Full text of "The outriggers of Indonesian canoes"

Haddon, Alfred Cort
The outriggers of
Indonesian canoes.

THE OUTRIGGERS OF INDONESIAN

CANOES.

A. C. HADDON.

PUBLISHED BY THE
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THE OUTRIGGERS OF INDONESIAN CANOES.
By A. C. HADDON.

CONTENTS.

Material

Terminology ...
Double Canoes

""* * . ... 7*7

The Distribution of Single and Double Outriggers
The Number of the Outrigger-Booms
The Attachment of the Booms to the Hull

The Float

The Attachments between the Booms and the Float and their Distribution :
A. Direct :

1. Inserted

...... o.> i^j

2 ' Lashed 83,124

3. Mixed Direct Attachment ^

B. Indirect :

(a) Attachment inserted into the Float :

L Stick 84, 126

2. Rod 87

3 - S P ike - 79, 87, 127

4. Y-shaped Stick gy 127

5. Board 87> 12 g

6. Balinese 73,88,128

(6) Attachment tied to the Float :

1. Moluccan 39 12&

2. Halmaheran ... 90 J20

C. Mixed Attachments :

1. Mixed Direct and Balinese 84, 92

2. Mixed Direct and Rod 92

3. Mixed Direct and Halmaheran 94

4. Mixed Rod and Halmaheran 95.

Notes on the Characteristic Outrigger Canoes of the Main Districts of Indonesia 97

Notes on the Native Names for Canoes and Outriggers 116

General Conclusions 119

Bibliography 131

FOR several years I have been accumulating material dealing with the outrigger
canoes of Indonesia, of which I now present a brief and general account, though
I am fully aware of the imperfection of my data. Much more remains to be done
by observations in the field, by a more exhaustive treatment of the literature on
the subject, and by a study of photographs in the libraries of certain learned societies

70 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

and museums, as well as of specimens preserved in numerous museums in various parts
of the world. I hope, however, that this essay will help towards a more systematic con-
sideration of the details of construction and of the problems of cultural distribution.

MATERIAL.

A word of caution is necessary with regard to the available data. A photograph,
or an illustration made from a photograph, is good evidence that a certain form was
then present in a given spot, but it is not conclusive that it is the usual or common
form there, as any canoe may be a chance visitor. It is only when a photograph
shows numerous examples of the same type that it becomes authoritative, or when
different photographs agree in this respect. Of far greater value is the explicit
statement of a traveller, and I have endeavoured in all cases to record such statements.
In drawings or sketches made by travellers a great deal depends on the skill of the
draughtsman, his keenness of eyesight, and his knowledge of the details of con-
struction. The unsatisfactory character of illustrations holds good for models, except
that the common type is far more likely to be represented. But a further source of
error awaits one. The model may be carelessly made and certain details may be
slurred over or even wrongly constructed to save trouble. On the other hand, the
models as a rule seem to be made by those thoroughly conversant with the vessels,
and probably, in many cases, are made by those who actually build boats. The
technical skill in model-making which is characteristic of these peoples, and the
pride of the artificer, however, give one confidence in accepting models as trust-
worthy, even though the various parts may not be made exact as regards their relative
proportions. Bearing in mind these limitations, I have not shrunk from accepting
models as good evidence. In a considerable number of cases the written descriptions
by travellers are far from satisfactory, as they often do not appreciate those details
which are of interest to a specialist ; frequently no description at all is vouchsafed,
and we have then to rely solely on any illustration that may be supplied.

Several of the following museums are referred to by the names of the towns
in which they are situated :

Amsterdam, Koninklijk Zoologisch Genootschap. Ethnographical Museum of
the Natura Artis Magistra.

British Museum, London.

Cambridge, Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.

Edinburgh, Museum of Science and Art.

Halifax, Bankfield Museum.

Horniman Museum, Forest Hill, London, S.E.

Leiden, Rijks Ethnographisch Museum.

Oxford, Pitt-Rivers Museum.

Rotterdam, Ethnologisch en Maritiem Museum.

Salem (Mass., U.S.A.), Peabody Museum.

a 2

72 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

I take this opportunity of thanking various friends and colleagues who have
helped me with information, and would more particularly like to mention Henry
Balfour, Ivor H. Evans, Dr. G. Friederici, Dr. F. H. H. Guillemard, Lawrence W.
Jenkins, Dr. H. H. Juynboll, H. Ling Roth.

For convenience of reference I shall, as a general rule, mention the several
islands and places in the following order :

Andamans. Nicobars. Nias, Mentawei Islands, and Engano (islands to the
west of Sumatra). Sumatra : Palembang (in the south-east of Sumatra). Java.
Madura. Bawean Islands (north of Madura). The Lesser Sunda Islands (Bali to
Tenimber) : Bali ; Lombok ; Sumbawa ; Sumba (Sandalwood Island) ; Savu ;
Flores ; Solor ; Lomblen ; Ombai (Allor) ; Timor ; Rotti ; Wetta (Wetter or Eetar) ;
Serwatti ; Baba (Babber) ; Tenimber (Tanimbar) or Timor Laut (Timorlao) Islands.
Kei (Ke) Islands. Aru Islands. The Moluccas (Banda to Halmahera) : Banda ;
Buru ; Amblau ; Amboina (Ambon) ; The Uliasser Islands : Haruku, Saparua
and Nusa Laut ; Ceram (Seran) ; Ceram Laut ; Goram ; Misol ; Obi (Ombi) ;
Batjan ; Tidor ; Ternate ; Halmahera (Gilolo) : Weda Bay (the southern Gulf of
Halmahera), Ake Selaka, Tobelo, and Galela (in the north of Halmahera). Xulla
(Sulla) Islands. Butong (Butung). Salaier. Celebes : Makassar and Gowa (Goa),
Gulf of Boni (the southern Gulf of Celebes), Tontoli (Toli-Toli, north-west Celebes),
Minabassa (the north-east point of Celebes) with the towns of Kema and Menado,
and the island of Limbe. Banka. Talisse. Talaut Islands (including the large
island of Sangir). Tulur (Tulaur or Salibabu) Islands. Nanusa Islands. Sulu
Archipelago. Philippines : Mindanao (Zamboanga at its south-west point), the
Gagayanes (Cagayan) group, Zebu (Cebu), and Manila. Borneo : Sarawak, a raj on
the north coast. North-west area of New Guinea : Skroe on the south and Sekar on
the north side of the Onin Peninsula ; Waigiu (Waigeu) ; Saonek (an islet off the
south shore of Waigiu ) ; Sorong (a village just south of the extreme north-west
point of New Guinea). Geelvink Bay. (See Map, p. 71.)

TERMINOLOGY.

To avoid ambiguity I propose to adopt the following terms as here defined :
The outrigger is a balancing apparatus that extends transversely across the hull
of the canoe ; the transverse poles of an outrigger are outrigger-booms (or simply
booms), their free extremities may be attached directly to the^oa^, 1 or indirectly by
various methods ; in all cases this is spoken of as the attachment. Various methods of
indirect attachment will be sufficiently described in the course of this paper. They
consist in the main of bent ratan in the Moluccan attachment, or of a stick or sticks,
a rod, or of a variously shaped piece of wood, the outrigger-spar or attachment-spar

1 Frequently authors speak of the float as an " outrigger,"

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Irufon> ,<>ex.

(or simply spar). A thin spar, bracing spar, may pass from the attachment-spar
(Fig. 2 D) or sticks (p. 126) to the boom.

There are outriggers in which one or more of the booms may have one kind of
attachment and the other or others another kind ; these may be termed mixed
attachments. Cases are known to me, but not in Indonesia, where two kinds of
attachment are employed on the same boom ; this may be called a complex
attachment.

In many outriggers there are one or more poles connecting the booms and
usually lashed above them, but sometimes beneath them. These may be termed
longitudinal spars, as they are longitudinal to, that is, parallel with, the length of the
canoe, though transverse as regards the length of the booms themselves. They might
therefore with justice be termed " transverse spars," but as the booms themselves are
transverse as regard to the canoe and they are at right angles to the lie of the booms,
it seems preferable to adhere to my former term. Sometimes there is a spar running
more or less midway between the hull and the attachments this may be termed
the central longitudinal spar ; the outer and inner longitudinal spars run respectively
immediately on the outer and inner aspects of the attachment (Figs. 1 6 B, 17). In
Micronesia a spar may pass diagonally from the hull to the end of the outrigger
apparatus this I term a stay spar.

Boom-prolongation. This somewhat cumbersome term may be applied to a type
of boom that appears to be confined to the East Java Lombok area. The boom
proper is short and thick, but a thinner spar is attached to it, the free end of which
is either inserted into or lashed to the float or connected with it by means of a rod-
attachment. In small models of canoes from this area the prolongation is inserted
into the boom, but the exact method of the junction in actual vessels has been
described only in the case of the sedek, and the published illustrations known to me
are not clear on this point. It may be suggested that the boom was made thick in
order to strengthen the hull, but in that case it would obviously be too heavy to form
an efficient outrigger ; to remedy this the projecting portions might be thinned down
(which possibly may occur) or a more slender spar of wood or bamboo might be fixed
on to it. The sedek of the Balinese attachment (p. 88) is thus merely one form of
a boom-prolongation.

Occasionally there is a central outrigger-boom which is lashed to the various
longitudinal spars but is not connected with the float by means of a regular attach-
ment, though it may be tied to it by means of a long lashing this may be termed a
fake-boom. Occasionally, outside our area, more than one false-boom may occur.

There may be above a boom another spar which varies greatly in length, some-
times being as long as the boom itself, in which case it might be regarded as a boom,
thus giving rise to an accessory or double boom parallel to the boom proper ; but
in order to make the term applicable to all its variations, I prefer to describe it as a
boom-spar. A boom-spar, one end of which rests on the roof of a shelter of a Mentawei

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

war-vessel, knabat bogolu (Fig. l),is figured by Rosenberg (1888, PL XVIII, Fig. 9).
Baessler (PL VIII, Fig. 4) gives a drawing of a model of a sailing canoe from Wetta

FIG. 1. MODEL OF A WAR VESSEL, knabat bogolu, MENTAWEI ISLANDS (AFTER ROSENBERG, 1888)
THE RIGGING OF THE VESSEL IS OMITTED.

...O

FIG. 2. SECTIONS OF MODELS OF CANOES : A, StTLU ; B, MORO CANOE, ZAMBOANGA ; C, MORO
CANOE, ZEBU ; D, SANGIR (FROM MULLER, 1912, figs. 65, 56, 57, 58).

A. C. HADDON. The Outrigger* of Indonesian Canoe*.

(Wetter) Islands with a double outrigger of two straight booms, above which are
equally long straight boom-spars, these evidently correspond with tho.^- just men-
tioned ; but in this case there is a U-Moluccan attachment, the upper limbs of which
are lashed to its boom and boom-spar (Fig. 3). In a model canoe from Tenimber in

3 3 -MODEL OK A SAILING SHIP, WITH TRIPOD MAST, STRAIGHT BOOMS AND BOOM SPAR*
U-MOLUCCAN ATTACHMENT, WKTTA (FROM BAESSLER).

. *.-.. WKH A BOOM . . >. . *

76 A. C. H ADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

the Leiden Museum is a thin boom-spar above each true boom ; it lies over a longi-
tudinal spar which rests on the two booms and its end is lashed to the upper iork of a
Halmaheran attachment (Fig. 4). Miiller (1912, p. 244) describes a model of a canoe
from Sangir in which the two outer (fore and aft) booms and their boom-spars are
attached directly to the float, presumably by a lashing ; the inner booms have the
arrangement shown in Fig. 2, D, above each of these booms is an equally long and
slender boom-spar which turns up at its ends ; attached to the ends of the boom
and boom-spar is the long stem of a J_-shaped attachment-spar, beneath which the
double float is fastened ; the boom-spar, boom, and attachment-spar are strengthened
by a bracing spar ; obviously all these elements are lashed together. At Kema,
North Celebes (G., No. 232), the Sulu Islands (Guillemard, 1889, p. 192 ; G., Nos. 4,
115; Miiller, Fig. 55; Savage Landor, II, pp. 2, 12), Zamboanga and Zebu in the
Philippines (Miiller, 1912, Figs. 56, 57), the upwardly curved boom-spar is greatly
reduced in length and may become bowed and have carved ends. It does not support
the float, but is attached by lashings to the unusually thin and fragile outrigger-
boom which is thus strengthened by the elasticity of the bowed boom-spar. As
previously mentioned, the outrigger-booms, which usually are moie than two in
number, are attached directly lashed to the float. Miiller (p. 245) describes the trans-
formation of supernumerary boom-spars into curved crescentic ornaments in the Sangir
and Sulu Islands ; but these can no longer be termed boom-spars, as they are not
necessarily connected with outrigger-booms.

Outlayers. In describing the " Flying Praws " of Borneo, D. Beeckman says :
'' To prevent their oversetting, they fix two long Poles or Outlayers one across the
Fore-part and another at the After-part of the Boat ; each end being run into a large
Bamboe . . . and when it blows hard, the People run out and in on the Outlayers,
according as the Gale is fresher or abates, to keep the Boat upright " (1718, p. 91).
Evidently this is what is referred to by R. Munday (1848, I, p. 52), quoting from
[Raja] J. Brooke's Journal of January, 1840 : " The small sailing boats [at Palette,
Gulf of Boni, Celebes] had outriggers of wood, which weighted with men, enabled them
to carry a sail of enormous size." Folkard says that the canoes at Manila have no
outriggers, " but merely an outlager, or pole, laid across the vessel amidships, and
extending several feet beyond the sides " (f.n., p. 482). Lane Fox (Pitt-Rivers)
points out (1875, p. 430) the practical utility of a single outlayer for canoes which
have but a single outrigger ; he terms it a weather platform; when a flooring has been
laid across the booms. He adds : " We have, in the Asiatic Archipelago, a con-
trivance which may be said to be derived partly from the double outrigger, and
partly from the weather platform. ... A weather platform had been found sufficient
to balance the vessel on one side, and the next step was to knock off the outrigger
log [float] on the other side, thereby converting the outrigger platform into a weather
platform, the two platforms projecting one on each side of the vessel, on the level of
the gunwales, without touching the water. . . . These double weather-platform boats

A. C. HADDON. m Outriggers of Inlonenan

were also found more convenient in inland waters, in the canals in Manila, and
elsewhere.' He also quotes the accounts of outlayere in th- i'hili|,,,ii,,.s \,
Guines (1796) and at Manila by Du.npier (KiH(i). B^,,,,, p^ ' an . ,.,
in the Census of fie Philippine I,la,.,l*. I. ,,. m>, Washington, 1905. The outlayer
may very well be evolved from an outrigger, but as in the Philip,m,,s ,,,<! Indonesia
generally, the canoes have a double outrigger (when they have any at all), there
does not seem to be any necessity for the intermediate stage of a single outrigger

FIG. 5. MODEL OF CANOE WITH A DIRECT LASHED ATTACHMENT AND AN OUTLAY1TB, SAlfOIK,

TALAUT ISLANDS (AMSTERDAM).

postulated by Pitt-Rivers for this area. In a carelessly-made model or sketch an
outlayer might very well be mistaken for an outrigger. An outlayer may therefore
be defined as a pole or a simple framework balancing apparatus, and may be single
(Fig. 5) or double. When a platform of boards or closely-laid bamboos or poles is
formed, the outlayer may be termed a weather platform, which similarly may be
single or double.

DOUBLE CANOES.

The only instance known to me of an Indonesian double canoe is that illustrated
by Hickson (1889, Fig. 10, p. 164) : this is a small model used for ceremonial purposes
in the Nanusa Islands to the north-east of Celebes beyond the Salibabu Islands.
This sakit canoe is composed of two canoes close together ; both have equally elon-
gated upturned ends and are crossed by three booms, the ends of which are pegged
on to the floats. Miiller suggests that this idea of a double canoe may be due to
Micronesian influence, and queries whether the outrigger may not universally be
traceable to a double canoe (1912, p. 239).

Double canoes, janjar, are employed on the rivers of the Malabar coast, South-
west India, for conveying cattle and bulky goods across the rivers ; from the account
by Edye these appear to be temporary arrangements (Edye, p. 6, PI. III). In the
Oxford Museum are three models of double canoes ; one is from " India," another
from Mirzapore, on the Ganges, and the third from Ceylon. The importance of the
double canoe in the early navigation of the Pacific is well known.

That double canoes once occurred in Indonesia is extremely probable, and we
may assume that the double canoes of Oceania had their origin in Indonesia.

78 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE OUTRIGGERS.

Wherever outriggers occur in Indonesia they are double, with the exceptions
noted below (see Map, p. 71) :

Single outriggers alone are found in the Andamans (Fig. 11, A) and in the
Nicobars (Fig. 10, B), but there are other canoes in these islands which are without
an outrigger. The Sumatran sailing craft known as jellore has sometimes only one
outrigger, which is then alternately to windward and leeward (Folkard, p. 481).
H. von Rosenberg (1888, PL XVIII, Fig. 19) figures a model of a warship, knabat
bogolu, from the Mentawei Islands (west of Sumatra) which appears to have but a
single outrigger on the starboard side ; it has two main booms which slope down -to
the float and each has an accessory boom, which as it slopes down from the roof of
the cabin, can hardly be termed a proper boom-spar ; there is a double float and
apparently a direct attachment (Fig. 1). Folkard states (p. 485) that on the north
coast of Java, at Madura, they have sailing boats with single outriggers on the leeward
side, while on a kind of rack on the windward side they sometimes place a canoe
and everything on board that is movable. An aberrant type from the north coast
of middle Java has been noted by Hornell. Pitt-Rivers (Lane Fox) mentions a single
outrigger in Borneo, but does not give any reference (1875, p. 429) ; for toy canoes with
a single outrigger from the Sarawak coast see Fig. 32. There is a model in the
Amsterdam Museum of a canoe from Sangir with a single outrigger (Fig. 5), the
two booms of which project on the other side of the hull to form an " outlayer " :
the downwardly curved ends of the booms are lashed to the float by a direct
attachment. Numerous canoes with single outriggers from various parts of Indonesia
are figured by Nicolas, De Bry and by Valentijn, but as the illustrations given by the
old authors do not appear to be always accurate, this evidence cannot be fully relied
on ; as nearly all the boats are drawn in side-view, only one outrigger could be
depicted. De Bry gives only one illustration of a double outrigger, a coracora (V,
PL c A), which is also figured by Nicolas (II, PL 9), who calls it coracora or carcolle
of Banda, but Nicolas figures (PL 14) a small war-vessel, carcolle, with one, and
describes (p. 19) the carcolle of the King of Ternate as having a double outrigger.
We are probably justified in assuming that the outrigger was double in all the Moluccan
craft in which one was present.

To the west of Indonesia canoes with a single outrigger and two booms are
found in Ceylon and parts of Southern India ; as early as 1599 Lintscotus figured the
type occurring at Goa and Cochin (II, Tab. XIV). They also extended to the
Maldives.

Canoes with double outriggers and two booms occur on the coast of Eastern
Africa, the Comoro Islands, and North-western Madagascar. In Madagascar the
larger canoes appear to have but one float, though the booms project beyond the other
side of the hull to form an outlayer (Haddon, 1918, No. 29). I regret that in this
paper I omitted the record by Miiller in Madagascar of small, double-outrigger coasting

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoe*.

canoes, and of a large Sakalava sailing boat, lakkajiara, with a single outrigger, the
float of which has superfluous, overloaded terminal enlargements that resemble the
ends of the Hawaiian double canoe, and, Miiller adds, perhaps is evidence that
Malays voyaged to Madagascar in double canoes (1912, /.n., p. 239). I have recently
come across a book by L. (1598) who gives a plate, on p. 6 (drawn in 1595), of two dug-
outs with a double outrigger of two booms and a vertical stick attachment ; the float
appears to be a long thin log. This is the earliest record known to me of this kind
of craft in Madagascar, and it adds to the interest to find that it occurred in St.
Augustin Bay on the south-west part of the island.

To the east of Indonesia canoes with a single outrigger are the common type
in Oceania, and in New Guinea they begin to appear in Geelvink Bay and continue
down the coast (p. 1 22, and Haddon, 1913). The double outrigger is found throughout
Geelvink Bay and ceases at Cape D'Urville, at its eastern entrance, but within this
area the single outrigger predominates and, like the double-outrigger type, has three
or four to a dozen booms. Both kinds of canoes have a new type of attachment
which consists of a nail-like wooden spike or stick which passes from above through
the end of the boom and is driven vertically into the float. Spikes are usually
selected which have a natural thin branch projecting at right angles ; this is laid
over the boom and tied firmly to it (Fr., II, pp. 249, 252-254). Both kinds of spikes
{i.e., with or without the branch) appear to be used indiscriminately and separately,
at all events at Ansus (Guillemard, pp. 401, 402, 404 ; G., Nos. 271, 296, 302, 4:59,
442). This may be termed a " spike attachment." An inner longitudinal spar is
frequently present (p. 127). .

THE NUMBER OF THE OUTRIGGER BOOMS.

South of a line which passes north of Borneo, Celebes, Halmahera, and Ceram
the outriggers almost invariably have but two booms, whereas to the north and east
of it they have usually four, rarely more, sometimes three and occasionally only
two booms (Map, p. 7 ).

In the Andamans the smaller canoes are fitted with a single outrigger consisting
of three to seven booms (A. R. Brown MS.). Mouat figures four (p. 315). as does
Folkard (p. 460). Man (XII, PI. VII) gives a photograph of a small " dug-out called
chd-rigma " (p. 116), which has three. Models in the British, Cambridge, Edinburgh,
Halifax, Horniman, and Oxford Museums have three. As the early writers did not
mention an outrigger, Mouat thought that it was a recent introduction, but Man
(XI, p. 272) denies this. Mouat also supposed that it was adopted from the Ceylonese
craft, but the type of attachment entirely negatives this wild suggestion As we
shall see, the stick attachment is, however, very close to that of the Nicobarese

canoes.

There are only two booms in the Nicobarese canoes.

Judging from photographs (G., No. 267) four booms may occur at Misol and Weda

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

Bay (G., No. 292, Fig. 6), but usually in Weda Bay, Patani, and Bali, all in Halmahera,
the outrigger has two booms with a Halmaheran attachment, but frequently there is
a central " false boom," the end of which is connected only by a lashing to the centra

FIG. 6. CANOE WITH DOUBLE OUTRIGGER, FOUR BOOMS, AND HALMAHERAN ATTACHMENT,
WEDA BAY, HALMAHERA (Photo G., No. 292).

of the float (Friederici, II, p. 242). Forrest figures a " Molucca Corocoro " (pi. 4,
p. 82) with three booms off Batjan (cf, p. 110), and a similar vessel at the Kanari
Islands, north-west of Misol (pi. 15, p. 172).

There is a model of a large plank boat from Gowa, South Celebes, in the Leiden
Museum, with a double outrigger, five booms with a direct attachment to each float ;
of these the fore and aft booms are inserted into the float, while the three middle
ones are lashed to the underside of the float. It would not be surprising if this were a
model of a craft coming from the Sulu area (p. 114). There are usually three booms
at Buton, an island off the south-east point of Celebes (Friedenci, II, p. 235). Professor
S. J. Hickson has presented to the Cambridge Museum several small models of cere-
monial sakit canoes from Nanusa Island, north-east of Celebes ; they have either two
or three booms which are pegged 1 on to the floats, or the outrigger may be absent
(1893, Fig., p. 290). This island is just on the above-mentioned border line. In
spite of these exceptions the canoes of Celebes appear predominantly to have but
two booms.

More than two booms usually occur in the Sangir Islands (Miiller, p. 244).

In the Sulu Islands small canoes may have but two booms (Guillemard, 1889,
p. 206 ; G., Nos. 180, 217), but usually there are three (Fig. 7) (Wilkes, V, p. 333 ;..
Burbidge, p. 225 ; G., No. 4) or four (Guillemard, 1889, p. 192 ; G., Nos. 115, 142,

FIG. 7. CANOE WITH DOUBLE OUTRIGGER, THREE BOOMS, AND DIRECT LASHED ATTACHMENT;

SULU (Photo G., No. 4).
1 I do not regard the pegs as being significant ; they are probably merely a labour-saving device.

A. C. HADDON.-rfe Outrigger, of Indonetian Cane,. 81

180, 192, 211 ; model of a "piratical prahu," dapang, Edinburgh Museum) In

hose canoes he fore and aft booms are a,way a straight, whereas the central LL

are downwardly curved at their ends (Fig. 7). Pritchett (p. 183 i

P-rate craft off north point of Borneo with a double outri^r co
downwardly curved booms (Fig. 8) ; it was probably a Sulu vessel.

FIG. 8. PIRATE CRAFT OFF NORTH POINT OF BORNEO

(AFTER PRITCHETT, p. 183).

In the Philippines three booms may occur at Manila and on Lake Lanao in
Mindanao (Vojnich, pp. 378, 383).

In numerous pictures of the East Indian seas given by old Dutch voyagers there
are depicted large sailing war-vessels with massive outriggers possessing several
(usually three) booms, on or under which are fastened a variable number of longi-
tudinal planks (i.e., parallel to the hull) which are used as seats by the paddlers.
I shall refer later to these craft and to the ancient Indo-Javanese vessels which had
at least three booms to their outriggers. Weule figures (PI. 112, Fig. 7) a double
outrigger " Boot von den Molukken," but gives no further particulars ; it has three
booms and what may be a Moluccan attachment, a board is lashed to the underside
of the booms midway between the hull and each float, on which three men sit and
paddle.

Throughout Polynesia, with but few exceptions, the canoes have two outrigger-
booms. Two straight booms are found in the Pelew, Marianne, and typically in
the Caroline Groups ; characteristic of the Marshall Group are two straight booms,
the end of each of which is supported by a straight stick which is inserted into the
float and apparently also into the boom, on each side of the booms are three curved

82 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

booms, the ends of which are lashed to the float (Model, Salem Museum ; Alexander,
pi. 36, pp. 805, 806), a variant from Nonuti, Gilbert Islands, is shown in Fig. 29
see also p. 124. Equally characteristic is the presence of three (or four) out-rigger-
booms in Melanesia, but in New Guinea there is considerable diversity. In all of
these areas there is a single outrigger, with the exceptions noted on pp. 79, 122 ; in
those cases where the outrigger is double there are but two booms.

The only instances known to me in Indonesia of but one outrigger-boom are those
associated with a single outrigger in a toy boat from Borneo (Fig. 32), and in the
case recorded by Hornell from North Java (1919, Fig. 1), and the model from Manila
(p. 114, Figs. 30, 31) in which the outrigger is double.

Professor J. Stanley Gardiner has given to the Cambridge Museum a toy canoe,
abbuodi, from the Maldive Islands. It has a single outrigger and only one boom, the
end of which is morticed into the float. He informs me that boys frequently use
canoes with one, two, or three booms. The men's canoes have no outrigger, but the
old people say that outrigger canoes were formerly used extensively ; one man
called them " rafts."

There is a model in the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass., of a canoe from Ruk,
Caroline Group, with a long single boom on one side only which is strengthened by
two horizontal convergent sticks from the fore and aft quarters of the hull ; there are
two central parallel short ridges on the canoe-shaped float, the boom rests in a notch
in the inner one and is inserted into a hole in the outer one. Muller (1917, I, Fig.
295, p. 199) gives an illustration of a toy sailing canoe, tatareg, from Yap in the same
group ; it is something similar to the preceding one, but there is an obscure indirect
attachment. The play-boat figured by Kramer (1906, p. 291) from the Gilbert
Islands appears to be very similar.

THE ATTACHMENT OF THE BOOMS TO THE HULL.

In the majority of cases the booms rest on the gunwales, especially when the
hull consists solely of a dug-out. In the Andamans, however, the booms pass through
holes in both sides of the dug-out (Fig. 11, A, D).

It not infrequently happens that a length of sapling or bamboo is lashed to
the upper border of the dug-out and the booms rest on this gunwale spar, as it may be
termed. The object of this spar is obviously to protect the edges of the hull ; it is
widely distributed in Oceania.

In the Nicobars, according to A. R. Brown MS., the booms rest on the gunwales
and a gunwale spar is fastened over them along the length of the canoe (Fig. 10, B),
but Svoboda (VI, PI. 1) figures the ordinary arrangement.

Sometimes the booms lodge in notches in the gunwale, or the gunwale may be
locally raised at the spots which support the booms ; the upper edges of these
protuberances may be notched.

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 83

THE FLOAT.

The float usually consists of a single log of wood or piece of bamboo. When
not otherwise stated it may be assumed that the float is single, but occasionally two
or more bamboos (or pieces of wood) are employed, in which case it may be termed a
double, treble, or multiple float.

The float, when made of bamboo, has its ends cut square, but when made of
wood it is usually trimmed ; the fore end only or both ends may be pointed, or the
fore end and occasionally both ends may have an upward curve.

THE ATTACHMENTS BETWEEN THE BOOMS AND THE FLOAT AND THEIR

DISTRIBUTION. 1

There are various methods in the attachment between the booms and the float.
The main groups are :

A. Direct.

1. Inserted. -The ends of both booms are inserted into the float. This appears
to be very rare, if it actually does occur in practice, in Indonesia. According to
Folkard's drawing (p. 480) the Sumatran jellore and ballellang have booms with
downwardly curved ends which appear to be inserted into the floats ; unfortunately
the drawings in his book are on too small a scale for the details of attachment to
be reliable. The toy boats of Sarawak (Fig. 32) have this method. The Balinese
attachment (p. 88) really belongs here.

2. Lashed. The ends of all the booms are lashed to the float (Figs. 1, 2, 5, 7).
This type is widely spread throughout Indonesia. It has been noted at Mentawei
(Rosenberg, PI. XVIII, Fig. 9) ; Engano (model, Leiden) ; Palembang in Sumatra

model, Amsterdam) ; Madura (model, Amsterdam ; model, Leiden, in this case
each float consists of two bamboos between which is a small peg which projects on
the under and upper surfaces of the boom, evidently to render the lashing more
secure) ; Java (L., I, p. 356) ; Bali (Fr., II, p. 235, Fig. 1, on a dyukun canoe) ;
Sumba or Sandalwood Island (model, Amsterdam) ; Lomblen, between Flores and
Timor (model, Leiden) ; Baba, west of Tenimber (Pfluger, p. 145, no description ) ;
freshwater creek of Totoat, Kei Islands (Langen, p. 52, poor figure, no description) ;
Lintschotus illustrates a sailing vessel apparently of this type with the inscription
" Navium quibus Bantam utunter " (Tertia pars, DCI, XXIIXA), but the booms
may have been inserted into the float ; Lake Wakollo or Wakoholo, Buru (Forbes,
PI. p. 405, no description ; K. Martin, 1894, p. 329, PI. XLV, with three slightly
curved booms) ; Batjan (G., No. 336) ; Ternate (L., II, Pis. 14, 15 ; Kiikenthal,
PI. 7, Fig. 13, obscure, no description) ; Lake Galela in North Halmahera (KUkenthal,
p. 172) ; Makassar (Valentijn, No. 23, p. 136) ; Gowa in South Celebes (model
Leiden) ; Paloppo and Libukang in the Gulf of Boni, Celebes (P. and F. Sarasin,
1 Map p 71. The distribution outside of Indonesia is given later, p. 124.

84 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

1905, 1, Fig. 53 ; II, Figs. 62, 63) ; Ussu on the Malili River and Lake Matanna, at the
north-east end of the Gulf of Boni and Paloppo (Grubauer, Figs. 15, 38, 39, 108) ;
Kema, North Celebes (G., No. 62) ; Sangir (model, Amsterdam, single outrigger
with two booms and an outlay er, Fig. 5) ; Talaut Islands (" Geisterkahn " or sakit
canoe, Dresden, Meyer and Eichter, PI. I, Fig. 10) ; Sulu Islands (Wilkes, Vol. V.,
p. 333 ; Burbidge, p. 225 ; Savage Landor, II, pp. 2, 12 ; Miiller, p. 244, Fig. 55 ;
Guillemard, 1889, pp. 192, 206 ; G., Nos. 4, 142, 180, 211, 217) ; Cagayanes Group
(Savage Landor, I, p. 228) ; Manila and district of Lake Lanao, Mindanao (Vojnich,
pp. 378, 383) ; Pasig Eiver, Manila (p. 114, Fig. 30) ; Zamboanga and Zebu (Miiller,
p. 244, Fig. 57) ; the " Pirate* craft off north point of Borneo " (Fig. 8) (Pritchett,
p. 183) appears to belong here.

In a large canoe at Amboina figured by Valentijn (No. XXX, p. 124) the booms
seem to be lashed directly to the float, they have a zigzag appearance and support
planks for paddlers, but the illustration is not convincing.

3. Mixed Direct Attachment. A model of a fishing boat, sampan, from Panarukan,
Madura Strait, in the Rotterdam Museum, has two booms, one of which is straight
and tied to the float, while the other is downwardly curved and inserted into the float.
Practically the same arrangement is shown in a model from " Java " in the Am-
sterdam Museum (Fig. 9). In the Leiden Museum are two models from Madura, in
which the fore boom is straight with its ends lashed to the floats, while the aft boom
is short and straight and has inserted into each end a straight spar with a downwardly

FIG. 9. MODEL WITH DOUBLE OUTRIGGER AND MIXED
DIRECT ATTACHMENT, JAVA (AMSTERDAM).

curved end which is inserted into the float ; these booms are probably intended to
represent a sedek (p. 89), and if so this is an example of a mixed direct and Balinese
attachment. I think in all these cases it is the fore boom which is lashed to and the
aft boom which is inserted into the float.

A model of a large plank boat in the Leiden Museum from Gowa, South Celebes,
has five booms of which the fore and aft booms are inserted into the float, while the
three middle ones are lashed to the underside of the float (pp. 80, 106, 113, 114).

B. Indirect.

(a) Attachment inserted into the Float.

Stick Attachment. Attachments which consist of one, two, or more sticks, one
end of each stick is lashed to the boom while the other is inserted into the float.

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoe*.

The sticks may be vertical, in which case there may be only a single stick, or there
may be two or more sticks, either on one or on both sides of the boom ; the stick -
may be irregularly oblique, in oblique parallel pairs or a pair of oblique sticks may
converge over the boom ; a pair of sticks may cross under the boom, undercrossed,
in which case the boom typically rests on the crossing, or the crossing may take place
over the boom, overcrossed.

In the outrigger canoe, due, of the Nicobars the attachment consists typically
of a double set of three sticks, heneme, which are inserted into the float, hentahn, and
lashed to the boom, deia due, in such a way that two sticks generally cross each
other below the boom, while the third may be vertical or oblique, and may be fore
or aft of the boom (Fig. 10, C, D) ; occasionally a pair of sticks converge over the
boom, the third being more oblique (Fig. 10, F). ' The two sets of three sticks diverge
from the median line of the float (Fig. 10, A). Sometimes there is also a central
pair of undercrossed sticks, which is inserted vertically between these two, as in

D_ O Q

FIG. 10. STICK ATTACHMENTS, NICOBARS : A-C (A. R. BROWN MS.) C, REPRESENTS THE ARRANC
MENT OF THE STICKS ; IN A, ONLY TWO OF THE SIX STICKS ARE SHOWN ; D, E, MODELS (OXFO

F, MODEL (EDINBURGH).

models in the Oxford Museum (Fig. 10, E). In a model in the Edinburgh Museum
one set consists of two sticks which are almost parallel and converge slightly over
the boom and a third oblique stick (Fig. 10, F).

The native names are taken from Svoboda, who does not describe the arra
ment of the sticks, nor are his figures at all clear (VI, PL I, Figs. 11, 17) ; he also giv
an illustration (V, p. 193) of a toy canoe in which both booms pass
hull and rest on the float and are tied to an adjacent short peg wh.
into the float. A good illustration of a model of a sailing canoe, which shows
details of the sticks, is given by Man (XI., PI. XXIV), later (XV, pp. 436 4
alludes to Nicobarese canoes without saying anything about outrigg,
53 79) gives short accounts of the canoes, dp, and two excellent plate;

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

the latter shows the attachments very well, as does the plate, p. 345, Journ.
Anthrop. InsL, VI, 1877, cf. p. 209.

The Andamanese attachment consists most frequently of one set of two under-
crossed sticks and one vertical stick, which may be on either side of the boom
(Fig. 11, B). This arrangement occurs in one attachment in a model in the Cambridge
Museum, while in the other two attachments two sticks cross over the boom and a
third vertical stick is present (Fig. 11, D). In a model in the Horniman Museum
the three booms each have an attachment of only two sticks which converge over the
boom. Models in the British Museum, Oxford, and Edinburgh Museums, have three
booms with a single pair of oblique sticks which cross under the boom (Fig. 11, E).

FIG. 11. STICK ATTACHMENTS, ANDAMANS : A, B, GREAT ANDAMAN, C, LITTLE ANDAMAN (A. B.
BROWN MS.) ; D, MODEL (CAMBRIDGE) ; E, MODEL (BRITISH MUSEUM).

In the Little Andaman (A. R. Brown MS.) there are three vertical sticks, two on one
side of the boom and one on the other. There is, however, some variation in the
arrangement in the various models, even in the attachments of the several booms
in the same model ; for example, in the Halifax Museum, a model of a large canoe,
roko, has three booms the attachment of two is typical, while in the third the boom
passes between a pair of crossed sticks and the vertical stick, but this is probably
due to careless workmanship. There is frequently in addition a couple of lashings
(Fig. 11, A, D, E) or a single one, of ratan from the boom to the float to render the
attachment more secure. A good photograph of an outrigger canoe, chd-rigma, and
of the larger kind without outriggers, gi lyanga, is given by Man (XII, p. 116, PL VII).

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

With these exceptions, a stick attachment of this kind has not been recorded
for Indonesia, though, as we shall see (p. 125), it is very common in Oceania.

Rod Attachment. This attachment, which consists of a more or less vertical rod
or stick inserted into the float at its lower end, has not hitherto been recorded from
Indonesia as an attachment for all of the booms of a canoe. That it may have
occurred there is possible, as it is found in some mixed types (pp. 92, 96). To avoid
confusion with the above-mentioned stick attachment this may conveniently be
termed a " rod attachment."

Spike Attachment (pp. 79, 127). Y-shaped Stick Attachment (p. 127).

Board Attachment. Hornell has recently described a form of attachment to
which the term " board " may be applied (1919, No. 55). It consists of a short,
broad and relatively thin piece of wood ; its lower end is inserted into the float
while the boom passes through its upper end ; in these two respects it resembles the
more stick-like attachment of the East African canoes (pp. 79, 128 ; Haddon, 1918,
No. 29). This attachment has been recorded only from the north coast of Middle
Java, where it is associated with a single outrigger and a single boom. It seems to
be related, however, to an attachment figured by Nicolas (1601, II, Pis. 14, 15, 17)
on trading- and war-vessels at Ternate (p. 110) and by De Bry (1601, V, Pis. XII,
XVI) on similar craft from the Moluccas. At that time the larger boats of the
Moluccas had a double outrigger of three stout straight booms, each of which was
supported in a deep notch in a short board which was apparently inserted into the
float (Fig. 12 B). I propose to refer to this type as a Y -board attachment. Valentijn

FIG 12 -" CORACORA A," THE DOUBLE OUTRIGOEB HAS A FLOAT CONSISTING OF TWO PLANKS
' B, "THE KARKOLLA OF THE KING OF TERNATE," WITH A Y-BOARD ATTACHMB1
THIS IS A MADURA WAR SHIP. (DE BRY ; AND NICOLAS, 1601, pi. 9, p. 116.)

88 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

(p. 363) shows these boards as also lashed to the floats on Moluccan vessels. A thick
longitudinal spar or board ran across the ends of the booms, presumably to keep
them in place, this was frequently utilized as a seat for paddlers. In one coracom
there was apparently a straight Halmaheran attachment near each end of
the longitudinal spar. Generally one or two planks are fastened transversely to
the booms upon which men sit to paddle. In an illustration entitled " De Cora-cora
van Titaway " (Fig. 13) there are six outrigger booms which are supported by as

FIG. 13. " DE CORA-CORA VAN TITAWAY " (VALENTIJN, No. XLII, p. 184).

many short, thick, squared bars of wood which appear to be inserted into the float,
a plank on which eight men sit to paddle replaces the longitudinal spar, there are four
other similar planks on the lowermost of which are also paddlers.

Balinese Attachment. We may adopt Hornell's term for the type of attachment
which consists of a straight or slightly curved spar one end of which is spliced, pegged
and lashed to each end of both of the short straight booms, the other being inserted
into the float and reinforced by lashing (1919, No. 55). This type was first described
and figured by Friederici (II, p. 235, Fig. 2) (Fig. 14 A), who gives the Bali names for

FIG. 14. BALINESE ATTACHMENT : A, BALI (FRIEDERICI, II, fig. 2) ; B, MODEL FROM
BANJUWANGJ, E. JAVA (EDINBURGH).

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 89

boom, brayunan, " intermediate piece," sedek, and float, kater. Hornell gives a good
photograph (1919, PI. G., A) of a Lombok canoe, and figures details of the sedek from
Boleleng, Bali. There is a model of a sailing boat, dukong, from Banjuwangi, Java,
on the Bali Strait, in the Edinburgh Museum with this attachment (Fig. 14 B).

Hornell suggests that this is a device for extending the boom downwards so as
to save the necessity for searching for a naturally-bent piece of wood with which to
construct an outrigger-boom of the required form. As I have stated (p. 73), the
sedek may be regarded as one form of the " boom-prolongation." If the sedek were
a form of Halmaheran attachment one would expect it to be only lashed to the float,
whereas it is inserted into it, as it appropriately would be if it were derived from a
direct inserted attachment ; the upper end is virtually an integral part of the boom
and not a spar lashed on to it. As the sedek is an added piece, this form of attachment
is strictly speaking " indirect," but if it be regarded merely as a prolongation of the
boom it should be described as a " direct inserted attachment."

(6) Attachment tied to the Float.

Moluccan. The typical Moluccan attachment is formed by a U -shaped piece of
ratan, the horns of which are lashed to one side of the free end of each of the booms,
and the base is lashed to the float (Figs. 3, 15).

FIG. 15. MOLUCCAN ATTACHMENTS : A, BATJAN ; B, AMBOINA ; C, BANDA (A, C, FROM
PHOTOGRAPHS, G., 334, 161 ; B, AFTER FRIEDERICI, II, fig. la).

It has been noted from models at Wetta (Riedel, Pis. XLI, Fig. 12 ; XLIII,
Fig. 8, Baessler, p. 78, PI. VII, Fig. 4) ; Batu mera in the south-east islands of the
Kei Group (model, Amsterdam) ; Buru (Riedel, from model, PL I ; FT., " here and
there," III, p. 161); Amboina (K. Martin, 1894, p. 232; Fr., II, Fig. 7a, p. 237;
model, Leiden, on aft side of all the booms) ; Uliassers (Fr., Ill, p. 161)^; Ceram
(Fr., Ill, p. 161, " with the exception of a few places on the north coast "
Ceram, K. Martin, 1894, p. 232, Pis. XII, XXVIII, Fig. 15) ; Ombi, north of Ceram
(Fr. II, p. 239) ; Batjan (Fr., II, p. 239, " predominates " ; G., Nos. 328, 331,
336); Ternate (Kukenthal,Pl. 5,Fig. 8 ; Fr.,II, Fig. 11, p. 240," greatlylpredominates'
G No 327) ; northern Halmahera (" occasionally " at Ake-Selaka, Tobelo anc
Galela, Fr., II, pp. 240, 242, Figs. 11, 27a ; III, p. 161) ; Buton (Fr., II, Fig. 3, usual
with three booms and three bamboos to form the float, p. 235).

Other varieties of this type are the O-shaped attachment which predomu
at Amboina (Fr., II, p. 237 ; Pfluger, p. 131 ; models, Leiden), and the
attachment which is the common form at Banda (Fr., II, p. 237 ; G., No. 1

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

The Moluccan attachments of boats between Selang and Batjan figured by
Forrest (pi. 4, p. 82, pi. 5, p. 86) are not very clear ; the former is a " Molucca Coro-
coro," and has three booms, a tripod mast and a lyre tanjong sail.

Halmaheran. This attachment consists of a variously shaped spar which is
lashed above to a boom and below to the float (Figs. 4, 6, 16, 17).

In order to prevent confusion with the " stick " attachment, which is inserted
into the float, I propose to refer to this element as a " spar," even when it is a simple
rod or stick. This is the " oblique " or " elbow-stanchion type " of Hornell. The
term " Halmaheira-Verbindung," like that of " Molukken-Verbindung," was
introduced by Friederici (II, p. 239).

The simplest condition consists of a straight spar which may be vertical, as in a
Batjan canoe (Fig. 16 F ; G., 336) and in a sailing vessel, bero, at the Tenimber Islands
(Eiedel, PI. XXVII, Fig. 9, I assume that the spar is tied to and not inserted into

FIG. 16. HALMAHERAN ATTACHMENTS : A, BUTON ; B, C, AKKE SELAKA, AND D, WED A BAY,
HALMAHERA (FRIEDERICI II, pp. 235 ff., figs. 4, 22, 17, 27) ; E, MODEL FROM TALAUT (AMSTER-
DAM) ; F, BATCHAN (PHOTO G., 336).

the float in this case) ; or oblique, as in a canoe on the Bay of Bara, north coast of
Bum (K. Martin, 1903, PI. XIV) and Banda (G., 346). The attachment of the central
booms of the Sangir canoe (Fig. 2, D) may be a variant.

The spar may be forked and practically horizontal (model from Tenimber, Leiden),
p. 76 and Fig. 4 ; usually it is more or less vertical, Batjan (G., Nos. 328, 331),
Misol (G., No. 267) or oblique, North Ceram (K. Martin, 1894, PL XXVIII, Fig. 16).

FIG. 17. CANOE WITH DOUBLE OUTRIGGER, HALMAHERAN ATTACHMENT, AND AN INNER AND AN
OUTER LONGITUDINAL SPAR. BATJAN (FROM PHOTO G., 331).

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 91

Most frequently the spars are angled, elbowed, or bent in various ways (Fig. 16).
If the main stem of a forked spar were cut off immediately above the fork an angled
spar would result. The stem may be straight and the upper part bowed (Fig. 6) ;
the spar may have a slight sigmoid flexure, which may be so slight as to be almost
straight. Occasionally the spar is sharply bent, with the ends pointing downwards,
as in a Buton canoe (Fr., II, p. 235, Fig. 4), or with the ends pointing upwards as
in a model from Talaut in the Amsterdam Museum (Figs. 16 A and E).

These variations, so far as my data go, do not appear to be significant as regards
form or distribution, since nearly every variety occurs on the coasts of or on the
islands immediately adjacent to Celebes, and elsewhere several varieties are found
in the same spot ; sometimes two varieties may be found on a single canoe.

It occurs at Lombok (" common," Hornell, p. 99) ; Timor (photo.) ; ? Baba
(Pfluger, p. 147) ; Tenimber (Riedel, model, PI. XXVII, Fig. 9 ; model, Leiden) ;
Dobbo, Aru Islands (0. Warburg photo, in Krieger, PI. 29) ; Bum (K. Martin, 1894,
PI. XLVI, 1903, PI. XIV ; Hornell, p. 99) ; Banda and Ambon (" occasionally," Fr.,
II, p. 239) ; Ceram, north coast (K. Martin, 1894, p. 232, PI. XXVIII, Fig. 16 ;
Fr., II, p. 239 ; Hornell, p. 99) ; Misol (G., No. 267) ; Ombi (Obi) (Fr., II, p. 239,
"common type " ; Hornell, p. 99) ; Batjan (" a few," Fr., p. 239 ; G., Nos. 328,
331, 336) ; Tidor (K. Martin, 1894, p. 233) ; Ternate (model, Leiden) ; Halmahera :
Weda Bay (Fr., II, p. 242, Fig. 27), Ake Selaka (Fr., pp. 240, 243, Figs. 17, 22, 23),
Patani and Buli (two booms, often with a central false-boom, Fr., p. 242), Tobelo
and Galela (" greatly predominates," Fr., pp. 240, 242) ; Xulla, or Sula (K. Martin,
1894, p. 233 ; Fr., Ill, p. 161 ; Hornell, p. 99) ; Buton (Fr., pp. 235, 239, Fig. 4) ;
Celebes : Makassar (R. Martin, 1894, p. 233) ; Gowa (model, Leiden) ; Konaweha
River, South-east Celebes (Sarasin, I, p. 376, photo, but no description) ; Malili
River, at the north-east corner of the head of the Gulf of Boni (Grubauer, Figs. 8, 10) ;
Gulf of Gorontalo or Tomini : Pogoyama (G., No. 242), Todjo, Gulf of Tomini (Adriani
and Kruyt, No. 9, Chap. 5) ; Minahassa (Dumont d'Urville L' Astrolabe, Atlas-,
Pis. 192, 204), Kema (G., No. 232), Limbe Island (Guillemard, PI. p. 325) ; Menado
(Hornell, PI. G, B, and Fig. 3 ; models, Leiden) ; Tontoli (Toli-Toli), North-west

Celebes (Pfluger, p. 85).

Although they are nominally beyond the scope of this paper, the outrigger
canoes of North-west New Guinea must be alluded to as they differ from those of
other parts of New Guinea and undoubtedly are of direct Indonesian origin, and can
be perfectly matched by a type from Weda Bay in Halmahera (Fig. 6). So far
as I can gather, but one type of outrigger extends from Skroe to Waigiu and posa
to Manukwari (Dorei) at the westerly opening of Geelvink Bay, where and
east it is replaced by other attachments.

At Skroe (a port founded by the Dutch in 1899 on the north shore <
Kampauer, i.e., on the south side of Onin Peninsula), judging from Pfliiger's sma
and indistinct photograph (p. 171), the double outrigger has four booms, the two

92 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

and the two aft of which are nearer together than are the two central ones ; there
is a Halmaheran attachment of the Waigiu type. Apparently, according to Pfliiger's
photographs (pp. 174, 175) a similar type occurs at Sekar (Segaar) on the south shore
of Telok Berow (Berou) or McClure Inlet, i.e., on the north side of Onin Peninsula ;
Kreiger says they have very high boats with outriggers (p. 385). Dr. Guillemard's
photographs (G., Nos. 305, 427, and 1889, p. 373) of canoes in Chabrol Bay, Waigiu
(Waigeil), shows the same type of canoe as that recorded by Friederici (II, p. 248,
Figs. 29, 30 ; Hornell, p. 99) at Saonek, an islet near the south coast of Waigiu and
among the Sorong (Soron) people on the island of Dom, who removed there in 1865
from Sorong, a village near Cape Spencer, or Kaap Noi, on the mainland of New Guinea
(Fr., II, p. 248, Fig. 28 ; Hornell, p. 99). The dug-out or plank-built canoes have
double outriggers. In the interior of the hull are transverse struts and lateral
longitudinal spars as at Manukwari and Japeri ( Jobi) in Geelvink Bay to the east and
at Halmahera to the west. The sides of the larger canoes are heightened by super-
imposed wash-strakes, and not by gabbagabba as in further east. The four booms of
the outrigger stretch across the wash-strakes, to which they are lashed by means of
ledges (" Leisten " or patnati), but in small canoes they rest directly on the edges
of the dug-out. The two floats may be shorter than the hull, or, as in Sorong, like
sledge-runners, and, as in Tahiti, run far forward, the last attachment spar being
near its aft end. There is a Halmaheran attachment of a long fairly straight spar
with a bent end, sometimes it is an elbowed spar ; an inner longitudinal spar passes
over the four booms and underneath the angle of the spars. Friederici figures an
attachment at Saonek with an additional outer longitudinal spar, the float in this
instance is composed of two bamboos instead of the usual single one. The larger
craft have a platform with side rails and an atap roof. On the booms, on both sides
of the canoe, there are usually forked supports for gear, which have a crescentic or
other form ; on one side lies the unshipped triangle-mast and on the other the rolled-up
sail (Fr., II, p. 248).

C. Mixed Attachments.

In the foregoing accounts the attachments are similar on all the booms of a
canoe. I now proceed to give examples of mixed attachments.

The mixed direct attachment and mixed direct and Balinese attachment have already
been described (p. 84).

Mixed Direct and Rod Attachment. Prichett (p. 175) gives a drawing (Fig. 18)
oi a sailing canoe, sukung, from Probolingo, Madura Strait, in which the fore boom
appears to be a boom-prolongation which is lashed to the float, or it may be that the
boom is in one piece, but its diameter markedly varies in parts. The same applies
to the aft boom except that the boom-prolongation is thicker and is upwardly curved
with a swollen end, this is connected with the float by means of a rod which may
be lashed to the boom or may pass through it ; the lower end appears to be inserted

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

into the float, but the drawing is not decisive as regards these two point*. In
referring to the " outrigger supports " he says, " The one forward being low down and

FIG. 18. FISHING BOAT, sukung, WITH MIXED DIRECT AND ROD ATTACHMENT,
PROBOLINGO, MADURA STRAIT (PRITCHETT, p. 175).

that aft curving up pronouncedly, to allow the wash to pass under freely when the
vessel is at her high speed " (p. 174).

A model (Fig. 19) of a sekong in the Rotterdam Museum from Pasuruan, in Madura
Strait, seems to clear up the points that are doubtful in Pritchett's drawing. Both
of the short booms have a boom-prolongation, the fore one is lashed to the float, the

FIG. 19. MODEL OF A Sekong WITH MIXED DIRECT AND ROD
ATTACHMENT, PAStfRAN, E. JAVA (ROTTERDAM).

free end of the aft one is expanded and decorated with fret carving, a rod passes
through this boom-prolongation and is inserted into the float, a lashing also connects
the boom and the float at this spot.

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indo'nesian Canoes.

In a sketch by Miiller (1912, p. 244, Fig. 22) of a canoe from Madura (Fig. 20),
the fore boom is a doubly bent yoke-shaped bar, the ends of which are lashed to the
floats ; the aft boom, or boom-prolongation, is strongly curved upwardly, being
almost U-shaped, each divergent limb being connected by means of a vertical T-

FIG. 20. SKETCH OF A MIXED DIRECT AND BOD ATTACHMENT, MADURA

(FROM MULLER, 1912, fig. 22).

shaped rod with the float ; the transverse upper end of the rod is presumably lashed
to the boom and probably its lower end is inserted into the float. Thus in all the
main points the outrigger agrees with that of the Probolingo boat.

The same author gives a sketch (Fig. 21) of a canoe from the Bawean Islands ;
the fore boom is straight, how it is attached to the float is not evident, but it is a
direct attachment. The author states that at the stern the bamboo floats are
suspended without spars (Auslegerstange) from an elastic bent rod which is concave
above (p. 244). If, as his sketch indicates, this rod is all in one piece, it must be made
of bent ratan, as it is inconceivable that the whole apparatus could be made out of

FIG. 21. SKETCH OF A MIXED DIRECT AND ROD ATTACHMENT, BAWEAN ISLANDS

(FROM MULLER, 1912, fig. 23).

a single piece of wood. In either case the form requires explanation ; we may
therefore suppose that it consists of the characteristically upwardly curved boom
or boom-prolongation to each end of which a vertical rod is fastened, the lower end
of which is apparently inserted into the boom ; if this be so, it falls in with the
previous examples. Miiller states that he made these sketches whilst on board a
steamer.

Mixed Direct and Halmaheran Attachment. In the region embracing North
Celebes, Banka, the Talaut (including Sangir) and Tulur Groups canoes have two
outriggers and many of them have but two booms.

A. C. HADDON.-TAe Outrigger, of Indonesian Canoes.

Friederici says : In Minahassa there are outrigger boats whose fore boom is
curved and-^xactly as in Bali, Bugi, Makassar, at the Mariannes, in Tahiti and
at the Marquesas-is fastened directly to the float, while the aft straight boom is
connected by means of an S-shaped spar with the float, semi. According to the
lescription of Graafland (Minahassa, II, pp. 404, 405) this might be considered as a
Moluccan attachment, but it is really, as Dumont d'Urville's drawings (Atlas, PI. 234,
Figs. 1, 2) prove, the Halmaheran attachment " (III, p. 161).

Hickson gives a figure of a model of a sailing dug-out, hndi, from Talisse in the
Banka Strait (Fig. 1, p. 22). The fore boom is strongly curved and its ends are lashed
to the floats which are generally made of two or three pieces of thick bamboo firmly
lashed together. The aft boom is straight and its ends are connected with the floats

FIG. 22. SAILING CANOE, londi, WITH MIXED DIRECT

AND HALMAHERAN ATTACHMENT TALISSE ISLAND,

N.E. CELEBES (HICKSON).

by means of an S-shaped Halmaheran attachment (Fig. 22). In some dug-outs at
Kema, slightly to the south of Banka Strait, the fore-boom is downwardly curved
with a direct lashed attachment, and the shorter straight aft boom is attached to the
float by a bent Halmaheran spar (G., No. 67).

A model canoe from the Talaut Islands in the Amsterdam Museum has two straight
booms, of which the fore one has a direct tied attachment and the aft one has a
bent or bowed spar attachment, but in this case the free ends of the spar are lashed
to the boom and the bend to the float, it thus bears some resemblance to the U -
Moluccan attachment (Fig. 16 E). It may be a spar of this kind to which Graafland
refers.

In Sangir, according to Miiller (1912, f.n., p. 244), the two outer (fore and aft)
booms of the double outrigger and their boom-spars bend downwards and are

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

connected directly with the floats, whereas the central booms have the structure shown
in Fig. 2, D, and have a J_ -shaped attachment spar, the lower end of which is lashed
to the double floats.

There is a very remarkable model in the Oxford Museum, which was collected by
Capt. J. P. Maclear of the " Challenger." The dug-out has notched ends, the upper
part being prolonged into a short upwardly slanting beak, the lower part of the bow
is produced into a long spur which rises in a gentle curve. There are two floats on
each side, each of which has the ordinary pair of booms ; the two fore booms lie very
close together, as do the two aft booms. The fore booms have a direct lashed
attachment. The outer float is attached to its aft boom with a bowed Halmaheran
attachment, while the inner is attached to its aft boom by a ^-shaped Halmaheran
attachment. The forks on the booms have three branches, one long and low down
(like the brow tine of a deer's antler), the other two short and terminal. The fore
forks are lashed to the stouter and hinder of the two fore booms, i.e., the one attached
to the inner float ; a spar rests on the lowest branch of the fork and is lashed in its
middle to the socket of the mast. The inner boom is secured by two lashings within
the hull of the canoe to a cross-bar, the ends of which are kept in place by passing
below projections left in the inner sides of the hull. The mast is stepped in a socket
consisting of a section of bamboo, the upper end of which is lashed to the hinder
fore boom, while the lower end is steadied by a cross-bar passing through it, the ends
of which abut against the inner sides of the hull. I do not know of any other
example of two floats on each side each with its own attachments, the double, treble
or multiple floats previously noted (p. 83, figs. 1, 2 D, 15 B), are treated as if they were
simple floats. There can be no doubt that the specimen came from the North Celebes
area, possibly from the Talaut Group, or possibly from the Nanusa Islands as the ends
of the canoe resemble those of the sakit canoes described by Hickson (cf. pp. 77, 113).

Mixed Rod and Halmaheran Attachment. A photograph (Gr., No. 232) at Kema,
Minahassa, North-east Celebes, shows a canoe with attachments which, are distinct
from any other known to me. At both ends of the canoe there is a framework
consisting of a short straight boom, on which is an equally short upwardly curved spar,
or boom-spar, these are braced by two vertical sticks. At what is presumably the
fore end of the canoe there is a vertical rod which is fastened to the ends of its boom

FIG. 23. MIXED ROD AND HALMAHERAN ATTACHMENT KEMA, N.E. CELEBES

(PHOTO G., 232).

A. C. H ADDON. Tfa Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 97

and curved boom-spar and appears to be inserted into the float. At the other end
the rod is replaced by a bent spar, which appears to be a true Halmaheran attach-
ment, as it is lashed to the float. The first of these attachments somewhat resembles
the aft attachment of the Bawean canoe (Fig. 21). This Kema type can easily be
resolved into the Sangir type (Fig. 2, D) if the booms and upwardly curved boom-spars
of the latter were greatly shortened and the oblique sticks or stays were placed
vertically. The straight rod also corresponds fairly closely with the J.-shaped spar
of the Sangir type, except perhaps for its attachment to the float.

NOTES ON THE CHARACTERISTIC OUTRIGGER CANOES OF THE MAIN DISTRICTS OP

INDONESIA.

The outrigger canoes of the Andamans and Nicobars have been sufficiently dealt
with on pp. 79, 80, 85, 86. The main point to remember is that in both groups
there is an inserted stick attachment, but in the Andamans the single outrigger
has several booms, while in the Nicobars it has but two.

There is a marked absence of outriggers from the greater part of Sumatra and
Java and from the whole of Borneo, which is evidently due to a knowledge of the
art of building sea-going plank boats and ships, which have supplanted the older types,
as has occurred in the Kei Islands. The general absence of outriggers from the small
craft of the harbours and rivers of Borneo is not so easy of explanation. I feel
considerable hesitation, however, in making definite statements concerning the
distribution of outrigger canoes in certain areas, as I have been able to find very
little positive evidence one way or the other, and negative evidence is full of
pitfalls.

According to Modigliani, canoes are very rare in Nias, and he does not mention
an outrigger (1890, p. 418) ; other authors do not appear to mention them either.

Eosenberg (1878, I, p. 176) figures a canoe, abak, from Mentawei, with a single
outrigger, two booms and a direct lashed attachment. The Mentawei war-ship,
Tcnabat bogolu, figured by Kosenberg (1888, PI. VIII, Fig. 9), is referred to on
pp. 74, 78, 83 ; it has apparently a single outrigger which is on the starboard
side and a direct lashed attachment.

Modigliani describes the simple but seaworthy canoes, eloha, of Engano ; they
are dug-outs with a double outrigger which rests in four deep notches in the gunwale
(1894, p. 206). A model in the Leiden Museum shows two booms and floats far away
from the hull with a direct tied attachment. Giglioli, in describing the specimens
collected by Modigliani, says : " These are long narrow dug-outs [cobara-eloha],
made from a single tree-trunk, with two outriggers ; the cross-pieces or seats are often
beautifully carved, the usual figure being that of a man with arms and legs extended
as if to keep apart the sides of the canoe ; grotesque figures in-coiiu or that of a frog
being swallowed by a snake are amongst the specimens of these quaint Engano

98 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

boat seats. No sails are used, and the paddles are plain and of the usual type "
(1893, p. 131).

At the present day, outriggers appear to be scarce in Sumatra. Friederici
(II, p. 235) states that outriggers have almost disappeared in the Singapore, Banka
and Biliton areas. Dampier narrates in his Voyages that the Nicobar canoe in which
he sailed to Achin had " good outlayers lashed very fast and firm on each side the
vessel, being made of strong poles. So that while these continued firm, the vessel
could not overset ... we were therefore much beholden to our Achinese companions
for this contrivance " (quoted from Kloss, pp. 267, 268). This was in 1688 ; that the
" outlayers " were true outriggers and not outlayers (p. 76) seems probable, as in
his description of his visit to the Nicobars, Dampier speaks of the "small slight
outlayers on one side " of the local canoes (loc. cit., p. 260), and, as we have seen
(p. 78), the Nicobarese canoes have single -outriggers or none at all. Folkard
(p. 480) refers to the long narrow jellore and ballelang of Sumatra which " are fitted
with double outriggers, which stand out a considerable distance from the sides."
He figures a jellore with the sail partly furled, the ends of the two booms curve down-
wardly and apparently are inserted into the floats. Folkard does not say where he
saw these craft, probably it was on the coast of the Palembang district ; he adds,
" jellores have sometimes only one outrigger." Other sailing vessels without
outriggers are the panchallang and the bantang. In the Amsterdam Museum there
is a model of a canoe from Palembang with a double outrigger, two booms and a
direct tied attachment. Giglioli (1893, p. 116 and Fig. 8) describes the Batak solu
dug-outs with a wash-strake but no outrigger ; the bow and stern decorations are
noteworthy, they consist of sticks with tufts of hair and a central phallus ; the bow
in addition has a wooden carved and painted buffalo head. Brenner (1894, p. 284)
refers to two kinds of keel-less dug-outs among the Batak of Lake Toba, the solu
ratsaran or fishing canoe, and the solu bolon for trade and war ; some of the latter,
he says, are provided with an outrigger, but he gives neither an illustration nor a
description. Fischer (p. 114) refers to a model in the Leiden Museum of a sail boat,
djongkang, from Padang, with a double outrigger of two feeble bowed booms ;
Dr. Juynboll informs me that these are half inserted and attached by a nail to
the float.

Hornell's observation that North-Central Java is a locality where the outrigger
pattern of canoe has long been discarded in favour of properly built boats (1919,
p. 98) supports Friederici's remark that outriggers have almost disappeared from.the
Javan coasts (II, p. 235). References have been made (pp. 82, 87) to a degenerate
canoe from North Java described by Hornell.

There is a distinct type of attachment in the Eastern Javan area (Madura
Strait, Madura, and the Bawean Islands) which has already been described (pp. 92-94,
Figs. 18-21). Miiller remarks (p. 244) that the Bawean and Madura boats are quite
isolated in the western archipelago, and only find affinities in the extreme east in the

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 99

South Philippine local group. In both areas the fore boom has a direct attachment
while the aft boom has an indirect attachment. Miiller takes the Sangir model
Fig. 2, D) as a parent type from which the Eastern Javan and South Philippine types
have diverged, and appears to regard the upwardly curved aft booms of the Javan
boats as the equivalent of the upwardly curved " Biigel " (boom-spars, p. 73) of
the South Philippine area (Figs. 2, A, and 7). It seems to me much more reasonable
to regard them as true booms, or boom-prolongations, which are recurved, and not
as reduced boom-spars of the Sangir model, of which the outrigger-boom and oblique
stays have disappeared. In my opinion a much closer analogy is to be met with
in the Northern Celeban types illustrated by Figs. 22 and 23, the main difference
being that in the latter the attachment spar is tied to the float as in the ordinary
Halmaheran attachment, whereas in the Eastern Javan type the attachment rod
appears to be always inserted into the float. The rod-attachment of the Kema
(North Celebes) canoe is associated, as we have seen (p. 96), with a Halmaheran
attachment. The Eastern Javan area is contiguous to and partly overlapped by
that of the Balinese attachment (p. 88). Juynboll describes (p. 37) a model in the
Leiden Museum of a trading vessel (Madura, paduwang from East Java) with a
double outrigger of two booms which are tied to the float.

In Madura and Bali the attachment may be direct and lashed (p. 83). In
Madura Strait the straight fore-boom may be lashed to and the curved aft boom
inserted into the float i.e., a mixed direct attachment (p. 84). Typical of Bali
is the Balinese attachment, which consists of a spar rigidly fastened by one end to
the boom, the other end being inserted into the float ; it also occurs at Lombok
(p. 88). A mixed direct lashed and Balinese attachment occurs at Madura (p. 84).
A mixed direct lashed and rod-attachment occurs in Madura Strait and at the Bawean
Islands, the rod being lashed to or inserted through the boom and inserted into
the float (p. 92).

We may thus define an Eastern Javanese area which includes the extreme
eastern end of that island, Madura, Bawean, and Bali, and is characterized by the
occurrence of attachments which form a gradation of types : (1) In Bali both booms
have the sedek. (2) The fore boom is lashed directly to the float ; the aft boom is
(a) inserted into the float, (6) a prolongation of it, the sedek, is inserted into the float,
(c) a rod is inserted into the float and inserted into or lashed to the boom, or (d) the
aft boom is lashed directly to the float. It is always risky to suggest an evolutionary
series, but it looks as if an inserted direct attachment, here usually under the modified
form of the sedek, might have been the earliest form for both booms. The greatest
strain in an outrigger is at its fore end, and a lashed attachment might have been
adopted to counteract this, while the assumed primitive form would be retained for
the aft boom ; it will be noted that a lashing is provided for the sedek for greater
security. The rod attachment is probably a modification of the sedek. It would
only require that the rod should be lashed to both the boom and the float to convert

c 2

100 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

it into a simple form of Halmaheran attachment. The lashing would give at the
same time greater strength and elasticity and probably less liability to fracture.

The colonization of Java from India, according to Ha veil, was probably a sequence
of the final collapse of the Saka power in India at the beginning of the fifth century,
when the kingdom of Sarashtra or Kathiawar, which had been ruled for centuries by
the Saka dynasty, of foreign origin, was conquered by Chandra-gupta II (Vikra-
maditya) between A.D. 388 and 401. This great monarch, although tolerant of
Buddhism and Jainism, was himself an orthodox Hindu (V. A. Smith, p. 292). " After
that Brahmanism supplanted Buddhism as the principal State religion of India, the
Buddhist art traditions went with the Saka immigrants to Java, where they reached
their highest expression in the magnificent sculptures of Borobudur " (Ha veil,
p. 113).

" ' It having been foretold,' say the [Javanese] chronicles, ' to a king of Kuj'rat,
or Gujerat, that his kingdom would decay and go to ruin altogether, the Prince
resolved to send his son to Java . . . and embarked him with about five thousand
followers for that island. Among these followers were people skilled in agriculture,
artificers, men learned in medicine, able writers, and military men. They sailed in
six large ships and upwards of a hundred small.' [This was in A.D. 603. Later on
a reinforcement was sent of two thousand people.] ' From this period,' continue the
chronicles, ' Java was known and celebrated as a kingdom ; an extensive commerce
was carried on with Gujerat and other countries. . . . During the sovereignty of
the Prince and his two immediate successors, the country advanced in fame and
prosperity . . . artists especially in stone and metals arrived from distant countries '
and temples were constructed . . . ' and at Borobudur in Kedu during these periods
by artists from India.' . . . The building of the splendid shrine of Borobudur, the
most magnificent monument of Buddhist art in the whole of Asia, is ascribed to
circa A.D. 750 to 800, but the decoration of it must have spread over several centuries.
It was not in fact entirely completed before the Buddhist faith in Java was superseded
by orthodox Brahmanism as the State religion, about the tenth century " (Havell,
pp. Ill, 112). C. Leemans, however, states that, according to the annals of Java,
Brawidjaja of Kalinga founded the Empire of Mendang Kamoulan in Java. This
prince arrived in the year 525 of Saka (A.D. 603). What transferred the religion of
Hindustan to Java was not war, these were not conquests, it was commerce and
navigation (p. 541). The fall of the Empire of Borobudur took place towards the
end of the tenth century (p. 537).

Assuming that there was a large organized expedition from India to Java in
A.D. 603, it presupposes a knowledge of the island and of its suitability for colonization,
and for an undetermined time previously there must have been voyages to and fro.
At all events, we can date the sculptures of the ships at latest within the eighth and
tenth centuries and the types of the ships may have been common much earlier.
These carvings are of especial value in the present connection as they are the earliest

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

101

records of outriggers, of which several varieties were fitted to these ocean-faring
plank-built ships.

Representations of seven ships are given in Leemans' atlas of " Boro-Boedoer "
(some of which have been copied by Radhakumud Mookerji), two of which are without
outriggers, one having a simple mast and the other a tripod one. The other five ships
have outriggers which we may suppose were double, as four show a port outrigger,
and one a starboard outrigger. Four have two masts, the other (26) has a single
one ; one (24) clearly has a double or bipedal mast, and in others it is possible that
there may be bipedal or tripod masts, but the details are obscure. In two a single
series of rungs project from the single or both masts, and also in the aft mast of
another (27), but in this ship the foremast has two rungs. In one ship (28) the rungs
appear to abut against rope, it is possible they may have been connected with it.

Three ships have three straight outrigger-booms, another (27) has four booms,
while the three booms of the fifth (28) do not appear to be straight. All these booms
pass below or over a gunwale board. In two ships (26, 27) the straight booms pass

FIG. 24. INDO-JAVANESE SHIP : TWO BIPED MASTS, THBEE STRAIGHT BOOMS
WHICH PASS BETWEEN THE TWO LONGITUDINAL SPARS AND OVER THE
DOUBLE FLOAT, THREE CURVED BOOMS WHICH PASS OVER THE TWO
LONGITUDINAL SPARS AND OVER THE DOUBLE FLOAT (LEEMANS, pi. ciii, 176).

below the single longitudinal spar, in two (24, 25) they pass between the two longi-
tudinal spars. In two ships (25, 27) the ends of these booms lie well above the float,
in one (26) they appear to pass behind the inner element of the double float, and in
a fourth (24) they appear to pass in front of both elements.

In four ships, in association with the straight booms are an equal number of
downwardly curved booms, which usually pass over the gunwale board and under

102

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

FIG. 25. INDO-JAVANESE SHIP : TWO MASTS, THESE STRAIGHT BOOMS
WHICH PASS BETWEEN THE TWO LONGITUDINAL SPARS, THREE CURVED
BOOMS WHICH APPEAR TO PASS BETWEEN THE LONGITUDINAL SPARS,
THEY PASS BETWEEN THE TWO ELEMENTS OF THE DOUBLE FLOAT AND
CURL UP TOWARDS THE UPPER ASPECT OF THE OUTER ELEMENT OF
THE FLOAT (LEEMANS, pi. ci, 172).

FIG. 26. INDO-JAVANESE SHIP : ONE MAST WITH RUNGS, THREE
STRAIGHT BOOMS WHICH PASS BELOW THE LONGITUDINAL
SPAR AND APPARENTLY BELOW THE DOUBLE FLOAT, TWO
FALSE BOOMS, THREE CURVED BOOMS WHICH PASS OVER THE
LONGITUDINAL SPAR AND BETWEEN THE TWO ELEMENTS OF
THE FLOAT (LEEMANS, pi. ccli, 41).

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

103

FIG. 27. INDO-JAVANESE SHIP : TWO MASTS WITH RUNGS, FOUB STRAIGHT
BOOMS WHICH PASS BELOW THE LONGITUDINAL SPAB, FOUB CUBVED
BOOMS WHICH PASS OVEB THE LONGITUDINAL SPAB AND BETWEEN THE
TWO ELEMENTS OF THE DOUBLE FLOAT AND PROJECT BEYOND THE
OUTER OF THESE (LEEMANS, pi. cxxiii, 216).

FIG. 28. rNDO-JAVANESE SHIP : TWO MASTS WITH BUNGS, THBEE
BOOMS WHICH ABE PBOBABLY SLIGHTLY CURVED, THEIR ENDS
ARE PRESUMABLY LASHED TO THE DOUBLE FLOAT (LEEMANS,

pi. Ixviii, 106).

another board or rail. When one longitudinal spar is present (26, 27) they curve over
(in front of) it, or if there are two longitudinal spars they curve over both in one
and doubtfully over the inner and behind the outer (i.e., they pass between them)
in the other. In two cases (25, 27) the curved booms pass between the two elements
of the double float and curl under and more or less to the front of the outer element ;

104 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

in another (26) they simply pass between the two elements of the float; in the fourth
(24) they pass in front of both elements.

In the fifth ship (28) the longitudinal spar is absent and the ends of the slightly
curved three booms pass to the outer side of the double float, the two elements of
which are shown as being tied together I regard these three booms as the equivalents
of the curved booms, the straight booms being absent.

In one (26) of the two ships with a single internal longitudinal spar, this spar is
further supported by two false booms to which it is tied, and a central lashing passes
between this spar and the float, embracing both elements of the latter. These
contrivances frequently persist in Indonesian canoes.

It is very difficult to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion as to the construction of
'these vessels and to the real nature and structure of the outrigger. One gets the
impression that the sculptors did not really understand the details of the working
drawings, which evidently were supplied to them. Probably they were artists who
had no practical knowledge of sea-craft ; further, there were technical difficulties to
be overcome in representing so complex an object as a two-masted sailing ship with
its gear in relatively low relief, and it is amazing they did it so well.

It is evident that the straight booms, curved booms, and longitudinal spars
must have been lashed together, and the ends of the curved booms to the float, but
these usually are not indicated.

The straight booms in two ships resemble the booms of existing boats with a
Halmaheran attachment, in two others they appear to reach the double float, but
whether they were actually lashed to it is uncertain. The most problematical of these
is Fig. 24, here the curved booms apparently meet the straight booms on the float ;
it bears a superficial resemblance to Eosenberg's model of a sailing canoe from the
Mentawei Islands (Fig. 1), the double float of which is apparently lashed to one boom
coming out horizontally from the gunwale of the canoe and to another slanting down
from the roof of the cabin ; it is possible that this slanting boom or " boom spar "
may correspond with the curved boom of the carving ; the model lacks the longitudinal
spars which I regard as being present in the Indo-Javan vessel.

What is the nature of the curved booms ? At first sight they appear to be fairly
typical Halmaheran attachments, but, on the other hand, in three cases they seem to
come out of the side of the vessel, but this is not so markedly the case in the fourth
case (Fig. 24). If they come out of the vessel they may be regarded as true outrigger-
booms, somewhat analogous to the central booms of the Sulu canoes, or as the curved
booms of Pritchett's " pirate craft " (Fig. 8), but if this be so the straight booms
have to be accounted for. If the curved booms are the essential booms, then the
straight ones may have been intended simply to strengthen the outrigger. We
must remember that these craft were ocean-going sailing vessels, and consequently
the outrigger had to be very strong.

Owing to the kindness of L. W. Jenkins, of the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass.,

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

105

I am able to illustrate (Fig. 29) a canoe model from Nonuti (Nanouti) Island,
Gilbert Group, which has a single outrigger of three curved booms, which are attached
to the float in the same manner as that of the Funafuti canoe (Fig. 33). There are
in addition two straight booms which are lashed on to the short longitudinal spar.

FIG. 29. SKETCH FKOM A PHOTOGRAPH OF A MODEL OF A CANOE WITH THREE CURVED BOOMS
WITH A DIRECT LASHED ATTACHMENT AND TWO STRAIGHT BOOMS, NONUTI (NANOUTI)
GILBERT GROUP (SALEM).

The other spars on the curved booms form a platform. There is also a " weather
platform." This model supports the suggestion that the straight booms of the
Indo-Javanese craft merely supported the curved booms, which appear to have been
the essential ones. In the Marshall Group (pp. 81, 126) the two straight booms are
supported by inserted sticks.

I have already suggested how a Halmaheran attachment might arise from an
inserted rod-attachment (p. 99). Granting a pre-existing Halmaheran attachment,
when the size of the vessel was increased, its upper part of the attachment may have
been prolonged so as to enable it to be secured firmly to the hull of the vessel, as
appears to be the case in some of these carvings. One other alternative presents
itself : it is possible that the Halmaheran attachment may be derived from a curved
outrigger-boom. With the increase in the size of the vessel and the assumed addition
of a straight boom to strengthen the outrigger we get the apparently typical Indo-
Javanese arrangement. If lighter vessels were built the straight boom might
persist and only the curved terminal portion of the curved boom be retained ; it
would then become the means of connecting the straight boom with the float.

Whence did these sea-faring vessels which bore Indian immigrants to Java
obtain their outriggers ? At the present time the South Indian outrigger is composed
solely of two booms with a direct tied attachment. The earliest evidence on this

106 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

point I have been able to discover is the drawing given by Lintscotus (II Pars, XCIX,
PI. XIV, D 3) of a boat from Goa and Cochin with a single outrigger of two booms
which rest on the gunwales and on the flat upper surface of the large float. The
method of fastening is not clear ; it may be by means of stapler, but more probably
by sinnet lashings, in which case those of the float would pass through undercut holes.
This negative evidence is by no means conclusive. If the bent booms of the Javan
ships be true booms then they might be compared with the modern South Indian
outriggers, except for their number and the curled lower ends supporting the float.
The number presents no difficulty as the larger size of the Javan vessels would
necessitate this. So far as I am aware, the arrangement by which the float is
supported by the ends of the curved booms is unique, though the three central booms
of a model from Gowa, South Celebes, are lashed to the underside of the float (p. 84).

If the curved booms be an enlarged Halmaheran attachment, it follows either
(1) that this method was invented in India, or (2) that it originated in Indonesia and
was adopted by Hindus for vessels sailing in this region. As previously noted, the
great expedition of A.D. 603 surely indicates that the country to which they voyaged
was well known to the leaders, probably through centuries of trading intercourse, and
if the outrigger was already established in Indonesia it would not be surprising that
the local Hindus adopted so practical a device to render their large craft more sea-
worthy. An additional argument for Indonesian origin is supplied by the presence of
the longitudinal spar, which was sometimes connected with the float by a lashing.

In 1596, according to L. (I, p. 35), the Javan craft consisted of two-masted
merchant ships, lonco ; war vessels : small, with or without a sail, parao, and large
sailing cathar ; and small fishing canoes with a double outrigger and direct, probably
tied, attachment, while they carried a large sail which gave them marvellous speed.

The Lesser Sunda Islands.

I have been able to gather but very little information as regards these islands.
Bali has already been dealt with. Hornell states (p. 99) that a Halmaheran attach-
ment is common in Lombok,. the only instance I know of recorded from the whole
group, but Professor S. J. Hickson has given me a photograph of Coupang, Timor, in
which it occurs. A direct lashed attachment occurs in Sumba and Lomblen, and the
Moluccan at Wetta. At Baba (Babber) there are the direct lashed, Halmaheran ?
and, judging from an indistinct photograph by Pfliigf r (p. 146), something that looks
like an inserted stick attachment ; I cannot make out the details, but if it be. so,
it is, so far as I know, a unique record for this part of Indonesia, unless the vertical
spar of Riedel's model from Tenimber is inserted into as well as lashed to the float,
but a true Halmaheran attachment does occur there (Fig. 4).

The Kei and Aru Islands.

A direct lashed attachment has been seen in a fresh water creek at Totoat,
Kei Islands, and a Moluccan at Batu merah, in the south-east. A typical Halmaheran

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 107

attachment occurs at Dobbo (Pulo Wamar), Am Islands. Doubtless the great
development of plank-built boats in this region has had an inhibiting effect on
outrigger craft, as has occurred in North-west Indonesia.

From an ethnological point of view the Kei Islands were originally Papuan,
as they still are racially to some extent, but they have been so influenced by cultures
coming in from the Archipelago that they may now appropriately be considered as
essentially Indonesian. The Kei Islanders are noted throughout the Archipelago
for their skill in shipbuilding.

Wallace gives a description of the construction of boats by the Kei Islanders
and states that they are the best boat-builders in Indonesia (II, pp. 183-186, see also
pp. 92, 159). Langen also gives an account of their boat-building and says that they
supply boats to the natives of the Aru and Banda Islands (p. 43).

Van Hoe veil thinks that the dialects of the Aru Islands appear to be closely akin
to bahasa tanah. Friederici does not find it so, as they, and the dialects of the Kei
Islands, have little to do with those dialects, like bahasa tanah, which have a direct
culture historical connection with Melanesia. But, on the other hand, language,
ethnography, and mythology show that the natives of the Aru and Kei Islands have
a great common substratum with the Alfurs of the Moluccas and Minahassa. An
important element in the Kei Islands was formed by fugitives from Banda, as to a
certain extent is proved by the characteristics and language of the folk at Eli, Ellat
and Fehr in Great Kei (Fr., Ill, p. 9). The little western island of Dobbo has an
annual market which is frequented by traders from all parts ; it forms an economic
link between New Guinea and Indonesia. The natives are undoubtedly Papuans,
but settlements from Indonesia have modified some of the coastal groups.

The Moluccas. 1

There are, in the main, three types of craft in Banda and Amboina : (1) the
plank boats, (2) the outrigger canoe, and (3) the dug-out.

(1) The beautiful large plank boats, orembai, have a stem-post, which, as seen
from the side, is broader and lower than the stern-post. The orembai of Amboina
and Banda have been modified by European influence, but in general reveal the
Indonesian original type, this latter persists among the fishing population and in form
and construction resembles the mon of Buka in the Solomon Islands. Friederici
gives further details of their construction which do not concern us here.

(2) Outrigger-canoes consist of a dug-out with moderately pointed, almost
similar stem- and stern-posts, sometimes with additions. In Banda the sides are
often heightened by planks, but in Amboina with a bamboo gunwale. Some Banda
canoes have the high beak of the orembai. All have two floats at the end of two booms
athwart the hull, the float and boom are attached by pieces of ratan of the thickness
of the thumb and lashed with spliced liana or thin ratan. The Moluccan attachment

1 The following account is largely taken from Friederici, II, pp. 235-243, and HI, pp. 169-

108 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

is described on p. 89. The floats at Banda consist of bamboo, at Amboina of one
or two lengths of gabbagabba (the mid-rib of the leaf of the sago palm), side by side.
Both kinds are bent up in front like sledge-runners. The aft boom is usually quite
near to the aft end of the float, the fore boom is further from its fore end. The
booms, which are of light wood, are laid over the edge of the hull, sometimes for
strength they are lashed with arenga-string to a pole placed beneath them and
between the sides of the canoe. These poles and the booms are tied with lashing
of ratan or arenga to ledges projecting from the keel and side planks through the eyes
in which the lashing is passed ; there is no special name in the Moluccas for these
holed ledges, so Friederici adopts the Melanesian term of patnati for them. Sometimes
Y -shaped wooden forks are lashed to the booms to carry fish-spears, paddles, and other
gear. Originally, and still among the primitive fishers of Banda and Ambon, all the
parts are sewn and tied together. The commonest names for outrigger-canoe in
Banda, Amboina and the neighbourhood are prau (prahu) and h&ka, but in the
country-speech of Amboina and the Uliassers are also found tola, talalo, talo, dial,
sapu and sapou.

(3) In Banda and Amboina there are also very rude, in part trough-like, dug-
outs called kolekole, which are also called prau when a clumsy double outrigger is
added. Kolekole is the same word as korcik ra (p. 117).

The Moluccan korra-korra is a vessel of the same construction as a large orembai,
but with a double outrigger. The first and best description and illustrations of these
was given by Forrest (pp. 23, 67, 83, pis. 4, 5, 10, 12, 15). These craft are especially
known in the history of the Moluccas and of Western New Guinea as the constituent
part of the notorious Hongi fleets.

In Banda and Amboina a tripod-mast, with a quadrangular sail set obliquely,
is in general use. The baler is the concave portion of a large sea-shell, or made of the
sheath of a palm-leaf which has the form of the common Polynesian baler. Friederici
(II, p. 238) states that the technical nautical terms collected by him at Banda are
nearly all Malay or Malayized. Corresponding terms in the language of the old
inhabitants of Banda perhaps survive in a single village in the Kei Islands inhabited
by descendants of the Banda folk. The Amboina terms are also much Malayized.
The old true Alfuran terms occur only in the remote and slightly affected villages
of Amboina and the neighbouring islands.

Martin describes an orembai seen by him in Piru Bay, West Ceram (1894, p. 86),
and refers to three kinds of craft at Buru : the sarua is used in Kajeli Bay in the east
(p. 258) ; the fakatora is the boat of the Galelaese who live with the Sulanese in
different kampongs on the south coast west of Tifu (p. 356), he describes the rig
and method of sailing (p. 358) ; the prau as seen on Lake Wakollo, Buru, is unusual,
the double outrigger consists of three slightly curved booms, instead of the customary
two, with a direct tied attachment (p. 329).

A direct lashed attachment occurs on Lake Wakollo in Buru.

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes, 109

The U -Moluccan attachment occurs here and there on Buru ; as the predominant
or exclusive form of attachment on Banda, Amboina and the Uliassers ; on Ceram,
with the exceptions of most places on the north coast ; Obi. Friederici speaks of it as
sporadically diffused throughout the Northern Moluccas and as being found wherever
the bahasa tanah is spoken (III, p. 161). On Amboina the attachment is almost
always the O-type, while at Banda the 6 -type predominates. At Amboina the float
usually consists of one or usually two lengths of gabbagabba (midrib of sago palm-leaf).
The simple Moluccan attachment is confined to Indonesia, but a crossed double
variety occurs sporadically in the West Pacific (p. 129), which Friederici believes
was carried thither by his Alfuren migration.

Some form of Halmaheran attachment is known from Banda, Buru, on Amboina,
the north coast of Ceram, Misol, and at Obi it is more in evidence than the Moluccan
attachment. Four booms may occur at Misol (G., No. 267) ; I do not know whether
this is generally the case, but the type of outrigger is precisely like that characteristic
of the north-west area of New Guinea. Guillemard (1894, p. 427) states that the
fauna is Papuan and that the inhabitants of the interior are true Papuans, but on
the coast are a mixed Malayo-Papuan race.

Following Friederici, we may adopt the term Alfur as the historical name for
the aborigines, or at all events for early inhabitants of the Moluccas. He enters into
a lengthy discussion (III. pp. 1-4) of the modern abuses of that word, a term which
merely indicates the ruder inland hill-people as contrasted with the more advanced
coast-dwellers, a distinction met with all over Eastern Indonesia, New Guinea, and
the larger islands of the South Seas. He also points out that, " these AJfurs of the
Moluccas and North-east Celebes are not somatically uniform and their languages
belong rather to a linguistic family. Ethnoiogically they form a fairly uniform layer
of an older evolutionary or colonization period than the layer of the coast people ;
and also historically they form a positive unity, as in a large measure they appear to
have contributed to the Melanesian population of New Guinea and the islands
further east" (III, p. 3). He adds : " The Alfurs of Ceram, Ambon, the Uliassers,
and Buru, only persisting now in the interior of Ceram and Buru, are physically
distinct from the Malay and Malayized population of Mongoloid affinity now occupying
the greatest part of the East Indian Archipelago and the Philippines. They are
darker than the latter, taller, more powerful, with fine yet strong limbs and joints,
and without the flat noses of the Malays, Tagals and others " (III, p. 150). Martin
says, " I have no doubt that the highlanders of Buru and Seran [Ceram] are closer
to Melanesians than to Malaysians " (1894, cf. pp. 79, 119, 288). Some still live
on the coasts in various places as von Kosenberg has found in Ceram (1878, II, p. 26),
though the majority as their name implies are " bushmen."

In Buru and Amblau the population has undergone a considerable mixture since
the arrival of the Europeans. The coast population of Buru, especially at the Kajeh
end, is strongly mixed. Amblau has received immigrants from Nusa Laut and

110 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

Western Ceram. Everywhere here the trade language is Molucca-Malay, or at least
it is understood, but the Alfurs of the interior have largely preserved their speech
<Fr., Ill, p. 9).

Friederici (III, p. 7) states that the so-called Ambonese language, bahasa tanah,
is split into very numerous dialects on different islands. The Alfurs of Ceram
comprise the Patasiwa in the west and the Patalima in the east. This condition
formerly obtained in the Uliassers and in Amboina. 1 Language and tradition show
that the Alfurs of Western Ceram and the original inhabitants of Amboina and the
Uliassers were one tribe, and till the arrival of the Portuguese formed an ethnological
and somatological whole, with only dialectic differences. The dialect of Eastern
Ceram reaches also to G-oram, thus the bahasa tanah of Amboina, the Uliassers, and
of Western Ceram, is manifestly somewhat more remote. Of the dialects of Western
Ceram that of the old Huamual (Little Ceram) appears to have been the mother-
tongue of several others, including that of Amboina ; it was the classical, a kind of
sacred language (as is the kawi, or Ancient Javanese, among the Javanese). At
the time when the Dutch first arrived, Huamual was one great garden, " a Paradise
on earth," with 11,000 inhabitants and 2,000 warriors, now it is an awful wilderness
in which no human beings live (Kiedel, pp. 92, 93 ; Fr., Ill, p. 8). Fugitives from
Banda have mixed with the inhabitants of Eastern Ceram, Ceram Laut, and Goram.

No trace remains of the original inhabitants of the Obi (Ombi) Islands (Fr.,
Ill, p. 9).

Halmahera and Neighbouring Islands.

, A direct lashed attachment occurs at Batjan, Ternate. and on Lake Galela in
North Halmahera.

The U-Moluccan attachment predominates at Batjan, with a few cases of the
Halmaheran attachment ; the float is almost always of bamboo as in Banda, some-
times a second is tied beside the first. At Ternate the U -Moluccan attachment
greatly predominates (Fr., II, p. 239).

The Halmaheran attachment occurs at Tidor.

In 1599 (Nicolas, II., Pis. 14, 15, 17) there were at Ternate two-masted merchant
ships with an outrigger of three booms and a Y-board attachment ; war- vessels,
carcolle, a double outrigger, the largest had a fighting-platform, three booms with
the usual Y-board attachment and longitudinal planks for paddlers, though others
had two booms usually with Y -boards, over which was a longitudinal plank for
paddlers, or a direct (? tied) attachment, in which case the paddlers sat on the float ;
a " gondola," cymbe, with outrigger, two booms and direct attachment ; fishing
canoes with outrigger, two booms and direct attachment. As I have previously
stated, too much reliance should not be placed on these early engravings, but I think
it is safe to assume that the outrigger was double in all vessels ; we know it was in some,

1 For further information on this dual division and for a suggestion as to its origin, see
W. J. Perry, p. 46.

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. Ill

and probably in all, of the carcolle type. Presumably the direct attachment was tied.
None of the old books I have consulted indicate a Moluccan attachment, but it would
not be safe to base any definite argument on this negative evidence ; Weule (PI. 112,
Fig- 7 ) figures a " Boot von den Molukken " with a double outrigger of three booms,
beneath the middle of which is a longitudinal board for paddlers; there is a
Moluccan attachment, but he does not give his authority, nor the date of the craft.

Friederici noted that the Halmaheran attachment greatly predominated in the
north of Halmahera at Tobelo and Galela, though occasionally the U -Moluccan attach-
ment occurs. In Halmahera the small ledges on the inner side of the hull of the canoe
are not eyed, but cross-bars are placed beneath them athwart the hull, and the booms
are lashed to the cross-bars by arenga or by coconut-fibre string. The two lateral
feet of the triangle-mast have their bases perforated, through these holes is passed
a transverse rod which itself passes through and is supported by two short stanchions
which are lashed to a cross-bar ; but in Tobelo and Galela the stems of spikes bent
at a right angle are fastened to cross-bars, and the inwardly projecting spike is inserted
into the hole in the feet of the two masts. Forrest (pp. 9, 18) was the first to draw
attention to the merits of the very practical tripod mast. The upper ends of three
bamboo poles of this very light mast are fastened close together hinge-wise in such
a way that only one pole projects beyond the others, and to this is attached the mast
rope. Below, the middle foot is the longest and it can be tilted at any angle as
occasion demands (Fr., II, p. 240). A short central wash-strake is added to some
outrigger canoes, with two notches on its free border in which the booms rest. The
floats at Tobelo, Galela, and Kau are fashioned out of bamboo poles slightly bent up
in front, or of thin wooden rods shaped like the runners of a sledge. The forks on
which the mast, sail, and other gear are laid may be made of a natural branch, a
carved piece of wood, or of a branched stick inserted into the hollow of a piece of
bamboo ; these are strongly lashed to tre booms. Paddles, as everywhere else
in the Moluccas, have a crutch grip. Balers at Halmahera and Ternate consist of a
bucket-shaped little basket made out of a Licuala leaf or are cut out of a piece of
bamboo. Wooden anchors weighted with stones are used universally in Tobelo
and Galela, as iron has not come into use there (loc. cit., p. 241). As a matter of fact,
similar anchors are widely employed in Indonesia.

In Weda Bay, Patani, and Buli, canoes have two booms with a Halmaheran
attachment, but in some a false-boom is added ; in this case the inner longitudinal
spar (which lies beneath the knee-bend of the attachments) merely extends from
one outrigger boom to the other, whereas the outer longitudinal spai projects much
further beyond the booms, and its ends are bound tightly with arenga or ratan lashing
to the ends of the float, while a third lashing passes from the crossing of the false-
boom and outer longitudinal spar to the middle of the float. In Weda Bay and
Patani the floats are usually of bamboo, bent upwards rather high, in Buli the sledge-
runner type is prevalent. Friederici did not notice the forked mast and gear holders

112 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

in Weda Bay and Patani, which, however, occur at Buli. Neither did he see a plank
(or wash-strake) added to the hull, as in the north of Halmahera, but, sporadically,
the edges of the dug-outs were heightened amidships by the addition of strips of
gabbagabba. The attap cabin in the middle of the craft had closed sides, these are
left open further east. The tripod-mast is present. The triton-shell trumpet is
used. A simple, often rough, dug-out without outriggers occurs (loc. cit., p. 242).

A shorter, more obtuse form of Halmaheran attachment is found at Ake-Selaka
(Fig. 16 C), and here and there the U-Moluccan attachment. The floats are mostly
of the sledge -runner type, but the bamboo form with a slightly upward curve in front
also occurs. When mast and gear forks occur, they are mostly crescentic. The
rectangular sail, as usual, is set obliquely. Everything else is as in other places
in Halmahera (loc. tit., p. 243).

Friederici points out that the peoples of Halmahera and neighbouring islands
form a separate linguistic group, remote from the Malayo-Polynesian languages and
apparently unconnected with any hitherto known Papuan languages. Ethnologically
the Alfurs of Halmahera form a great group with the Alfurs of the Moluccas and
those of North-east Celebes, and in the main probably anthropologically as well.
He could not see that the natives of Tidor, Ternate, and Halmahera differed appreciably
in appearance from other Indonesians, and in none of the places that he visited did
he note features or skin-colour approaching those of the so-called " Aryan race "
(III, pp. 9, 10).

" There are at least five dialects among the Alfurs of Minahassa. The more
westerly and southern languages of Celebes (those of Gorontalo, Baree, and the
Togian Islands) are further removed from Melanesian languages. The dialects of the
Alfurs of Minahassa and of the Sangir and Talaut Islands belong to the great group
of Philippine languages, which, according to Kern, reach to Formosa. But the
bahasa tandh and the dialects of Minahassa have a common linguistic substratum
so that originally the Alfurs of Ceram and its neighbourhood were akin to those of
Minahassa" (Fr., Ill, pp. 10, 11).

Celebes and Neighbouring Islands.

The aboriginal inhabitants of the Sulla Islands belong ethnologically to Middle
Celebes ; the coastal folk are a very mixed crowd (Fr., Ill, p. 9). There is a Halma-
heran attachment.

Friederici saw three kinds of craft in Buton : (1) a boat without outrigger,
(2) boats with a double outrigger with two kinds of attachment (a) with usually
three booms, the U -Moluccan attachment and three bamboos bound together to form
the float, (6) an attachment which recalls the Halmaheran (Fig. 16, A). In Makassar
he saw no outrigger boats, leptilepa, but according to models in the museum at
Weltevreden double outriggers occur. In Bugi also the lepailepa is found (Matthes,
Boegi, p. 544, quoted by Fr., II, p. 235).

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 113

In Celebes a direct lashed attachment has been recorded at Makassar and Gowa,
a model from the latter place with five booms and a mixed direct attachment is'
referred to on pp. 80, 84, 106, 114 ; it is found on the Malili River (at the north-east
of the Gulf of Boni, OD Matanna Lake, further inland, at Paloppo (on the west side
of the head of the Gulf of Boni and at Libukang in the same gulf, where the Sarasins
illustrate one canoe with a float composed of four bamboos ; it also recurs at Kema
in the extreme north-east of the island. The Halmaheran attachment, however,
in various forms, predominates throughout Celebes. According to the illustrations
of D'Urville (II, pi. XXV, 3) and Pfliiger (pp. 100, 103) the canoes on Lake Tondano,
Minahassa, are simple dug-outs with square boarded ends. The " praus in roadstead
of Makassar " figured by Pfliiger (p. 71) have a triangle mast, the yard may be
lowered to the boom or the boom raised to the yard. The Celeban canoes almost
invariably have two outrigger booms, the model from Gowa just mentioned being very
exceptional and probably represents a Sulu craft and not a local one. The outlayers
of sailing boats in the Gulf of Boni are referred to on p. 76.

The region embracing Minahassa, Banka, the Talaut (including Sangir), and
Tulur groups is characterised by the occurrence of a mixed direct lashed and Halma-
heran attachment : this may, for short, be termed the " north-eastern Celeban area."
The examples known to me are described on pp. 95, 96. Miiller, as we have seen
(p. 98), draws attention to the affinities of the mixed attachment in this area with
that of the " eastern Javanese area " ; in both the fore boom is lashed directly to the
float, but in the Javan area the indirect attachment of the aft boom is inserted into
the float, whereas in the Celeban area it is lashed to it, being a typical Halmaheran
attachment. There is, however, at Kema in Minahassa a mixed rod and Halmaheran
attachment in which the fore boom has a rod attachment which apparently
is inserted into the float, while the aft boom has a typical Halmaheran attachment
(Fig. 23). There was much going to and fro in Indonesia in former times, so
no surprise need be felt if these two regions, separated by the whole length of the
large island of Celebes, show some resemblances, but these are not close in detail.

A direct lashed attachment occurs at Sangir and a mixed lashed direct and
straight vertical Halmaheran attachment. More than two booms are present. Minia-
ture sakit canoes from Nanusa Island (to the north-east of Celebes) have two or three
booms which are simply pegged on to the float ; the mode of attachment has no signifi-
cance, as these are merely ceremonial models ; some sakit canoes are without outriggers,
they are employed in the exorcism of the sakit or spirit of sickness (pp. 77, 96,
and Hickson, 1893, Fig., p. 290).

Sulu Archipelago.

In the Sulu archipelago small canoes may have but two booms and the outrigger
may be placed at the aft end of the canoe (Guillemard, 1889, p. 206 ; G., Nos. 180, 217).
Usually there are three or four booms (p. 80). In these canoes the fore and aft
booms are always straight, whereas the central booms are downwardly curved at

114 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

their ends (Fig. 7), but in Wilkes' figure (V, p. 333) all three booms are downwardly
curved this is probably incorrect. In all cases there is a direct lashed attachment.
Two or more upwardly curved bars are generally fastened transversely across the
canoe, usually they are attached to the booms (when they may be called " boom-
spars," they are the " Biigel " of Miiller) and frequently they bear, near each end
of the boom, a crutch or forked stick to support gear ; in the canoe figured by Wilkes
each of the three booms supports a semicircular spar with forked ends, the arms of which
in the sectional view (V, p. 332) are shown as connected with the boom by a lashing.

An analogous combination of straight and partially curved booms is found in the
Madura district, where the straight booms are tied to, and the curved ones inserted
into, the float (p. 84). In a model from South Celebes, the fore and aft straight
booms are inserted into the float, while the middle three are lashed to it (p. 113).
It is possible that the latter may throw some light on the somewhat perplexing
difference in form of the Sulu booms, and one is tempted to suggest that the outer
straight Sulu booms were originally inserted into the float, but this would be the
exact opposite to the arrangement at Madura.

Probably belonging to this region is the " pirate craft " of Pritchett, which
has three strongly curved outrigger-booms on each side, the forked ends of which are
lashed to the floats (pp. 81, 84). Guillemard states that the southern part of Sulu
Island " is inhabited chiefly by the Bajaus or sea-gipsies, a people quite distinct from
the Sulus, and of a much lower type " (1894, II, p. 90).

Philippines.

Miiller (p. 244) says that the canoes of Sulu, Zamboanga, and Cebu are in the
main similar. The floats are not attached to the " Biigel " (Fig. 2, A C) but
are attached directly to the booms [by a lashed attachment], which are not more than
two in number and are unusually thin and fragile, and need strengthening by the elas-
ticity of the concave " Biigel " [" boom-spars "] which are half the length of the booms.
Vojnich figures three booms at Manila and on Lake Lanao in Mindanao (pp. 378, 383).

Mr. Henry Balfour has very kindly made drawings for me (Figs. 30, 31) of one
of two similar models of canoes used on the Pasig River, Manila ; the specimens were
collected by the late Admiral Maclear and presented by Mrs. Maclear to the Pitt-
Rivers Museum, Oxford. They are fitted with a double outrigger which, however, is
provided with but one boom which is lashed to the float, the other end of the float
is lashed to a thwart which projects slightly beyond the sides of the hull, an arrange-
ment which, so far as I am aware, is unique. The models are furnished with an awning.

The outlayers of Philippine boats have been noted on p. 76, and the remark
made by Folkard raises the question as to whether the structures of the Oxford models
may not really be outlayers.

Judging from an illustration given by A. H. Savage Landor, a canoe with a
double outrigger, two booms, and a direct lashed attachment occurs in the Cagayan
Group, Mindoro Sea (I, p. 228).

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

115

The most widely spread, important, and best known languages of the southern
Philippines is that of the so-called " pirate tribes " of Mindanao and Sulu. It is a
dialect or form of Bisaya with a strong infiltration of Malayan elements, and is spoken
by the Moros of Mindanao, Basilan, in the Sulu and Tawi-Tawi Archipelagoes, Palawan,
Balabec, and in North Borneo (Fr., Ill, p. 11).

Borneo.

As outrigger canoes are such a feature in Indonesia, their almost total absence
from Borneo is rather surprising, but this absence, as in the western and northern

FIG. 30. MODEL, OF A CANOE WITH A DOUBLE OUTRIGGER AND ONE BOOM, PASIG RIVER, MANILA

(SKETCH BY H. BALFOUR, OXFORD).

FIG. 31. SAME AS FIG. 30 SEEN FROM ABOVE AND WITHOUT THE AWNING
(SKETCH BY H. BALFOUR, OXFORD).

portions of both Sumatra and Java, seems to be due to secondary causes. Hose and
McDougall give an illustration (copied from Ling Roth, I, p. 144) of a rough model
made of pith of a small canoe with two outriggers, the booms of which pass through
the solid hull and are inserted laterally into the floats. The model, which is in the
Leiden Museum, came from South-east Borneo, a district far removed from the
Malanau country. Apparently a similar imitation canoe, jong, is employed by the
Malanau in the bayoh ceremony for the casting out of diseases (II, Fig. 84, p. 133).

(22

116 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

They state that the Malanau are Klemantans, a mixed group of Bornean peoples, of
the coast regions of Sarawak, most of whom have recently become converted to Islam,
while all of them have been much influenced by Malays (II, p. 129). A. E. Lawrence,
of Sarawak, kindly gave me two sketches (Fig. 32), drawn from memory, of toy
" schooners," jong, sailed by Malanau and Malay children along the Sarawak coast,
both have a single outrigger, one with two straight booms, while the other has only a
single boom ; in both cases the booms are inserted into holes in the side of the float,
pelempong. I am also indebted to Ivor H. Evans, of Perak, for informing me that
when travelling in the Tempassuk District of British North Borneo, some Bajaus
temporarily fitted a small low dug-out, gobang, for him with a double outrigger of
two straight booms which were lashed to bamboo floats. This was the only occasion

FIO. 32. TOY CANOES, Jong, OF MALANAU AND MALAY CHILDREN, SARAWAK
(FROM SKETCHES BY* A. E. LAWRENCE).

on which he had seen an outrigger in Borneo, but he had not very much to do with
the villages near the coast. He adds, " The Bajaus were great pirates in the old days
and might have picked up the idea in any of the islands further east." The word
gobang is the Sulu guban (infra), thus the canoe and its name may be an importation,
or may be indigenous to the area as a whole. The outlayers described by Beeckman
have been noted on p. 76. For a description of the usual type of craft in Borneo
see Ling Eoth (II, pp. 246-254), and for ceremonial boats (I, pp. 144, 283) ; he states,
" It would seem at one time Sumatra was supplied with boats from Borneo " (II,
f.n., p. 249) ; also Hose and McDougall (I, pp. 55, 56, 132, 166), Gomes (pp. 49-51)
and Nieuenhuis.

NOTES ON THE NATIVE NAMES FOR CANOES AND OUTRIGGERS.

The following terms 'for outrigger canoes are given by Friederici, the names for
boats without outriggers are placed within ( ). Terms of outrigger canoes added
by me are placed within [ ].

Andamans [chd-rigma]. Nicobars [due, doe' and doai\. Mentawei [abak].
Engano [eloha]. Sumatra [jellore, ballelang]. Bali, dyukun, sampan in Malay.
Confined to a restricted area of the Lesser Sunda Islands, we find in Sumba, tena,
teneh ; Middle and Eastern Flores : Sikka, tena, and Maumeri, tenah ; Solor, tenna.

A. C ; HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. \ 17

Flores, korakora. The most customary names for an outrigger canoe in Banda,
Amboma and the Uliassers are prau (prahn) and hakd ; but also tala, talalo, talo, alal,
sapu and sapou are to be found in the country speech of Ambon and the Uliassere
(II, 237). Sumbawa, lopie or lopi. Banda, korakora, prau (kolekole, but called prau
when outrigger added ; orembai), Amboina, prau, prahn semdn, prahu belan, hftka,
kolekole, korakora, lepa or prahti lepalepa, tala, talalo, alal, sapu (orembai). Batjan,'
nyon. Ternate, oti or dti. Halmahera : korakora ; Weda Bay and Patani, yel\
Buli, ptlXn; Tobelo, ngotirl, Otili or otil, (here the lepalepa is a dug-out without
outrigger) ; Galela, deru ; Ake Selaka, oti. Celebes, lepalepa, korakora ; Salaier,
lopi. Sulu, guban.

The following notes are taken mainly from Friederici (II, pp. 244-246), who gives
full references. He also gives the variants of these terms that occur in Melanesia,
but these do not concern us here.

The dyuktin of Bali does not occur in any form eastwards of the Philippines.
It is the Malay djokong ; Javanese djukung, djungkung ; [Nicobar, due] ; Batjan,
nyon ; in the Philippines : Tontemboan, rungku, Bisaya and Bicol, adyong ; Hoko,
daon ; Tagal, dawong ; [Borneo, jong] ; Diadokii or diadukv is the name for the
outrigger-booms at Tobelo (Halmahera). Also cf. ionco (p. 106).

Kolekole is clearly the same word as kor&kora, which term is current in Makassar,
throughout the Moluccas, in Halmahera and Western New Guinea, and it also
extends to Flores. It is more than doubtful, says Friederici (III, p. 159), whether
the word korakora of the Moluccas really goes back to the Arabic qorqor and thence
to the Portuguese carraca. Valentijn, who treats the word as an indigenous one, is
certainly wrong when he derives it from the Malay kura-kura. In the oldest Portu-
guese and Spanish accounts of the Moluccas we find caracora, coracora, carcoa, but never
carraca ; de Morga not only says expressly that it is an ancient and indigenous word
among the Tagals of Mindoro, Marinduque, and Luzon, but that it is also a true Malayo-
Polynesian word : in the Malay Peninsula, kolek (a small fishing boat) ; Amboina,
kolekole ; Mota (Banks Islands) kora ; San Cristoval (South Solomons), ora. Friede-
rici asserts that this equation is not merely accidental as there is other support
for it, and he has shown that most of the boat-names of Eastern Indonesia recur in
Melanesia. He adds (III, p. 159) that the Moluccan korakora corresponds to the
Philippine baranguay. [The Achinese have a sailing boat called " kolay " (Folkard,
p. 481)].

The Malay prahu, perahu, p.rahu, prau, etc., is a general term for canoe, boat,
or ship and appears to be used indiscriminately in places for craft with or without an
outrigger, and therefore has no special significance, thus in Amboina an outrigger
canoe may be termed prahu semdn.

The MM of Amboina is the Malayo-Polynesian wangka, which is so widely
spread in the South Seas as to be universal. In Saonek and Sorong, wot, and Manuk-
wari (Doreh) wa or wai : all in New Guinea. [Ray points out that the term laka,

118 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

used in Madagascar for the canoe with a double outrigger, " is no doubt the Melanesian
waka, etc., also that Malagasy and Tagal are more closely related than either of them
is to the language of the islands between" (Haddon, 1918, p. 53). Christian (p. 229)
gives : Malay wangkang, a junk ; Moluccas, waga, a vessel ; Philippine Islands,
banka, a canoe ; Waigiu, waag, a pirate craft. Keane points out that the Mentawei
abak is the va'a or vaka of Polynesia (1899, /.w., p. 244 ; 1920 f.n., p. 235).]

Another interesting word from the point of view of migrations to the Western
Pacific is the lepalepa of the Bugi [originally a people of the Boni district of Celebes],
it is also employed at Makassar ; variants are : Malay Peninsula, lopeh, lupek, lopek ;
at Bima and Sangar in Sumbawa, lopie or lopi ; Salaier Islands, lopi ; Amboina, lepa,
prahu lepalepa ; Tobelo (Halmahera), leptilepa, for a dug-out without an outrigger
(Fr., II, p. 241) ; Philippines, lapis, lapes.

In Ambon and the Uliassers are dial, tola, talo, talal, talalo ; it is possible that
the word ySl, which is apparently confined to Weda Bay (Halmahera), belongs here.

In Halmahera and the neighbouring islands we find : 8ti or oti, Ternate, Roni,
Ake-Selaka ; oti, Tidor Isam, Tololiku, Waioli ; ngootili, Madole, Tabaru ; notili,
Ibu ; ngotlrl, otili and otil Tobelo.

Apparently restricted to Galela and Loda is the word deru.

Obviously connected with peldn of Buli in Halmahera are : bero, Solor ; belo,
berok, prahu berok, Timor ; bero, Wetta and Tenimber ; prahti bel&n or belang,
Amboina ; beri-beri Namatote Island, north-west of Triton Bay, New Guinea ; in
the Philippines : balanay, Tagal ; baranay, Iloko. Kern equates the velo-velo of
Fiji [which belongs to this series] with Biduq, Malay and biluq Tagal (Fr., II, p. 245).

Friederici also groups together loju, Sulla Islands ; lotu, Gesir, south-east point
of Ceram ; lete'ie, lettej, Aru Islands.

With the term guban of the Sulu Islands may be equated kowa, Sava (between
Sumba and Timor) ; ofa, ofak, Rotti (south of Timor) ; gobun, Bongu. Later
Friederici (III, p. 160, f.n., 280) adds that the guban of the Sulu Islands occurs as
goba in Malay, and it appears to him that the Dayak top, a small ship, is also a related
word ; [among the Bajau of British North Borneo we find gobang, p. 116].

The beautiful, large plank-boats without outriggers of Ambon and Banda come
from the Kei Islands, but their name of orembai or orembai, also ordnbdi or oranbaik,
does not come thence but is probably of Malay origin, rembaja ; other variants in the
country-speech of Amboina are : arobail, arubai, arubaillo, arumbai, and as arumbae
in Gesir (Fr., II, pp. 235, 236). An orembai with outriggers is called korakora, a word
which is found as kolekole, kolek in Malayo-Polynesian languages (Fr., Ill, p. 159).
Martin (p. 86) says that the name orembai is a contraction for orang baik " good
friend " (or " servant ") and comes from the era of the Hongi voyages !

The number of the terms for booms given by Friederici is insufficient to enable
us to arrive at any conclusions. The Moluccan term seems to be the uramon or dram&n
of Banda, which becomes bairtimm in Bat j an and brayunan in Bali. Several terms

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 119

are employed in Halmahera, one of which the ntldyu-w'idyu of Ake Selaka extends as
might be expected to Ternate and reaches Amboina, where nadyi/n also occurs.
Concerning the terms eri, an of Buli and sesd of Galela (both in Halmahera) there is
nothing to say, but as Friederici points out, the ditiddktt of Tobelo seems to be the
origin of the word kiato, which is so widely distributed in Melanesia and Polynesia
for an outrigger boom. [The Nicobar name is deia due.]

Friederici gives the following names for outrigger attachments : Bali, scdtk ;
Banda, ungerti ; Amboina, pdgupdgu ; Batjan, tuddtudd ; Ternate, pagu ; Halma-
hera : Buli, t%te, Tobelo, tdlntene, Ake Selaka, s$k. [The number of names available
is so limited as to be inconclusive. The sedek of Bali may be connected with the
seke of Ake Selaka, and Ternate and Amboina are again linked together. The
Nicobar term is heneme.]

As Friederici points out (II, pp. 246, 235-243), the term sdmdn, or some variant
of it for the float of an outrigger, is so widespread among the Malayo-Polynesian
peoples that the investigator should note whenever it does not occur ; it is its variants
that need comparison. Thus we have : Banda and Ambon, semHn ; Batjan, somdn ;
Ternate, samd ; Halmahera : Weda Bay (and Patani) zonuln, somln ; Tobelo,
hamand ; Galela, sumd ; Roni, Ake Selaka, samd and semdsemd in Malay ; also
variants as in Sangir, sah&mmang.

He thinks, contrary to Kern, that the general term for outrigger-float is derived
from the old Javanese sama, " like," Bali, sama samasama ; also Sumba,sawa means
" at the same time, together, with, at the same time like," etc. 'For the float is
in reality a miniature boat, a small counterpart of a boat, indeed it has been stated,
from an ethnological point of view, that the outrigger boat has been derived from
the double-boat. So also have we in Malay : sama., " resembling, similar " ; sama-
sama, " together," and in Tagal, sama, " companion, to accompany " and " companion
like the servant " ; samaco, " a fitted-up boat " and " to prepare or embellish, to
construct la banca (the Philippine canoe)."

The only other terms Friederici notes for float are the 6am of Buli, concerning
which he has nothing to say, and the kdter or kdtir of Bali, which is quite obviously :
Tara (Baree) katigi ; Bisaya, katig ; Lake Magindanao, Mindanao, katik ; and Bikol,
katig. This appears very significant when we recall the correspondence between
certain craft of Bali and those of the area between the Philippines and North Celebes.
[The Nicobar name is hentaha.]

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

It may be taken as a general principle in distributions, whether of animals or
men, that the more primitive, that is to say less advanced, types are generally
be found on the margins of an area or in the less accessible or undesirable locaht
within the area. If the area be an archipelago like Indonesia we should
fore expect to find more primitive conditions on its outskirts or in the interior

120 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

of the larger islands, and many travellers tell us that as a rule the latter is indeed
the case.

As a knowledge of the ethnography of Indonesia is necessary for a study of
that of Oceania, so the converse is equally true. Cultures have been so crowded into
Indonesia at various times, and so many internal movements have taken place, that
a disentangling of the chronological sequence of the cultures is a very difficult
undertaking. A valuable attempt of this kind has been made by Perry (1918), which,
however, has little bearing on the present problem. It is recognised that migrations
of variable extent take place everywhere, each always associated with definite and
characteristic cultural elements. We know that similar migrations from Indonesia
have taken place at intervals to various regions of the Pacific which transported
samples of the then stages of culture. It is from a consideration of such samples in
these Oceanic areas and a co-ordination of the linked cultural elements they contain,
that the relative age of ethnographical data in Indonesia will ultimately be elucidated.
From different points of view Graebner, Friederici, and Rivers have done great
service in this direction. Graebner (1905, 1909) was, I believe, the first to utilise
the general type of canoe, as well as the presence or absence of outriggers and most
obvious features of their attachments, as evidence for the differentiation of various
cultures and culture-strata in Oceania, but the details he gives are very meagre.
Friederici (II, 1908) has presented a mass of technological and linguistic evidence
concerning canoes, which is of the greatest importance for the study of these problems,
and later (III, 1913) has attempted to map out certain cultural streams from Indo-
nesia into the Pacific. Finally, Rivers (1914) has utilised similar evidence in his
dissection of the cultural strata in Melanesia.

All movements between different islands in Indonesia and those thence to Oceania
must have been accomplished by boats of some description or other, and eventually
we may hope to discover what kinds of boats they employed, the types of outriggers
and varieties of attachments. My main object in this paper is to prepare the way
for more extended historical studies on these lines.

The problems of the distribution and history of canoes in Oceania are beyond
the scope of this paper ; for this purpose it will be necessary to make a more thorough
analysis of the types of canoes and outriggers throughout the Pacific, there being
many varieties which have to be accounted for, and, furthermore, a definite ter-
minology will have to be generally adopted. But for my immediate purpose I find it
necessary to make a few remarks upon certain distributions of canoes in Oceania.

A very brief summary of the probable racial history of the area will perhaps not
be out of place. There seems sufficient evidence to assume that much later than
the original occupation of a part or the whole of Indonesia by Negritos, Papuans,
and the less early Pre-Dravidians, were the migrations from somewhere in Southern
Asia of the dolichocephalic Indonesians. Possibly some of them were, at all events
in their later migrations, already somewhat admixed with southern Mongoloids.

A. C. HADDON. ne Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. ]_>i

Somewhat later perhaps came swarms of brachycephalic southern Mongoloids who
may conveniently be termed Proto-Malays, some of whom may have been crossed
previously with other stocks. On the whole they have dominated the true Indonesian
peoples ; but the bulk of the population of the archipelago consists of various blends
of these two stocks. The Malay Peninsula was first occupied in the twelfth century
A.D. by the true Malays, Orang Malayu, who crossed over from Menangkabau in
Sumatra ; thence at the close of the thirteenth century they spread over the East
Indian archipelago. But long previously to this other peoples had secured a foothold
in Java and elsewhere. From the first century of our era there were migrations
from India. The Javanese Babads tell of an Indian prince who came to Java about
A.D. 78 or 120, where he found a nomadic people. We know of Indian colonies in
Bali, Sumatra and Java in the third century (Fritsch, pp. H, 21). I have already
referred to a later colonisation (p. 100).

Chinese infiltration may not have begun after 220 B.C., when South China was
conquered from the aboriginal population and a seaboard acquired, but commercial
relations existed with Java and other islands in the fifth century A.D., and were
continued for a long period, perhaps they have never ceased. The Chinese Buddhist
missionary Fa-Hien, or Hsien, visited Java from India in the fifth century A.D.

Arabian traders voyaged to the East Indian archipelago long before the time of
Muhammad, but Islam changed the Arab trader into a teacher of the new doctrine.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Portuguese made settlements, and
were followed later by other European peoples (Haddon, 1911, p. 35).

Two hypotheses are current concerning the origin of the outrigger : (1) That
it is derived from a double canoe, one of the canoes having degenerated into the float
of the outrigger. In double canoes one of them often is smaller than the other and
in some places the smaller canoe bears the same name as the float, as for example
at Mailu, in British New Guinea, where the term larima is used for the smaller element
of a double canoe, orou, and for the float of a single canoe, vaona. (2) That the canoe
was evolved from the central log of a float or raft, the two outermost logs of which
have persisted as the floats of a double outrigger, an evolution which took place solely
in Indonesia. If the first hypothesis be correct, it would follow that the single
outrigger was the primitive type, but the second hypothesis would make the double
outrigger the original form. But if we assume a dug-out to be the initial boat, and
it is or has been used in practically every part of the world (rafts, bark canoes, and
skin boats are another story), there does not seem to be any reason why either form
of outrigger should be the earlier, though in this case there is no structure from
which an outrigger could be naturally developed.

The question of the priority of the single or double outrigger is of some im-
portance. So far as historical data go, the earliest record we have is that of the
Indo-Javanese double outrigger ships of twelve centuries ago. Apart from the East
African area, to which I have already alluded (p. 78), double outriggers outside of

122 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

Indonesia are found with a rare and scattered distribution in Oceania. They occur
in the area which includes Torres Straits and the estuary of the Fly River, but single
outriggers also now occur there, both being associated with an overcrossed stick
attachment (p. 85). They are also to be found in North Queensland, (a) the Batavia
River type with an attachment of two vertical sticks, from Batavia River in the
Gulf of Carpentaria, round Cape York to about Cape Grenville (lat. 12 S.) ; (6) the
Claremont type with a direct lashed attachment, apparently from Cape Direction
(lat. 13 S.) to Claremont Point (lat. 14 S.) (Haddon, 1913). They have been
reported in Oceania, formerly in the Pelew Islands, and doubtfully in the Seniavina
Group of the Carolines ; they occur at Nissan with a direct lashed attachment,
temporarily in the Solomons with three booms lashed to a float consisting of a bundle
of bamboos, doubtfully at Samoa, and formerly at the Marquesas, and also formerly
at Easter Island with a direct lashed attachment (Haddon, 1913, p. 621). A
scattered marginal distribution of this kind suggests antiquity, and provisionally we
may accept this supposition. Although the Torres Straits area is not geographically
remote from Indonesia, I am strongly of opinion that it is culturally remote and
that the double outrigger came there by the West Pacific route.

In Torres Straits and the estuary of the Fly we have definite evidence that the
single outrigger is ousting the double, and it seems probable that this has occurred
elsewhere, though there is very little precise information on the subject. Miiller
(1912, p. 245) alludes to a change of double outrigger into a single as having occurred
in the Pelew Islands. In a letter to me dated July 14, 1913, Friederici says : " I
have now no doubt that the hop [the Nissan double outrigger canoe with a direct
tied attachment] has been brought by a Philippine or sub-Philippine wandering
stream to New Ireland and neighbourhood, and that the double outrigger has in
course of time been displaced by the Melanesian single outrigger and has stood its
ground only in the island of Nissan." Apparently both forms occurred at Easter
Island (p. 124).

The double outrigger is more stable but clumsier than the single, the latter has
better sailing qualities, but great care has to be exercised in the management of the
float in order to maintain the balance of the boat.

The single outrigger is a marginal phenomenon. Within Indonesia it occurs
very rarely and sporadically (p. 78). It is normal in the Andamans and
Nicobars and reappears in Geelvink Bay, it is practically universal in New Guinea
and Oceania.

Very frequently associated with a single outrigger is the presence of several
booms as in the Andamans, Geelvink Bay, the Massini, West Papuo-Melanesian, and
Gulf districts of British New Guinea, and most parts of Melanesia, but to a much less
extent in Polynesia. On the other hand, we have seen (p. 80) that the Philippine
area, including the Sulu Islands, Sangir Islands (occasionally), in Misol, Waigiu and
other neighbouring islands, and Geelvink Bay numerous booms are associated with a

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 123

double outrigger. Thus so far as Indonesia is concerned several booms to a single
outrigger is a marginal characteristic, and so is, but to a less extent, the association
of several booms with double outriggers, as this is practically confined to the eastern
margin of Indonesia. We must not, however, overlook the occasional occurrence of
three booms within the central area of Indonesia (p. 80). At present I leave it an
open question whether these are relics of a more general distribution, as I suspect
them to be, or as borrowings from the eastern margin.

Indonesia, excluding its eastern margin, is therefore characterised by canoea
having double outriggers with two booms.

The diffusion of canoes with double outriggers and two booms Irom Indonesia
into Oceania must have taken place in very early times and possibly on two occasions,
one with a direct tied attachment (p. 124) and the other with an inserted stick attach-
ment. At present I am not in a position to suggest which is the older type ; but
if the float be derived from the smaller element of a double canoe an indirect
attachment would not become necessary until the float had been reduced to a log or
a piece of bamboo. On the hypothesis of the evolution of the outrigger canoe from a
raft, the tied attachment would be the more primitive, as the need of an indirect
attachment would not arise until the central plank of the raft had become converted
into a canoe. On the other hand, a stick attachment appears to be characteristic
of various types of primitive outrigger canoes.

I now pass to a consideration of the distribution of the main types of attachments.

A. Direct.

1. Inserted. With the exception of the somewhat aberrant Balinese attachment
I have not come across an unequivocal case in Indonesia of an actual canoe where all
the booms are so attached.

The direct inserted attachment has a less extended range than the lashed. The
only Melanesian record is from Eromanga in the New Hebrides (Hedley, p. 287).
Kramer found at Tutuila in the Samoan group that the straight booms have a down-
wardly slanting branch the end of which is inserted into the float (1903, II, p. 249
1906, Fig. 42, p. 415 ; 1911, p. 23a). I have been told it occurs at Rotuma ; Friederici
also records it for Mangaia and Rimatara, while in the more northerly Cook Islands
of Atiu and Mitiaro the end of the booms is curved downwardly to be inserted in the
float (Fr., II, p. 314, Figs. 127-130). The direct inserted attachment also occurs in
the Paumotus (Pallander, p. 194, figures a canoe with two booms, the fore with a
crooked inserted boom, the aft with a stick attachment). It thus appears to be
most prevalent in the Southern Polynesian area.

I feel some slight hesitation in accepting all these records, as the Tutuil
ment is very like that which occurs at Funafuti, which, though it looks as if it should
belong to this class, is really a lashed attachment, and we know there have I
relations between the Samoans and Ellice Islanders.

124 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

2. Lashed. This type is very widely but sparsely distributed throughout Indo-
nesia, so much so that little can be deduced therefrom, unless it signifies that it is
really an ancient form. It is interesting to note that it crops up in various lakes and
rivers, where its appearance may mean that it is an old type, or simply that in these
calmer waters it suffices for the needs of the fisher folk. But it is also significant that
this type is very prevalent in the Sulu Islands and in the southern and central
Philippines, i.e., in the eastern margin of our area.

The direct lashed attachment (with a single outrigger) alone occurs in south
India and Ceylon, whence it may have spread into Indonesia, or may equally well
have traversed in the reverse direction.

It very rarely crops up in Western Oceania, where it is associated with a double
outrigger ; e.g., the hop of Nissan in the North Solomons (Krause (Fig. 101) ; Frie-
derici, cf. Haddon 1913, Fig. 14) and North-east Queensland from 13-14 S. lat.
(Claremont type, loc. cit., Fig. 7, after Roth). It occurs with a single outrigger at
Nonuti in the Gilberts (Fig. 29) and universally in the Hawaiian Islands, and in the
Marquesas (model, Salem Museum ; ? Pallander, PL, p. 240) ; at Easter Island
with a double outrigger (Choris, PL X, Fig. 1, cf. Haddon, 1913, p. 621) ; but in the
" Atlas du Voyage de la Perouse " (London, 1798, pi. 61), a single outrigger of two
booms is shown, the float rests upon and is tied to the booms ; ? Napuka (Wytoo-
kee), Paumotus (Wilkes, I, p. 319, but the sketch is not convincing) ; Tahiti
(Wilkes, II, p. 21 ; Edge-Partington, Ethnol. Album, I, PL 29) ; and Huaheine,
the easternmost of the Leeward Group of the Society Islands (Ellis, II, 1831,
p. 352). At Funafuti in the Ellice Islands (Fig. 33) there are three straight booms

FIG. 33. ATTACHMENTS OF CANOES, FUNAFUTI, ELLICE ISLANDS (AFTER HEDLEY).

which have a long oblique branch near the end, the tip of this branch rests on the
float to which it is lashed, sometimes it is lashed to short pegs on both sides of the
boom (Hedley, p. 286, PL XV, Figs. 1, 6, 7 ; Alexander, p. 796, pi. 35) ; in a model
in the Cambridge Museum there is only one peg ; the pegs are inserted into the
float. De Clercq and Schmeltz describe (p. 94) and figure (PL XXIV, Fig. 5) a
canoe from Ansus, New Guinea, with a direct lashed attachment, but as all the
accounts we have from Geelvink Bay speak solely of a " spike " attachment we may
suspect that the model is inaccurate. In 1914 I saw at BunTki, a short distance

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

up the Dabara arumo, a smaU river on the east side of the Bebea River (the northerly
mouth of the Bamu) in the Western Division of British New Guinea, a solitary
example of a canoe with a single outrigger of two booms with a direct tied attach-
mentit may have been an individual occurrence of no special significance, as the
canoe was a very small one another canoe had the stick attachment characteristic
of that district.

A mixed direct inserted and stick attachment. In. all the boats seen by Friederici
at Tahiti and the North and South Tuamotus (Paumotus) the aft boom had a direct
inserted attachment, but the fore boom had sticks (Fr., II, p. 314, Figs. 131, 132) ;
Pallander (PL, p. 194) figures a canoe at Anaa, Paumotus, in which the angular (? fore)
boom is inserted into the float and the straight (? aft) boom is supported by two pairs
of undercrossed sticks.

B. Indirect Attachment.

(a) Attachment Inserted into the Float.

1. Stick. The only places in Indonesia where this occurs are the Andamans and
Nicobars, i.e., marginal within the area ; here the sticks vary in number and arrange-
ment, they may be vertical, oblique or if in pairs overcrossed or undercrossed.

In a copy of an old engraving (Mager, p. 137) two double booms, one above the
other (boom and boom spar), are attached to the float by two sticks on the same side
of both booms in a canoe of the Mariana or Ladrone Islands ; Anson gives a most
excellent account and engraving (reproduced by Lang Roth, p. 123, PI., p. 118, and
sketched by Folkard, Fig. p. 463) of " a flying proa taken at the Ladrone Islands,"
it has three booms (the central one may or may not be a false boom) with the same
attachment, there are two longitudinal spars and two oblique stay spars ; and
Safford (PI. XI, p. 493) gives a figure of a Guam canoe with two booms each with one
pair of undercrossed sticks and apparently a vertical lashing between them.

Kubary figures (Pis. LIII, Fig. 20 ; LIV, Figs. 3, 5) a paopao canoe from Nukuor
and a war canoe from Ponape in the Carolines with a similar attachment of two oblique
sticks, the latter has two stay spars, to each of which, where it becomes free from the
hull, is fastened a curved spar, apic, which apparently is inserted into the float between
the normal attachment and its ends ; a similar spar on each side of the two straight
booms occurred on a model from Kusaie in the Salem Museum (but one of these apic
has entirely disappeared, while the other is represented only by its distal end which
is inserted into the float ; how they were fastened to the hull is not shown in the
photograph), but the booms have a Y -stick attachment (these are thus a mixed direct
inserted and stick-, and direct inserted and Y-stick-attachments) ; another Kusaie
model (Salem Museum) has two pairs of undercrossed sticks for each boom and a
curved spar which is lashed to the boom and comes downwards and forwards beneath

126 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

the crossings of the sticks ; at Wolea are two vertical sticks on the outer side of each
boom, or two sticks on each side, a " bracing spar " slants up from the sticks to the
boom (Macmillan Brown, PL F, and photograph ; Mayer, p. 129). The typical
Marshall Islands canoe has two straight booms with one stick (model Salem Museum),
two sticks, one on each side (Kramer 1906, p. 416, Fig. 6) or two on each side (model
Amsterdam Museum) ; in the two former three curved booms which arise from the
hull on either side of the booms and are lashed to the float (i.e., a mixed direct lashed
and stick attachment) see pp. 81, 105, Kubary (PI. LIV, Fig. 7) indicates a similar
arrangement. Folkard (p. 499), as usual, copied Wilkes' drawing (V., p. 49) of a
canoe from Drummond I. (Tapiteuea), Gilbert or Kingsmill Islands, with three
converging booms and one oblique stick on each side of each boom ; a model in the
Cambridge Museum from this group has three vertical sticks, and another model
has one pair of undercrossed sticks to each of the three booms.

A simple stick attachment characterizes the tsine canoe of Nissan, an island
between New Ireland and Bougainville (Fr., II, Figs. 95, 98 ; Haddon, 1913, Fig. 6)
and the three northerly islands of the scattered chain to the east of the Solomons :
Nuguria (Thilenius, 1902, p. 61, PL III, Fig. 2 ; Fr., II, Figs. 106-108), Tauu (Fr., II,
Fig. 103), and Nukumanu (Fr., II, p. 300). There is intercourse between these islands
and the Gilberts and between the latter and the Polynesian Islands to the south,
so it is not surprising that a similar form of attachment is common to them all.
Thus we meet with it in Rotuma, Union or Tokelau group, Samoan group, Friendly
Islands (Tongan group), and Nieue. The furthest east that I know of it is from
Nikuhiva (Marquesas), where d'Urville (I, PL LXI, Fig. 2) illustrates a double
canoe with four curved booms and an attachment of four tall vertical sticks. In
the Fiji group the sticks consist of two pairs of diverging overcrossed sticks ;
precisely this arrangement is typical of Torres Straits, where it is associated with a
double outrigger, and a two-stick attachment occurs at Batavia River, North-west
Queensland, which is remarkably like the Nissan tsine, except that there is a double
outrigger.

There is considerable variation in the stick attachments of Northern and Southern
Melanesia, which lack of space precludes me from describing. The most common
type consists of undercrossed sticks. New Guinea is also characterized by various
types of stick attachment ; as I am preparing a memoir on this subject I need not
further allude to it, except to say that the undercrossed type extends from the east
of Geelvink Bay to the Massim District in the extreme south-east, whence probably
came the Cape Bedford wangga, which extends along the north-east coast of Queens-
land from the Flinders Group in the south of Princess Charlotte Bay (lat. 14 S.)
to Cape Grafton (lat. 17 S.) (Haddon, 1913, p. 617).

The stick attachment may certainly be regarded as an ancient type. Its
presence in the Andamans, New Guinea, and Melanesia at first sight might suggest
that it was primitively associated with the pygmy, or the taller Oceanic Negroids

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 127

who are usually termed Papuans. Among the Negritos only the Andamaneae
possess it, and the arrangement of their stick attachment points to a borrowing of
the outrigger from the Nicobars. In New Guinea and Melanesia the evidence U
strongly against it being part of the old Papuan culture. Very few true Papuan
peoples possess an outrigger of any kind, and the names for canoes, and especially
for the float, in New Guinea are in the great majority of cases of Austronesian origin
We know that during long periods of time many migrations have spread from In-
donesia into New Guinea and the Western Pacific, the earlier of which gave rise to
that mixed folk whom we term Melanesians, and several migrations of Melanesian
peoples have passed into New Guinea carrying with them special types of canoes and
outriggers and their distinctive names. The general prevalence of the stick attach-
ment not only in New Guinea and Melanesia, but also in the South Polynesian area,
supports the conclusion that its introduction into these regions is due to an early
Indonesian influence. On the western border of Indonesia the stick attachment ie
associated with a single outrigger of several booms in the Andamans, as it is in Melanesia
generally. Although the Andamanese are certainly among the most primitive oi
all existing peoples, there are indications that they have borrowed certain elements
of a higher culture, of which the outrigger canoe is one. In the Nicobars the same
type of stick attachment is associated with a single outrigger of two booms.

2. The rod attachment appears to be confined to Indonesia (p. 87).

3. The spike attachment is somewhat similar to the foregoing and is characteristic
of and I believe peculiar to Geelvink Bay in New Guinea (p. 79) ; it consists of a thin
stick or spike which is driven through the boom and into the float ; usually a thin
branch extends at right angles from the spike which is lashed on to the boom.
Friederici (II, p. 251) says that this attachment is more easily taken to pieces than the
Moluccan or Halmaheran, and that the natives hang up the hulls of the canoes in the
corridor of the turtle-roofed houses. A spike attachment, combined with a bowed
spar which passes along the top of the end of the boom to which it is lashed, the
other end being lashed to the float, occurs at Nukutavaka, Paumotu Group

(Alexander, pp. 766, 767).

4. The ^-shaped stick attachment, though not recorded for Indonesia, occurs
widely in the West Pacific and is characteristic of Southern Micronesia, but it appears
to be absent from the Mariana (Ladrone) and Marshall groups. In the Pelew Islands
each boom may be supported in the fork of one or two of these sticks, it is prevalent
in the Carolines and occurs in the Gilberts and at Nauru (Fig. 34). It is lashed
the side of a boom in Liueniua (Ontong Java) and Sikaiana on the eastern flank
the Solomons. In the Liueniua canoe recorded by Friederici the stem of the Y i
immersed in the float and there is a lashing in addition, so that superficial!:

what resembles the U -Moluccan attachment. A double overcrossed Y-stick
in the Loyalty Islands and New Caledonia. Its distribution, therefore, n

lg hly between 10 N. lat. and the Equator, and roughly N.W.-S.E. from Liueniua

rouj

128 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

and Sikaiana to New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, but is unrecorded elsewhere
(cf. Haddon, 1918, No. 68).

FIG. 34. ATTACHMENT OF A CANOE, ekuo, NAURU, MICRONESIA, HORNIMAN MUSEUM

(cf. HAMBRUCH, 1915, fig. 252).

5. The board attachment is typical of Indonesia ; in this the boom passes through
a board which is inserted into the float (p. 87). A precisely similar arrangement is
found on the coast of East Africa, but with a stick or block of wood instead of a board
(Haddon, 1918, No. 29). Here it is associated with a double outrigger of two booms.
The East African outrigger canoe is universally recognised as having been derived
from Indonesia, perhaps, as Hornell suggests, before indirect attachments were lashed
to the float in the latter region. The inserted stick attachment is thus confined to
marginal areas. A somewhat similar arrangement occurs at Wukuhiva, Marquesas
Islands, Alexander (p. 745) figures a canoe with a single outrigger, each of the two
booms of which passes through a board, the lower end of which is fastened to the
float. According to his description, the ends of the booms " are seized to the
perpendicular pieces, or stanchions, the length of which is, as a rule, the distance
from the gunwale to the waterline. These pieces are seized to the top side of the
float [and not inserted into it as in a true board attachment] . . . The crosspieces
[booms], float, and stanchions are braced with withes." A curved brace is present.

6. The Balinese attachment is confined to the Eastern Javan area, but an in-
teresting analogy to it occurs in Funafuti ; Hedley says (p. 286) that the booms " are
usually entire, but are sometimes made divisible, spliced in a lock-joint [scarfed]
and served. The advantage of detaching the outrigger float from the hull occurs
when the canoes are beached and rolled over, the separated hull being more manage-
able." The Balinese is really a direct inserted attachment, the Funafuti is a direct
lashed one, but the occasional unshipping of the ends of the three booms which are
permanently attached to the float is a new, and so far as I know, unique, feature. In
the Santa Cruz Islands the whole outrigger apparatus may be detachable from the hull.

(6) Attachment Tied tq the Float.

Lashed indirect attachments seem to have ousted the inserted stick attachments
throughout the greater part of Indonesia, probably because lashing the attachment
to, instead of simply inserting it into, the float was a more secure method of
fastening, and at the same time supplied a certain amount of elasticity.

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 1 j'.

1. The Halmaheran attachment is confined to Indonesia and the north-west of
New Guinea. It varies considerably in form and is widely spread within the area,
perhaps because it is adaptable to vessels of large as well as of small size.

2. The Molwcan attachment has a restricted distribution within the area (in my
paper in Man, 1918, I erroneously stated on pp. 117, 119 that it occurred in the
Sulu archipelago).

3. The doubk or crossed \J-Moluccan attachment occurs among the Barriai, Kobe,
and Kilenge on the north coast of the western end of New Britain, at Witu (French
Islands) north of New Britain, and among the Nakanai of the north coast of New
Britain close to the Gazelle Peninsula, at San Cristoval in the Solomons, and in the
Tongan Islands (Haddon, 1918, No. 68). I was misinformed that this attachment is
now obsolete in the Tongan Group, as A. G. Mayer gives a photograph of it at Vavau
(1916, p. 25).

With the exception of the last, which looks as if it indicated a definite and
probably late cultural drift, it is significant that no indirect attachment tied to the
float has been reported from Oceania, the inference being that this method developed
in Indonesia after all the great migrations had taken place. (The introduction of the
mon into the Solomon Islands is, however, of relatively recent date.) If the Indo-
Javanese ships traded between Java and India we may assume that they also traded
in Indonesia, and thus the knowledge of an effective tied attachment should have been
known throughout the area. If these ships had a Halmaheran attachment we could
assert that the great voyages from Indonesia to Oceania must have taken place long
before A.D. 600, for if this attachment was suitable for ocean-going ships it would
surely have been taken into the Pacific and have persisted somewhere there. The
entire absence of double canoes from Indonesia and their occurrence in Oceania
suggests that these craft belong to an old culture stratum and one which was contem
poraneous with the inserted stick attachment, at all events these are at present asso-
ciated together in Oceania and New Guinea. The Hawaiian type, with its single
outrigger and direct lashed attachment, may belong to a special migration.

The persistence of the double outrigger in Indonesia requires some explanation,
and it seems to be due to the fact that when provided with an outrigger the dug-out
canoe is a very handy, light and stable craft, which is sufficient for the general purposes
of an essentially fishing community.

For more extensive trading voyages boats built up of planks were constructed,
probably under foreign influence, of the Moluccan orembai type. There can be no
doubt that these at first retained the double outrigger, as the korra-korra still do;
Friederici says this is a craft of the construction of a large orembai, but with outriggers
(II, p. 237). In Indonesia it was found that the outrigger was unnecessary for large
sailing craft and so it was discarded in the orembai. Perhaps the large waga of the
Massim district of British New Guinea were derived from vessels of this type before
the outrigger was discarded, but in the case of the waga the outrigger is single.

130 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

Friederici points out that the mon (mona, morel, mold, etc.) type of built-up
canoe of the Solomon Islands, which is without an outrigger, is constructed in a similar
manner to the orembai, indeed, Tasman compared the plank-built mon of South New
Ireland to the " corre-corre " of Ternate (Fr., II, p. 238). The mon of the Solomon
Islands have been developed on special lines, and it is open to discussion whether they
were derived from an outriggerless plank boat or whether the outriggers were
discarded in these islands. Friederici (III, p. 160) says that the mon is not a good
sea-going craft (and he says the same is true of the orembai) ; it is true the Solomon
Islanders make long voyages in them, but they are very careful to choose good weather.
He is inclined to attribute its introduction to the second branch of his Alfuran
migration and not to the Philippine migration (cf. Man, XVIII, 1918, p. 118). A
criterion of the Philippine migration is the, term guban (a Sulu archipelago name
for a canoe with a double outrigger) , but in the West Pacific the double outrigger
is retained only in the hop (a variant of guban) of Nissan.

We have now to attempt to determine where the outrigger was invented.

As outrigger canoes are at the present time absent from the mainland of Asia, 1
except in the Southern Indian area, it is highly improbable that the Southern Mongo-
loids (Proto-Malays) brought this craft with them, though it is equally probable that
earlier immigrants invented the outrigger after they had established themselves in
the islands. I have already pointed out (p. 126) that it is very improbable that this
invention was due to Negritos or Papuans, and I may here add to these the un-
progressive Pre-Dravidians. This leaves us with the Indonesians and that early
admixture of Indonesians with the first swarm of Proto-Malays to which the term
Alfur has been applied (p. 109), and we may therefore confidently attribute the
invention to them. Probably later immigrants adopted the outrigger, but the
Orang Malayu always seem to have preferred the outrigger-less craft to which they
were accustomed. Indeed it may very well be that this device was due to the
inventiveness of the Indonesian, rather than to the Mongoloid, element in the
Alfurs.

The early Arab navigators and others who may have come from the Bed Sea
or Persian Gulf were ignorant of this contrivance, as were also the Chinese navigators.
Thus of all the voyagers to the East Indian archipelago, the only possible introducers
of an outrigger were Indians, and it is doubtful whether they originally employed it.

In certain large areas of Indonesia outrigger canoes are extremely rare or even
absent altogether. The main reason for this absence seems to be a knowledge of
the art of building sea-going plank boats, an art which without doubt was introduced

1 Mr. I. H. Evans, of Perak, informs me that his Malay assistant told him that a simple type
of double outrigger is occasionally fitted temporarily to Malay boats, generally to theprahii sagor,
a small dug-out, when heavily laden. This is the only record known to. me, and it does not
invalidate the generalization here made, as the idea may have been borrowed from the islands.
Mr. Evans has " seen large tree trunks, whose wood was of greater specific gravity than water,
lashed to the sides ofprahus, something like outriggers, in bringing them by sea."

A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes. 1S1

from without, and to which Arabs, Indians, and Chinese have contributed in varying
degrees at different times ; primitively this art appears to have come from Ancient
Egypt. An analogous change has taken place in the Solomon Islands owing to a
cultural drift from the Moluccas (Fr., II, p. 161).

An inspection of the map on p. 71 suggests that the present focus of outrigger
canoes is in the Moluccas, and it is legitimate to suppose that from Indonesia, if not
actually from the Moluccas, migrations took place at various times, each with ite
special type of canoe or with some partial modification. As a general rule one might
expect to find that the earlier types of canoes or of outriggers were those that went
furthest, and those that started last would have a more limited distribution ; but we
must also remember that the later swarms would be more civilised and have a better
technical equipment, and thus some of them may have passed over earlier layers
and have reached a far destination.

The general distribution of the main types is as follows :
Marginal : Double outrigger with two booms and a stick or direct lashed
attachment ; but the double outrigger is also characteristic of
the most central area.
Single outrigger with two booms and stick attachments: north

coast of British New Guinea and South Polynesian area.
Single outrigger with several booms and stick attachments : Nico-

bars, Andamans, parts of New Guinea, Melanesia.
Single outrigger with two booms and a direct lashed attachment :

South Indian area and North Polynesian area.
Within the area : Widely distributed, double outrigger with two booms and a direct

lashed attachment.
Less distributed, double outrigger with two booms and a Halma-

heran attachment.
Most restricted, double outrigger with two booms and a Moluccan

attachment.

If we apply the principles enunciated at the beginning of this section we are led
to conclude that the above order roughly represents an historical sequence in whicl
it seems evident that, of the indirect attachments, the stick is the oldest and i
Moluccan the most recent. There also appears to be a probability that
outrigger is more ancient than the single, despite its persistence in Indonesia, a
which does not fit in with the foregoing argument.

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Meyer, A. B., and Richter, 0. " Geisterfallen im Ostindisohen Archipele." Abhandl. u. Ber.

des Kiinigl. Zool. u. Anth.-Eth. Museums zu Dresden. Bd. X. No. 6. Ethnograph. Miszellen.

II. Berlin, 1903.
Modigliani, E. Un Viaggio a Nias. Milan, 1890.

L'Isola della Donne. Milan, 1894.

Mouat, F. J. Adventures and Researches among the Andaman Islanders. 1863.
Miiller, W. Baessler-Arch., II, 1912, p. 235.

Yap, Ergebnisse der S it dsee- Expedition, 1908-1910. Hamburg, 1917.

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historique du Voiage faict par les hiucl Navires, etc. Amsterdam, 1601.
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1890.

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Perry, W. J.The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia. Manchester and London, 1918.
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Pritchett, R. T.Pen and Pencil Sketches of Shipping and Craft round the World. 1899.
Radhakumud Nookerji. Indian Shipping. London, 1912.
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Rivers, W. H. R. The History of Melanesian Society. Cambridge, 1914.
Rosenberg, H. von. Der Malay ische Archipel. Leipzig, 1878.

Inc. Arch, ftir Ethnogr., I., 1888, p. 218.

Roth, W. E. "North Queensland Ethnography." Bull. 14. Record* of

Museum, VIII. Sydney, 1910.

Roth, H. Ling. Crozefs Voyage to Tasmania, New Zealand, etc.
Safford, W. E. " Guam and its People." Smithsonian Report, 1902 (1903).
Sarasin, P. and F Reisen in Celebes. Wiesbaden, 1905.
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134 A. C. HADDON. The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes.

Svoboda, W. Int. Arch, far Ethnogr., V, 1892 ; VI, 1893, 1.

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der Ostgrenze Melanesiens." Nova Acta. Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop. -Carol. Deutsch. Akad. der

Naturforscher, Bd. LXXX, Nr. 1. Halle.. 1902.
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ADDENDA.

Friederici, G. Malaio-Polynesische Wanderungen. Leipzig, 1914 ;

Verhandl. des XIX Deutschen Geographentages z^^ Strassburg i. Els. 1914.

Berlin, 1915.

These reached me after my paper was in print ; the earlier of these two papers is the
more valuable as there are copious references. The author believes that the Malayo-
Polynesian migrations left Indonesia before the Hindu influence there, and took place in the
second and fourth centuries A.D., and that the Sumatrian migration to Madagascar took place
in the tenth century A.D. He suggests that the Malay o- Polynesian migrations were originally
made on rafts of three beams, and that canoes with double outriggers were developed from
them ; the reduction of these to single outriggers " is quite a natural process " ; the double
canoe arose from the latter by the float being increased in size and hollowed out.

Hornell, J. " The Origins and Ethnological Significance of Indian Boat Designs." Mem*
Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, VII, p. 139, Calcutta, 1920.

This is a very valuable monograph. Hornell discusses the Javanese ships of the Boro-
budur sculptures and gives new drawings of my Figs. 25 and 28 which clear up certain
points ; both have biped masts, the latter having rungs between the limbs, and the three
booms of this ship are distinctly curved and pass between the two elements of the float.

" Les Pirogues a balancier de Madagascar et de 1'Afrique orientale." La Geographie t

XXXIV. Paris, 1920, p. 1.

" Madagascar and East Africa : Canoes." Man, 1920, No. 67.

These excellent papers have appeared too late for me to refer to them, the former is the
longer and has more illustrations. Hornell shows that the following varieties occur on the
west coast of Madagascar, all with two booms :

1. Direct inserted in a model of a sailing boat with an ordinary float on one side, and

on the other the booms carry a reduced float which evidently serves as an outlayer.

2. Double outrigger with a small board (" peg stanchion ") attachments to the two floats.

3. Single outrigger with similar attachments, the booms on the other side being tied to

a light bamboo spar to form an outlayer.

4. -do. do. , but only the fore boom is prolonged on the other side, it serves to extend

the starboard sheet.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries all the canoes appear to have had double
outriggers, by the middle of the nineteenth century both forms occurred, now none but
single ones occur.

The attachment in Madagascar is always vertical, as it is at Lamu, but in the other East
African canoes it is oblique and the flat board is similarly horizontal or canted. Hornell
rightly observes that these facts justify his previous conclusion that the outrigger canoes of
Madagascar and East Africa are derived directly from Javanese [or at all events Indonesian]
types. He points out that " In their consistently double form, the African varieties have
retained a primitive structure almost entirely lost in present-day Madagascar outriggers "
and that " the Lamu variety having vertical stanchions approaches most closely to the
Madagascar form."

I may add that I have just come across a very badly drawn illustration of a canoe from
Mohelia, with a double outrigger ; each pair of the two divergent booms appear to be directly
connected with its float. T. H. [Herbert] Esquier, A Relation of Some Yeares Travaile,
Begunne Anno 626 ; London 1634.

[Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. L,
January-June, 1920.]

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Haddon, Alfred Cort,
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The outriggers of
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