 
souls  it  has  a  beginning,  but  lasts  for  ever ;  or  to 
kshayopamma,  mixed  precipitation  and  perishing  of 
Icarmas,  with  a  minimum,  one  antara-muhurta: 
maximum,  sixty-six  sagaras.  [One  muhurta  is  forty- 
eight  minutes.] 

Vidhdna 

The  way  in  which  it  is  acquired — 

Really  there  is  only  one  way,  namely,  the  suppression 
and  removal  of  karmic  matter.  But  it  may  be  in  two 
ways:  internal,  nisarga,  intuitive;  external,  adhi- 
gama,  by  instruction.  It  may  also  be  in  three  ways, 
according  as  it  arises  by  precipitation,  perishing, 
or  combined  precipitation  and  perishing  of  karmic 
matter. 

Right  conviction  may  also  be  considered  from  the 
point  of  view  of  sat,  does  it  exist  or  not  ?  samkhyd, 
how  many  is  it  ?  kshetra,  up  to  where  does  it  extend  ? 
sparsana,  what  extent  of  space  and  time  does  a  man  of 
right  conviction  comprehend  ?  kola,  how  long  does  it 
last  1  antara,  the  extent  to  which  the  minimum  and 
maximum  durations  are  separated  from  each  other,  or 
the  duration  of  its  absence  ;  bhdva,  which  psychical 
condition  gave  it  rise,  precipitation  or  perishing,  or 
both  ?  alpa-bahutva,  are  the  last-named  three  kinds 
equal  or  unequal  ? 


58  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

B.  Right  Knowledge  (68-77) 

Right  conviction  makes  us  perceive  the  reality  of 
life  and  the  seriousness  of  our  object  in  life.  It  saves 
us  from  the  soul-emptying,  puzzling  void  of  scepticism. 
It  brings  us  nearer  to  the  feeling  and  touch  of  the  solid, 
substantial  reality  of  our  own  and  other  souls,  as  also 
of  the  matter  in  union,  with  which  the  soul  gives  rise 
to  the  phenomena  of  life. 

Right  knowledge  makes  us  examine  in  detail  the 
matter  brought  into  the  mind  by  right  conviction.  Of 
course,  both  are  mental  processes  ;  the  difference  is  in 
degree.  I  see  a  nurse  taking  a  boy  on  the  pavement 
outside.  This  is  perception.  I  have  the  right  conviction 
that  there  are  a  woman  and  a  boy  out  there.  I  also 
perceive  that  the  woman  is  a  nurse.  But  I  do  not  know 
the  details — who  they  are,  where  they  live,  why  they 
are  in  this  particular  locality,  and  so  forth.  If  I  saw 
or  heard  or  read  about  them,  I  should  gain  right 
knowledge. 

This  knowledge  must  be  free  from  doubt,  i.e.  it  must 
be  retained  steadily  and  based  on  firm  conviction.  . 

Error  is  also  recognized  in  Jainism.  It  reminds  one 
somewhat  of  the  ignorance  (avidyd)  of  the  Vedanta, 
the  want  of  discrimination  (aviveka)  of  the  Sainkhya, 
and  the  illusion  (mdyd)  of  the  Buddhist  S37stems  of 
philosoph\r.  Jainism  insists  that  right  knowledge 
cannot  be  attained,  unless  belief  of  any  kind  in  its 
opposite  (i.e.  in  wrong  knowledge)  is  banished  (69). 

The  soul  of  man  is  indivisible,  and  our  intellect 
cannot  really  consent,   even  temporarily,  to  what  our 


METAPHYSICS  :     XV  B.    RIGHT    KNOWLEDGE  59 

faith  has  not  grasped  ;  and  our  conduct  cannot  but  he- 
coloured  by  our  intellect,  from  which  it  springs.  Faith 
and  knowledge  leading  to  right  conduct  are  at  once  the 
process  and  the  goal  ;  for  right  faith  dispels  weak 
doubt,  right  knowledge  preserves  us  from  ignorance, 
indifference,  and  laziness,  and  right  conduct  enables  us 
to  create  the  best  life  of  which  we  are  capable. 

Right  knowledge  is  of  five  kinds  (70) — 

Ma  I  i-j  nana  :  knowledge  which  is  acquired  by  means 
of  the  five  senses,  or  by  means  of  the  mind  of  man  (71  >. 

Sruta-j nana  :  knowledge  in  which  on  the  basis  of 
mati-jndna  one  acquires  knowledge  about  things  other 
than  those  to  which  the  mati-jndna  relates  (72). 

The  difference  between  the  two  is  thus  stated. 
Mati-jndna  deals  with  substances  which  exist  now, 
and,  having  come  into  existence,  are  not  destroyed  ; 
sruta-jnana  deals  with  all  things  now  existing,  and 
also  with  those  which  were  in  the  past  or  may  be  in 
the  future,  e.g.,  an  eclipse  to-day  may  be  known  by 
mati-jndna,  but  one  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  or  one 
to  happen  next  year,  can  now  only  be  known  by  sruta- 
jnana.  Even  a  mineral  or  plant  soul  with  one  sense 
only  can  have  sruta-jndna. 

Avadhi-jndna:  knowledge  of  the  remote  or  past.  It 
is  possessed  always  by  celestial  and  infernal  souls  ; 
ascetics  also  sometimes  acquire  it  by  austerities  (74). 

Manahparyaya-jndna :  knowledge  of  the  thoughts 
and  feelings  of  others.  It  is  possessed  by  Samyamins 
only,  i.e.  by  persons  who  are  masters  of  self-control  and 
who  have  practised  the  restraint  of  body,  mind,  and 
speech  (75). 


60  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

Kevala-jndna :  full  or  perfect  knowledge,  which  is 
the  soul's  characteristic  in  its  pure  and  undefiled 
condition  (76). 

False  Knowledge 

The  first  three  kinds  of  knowledge,  i.e.  sense- 
knowledge,  study-knowledge,  and  knowledge  of  the 
past,  may  also  be  perverted  or  false.  The  senses  may 
deceive  us  ;  our  studies  may  be  incomplete  or  erroneous  ; 
and  the  angel's  vision  of  the  remote  or  past  may  not  be 
perfect  in  detail  or  clearness  (77). 

But  mind-knowing  cannot  be  false.  We  cannot  have 
it,  unless  we  can  have  knowledge  of  the  exact  thought 
or  feeling  in  another's  mind. 

Full  or  perfect  knowledge  obviously  cannot  be  false. 

Before  we  take  up  the  five  forms  of  knowledge 
separately,  it  is  interesting  to  compare  them  with  the 
five  "  bodies  "  in  Jainism  {supra,  pp.  42-5). 

The  five  kinds  of  bodies,  we  remember,  are  :  auddrika, 
or  the  physical  body  ;  vaikriyika,  or  the  angelic  body 
of  angels  and  denizens  of  hell ;  dhdraka,  the  special 
body  emanating  from  a  saint  to  resolve  his  doubts  ; 
taijasa,  or  magnetic  body;  kdrmana,  or  karmic  body. 

These  five  bodies  are  distributed  as  follows:  a  man 
has  the  physical,  magnetic,  and  karmic  bodies  :  an  angel 
has  the  angelic,  magnetic,  and  karmic  bodies. 

This  accounts  for  four,  the  remaining  dhdraka  being 
a  special  body  manifested  in  a  saint  temporarily  and 
for  a  special  purpose. 

Now  the  five  kinds  of  knowledge  may  be  considered 
thus  in  relation  to  the  five  kinds  of  bodies: — 

Man   with   his    physical  body   acquires  sense-know- 


METAPHYSICS  :     XV  B.    RIGHT    KNOWLEDGE  61 

ledge   and  study-knowledge.     Also    with    his   physical 
body     he    acquires,     e.g.     by     means     of     austerities, 
knowledge    of    the   remote.     With   his   magnetic  body 
he    acquires  knowledge    of    the  thoughts  and  feelings 
of  others.     It   is   literally   sympathy,  on    the    analogy 
of    symphony     between    chords    or    strings    in    music, 
which  are  tuned  exactly  alike.     If  a  man's  magnetic 
body  is  in  the  same  tune  with  another's,  the  thoughts 
and    feelings    of    the    one     will    meet    with     a     ready 
response  in  the  other.     It  is  everyday  observation  that 
a    mother    or   a   devoted   wife  anticipates  and  exactly 
realizes  the  needs  or  wishes  of  her  beloved  children  or 
husband.      With  his   karmic  body    the    man    acquires 
full  knowledge.     And  it  must   be  remembered  always 
that  acquisition  of  knowledge   means  the   removal  of 
knowledge-obscuring  hennas,  the  gradual  demolition  of 
the  karmic  body.     The  matter  of  the  other  bodies  acts 
simply   like   the    workman  employed   to   demolish  the 
karmic  structure  ;  as  soon  as  his  work  is  accomplished, 
he    is    automatically    dismissed.     So,    as    soon    as    the 
bondage  of  karma  is  severed,  the  physical  and  angelic 
bodies   fall   off,   and   the  magnetic   and    karmic  bodies 
await  their  definite  final  dissolution  before  the  eternal 
soul  is  set  free  in  molcsha. 

To  take  the  five  kinds  of  knowledge  in  detail — 

Mati-jnana,  or  sense-knowledge,  is  also  called 
smriti,  samjna,  chinta,  abhinibodha.  It  is  acquired 
(1)  by  means  of  the  five  senses,  (2)  by  means  of 
the  mind. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts — 

1.  Avagraha,  perception,    taking    up    the    object  of 


62  OUTLINES    OF    JAIN1SM 

knowledge  by  the  senses.     It  is  also  called  tilochana, 
grahana,  or  avadltarana. 

2.  Ihd,  the  readiness  to  know  more  of  the  things 
perceived.  It  is  also  called  alia,  tarka,  parikshd, 
vicdrand,  or  jijndsd. 

3.  Apaya,  finding  out  the  perfection  or  otherwise 
(samyaktd  or  asamyalda)  of  a  thing.  It  is  also  called 
apavdya,  apagama,  apanoda,  apavyddha,  apeta, 
apagata,  apaviddha,  or  apanutta. 

4.  Dharana,  retaining  the  detailed  reality  of  a  thing. 
It  is  also  called  pratipatti,  avadhdrana,  avasthdna, 
nischaya,  avagama,  or  avabodha. 

To  illustrate  :  I  see  the  nurse  and  boy  going  along 
outside  :  this  is  avagraha.  I  wish  to  know  more  about 
them  :  this  is  ihd.  I  go  and  make  inquiries  about  them, 
and  know  all  kinds  of  details  about  their  ages,  family, 
etc. :  this  is  apaya.  I  grasp  the  full  significance  and 
characteristics  of  the  details  which  I  have  gathered  : 
this  is  dharana. 

Each  of  the  above  four  classes  of  sense-knowledge 
has  twelve  sub-classes:  bahu,  much;  bahuvidha, 
manifold  ;  Jcshipra,  quickly  ;  anisrita,  without  the  help 
of  symbols  or  signs ;  anukta,  without  being  taught ; 
dhruva,  steady;  alpa,  less;  alpavidha,  in  few  ways; 
akshipra,  slowly ;  nisrita,  with  help  of  signs ;  ukta, 
taught ;  adhruva,  not  steady. 

Thus  mati-jndna  is  4  x  12  =  48  kinds ;  and,  as  each 
kind  may  be  acquired  by  five  senses  or  the  mind,  in  all 
it  is  of  48  x  G  =  288  kinds. 

Again, the  above  distinctions  apply  to  sense-knowledge 
with    reference    to    artlta,    the    object    itself.      With 


METAPHYSICS  :     XV  B.    RIGHT    KNOWLEDGE  63 

reference  to  vyanjana,  or  [intermediating]  sensation, 
sense-knowledge  is  of  only  one  kind,  the  avagraha  (or 
perception)  kind.  This  is  never  manifested  in  the  case 
of  the  eye  or  the  mind.  Therefore  it  can  only  be  of 
4  x  12  (the  twelve  classes  above  referred  to)  =  48  kinds. 

Thus  the  total  kinds  of  sense-knowledge  are  288  + 
48  =  336. 

Sruta-jnana,  or  study-knowledge,  is  of  two  kinds — ■ 
scriptural  and  non-scriptural.  The  scriptural  means 
knowledge  derived  from  the  study  of  the  Jaina 
Scriptures,  i.e.  the  Twelve  Aiigas  (see  Appendix  V). 
Non-scriptural  is  knowledge  that  is  derived  from 
outside  the  Aiigas. 

Avadlii-jndna,  or  knowledge  of  the  remote,  is  of  two 
kinds  :  (1)  innate,  as  in  the  case  of  angels  in  Heaven  or 
fallen  ones  in  Hell ;  (2)  acquired,  by  the  precipitation 
or  annihilation  of  kai'mic  matter.  The  former  is  called 
bhava-jjratyaya^ndthel&ttevksliayopasama-niviittaka. 
This  latter  is  acquired  by  men  and  animals,  and  is  of 
six  kinds — 

1.  Andnugdmika,  limited  to  a  particular  locality, 
i.e.  outside  those  limits  the  man  loses  this  faculty. 

2.  Anugdmika,  not  limited  to  any  locality. 

3.  Hiyamdna,  knowledge  of  the  remote,  compre- 
hending innumerable  worlds,  seas,  continents,  etc., 
becomes  less  and  less,  till  it  reaches  the  minimum. 

4.  Vardhamdnaka,  acquired  from  very  slight 
beginnings ;  it  goes  on  increasing.  It  is  the  converse 
of  Itiyamdna. 

5.  Anavasthita,  unsteady,  so  that  it  fluctuates 
according  to  circumstances. 


64  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

6.  Avasthita,  never  leaving  the  possessor  in  the 
locality  where  it  is  acquired,  and  retained  by  him  even 
in  another  form  of  existence. 

(For  these  see  Tattvartha-sTdra,  ch.  i,  21-3.) 
Manahparyaya,    or  mind-reading  knowledge,   is   of 
two  kinds — 

1.  Riju-mati :  this  arises  from  the  straightforwardness 
of  man's  mind,  speech,  and  body,  and  consists  in 
discerning  and  knowing  the  forms  of  thoughts  in 
other's  minds. 

2.  Vipida-mati  :  by  this  the  finest  karmic  activity  in 
the  minds  of  others  can  be  read. 

The    distinction     between    the    two    kinds    is    this  : 

(1)  vipula-mati    is  finer  and    purer   than    riju-mati  ; 

(2)  vipida-mati cannot  be  lost,  whereas  the  possessor  of 
the  riju-mati  mind-reading  power  may  lose  it. 

Mind-reading  knowledge  is  distinguished  from  far 
knowledge  as  follows — 

1.  Mind-reading  knowledge  is  purer  and  more  refined 
than  far-reading  knowledge. 

2.  Mind-reading  knowledge  is  confined  to  the  locality 
where  men  live.  Far  knowledge  is  not  so  limited,  and 
may  be  extended  to  the  whole  universe. 

3.  Mind-reading  can  be  acquired  onty  by  men,  and 
also  only  by  samyamins,  i.e.  men  of  control.  Far 
knowledge  can  be  acquired  by  all  souls  in  all  conditions 
of  existence. 

4.  By  mind-reading  we  can  know  all  forms  of 
thought,  etc.,  even  their  minutest  modifications.  By 
far  knowledge  we  can  know  forms  with  only  a  few 
of  their  modifications. 


METAPHYSICS  :     XV  C.    RIGHT    CONDUCT  65 

From  this  point  of  view  sense-  and  study-knowledge 
applies  to  all  substances,  but  only  in  some  of  their 
modifications.  Far-knowledge  applies  to  coloured 
substances,  but  not  to  all  their  modifications.  Mind- 
reading  applies  to  all  coloured  objects,  even  in  their 
infinitesimal  parts.    (See  TaUvdrthasatra,  25-7.) 

Full  Knowledge 

Kevala-jnana,  full  or  pure  or  perfect  knowledge, 
applies  to  all  things  and  to  all  their  modifications.  It 
is,  in  fact,  a  characteristic  of  the  soul  entirely  liberated 
from  the  bondage  of  matter. 

To  conclude,  a  soul  can  have  one,  two,  three,  or  four 
kinds  of  knowledge  at  one  and  the  same  time.  If  one 
kind,  it  must  be  perfect  knowledge  ;  if  two  kinds,  it  is 
the  sense-  and  the  study-knowledge  ;  if  three  kinds,  it 
is  the  sense-  and  the  study-  and  the  past-knowledge; 
if  four  kinds,  it  is  all  except  perfect  knowledge  (73). 

C.  Right  Conduct  (78) 

This  is  the  third  jewel  of  Jainism.  It  consists  in 
living  a  life  in  accordance  with  the  light  gained  by  the 
first  two  jewels:  right  conviction  and  right  knowledge. 
The  subject  is  dealt  with  at  more  length  under  Ethics 
( i  afro.,  pp.  67-73 ).    Here  its  character  may  just  be  noted. 

The  goal  is  mqlcsha,  or  final  liberation  (79).  The 
barrier  is  the  karmic  matter  which  obscures  the  true 
nature  of  the  soul.  From  this  the  principles  of  right 
conduct  are  easily  derivable.  Right  conduct  must  be 
such  as  to  keep  the  body  down  and  elevate  the  soul  ;  it 
means  not  doing  bad  actions  and  doing  good  ones.     In 

F 


66  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

practice  it  resolves  itself  into  taking  the  five  vows, 
observing  the  five  rules  of  conduct,  and  practising  the 
threefold  restraint.  The  five  vows  are:  non-killing, 
truth,  non-stealing,  chastity,  and  non-attachment  to 
worldly  objects.  The  five  observances  are ;  careful 
walking,  speaking,  eating,  use  of  things,  and  toilet,  etc. 
The  threefold  restraint  is  of  body,  mind,  and  speech. 


Chapter   III.— ETHICS 

The  aim  of  Jaina  ethics  is  so  to  organize  the  combined 
activity  of  a  society  that  its  individuals  may  have  the 
greatest  possible  number  of  facilities  for  attaining 
moJcsha  or  nirvana,  i.e.  perfect  peace  and  bliss  of  the 
soul.  Thus,  obviously,  the  rules  of  conduct,  both  for 
laymen  and  ascetics,  must  directly  or  indirectly  be 
conducive  to  this  central  aim.  Naturally  the  rules  for 
ascetics  are  stricter  than  those  for  laymen,  and  provide, 
as  it  were,  a  shorter,  albeit  harder,  route  to  nirvana, 
which  is  the  goal  for  the  layman  also,  but  one  which 
he  reaches  by  a  longer  and  slower  process. 

Here  we  do  not  propose  to  go  into  the  rules  of 
conduct  for  ascetics.  Those  who  are  interested  in  the 
subject  will  find  the  details  in  the  Achardnga-sutra, 
which  is  translated  by  Dr.  H.  Jacobi  in  vol.  xxii  of 
the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East  (pt.  i,  pp.  202-210),  and 
in  Bhagavati-Arddhand  by  the  monk  Sivakoti,  an 
ex-Maharaja  of  Benares. 

The  rigour  of  the  ascetic  life  may  be  estimated  to 
a  certain  extent  by  considering  the  more  or  less  severe 
conditions  which  the  Jaina  householder  must  adopt,  if 
he  rightly  follows  the  Jaina  principles.  The  best  way  of 
exhibiting  the  rules  of  conduct  for  the  Jaina  layman  is 
to  make  clear  the  eleven  stages  in  his  life,  i.e.  the  eleven 
pratinids.     They  are  given  below. 

But  before  a  Jaina  can  go  on  to  the  pratinids,  he 
must  pass  through  two  preliminary  stages — 

1.  He  must  have  faith  in  Jainism.  He  must  study 
the  doctrine  and  believe  in  it  thoroughly  and  sincerely. 


68  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

2.  Then  he  must  become  what  is  called  a  pdkshika 
srdvaka,  a  layman  intent  on  following  the  path  of 
salvation.  His  duties,  as  laid  down  in  the  Sdgara- 
Dharmamritahy  Pandit  Asadhara  about  Samvat  1292  = 
1235  A.D.,  are — 

(1)  To  have  faith  in  Jainism  ; 

(2)  To  abstain  from  intoxicants  ; 

(3)  To  abstain  from  flesh  food  : 

(4)  To    abstain    from    fruits    which  contain,    or   are 

,  likely  to  contain,  insects  ;  also  from  honey  : 

(5)  To  abstain   from    taking   four  kinds  of  food  at 

night.  The  four  kinds  are  :  eatable,  tastable, 
lickable,  drinkable.  Eatables,  at  least,  he  must 
give  up  at  night ; 

(6)  To  take  clean,  i.e.  filtered,  water; 

(7)  To  abstain  from  gambling ; 

(8)  To  follow  in  the  main  the  five  small  vows.     The 

vows  relate  to  non-killing,  etc. ; 

(9)  To  abstain  from  hunting  ; 

(10)  To  abstain  from  adultery  or  lasciviousness ; 

(11)  To  perform  some  religious  exercises  daily  ; 

(12)  To  abstain  from  making  his  living  by  any  of  the 

following  means:  (a)  agriculture,  (6)  learning, 
(c)  trade,  (d)  army,  (e)  crafts,  (/)  singing, 
(g)  music. 

The  eleven  pratimds  are — 

1.  Darsana  (faith). — A  true  Jaina  must  have  perfect 
and  intelligent,  well-reasoned  faith  in  Jainism,  i.e.  he 
must  have  a  sound  knowledge  of  its  doctrines  and  their 
applications  in  life. 


ETHICS  :     THE    PRATIMAS  69 

2.  Vrata  (vow). — He  must  observe  the  live  minor 
vows  (anu-vratas),  the  three  guna-vratas,  and  four 
Okshd-vratas.  To  give  details :  he  must  uot  destroy 
any  kind  of  life,  must  not  tell  a  lie,  must  not  make  use 
of  another  person's  property  without  the  owner's  consent, 
must  be  chaste,  must  limit  his  necessities  of  life  and 
avoid  the  use  of  food  which  involves  unnecessary  killing 
of  living  beings.  The  three  guna-vratas  are  special 
vows  relating  to  the  limitation  and  determination  of  his 
daily  work,  food,  and  enjoyment.  The  remaining  four 
vows  relate  to  his  worship  in  the  morning,  noon,  and 
evening,  to  his  keeping  fast  on  certain  days,  and  to  his 
duty  of  daily  giving  charity  in  the  form  of  knowledge, 
medicine,  comfort,  and  food. 

3.  SamayiJca  (worship). — He  must  worship  regularly. 
in  general  for  forty-two  minutes,  three  times  daily. 
Worship  means  self -contemplation  and  purifying  one's 
ideas  and  emotions. 

4.  Poshadhopavdsa  (fortnightly  fast).  —  He  fasts 
regularly.,  as  a  rule,  twice  a  fortnight  each  lunar 
month. 

5.  Sachitta-tyaga  (abstinence  from  the  flesh  of 
conscious  creatures). — He  refrains  from  taking  fresh 
vegetables,  because  they  are  living,  and  to  hurt  any 
living  thing   is    in   Jainism  a  deadly  sin. 

6.  Rdtri-bhidda-tydga  (abstinence  from  eating  at 
night). — He  must  not  take  food  at  night.  There  are 
minute  living  beings  which  no  amount  of  light  can 
reveal  or  disperse,  and  which  must  be  consumed  with 
meals  after  sunset. 

7.  Brahma-char  yd, — Celibacy. 


70  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

8.  Arambha-tyaga. — Abandonment  of  merely  worldly 
engagements  and  occupations. 

9-11.  The  remaining  three  stages  are  preparatory 
to  the  monk's  life.  Their  names  are  'parigralia-tyaga, 
anumati-tyaga,  and  uddisthta-tydga,  and  they  enjoin 
a  gradual  giving  up  of  the  world  and  retiring  into 
some  very  quiet  place  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of 
truth  and  ultimately  to  become  fit  to  be  a  teacher  of 
the  path  to  salvation. 

But  undei'lying  every  rule  of  conduct  in  Jainism  is 
the  one  important  principle  of  ahimsa  (non-killing, 
non-hurting).  It  will  be  useful  here  to  consider  the 
effect  of  this  principle  of  non-injury  on  (1)  food, 
(2)  drink,  (3)  trades  and  industries,  (4)  social  behaviour, 
(5)  civil  and  criminal  wrongs. 

It  may  be  noted  that  injury  by  thought,  word,  or 
deed  to  other  living  beings  is  the  chief,  if  not  the 
sole,  cause  of  misery,  ignorance,  weakness,  pain,  and 
disease  to  oneself.  It  is  something  like  the  necessity  of 
"  purging  the  defendant's  conscience "  in  Courts  of 
Equity  in  England.  By  doing  wrong  to  the  plaintiff, 
e.g.  by  not  doing  something  promised  to  be  done,  the 
defendant  is  soiling  his  conscience,  and  equity  forces 
him  to  clean  it.  Constituted  as  human  nature  is, 
Jainism  facilitates  our  right  living  by  showing  that  the 
luxury  of  injuring  our  neighbour  is  really  an  injury  to 
ourselves,  and  an  injury,  too,  from  the  evil  effects  of 
which  the  neighbour  may  possibly  escape,  but  we 
cannot !  Altruism  may  have  its  basis  upon  a  deeper 
and  more  refined  kind  of  self-saving  and  self-serving. 

As  to  the  effect  of  the  principle  of  non-injury  on— 


ETHICS:     A  HI  MSA  71 

Food 

Food  which  involves  the  slaughter  of  living  beings, 
animals,  fish,  birds,  or  anything  that  has  five  or  Less 
sense-organs,  must  not  be  taken. 

One  thing  must  here  be  made  clear.  Life  thrives  on 
life.  The  ideal  practice  of  non-injury  is  possible  only 
to  the  soul  in  its  perfect  condition,  i.e.  when  it  has  freed 
itself  from  the  last  particle  of  karmic  matter  (karma- 
varganas).  On  this  side  of  that  happy  state,  do  what- 
ever we  will,  some  life  must  be  transformed  into  our 
life  in  order  to  sustain  it.  Therefore  what  is  meant 
and  enjoined  is  simply  this  :  "  Do  not  destroy  life,  unless 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  a  higher 
kind  of  life."  The  purer  souls  will,  of  course,  not  like 
to  sanction  even  this.  But.  as  formulated  above,  the 
rule  does  not  sanction  hurting  or  injury  :  it  limits  it  to 
the  lowest  possible  minimum.  As  a  supplementary 
rule  we  have  :  <;  And  then  begin  with  the  least  evolved 
kind  of  life,  e.g.  with  the  sthdvaras"  (pp.  8-9  supra  i. 

Drink 

All  kinds  of  intoxicants,  or  even  stimulants,  are 
prohibited.  They  are  not  necessary  for  the  life  and 
well-being  of  the  body.  They  feed  the  passions,  and 
passions  are  the  bitterest  foes  of  the  soul.  There  is  also 
wholesale  destruction  of  small  life  in  the  fermentation 
of  brewing  and  distilling. 

Trades  and  Industries 

Certain  trades  are  prohibited  to  Jainas  as  Jainas — 
brewing,  fishing,  butchering,  and  anything  that  involves 
wholesale   slaughter  of   living  beings  for   purposes   of 


72  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

trade  and  commerce.  But  even  a  brewer  or  a  butcher 
may  be  a  Jaina  :  then  he  will  be  in  the  vowless  stage  of 
soul's  evolution  (a  virata-gunasthdna). 

Social  Behaviour 

A  true  Jaina  will  do  nothing  to  hurt  the  feelings 
of  another  person,  man,  woman,  or  child  ;  nor  will  lie 
violate  the  principles  of  Jainism. 

Jaina  ethics  are  meant  for  men  of  all  positions — for 
kings,  warriors,  traders,  artisans,  agriculturists,  and 
indeed  for  men  and  women  in  every  walk  of  life.  The 
highest  will  find  in  the  Jaina  rules  of  conduct  satis- 
factory guidance  for  their  affairs  ;  and  the  meanest  can 
follow  them.  "  Do  your  duty.  Do  it  as  humanely  as 
you  can."  This,  in  brief,  is  the  primary  precept  of 
Jainism.  Non-killing  cannot  interfere  with  one's 
duties.  The  king,  or  the  judge,  has  to  hang  a  murderer. 
The  murderer's  act  is  the  negation  of  a  right  of  the 
murdered.  The  king's,  or  the  judge's,  order  is  the 
negation  of  this  negation,  and  is  enjoined  by  Jainism 
as  a  duty.  Similarly  the  soldier's  killing  on  the 
battlefield.  It  is  only  prejudiced  and  garbled  accounts 
of  Jainism  that  have  led  to  its  being  misunderstood. 

Civil  and  Criminal  Wrongs 
The  Indian  Penal  Code,  originally  drafted  by  Lord 
Macaulay,  takes  account  of  almost  all  offences  known  to 
and  suppressed  by  our  modern  civilization.  Mr.  A.  13. 
Latthe,  M.A.,  of  Sholapur,  has  shown  by  a  table  how 
the  rive  minor  rules  of  conduct  (the  five  anu-vratas  of 
Jainism)  cover  the  same  ground  as  the  twenty-three 
chapters  and  511  sections  of  the  Code. 


ETHICS  :    THE    JAIN    COMMUNITY  73 

The  Jainas  of  to-day  do  not  follow  all  the  vows 
■without  faults"':  but.  still,  they  profess  the  practice 
of  the  vows  and  live  on  the  whole  in  view  of  them. 
I  desire  to  conclude  the  chapter  "  Ethics  "  with  the 
statement  of  two  bare  facts. 

In  criminal  statistics  the  Jaina  percentage  of 
criminality  is  the  lowest — remarkably  lower  than 
among  the   Hindus.   Muhammadans,  and  Christians. 

In  commercial  matters  the  Jainas  are  a  well-to-do 
and  influential  community.  Colonel  Tod  in  his 
Rajasthdn,  and  Lord  Reay  and  Lord  Curzon  after 
him,  have  estimated  that  half  the  mercantile  wealth  of 
India  passes  through  the  hands  of  the  Jaina  laity. 
Commercial  prosperity  implies  shrewd  business  capacity 
and  also  steady,  reliable  character  and  credit. 

The  above  shows  that  far  from  being  an  impracticable 
religion,  Jainism  is  eminently  fitted  to  give  the  State 
good  subjects  and  the  country  successful  business  men." 


Chapter   IV.— JAINA   RITUAL 

This  relates  to  the  pursuit  of  the  path  of  salvation 
in  communion  with  people  living  in  accordance  with 
Jainism.  The  object  of  ritual  is  the  ideal,  the  goal., 
namely,  truth,  perfection,  the  perfect  soul.  Ritual  is 
the  way  in  which  we  manifest  our  love  and  reverence 
for  our  ideal.  It  is  the  enjoyment  of  what  is  beyond 
us,  until  devotion  becomes  ecstasy  and  we  feel  that  we 
are  what  we  considered  to  exist  outside  us,  that  we  are 
one  with  the  goal,  and  that  the  ideal  is  realized  within 
ourselves. 

The  subject  is  long  and  complicated  and  concerns,  in 
the  main,  the  occult  side  of  Jainism.  But  one  or  two 
points  may  be  noticed. 

Knowledge  may  be  derived  by  considering  four 
aspects  of  the  thing  known :  nama,  stha'pana,  dravya, 
and  bhdva,  or  its  name,  status,  substance,  and  nature, 
e.g.  we  may  adore  our  ideal  soul  as  typified  in  Lord 
Mahavira.  The  name  of  Mahavira  evokes  the  ideal 
before  our  eyes  in  all  its  glory  ;  the  thrill  with  which 
it  is  accompanied  is  our  true  worship.  So  in  the 
soldier's  breast  "Napoleon"  and  "Alexander"  arouse 
thrills  of  reverence  which  are  akin  to  feelings  of 
worship.      This  is  the  nama  point  of  view. 

The  second  method,  sthapand,  is  the  installation  of 
the  adored  one  in  a  material  representation  :  photograph, 
picture,  keepsake,  image,  model,  statue — these  are 
examples.  Absent  friends  can  be  loved  and  remembered 
by     this    means ;    absent    guides    can    be    reverenced ; 


JA1NA    RITUAL:     OBJECTS    <>F    WORSHIP  to 

absent  ideals  can  be  worshipped.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  call  this  idol- worship  ;  it  is  ideal- worship  and 
eminently  useful.  Like  all  useful  things,  it  may  be 
abused;  but  that  is  hardly  a  sufficient  reason  f<>r 
discarding  it. 

The  third  view-point  is  dravya,  the  thing  or  person 
which  is  to  become  in  the  future  :  for  example, 
respect  given  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  as  the  future 
King  of  England,  and  so  forth.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  the  future  Tirtharikaras  can  be  worshipped  in 
Jainism. 

But  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  it  is  no  one  person 
in  particular  that  the  Jainas  worship.  They  worship 
the  ideal  and  nothing  but  the  ideal,  namely,  the  soul  in 
its  perfect  condition.  This  ideal  may  be  Christ,  Sarikara, 
Vishnu,  Brahma,  Muhammad,  Jehovah,  or  any  other 
type  of  perfection ;  and  this  indicates  at  once  the 
rational  basis  and  the  catholic  breadth  of  the  Jaina 
doctrines. 

The  fourth  way  is  bhava,  whereby  the  thing  or  person 
in  its  actual  nature  is  meant,  e.g.  Lord  Mahavira  to  his 
contemporaries. 

It  must  be  noticed  that,  as  faith  is  the  first,  ritual  is 
the  last  part  of  religion  in  its  widest  sense.  Faith 
brings  us  to  truth ;  philosophy  makes  us  grasp  it ; 
ethics  makes  us  practise  it ;  and  ritual  makes  us  one 
with  it.  In  Jainism  faith  tells  us  that  we  have  a  soul 
and  that  it  has  in  it  an  untold  wealth  of  knowledge, 
purity,  power,  and  bliss.  Jaina  philosophy  gives  us 
a  detailed  grasp  of  this  principle,  and  tells  us  how 
karmic  matter  obscures  this  Infinite  Quaternary  ;  Jaina 


76  OUTLINES   OF   JA1NISM 

ethics  takes  us  along  the  patli  to  conquer  matter  and 
its  children  pain,  ignorance,  and  weakness;  and  Jaina 
ritual  makes  us  move  on  and  on  until  the  last  speck  of 
matter  is  removed  and  the  soul  shines  resplendent,  all- 
pure,  all-powerful,  as  the  brightest  embodiment  of 
encouragement  for  the  knower,  of  hope  and  power  and 
inspiration  and  peace  for  the  faithful ! 


Part   II.— TEXTS 
Chapter   I.— THEOLOGY 

i.  whfr  fm ^wr^rft  11 

Panchdstikdya-gdthd,  by  Kundakunda  Acharya, 

v.  21. 

The  soul  exists  [in  sainsdra]  in  combination  with  karma 
[karmic  matter]. 

2.   ^ffafa^r  fa  WhfT  ^I^^TTTIT  ^>wt  II 

Ann prck slid :- sloka ,  by  Swami  Earttikeya,  184. 
The  soul  in  combination  with  the  body  is  the  doer  of 
all  actions. 

Panchdstikdya-gdthd,  28. 

The  soul,  purified  of  the  dirt  of  karmic  matter,  goes  up 
to  the  end  of  loka,  acquires  complete  knowledge  and 
perception  and  attains  infinite  and  [supra-  or]  non- 
sensual  bliss. 

Ibid.  172. 
Thus,  desirous  of  quiescence,  the  soul  shall  not  submit 
to  the  slightest  attachment  to  anything.     Having  thus 
become  free  from  attachment,  it   crosses  the  ocean   of 
samsdra  (cycle  of  mundane  existences). 

Ibid.  151. 


78  OUTLINES    OF   JAIN1SM 

By  the  absence  of  karma,  omniscient  and  embracing'  the 
whole  world  in  its  view,  it  attains  undisturbable,  supra- 
sensual,  and  infinite  bliss. 

Paramtitma-prakdsa,  by  Yogendra  Acharya,  330. 
The  soul  which  has  perfect  perception,  perfect  knowledge, 
infinite  bliss,  and  infinite  power,  is  a  perfect  saint,  and, 
being  self-manifested,  is  known  as  Jina-deva  (or  the 
divine  conqueror). 

Ibid.  325. 
A  soul  which,  having  broken  through  all  kinds  of 
hindering  thoughts,  dwells  on  the  way  to  the  status  of 
godhead,  and  whose  four  karmas  [the  destructive  karmas; 
see  under  Metaphysics,  p.  27]  are  destroyed,  is  called 
Arhat. 

^frf^rofircroajTiT  ^frw^T  irf<*rr  %tf?r  11 

Niyama-sdra-gdthd,  by  Kundakunda  Acharya,  71. 
Those  wbo  are  rid  of  the  (four)  destructive  kinds  of 
karmas,  possessed  of  perfect  knowledge  and  of  the 
highest  qualities,  and  equipped  with  thirty-four  kinds 
of  supernatural  powers  {atisaya),  such  are  Arhats. 
8.  ij*T  Tiwfa  TTO  VTOcft^  ^H  ^T^T:  TITO  W?lfir\  ^'M  I 
Brihat-Svayambhu-stotra,  by  Samanta-bhadra 

Acharya,  9. 
A  Tlrthankara  is]  he  by  whom  was  shown  the  broad 
fording-place  of  virtue,  the  best  of  all,  reaching  which 
men  overcome  sorrow. 


TEXTS:    theology  79 

Panchdstikaya,  by  Kundakunda  Acharya,  85. 

Those  whose  is  the  nature  of  a  pure  soul,  and  in  whom 
is  never  any  non-being — such  souls,  when  disembodied, 
are  Siddhas  :  they  are  above  all  powers  of  speech. 

3tT*rRnrr  ^m  fa^r  ^tt?^  ^rt^rf^iT^  11 

Dravya-samgraka,  by  Nemi-chandra  Siddhanta- 

chakravartin,  51. 
Having  destroyed  the  eight  kinds  of  karmas  (see  below, 
pp.  91-2)  and  the  body,  sublime  in  knowledge  of  the 
Universe  and  Beyond  (loka  and  aloha),  the  self  in  the 
form  of  a  man,  steady  at  the  summit  of  the  Universe 
(loka),  should  be  meditated  upon  as  Siddha. 

"ft^Tfe^T  fWWT  fa^T  ^  HfW  fffa  II 

Niyama-sdra,  72. 
Having   destroyed  the    bondage    of   eight    karmas    and 
being  possessed  of   eight  great  qualities '  [of  the  soul], 
perfect  souls,  eternal,  and  steady  at  the  summit  of  the 
universe  (loka) — those  who  are  such  are  Siddhas. 

10.    ^JTt^pjprsTCT  *JWTf?n^T  f^TW  ^  I 

^TI^  faiTTT%  ^"3^  ^  ^W  II 

Samayika-pathti . 
I   salute   the   Jinas,    illuminators  of    the    universe    and 
founders  of  the  beautiful  fording-place  of  religion  :   such 
twenty-four  Arhats,  Kevalins,  will  I  celebrate. 
1  Appendix  IV,  pp.  130-1. 


80  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

1 1 .  xr^T^TT^wn  tit^f^i^^iMRj^Huii  i 

\ftTT  ^WI'fftTT  ^T^tT^T  tfW  fffa  II 

Niyama-sdra,  73. 

Perfect  observers  of  five  kinds  of  rules  of  conduct,  and 
quellers  of  the  intoxicated-elephant-like  pride  of  the 
five  senses,  wise  and  of  deep  qualities — such  are  the 
Acharyas. 

12.  TqillTlil^Tn  f3rap«ff^re?^**n  UT  I 
1rrpz&<=WPmf^n  ^^T^T  QfW  fTfrT  II 

Ibid.  74. 

Equipped  with  the  three  jewels  [faith,  knowledge,  and 
conduct]  and  preceptors  of  the  doctrines  preached  by  the 
Jinas,  brave  and  full  of  selfless  feeling — such  are  the 
Upadhyayas. 

13.  crnnTfa^^T  ^T^fafTTTWwn^T  i 

Ibid.  75. 

Free  from  all  worldly  occupation,  ever  engrossed  in  four 
kinds  of  devotion  [darsana,  '  faith,'  jnana,  '  knowledge,' 
chdritra,  'conduct,'  and  tapah,  'asceticism'],  without 
worldly  ties,  without  delusion — such  are  the  Sadhus. 

14.  ^ifr  *i^f^  g^  Tifr  vfif%  ftfttf«ft<M  i 

Anitprckshd,  7G. 
Alone  he  accumulates  merit  ;  alone  be  enjoys  the  various 
happiness  of  heaven;   alone  he  destroys  karma;   alone 
also  he  attains  to  moksha. 


TEXTS :     THEOLOGY  81 

15.  nfTw*TOwr  f^-m  fiT*\faw$T?r(T%&f{(sn  i 

Purushdrtha-siddhyupdya,  by  Amyita-chandra 

Suri,  10. 
And    in    an   eternal  succession   ever  changing  its  state 
through   the  illusions  of  its  thoughts,  the  soul   is  the 
[only]  causer  and  experience!'  of  its  states  (parindma). 


Chapter    II.— METAPHYSICS 

I.   The  Soul  and  non-Soul 

Dravya-samgraha,  23. 
Thus  sexpartite,  this,  according  to  the  division  into  jlva 
(soul)  and  ajlva  (non-soul),  is  two  dravyas  (substances). 

II.    Kinds  and  Qualities  of  Soul 

2.  ^^sftcrTSpR^TfPT:  ^T3TT:  II  ^3  II 

ftf^T^*n3ST:  ii  q  g  it 

Tattvartha-sutra,  ch.  ii,  13,  14. 

Sthdvara  (stationary)  souls  are  earth  souls,  water  souls, 
fire  souls,  air  souls,  vegetable  souls.  Trasa  (mobile) 
souls  are  those  which  have  two  or  more  sense-organs. 

3.  snxsrf^  wf^  SI"  X^t  ^  faHf^  T^T^  I 
gilf^  ff^ff^  ^T  ^f^  WtTT  ^  %fa  II  <^R  II 

Panchastikaya,  122. 
The  soul  knows  and  sees  all ;  desires  happiness  ;  is  afraid 
of  pain  ;  does  friendly  or  unfriendly  actions,  and  enjoys 
[or  suffers]  the  fruits  of  them. 

*fr  ^*fr  tttot  g^n  ^faf^jjrre?  ^wr^r  u  30  11 

Ibid.  30. 
That  which  by  means  of  the  four  prdrias  (living 
principles  animating  the  body)  lives,  shall  live,  and 
has  previously  lived,  is  [called]  &  jlva  (or  mundane  soul). 
The  prdnas,  again,  are  (l)  power  (bala)  (of  body, 
mind,  or  speech);  (2)  the  (five)  senses;  (8)  vitality 
(dijuh)  ;   (4)  respiration. 


TEXTS  :     METAPHYSICS    II-IV  83 

mTTT  ^^ttt^Tt  ftwft  *fr  f^RTf  if;  11  r  ii 
^^f ttt  *fr  sftTt  fww^nre^r  ^  %^rrr  *PST  II  3  II 

Dravya-samgraha,  2,  3. 

It  (the  soul)  is  (l)  jiva  (that  which  lives)  ;  (2)  possessed 
of  upayoga,  _which  is  of  two  kinds,  the  power  of 
perceiving  (darsana)  and  knowing  (jnana)};  (3)  amurta 
(immaterial)  ;  (4)  kartd  (the  doer  of  all  actions)  ;  (5) 
svadeha-parimdna  (of  the  size  of  its  body,  which  it 
completely  fills)  ;  (6)  bhoktd  (enjoyer  of  the  fruits  of 
actions) ;  (7)  samsdrastha  (located  in  the  changing 
universe);  (8)  siddha  (in  its  perfect  condition  a  Siddha); 
(9)  urdhvagati  (of  an  upward  tendency).  That  which  in 
the  three  times  has  four  jjrdnas  (senses,  power,  vitality, 
and  respiration)  is  conventionally  soul  :  but  from  the 
ial  point  of  view  that  which  has  consciousness 
is  soul. 

III.   Attributes  of  the  non-Soul 

flfa  ^%^ir7T  Mf^t  *TT*HST  ^m^T  II  <^8  II 

Panchdstikdya,  12-1. 
Space,  time,  matter,  dharma,   and  adharma   have  not 
the  qualities  of  soul ;    they  are  said  to  be  non-conscious, 
whereas  soul  has  consciousness. 

IV.    The  Six  Substances 

^fa^f^  i^f\  rrrt  frrt  ^^trr^srit^  ^  i 
^ra  ft  *t3ft  ww^  <r  ^Trr^r  ii  o.  ii 

Panchdstikdya,  9. 
That  which  runs,  i.e.  passes,  into  such  and  such  natures 
and  modifications  is  called  dravya  (substance).       It   is 
never  distinct  from  existence  (sattd). 


84  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

8.  ^im  fawT  tit  ?twt  jwff  ^t  t^xnr  w  ^h^;  i 
^wf^fTTfr  *tt^t  ^w*rcrn!!  i^  w  h  ^  11 

Pahchdstikdya,  18. 
Attributes  cannot  exist  apart  from  substance.    And  there 
can  be  no  substance  without  attributes.     Therefore  the 
existence  of  attributes  and  substance  is  inseparable. 

9.  ^t  wwfxrr^  ^n^w*Hprrrch|Ti  i 

^Ibid.  10. 
That  which  is  distinguished  as  existent  (sat)  and  which 
is  associated  with  coming  into  existence,  going  out  of 
existence,  and  continuous  sameness  of  existence,  and  also 
is  the  substratum  of  attributes  and  modifications,  that 
the  omniscient  ones  term  substance  (dravya). 

l  o.  ^ftcf  ^*nn^f  ^fin  tjtt  w^m  ^w  i 

Paramdtma-prakdsa,  142. 
Soul  (jiva)  is  the  only  conscious  or  knowing  substance. 
The  remaining  five  are  without  consciousness  :  (i.e.) 
matter  (pudgala),  principle  of  motion  (dharma),  principle 
of  stationariness  (adharma),  space  (dkdsa),  and  time 
(kdla)  are  different  (from  jiva  or  soul). 

1 1 .  ^^jfr^rt^f^ntf  ^  if^^T^T  *x!t t  ^  ^wnfifi  i 

Paiichdstikdya,  82. 

Things  enjoyable  by  the  senses,  the  five  senses  them- 
selves, the  bodies  [including  the  five  kinds  of  bodies],  the 
mind,  the  karmas,  and  the  other  material  objects — all 
this  know  as  matter  (pudgala). 


TEXTS  :     METAPHYSICS    IV  85 

12.  \*wTf?srerr^RT*T  -^cppi^  ^r^tqrra'  i 
?Tf  ■^T^^77r«TTTTf  v^t  *w  fcra-pTrff  n  cq  h 

Panchastikaya,  83-5. 
Dharmdstikdya  is  devoid  of  taste,  colour,  smell,  sound, 
touch,  is  coterminous  with  the  universe  (loka),  is 
indivisible,  all-pervading,  and  has  innumerable  spatial 
units  (pradesas)  ;  ever  operating  in  virtue  of  its  infinite 
attributes,  including  heavy  and  light;  is  eternal,  and  is 
the  essential  condition  for  all  moving  bodies,  and  is  itself 
the  product  of  none.  As  in  the  (normal)  world  water 
is  a  help  to  the  motion  of  fishes,  in  a  like  manner  is  the 
substance  dharma,  be  assured,  to  that  of  soul  (Jiva) 
and  matter  (ajiva). 

13.  5Tf  fff^  V^T^W  fTf  *  wrfwi  ^¥*TO«^i  I 

Ibid.  86. 

Know  that  the  substance  called  adharma  is  of  the  same 
kind  as  the  substance  dharma.  It  is  the  essential 
condition  of  stationary  things,  like  the  earth. 

14.  ^ffa  ^tTP!r  wrcr  *%  ^  vn\*nm  ^  i 

Ibid.  90. 

That  which  gives  place  in  this  universe  to  all  souls  and 
likewise  to  all  other  matter — that,  as  a  whole,  is  tin- 
substance  space  (dkdsa). 


86  OUTLINES    OF    JA1NISM 

15.  sftcrr^^ww  ^fr^f^i^TTnr  i^  ^t^t  n 

Niyama-sdra,  33. 

That  which  is  the  cause  of  the  modification  of  soul  and 
other  substances  {dravyas)  would  be  time  {kala). 

16.  cTcR^tpgw^r  ^'r^wsriF^T^rr  ^  i 

PaficJidstikdya,  24,  25. 

That  which  is  devoid  of  five  colours  [hrishna  (black), 
harita  (green),  pita  (yellow),  rakta  (red),  and  sveta 
(white)]  ;  of  five  tastes  [tikta  (pungent),  katuka  (bitter), 
kshdra  (saline),  kashdyila  (acid),  and  mishta  (sweet)]  ; 
of  two  smells  [sugandha  (agreeable)  and  durgandha 
(disagreeable)] ;  of  eight  kinds  of  touch  [light  and  heavy, 
smooth  and  rough,  soft  and  hard,  and  hot  and  cold]  ; 
and  which  has  the  agurulaghit,  attribute  (i.e.  the  set  of 
central  attributes  which  sustain  the  others),  is  immaterial 
and  is  characterized  by  modifications  [of  other  substances] 
— is  time  (kdla).  Samaya  (unit  of  time),  nimisha, 
kdshthd,  kald,  nail,  divdrdtra,  vidsa,  rtu,  ayana, 
samvatsara — these  are  secondary  time. 

17.    *Pr*TRn*nji£%  ^IE#  %  f^TT  ¥  ^Is^T  I 

Dravya-savigralm,  22. 

In  each  pradcsa  of  lokdkdsa  each  atom  of  time  is  fixed 
like  a  heap  of  jewels.  These  atoms  of  time  are  innumerable 
and  substances. 


TEXTS  :     METAPHYSICS    V  87 

18.  \*m^mnrR^i*ut^^^fa^m  i 

Tattvartha-sara,  by  Amrita-chandra  Suri,  17. 

Dharma,  adharma,  and  akasa  are  each  a  single  dravya, 
whereas  time,  matter,  and  souls  are  held  to  be  in- 
numerable dravyas. 

V.    Astikayas  (Substances) 

19.  TH  W5^^  ^faTaftTO^^t^l"  I 

Dravya-sarngraha,  23. 

These  are  six  kinds,  but  the  principal  division  is  into 
two  categories  (dravyas),  soul  (jiva)  and  non-soul 
(ajiva).  These,  excepting  time  (kdla),  know  to  be  the 
five  astikayas. 

20.  ^frT  *T^t  3*0 1  ^^  ^  **^  fao&TJ  ^*U  I 

Ibid.  24. 

Since  these  things  exist  (i.e.  have  sattd),  the  Best 
of  Jinas  [or  Tirthankaras]  call  them  asti  ;  and  since, 
like  bodies,  they  have  many  spatial  units  (pradesas), 
therefore  they  are  called  kaya  and  astikaya. 

21.  Wt^T  gT^^rRn  ^"RIT^  ^f^^T^T  €*TT  I 

Panchastikaya,  22. 

Soul  (jiva),  matter  (pudgala)  and  bodies,  space  (akasa), 
and  the  other  [two]  astikiiyas  (dharma  and  adharma, 
the  principles  of  motion  and  stationariness)  are  uncreated, 
possessed  of  the  quality  of  existence,  and  the  causes  (or 
condition)  of  the  universe. 


88  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

22.  WNT  gur^TCT  ^WT^T  cif  *r  ^n^rr*  I 

Ibid.  4. 

Soul  (jlva),  matter  (pudgala)  and  bodies,  principle  of 
motion  (dharma),  principle  of  stationariness  (adharma), 
and  space  (dkdsa)  are  steady  in  their  state  of  existence, 
and  are  not  distinct  from  their  existence  (sattd).  These 
have  many  atoms  (anu). 

23.  ^^i^t:  "ff^T  wra^wt^TRTJT  ii  *=  ii 
^T^Tsi^TRnn:  ii  o.  ii  ^fpn^ffsrg  xjin?rr*n^  mo  n 

Tattvdrtha-sutra,  v,  8-10. 

Principle  of  motion  (dharma),  principle  of  stationariness 
(adharma),  the  individual  soul  (jlva) — each  has  in- 
numerable units  of  space  (pradesas).  Space  has  infinite 
pradesas.  Matter  (pudgala)  has  pradesas  which  may 
be  numbered  or  which  may  not  be  numbered  [and 
which  are  infinite]. 

[Note. — Molecule  (skandha)  can  be  numbered  as  to 
its  atoms  (])aramdiiu) .  Some  skandha s  cannot  be 
numbered,  as  their  constituent  atoms  may  be  number- 
less, e.g.  a  mountain.  Some  skandhas  will  contain  an 
infinity  of  atoms,  as  an  ocean,  the  world.] 

24.  %fa  -^rtrer  *f rsTr  ^fl  *w  ^"ssntfw  fafaiff  i 
§r  llfa  ^f^nsTCT  fxii^TO  ^ff  ?i*fN>  ii  m  II 

Pafichastikdya,  5. 

Those  of  which  the  existence  is  accompanied  with 
various  attributes  and  modifications,  and  which  are 
substances  (astikdya),  form  the  constituent  elements  of 
the  three  worlds. 


TEXTS  :     METAPHYSICS    V  89 

Tattvartha-sutra,  v,  28. 
Material  things  (pudgaldh)  are  distinguished  bypossession 
of  touch,  taste,  smell,  and  colour. 

26.  ixw*'  ^fi*rrs  n  ^m  ii 

Ibid.  25. 
Matter  is  either  atom  (ami)  or  molecule  (skandha). 

27.  TTCTT^ft  fa  ^TH[  xUTTTTT^\p*T!*Qfr  ^^  ' 

*r¥^fr  ^^nrr  ^m  ^  ^rnrt  *nrrfa  ^i"^  ii  ^  ii 

Dra vya-sa mgra ha,  26. 

The  atom,  though  it  has  only  one  spatial  unit  (pradcsa), 
yet,  since  in  combination  to  form  a  molecule  it  fills 
many  units,  is  by  the  all-knowing  ones  through  associa- 
tion called  body  (kdya). 

28.  ^tar^ra^ratii  «ra  nwfi  ^  wro^r  ^  i 

httw^t^^t  ^fw^T  ^t.^5*n?rfaf^  ^^rr  i 
wr  Tfa;  faqfcrr  *pxft*r*nfa*rr^taT  11  ^  11 
WT*rnre*rr^teT  ^^r^^fafa;  fa^nwTfi  i 
*j?*r^%f^  ^ff^■^■[  T=j\rr  ^^f^raT  ^  11  ^  11 

■afa^fUn  ^T  ^S^*T  Tfa;  q^fa  ii  ^tf  ii 

Niyama-sdra,  21-4. 

Matter  is  of  six  kinds — very  gross-gross  (atisthfila- 
sthiila),  gross  (sthula),  gross-fine  (sthCda-stlkshma),  fine- 
gross  (sukshma-sthfda),  fine  (sukshma),  and  very  fine 
(ati-sukshma).  Masses  such  as  earth,  mountains,  etc., 
are  called  very  gross-gross ;  as  gross  should  be  understood 
butter,  water,  oil,  and  so  forth;  shade,  sunshine,  and  so 


90  OUTLINES   OF   JAINISM 

forth  know  to  be  gross-fine  masses  ;  fine-gross  are  called 
those  molecules  which  are  the  objects  of  the  four  senses; 
fine,  again,  are  the  molecules  which  compose  the  matter 
of  karma;  and  fine-fine,  observe,  are  those  which  surpass 
these  last-named. 

29.  ir*n;*rcwTO  ^r^rr^  ^^tt^^r^  i 
T=hi7TfT^  ^w  tf^^Tw  rr  fwrcrfw  ii 

PaficJidstikdya,  81. 
The  substance  (dravya)  which  has  one  taste,  one  colour, 
one  smell,  and  two  kinds  of  touch,  is  a  cause  of  the 
production  of  sound,  but  is  itself  soundless,  and  is 
distinct  from  molecule  {skandha),  know  that  to  be 
ultimate  atom  (paramdnu). 

^wjw^r  ^ittt  friiw^^Tr  ^*ra^ft  *n  11  e  11 

Dravya-samgraha,  9. 

This  soul  through  expansion  or  contraction  becomes 
big  or  small  according  to  the  body  occupied  by  it, 
except  in  samudghata  [the  condition  when  some  particles 
{pradesas)  of  the  soul  expand  and  go  out  of  the  body 
and  then  come  back  to  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the  dhdraka 
body].  This  is  from  the  practical  point  of  view :  but 
from  the  real  point  of  view  the  soul  has  innumerable 
spatial  units  {pradesas). 

31.    -H^I^fTT-fa^TqTWrf  TT^t^^^  It  <*§  II 

Tattvartha-sutra,  v,  1G. 
In    respect   of    the    expanding    and   contracting    of     its 
particles,  it  [the  soul]  is  as  a  lamp  [the  light  of  which 
equally  fills  a  small  and  a  large  space]. 

32.  -JTfTTf^m^fr  ^twrtj^^WfiTT:  ii  q^  11  ibid.  17. 

The  support  of  motion  and  rest  respectively  is  the  service 
of  dharma  and  adharma. 


TEXTS:     METAPHYSICS    VI,    VII  91 

VI,  VII.   Karmas 
33.    *TT3T>  WR^^THl  i«H  <4^^f  ^^^T*TO>^TnT- 

TT^t:  II  g  ll  Tattvartha-sutra,  viii,  4. 

The  first  is  jndiidvaranlya  (knowledge  -  obscuring), 
darsandvaraniya  (faith-  or  perception-obscuring),  veda- 
nlya  (sensation-,  pleasure-,  and  pain-,  causing),  mohaniya 
(infatuating),  ciyuh  (vitality),  nama  (characterizing  the 
individual's  body,  etc.),  gotra  (family),  antardyu 
(obstruction) . 

34.  ^TTRTWfT^Tr^  ^^T^if^r:  11 
ifrf^V^wj^^TWiPW^ar  fwr:  11  z^  11 

*TT»?3|W*!$"^^T^rcTf*TOTf*rc:  II  30.  II 

^TTTT^^^^^T^^rTTt^JTTf^fTT:  II  8°  II 

Tattvartha-sara,  viii,  37-10. 
Through  the  removal  of  knowledge-obscurance  the  souls 
have  perfect  knowledge.  Through  the  destruction  of 
perception-obscurance  (or  faith-obscurance)  there  arises 
in  them  perfect  perception  (or  faith).  Through  the 
destruction  of  the  vedaniya  karmas  they  attain  immunity 
from  affliction.  Through  destruction  of  the  mohaniya 
they  attain  unshakable  perfection.  Through  destruction 
of  dyuh  (vitality)  they  acquire  supreme  fineness. 
Through  destruction  of  nama  they  acquire  the  capacity 
of  allowing  all  objects  to  occupy  the  same  place  with 
them  (avagdhana).  Through  destruction  of  gotra  the 
souls   are  always  neither  light    nor   heavy.      Through 


92  OUTLINES   OF   JAINISM 

destruction  of  obstructive  karmas  they  attain  infinite 
strength. 

*ftW  II  Q.  II  Tattvdrtha-sutra,  viii,  9. 

Mohanlya  karma  is  of  two  kinds,  darsana  and  charitra  ; 
vedaniya  karma  is  of  two  kinds,  dkashaya  and  kashaya  ; 
darsana-mohanlya  is  of  three  kinds  ;  chdritra-mohanlya 
is  of  two  kinds  ;  akashdya-vedanlya  is  of  nine  kinds  ; 
kashdya-vedanlya  is  of  sixteen  kinds. 

Darsana-mohanlya  karmas  are  samyaktva  (that 
which  makes  right  faith  or  perception  defective), 
mithydtva  (that  which  leads  the  soul  away  from  right 
faith  or  perception),  samyaktva-mithydtva  (mixed  right 
and  wrong  faith). 

Chdritra-mohanlya  karmas  are  akashdya  (by  which 
only  a  light  kind  of  passion  is  experienced),  kashaya 
(by  which  passion  is  experienced). 

Akashdya-vedanlyas  are  hdsya,rati,  arati,  soka,bhaya, 
jugupsd,  strl-veda,  purusha-veda,  napumsaka-veda. 

Kashdya-vedanlyas  are  four  anantdnubandhis  (which 
accompany  mithydtva  or  false  belief;  ananta  =  mith- 
ydtva) ;  four  apratydkhydndvaranlyas  (which  obstruct 
partial  renunciation,  i.e.  the  fifth  Guna-sthdna ;  see 
above,  p.  50)  ;  four  pratydkhydndvararilyas  (which 
obstruct  total  renunciation,  i.e.  the  sixth  Guna-sthdna  ; 
see  above,  p.  51) ;  four  sanjvalanas  (which  grow  with 
samyama,  but  do  not  destroy  it,  though  keeping  it 
impure). 


TEXTS  :     METAPHYSICS    VIII  93 

VIII.    The  Tattvas  (Principles) 

36.  ^r^T^t^T^^^^rR^Tf^wrr^^rr^^'T  11  8  11 

Tattvdrtha-sutra,  i,  4. 

The  principles  (tattvas)  are  j'ica  (soul),  ajiva  (non- 
soul),  asrava  (influx  of  karma),  bandha  (bondage), 
samvara  (stopping  of  inflow),  nirjara  (falling  off), 
vioksha   (or  nirvana,  final  liberation). 

37.    WTTfafaTT  ^t^ttt  WffT  *W*IU1<*M^<I  I 

Panclidstikdya,  14*. 

Penetration  by  matter  is  due  to  activity  (yoga),  and 
activity  arises  from  mind,  body,  or  speech  ;  bondage  of 
the  soul  is  due  to  thought-activity,  and  that  thought 
is  accompanied  by  desire,  passion,  inflammation,  and 
infatuation  (or  intoxication). 

•38.  ^T^nrrfpr.^w  sffrn  n  <ui  h  ^rra^:  h  r  ii 

Tattvdrtha-sutra,  vi,  1,  2. 
Action  on  the  part  of  body,  mind,  or  speech  is  yoga. 
It  is  asrava  (influx  of  karma). 

39.  ^TH^f^;  inn  ^w  xrfTwmujaiurt  ^  fa%^fr  i 

T7TTTtTT[ri|Ui4^ffT^^f  3i*reT  5*^Tf  ^W^T   II  30  II 

^gumH  *r  %^n  ^rci^w^h"  I^w^it^t  ii  ?q  11 

Dravya-samgraha,  29-81. 

That  activity  of  the  soul  whereby  karma  Hows  into 
it    is   said  by    the    Jina  to   be    bhdvdsrava   (subjective 


94-  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

influx)  :  Jravydsrava  is  other.  False  belief  (mithydtva), 
non  -  renunciation  (avirati),  heedlessness  (pramada), 
activity  {yoga),  and  anger  (krodha),  etc. — these  are  to 
be  recognized  with  varieties  five,  five,  fifteen,  three, 
four,  according  to  the  differences  of  the  previous 
karma.  Matter  of  various  colours,  etc.,  which  flows 
into  the  active  soul  is  to  be  known  as  dravydsrava 
(objective  influx)  :  it  is  described  by  the  Jina  as  of 
various  kinds. 

Note. — The  varieties  mentioned  are  the  following : — 

1.  Of  mithydtva:  (l)  ekdnta,  a  one-sided  belief  in 
a  thing  ;  (2)  viparlta,  belief  in  the  opposite  of  what 
is  really  right ;  (3)  vinaya,  a  universal  respecting  of 
right  and  wrong  belief,  with  attention  only  to  conduct ; 

(4)  samsaya,    unsettled    belief,    scepticism    or    doubt ; 

(5)  aj nana,  ignorant  indifference  to  right  belief. 

2.  Of  avirati  :  (l)  kimsd,  killing  or  injuring  living- 
beings ;  (2)  asatya,  untruth;  (3)  stcya,  stealing  or  using 
another's  property  without  his  consent;  (4)  abrahma, 
unchastity  ;   (o)  parigraha,  worldly  concerns. 

3.  Of  pramada  :  (l)  stri-kathd,  gossip  about  women  ; 
(2)  bhojana-kathd,  idle  talk  about  food;  (3)  rdshtra- 
katha,  idle  talk  about  politics;  (4)  avani-pala-kathd, 
idle  talk  about  kings  ;  (5-8)  the  four  kashdyas  or 
passions — krodha,  anger ;  mava,  pride;  maya,  deception 
or  illusion  ;  lobha,  greed  ;  (9-13)  the  five  senses— use 
of  the  sense  of  sight,  hearing,  smell,  taste,  touch ; 
(14)  nidra,  sleep  ;  (15)  sneha,  affection. 

4.  Of  yoga  :  those  due  respectively  to  mind,  body, 
and  speech. 

5.  Of  kashdya  :  anger,  pride,  deceit,  greed  (of  .a 
different  quality  from  the  same  four  as  appearing  under 
pramada). 


TEXTS  :     METAPHYSICS    VIII  95 

Tattvdrtha-sutra,  viii,  2. 
Being  associated  with  passion  (kashdya),  the  soul  takes 
in    matter    adaptable    for    action    (karma),   and   this   is 
bondage   (bandlia). 

41.    faWT^lT^faTfa^TT^T^^T  ^^f  n^:  II  =|  II 

Ibid,  viii,  1. 
The  causes  of  bondage  are  mithyddarsana  (false 
perception  or  faith)  ;  avirati  (non-abstention,  i.e.  not 
refraining  from  doing  what  is  prohibited  by  the  five 
vows,  such  as  non-killing,  etc.) ;  pramdda  (irreverence 
towards  knowledge  and  the  sources  of  it)  ;  kashdya 
(passions)  ;  yoga  (the  three  kinds  of  activity  by  body, 
mind,  or  speech  :  see  above,  pp.  93-4). 

<*wn^^inni  ^Tfr^q^TTf  ^rr  11  3^  11 

Dra vya-samgraha,  32. 
The  thought-activity  of  the  soul  through  which  karmic 
matter  can  bind  it  is  called  bhdva-bandha.    The  (actual) 
intermingling   of    karmic    matter    with    the    particles 
(pradesas)  of  the  soul  is  the  other  (i.e.  dravya-bandha) . 

43.  •R^frif^cg^TT'nfiTT^f^tn?:  II  3  II 

Tattvdrtha-siltra,  viii,  3. 
The  forms  of  it  (i.e.  of  bandlia)  are  (l)  prakriti  (according 
to  the  nature  of  karmic  matter  which  actually  binds  the 
soul)  ;  (2)  sthiti  (according  to  the  duration  of  the 
attachment  of  matter  to  the  soul)  ;  (3)  anubhdga 
(according  as  the  fruition  is  likely  to  be  mild  or  strong) ; 
(4)  pradesa  (according  as  to  the  number  of  atoms 
{karma-vargands)  of  karmic  matter  which  attach  to 
the  soul). 


96  OUTLINES    OF    JAINLSM 

44.  *TW  5T^T  *=[^  3^  *f|*T  TR  ^  TUt^T  f^T^W  I 

PailcJidstikdya,  143. 
At  the  moment  when  on  the  part  of  an  ascetic  detached 
from  desire  no  good  or  bad  actions   (of  mind)  are  in 
operation,    at    that    moment    such    an    ascetic    attains 
stoppage  (samvara)  of  good  or  bad  karmas. 

45.  f%5lffrT  ^T  tf  *TtTT  Trer^T:  "g^TIT: 

^diXd  i  *rr<J  -s|lfa«i:  ^fe**:  II  $  ll 

Samayasara-kalasa,  v,  6. 
Though  karmas  which  became  attached  to  the  soul  in 
the  past  do  not  give  up  their  existence,  and  though  at 
their  mature  time  they  take  the  form  of  substances  ;  still, 
in  consequence  of  the  expulsion  of  all  love,  hatred,  and 
attachment,  the  binding  by  karma  does  not  befall  one 
who  has  knowledge. 

46.  %^7TprfT*UT*fr  ^r  ^wrerT^TftrTt^  if;  i 

^^rfa^NTft^fr  ^wrw^i t  q^faf  "sr^fr  ^  i 
^Ttt^  *ra?wr  *!!tcwt  *n«i^rTfawr  n  $m  ii 

Dravya-samgraha,  34-5. 
The   thought-activity  of  the  soul  by  which  the  inflow 
of    karma    is    stopped    is  called  bliava-samvara.     That 
which  actually  stops  the  inflow  of  matter  is  another. 
The  following  are  the  species  of  bhdva- samvara  : — 
Vratas,  or  vows.     [These  are  five  :    (l)  ahimsa  (not 
to  cause  or  tend  to  cause  pain  or  destruction  to  any 
living  being  by  thought,  speech,  or  conduct) ;   (2)  sat>/<i 


TEXTS:    METAPHYSICS    VIII  97 

(truth  in  speech,  thought,  and  deed);  (3)  asteya  (to  take 
nothing,  unless,  and  except,  it  is  given);  (4)  brahma- 
charya  (chastity,  lit.  the  devoted  contemplation  of  the 
self  by  the  soul)  ;  (o)  parigraha-tydga  (renunciation 
of  worldly  concerns).] 

Samitis,  religious  observances.  [These  are  five:  (1) 
Iryd  (walking  carefully,  so  as  not  to  hurt  any  living 
being)  ;  (2)  bhdshd  (speaking  relevantly  and  without 
hurting  anyone's  feelings)  ;  (3)  eshana  (taking  only 
pure  food,  not  specially  prepared  for  the  saint)  ; 
(4)  adananikshepana  (careful  handling  of  the  few 
things,  such  as  water-bowl,  brush,  and  scriptures,  which 
ascetics  may  keep)  ;  (5)  pratishthdpana  or  utsarga 
(great  care  as  to  where  to  answer  the  calls  of 
nature,  etc.). j 

Gupti,  or  restraint.  This  is  of  three  kinds  :  of  body, 
mind,  and  speech.] 

Dharmas,  or  pious  duties.  [These  are  ten  :  (l)  supreme 
forgiveness,  suppression  of  all  feelings  of  anger  or 
retaliation,  and  ready  forgiveness  of  all  injuries,  real 
or  otherwise ;  (2)  humility,  ever-present  and  sincere 
humility  ;  (3)  frankness  ;  (4)  integrity ;  (o)  truth 
in  feeling  and  action  ;  (6)  restraint  of  the  senses  and 
compassion  towards  all  living  beings  ;  (7)  austerity 
and  self-denial  :  (8)  renunciation  of  merely  worldly 
concerns;  (9)  realizing  that  the  world  and  its  things 
cannot  belong  in  reality  to  the  true  '  I '  ;  (10)  chastity. 

Anuprekshd,  or  contemplation.  [It  is  of  twelve  kinds  : 
(l)  anitya — the  world  is  transient ;  (2)  asarana — no 
one  can  protect  us  from  the  fruition  of  karmas  ; 
(3)  samsdra — these  karmas  keep  us  in  the  cycle  of 
existences  till  they  have  all  matured  and  left  us  finally 
in  nirvana;  (4)  ekatva —  we  are  ourselves  the  doers 
and  enjoyers  and  makers  of  our  life  here  or  hereafter  ; 


98  OUTLINES    OF    JA1N1SM 

(5)  anyatva — all  else  (the  body,  etc.)  is  separate  from 
us  ;  (6)  asuchitva — the  various  impurities  of  the 
body,  which  cannot  have  the  qualities  of  soul  ; 
(7)  a  snivel — karmic  matter  is  flowing  into  the  soul,  and 
thus  new  bonds  are  forged  for  the  captivity  of  the  soul 
in  the  world;  (8)  samvara — we  must  stop  this  inflow 
of  karmas  ;  (9)  nirjard — we  must  free  the  soul  from 
matter,  which  has  already  attached  to  it  in  the  past ; 
(lO)  loka — the  world  is  eternal  ;  its  six  elements,  the 
dravyas,  souls,  matter,  time  and  space,  principles  of 
motion,  and  rest,  are  eternal  too  ;  (11)  bodhi-durlabha — 
it  is  difficult  to  attain  wisdom,  i.e.  right  faith,  knowledge,, 
and  conduct ;  we  must  strive  to  get  these  ;  (12)  dharma, 
the  Law — our  duty  is  to  get  freedom  and  happiness.] 

Parisaha-jaya,  troubles  and  sufferings,  the  overcoming 
of  which  leads  to  samvara.  [These  are  twenty-two  : 
(1)  hunger;  (2)  thirst;  (3)  cold;  (4)  heat;  (5)  insect- 
bites,  etc.  ;  (6)  nakedness  ;  (7)  troubles  arising  from  the 
conditions  of  a  particular  time  or  country,  e.g.  in 
warfare,  plague,  etc.  ;  (8)  women  ;  (9)  careful  walking  ; 
(10)  posture  adopted  must  be  continued;  (ll)  sleeping 
on  hard  ground  after  soft  beds  in  royal  palaces;  (12) 
abuse  of  ourselves  or  of  our  doctrine  by  others;  (13) 
ill-usage;  (14)  begging;  (15)  ill-success  in  begging; 
(1G)  disease;  if  self-imposed  duties  weaken  the  body, 
renounce  the  idea  of  strengthening  it  by  means  of 
medicine,  etc.;  (17)  thorns  and  pebbles  prick  the 
wandering  ascetics  ;  (ltt)  dirt  ;  (19)  no  reverence 
is  given  to  the  ascetic  by  people  ;  he  should  not 
mind ;  (20)  he  never  feels  proud  of  his  victory  even 
over  the  most  learned  ;  (21)  waiting  for  illumina- 
tion ;  (22)  waiting  for  the  evolution  of  the  soul's 
powers.] 

Chdritra,  conduct  of  many  kinds. 


TEXTS:    METAPHYSICS    VIII  99 

47.    -faqwT  4«JW  II  W  II  cffi^r  f^^TT  II  *3  II 

Tattvdrtha-sutra,  viii,  21,  2H. 

The  fruition  of  a  karma  upon  its  maturing  is  experience 
(anubhava).     Thence  follows  (savipdka)  nirjard. 

4*.    ^TWt^tf  si^t  rr?ff  Wt  f^3%  STUfafff  I 

Panchdstikdya,  144. 
Whoso,  occupying  himself  with  the  activities  which  stop 
the  inflow  of  karmas,  persists  in  ascetic  practices  of 
various  kinds — verily  such  an  one  makes  many  karmas 
fall  away  from  his  soul. 

49.  ^qTTp^w:  *rmt  fwrr  f?rfwr  ^  *n  i 

^T?IT  f^tJT^^TT  cT^  f^fftoT  xrrf^T^T  II  R  II 

eR*TT«fqrer  ^^  ^^  *TT  t^xjT^i^TT  II  3  II 

H?I  ^3I?T  3W  m  *ref^I  ^lf*RT3fi*rT  II  g  II 

^*fiT%  tfV  "ff^^  r!^T  ^tfTTfUT  ^ff ttt  II  M  II 

HWTWT  *WT  f^fft^T  7T  r^f^TTR  II  $  II 

Tattvdrtha-sdra,  vii,  2-6. 
The  falling  away  of  karma  attaching  to  the  soul  is 
called  nirjard.  It  is  of  two  kinds  :  of  these  the  first  is 
called  ripeness-born  (vipdkajd),  th^  second  unripeness- 
born  (avipaka0).  When  in  a  soul  which  is  subject  to 
the  ripening  of  karmas  attached  to  it  from  eternity 
the  karmas  fructify  and  perish — the  process  is  called 
ripeness-born.       When    by    force    of    ascetic    practices 


100  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

(tapas)  those  karmas  which  are  not  yet  ready  to  operate 
are  made  to  enter  the  class  of  those  ready  to  operate, 
and  are  experienced  —  the  process  is  called  avipdka 
nirjard.  As  a  mango  or  pine-apple  can  be  made  to 
ripen  by  artificial  means  even  out  of  time,  similarly 
the  karmas  of  embodied  souls.  The  first  belongs  to 
all  souls  which  get  rid  of  matured  karma  in  due 
course  by  experiencing  it,  whereas  the  other  is  found 
in  ascetics  only. 

50.    fTtmT  fa^TT  ^  II  3  II      Tattvdrtha-sutra,  ix,  3. 
Falling  away  may  be  through  asceticism  (tajias)  also. 

51.  spt  3*rw  ^Tft  ftpsrwrcpf  **  ^w^wrrftr  i 
^*r^^rwt  *j*if^  vi  ttw  ^r  *ftwt  ii  ^  ii 

Pafichdstikdya,  158. 
When  a  soul  has  attained  samvara  and  is  getting  rid  of 
all  karmas,  and  on  withdrawal  of  the  vedaniya,  dyuh, 
etc.  {gotra  and  ndma,  i.e.  the  four  aghdtiya  or  non- 
destructive) karmas,  takes  leave  of  existence,  that  is 
therefore  [called]  moksha  ("leaving")-  ..;-- 

52.  Wf<wnrf*i3TTwri"  WM^fwiWt  *iW:  II  R  II 

Tattvdrtha-sutra,  x,  2. 
Complete  release  from  all  karma  through  non-existence 
of  causes  of  bondage  and  through  nirjard  is  moksha. 

iH  *  HH^«ri^  ^wMtwt  ^  qjwrj^HT^r  11  ?e  11 

Dravya-samgraha,  37. 
The   evolution    (parmdma)  of    the    soul   which    is    the 
one  cause  of  annihilation  of  all  karmas  is  called  bhdva- 
moksha.     The  actual  freedom  from  all  karmic  matter  is 
called  dravy  a -moksha. 


texts:   METAPHYSICS   IX  101 

IX.     The  Nine  Padarthas 
54.  whrrafaT  *TRT  3^  W  ^  ^T*R  Tffa  I 

Pafwhdstikdya,  108. 
Soul  (jiva),  non-soul  {ajlva),  merit  (punya),  sin  or 
demerit  (2)dpa),  inflow  of  matter  (dsrava  of  meritorious 
or  sinful  karmas),  its  cessation  {samvara),  falling 
away  {nirjard),  bondage  (bandha),  and  final  liberation 
(moksha)  are  the  (nine)  principles  (padarthas). 


i>b. 


^t*tf  xftT^T^r^Tft  *n<ft  ^WW  ^tTT  II  <^*  II 

Ibid.  132. 
The  good   evolution   (parindma)  of    the  soul   is  merit 
(punya)  ;    the  bad  evolution  is  sin  {papa).     It  is  the 
materialization  of  these   two  which  becomes   (good    or 
bad)  karmas. 

Note. — The    former    is    merit    or    sin    of    thought 
(bhdva)  ;  the  latter  is  realized  (dravya)  merit  or  sin. 

f*niff  irrfar  ^f *  tjw  wt^ra  ^n*r*rf^  11  °i3M  ii 

Ibid.  135. 
Whatever  soul  has  attachment  only  to  right  conduct 
'e.g.  devotion  to  the  Arhats,  etc.],  whose  evolution  is 
penetrated  with  compassion,  and  the  inner  nature  of 
which  is  without  impurity  of  a  grosser  kind,  punya 
(meritorious  karmas)  flows  into  it. 


57. 


Ibid.  139. 


102  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

Action  full  of  negligence,  impurity,  distraction  among 
the  objects  of  the  senses,  causing  pain  to  or  talking 
evil  of  others,  produce  an  inflow  of  sin. 


58. 


Samayasdra-kalasa,  by  Amritachandra  8uri,  iv,  1-3. 

Then,  reducing  to  unity  the  karma,  which  is  distinguished 
into  two  kinds  according  to  good  or  bad  (thoughts),  this 
flood  of  nectar  in  the  form  of  full  knowledge  arises  of 
itself,  annihilating  all  the  dust  of  infatuation.  One, 
falsely  considering  himself  to  be  a  Brahman,  keeps 
away  from  wine  ;  while  another,  knowing  himself  as 
a  Sudra,  constantly  bathes  in  the  same ;  and  the  two 
have  come  forth  together  from  the  womb  of  the  same 
Sudra  mother,  and  therefore  are  obviously  Sudras,  but 
are  pursuing  different  rules  of  conduct  because  of 
imaginary  differences  of  caste. 

The  cause,  nature,  experience,  and  support  of  these 
two  \])tnji/<(  and  papa]  being  the  same,  therefore  there  is 
no  difference  in  the  karma.  Therefore  they  are  best 
regarded  sis  one,  dependent  upon  the  manner  of 
bondage,  and  are  certainly  all  by  themselves  a  cause 
of  bondage. 


TEXTS:    METAPHYSICS    X,  XI  103 

X,  XI.     Bodies 
r>!».    ^^fT^tfafa^f  TT^tw^T^WTfa  ITftTTfW II  $£  II 

t?^  TTt  mzm  II  ^  II 

"R^rPt  W#*TJW  HT5fi  tw^Tci:.  II  $^  II 

^Tifl3%  xr^  ||  $<£  II  Tattvdrtha-sutra,  ii,  36-9. 

Bodies  are  :  audarika  (the  physical  body  of  all  men  and 
animals)  ;  vaikriyika  (the  body  of  gods  and  denizens 
of  hell,  which  they  can  change  at  will) :  dhdraka  (the 
spiritual  man-like  emanation  that  flames  forth  from  the 
head  of  a  saint  when  he  wants  to  remove  his  doubt  on 
some  momentous  and  urgent  point)  ;  taijasa  (the 
magnetic  body  of  all  embodied  souls)  ;  kdrmana  (the 
body  of  karmic  matter  of  all  embodied  souls).  Each 
is  more  refined  than  the  preceding.  The  bodies  pre- 
ceding the  taijasa  (i.e.  audarika,  vaikriyika,  and 
dhdraka)  have  each  untold  times  the  number  of  atoms 
which  are  in  the  one  preceding  it;  the  two  others 
(taijasa  and  kdrmana)  each  an  infinite  number  of  times. 

00.   'SRTf^TW  xT  il  8^  II  1W  II  BR  II       Ibid.  -11-2. 

(The  magnetic  (taijasa)  and  the  karmic  (kdrmana) 
bodies)  have  been  attached  (to  the  soul)  from  everlasting. 
To  all  souls  (i.e.  to  all  embodied  souls  ;  in  other  Avoids, 
to  all  souls  except  the  Siddhas). 

XII.     Forms  of  Existence  or  Gatis 
7Tf|  ^  f^TSl^Tli  fTTff  T^ft  ^  ^fUTT  ^T  II  <^<»  II 


104  OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 

xf$  fsnrrcTTfw  *rf%^r  ^mif^fwwr  ^fxirwr  ^t  h  ^q  ii 

Panchastikaya,  128-30. 

Verily  the  soul  which  is  in  samsara  (cycle  of  existences) 
has  (impure)  evolution.  From  evolution  comes  karma* 
and  from  karma  the  state  of  existence  (gati)  in 
[various]  existences.  And  the  soul,  going  into  any 
state  of  existence  (gati),  assumes  a  physical  body : 
from  this  body  the  sense-organs  arise ;  these  come  into 
touch  with  sense-objects  ;  thence  arises  attachment  or 
aversion — thus  thought-state  is  produced  in  the  soul 
within  the  bounds  of  transient  existences.  And  this 
thought-state  may  be  without  beginning  and  end  or 
else  with  end.     So  have  the  best  of  Jinas  declared  of  it. 

XIII.     Lesyas  (Paints  of  the  Soul) 
62.  -faqi;  wt^T?;  xr^  firr^SWg^  ^  I 

^ft^TTT^Tft  %W  ^T*J"3^Tf<fwr  fK  I 

tttTt  ^TTrf  ^m  cj\r^3^  **jffT  ii  tfc£  ii 
f^tf  t  tot^t  ^tst  *N»  tot  ^  ^mwmi  ^  i 

^WTXjr  fw^T  i^lN  f^frT  tW^W  II  80-^  II 

*3T^3  ^STTt  Tf^  ^T  TT^ITTT  ^TTT  ^  ofiWT  II   MOO   II 

Gonvniata-sdra,Jivakaijda,  by  Nemi-chandra  Siddhanta- 
chakravartin,  488-9,  492,  507. 

That  whereby  the  soul  is  tinted,  identified,  with  merit 
and  demerit  (jtniji/n  and  papa)  is  called  lesyd •  ;  so  it  is 
taught  by  those  who  know  the  qualities  of  lesyds.  The 
lesyd    due    to    mental    application   and   action   becomes 


TEXTS:    METAPHYSICS    XIII  105 

tinged  by  the  interposition  of  the  passions.  Thence 
arises  a  double  effect  and  a  fourfold  bondage.  Black, 
indigo,  grey,  fiery,  lotus,  and  white  are  the  designations 
of  the  lesyds,  sixfold  according  to  rule.  Uprooting, 
trunk,  cutting  bough  or  branch,  plucking,  eating  fallen 
fruit— thus  would  be  the  action  in  accordance  with  these. 

XIV.       G  I"  X  AST  H  AX  A  S 

63.   %ff  f  ^f^53Wf  ^^TTf^lJ  W%t%  HT^ff  I 
^t  %  ^Tnrwr  twt^f  T  ^W^T^tl  II  c  II 

Gommata-sdra,  Jivakanda,  8. 
Those  states  by  which,  arising  in  them  at  the  maturity. 
etc.,  of  k  annas,  the  spiritual  position  of  souls  is  recog- 
nized   and    determined,    are    by     the    all -seeing    ones 
designated  under  the  name  gunas. 

64.  fa^r  *rrcrcrfa*fr  ^rfar^*fr  ^  t^faT^r  ^  i 
faT^roHTT  ^vr  trvw  ^fwvi  *js*fr  ^  ii  e  II 

^^T  Wt^WRTT  3WTT  ftni  ^  TiTT^WT  HO  II 

Ibid.  9-10. 

There  are  fourteen  stages  of  the  soul  (guna-sthanas)  : 

(1)  False  belief  (mithyatva).  [The  thought-state 
(bhava)  of  the  soul  due  to  the  manifestation  of  karma s 
that  produce  false  knowledge  or  belief  (or  perception). 
From    this   the  soul  always  goes  to   the   fourth   stage. 

(2)  Backsliding  (sdsddana).  [When  the  soul  from  the 
fourth  stage  falls  back  into  the  first  on  account  of  false 
belief,  it  passes  through  the  second  stage,  and  the 
thought-states  (bhdvas)  in  the  passage  are  called 
sdsddana.]     (3)   Mixed  right  and  wrong  belief  (misra). 

down  from  the  fourth  to  the  first 


106  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

stage,  on  account  of  mixed  right  and  false  belief  at  one 
and  the  same  time,  it  passes  through  the  third  stage, 
and  its  thought-state  then  is  called  misra.]  (i)  Eight 
faith,  but  not  acted  on  (avirata-samyaktva) .  [The  soul 
has  faith  in  the  path  to  salvation,  but  cannot  observe 
the  vows  (vratas).}  (5)  Beginning  of  right  conduct 
[desa-virata,  Partial  renunciation  of  the  world.]  (6) 
Slight  negligence  as  to  right  conduct  {pramatta-virata). 
[After  renunciation  of  all  worldly  objects,  still  occasionally 
to  turn  the  mind  to  the  service  or  needs  of  the  body.] 
(7)  Right  conduct  free  from  all  negligence  {a pramatta- 
virata).  [Renouncing  the  last-named  occasional  care  of 
the  body  too.]  (8)  Initiation  to  the  higher  life  (apurva- 
karana).  [Karana,  or  bhdva,  which  had  not  yet  found 
entry  into  the  saint's  soul.  This  is  the  beginning  of 
the  first  sukla-dhydna,  or  white  contemplation.]  (9) 
Incessant  pursuit  of  the  higher  life  (anivritti-karana) . 
[Special  bhdvas  of  a  still  greater  purity.]  (10)  Condition 
almost  devoid  of  desires  {sukshma-sampardya).  [All 
passions  {kashdya)  are  destroyed  or  suppressed  except 
mere  nominal  desire  (sukshma  -  sanjvalana  -lobha).] 
(11)  Condition  entirely  devoid  of  desires  {npasanti). 
[A  psychic  condition  {bhdva)  which  is  produced  by  the 
suppression  of  the  entire  conduct-disturbing — char it ra- 
mohanlya — karma.]  (12)  Infatuationlessness  (ksJuna- 
vioJia).  [In  this  stage  all  the  intoxicating  karma  is 
annihilated.]  (13)  Omniscience  in  the  embodied  condition 
(sayoga-kevalin).  [Here  the  knowledge-obscuring,  faith- 
or  perception-obscuring,  and  the  obstructive  karmas  are 
also  destroyed.  The  soul  becomes  arhat.  But  vibrations 
in  the  soul  remain.]  (ll)  Omniscience  (ayoga-kevalin) . 
[This  is  attained  when  there  is  before  the  sayoga- 
kevalin  s  death  enough  time  to  speak  out  the  five  letters 
^,   ^,  ^3,  "^7.  ^.      The  vibrations  in  the  soul  cease, 


TEXTS:    METAPHYSICS    XIV  107 

and  unbreakable  harmony  and  perfect  peace  are  attained 
in  final  liberation  (moksJia)  from  mundane  bondage. 
In  due  course  after  this  the  souls  are  Siddhas.  So  it 
must  be  known  ! 


XV.     The  Three  Jewels 

65.  ^^T^^^T^T^T^ifT^Tfiir  *fr^*TR:  II  S  II 

Tattvartha-siitra,  i,  1. 
Right  faith   (or  perception),  right   knowledge,  and  right 
conduct  constitute  the  way  to  moksha. 

66.  -fa^fa^  ^rrr$  ^mt  ^N^wito*  i 
*?frr^Tn*"fa*T^:  etc:  *Hff  sfa  wrr:  ii  m  ii 
^w  wtviTJl  ^^^tt  ^iraran^rnfc  i 

^fTT^  ^N^ff?!  ^^t^  ^irt  *rrf%  ii  i  ii 

^flT  TFf  ff  W2TT  fa^cTT  *rTSrf%W^  II    a   II 
^fTTfaWT  V  "^^T  tra*T  ^Tfa  WIW-   I 

■RT^rfrT  <ut«ti«ii:  *  t&  niwrafa^  ftp*:  11  *=  11 

Purushdrtha-siddhyupdya,  by  Amrita-chandra  Suri,5-8. 

The  nischaya  mode  (of  statement)  they  describe  as  real; 
the  vyavahdra  mode  as  not  real.  All  mundane  souls 
are  mostly  opposed  to  knowledge  of  the  reality  of 
things.  The  great  saints  {muni)  teach  the  non-real 
mode,  so  that  the  ignorant  may  understand  :  who  so 
understands  only  with  practical  mode,  in  him  there  is 
no  teaching.  As  to  a  man  who  has  not  seen  a  lion 
a  cat  is  the  only  lion,  so  a  man  who  knows  not  the  real 
method  takes  the  practical  method  itself  for  reality  ! 
That  disciple  alone  who  understands  both  the  real  and 


108  OUTLINES    OF    JAIXISM 

the  practical  method,  and  takes  a  higher  view  equally 
distinct  from  both,  obtains  the  full  fruit  of  the  teaching. 

67.  ^ttr  ^T*n^rr*nFT*rofiTmfT"ra;  i 

f%1J5T*Tr£JRSTt  *W*^N*TOTO*i:  II  8  II 

Bat  no  ka  ra  n/Ja-snl  vakachurya ,  by  Samanta-bhadra 
Acharya,  4. 
Right  faith  (or  perception)  consists  in  believing  the  true 
ideal  (apta),  scriptures  (cigama),  and  teacher  {guru). 
Such  right  faith  is  free  from  the  three  follies,  has  eight 
members,  and  no  pride. 

Note. — The  three  follies  relate  to  false  gods  {deva), 
place  (loka,  e.g.  bath  in  the  Ganges  will  wash  off  sins),  and 
teacher  (guru).  The  eight  members  (angas)  are  freedom 
from  doubt,  from  desire  for  worldly  comforts,  from 
aversion  to  or  regard  for  the  body,  etc.,  from  inclination 
for  the  wrong  path  ;  redeeming  the  defects  of  ineffective 
believers  ;  sustaining  souls  in  right  conviction, 
loving  regard  for  pious  persons,  and  publishing  the 
greatness  of  Jaina  doctrines.  Their  names  are  nih- 
sankita,  n isJi kaii ksh ita ,  nirvich ikitsita ,  a m udhadrishti, 
npaguhana,  sthitikarana,  vatsalya,  prabhdvand.  The 
eight  kinds  of  pride  are  pride  in  family  (kula),  con- 
nexions (jndti),  strength  (bala),  beauty  {sundaratd), 
knowledge  (Jndna),  wealth  (dhana),  authority  (djfid), 
asceticism  (tapah). 

68.  *ft  ^Tfo  wrf^  ^f\  ^ttnw  ^*wr  ^wro  I 

*ft  ^TfTTT  WTT!T  ^xufaf^  fW^^t  ftf^  II  S§R  II 

Panchustikaya,  162. 
He  who  acts,  knows,  and  realizes  himself  through 
himself  as  in  no  way  distinct  (from  the  attributes  of 
perfect  knowledge,  etc.)  becomes  convinced  as  to  conduct, 
knowledge,  and  faith. 


TEXTS:    METAPHYSICS    XV  10!) 

*niri  Tm  wrw  «wTK*i*iW  <j  ii  8'  ii 

Dravya-samgraha,  42. 
Right  and  profound  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  soul 
and  non-soul,  devoid  of  doubt,  of  belief  in  opposite  of 
right,  and  of  illusions  is  Sahara  (definite)  and  of  many 
kinds. 

7( ».  *ffT^mTfa^:^T^%^T"fa  wr^r  11  q  ii 

Tattvartha-sutrd,  i,  9. 

Knowledge  is  (l)  mati-jnana  (knowledge  acquired  by 
sense-perceptions)  ;  (2)  sruta-jndna  (knowledge  acquired 
by  reading  the  scriptures)  ;  (3)  avadhi-jndna  (knowledge 
of  the  distant,  non-sensible — in  time  or  space — possessed 
by  divine  and  infernal  souls);  (4)  manahparyaya-jndna 
(knowledge  of  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  others)  : 
(o)   kevala-jndna    (fall  or   perfect  knowledge). 

71.  frf^f^rrf*rf^f«rf*»w  n  s 8  ii    ibid.  14. 

Mati-jnana  is  occasioned  through  the  five  senses  and 
tbe  non-sense  (sc.  intellect). 

72.  ^?i  *rf?T^5  st^^t^t^^t  11  \o  w    ibid.  20. 

Sruta-jndna  comes  after  [and  includes]  mati-jnana.     U 

is  of  two  kinds,  of  many  kinds,  and  of  twelve  kinds. 

73.  T?^rr^if^T  ^mTfa  ^jni^f^arsfjwh  11  30  11 

Ibid.  30. 
Together  in  one  soul  there  may  be  one,  two,  three,  as 
far  as  four,  kinds  of  knowledge. 

Note. — If  one  kind  only,  it  is  kevala-jndna  ;  if  two 
kinds,  the  first  two;  if  three  kinds,  the  first  three;  if 
four  kinds,  the  first  four.     For  five  kinds  see  70  above. 


I  ■). 


110  OUTLINES    OF    JA1N1SM 

74.    H^TTc€l^fr  ^f^^nWTTTTJT  II  *«J   II 

^*ftTrcr?TfM*TTi:  ^ferwr:  St^-rit^  ii  ^  11 

^fq^^:  ||  p;o  ||  Tattvdrtha-sfctra,21,  22,  27. 

Avadhi-jndna  in  gods  and  denizens  of  hell  is  conditioned 
by  birth  (innate).  In  others  avadhi-jndna  is  produced 
by  reason  of  annihilation  and  tranq utilization  {kshaya 
'and  upasama  of  karmic  matter)  and  is  of  six  kinds. 
The  range  of  avadhi-jndna  is  restricted  to  bodies  having 
form  (i.e.  material  bodies,  maurttika). 

Si  v»  > 

fT^T5rm"R  *^r:T?lfr^I  ||  ?c  ||  Ibidi  28,  28. 

Manahparydya-jndna  is  (l)  riju-mati  (knowledge  of 
the  present  thoughts  and  feelings  in  the  minds  of  others 
or  in  one's  own  mind)  ;  (2)  vipula-mati  (knowledge  of 
the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  others,  whether  present 
now  or  relating  to  the  past  or  future  time). 

Manahparydya  extends  to  infinitesimal  parts  thereof 
(i.e.  of  that  which  is  known  by  avadhi-jndna) . 

^3^tHiT^  ii^^l  II  "*<>  II       Ibid.  29. 
Kevala-jndna  extends  to  all  modifications  of  substances. 

JTffTWPTfc^fr  faWSTS  H  3=1  II      Ibid.  81. 
Mati-jndna,    sruta-jndna,   and    avadhi-jndna   may   be 
perverted  (or  false)  also. 

^ig^T^r  fafwfaTft  g|  xjfwt  ^  srrcHrrfr%  i 
cr^faf^rfT^cj  cTc^TWsrrf  faumfrRT  11  8  m  ii 

WTfxro  ^  fmaTJ  ?i  TTT:*t  ^wr^ifTTJ  ii  8$  H 

Dra  vya-sa mgraha ,  4 5-6. 


TEXTS:    METAPHYSICS    XV  111 

Avoidance  of  bad  (asubha)  and  activity  in  good,  as 
regards  thought  and  conduct,  is  from  the  practical  point 
of  view  described  by  the  Jina  as  the  vows  (i.e.  the  five 
vratas),  the  observances  (i.e.  the  five  samitis),  and  the 
restraints  (i.e.  the  three  guptis).  But  what  is  by  the 
Jina  mentioned  as  the  checking  of  internal  and  external 
action  with  a  view  to  destroying  for  the  wise  soul  the 
cause  of  migratory  existence,  this  is  the  highest,  the 
right  conduct. 

'.».  IrTr^^nn^!!  ajftr^ft  faff  3ff  *»nff  3pt  ¥  *rr  ^*m  i 
w  $  wf^  faif^r  fa  w  w  **rf^  ^r  «ft^§  wrt  faring  11 

Panchdstikdya,  161. 

When  the  self,  properly  so  named,  being  intently 
occupied  with  those  three,  does  nothing  other,  and 
leaves  nothing  undone,  that  is  the  way  of  liberation 
(moksha). 


APPENDIX     I 

JAIN  A    LOGIC 

Western  logic  is  material  or  formal  and  inductive 
or  deductive.  Its  chief  topics  are  the  term,  the 
proposition,  and  the  syllogism.  Its  aim  is  consistency 
in  argument — formal  truth  mostly. 

Jaina  logic  has  for  its  aim  to  remove  ignorance  ;  to 
acquire  knowledge  ;  to  know  what  is  harmful,  what 
is  beneficial  and  to  be  adopted,  and  to  what  it  is  fit  to 
be  indifferent.  The  whole  of  Jainism  follows  the 
maxim  :  Do  not  live  to  know,  but  know  to  live.  Logic 
is  not  mental  training  merely  ;  it  is  a  necessary  help  in 
ascertaining  the  truth,  as  we  move  along. 

How  to  achieve  this  aim  ?  By  proving  things 
througl  \  i  >ra  man  a . 

What  is  pramanal  It  is  that  by  which  is 
established  the  knowledge  of  the  self  and  of  that 
which  was  not  known  before. 

It  also  means  the  way  of  knowing  a  thing  without 
doubt,  perversion,  and  indifference  ;  e.g.  I  know  a  jar 
by  myself.  Conviction  in  this  proves  existence  of  the 
self  and  the  jar  both.  [Compare  the  conclusion  of 
Descartes  :  Cogito,  ergo  sum.] 

Besides  (i)  pramanas  we  have  (ii)  nayas  and  (iii) 
sydd-vdda. 

Pramdnas  are  of  two  kinds  :  pratyaksha  and 
paroJcsha. 


JAINA    LOGIC  113 

Pratyalcsha 
It  is  of  two  kinds:  sdmvyavahdrika-pratyaksha, 
or  the  way  of  knowing  things  by  means  of  the  five 
senses  and  the  mind ;  paramarth  Uca-pratyalcsha,the  way 
of  knowing  things  by  the  soul  itself  through  removal 
of  all  karmic  matter  that  obscures  its  knowledge. 

Paroksha 

This  is  of  five  kinds  : 

1.  smriti,  remembrance; 

2.  pratyabhijnana, memory  by  sight,  i.e.  recognition: 

3.  tarka,  argument  from  association  ;  e.g.  birth  and 
pregnancy  ;  smoke  and  tire  :  rain  and  wet  pavement ; 
dawn  and  lotus-blossoming; 

4.  anumana,  inference;  this  is  of  two  kinds  : 

(1)  upalabdhi,     establishing     an     affirmative     or 

negative  proposition  by  a  positive  middle. 

(2)  anupalabdhi,    establishing    an    affirmative   or 

negative  proposition  by  a  negative  middle. 

5.  dgama,  sabda,  knowledge  from  what  the  Teacher 
has  said. 

Under  4  {anumana)  upalabdhi  is  of  six  kinds, 
which  are  aviruddha,  viz.  according  as  the  (positive) 
middle  term  is  : 

1.  vyapya,  comprehended  :  infer  fire  by  smoke  : 

2.  Jcarya,  effect :  wisdom  by  eloquent  speech  : 

3.  kdrana,  cause  :  shade  by  tree  : 

4.  purva-chara,  priority  :  darkness  by  sunset  : 

5.  uttara-chara,  posteriority:  sunset  by  darkness; 

6.  saha-cJiara,  concomitance:  sweet  -  mango  by 
yellow-ripe. 


114  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

Seven  kinds,  which  are  viruddha,  viz.  according  as  the 
(positive)  middle  term  is: 

1.  svabhdva,  property  of  major  :  no  cold  by  heat; 

2.  vydpya  :  no  quiescence  by  anger  ; 

3.  kdrya  :  no  cold  by  smoke  ; 

4.  Jcdrana  :  no  happiness  in  the  world  by  soul  is 
impure  ; 

5.  piirva-chara  :  no  sunset  by  daylight ; 

6.  uttara-chara :  no  daylight  by  sunset ; 

7.  saha-chara  :  no  not-sweet  by  yellow-ripe  mango. 

Anupalabdhi 

also  has  sub-kinds :  aviruddha  and  viruddha. 

Seven  aviruddha  kinds,  viz.  according  as  the  (negative) 
middle  term  is  : 

1.  svabhdva  :  no  jug  here,  because  none  is  visible  ; 

2.  vydpaka :  no  mango-tree,  because  no  tree  ; 

3.  kdrya :  no  good  seed,  because  no  sprout ; 

4.  Jcdrana  :  no  smoke,  because  no  fire  ; 

5.  purva-chara:  no  rise  of  Rohinl  (constellation)  in 
two  ghatis,  because  Krittikd  has  not  risen  now  ; 

G.  uttara-chara  :  no  rise  of  Bharanl  two  ghatis  ago. 
because  Kr  it  tiled  has  not  risen  now  ; 

7.  saha-c/iara  :  no  rise  in  one  scale-pan,  because  there 
is  no  lowering  of  the  other. 

Five  Viruddha-anupalabdhis  (with  negative  middle): 

1.  svabhdva:  things  are  many-sided,  because  we 
cannot  get  a  purely  one-sided  thing  ; 

2.  vydpaka  :  shade  by  no  heat  : 


JAIN A    LOGIC  115 

3.  kdrya  :  this  man  is  ill,  because  lie  has  no 
appearance  or  sign  of  health  ; 

4.  kdrana  :  this  man  is  in  pain,  because  he  has  not 
attained  his  desire. 

5.  saha-chara :  false  view  by  no  true  view. 

The  objects  of  pramdna  are  sdmdnya,  common 
qualities,  i.e.  generic  attributes;  or  visesha,  distinguishing 
attributes,  i.e.  differentia,  This  twofold  distinction  is 
applied  to  substances,  attributes,  and  modifications. 

Promdndbhdsa  (Fallacy) 

Modes  of  acquiring  knowledge,  which  look  like 
pramdna,  but  are  not  really  so.     They  are  : 

1.  a-sva-samvidita :  knowledge  by  which  the  self 
cannot  be  known,  e.g.  the  Naiyayika  system  : 

2.  grilutdrtha:  knowing  what  is  already  known: 
(IhOrdrdhi-judna,  e.g.  it  is  a  jug,  it  is  a  jug,  it  is  a  jug. 
This  does  not  add  to  our  knowledge ;  what  is  not 
known  before  (<i.jiOrvdrtha)  is  what  we  must  know  ; 

3.  nirr'thalpa-darsanoj :  intuitive  perception.  This 
cannot  be  true  pramana  ; 

4.  samsaya :  doubtful  or  ambiguous  knowledge 
cannot  be  pramdna  ;  e.g.  Is  it  a  tree-trunk  or  a  man  '.  : 

5.  viparyaya-jndna :  perverted  knowledge  cannot 
be  true  pramdna ; 

6.  anadliyavasdya-jnana:  uncertainty:  e.g.  treading 
a  twig  under  foot,  and  saying  :  let  it  be  ; 

7.  pratyakshabhdsa :  misleading  appearance:  e.g. 
something  appears  to  the  senses  to  be  A,  but  really  is 
not  A  ;  as  a  mirage  : 


116  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

8.  parolcshabhdsa :  by  mistake  supposing  what  is 
apparent  to  the  senses  to  be  something  which  can  be 
known  only  by  an  inner  mental  process ;  e.g.  the 
Mlmamsaka  system  of  philosophy.    It  is  of  many  kinds  ; 

9.  samlchydbhdsa :  believing  in  more  or  less  than  two 
pramdnas  ; 

10.  vishaydbJtdsa:  believing  in  more  or  less  than  two 
vishayas,  or  subjects; 

11.  'phaldbhdsa:  the  fallacy  of  believing  the  conclusion 
to  be  entirely  distinct  and  separate  from  yyramdna.  It 
is  a  fallacy,  because  in  the  conclusion  we  get  only  what 
we  put  into  the  premises.  There  are  many  other 
dbhdsas  (fallacies)  in  the  details  of  the  syllogism. 

Nayas 

Nayas  are  modes  of  expressing  things. 

There  are  two  nayas,  each  with  several  subdivisions  : 

1.  dravydrthika,  from  the  point  of  view  of  substance  ; 

2.  parydydrthika,  from  the  point  of  view  of  modifica- 
tion or  condition. 

SVAD-VADA 

The  «reat  and  distinctive  doctrine  of  Jaina  logic  is 
the  sydd-vdda.  Its  chief  merit  is  the  anekdnta,  or 
many-sided  view  of  logic.  This,  it  would  be  seen  at 
once,  is  most  necessary  in  order  to  acquire  full 
knowledge  about  anything.  It  is  a  corrective  of  the 
fallacy  into  which  fell  the  two  knights  who  saw  the 
different  sides  of  the  shield.  Tom  Smith,  for  example, 
may  be  a  father  with  reference  to  his  son  Willy  Smith  ; 
and  he  may  be  a  son  with  reference  to  his  father  John 
Smith.      Now  it  is  a  fact  that  Tom  Smith   is  a  son  and 


JAINA    LOGK  117 

father  at  one  and  th»*  same  time  ;  and  still  some  may 
declare  it  impossible  for  a  man  to  be  a  father  and  a  son 
simultaneously.  This  fallacy  is  not  quite  so  obvious 
in  other  cases,  and  is  a  fruitful  source  of  much  mis- 
understanding. Two  seemingly  contrary  statements 
may  be  found  to  be  both  true,  if  we  take  the  trouble 
of  rinding  out  the  two  points  of  view  from  which  the 
statements  are  made.  Seven  classes  of  points  of  view 
are  noted.     They  are  : 

1.  sydd  asti:   A  is.     A  rose  is: 

2.  sydn  ndsti :  A  is  not.  A  rose  is  not,  from  tin- 
point  of  view  of  a  clock  ; 

3.  sydd  asti  ndsti :  A  is  and  is  not.  A  rose  is  and 
is  not.  as  in  1  and  2  ; 

4.  sydd  avaktavya:  from  a  certain  point  of  view  it 
is  impossible  to  describe  A  ;  e.g.  from  the  point  of  view 
of  integral  calculus  it  may  be  difficult  to  describe  a  rose; 

5.  sydd  asti  cha  avaktavya  :  A  is.  and  it  is  impossible 
to  describe  A.      This  is  a  combination  of  1  and  4  : 

6.  sydn  ndsti  dm  avaktavya  :  A  is  not,  and  it  i> 
impossible  to  describe  A.  This  is  a  combination  of 
2  and  4: 

7.  sydd  asti  cha  ndsti  cha  avaktavya  :  A  is  and  A  is 
not,  and  it  is  impossible  to  describe  A.  This  is  a  com- 
bination of  1.  2.  and  4. 

From  these  seven  modes  of  expression  the  system 
derives  also  its  second  name  :  sapta-bhaiigi,  'sevenfold 
system  of  logic' 

Syllogism 

The  Jaina  syllogism,  like  that  of  Gautama's  Nyaya, 
but  unlike  the  svlloofism  of  Aristotelian  locnc.  consist-- 


118  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

of  five  propositions.     To  take  an  elementary  example  : 

Man  is  mortal. 

John  is  a  man. 
.'.  John  is  mortal. 
The  Jaina  logician  would  argue  thus  : 

Jack  died,  Fox  died,  Herbert  died,  and  so  did 

William  ; 
Jack,    Fox,    Herbert,    and    William    are    truly 
universal  types  of  man. 
.".  All  men  die. 

John  is  a  man. 
.".  John  will  die. 
It  seems  wasteful  to  have  five  propositions  in 
a  syllogism,  when  three  would  do.  But  really  the 
great  merit  of  Jaina  logic  is  to  combine  the  inductive 
and  deductive  methods,  and  so  by  its  very  method  more 
or  less  to  answer  in  anticipation  the  criticism  that  logic 
is  a  barren  kind  of  intellectual  gymnastics,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  also  that  logic  is  merely  formal  and 
has  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  the  matter  of  the 
argument. 

[Note. — As  authorities  for  this  chapter  we  may 
cite  the  Tattvdrthddhigama-siitra  of  Uma-svati,  the 
Pramdywb-naya-taUvdlohdldmkdra  of  Vadideva  Sun', 
the  Sydd-vdda-manjarl  of  Malli-shena,  the  PariJcsd- 
mukha  of  Mdnikya-nandin,  and  the  Nydya-bindu  of 
Siddlia-sena  Diva-kara,  edited  with  English  translation 
by  Professor  Satischandra  Vidyabhiishana,  also  the 
English  work  by  Mr.  Jhaveri  cited  in  the  Preliminary 
Note.] 


APPENDIX     II 

cosmogony,  cosmology,  astronomy 

Cosmogony 

The  world  is  infinite.     All  the  magnitudes  (astikdyas) 

in  it  may  change  their  forms  or  their  conditions  :  but 

none  of  them  can  be  destroyed. 

The  world  was  never  created  at  any  particular 
moment.  It  is  subject  to  integration  and  dissolution. 
Its  constituent  elements — the  six  substances,  or  five 
magnitudes  together  with  the  soul — are  the  soul,  matter, 
time,  space,  and  the  principles  of  motion  and  stationari- 
ness.  These  are  eternal  and  indestructible:  but  their 
conditions  change  constantly. 

This  change  takes  place  in  the  two  eras  avasarpinl 
and  utsarpinl.  But  this  division  of  time  does  not 
apply  to  the  whole  universe;  it  exists  only  in 
Arya-khanda  of  the  Bharata  and  Airavata  kshetras 
(regions). 

Cosmology 

The  universe,  or  the  loka,  i.e.  all  space  except  the 
beyond  (aloha  or  non-loka),  has  the  form  exhibited  on 
the  following  page. 

The  total  volume  is  343  cubic  rajjus  (rajju  —  a 
certain,  inconceivably  great,  measure  of  length),  as  maj' 
be  calculated  from  the  dimensions  given  on  the  map. 

The  cosmos  (loka)  is  14  rajjus  high  (ht),  7  rajjus 
from  north  to  south,  and  7  from  east  to  west  (EW). 
But  from  east  to  west  it  tapers  up  till  at  the  height  of 
7  rajjus,  i.e.  the  middle  of  the  universe,  it  is  only 
1  rajju  wide,  like  the  waist  of  the  akimbo  headless 
figure    in    the    diagram    (MD).       From    here     it     again 


120  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

increases  till  at  half  the  remaining  height  it  reaches 
the  breadth  of  5  rajjus  (EjWj).  From  here  once  more 
it  grows  less  and  less,  till  it  is  at  the  top  of  the  universe 
(hh,)  1  rajju. 


west  I    I   M 1 L. IE*   I     East 

Mil 

The  whole  is  enveloped  in  three  atmospheres  called 
the  vata-valayas,  or  wind-sheaths.     They  are: 

I.  the    thick     wind     or     very    dense    atmosphere 
(ghanodadhi-vdta-valaya) ; 

II.   the    less    thick    or    dense    atmosphere    (ghana- 
vdta-valaya) ; 

III.  the  fine  wind  or  rare  atmosphere    (tanu-vdta- 

valaya  ). 


SMOGONY,    COSMOLOGY,    ASTRONOMY  121 

Through  the  centre  of  the  universe  runs  the  region 
of  mobile  souls  (trasa-nddi)  ihtTjH,).  It  is  14  rajjus 
high,  1  rajju  thick',  and  1  rajju  broad.  All  living 
beings  are  here,  i.e.  all  men.  animals,  gods,  and  devils, 
and  also  immobile  souls.  But  it  is  called  trasa-nddi 
because  the  mobile  (trasa)  souls  cannot  live  outside  it. 

At  the  lowermost  point  of  the  region  of  mobile  souls 
(at  TTj  is  the  seventh  or  the  lowermost  hell.  Its  pain  is 
so  acute, and  its  horrors  are  so  great, that  our  degenerated 
race  of  the  fifth  age  of  the  avasarpini  era  is  not  strong 
and  capable  enough  to  sin  so  as  to  deserve  being  sent 
to  this  blackest  spot  in  the  universe  !  Next  above  it 
is  the  sixth  hell,  and  so  on  till  we  reach  the  mildest  of 
them,  the  first.      The  names  of  the  hells  are: 

7th.  Mahd-tamah-prabhd,  very  dark: 

6th.  Tamah-jyrabha,  black; 

5th.  Dhuwia-prabhd,  smoke  : 

4th.  Panka-prabhd,  mire  or  mud  ; 

3rd.    Vdlukd-prabhd,  sand  : 

2nd.  SarJcard-prabhd,  sugar; 

1st.   RatTia-prabhd,  gem  or  jewel. 

After  the  first  hell, — we  are  still  ascending  the 
trasa-Ttddi  from  TTi  towards  hhp — we  come  to  the 
Middle  World  (Madhya-loka),  the  region  where  we 
ourselves  live.  It  is  100,040  yqjanas  high;  1  yojana 
being  =  nearly  4,000  miles. 

Our  earth  is  an  immense  circular  body  consisting  of 
a  number  of  concentric  rings  called  islands  (dvipas), 
separated  from  each  other  by  ring-shaped  oceans.  In 
the  centre  stands  Mount  Meru.  Around  this  at  its 
foot  runs    the    first    continent    Jambu-dvipa.      This   is 


122  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

surrounded  by  the  Lavana-samudra,  or  the  Salt  Sea. 
Then  come  the  other  continents,  each  followed  by 
a  sea-ring.  The  names  of  the  first  eight  continents 
beginning  from  Jambu-dvipa  outwards  are: 

1.  Jambu-dvlpa,  the  Jambu  island  ; 

2.  Dhataki-dvipa,  the  Grislea  Tomentosa  island  ; 

3.  Pushkaravara-dvipa,  the  "  lotus  "  island  ; 

4.  Varunivara-dvipa,  the  "  water  "  island  ; 

5.  Kshiravara-dvipa,  the  "  white  milk  "  island  ; 

6.  Ghritavara-dvipa,  the  'ghee  (clarified  butter)' 
island  ; 

7.  Ikshuvara-dvipa,  the  "  sugar-cane  juice  "  island  ; 

8.  Nandisvara-dvipa,  the  Nandisvara  island. 

This  Middle  World  is  1  rajju  broad  and  long  (at 
md),  and  is  100,040  yojanas  high. 

The  sea  between  Dhataki-dvipa  and  Pushkaravara- 
dvipa  is  the  Kalodadhi.  The  Pushkaravara-dvipa  is 
divided  by  Mount  Manushottara,  which  is  the  ultimate 
limit  of  the  region  inhabited  by  human  beings.  Thus 
human  beings  live  in  two  and  a  half  continents:  Jambu- 
dvipa,  Dhataki-dvipa,  and  half  of  Pushkaravara-dvipa. 

The  name  of  the  last  sea  is  Svayambhu-ramana. 

Non-human  beings  (tiryag-ja)  live  in  the  whole  of 
the  Middle  World  ;  immobile  souls  (sthavara)  in  the 
whole  Universe.  Aquatic  souls  are  only  in  the  first 
two  seas  (Lavana  and  Kalodadhi)  and  in  the  last. 

We  are  concerned  mainly  with  Jambu-dvipa.  It  has 
six  mountains  running  through  it  east  and  west.  These 
are,  from  south  to  north:  (1)  Himavan ;  (2)  Maha- 
himavan;  (3)  Nishadha ;  (4)  Nila  ;  (5)  Rukmin  ;  and 
(6)  Sikharin.     These  divide  it  into  seven  zones. 


COSMOGONY,    COSMOLOGY.    ASTRONOMY  12:i 

From  the  south  the  names  are  :  (1)  Bharata-kshetra  : 
(2)  Haimavata-kshetra ;  (3)  Hari-kshetra  :  (4)  Videha- 
kslietra  ;  (5)  Ramyaka-kshetra  :  (6)  Hairanyavata- 
kshetra;   (7)  Airavata-kshetra. 

Bharata-kshetra  is  the  part  to  which  we  belong.  Its 
form  is  something  like  this  : 


Bharata  -  kshetra    is     divided     by     the     Vijayardha 

Mountain  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  region  (w). 
The  northern  region  is  peopled  by  Mlecchas  (barbarians  >. 
The  southern  region  is  divided  into  three  sections  by 
two  great  rivers — the  Maha-Sindhu  in  the  west  and 
the  Maha-Gariga  in  the  east.  The  barbarians  again 
people  the  extreme  eastern  and  western  sections.  We 
belong  to  the  middle  section  called  the  Arya-khanda 
(A,A9ASA4).  It  is  bounded  by  the  Great  Ganges  on  the 
east,  by  the  Vijayardha  Mountain  on  the  north,  by 
the  Great  Indus  on  the  west,  and  by  the  Salt  Sea  on 
the  south. 


124.  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

Bharata-kshetra  is  526^  yojanas  broad.  The  two 
rivers,  the  Great  Indus  and  the  Great  Ganges,  and  the 
mountain  Vijayardha  divide  it  into  six  sections  as 
seen  above. 

Our  whole  world,  with  its  Asia,  Europe,  America, 
Africa,  Australia,  etc.,  are  included  in  Arya-khanda. 

Going  upwards  again  in  the  trasa-nadi  (ht\\u1  on 
p.  121)  we  get  into  the  Upper  World.  This  has  two 
parts,  called:  (1)  Kalpa  ;  (2)  Kalpatita.  The  parts, 
etc.,  of  Kalpa  can  be  counted  ;  those  of  Kalpatita 
cannot. 

The  parts  of  Kalpa  are  the  Sixteen  Heavens 
respectively  called  (beginning  from  bottom  to  top)  : 
(1)  Saudharma ;  (2)  Aisana ;  (3)  Sanatkumara  ; 
(4)  Mahendra ;  (5)  Brahma;  (6)  Brahmottara  ; 
(7)  Lantava  (Lantaka) ;  (8)Kapistha;  (9)  Sukra ;  (10) 
Mahasukra;  (ll)Satara;  (12)  Sahasrara;  (13)  Anata : 
(14)  Pranata ;  (15)  Arana  ;  and  (16)  Acyuta. 

In  the  Kalpatita  portion  we  have  the  nine  Graiveyakas 
and  the  rive  Pafica-anuttaras. 

After  all  these,  at  the  summit  of  the  universe,  is  the 
Siddha-sila.  This  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  the 
Ishat-pragbhara  world,  which  is  1  rajju  wide,  1  rajju 
long,  and  8  yojanas  high. 

The  Siddha-sila  is  in  the  form  of  a  brilliant  canop}\ 
It  is  round,  45  lakhs  of  yojanas  in  width  and  8  yojanas 
in  breadth,  tapering  up  towards  the  top.  Above  this 
Siddlui-sila.  at  the  end  of  the  Tanu-vata-valaya  or  the 
outermost  atmosphere  (III  in  the  map  on  p.  120),  the 
liberated  souls  rest  in  the  blissful  possession  of  their 
infinite  quaternary  (SS  in  the  map). 


cosmogony,  cosmology,  astronomy  125 

Astronomy 
The  system  of  Jaina  astronomy  is  characterized  by 

the  doctrine  of  two  (different)  suns,  two  moons,  and 
two  sets  of  constellations.  The  doctrine  supposes  that 
three  appearances  of  a  planet,  or  of  sun  or  moon,  are 
required  in  order  to  compass  Mount  Mem  and  return 
to  the  starting-point.  Therefore  the  doctrine  allots 
two  suns  to  Jambu-dvipa.  This  means  that  the  second 
appeai'ance  of  a  sun,  for  instance,  in  the  sky  at  a  given 
spot  is  not  that  of  the  sun  that  appeared  first:  the  two 
suns  appear  alternately,  so  that  the  third  appearance  is 
the  return  of  the  first  sun. 

The  Jaina  books  and  the  Purdnas  of  the  Hindus 
both  hold  that  the  sun,  moon,  etc.,  revolve  round  Mount 
Meru.  The  Pauranic  opinion  was  that  the  revolution 
took  twenty-four  hours,  and  that  it  was  night  north  of 
Mount  Meru,  when  the  sun  was  making  its  half- 
revolution  round  the  south  of  Mount  Meru  and  vice  versa. 

The  Jainas,  therefore,  held  that  there  are  four 
directions,  and  the  sun's  orbit  should  be  divided  into  four 
quarters,  corresponding  to  the  four  directions;  and  it 
should  bring  day  in  succession  to  the  countries  in  the 
south,  west,  north,  and  east.  The  sun  must  take  equal 
time  to  traverse  each  quarter.  Therefore,  when  it  has 
left  one  quarter,  say  the  eastern,  and  gone  to  the 
southern,  it  is  night  in  the  east  and  day  in  the  south. 
When  it  goes  to  the  western  quarter,  it  is  day  in  the 
west  and  night  in  the  south:  but  in  fact  it  is  day  in  the 
east ;  therefore  there  must  be  another  sun,  which  keeps 
opposite  to  this  sun,  on  the  opposite  side  of  Mount 
Meru.     The  same  argument  applies  to  the  two  moons. 


APPENDIX    III 

SIXTY-THREE  GREAT  PERSONS  (SALAKA-PUBUSMA).En. 

The   names   of   the   twenty-four  Tirthankaras    have 
been  already  given  under  Theology  (Table  to  p.  6). 
The  twelve  Chakra-vartins  are  : 

1.  Bharata  :  7.  Ara(ha)-natha  ; 

2.  Sagara  ;  8.  Su-bhauma  ; 

3.  Maghavan  ;  9.   Padma-nabha  ; 
4-.   Sanat-kumara  ;                     10.  Hari-shena  ; 

5.  Santi-natha  ;  11.  Jaya-sena  ; 

6.  Kunthu-natha  ;  12.  Brahma-datta. 
The  nine  Narayanas  (Vasu-devas)  are  : 

1.  Tri-pushta  (or  prishtha)  ;  6.  Pundarlka  ; 

2.  Dvi-pushta  (or  prishtha)  ;  7.  Datta-deva; 

3.  Svayam-bhii ;  8.  Lakshmana  ; 

4.  Purushottama  ;  9.  Krishna. 

5.  Nara  (Purusha)-simha  ; 

The  nine  Prati-Narayanas  (Vasu-devas)  are  : 

1.  Asva-giiva  :  b\   Prahlada; 

2.  Taraka;  7.  Bali; 

3.  Naraka  ;  8.  Ravana ; 

4.  Nisumbha  ;  9.  Jara-sandha. 

5.  Madhu-kaitabha  ; 

The  nine  Bala-bhadras  (Bala-devas)  are  : 

1 .  Vijaya  ;  6.  Nandi  (Ananda)  ; 

2.  Achala  ;  7.  Nandi-mitra 

3.  Dharma-prabha  (Bhadra) ;  (Nandana) ; 

4.  Su-prabha  ;  8.  Rama-chandra  : 

5.  Su-darsana  ;  9.   Padina. 
The  above  are  the  sixty-three  Salaka-purushas. 


SIXTV-THREE    GREAT    PERSONS 


127 


Further  may  be  mentioned  — 

The  nine  Naradas  : 

] .  Bhima ; 

'   2.  Maha-bhinia  ; 

3.  Rudra ; 

4.  Maha-rudra  ; 

5.  Kala  ; 

The  eleven  Rudras  : 

1.  Bhima-bali ; 

2.  Jita-satru  : 

3.  Rudra ; 

4.  Visvanala  ; 

5.  Su-pratishtha  ; 

6.  Achala ; 

The  twenty-four  Kama-devas  : 


(J.  Maha-kala  ; 

7.  Dur-mukha  ; 

8.  Naraka-mukha  ; 

9.  Adho-nmkha. 


7.  Pundarika  ; 

8.  Ajita-dhara  ; 

9.  Jita-nabhi  ; 

10.  Pitha  ; 

11.  Satyaki. 


1 .  Bahu-bali  ; 

2.  Praja-pati  ; 

3.  Sri-dhara  ; 

4.  Darsana-bhadra  ; 

5.  Prasena-chandra ; 

6.  Chandra- varna  : 

7.  Agni-yukta  ; 

8.  Sanat-kumara ; 

9.  Vatsa-raja  ; 

10.  Kanaka-prabha ; 

11.  Megha-prabha  ; 

12.  Santi-natha  ; 


13.  Kuntliu-natha 

14.  Araha-natha  ; 

15.  Vijaya-raja  ; 

16.  Sii-chandra ; 

17.  Nala-raja  ; 

18.  Hanumant ; 

19.  Bali-raja  ; 

20.  Yasu-deva ; 

21.  Pradyumna  ; 

22.  Naga-kumara  : 

23.  Jivan-dhara; 

24.  Jambu-svami. 


Twenty-four  Fathers  and  twenty-four  Mothers  of  the 
Tirtharikaras  are  given  under  Theology  (Table). 


128  OUTLINES    OF    JAIN1SM 

The  fourteen  Kula-karas  : 

1.  Prati-svati :  8.  Chakshushmant ; 

2.  Sammati  ;  9.  Yasasvin  ; 

3.  Kshemam-kara  ;  10.  Abhichandra  ; 

4.  Kshemam-dhara ;  11.  Chandrabha ; 

5.  Simam-kara  ;  12.  Maru-deva  ; 

6.  Slmam-dhara  ;  13.  Prasena-chandra ; 

7.  Vimala-vahana  ;  14.  Nabhi-narendra. 

[Note. — For  most  of  the  statements  in  Appendixes 
II  and  III  authority  will  be  found  in  Professor  Jacobi's 
Eine  Jaina-Dogmatik  (see  Bibliographical  Note  above), 
in  Colebrooke's  two  essays  on  the  Jains  in  his  Collected 
Essays  (ed.  Cowell,  London,  1873) ;  also  (for  II)  in 
the  Samghayani  of  Hari-bhadra  Suri  (in  Laghu- 
prakarana-samgraha,  Bombay,  1876)  and  the  Lokandlu- 
dvdtrimsikd  (in  Prakarana-ratnakara  II,  Bombay, 
1876);  and  (for  III)  in  the  Uttara-pv/rdna  of  Guna- 
bhadra  Acharya,  and  in  Hemachandra's  Abhidhdna- 
chintdmani.] 


APPENDIX     IV 

u:;    QUALITIES,    ATTRIBUTES,    POWERS.    ETC.,    OF    THE 

FIVE    GRADES    OF    SAINTLY    SOULS 

I.  Perfect  Soul  <  in  the  human  body  of  a  Tlrfchankara  i 

By  birth  such  a  perfect  soul  attains:  ( 1)  a  supremely 
handsome  body,  with  (2)  a  natural  fragrance  emanating 
from  it,  and  (3)  free  from  the  ugliness  of  sweating 
and  (4)  excreta:  (5)  sweet,  sound,  and  harmless 
speech:  (6)  immeasurable  strength:  (7)  blood  of 
milk-white  purity  ;  (8)  1,008  lucky  signs  on  the  body  : 
(9)  perfect  proportion  of  limbs  ;  (10)  joints,  bones,  and 
sinews  strong  and  unbreakable  like  adamant. 

By  virtue  of  his  achieving  omniscience  the  perfect 
soul  attains  a  sanctity  whereby  he  (1 )  averts  famine 
in  a  circular  area  of  800  miles'  radius:  (2)  remains 
always  raised  above  the  ground,  whether  walking, 
sitting,  or  standing;  (3)  seems  to  be  facing  eveiyone 
in  all  the  four  directions:  (4)  destroys  all  hirnsic 
(destructive)  impulses  in  persons  around  him;  (5) 
is  entirely  immune  from  all  kinds  of  pain  and  dis- 
turbance (upasarga):  (6)  is  able  to  live  without  food: 
(7)  possesses  mastery  of  all  arts  and  sciences  ;  (8)  nails 
and  hair  which  do  not  grow  ;  (9)  eyes  which  are 
always  open — the  lids  do  not  wink;  and  (10)  a  body 
which  never  casts  a   shadow. 

In  virtue  of  his  omniscience  the  following  effects  are 
produced  by  the  heavenly  bodies  :  ( 1 )  general  mastery 
of  the  Ardha-Magadhi  language  ;  (2)  friendly  feelings 
in  all   who  are   near  him  ;    (3)  clear  skies  :    (4)  in   all 

K 


130  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

directions;  (5)  the  proper  fructifying  and  blossoming 
of  fruits  and  flowers  of  all  seasons  ;  (6)  clean  space  all 
round  over  a  radius  of  8  miles  (1  yojana) ;  (7)  in  walking 
golden  lotuses  are  alwa}^  placed  by  the  gods  under  his 
sacred  feet;  (8)  space  resounds  with  shouts  of  "Jail 
Jai  !  ",  "  Victory  !  Victory  ! "  ;  (9)  mild  and  fragrant 
breezes  blow  all  around  ;  (10)  sweet-scented  showers 
cool  the  earth;  (11)  the  gods  of  the  air  take  care  to 
remove  thorns  from  the  earth;  (12)  all  living  beings 
become  joyous ;  (13)  the  dharma-cJiakra  precedes  the 
sacred  procession;  (14)  eight  kinds  of  auspicious  things 
attend  the  procession;  i.e.  umbrella  (chhattro),  chowrie 
(chdmara),  flag  (dhvaja),  svastika,  mirror  (darpana), 
a  kind  of  vase  (kalasa),  a  powder-flask  (vardha  manaka), 
and  a  throne  seat  (bhadrdsana). 

Eight  kinds  of  heavenly  signs  (prdtiJtdrya)  appear  : 
(1)  an  Asolca  tree  is  always  near  the  Tirtharikara;  (2) a 
throne-seat;  (3)  three  umbrellas  (chhattra)  and  a  lion 
throne  (simhdsana)  ;  (4)  aura  of  a  beautiful  radiance 
(bha-mandala)  ;  (5)  wordless  speech  flowing  from  the 
Lord  (divya-dhvani) ;  (6)  showers  of  celestial  blooms : 
(7)  the  sixty-four  YaJcsha  gods  attend  to  fan  the  Lord 
with  chowries  ;  (8)  heavenly  music. 

The  perfect  soul  enjoys  four  attributes  in  their 
infinity.  These  are  called  atianta-chatushtaya  and 
are:  (1)  infinite  perception;  (2)  infinite  knowledge; 
(3)  infinite  power;  (4)  infinite  bliss.  (Total  46.) 

II.  Perfect  Soul,  without  body  (Siddha) 
Such  a  soul  has  innumerable  qualities.     Among  them 
eight  are  specially  noted:  (1)  perfect  faith  ;  (2)  perfect 


QUALITIES,    ETC.,    OF    SAINTLY    SOULS  131 

perception;  (3)  perfect  knowledge;  (4)  quality  of  being 
neither  light  nor  heavy  ;  (5)  infinite  capacity  for  giving 
place  (penetrability);  (6)  extreme  refinement  beyond 
sense-perception:  (7)  infinite  power:  (8)  immunity 
from  disturbance  of  all   kinds. 

III.  Head  of  Groups  of  Saints 
These  have  thirty-six  special  qualities,  besides  main- 
others. 

1.    Twelve    Tapas:   (l)Aiiasana:   not   taking  food. 

(2)  Anavdpta :  eating  less  than   what  one  may  desire. 

(3)  Vrato,-parisarahh;/dn'i  :  a  pledge  taken  by  a  saint 
on  the  way  to  receive  food,  that  he  will  accept  it  only 
if  a  particular  thing  is  fulfilled,  otherwise  go  without 
it.     This  pledge,  of    course,    is    secret  and   extempore. 

(4)  Rasa-parityaga :  renunciation  and  suppression  of 
taste  and  of  tasteful  things.  Six  such  things  are 
specially  mentioned  :  milk, ghee  (clarified  butter),  curds, 
sugar,  salt,  and  oil.  (5)  Vivikta-sayydsana :  sitting 
and  sleeping  alone.  (6)  Kaya-Jclesa:  mortification  of 
the  body ;  not  by  deliberately  hurting  it,  but  by 
controlling  it  through  refusing  it  many  comforts. 

These  six  are  called  external  tapas. 

(7)  Prayaschitta:  penance  in  expiation  of  any  fault, 
committed  consciously  or  unconsciously.  (8)  Vvnaya 
eager  zeal  and  belief  in  the  pursuit  of  (i)  right  faith  : 
(ii)  right  knowledge:  (iii)  right  conduct;  (iv)  proper 
tapa  or  restraint;  and  also  loving  obedience  and  ready 
submission  to  one's  superiors.  (9)  Vaiydpritya :  sincere 
service  and  actual  attendance  on  old,  infirm,  and  sick 
sadhus.      (10)    Svddhydya  :     reading    the     Scripture. 


132  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

(11)    Vyutsarga  :    non-attachment  to   the   body.     (12) 
Dhydna :  meditation. 

These  last  six  are  internal  tapas. 

2.  Ten  Dharmas — pious  duties:  (1)  Uttama-kshama : 
suppression  of  all  feelings  of  anger  and  ready  forgive- 
ness of  all  injuries,  real  or  otherwise.  (2)  Mdrdava  : 
ever-ready  and  sincere  humility.  (3)  Arjava:  frank 
straightforwardness.  (4)  Satya  :  truth  in  feelings  and 
in  conduct.  (5)  Saucha :  purity  from  defilement  of 
greed.  (6)  Samyama :  This  is  of  two  kinds:  (i) 
restraint  of  the  senses,  and  (ii)  practice  of  compassion 
towards  six  kinds  of  living  beings,  namely,  (a)  lowest 
(mineral)  life,  (b)  aquatic  life,  (c)  fire-life  (cf.  salamander), 
(d)  air-life,  (e)  vegetable  life,  and  (/)  animal  life. 
(7)  Tapa:  asceticism.  Mainly  of  the  kinds  enumerated 
above.  (8)  Tydga :  renunciation  of  all  worldly  con- 
nections. In  the  Acharyas  it  also  includes  the  gift 
of  knowledge,  etc.,  by  means  of  lessons  and  advice. 
(9)  AJcinchana  :  developing  the  instinct,  "  nothing  is 
mine  in  the  universe."  (10)  Brahma-charya  :  chastity. 
Literally  it  means  the  devoted  contemplation  of  the 
self  by  the  soul  :  and  this  is  attainable  and  preservable 
by  securing  self-concentration  through  celibacy  and 
other  means  of  freeing  the  mind  from  the  bondage 
of  worldly  care  and  attachment. 

3.  Six  Avasyakas  :  daily  duties:  (1)  Sdmdyika : 
practising  peaceful  indifference  to  worldly  objects  and 
to  attain  tranquillity  of  mind.  (Equanimity  of  soul.) 
(2)  Vandand :  bowing  to  perfect  souls  and  their 
images  in  the  temples.  (3)  Stuti :  praising  the  qualities 
of    the   holy   beings.      (4)    Pratlkramana :    repentance 


QUALITIES,    ETC.,    OF    SAINTLY    SOULS  133 

for  faults  that  already  attach  to  the  soul.  (5)  Svd- 
dhydya  :  reading  the  Scriptures. 

Note. — In  some  books  pratydkhydna  is  given  in 
place  of  svddhydya.  It  means  the  forethought  and 
endeavour  so  that  in  future  no  faults  may  attach  to 
the  soul.  Roughly  pratikramana  and  pratydlchydna 
correspond  to  nirjard  and  sarrivara  respectively. 

(6)  Kayotsarga :  giving  up  attachment  to  the  body 
and  practising  contemplation  of  the  self. 

4.  Five  kinds  of  exercises  (dchdra):  (I)  Dariand- 
chd/ra  :  to  induce  strong  and  steady  faith.  (2)  JndTid- 
chdra :  to  increase  knowledge.  (3)  Ghdritrdchdra  :  to 
improve  one's  daily  life.  (4)  Twpdchdra:  to  become 
a  great  ascetic.  (5)  Vvrydchdra  :  to  increase  the  power 
of  one's  inner  self. 

5.  Three  Guptis :  the  threefold  restraint  of  mind, 
body,  and  speech.  (Total  36. > 

IV.  Teaching  Saints 
These  have  twenty-five  qualities,  inasmuch  as  they 
have  to  study  and  teach  the  eleven  Angas  and  fourteen 
Pumas. 

V.  All  Saints 

They  have  twenty-eight  essential  qualities  among 
others  as  follows  : — 

1.  Five  Mahd-vrata8 — five  great  vows:  (  l  )Ahim8d  . 
not  to  cause,  or  tend  to  cause,  pain  or  destruction  to 
any    living    being,    by    thought,     speech,    or    conduct. 

(2)  Satya :     truth     in      speech,    thought,     and     deed. 

(3)  Asteya :  to   take   nothing,  unless    and  except  it  is 


134  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

given.    (4)  Brahma-charya :  as  above.    (5)  Parigraha- 
tyaga:    renunciation  of  worldly  concerns. 

2.  Five  Samitis — five  religious  observances:  (1)  Irya: 
walking  with  the  eyes  carefully  directed  3£  yards 
ahead.  (2)  BJiasha:  speaking  relevantly  and  according 
to  the  Scriptures.  (3)  Eshana  :  taking  only  pure  food, 
and  not  specially  prepared  for  the  saint.  (4)  Addna- 
nikshepana :  careful  handling  of  the  few  things,  such 
as  water-bowl,  peacock-brush,  and  Scriptures,  which 
saints  may  keep.  (5)  Pratishthdpana  :  great  care  as 
to  where  to  answer  the  calls  of  nature,  etc. 

3.  Six  daily  duties,  as  above. 

4.  Restraint  of  the  five  senses. 

5.  Seven  other  duties:  (l)Not  to  bathe.  (2)  Sleeping 
on  the  ground.  (3)  Nakedness.  (4)  Pulling  the  hair 
out  with  one's  own  hands.  (5)  Taking  only  a  little 
food  once  a  day.  (6)  Not  applying  a  brush  to  the 
teeth.  (7)  Taking  food  in  a  standing  posture,  and 
only  in  the  hollow  of  the  folded  hands. 

[Note. — Concerning  the  subject  of  this  Appendix  we. 
may  refer  to  Hemachandra's  Abhidhdna-chintdTnani, 
Indra-nandin's  Pafica-paramesJitJii-pvjd,  and  Amrita- 
chandra  Suri's  Purushartlta-siddliyiipdya.] 


APPENDIX     V 
The  Ancient  Jaina  Sacred  Literature 

The  knowledge  of  Sruti  (Sruta-jnana)  may  be  of 
things  which  are  contained  in  the  Aiigas  (sacred  books 
of  the  Jainas)  or  of  things  outside  the  Aiigas.  There 
are  64  simple  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Of  these  33  are 
consonants,  27  vowels,  and  4  auxiliary  (which  help  in 
the  formation  of  compound  letters).  The  total  number 
of  possible  combinations  of  these  64  simple  letters  into 
compounds  of  2,  3,  4,  or  more  up  to  64  letters,  is 
18,446.744,073,709,551,615.  These  are  the  letters 
(simple  and  compound)  of  Sruti  in  its  entirety.  This 
number  being  divided  by  16,348,307,888,  which  is 
the  number  of  letters  employed  in  the  central  portion 
( iitnd/njama-pada)  of  the  Paramdgama,  gives  us  the 
number  of  padas  of  the  Aiigas  as  11,283,580,005. 
The  remainder  80,108,175  gives  us  the  letters  of  that 
part  of  Sruti  which  is  not  contained  in  the  Angus. 
This  part  is  divided  into  14  Pra/arncdcas,  such  as  the 
Dasa-vaikdlika,  Uttaradhyayana,  etc. 

I.   The  Twelve  Axgas 

The  A  ngas  are  twelve,  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  Acltdra-anga  comprises  a  full  exposition  of 
the  rules  of  conduct  for  ascetics.  It  contains  18,000 
padas  ( words). 


136  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

2.  The  Sutrakrita-anga  comprises  a  detailed  exposi- 
tion of  knowledge,  humility,  etc. ;  of  religious  rites  and 
difference  between  the  rites  of  one's  own  religion  and 
those  of  the  religions  of  others.  It  contains  36,000 
padas. 

3.  The  Sthdna-aiiga  comprises  an  exposition  of  one 
or  more  sthdnas,  or  points  of  view  in  considering  jiva 
(soul), pudgala  (matter),  and  other  dravyas.  While  the 
jiva-dravya,  or  soul,  is  from  the  point  of  view  of  con- 
sciousness the  same  everywhere  ;  from  the  point  of  view 
of  being  liberated  (siddha)  or  mundane  (samsdrin)  it  is 
of  two  kinds.  Similarly,  the  samsdrin,  or  mundane 
jiva,  that  is,  the  soul  not  yet  perfectly  freed  from  the 
bondage  of  karmas,  which  keep  it  moving  in  the  cycle 
of  existences,  is  of  three  kinds,  stationary  (sthdvara), 
deficient  in  the  organs  of  the  senses  (vikalendriya), 
and  in  possession  of  all  the  organs  of  the  senses 
(sakalendriya).  The  liberated  souls,  too,  are  of  many 
kinds  from  the  point  of  view  of  place,  time,  etc.  This 
Anga  contains  42,000  padas. 

4.  The  Samavdya-anga  gives  an  account  of  the 
similarities  that  arise  from  the  point  of  view  of  draiiya 
(elements  of  the  universe),  kshetra  (place),  kola  (time), 
bhdva  (character).  From  the  point  of  view  of  dravya, 
dharma  and  adharma  are  alike  (that  is,  both  are 
elements  of  the  universe).  From  the  point  of  view  of 
place,  the  place  of  mankind  and  the  first  indraka-bila 
of  the  first  hell  and  the  first  indraka-vimdna  of  the 
first  heaven  are  alike.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
time,  the  utsarpini  and  avasarpini  eras  ;tre  alike. 
From    the   point   of    view   of  bhdva,  perfect  faith   and 


JAIXA    SACKED    LITERATURE:    I.    ANGAS  137 

perfect     knowledge    are    the    same.  This    Aiiga    has 
164.000  padas. 

5.  The  Vydkhyd-prajnapti,  or Bhagavati,  ot  Vivdha- 
prajnapti,  gives  an  account  of  the  60.000  questions 
which  the  chief  disciples  put  to  the  omniscient  Lord, 
the  Tirthaiikara,  with  the  answers.  It  has  228,000 
padas. 

6.  The  JndtridharTna - kathd - aiiga  is  also  calied 
Dharma-kathd-anga.  It  gives  an  exposition  in  detail 
of  the  nature,  etc.,  of  the  nine  paddrthas,  jiva,  etc.  :  as 
well  as  the  answers  to  questions  which  the  Gana-dharas 
put  to  the  Lord.     It  has  556.000  padas. 

7.  The  Updsakddhyayana-anga  gives  details  of  the 
eleven  stages  of  a  householder's  life,  the  vows  of 
chastity,  etc.,  and  other  rules  of  conduct  for  the  house- 
holder, as  well  as  aphorisms,  and  lectures  on  the  same. 
It  has  1,170,000  padas. 

8.  The  Antakrid-dasd-aiiga  gives  an  account  in 
detail  of  the  ten  ascetics  who,  in  the  period  of  each  of 
the  twenty-four  Tlrthaiikaras,  undergo  very  strict 
tortures  of  asceticism  and  final  1\'  set  themselves  free 
from  the  bondage  of  I:" rum.     It  has  2,328,000  padas. 

9.  The  Anuttaropapddaka  -  darn  -  anga  gives  an 
account  of  the  ten  great  ascetics  who,  in  the  period  of 
each  Tirthaiikara.  practised  asceticism  of  a  very  high 
type  and  in  virtue  of  that  took  birth  in  the  live 
Anuttara-vvrndnas,  or  heavens,  such  as  Vijaya.  etc. 
It  has  9,244,000  padas. 

10.  The  Praina-vydJcarana-anga  gives  instructions 
as  to  how  to  reply  to  questions  relating  to  past  and 
future  time,  gain  and   loss,  happiness  and   misery,   life 


138  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

and  death,  good  and  evil,  etc.  That  is,  it  furnishes  an 
account  of  the  four  kinds  of  narration  (kathaui,  viz. 
dkshepani,  vikshepani,  samvedani,  nirvedanl).  It  has 
9,316,000  2xidas. 

11.  The  VipdJca-sutra-anga  contains  an  exposition 
of  the  bondage,  fruition,  and  continuance  of  karmas, 
and  of  their  intensity  or  mildness  from  the  point  of 
view  of  dravya,  kshetra,  Icala,  and  bhdva.  It  has 
18,400,000  padas. 

12.  The  Drishti-pravdda-anga  has  1,086,856,005 
padas.  It  is  divided  into  five  parts:  five  Parikarmas, 
Sutra,  Prathamdnuyoga,  fourteen  Purva-gatas,  and 
live  Chulikds.  These  five  parts  will  be  considered  one 
by  one. 

A.   Five  Parikarmas 

1.  The  Chandra-prajnapti  parikarina  contains 
accounts  of  the  motion,  period,  satellites  of  the  moon; 
the  variations  of  lunar  days  and  months  ;  and  the 
celestial  influence  of  the  moon  ;  its  eclipses,  etc.  This 
has  3,605,000  p>adas. 

2.  The  Sibrya-prajnapti  deals  with  the  greatness, 
influences,  satellites,  etc.,  of  the  sun.  It  has  503,000 
jxidas. 

3.  The  Jambtb-dvipa-prajnapti  contains  an  account 
of  Jambu-dvipa  with  its  Meru  Mount,  mountain  ranges, 
lakes,  rivers,  etc.     It  has  325,000  padas. 

4.  The  Dvipa-prajfiapti  contains  an  account  of  all 
the  continents  and  seas  and  the  residences  of  the 
Bhavana-vasin,  Vyantara,  Jyotisha  kinds  of  gods,  and 
the  sites  of  Jaina  temples.     It  has  5,236,000  padas. 


JAIN'A    SACRED    LITERATURE :    I.    ANGA    XII  A      139 

5.  The  Vyakhya-prajnapti  contains  a  numerical 
account  oijiva,  ajlva,  etc.,  the  nine  padarthas.  It  has 
8,436,000  padas. 

B.    Sutra 

This  contains  an  account  of  363  false  creeds,  or 
heretic  faiths.  Some  of  their  doctrines  are  viewed  in 
their  application  to  the  soul.  Some  say  :  soul  cannot 
be  bound  by  Icarmas.  Others  say:  it  does  nothing;  lias 
no  attributes ;  does  not  bear  the  fruit  of  action  :  is 
self-manifesting  or  self-evident;  can  be  manifested  only 
by  non-self:  is  real;  is  unreal,  etc.,  one-sided  views  of 
soul.  These  views  are  refuted  and  the  true  description 
of  soul  given.     This  text  has  8,800.000  padas. 

C.    Prathamdnuyoga 

This  contains  an  account  of  the  63  pious    persons, 

2-i     Tirthankaras,    12    Chakra-vartins,  9     Narayanas, 

9  Prati-narayanas,  and  9  Bala-bhadras.  This  has  5,000 
padas. 

D.    Fourteen   Pwrvagatas  (lost  in  an  early  period  ). 

1.  The  Utpdda-purva  contains  an  exposition  of  the  nature  of  jlva 
{soul),  pudgala  (matter),  kdla  (time),  etc.,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
their  becoming,  remaining,  and  then  being  destroyed  in  different 
places  and  at  different  times.     It  has  10,000,000  padas. 

2.  The  Agrdyaniya-purva  contains  an  account  of  the  seven  tattvas, 
nine  padarthas,  six  drain/as,  and  things  with  or  without  nayas.  It 
has  9,600,000  padas. 

3.  The  Viryumirdda-piirva  gives  an  account  of  the  powers  of  the 
soul,  of  the  non-soul,  of  both,  of  place,  time,  of  nature  or  character 
(bhdva-vlrya),  of  austerity  (tapo-virya),  and  of  the  powers  of  the 
Narendras.  Chakra-dharas.  Bala-devas,  etc.     It  has  7. 000, 000  padas. 

4.  The  Aatindsti-pravdda-pfirva  gives  an  account  of  jlva  and  other 
dravyas,  as  they  may  be  considered  to  be  existent  or    non-existent 


140  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

from  the  point  of  view  of  place,  time,  nature,  etc.  Account  is  also 
given  of  the  Sapta-bhangl,  or  seven  ways  of  considering  things,  and 
their  use  in  taking  a  comprehensive  view  of  things.  It  has  6,000,000 
padas. 

5.  The  Jmma-pravdda-purva  contains  a  detailed  account,  analysis, 
and  subject-matter  of  the  matt,  sruta,  avadhi,  manah-parydya,  and 
la fitht-jiidna  and  of  Icu-mati,  ku-sruta,  and  vibhaiigani-jnana  ;  i.e.  of 
the  five  kinds  of  right,  and  three  kinds  of  wrong,  knowledge.  It  has 
9,999,999:^0^08. 

6.  The  Satya-pravdda-purva  deals  with  silence  and  speech,  with 
the  twelve  kinds  of  speech,  kinds  of  speakers,  and  with  many  kinds 
of  false  speeches  and  ten  kinds  of  true  speeches.  It  has  10,000,006 
padas. 

7.  The  Atma-pravdda-purva  deals  with  the  soul  as  the  doer  of  and 
enjoyer  of  the  fruits  of  action,  from  the  point  of  view  of  niichaya  and 
ryarahara,  i.e.  of  philosophy  and  common-sense.  From  the  common- 
sense  point  of  view  jtra  has  four  or  ten  prdnas  ;  and  from  the  point 
of  view  of  philosophy  only  one,  namely,  consciousness  ;  and  is  such  as 
has  been,  is,  and  will  be,  imbued  -with  prdna.  From  the  common-sense 
point  of  view  it  does  good  or  bad  deeds  ;  from  the  philosophical 
standpoint  it  remains  absorbed  in  its  own  nature.  In  common -sense 
it  is  said  to  speak  falsely  or  truly  ;  in  reality  it  has  no  speech.  It  is 
called  pranin,  because  the  prdnas  are  found  in  it  both  internally  and 
externally,  both  in  philosophy  and  in  common-sense.  In  reality  it 
enjoys  nothing  ;  in  common-sense  it  enjoys  the  fruits  of  its  actions, 
good  or  bad.  In  common-sense  it  absorbs  the  material  karrnas  and 
is  material  ;  in  reality  it  is  not  matter.  From  both  points  of  view  it 
exists  at  all  times  and  knows  all  the  things  of  the  past,  present,  and 
future.  In  common-sense  it  fills  the  body,  or  by  imagination  the 
whole  world  ;  but  in  realit}'  by  knowledge  it  may  be  said  to  fill  the 
whole  world,  and  is  therefore  called  Vishnu.  Although  in  common- 
sense  it  is  worldly,  yet  in  reality  it  is  itself,  i.e.  identical  with  its  own 
knowledge  and  faith,  and  therefore  is  called  Svayam-blin.  Although 
it  is  corporeal,  because  it  lias  auddrika  (natural)  and  other  bodies; 
yet  in  reality  it  is  incorporeal.  In  common-sense  it  is  called  man 
\iiidiiarn)  because  of  its  present  incarnation  in  a  human  bod}';  but 
in  reality  it  should  be  called  mdnava  because  of  its  possession  of 
mind,  or  the  faculty  of  knowing.  And  many  other  things 
concerning  the  soul  are  given  in  this  purva.  It  has  260,000,000 
pitdns. 

8.  The  Karma-pravdda-purva  gives  the  various  conditions,  such 
as   bandha    (bondage),    saltd  (reality),   udaya    (mature   appearance), 


JA1NA    SACRED  LITERATURE:    !.    ANGA    XII  I).  PURVAS    141 

udirand  (expedited  operation),  utkarshana  (prolongation), apakarshaim 
(diminution),  samhramana  (transformation),  upa&ama  (subsidence), 
nidhatti (amassing),  and  nishkonch\ta  (a  form  of  existence),  etc.,  of  the 
eight  kinds  of  karmas  from  the  points  of  view  of  primary  {prakriti), 
secondary  (vUara-prakriti),  and  tertiary  nature  (uttarottara-prakriti). 
It  also  deals  with  the  various  conditions  of  minds  and  also  such 
actions  as  Iryd-patha,  etc.     It  has  18,000,000  padas. 

9.  The  Pratydkhydna-purva  deals  with  the  things  which  should  he 
renounced  by  man  for  all  time,  or  for  a  fixed  period  of  time  in 
accordance  with  the  condition  of  his  body,  strength,  etc..  from  the 
points  of  view  of  noma,  sthapand,  dravga,  kshetra,  kdla,  and  bhdva  ; 
also  with  fasts,  with  the  five  s<i7nitis  and  the  three  guptis  :  and  also 
with  the  renunciation  of  absolutely  bad  tilings.  It  has  8,400,000 
padas. 

10.  The  Vidydnuvdda-purva  contains  the  700  minor  sciences,  such 
as  palmistry  (?),  etc.,  and  the  500  kinds  of  higher  learning,  beginning 
with  astronomy  (?),  etc.,  etc.  It  gives  the  nature  of  the  learning,  the 
qualities  requisite  to  attain  it,  the  ways  of  pursuing  it,  its  formula;. 
instruments,  and  diagrams,  and  the  advantages  that  accrue  to  one 
who  has  mastered  it.  It  also  deals  with  the  eight  kinds  of  knowledge. 
It  has  11,000,000  padas. 

11.  The  Kaiydna-vdda-purva  gives  an  account  of  the  grand  cele- 
bration of  the  great  points  (kaiydnaka)  in  the  lives  of  Tlrthankaras, 
Chakra-dharas.  Vasudevas,  etc.,  and  of  the  sixteen  causes  and 
austerities  that  lead  to  a  soul  becoming  a  Tirthankara.  or  that  make 
it  deserving  of  these  high  positions  in  life;  and  also  an  account  of 
the  influence  of  the  motions  of  the  planets,  sun,  moon,  and  nakshatras, 
and  that  of  their  eclipses  and  of  the  auguries.  It  has  260,000,000 
padas. 

12.  The  Prdua-vdda-purva  contains  an  account  of  eight  kinds  of 
medical  science,  of  removal  of  pains  caused  by  spirits  and  ghosts,  by 
means  of  chanted  formulae,  or  offerings  made  under  certain  conditions. 
of  antidotes  to  venoms  of  serpents,  etc.,  and  of  how  to  ascertain  the 
auspiciousness  of  occasions  by  examining  the  respiration  of  men  ;  of 
the  ten  currents  of  vitality  in  man"s  body  ;  and  of  things  which 
are  agreeable  or  disagreeable  to  these  currents  in  various  forms  of 
existence  (such  as  that  of  men,  animals,  etc.).  It  has  130,000,000 
padas. 

13.  The  Kriyd-visdla-purca  treats  of  music,  prosody,  figures  of 
speech  ;  of  the  72  arts  ;  of  the  technical  arts  ;  of  dexterity  ;  of  04 
qualities  of  women  ;  of  their  84  rites,  such  as  pregnancy,  etc.  ;  of 
108  rites,  such  as  perfect  faith,  perfect  knowledge,  etc.  :  and  of  25 


]42  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

rites,  such  as  bowing  to  the  gods,  etc.,  etc.,  and  also  of  necessary 
and  occasional  rites.     It  has  90,000,000  padas. 

14.  The  Triloka-bindu-sara-purva  gives  an  account  of  the  three 
worlds,  the  26 parikramas  (preparatory  rites?),  S  vyavahdras  (kinds  of 
occupation),  4  bija-ganitds  (4  branches  of  mathematics,  algebra,  etc.), 
etc.,  and  the  way  of  attaining  molcsha  and  the  glory  and  happiness  of 
having  attained  it.     It  has  125,000,000  padas. 


E.    The  Five  Chulikas 

1.  The  Jalagata-chidika  gives  the  methods  of 
staying  water,  of  walking  through  water,  of  stopping 
fire,  of  passing  through  fire,  of  eating  fire,  by  means  of 
incantations  or  offerings.     It  has  20,989,200  padas. 

2.  The  Sthalagata-chlUiJcd  gives  an  account  of  the 
methods  of  incantations  and  offerings,  by  which  to  go  to 
the  Meru  mountain  and  other  countries,  to  travel  swiftly, 
etc.     It  has  20,989,200  padas. 

3.  The  Mayagata-chulikd  contains  the  incantations 
and  offerings  for  performing  miracles  and  tricks  of 
sleight  of  hand.     It  has  20,989,200  padas. 

4.  The  RUpagata-chuliJcd  contains  the  methods  of 
transformation  into  the  shape  of  a  lion,  elephant,  horse, 
ox,  deer,  etc.,  by  means  of  incantations,  offerings,  and 
austerities,  etc.  It  also  contains  an  account  of  the 
processes  of  artificial  transformation  in  the  vegetable 
world,  as  well  as  that  of  combination  or  alteration  of 
the  metals  and  elements  under  chemical  processes.  It 
has  20,989,200  padas. 

5.  The  Akdsagata-ch  ul ilea  deals  with  the  incanta- 
tions, offerings,  and  austerities  by  which  man  is  enabled 
to  travel  in  space,  etc.     It  has  20,989,200  padas. 


JA1NA    SACRED    LITERATURE:    II.    ANGA-BAHYA.      1  4o 

II.    The    Anga-bahya  Sruta,  or   Scriptures  other 

THAN    THE    TWELVE    AXGAS 

This  contains  80.108,175  letters,  divided  into  fourteen 
PrakvniaJcas. 

1.  The  SdTnayiJai-Prakirnaka  contains  an  account 
of  the  six  kinds  of  sa/mayilca  :  nama  (name),  sthapand 
(position  i.  dravya  (substance),  Jcshetra  (time),  Jcala 
(place),  and  bhava  (nature). 

2.  The  Sanjistava-pralcirnaka  gives  an  account  of 
the  five  stages  in  the  lives  of  Tirtharikaras,  their 
thirty-four  powers,  eight  Pratihdryas  (miracles),  most 
refined,  astral  body.  Samavasarana,  and  preaching  of 
dharma  or  religious  doctrine. 

3.  The  VandaricL-praklrnaka  deals  with  the  temples 
and  other  places  of  worship. 

4.  The  Pratikrarnana-prakirniaka  gives  an  account 
of  those  methods  that  are  necessary  for  the  removal  of 
those  defects  that  are  related  to  the  day.  to  the  night, 
to  the  fortnight,  to  the  four  months,  and  to  the  year  ; 
relating  to  the  irydpatha,  and  those  defects  which  arise 
in  the  perfect  condition  of  the  death  of  a  pious  man. 

5.  The  Vinaya-praklrnaka  gives  an  account  of  five 
kinds  of  vinaya  (humility  and  becoming  modesty  of 
behaviour),  relating  to  faith,  knowledge,  conduct, 
austerity,  and  behaviour. 

6.  The  Kriti  -  karma  - prakvrnaka  gives  detailed 
accounts  of  the  modes  of  the  worship,  etc.,  of  the  Jinas 
( Tirthankaras) :  and  of  the  significance  of  obeisance 
and     reverence    paid    to    Arhats,    Siddhas,    Acharyas. 


144  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

Upadhyayas,  Sadhus,  Jainism,  images  of  Jaina  Tlrthan- 
karas,  the  word  of  Jinas,  and  the  Jaina  temples,  by 
making  three  bows  to  them  and  by  going  round  them 
three  times,  by  making  twelve  obeisances  and  by 
bending  the  head  in  the  four  directions. 

7.  The  Dasa-vaikdlilca-praMrnaJca  contains  rules  of 
conduct  and  of  purity  of  food  for  ascetics. 

8.  The  Uttaradhyayana-pr(tl-lv ii< ilea  gives  details 
and  effects  of  four  kinds  of  disturbances  and  twenty- 
two  kinds  of  troubles  that  an  ascetic  may  have  to 
undergo. 

9.  The  Kalpa-vyavahara-prakirnaka  gives  the  right 
practices  of  ascetics  and  also  details  of  purificatory 
methods  after  following  wrong  practices. 

10.  The  Kalpalcalpa  - praMrriaka  considers  the 
things,  places,  or  thoughts  that  may  be  allowable  for 
use  by  a  monk,  from  the  points  of  view  of  substance, 
place,  time,  and  nature. 

11.  The  Mahdlmlpa-sanjnaha-prahlrnalxi  gives  an 
account  of  the  rules  of  ascetic  practices  (yoga)  in  the 
three  acres  (?past,  present,  and  future)  that  are  suitable 
to  Jina-kalpin  (independent)  monks,  with  reference  to 
body,  etc.,  and  in  accordance  with  the  substance,  place, 
time,  and  spirit  (which  surround  them) ;  and  also  an 
account  of  the  rules  of  conduct  of  Sthavira-kalpin 
monks  (members  of  orders),  relating  to  initiation, 
teaching,  maintaining  ascetics,  self-purification,  and 
sal-lekhana  and  high  forms  of  worship  performed  in 
sacred  places. 

12.  The  Pundarilca-prahiirnaka  gives  details  of 
charity,  worship,  austerity,  faith,  self-control,  etc.,  that 


THE    ANCIENT    JAINA    SACRED    LITERATURE  L45 

lead  the  soul  to  incarnation  in  one  of  the  four  classes 
of  gods;  also  an  account  of  the  birthplaces  of  the  gods. 

13.  The  Mahu-pundarika-praklrnaka  gives  details 
of  the  causes,  austerity,  etc.,  that  lead  to  a  soul  being 
reborn  as  Indra,  Pratmdra,  etc. 

14.  The  Nishldika-praklrruiha  gives  many  methods 
of  purifying  oneself  from  the  faults  arising  from  care- 
lessness. 


The  above  account  (Digambara,  reproduced,  with 
modifications,  from  the  Jaina  Gazette  for  1905, 
pp.  133-40)  of  the  Jaina  Scriptures,  as  unfolded  in 
the  Angas  and  outside  them,  is  largely  based  upon 
the  Gommata-sara  by  Sri  Xemi-chandra  Siddhanta- 
Chakravartin,  Jiva-kdnda,  348  sqq.  (for  a  similar  list 
see  the  Tattvdrthasdra-dipaka  of  Sakala-kirtti, chapter  i. 
quoted  by  Sir  R.  G.  Bhandarkar  in  his  Report  on 
the  Search  for  Sanskrit  MSS.  1883-4-  (Bombay, 
1887),  pp.  106-10).  It  includes,  as  will  be  seen,  works 
supposed  to  have  been  lost  even  at  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Patali-putra  in  B.C.  312  :  it  is  therefore  of 
the  nature  of  a  dogma  or  canon.  In  the  Samavdya- 
aiiga  and  in  the  Nandi-sutra  of  the  Svetambaras  we 
find  similar  lists,  with  variations,  however,  in  the  huge 
numerical  figures  and  in  other  particulars.  The  more 
usual  enumeration,  based  upon  the  surviving  literature, 
is  as  follows  (see  the  article  "Jainism",  by  Professor 
Jacobi,  in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Religion  and  Ethics, 
vol.  vii): — 

L 


146  OUTLINES    OF    JAINISM 

1.  Eleven  Angas,  as  above,  with  the  omission  of 
No.  12. 

2.  Twelve  Updngas:  AupapdtiJca,  Rdja-prasniya, 
Jivdbhigama,  Prajiiapana,  Jambudvipa  -  prajnapti, 
Ghandra-prajnapti,  Swrya-prajnapti,  Nirayavali  (or 
Kalpika),  Kalpavatamsikd,  Pushp ilea,  Pushpa-chulikd, 
Vrishni-dasds. 

3.  Ten  Painnas  (Prakirnakas) :  Ckatuh-sarana, 
Samstdra,  Atura  - pratydkhydna,  Bhakta  -parijnd, 
Tandula-vaiydll,  Chanddbija,  Devendra-stava,  Gani- 
bija,  Mahd-pratydkhydna,   Vlra-stava. 

•A.  Six  Chheda-sutras:  Nisltlia,  Malm  -nisitha, 
\  Ty{  ivahdra,  Da  sa-sruta-ska  ndh  a ,  Br  Ui  a  t-ka  //  >a  ,  Pa  ncha- 
kalpa. 

5.  Two  Sutras :   Nandi,  Anuyoga-dvdra. 

6.  Four  Mula-sutras :  Uttarddhyayana,  Avasyaka, 
Dasa-vaiJcdl  ilea,  Pinda-niryukt  i. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  partial  correspondence 
between  the  two  lists. 


INDEX 

(Subjects,  Sanskrit  Technical  Expressions,  and  Titles) 


Abhasa,  115-16 
Abhinibodha,  61 

Abrahmaf-charya],  94 

Acbara,  133.     See  also  Ethics 

Acharaiiya-sutra,  67,  135  (con- 
tents) 

Acharya,  definition  of,  2,  SO 

Actions,  soul  the  doer  of,  77. 
See  also  Karma  and  Yoga 

Adana-nikshepana,  97,  131 

Adeya,  35 

Adharma,  meaning  of,  xxxiii  ; 
substance,  13,  14,  22,  25  ;  not 
in  empt}'  space,  26  ;  texts  con- 
cerning, 85,  87,  90 

Adhigama,  55,  56 

Adhikarana,  55,  56 

Agadha,  50 

Agama,  108,  113 

Aghatiya-karma,  27 

Agrayaniya-purva,  139  (contents) 

Agurulaghu  quality,  35,  86 

Aharaka  body,  33,  44.  60 

Ahimsa  defined,  xxiv  ;  duty  of, 
70',  96,  133 

Ahoratra,  15 

Air,  souls  of,  8 

Airavata-kshetra,  119 

Ajiva,  "non-soul,"  xxii,  7,  82-4, 

Ajivaka  doctrine,  xxx 

Ajna,  55,  108 

A j nana,  94 

Akasa,  85,  87 

Akdsagata-chi'ilikd ,  142  (contents) 

Akinchana,  132 

Akriya-vada,  xxxi 

Akshepani,  138 

Alochana,  62 

Aloka,  14,  22,  119 

Alpa-bahutva,  57 

Amrita-cliandra      Suri      quoted, 

si 

Amudha-drishti,  108 


Aniurta.  83 

Amurtika,  16 

Anadhyavasaya-jnana,  115 

Ananta-chatushtaya,  20 

Ananta-darsana,  1 

Ananta-jnana,  1 

Anantanubandhi,  32 

Anantanubandhi-kashaya,  49 

Ananta-sukha,  1 

Ananta-virya,  1 

Ananugamika,  63 

Ana^ana,  131 

Anavapta,  131 

Anavasthita,  63 

Anekanta,  116 

Anga-bdhya  Sruta,  143 

Ahgas,  108,  135  f.  (contents),  14f> 

Angels,  body  of,  43,  60 

Anger,  94 

Angopanga-nama- karma,  33, 
Table 

Anihsrita,  62 

Anitya,  97 

Anivritti-karana,  51 

Antakrid-dasa-anga,  137  (con- 
tents) 

Aritara,  57 

Antara-muhurta,  57 

Antaraya-karma,  27,  31 

Anthropomorphism,  55 

Ann,  20 

Anubhaga,  30,  95 

Anubhava,  99 

Anugamika,  63 

Anumana,  113 

Anumati-tyaga,  70 

Anupalabdhi,  113,  114 

Anupreksha,  97 

Anuprekshd-Alokdh  quoted,  77 

Anupurvl,  35 

Anuttara  gods,  124 

A  nuttaropapddaka-dasd-avga,  137 
(contents) 


148 


OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 


Anu-vratas,  69 

Am'aclrishti-prassamsa,  50 

Anyadrishti-samstava,  50 

Anyatva,  98 

Apagama,  62 

Apagata,  62 

Apanoda,  62 

Apanutta,  62 

Apavaya,  62 

Apaviddha,  62 

Apavyadha,  62 

Apaya,  62 

Apayasah,  35 

Apeta,  62 

Apinda-prakriti,  35 

Apramatta-virata,  51 

Apratvakhyana,  32 

Apta,  108 

Apiirva-karana,  51 

ApQrvartha,  115 

Arambha-tyaga,  70 

Ardha-magadhi  language,  xxv, 

129 
Arhats,  2,  4,  52,  78,  106 
Arjava,  132 
Aksha  language.     See  Akdha- 

MAGADHI 

Artha,  62 

Arya-khanda,  119 

Asadhara  quoted,  68 

Asanjnin,  56 

Asarana,  97 

Asarlra,  3 

Asatya,  94 

Asrava,  37,  38  1'.,  56,  98 

Asteya,  133 

Astikayas,  13,  15,  16,  87 

.4  sti-nusti-j)rav(lda-purv<t ,  1 39 
(contents) 

Astronomy,  Jain,  125 

Asubha,  111 

Asuchitva,  98 

A-sva-samvidita,  115 

Atapa,  35 

Atisaya,  78 

Atisthula-sthula,  89 

Atmdnuidsana  quoted,  53,  55 

Atma-pravdda-purva,    140    (con- 
tents) 

Atmospiikres,  120 

Atoms,  21,  89 


Attributes,  substance  and,  1  If. , 

84 
Audarika  body,  33,  43,  60 
Authority.  See  Agama  and  Ajfia 
Avabodha,  62 
Avadharana,  62 
Avadhi-jfiana,  59,  63,  109,  110 
Avagahana,  91 
Avagama,  62 
Avagraha,  61,  63 
Avasarpini,    15,    119  ;    divisions 

of,  xxvi 
Avasthana,  62 
Avasthita,  63 
Avasyakas,  132 
Avaya  =  Apaya,  62 
Avidya,  58 
Avipaka,  99,  100 
Avirata-samyaktva,  49 
Avirati,  94,  95 
Aviruddha,  113,  114 
Aviveka,  58 
Ayana,  15 
Ayoga-kevalin,  52 
Ayuh-karma,  27,  35 

Badara,  35 

Bala,  82,  108 

Bala-bhadras,  5,  126  (list) 

Bandha,  37,  39,  95 

Bandhana-nama-karma,  34 

Beings,  kinds  of  living,  33 

Bhadrasana,  130 

Bhagavati,  137  (contents) 

Bhagavatl-arddhand,  67 

Bharata-kshetra,  119,  123 

Bhasha-samiti,  97,  134 

Bhava,  57,  74 

Bhava-bandlia,  95 

Bhava-samvara,  96 

Bhavasrava,  38,  39,  93 

Bhoga-bhumi,  xxvi-vii 

Bhojana-katlia,  94 

Bodhi-durlabha,  98 

Body,  kinds  of,  7,  33,  42-4,  60, 
101  ;  karma  and,  7  ;  mineral, 
8  ;  soul  and,  9 ;  time  not  a, 
16,  87  ;  members  of,  33  ;  tran- 
sition to  new,  35 ;  abandon- 
ment of,  42-4  ;  filled  by  soul, 
83  ;  atoms  of,  103 


INDEX 


149 


Bondage,  explanation  and  cause 

of,  37,  39,  95 
Books.     See  Literature 
Brahnia-charyii,  69.  97,  132 
Brihat-Svayambhu-stotra  quoted. 

'78 
Buddhism,  Jainism  not  a  sect  of, 

xxix  f. 
Buddhist  references  to  Jainism, 

xxx  f. 

Canon,  Jaina.     See  Literature 

Categories,  7 

Cause.     See  Karana 

Celibacy,  69 

Chakra-vartins,  5,  126  (list) 

Chakshur-nama-karma.  33 

Chala,  50 

Chandra-prajnapti,138(contents) 

Charitra.     See  Condu<  t 

Chastity.  69,  97.  132 

Chatur-angin,  xxxvii 

Chetana,  9,  83-4 

Chheda-sii/rus,  146  (contents 

Chinta,  61 

Chulikds,  142 

Conduct,  right,  52,  65-7,  89 

[OUSNESS,  characteristic  of 
soul,  9,  83-4 

Contemplation,  white,  51,  106  ; 
pure,  51-2  ;  on  twelve  sub- 
jects, 97 

Conviction",  right,  52-4 

Cosmogony.  Appendix  II 

Cosmology.  Appendix  II 

Creation  of  conditions  only.  12 

Criminality  low  among  Jainas, 
73 

Cycles,  world-,  15 

Danda,  xxxi 

Darsana,  56,  68 

Darsanavaramya-karma,  27,  31 

Dasa-purvin,  xxxvii 

Dasa  -  vaikdlika  - prakirnaka,  144 
(contents) 

Dasa -vaikdlika -mitra,  135  (con- 
tents) 

Death,  hollowness  of,  9 

Desa-virata.  50 


Development,   stages  of  moral, 

48,  105 
Dharana,  62 

Dharavahi-jnana,  115 

Dharma,  meaning  of,  xxxiii,  13, 
22  f.,  26,  97  ;  as  Asti-kaya,  85, 
87,  90  ;  limited  range  of,  97 

Dharma-chakra,  130 

Dharmastikaya,  85,  87,  90 

Dhiativya,  11 

Dhundhias.  xxxix  n. 

Dhyana,  132.  See  also  Sukla- 
dhyana 

Digambaras,  dialect  of,  xxv  ; 
views  of,  xxxvii  f. ,  xxxix  n.  ; 
Canon  of,  xxxviii,  135  f. 

Dig-virati,  xxxi 

Divya-dhvani,  130 

Doubt,  50,  94,  115 

Dravya,  11,  24  (six  eternal),  74, 
83,  84 

Dravya-bandha,  95 

Dravyarthika-Naya,  116 

Dravya-aamgraha  quoted,  79,82, 
83,  86,  87,  89,  90,  93,  95,  96, 
100,  109,  110 

Dravyasrava.  38,  39,  94 

Drink,  kinds  to  be  avoided,  71 

Drishti-pravdda-ahga,  138  (con- 
tents) 

Duality,  man's  evident,  18 

Dvesha,  38 

Dvipa,  120  f.,  138 

Dvipa-j>r'iji~"ij>'i,  138  (contents) 


Earth,  stationary,  85  ;  shape  of . 

120 
Eating  at  night,  69 
Eka-angin,  xxxvii 
Ekadassa-aiigin.  xxxvii 
Ekanta,  94 
Ekatva,  97 
Eras,  xxvi  ;  not  universal,   119. 

See   also   Avasarpinl  and   Ut- 

sarpini 
Error  recognized,  58 
Eshaiia,  97,  134 
Ethics,  introductory  remarks  on. 

xix,   xxi,    xxiii  ;    principle-,    of 

Jaina,  xl,  67  f. 


150 


OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 


Existence,  forms  of,  7,  33,  104  : 
and  substance,  83 


Faith,  right,  52,  68  (layman's), 
108 

Fallacies,  115  f. 

Fasts,  regular,  69 

Feelings,  knowledge  of,  59 

Fire,  souls  of,  8 

Food,  not  to  be  taken  at  night. 
69 ;  non-injury  and,  71 ;  talking 
of,  94  ;  accepting,  97  ;  ab- 
stinence from,   131 

Freedom,  religious,  3,  41  (when 
attained) 

Gana-dhara,  xxxv,  xxxvii 

Gandha,  34 

Ganges,  Great,  124 

Gati,  33 

Gautama,  xxix,  xxxii,  xxxvi 

Geography,  122 

Ghanodadhi-vata-valaya,  120 

Ghatl,  15 

Ghatiya-karma,  27 

Ghrana,  33 

God,    notion    of,   xx-xxii  ;    Jain 

view  of,  4,  28-9,  54 
Gommata-sdra  quoted.  104  5 
Gotra-karma,  27,  35 
(*  rah  ana,  62 
Graiveyaka  gods,  124 
Great  persons,  sixty-three,  126 

(list) 
Greed,  94 
Grihitartha,  115 
(iiKKiNOT,    Dr.,    quoted,     xvii, 

xxix,  23 
Guna,  105 

Guiia-sthana,  42,  48,  105 
Guna-vrata,  69 
Gupti,  97,  133 
Guru,  108 

Hagiologv,  Jain,  5,  126  f. 
Happiness,  the  summum  bonum, 

xxii 
Heavens,  number  and  place  of, 
124 


Hell,  divisions  of,  120-1 
Himsa,  94.     See  also  Ahimsa 
History,  Jaina,  xxvi 
Hlyamana,  63 
Human  beings,  location  of,  in  the 

universe,  120 
Hundaka,  34 


Ilia,  62 

Images,  worship  of.  74 
Indus,  Great,  124 
Inference,  62,  115 
Infinities,  1 

Inflow  of  matter.     See  Asrava 
Insight.     See  Darsana 
Intuitive  knowledge,  115 
Invisibility,    not   proof  of  non- 
existence, 44 
Invocation,  Jain,  3 
Try  a,  97,  134 

Ishat-pragbhara  world,  124 
Islands,  122 

Jacobi,  Prof.,  on  Jain  literature, 
xxv,  145  ;  on  antiquity  of 
Jainism,  xxx  f. 

Jainas,  modern,  73  (prosperity  of) 

Jainism,  early  Buddhist  refer- 
ences to,  xxix  f.  ;  antiquity 
of,  xxix  f.,  24  ;  persecution  of, 
xxxvii  f.  ;  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of,  xl,  If.;  not  atheistic, 
4  ;  a  practical  religion,  73  ; 
occult  side  of,  74 

Jalagata-chulikd,  142  (contents) 

Jambu-dvipa,  121  f. ,  138 

Jambu-dinpa-prajnapti,  138  (con- 
tents) 

Jati,  33 

Jewels,  Three,  7.  52,  107 

Jijnasa,  62 

Jina,  1.     For  list  see  Table 

Jina-deva,  78 

JIva,  xxii,  7,  9,  82  4 

Jnana,  108 

Jndna-pravdda-purva,  140  (con- 
tents) 

.1  Banavaranlya-karma,  27, 30 

Jnatridharma  -  hatha  -  niiga,  137 
(contents) 


INDEX 


151 


Kala,  15 

Kala,  57,  86 

Kalpa,  124 

Kalpdkalpa-praMrnaka,  144  (con- 
tents) 

Kalpatita,  124 

Kalpa  -  rya  vahdra  -praklrnaka  ,144 
(contents) 

KalyCtna-vdda-purva,  141  (con- 
tents) 

Kama-devas,  5,  127  (list) 

Kanksha,  50 

Karana,  51,  113-15 

Karma,  kinds  of,  26  f. ,  Table; 
aspects  of,  30 ;  accumulation  of, 
37-8  ;  riddance  of,  37-41,  99 

Karma-bhumi,  xxvii 

Kannana  body,  33,  43,  60 

Karma-pravdda-purva,  140  (con- 
tents) 

Karma-vargana,  21,  71,  95 

Karta,  83 

Karya,  113-15 

Kasha3'a,  56,  94-5 

Kashtha,  15 

Kathani,  138 

Kaya,  16,  87,  89.     See  Body 

Kaya-klesa,  131 

Kayotsarga,  133 

Kesin,  xxxii 

Kevala-jnana,  60,  65,  109-10 

Kevalin,  xxxvi  f.,  xxxix,  79 

Kings,  talk  concerning,  94 

Knowledge,  secular,  xxiv;  right, 
52,  58  ;  perfect,  60  ;  false,  60  ; 
kinds  of,  61,  109  f.,  140  ;  logic 
of,  61  f. ,  112  f.  ;  concurrent 
kinds  of,  65  ;  ways  of  deriving, 
74  ;  and  karma,  96 

Krishna,  cousin  of  Nemi-natha, 
xxxv 

Kritikarma-jirakirnaka,  143  (con- 
tents) 

Kriya-vada,  xxxi 

Kriyd-visdla-purva,  141  (contents) 

Krodha,  94 

Kshaya,  57 

Kshayika,  51 

Kshayika-samyakta,  50 

Kshayopasama,  50,  57 

Kshetra,  57,  119  (list) 


Kshina-moha,  52 
Kula-karas,  5,  128  (list) 
Kuuda-kunda    Acharya    quoted, 
77-8 


Language  of  Jain  canon,  xxv 
Layman,  rules  for,  67-8  ;    stages 

in  life  of,  67-8 
Lesya,  42,  45  f.,  56,  104 
Literature,  Jaina  sacred, 

xxxvi  f. ,  135  f. 
Lobha,  94 

Logic,  Jaina,  61  f.,  112  f. 
Loka,  13,  14,  22,  98,  119 
Luiikas,  xxxix  n. 


Madhya-loka,  22,  120 
Magnitudes  (asti-kayas),  7, 15, 24 
Maha-ganga,  123 
Mahdkalpa-saiijf&ika-prakirnaka, 

144  (contents) 
Maha-puiidarika-prakirnaka,  1 45 

(contents) 
Maha-sindhu,  123-4 
Mahavira,  doctrine  of,   xix  ;  life 

of,  xxvii 
Maha-vrata,  133 
Makkhali  Gosala,  xxxi  f. 
Mala,  50 

Man,    1   (dual   personality,    per- 
fectibility), 60  (bodies) 
Mana,  94 
Manaliparyaya-jhana,  59,  60,  64, 

109-10 
Ma  ngala,  eight  auspicious  objects, 

130 
Mardava,  132 
Marga,  55 
Masa,  15 

Mati-jnana,  59,  61-2,  109-10 
Matter,     13     (nature     of),      20 

(atoms,  etc.),  20  (qualities),  21 

(gross  and  fine),  38  (tendency 

of),  88-9  (texts) 
Maurttika,   110 
Maya,  58,  94 

Maydgata-chvlika,  142  (contents) 
Medical   science.       See  Prana- 

vdda-purva-'jata,  141 


152 


OUTLINES    OF   JAINISM 


Memory,  xxxvii  (literary  trans- 
mission by),  61,  113 

Meru,  Mount,  121,  125 

Metaphysics,  subject  of,  xix  ; 
defined,  xxi  ;  introductory  re- 
marks on,  xxii  ;  Jain,  7f. ,  82  f. 

Mind,  material,  84 

Mind-knowing  knowledge.  See 
Manahparyaya-jfiana 

Miracles,  see  Jalagata-Chulikd  % 
etc.,  142.     See  Pratiharva 

Misra,  49 

Mithyatva,  48,  94 

Mlecchas,  123 

Modes  of  expression  (Nayas),  116 

Modifications  in  substance,  11 

Moha,  38 

Mohaniya-karma,  27,  32,  92 

Moksha,  37,  41,  43,  65,  100 

Molecule,  atoms  in,  88 

Moon,  125.  See  also  Chandra- 
prajnapti 

Motion,  medium  of,  13,  22,  85 

Mountains,  great,  122 

Muhurta,  15,  57 

Afvla-mtras,  146 

Muni,  2 

Nadi,  trasa-,  120 

Nail,  15 

Nama,  74 

Nama- karma,  27,  32 

Naradas,  5,  127  (list) 

Narayanas,  5,  126  (list) 

Natil-putta.     See  Mahavira 

Nayas,  112,  116 

Nemi-chandra  Siddhrinta-chakra- 

vartin  quoted,  79 
Nemi-natha,  history  of.  xxxiii 
Nidra,  94 
Nihsankita,  108 
Xiiisritii,  62 
Nimisha,  15 
Nirdesa,  55 

Nirgrantha,  xxxi  t..  xxxvii 
Nirjara,  37,  40,  98-9 
Nirmana-nama-karma,  33 
Nirvana,  29 
Nirvedani,  138 
Nirvichikitsita,  108 
Nirvikalpa-darsana,  1 15 


Nisarga,  55-6 

Nischaja,  62,  107 

Nischaya-samyag-darsana,  54 

Nishidikd-praklrnaka,  145  (con- 
tents) 

Nishkankshita,  108 

Nisrita,  62 

Xiyamasdra-gdthd  quoted,  78-80, 
89 

Non-injury,  importance  of,  70  ; 
social  effects  of,  72.  See  also 
Ahimsa 

Non-scriptural  knowledge,  63 

Non-soul.     See  Ajlva 

Xon-universe,  22,  119 

Nyagrodha-parimandala,  34 

Occupations,  worldly,  abandon- 
ment of,  70 
Om,  3 
Omniscience,  106 

Pada-nama-karma,  33 
Padarthas,  7,  41  f.,  101,  137 
Painnas,  xxxviii,  146 
Pakshika-sravaka,  68 
Paiichdstikdya-gathd,  quoted,  77, 

79,   82-8,  90,   93,   96,   99-101, 

104,  108,  111 
Papa,  41,  101 
Paraghata,  35 
Paramanu,  22,  88,  90 
Paramarthika-pratyaksha,  113 
Paramdtma-prakdsa  quoted,  78, 

84 
Parameshthins,  Five,  2 
Parigraha,  94 

Parigraha-tyiiga,  70,  97,  134 
Parikarmas,  138  (contents  of) 
Pariksha,  62 
Parinama,  81,  100 
Parisaha-jaya,  98 
Parisamkhyana,  131 
Paroksha,  113 
Parokshabhasa,  1  Hi 
Parsva-natha,  teachings  of,  xxx  : 

death  of,  xxxiii 
Parts,  substances  and  their.   16 
Paryapta,  35 
Pa  iv ay a,  11 
Paryayarthika-naya,  116 


INDEX 


153 


Passions,  56 

Patali-putra,  Council  of.  xxxvii. 

145 
Pattavalls.  Jain,  xxxvi 
Pava-Puri,  Mabavlra's  death  at, 

xxviii  f. 
Penal  Code,  Indian,  72 

Penitence.     See  Prayaschitta 

Perception,   right,   49,   52;    in 
logic,  61-2,  113 

Perfections,  four  infinite,  1 

Persecutions  of  Jainism,xxxviiif. 

Phalabbasa,  116 

Philosophy,  basis  of,  xix  ;  Jaina 
principles  of,  xl 

Planets,  influence  of,  141 

Points  of  view  (nay as),  117 

Politics,  talk  of,  94 

Poshadhopavasa,  69 

Prabha,  120 

Prabhavana,  108 

Pradesa,  16,  85,  88-90,  95 

Praklrnakas,  135  (contents  of),  146 

Prakrit,  Jain  use  of,  xxv 

Prakriti,  30,  95 

Pramada,  94-5 

Pramada-bhava,  51 

Pramana,  33,  112,  115 

Pramanabhasa,  115 

Pramatta-virata,  51 

Prana,  82 

Prdna-vdda-purva,  141  (contents) 

Prasna-vydkarana-anya,  137  (con- 
tents | 

Prathamdnuyoga,  139 

Pratiharya,  130 

Pratikramana,  132 

Prattkramana-prakirnaJca,   143 
(contents) 

Pratimas,  50,  67 

Prati-narayanas,  5,  126  (list) 

Pratipatti,  62 

Pratishthapana,  97,  134 

Prati-vasudevas,  5,  126  (list) 

Pratyabhijnana,  113 

Pratyakhyana,  133 

Pratydkhydna-purva,   141  (con- 
tents) 

Pratyaksha,  113 

Pratyakshabhasa,  115 

Pratveka,  35 


Prayafichitta,  131 
Predestination,  denied,  29 
Preraka,  14 

Pride,  eight  kinds  of,  55,  108 
Principles,    7.   93  (seven),    KM 

Inine) 
Prisht ha  -naina- karma,  33 
Pudgala.  13,  20   1.  84,  87-9 
Pundartka-prakirnaka,  144  (con- 
tent- 
Punya,  41,  101 
Purushdrtha-siddhyupdya 

quoted,  81,  107 
Purva-chara,  1 13-  1-1 
Purva-gatas,  139  (contents) 

Qualities  and  attributes,  11.  84  ; 

of  saints,  129  f. 
Quality,  category  of,  xxxii 
Quaternary,  infinite,  20 

Raga,  38 

Rajju,  119  f. 
Rasa,  33 

Rasa-parityaga.  131 
Ra.-htra-katha,  94 
Rati, '38 
Ratnakaranda-h-dvakdchdra 

quoted,  108 
Ratri-bhukta-tyaga.  69 
Reasoning,  modes  of,  113-16 
Reflection.  62 
Re-incarnation,  28,  30 
Religion,  the  question  for,  xix  ; 

"  creed"  a  svnonym,  xx  ;  Jain. 

c.I,  77  f. 
Renunciation,  133 
Responsibility,  man's,  3 
Riju-mati,  64,  110 
Rishabha,  xxxiii 
Rita,  15 
Ritual,   purpose  and  definition 

of,  xxi  ;    introductory  remarks 

on,  xxiv  ;  Jain.  74  f. 
Rudras,  5,  127  (list) 
Rupagata-chulika,  142  (contents) 

Sabda,   113 
Sachi,  34 
Sachitta-tvaga,  69 


154 


OUTLINES    OB'    JAIN1SM 


Sadhana,  55,  56 

Sadharana,  35 

Sadhu,  2,  80 

Sdyara-dharmdmrita ,  68 

Sages,  classes  of,  2 

Saha-chara,  113,  114 

Saints,  characteristics  of,  129 

Sakara-jnana,  109 

Salaka-purusha,  126  (list ) 

Sama-chatura,  34 

Samanta-bhadraAcharya  quoted, 
78 

Samanya,  115 

Samavaya-anga,  136  (contents) 

Samaya,  15 

Samayasdra-lcalasa  quoted,  96, 
102 

Samayika,  69,  132 

Sdmdyika-pdtha  quoted,  79 

Samayika'praklrnalca,  143  (con- 
tents) 

Samhanana-nama-karma,  34 

Samiti,  97,  134 

Samsara,  11,  77,  97 

Sarnsara-stha,  83 

Samsaya,  94,  115 

Samstava  - praklrnaka,  143  (con- 
tents) 

Samsthana-nama-karma,  34 

Samudghata,  90 

Sam  vara,  37,  39  f.,  96,  98 

Samvatsara,  15 

SamvedanI,  138 

Samvyavaharika-pratyaksha,  113 

Samyag-darsana,  52 

Samyag-jnana,  52 

Samyak-charitra,  52 

Samyakta,  56 

Samyama,  56,  132 

Samyamin,  59 

Sanghata-nama-karma,  34 

Sanjna,  61 

Sanjnin,  56 

Saiika,  50_ 

Sankara  Acharya,  Jains  perse- 
cuted by,  xxxviii 

Sankbya,  57 

Sankbyabhasa,  116 

Sanksbepa-drisbti,  55 

Sanskrit,  Jain  use  of,  xxv 

Sapta-bhangi,  117,  140 


Sarlra.     See  Body 

Sas(v)adana,  49 

Sat,  57 

Satta,  11,  83 

Satya,  96,  132,  133 

Satya-pravdda-purva,  140  (con- 
tents) 

Saucha,  132 

Savipaka-nirjara,  41,  99 

Sayoga-kevalin,  52 

Sciences,  treated  in  the  Vidydnu- 
vdda-purva-gata,  141 

Scriptures.     See  Literature 

Sense,  organs  of,  9  ;  channels  of 
knowledge,  59 

Sexes,  56 

Shade,  matter  of,  89 

Siddha,  2,  18,  79,  83,  107.  130 

Siddha-sila,  14,  124 

Sight,  second.    See  Avadhi-jnana 

Siksha-vratas,  69 

Sin,  original,  43 

Siro-nama-karma,  33 

Siva-koti,  67 

Skandha,  16,  20,  88 

Sleeping  apart,  131 

Smriti,  61,  113 

Sneha,  94 

Sorrow,  78 

Soul,  free,  2, 4 ;  place  of  liberated, 
2,  18,  124  ;  embodied,  2,  103  ; 
kinds  and  qualities  of,  8  f. , 
82-3  ;  and  non-soul,  7,  82 ; 
conditions,  etc.,  of,  13,  17- 
18,  82-3;  parts  of,  16;  size 
of,  17,  90;  as  agent,  28,  81  ; 
denned  as  conscious,  83-4  ; 
penetrability  of,  91 

Sound,  production  of,  90 

Space,  divisions  of,  14,  22  ;  unit 
of,  16  ;  as  container,  85 

Sparsa-nama-karma,  33 

Sparsana,  57 

Sreni,  51 

Srotra-nama-karma,  33 

Sruta-jnana,  59,  63,  109-10 

Sruti,  1.'!") 

Sruti-kevalin,  xxxvii 

Stacks  of  moral  development,  7  : 
of  soul,  48  f.  ;  of  layman's  life, 
68  f. 


INDEX 


155 


Starvation,  self-,  131 
Stationariness,  means  of,  14,  22 
Stationary  souls,  five  kinds  of, 

82 
Steya,  94 

Stludagata-ch  ulikd,  142  (con  tents] 
Sthdna-anga,  136  (contents) 
Sthanaka-vasls,  xxxix  n. 
Sthana-niima-karma,  33 
Sthapana,  74 
Sthavara,  8,  35,  71,  82 
Sthiti,  30,  55,  56.  95 
St  hula,  89 
Stri-katha,  94 
Stuti,  132 
Substance,  and  attributes,  7.  84  ; 

doctrine  of,  1 1 
Substances,  7,  13  (kinds  of),  25 
(chief),   119  (increate   and    in- 
destructible) 
Sudharma  Acharya,  xxix.  xxxvi 
Sukla-dhvana,  51 
Sukshma,  35,  39,  89 

Sukshma-samparaya,  51 

Sukshma-sanjvalana-lobha.  51 

Sun(s),  two,  125,  138.  See  also 
Surya  -prajnapti 

Sundarata,  108 

Surya-prajnapti,  138  (contents) 

Sutra,  139,  146 

SutraJerita-anga,  136  (contents) 

Svabhava,  114 

Svadeha-parimana,  83 

Svadhyaya,  131.  133 

Svamitva,  55,  56 

Svati,  34 

Svetambaras,  origin  and  views 
of,  xxxvii,  xxxix  n.  ;  dialect  of. 
xxv  ;  canon  of,  xxxvii  f . ,  145  f. 

Swami  lvarttikej-a  quoted.  77 

Syad-vada,  112,  116,  117 

Syllogism,  Jain,  117 


Taijasa,  33,  43,  60 

Tapas,  100,  108,  131-2 

Tarka,  62,  113 

Tattva(s) enumerated, xxiii ;  37 f., 

93 
Tattvartha-aara    quoted,   86,  91, 

99 


Tattvdrtha-autra  quoted,  82,  88, 
90-3,  95,  99,  100.  103,  107,  109, 
110 

Teacher,  55.     See  Qpadliyaya. 

Theology,  defined,  xxi  ;  Jain, 
xl,  c.  I,  77-81 

Thoughts,  knowledge  of.  See 
Manahparyaya-jnana 

Time,  doctrine  as  to,  15;  divisions 
of,  15,  86  ;  as  cause  of  modifica- 
tions, 86 

Tints  of  the  soul,  7,  45  f. .  56. 
See  Lesya 

Tirtbankaras,  era  of,  xxvii  ;  1.  5. 
(i.  78,  129,  Table 

Trades,  prohibited,  71  f. 

Transmigration  of  souls,  28  9 

Trasa  souls,  9,  35,  82 

Trasa-nadi,  56 

TrUoka-bindusdra,  142  (contents) 

Truth,  conventional  and  absolute. 
See  Vyavahara  and  Nischaya 

Truthfulness,  94 

Tyaga,  132 


Uchchhvasa,  35 
Udara-nama-karma,  33 
Udaslna,  14 

Uddishta-tyaga,  70 

Uddj-ota,  35 

Uha,  62 

Universe,  xxii  :  creation  of, 
denied,  5  ;  inhabited,  13.  14  ; 
shape  of,  22,  119;  summit  of, 
79,  124  ;  causes  of ,  87  ;  dimen- 
sions, 119;  life  in,  120 

Upadhyaya,  definition  of,  2,  80 

Upaghata,  35 

Upaguhana,  108 

Upalabdhi,  113 

Updngas,  33.  145  (list) 

I  Tpdaalcddhyaya na-a it<j<< ,  1 37  (con- 
tents) 

Upasama,  51,  56 

Upasama-samyakta,  50 

Upasanta-moha,  52 

Upasarga,  129 

Uposatha,  xxxi 

[Jrdhva-gati,  83 

Cro-nama-karma,  33 


156 


OUTLINES    OF   JAIN1SM 


Utpada,  11 

Utpd  da-pur  va,  139  (contents) 

Utsarga,  97 

Utsarpini,  era,  15,  119  ;  divisions 

of,  xxvi 
Uttama-kshama,  132 
Uttara-chara,  113-14 
Uttarddhyayana,  135  (contents) 
Uttarddhyayana-praklrnaka,   144 

(contents) 

Vaikriyika  body,  33,  43,  60 

Vaisali,  birthplace  of  Mahavira, 
xxvii 

Vaiyapritya,  131 

ValabhT,  Council  of,  xxxvii 

Vandana,  132 

Vandana  - praklrnaka,    143   (con- 
tents) 

Vardhamana.     See  Mahavira 

Vardhanianaka,  63,  130 

Vasu-devas,  5,  126  (list) 

Vata-valaya,  120 

Vatsalya,  108 

Veda,  56 

Vedaniya-karma,  27,  36 

Vegetables,  fresh,  69;  souls  of,  8 

Vicarana,  62 

Vichikitsa,  50 

Vidhana,  55,  57 

Vidydnuvada  -  purva,    141    (con- 
tents) 

Vihayo-gati,  35 

Vihayo-nama-karma,  33 

Vijayardha  mountains,  123 

Vikshepanl,  L38 

Vinaya,  94,  131 
Vinaya-prahlrnaka,14:3{contentB) 

Vipaka-ja,  99 


Vipaka-sutra-ahgn,  138  (contents) 

Viparlta,  94 

Viparyaya-jnana,  115 

Vipula-mati,  64,  110 

Virtue,  identical  with  happiness, 
xxii 

Viruddha,  114 

Viryachara,  133 

]rirydnnrdda-puri'a,\39{  contents) 

Visesha,  115 

Vishayabhasa,  116 

Vinllia-prajnapti,  137  (contents) 

Vivikta-saj'yasana,  131 

Vows,  layman's,  69 

Vrata,  69,  96 

Vydkhyd-prajnapti,   137  (con- 
tents), 139  (contents) 

Vyafijana,  63 

V}'apaka,  114 

Vyapya,  113 

Vyavahara,  107 

Vyavahara-samyag-darsana,  54 

Vyaya,  11 

Vyutsarga,  132 

Water,  souls  of,  xxx,  8 
Women,  talk  concerning,  94 
Worship, of  qualities,  not  persons, 
3  ;  modes,  etc.,  of,  69,  75,  143 
(Kritikarma-prakirnaka) 
Writing,   Jain   employment   of, 

xxxvii 
Wrongs,  civil  and  criminal,  72 

Yoga,  38,  56,  95 

Yogindra  Acharya  quoted,  78 

Zones,  geographical,  122 


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