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OVERLAND TO CHINA
ARCHIBALD R. COLQUHOUN
THE
'Overland' to China
BY
ARCHIBALD R. COLOUHOUN
GOLD MEDALLIST ROVAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY ; FORMERLY DEPUTY COMMISSIONER, BURMA ;
ADMINISTRATOR OF MASHONALAND, SOUTH AFRICA ;
AND SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT OF THE ' TIMES ' IN THE FAR EAST;
AUTHOR OF 'china IN TRANSFORMATION,' ETC.
WITH FRONTISPIECE, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND MAPS
LONDON AND NEW YORK
HARPER & BROTHERS
45, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.
1900
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CONTENTS
I. Siberia: The Conquest 3
II The Occupation 38
III. The Occupation— (G?;;////?^^^) 53
IV. The Occupation — {Contimied) 82
V. Industries and Products 99
VI. The Great Trans-Siberian-Manchurian Rail-
way 117
VII. Peking: Past and Present 150
VIII. Past and Present— (Cw;//;/?^^^) 160
IX. Past and Present — [Continued) 178
X. Manchuria 188
XI. Manchuria— (6'6;«/z«?^(?.'/) 217
XII. Manchuria— (6V;z//;«<f^^) 243
XIII. Eastern Mongolia 255
XIV. Eastern Mongolia {Coniinued) 286
XV. The Yangtsze Valley 309
XVI. The Yangtsze Valley (Contintcca) 335
XVII. S0UTHWE.ST China 369
XVIII. Southwest China {Contimied) 391
XIX. Tongking 418
XX. Conclusions 448
Index 461
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
ARCHIBALD R. COLQUHOUN Frontispiece
YAKUTS (AMUR) STARTING ON JOURNEY ^VITH PACK DEER . II
COSSACK SENTINEL IJ
OSTIAK MAN AND AVOMAN, TYPES AND COSTUMES .... 21
KIRGHIZ HORSEMEN ON THE STEPPE 33
THE CATHEDRAL, IRKUTSK 55
BRIDGE AT IRKUTSK 59
YENISEI RIVER, SCORED BY ICE 63
FISHING VILLAGE, LAKE BAIKAL, SIBERIA 67
BARREN REGIONS AND BASINS WITHOUT OUTLET IN ASIA . 69
TUNGUSE IN WINTER HUNTING COSTUME 72
DOG-SLEDGE, AMUR REGION 77
SAMOYEDE PILOT 79
IN THE ALEXANDROVSKY CENTRAL PRISON, SIBERIA ... 87
TRAVEL WITH " TARANTASS," ON THE STEPPE 9I
BURIAT CAMEL-SLEDGE 95
EN ROUTE WITH "TARANTASS," SIBERIA 1 19
TYPICAL FERRY, SIBERIA 133
GROUP OF TUNGUZ AND TENT 20I
GOLD WOMAN, "FISH SKIN" TRIBE 204
BURIAT WOMAN IN FETE DRESS 205
GROUP OF BURIAT WOMEN AT THEIR NATIONAL FETE . . 207
MANCHU WOMAN 21 5
COMPARATIVE AREA OF MANCHURIA AND OTHER LANDS . 219
CROSSING THE GOBI DESERT 263
MONGOLIAN DESERT — TOMB OF LAMA, ENCAMPMENT, AND
CARAVAN 269
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
INVASIONS OF THE MONGOLS AND CONQUESTS OF THEIR
SUCCESSORS .... 273
KIRGHIZ WOMAN 295
COIFFURE OF A KIRGHIZ BRIDE 297
BUR i AT LAMAS, WITH CHINESE INTERPRETER 305
UPPER YANGTSZE GORGES — CHINESE PATROL BOAT. . . . 31I
CHIN FO SHAN ("GOLDEN BUDDHA') MOUNTAIN, ON THE
BORDERS OF YUNNAN AND SZECHUAN 379
BRIDGE AT LAN-CHUAN, SZECHUAN 393
TIBETAN WOMAN ON THE FRONTIER, NORTHWEST SZECHUAN 396
GROUP ON THE BORDER OF TIBET AND SOUTHWESTERN
CHINA 398
MAPS
ASIA, SHOWING SUCCESSIVE ADVANCES OF RUSSIA . Facing p. 16
RUSSIAN ASIA " 112
SOUTHERN CHINA AND ADJOINING COUNTRIES . . " 314
ROUTE MAP SHOWING JOURNEY FROM ST. PETERS-
BURG TO GULF OF TONGKING " 432
Note. — Many of tlie illustration.s are reproduced by the permission of M.
Hacliette and Messrs. Virtue, from the Gdo^rathie Universelle of E. RecUis.
INTRODUCTION
The completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway,
connecting in one unbroken line the Baltic and the
China sea, will mark in a fitting manner the com-
mencement of a new century.
The enthusiasm of the Russian government and
people for this grand enterprise is not without rea-
son, for since the discovery of the Cape route to
the Indies by Vasco da Gama, almost since the
discovery of America by Columbus, no human
achievement has been so pregnant with conse-
quences to mankind at large.
Intimately related to other iDhenomena in the P'ar
East — the wonderful evolution of Japan, the no less
amazing collapse of the Chinese Empire, the sud-
den appearance of the United States as a colonizing
power in the Western Pacific, and other like changes
— the Siberian Railway possesses an importance far
beyond its merely industrial, commercial, or even
strategical uses, immense as these are, beyond the
territory of Russia itself. For with it is interwoven
the whole chain of causes destined to entirely revo-
lutionize the Far East. '-
ix
INTRODUCTION
These considerations induced the writer in 1898-
99 to visit Siberia and the border-lands of China on
the north, and to pass across the latter country from
nortii to south. He made the journey from Euro-
pean Russia to the temporary terminus of the Trans-
Siberian Railway at Lake Baikal, and thence by the
Gobi Desert, in Eastern Mongolia, to Peking — a
possible railway route which may yet connect the
Chinese capital by a short cut with the administra-
tive and commercial centre of Eastern Siberia.
Journeying subsequently through that portion of
China which is now of most interest to the British
and American peoples, he ascended the Yangtsze
River as far as its navigation-limit, and from Szech-
uan proceeded southward by way of the two south-
western provinces, Kweichau and Yunnan, to the
Red River, completing the journey at Haiphong.
Some seven thousand miles were traversed, chief-
ly overland, the journey being accomplished by
means of rail and tarantass, camel, camel-cart, and
mule-litter, native Chinese boat and saddle pony,
mule, and sedan-chair. The variety in the modes
of travel was equalled by the diversity of races en-
countered on the way — European Russians and
Siberians, Buriats and Mongols, Manchus and the
Chinese of North and of Southwest China, the
interesting aboriginal tribes of Yunnan and Kwei-
chau, and, finally, the Tongkingese under French
rule.
The fact that such a journey — from the Baltic to
the Gulf of Tongking — was made, allowing for vari-
INTRODUCTION
ous sojourns C7i I'outc, within a period of seven
months, affords a striking proof of the changes
which are in progress and of the rate at which dis-
tances are being annihilated in Asia. So rapid, in-
deed, are these changes that in the near future —
when, by means of the railway, the whole journey
from Europe, via Peking, to Central China will be
accomplished in fifteen days — the magnitude of the
Asiatic continent will have become a mere tradition
among travellers.
The writer had made many journeys in China,
north and south, during the past twenty years : had
explored the southwest provinces and their border-
lands towards India; served through the French
campaign in Tongking as correspondent of the
Times ; and, as recently as 1S96-97, made a care-
ful study on the spot of the political and financial
changes in progress in the Chinese capital, visiting
also Japan. But the questions arising are both
diverse and unexpected, while the general problems
coming up for solution are so complex and so grave
that even personal knowledge becomes obsolete, and
it is impossible for the most earnest student of news-
papers and books to follow intelligently the progress
of events without frequently renewing and extending
his studies from the life.
The present work is the result 01 such fresh ob-
servations, and an attempt to interest the general
reader and give him an idea of the ground by pre-
senting, without elaboration, a series of impressions
of the conditions, physical and political, under which
XI
I N T R O 13 U C T I O N
the Trans-Siberian Railway will shortly become an
accomplished fact. Much of the information is
drawn from original sources, and the whole is con-
nected by a thread of tiie writer's personal experi-
ences.
^■
SIBERIA
«
1
OVERLAND TO CHINA
CHAPTER I
SIBERIA: THE CONQUEST
Until quite recently " Siberia," to the idle consid-
eration of the "man in the street," represented mere-
ly a vast, untraversable waste, vaguely attached to
the outskirts of Russia; a gray wilderness of snow-
weighted fir-trees, at "the back of beyond," where
the few hours of struggling light in the twenty-four
but served to deepen the numb despair of the suc-
ceeding darkness, and a gleam of filtered warmth in
August represented all of summer the inhabitants
were ever to know ; a region where there were
" mines," and therefore must be mineral wealth ;
eternal snow and ice, and therefore "furs." But
chiefly, perhaps, he would picture it as the horrible
oubliette where the few free spirits who dared to
express the general thought in Russia might be
dropped out of the world — to languish until death
brought the merciful ukase of release.
But a new era is upon us, and even the average
member of the general public, amid the eternal re-
3
OVERLAND TO CHINA
echo of other "questions of the clay," begins to realize
that Siberia is being transformed into as essential
a part of Russia as is St. Petersburg: a huge limb,
hitherto inert, but to which, even now, muscle and
nerve are being supplied, and which, when the last
se-'"tion of the great Siberian Railway is laid, will be
ready to strike out with the lusty vigor of youth.
It is curious how invariably these Slavonic achieve-
ments have come as a surprise to the world. For
years, even for centuries, Russia pursues her way by
parallel routes to many goals, unheard and out of
sight. The world, unsuspicious and indifferent, at
most vaguely supposes that " Russia is busy at some-
thing" in Central Asia, or "intriguing again" to-
wards the East ; until the day when, after the accom-
plished fact, she emerges, smiling benevolently at
the world's simplicity, on the frontiers of Afghanistan
and the shores of the Pacific, with Herat and Tehe-
ran, Port Arthur and Peking alike in the hollow of
her hand. In the very year, for instance, that the
world's attention was focussed on Sevastopol, and
the British people were fondly imagining that Rus-
sian power lay stunned at their feet, two of the most
pregnant achievements in Asian history were con-
summated — the defiant seizure by Russia of the
Amur River, and the occupation of the Zailiisk Al-
tai slopes — giving, on the one hand, access to the
open sea, and, on the other, complete command of
Central Asia. Bloodless and unajjplauded victories
these, but further reaching in their probable influ-
ence on the world's history than ten campaigns of
4
SIBERIA
Inkermans and Almas. This faculty of ours for
chronic surprise is in itself astonishing, for Russian
aims and methods are neither new, disguised, diffi-
cult of comprehension, nor liable to change. They
follow in infallible sequence.
Even now, while the average man in the States and
in Europe, in his efforts to be "up to date," is bit by
bit digesting the situation — Russia on the Pacific;
Russia practically mistress at Constantinople, Te-
heran, and Peking; Russia overhanging Afghanis-
tan, and with Kashgaria at her mercy — that situa-
tion is changing as he muses. Siberia, to take one
instance — and Russians make no secret of it — has
already fulfilled her raison d'etre, in opening the way
to the ocean ; and from the rich valleys of Manchuria
it is no longer towards the Amur that Russians now
look, but towards the British sphere, the Yangtsze.
The Siberian stage lasted three hundred years and
terminated at Port Arthur; the stage nowcommenc-
ino; will last how loni^: ? ^vill end where }
Never in the history of the world were such areas
as those of Siberia brought under an empire s rule
at so ridiculously small a cost. Of men and treasure,
at least, the Russian expenditure has been insignifi-
cant; practically, time and patience — two essentially
Eastern qualities — have been the factors employed.
And what an empire it is that has been thus qui-
etly and unostentatiously subjugated! Magnificent
enough, if itself the crown and summit of a country's
ambition; but how significant when regarded as
merely a stage on the road to greater ends; as but
5
OVERLAND TO CHINA
an antechamber, a desert threshold to the promised
land of Russian "destiny" — the Golden South!
71ie term " Siberia " covers, in its broadest sense,
the whole of Russia's Asiatic dominions except
Trans - Caucasia, the Trans -Caspian territor}-, and
Russian Turkistan, though in its narrowest sense
limited to the Orioinal Siberia, which included only
the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk (Western
Siberia), and those of Yenisseisk and Irkutsk (East-
ern Siberia).
Administratively it is divided into five regions,
corresponding roughly to the basins of the five
great rivers, Obi, Yenisei, Lena, Amur, and Hi.
These regions are, (i and 2) the Western and East-
ern Siberia already referred to ; (3) the Yakutsk,
(4) the Amur and coast, and (5) the Steppe regions.
The Amur and coast region is subdivided into three
territories — Trans-Baikalia, the Amur, and the Lit-
toralc — and the Steppe region into the Akmolinsk,
Semipalatinsk, and Semirechensk provinces.
With the acquisition of Manchuria a readjustment
of the Eastern administrative divisions will, of course,
be necessitated. Siberia, as thus so far defined, oc-
cupies an area twenty-five times greater than that of
Germany, and one-fourteenth at least of this vast
expanse is suited for agriculture. Consequently,
whether regarded as a mere stage on the road
which Russia has for generations been instinctively
pursuing towards the warmth and light, the open
seas, and the fertile wealth of the Sunny South ; or
whether its intrinsic value as a possession be alone
6
SIBERIA
taken into account, Siberia can in no case be dis-
missed as a quaniitc negligeable. The conquest of
this vast dominion three centuries ago marked, in-
deed, a scarcely more important epoch than will be
reached when to-morrow sees communications by
rail and steamer opened up throughout its area, and
the imperfectly know^i, but at any rate colossal, po-
tentialities thrown wide open to the world. The
twentieth century will provide no more vital prob-
lem than the readjustments necessitated when East
and West are thus for the first time brouoht border
to border.
From the point of view of our superior informa-
tion, it seems astonishing that territories such as
these— well -watered, inexhaustibly rich in minerals,
timber, pasture, corn-lands, and fisheries — should,
until even quite recently, have remained unknown
for anything but an untraversable wilderness, ban-
ishment to which was held a greater penalty than
death. But the old impression was to some extent
justified. The natural difficulties of "the coldest
country of the Old World " are so immense as to
be, in a sense, insurmountable. The climate can
nowhere be called a " white man's climate," five
months of vegetation being the most that can be
reckoned on even in the agricultural zone. North
of this comparatively narrow belt running east and
west through the country are thousands and thou-
sands of square miles of tangled forest and morass,
into which the boldest trapper dare not penetrate,
and avoided, it is said, even by wild animals. Be-
7
OVERLAND TO CHINA
yond this, again, lie vast tracks of polar tundra
country, where nothing grows but mosses and lich-
ens ; where the earth is stiff with frost the whole
year round, and — if reindeer and dogs be excepted
— no domestic animal can live. A region abandoned
to starving tribes of Samoyeds and Yakuts, and
doomed, it would seem forever, to Arctic deso-
lation.
There was, in the beginning, no premeditated or
carefully considered policy. The conquest of Sibe-
ria resulted rather from a natural overflow of pop-
ulation than from prescient statecraft. Dominion
grew rather than was built up, though, since the
time of Peter the Great, Russian statesmen have
been zealous to assist the crystallizing process, both
in its expansions and consolidations.
The question next most vital to that of climate is
the one of means of communication over the vast dis-
tances involved — a problem that is now on the point
of solution. The chief waterways of Siberia, with
the marked exception of the Amur, run northward,
at right angles to the trend of traffic, and discharge
into ice-bound seas which cannot be regarded as open
to navigation. But the Siberian Railway will, to a
great extent, remedy this drawback, and will bind
and connect the present rather straggling centres
of population, running, as it were, a nervous back-
bone through the land. If the real conquest of Si-
beria dated, as the Russians say, from the falling of
the first grain of corn into the conquered soil, her
final elevation to civilized rank must be held to com-
8
SIBERIA
mence from the day when the first train from Eu*
rope rushes through to the Pacific.
As early as the twelfth century the Russians of
Novgorod already knew of the Ural Mountain Tar-
tars and their wealth in peltry, and occasionall}''
raided them. But it was not till four centuries
later, under Ivan IV., that definite relations grew
up. The Russians, having made themselves mas-
ters of the Volga basin, gradually extended towards
the Urals, and at the epoch mentioned had reached
their western slopes. This chain, marking the Eu-
rasian frontier, offers no abrupt and rocky barrier
to progress eastward, but is a gently undulating line
of hills, bearing the character rather of a connection
than a division. Only by contrast with the plains
of European Russia could the Urals be regarded as
"mountains."
Thus far had the Volga pioneers penetrated by
the middle of the sixteenth century. They were
principally outlaws, fur - traders, and trappers, with
very little to distinguish them, outwardly at least,
from the Tartar horsemen with whom they came
into contact. Wrapped in furs, mounted on small
shaggy horses, armed with lances and scimitars, of
more or less Kalmuck cast of feature, it was but
the idea of allegiance to a European over-lord that
gave them cohesion against the wandering tribes
who owned no common chief. The advance to the
Urals was, doubtless, not accomplished in one jour-
ney, but, from camping-ground to camping-ground,
over a period of months and even years. We can
9
OVERLAND TO CHINA
picture the first party of Cossacks sighting the Urals
after traversinsf the monotonous and ahiiost inter-
minable plains that stretch from the Volga. At
break of clay, perhaps — the sun sending back their
shadows in giant patches along the road they had
come — they pulled up their wiry little horses, and,
standing in their stirrups while they shaded their
eyes, saw for the first time, across the rose-tinted
desert, those hills which marked the oniiie igiiotum
of their magnificent dreams. The refraction of the
sun's morning rays on vast sandy steppes tends, it
is well known, to magnify objects. Thus may the
Urals, indeed, have appeared to them mountains
when viewed from afar.
On reaching the western slopes of the Urals, there
was nothing to prevent these early pioneers from
crossing into the then unknown Siberia, and com-
mencino: a barter-trade with the wanderinc: Tartars
of the other side — a barter which was probably not
always in favor of the simple native ; for a Russian
proverb, with what appears a touch of unconscious
admiration, still says, "Honest as a Tartar." Occa-
sionally these pioneers are said to have levied " yas-
sak" — a tax on furs — from the tribes they encoun-
tered. This " yassak " collection was indeed to be,
later on, the usual form by which the Cossack intro-
duced himself. One can, however, hardly imagine
that this could be effected without at any rate a
display of force; and the earliest Russian pioneers
can have had no visible power or prestige at their
back. Moreover, they arc believed to have re-
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SIBERIA
maincd, until the conquest, on fairly good terms
with the natives beyond the Urals. As a matter
of fact, they were probably received more or less on
sufferance, as were the Russian merchants in parts
of Central Asia till the other day — content, for the
sake of a small profit, to endure indignities from the
natives whom their countrymen were ultimately des-
tined to absorb. More Asiatic than European, the
Russian is at once in sympathy with Yakut. Kir-
ghiz, or Tunguz; and, while in the wilds, is very con-
tent to do as the wild man does. He preserves, how-
ever, though dissembled for the time, his national
traits, and has, throughout his occupation of Siberia,
been known to degenerate onl}^ in the Yakutsk re-
gion, under the brutalizing effect of extreme cold.
The most prominent feature in the history of the
Siberian conquest is the extraordinary vigor of pri-
vate enterprise shown. Many of the most important
advances — among them the first organized expedi-
tion across the Urals — were due to individual initia-
tive, so much so that the story of early Siberia
resolves itself into the history of the Stroganovs,
Yermaks, Khabarovs, Demidovs, and — most illus-
trious name of all — Mouraviev Amursky. These
led the way and carved out whole empires. Gov-
ernment then approved, confirmed, and developed.
Scientific expeditions set the final seal. This se-
quence, in its general lines the same as that fol-
lowed by the Anglo-Saxon — in contradistinction to
the French and German methods, where official pro-
tection usually long precedes any interests that may
13
OVERLAND TO CHINA
subsequently grow up to be protected — has now
been replaced in Russia by one in which the scien-
tific expedition leads the way.
The Stroganovs, to whom the first armed expe-
dition into Siberia was due, were an immensely rich
family flourishing in the reign of Ivan IV, The
Tsar had originally granted them large tracts of land
in European Russia, along the Kama River, on con-
dition that they should build towns, develop indus-
tries, raise troops, and defend the region from the
incursions of " barbarian hordes," as the Russians
called the Tartars (and the Tartars called them).
They may, in fact, be considered the Slav equiva-
lent of their contemporaries, the East India Com-
pany, and the prototype of the chartered company
of modern days. That the country beyond the
Urals was not entirely a terra incognita to them is
proved by the fact that the course of the Obi and
the site of a town called Tinmen are marked on a
map dating from before the armed conquest of the
region. The commercial agents of the Stroganovs
had, in fact, frequently visited the kingdom of Ku-
chum Khan, and were received as friends where the
Russians, a year or two later, were to take possession
as masters. The first Stroganov settlements along
the Kama succeeded to such an extent that their
domains were extended by the Emperor, and per-
mission 2:iven for offensive as well as defensive
operations — and beyond the Urals!
About this time — /. r., towards the end of the six-
teenth century, in the reign of Ivan, surnamed "The
14
SIBERIA
Terrible " — many peasants had fled their homes and
sought Hberty and space in the vast tracts beyond
the Volga. From these coigns of vantage, however,
they frequently harried the Tsar's settled territories,
and became, in consequence, outlawed. Such a
band of Don Cossacks, who had, under their leader
Yermak, made themselves conspicuous by their free-
booting exploits, eluded the pursuit of the imperial
troops on one occasion by retreating up the river
Kama, and so reaching the Stroganov possessions.
Here they were a welcome addition to the forces,
and were at once offered service.
The Stroganovs, profiting by the Tsar's permis-
sion, in 1579 organized and equipped an armed ex-
pedition for the country beyond the Urals. The
nucleus of this little army of eight hundred men was
Yermak's troop, and he was given the command of
the expedition. Setting out in the next spring, he
met and defeated the Tartar prince Yepancha on
the banks of the river Tura, Continuing his ad-
vance while the summer lasted, he took up his
quarters when winter set in on the site of the
present town of Tinmen. The following year he
marched on " Isker," or " Sibir," the capital of Ku-
chum Khan, the most powerful of the Tartar princes
and a direct descendant of Genghis Khan. When
at last he reached the town, late in the year, his
force was reduced one -half, but he must attack
or perish. After desperate fighting — the Tartars,
being armed solely with bows and arrows, lances
and swords — the town was carried by assault.
IS
OVERLAND TO CHINA
How this success was possible against a vastly
superior number it is difficult to imagine. Cannon
of a clumsy type may have been used by the Cos-
sacks, though it was a long distance to have dragged
them, but neither side had probably the advantage
of small fire-arms. Against sword and lance, the
])ows and arrows of the defenders, fischtino: behind
ramparts, could not but prove effective ; and, man to
man, the bronzed Tartar must have been nearly a
match for even the war -seasoned Cossack. The
Tartars, moreover, were a warlike race, fighting —
for very existence — on their own ground. Where-
as the Cossacks were attacking in an unknown
country, and were separated from their base by such
distances that half their number had succumbed on
the way, in battle or from fatigue. They were, it is
true, also fighting for dear life, anything short of
victory meaning, on either side, extermination ; and
they had the prestige of the huge power behind
them, of that "Great White Tsar'' of whom even
the Tartars must have heard.
Thus, on the 25th of October, 1581, the robber
outlaw Yermak was able to report to the Tsar —
"Lord Ivan Vasilevich " — the conquest of a new
" Siberian kingdom," while, at the same time, suing
for pardon. This was readily granted, and the mes-
senger was handed by his Majesty a cloak and a
medal, as rewards for the victorious Cossack. In a
bilina upon the conquest, well known in Russian
popular poetry, Yermak exclaims :
16
o
■J
ililliiliiil^'
SIBERIA
" I am the robber Hetman of the Don.
'Twas I went over the blue sea, the Caspian ;
And I it was who destroyed the ships ;
And now, our hope, our Orthodox Tsar,
I bring you my traitorous head.
And with it I bring the Empire of Siberia.
And the Orthodox Tsar will speak,
He will speak, the terrible Ivan Vasilevich.
' Ha ! thou art Yermak, the son of Timofei,
Thou art the Hetman of the warriors of the Don.
I pardon thee and thy band,
I pardon thee for thy trusty service.
And I give thee the glorious gentle Don as an inheri-
tance !' "
Some five years later, three hundred regulars were
sent from Moscow to Yermak's aid, supplemented
soon after by other five hundred. They built the
towns of Tiumea and Tobolsk, and other smaller
ones, the town of Tobolsk standing, as it does to-day,
on the site of the former capital of Kuchum. Os-
trogs, or forts, were erected at the confluence of all
the rivers.
In the meanwhile, however, in 1584, Yermak had
fallen. Enticed too far from his base by Tartar cun-
ning, he perished, with the whole of his band, on the
banks of the Irtysh — an instance of " catching a
Tartar " vouched for by history.
Russian power, thus introduced, quickly extended
over the basins of the giant rivers Obi, Yenisei,
and Lena. The usual yassak was collected, and a
great trade in furs sprang up. In the founding of
Russian sovereignty in these vast tracts of country
19
OVERLAND TO CHINA
complete occupation was, of course, out of the ques-
tion. But control was effected through the estab-
lishment by the Cossacks of lines of fortified posts —
at the junctions of rivers, the entrances of mountain
passes, and at other strategic points. Between 1630
and 1640, small bands of Cossacks penetrated the
country to its extreme limits — the Arctic Ocean and
the Sea of Okhotsk. They discovered the minor
Arctic rivers Indighirka, Yana, and Kolyma, as well
as the volcano-girt peninsula of Kamchatka. The
latter was explored afresh, and finally taken posses-
sion of in 1697.
The whole story of these and a hundred other
Cossack expeditions is flavored with romance and
desperate adventure. The early pioneers were men
of absolute hardihood and courage. On their jour-
ney northeast, they had, first, to traverse thousands
of square miles of birch woods and pasture-land;
then still vaster tracts of tangled forest and swamp ;
and, finally, the polar tiuicira border of the frozen
ocean, a wilderness rigid with eternal frost, barren
and doomed.
ThrouQ:h such successive wastes these handfuls of
Cossacks worked their way into the unknown be-
yond. Their original means of transport must have
been almost 7^^7, but doubtless they pressed into their
service the tribes they vanquished in their wander-
ings, using them as porters, forcibly borrowing their
iiartas, or sledges — drawn in the forest zones by
men or horses, in the polar tundras by reindeer or
dogs — and, where the course of a river trended in
20
^
OSTIAK MAN AND WOMAN, TYPES AND COSTUMES
i
SIBERIA
the required direction, forcing them to build rafts
from the profusion of timber always available.
Half savage themselves, they would be able to sub-
sist, with the Ostiak, on fox-flesh, eaten raw, intes-
tines first; dig with the Buriat for roots stored in
the prairie-dog's burrow; or, again with the Samo-
yed, feast on the half-digested green stuff taken from
the reindeer's stomach. They would array them-
selves, with the Vogul, in thick furs and hoods
adorned with the ears of animals, or, with the
Yakuts, in coats of fishskin. They would share,
with the Tunguz, the shelter of caves in hollow tree-
trunks. And thus from day to day, levying food and
clothing from the very wilderness, these intrepid pio-
neers made their way over snow-covered wastes and
through hundreds of miles of silent forest, down
broad, pine -fringed rivers and across bare, schist-
strewn mountains, supporting the extremes of hun-
ger, thirst, and cold.
When, finally, having fought their way through
taiga and tiindi^a and faced the dangers of bear and
elk hunts, with the alternative of starvation, they
emerged upon a human habitat, it was but to engage
in a still deadlier struggle with superior forces of hos-
tile nomads. Silent Samoyed and dull Buriat, gentle
Tunguz and brutal Ostiak, alike fought hard against
the invader. But it was the Koriats, inhabiting
Kamchatka and the adjoining coast, who proved the
most formidable, because fanatical, foe. When so
hard-pressed by a better-armed enemy that victory
was impossible, it was the Koriat mode to kill off
23
OVERLAND TO CHINA
women and children. Then the whalcskin-cuirassed
warriors, having taken oath to "lose the sun" and
"make a bargain with Death," rushed into the thick
of their enemies and fell, each man fiixhtins: to the
last.
In spite of these and many less obvious difficulties,
the astonishing fact remains that mere handfuls of
Cossacks did, in the first part of the seventeenth
century, succeed in establishing Russian power along
the shores of the Arctic Ocean and Sea of Okhotsk,
an achievement which, considering the obstacles to
be overcome and the means at their disposal, ap-
pears little short of miraculous.
A simultaneous advance was belnsf made in a
southeasterly direction, initiated by another hero,
famous in Siberian story — Khabarov. Originally a
farmer of Yakutsk, and afterwards a salt-boiler, this
man volunteered to fit out at his own expense, and
personally lead, an expedition to the distant Amur
— the "Black Dragon River" of the Manchus.
Leaving Yakutsk in 1649, Khabarov made his way
down the river Olekma, and reached the Am.ur the
following year. He destroyed a few Daur encamp-
ments, and then returned to Yakutsk to make report
on the broad, deep river that he had discovered run-
ning through fertile valleys. His glowing description
fired one hundred and fifty volunteers to join the vent-
ure, and at the head of these, and with three cannon
provided by the authorities, Khabarov in 1651 again
reached the Amur. There, at the junction of the
Emuri (from which some authorities consider the
24
SIBERIA
name Amur to be derived), he built the station of
Albazin, and went into winter-quarters. This was
but a wooden, stockaded fort, but during two years
Khabarov, making it his base, occupied — or, rather,
commanded — the course of the Amur, and this in
spite of repeated efforts of the Manchus to dislodge
him.
News of this El Dorado having reached the Tsar's
ears, in 1654 Khabarov was ordered to Moscow to
report in person. He did not reappear on the scene,
but, as the first conqueror of the virgin Amur, has
given his name to the modern town of Khabarovka,
the seat of the governor-generalship of the region.
His successors, Stepanov, Pashkov, and others met
with more indifferent success, the first being killed
in fioht with the Manchus, and the second findino:
it impossible to effect much with the diminished
remnants of Khabarov's band left at his disposal.
But a 3'ear later a body of fugitive criminals, anxious
to win pardon, re-established Russian rule on the
Amur, rebuilt the ruined station of Albazin, and
for twenty years maintained their position in peace.
During that time other forts or stockades were built,
and the collection of yassak from the former trib-
utaries, the Tunguzes, was recommended.
After this period of tranquillit}^ in 1685, a powerful
army of fifteen thousand Manchus invested Albazin,
and the garrison of five hundred men was compelled
to abandon the post, which was then burned to the
ground. Some were taken prisoners and were carried
to Peking, where they founded the Russian Mission,
OVERLAND TO CHINA
which, with its teachers cind priests, has lasted down
to the present day. The Russians, however, returned
with reinforcements in the same year, and rebuilt
the fort, replacing tlie wooden stockade by earth-
works. Again, in 1686, the Manchus laid siege, but
a year later utter exhaustion obliged them to raise it.
A period of negotiation followed, in which Chinese
diplomacy redeemed the defeat of Chinese arms,
and in 1689 the treaty of Nerchinsk confirmed the
Amur to China. This diplomatic achievement re-
mained effective for one hundred and sixty years —
until the coming of Mouraviev Amursky.
From the end of the seventeenth century perma-
nent colonization became gradually established in
the other conquered territories ; forts, cities, and
"yamas" (post-stations) sprang up in that order;
immigration was fostered and river communication
opened. Perm, on the European side of the Urals,
became the orovernment base. Commerce was intro-
O
duced — under such difficulties, however, that com-
munication between the pioneer merchants and
their Moscow correspondents could only be effected
once a year. But, when once established, the mer-
chant was amply rewarded by a monopoly of the
trade, the chief articles of which were cloth, glass,
porcelain, groceries, and spirituous liquors.
To unsupported private enterprise, again, was due
the beginning of the mining industry, which has
since become so important a factor in Siberian life
and progress. A merchant named Demidov discov-
ered, in 1723, the first mines in the Altai (or "Golden")
26
SIBERIA
Mountains. He opened and worked them at his
own expense until they were taken over by the
crown in 1747, when they became, as they are now,
the private property of the Emperor.
During the more troublous Limes of the Russian
Empire "secret colonization" also aided in the ab-
sorption of the newly acquired territory of Sibe-
ria. Criminals and political refugees, outcasts and
dissenters, forming companionships in adversity, es-
tablished secret settlements hidden far away in the
depths of the dense forest. Here many of them lived
their lives through, undiscovered and unmolested,
hunting, trapping, and fishing, gathering cedar-nuts,
and sowing a little corn. The sable, fox, and squir-
rel supplied them with wearing apparel ; the birch-
woods provided building logs, bark for roofing, ma-
terial for implements, and fuel. A happy, peaceful
life, far " out of the hurly-burly " of Russian civiliza-
tion and beyond the ken of penal codes. When
chanced upon by government officials, these secret
settlements were at first merely taxed, no questions
being asked as to possible misdemeanors in the
world they had retired from. But latterly this kind
of irregular colonizing became so popular and as-
sumed such dimensions that the government found
themselves forced to interfere.
At this stage of the conquest expeditions of dis-
covery and scientific surveys followed in rapid suc-
cession. The most famous among many remarkable
sea-vovasres — the tonnas^e of the craft, absence of all
charts, and dangerous character of the ice-churned
27
OVERLAND T O CHINA
seas duly considered — was undoubtedly that of
Vitus Berend (Bering), a Danish sailor in the ser-
vice of Peter the Great. He commanded an expe-
dition fitted out by that monarch with the express
purpose of determining whether or not a strait di-
vided the north of America from the northeastern
reo'ion of Asia. Sailinq- from St. Petersburg in
1728 — the year of Peter the Great's death — he
eventually emerged into the open sea beyond Ber-
ing Strait, in August, 1728, thereby effecting the
object of his voyage. This daring navigator com-
manded a second expedition in 1741, and reached
the American coast. Returning, weary and batter-
ed, he was shipwrecked on the island now called
after him, was landed by his comrades, and died
soon after on that lonely beach.
Bering's observations led to the gradual discov-
ery and occupation by Russia of Alaska and other
parts of the North American continent, ceded to
the United States in 1867. Many heroic explor-
ers followed in Bering's track, of whom the best
known, perhaps, are Pribylov and Nordenskjold.
It is worthy of note that British sailors made, as
early as the sixteenth century, repeated, though
more or less unsuccessful, attempts to discover the
Arctic shores of the Old World, recently circum-
navigated in their entirety by Nordenskjold. The
early attempts of Willoughby, Chancellor, and Bur-
rough failed even to reach the Siberian coast, while
Ket and Jackman, in 1580, did not get beyond the
Kara Sea. Their objective was, laughably enough.
SIBERIA
China, or " Kathay," which, trusting to tlie maps of
the period, they hoped to reach by ascending the
Obi to " Lake Kathay," from which it was supposed
to spring. The Dutch, too, made several as little
successful voyages. The last attempt on the part
of navigators from Western Europe was the fa-
mous voyage of Hudson, in 1608, for about 16 16
navigation of those seas was forbidden, even to
Russian subjects, on pain of death, lest foreigners
should discover the way to the Siberian shores.
The exploration of the Siberian coasts was thus
long left to the Siberians themselves ; and they un-
dertook many voyages in locally built craft, intended
originally for river navigation. Thus, in 1648, the
Cossack Dezhniev sailed witli a flotilla of seven
vessels, ten men to each, from the mouth of the
Arctic river Kolyma. He succeeded in weathering
the northeast extremity of Asia and reaching Kam-
chatka, thereby solving the question which Bering,
some seventy-seven years later, set out to determine,
unaware that he had been forestalled. After many
adventures of shipwrecks and land fights with the
Chukchis, a branch of the gallant Koriats referred
to above, and after founding the extreme northern
station of Anadyr, with the help of but twenty-five
survivors of the crews he had sailed with five years
previously, Dezhniev returned safe and sound to the
Kolyma in 1653.
The final eastward stage of the conquest of Si-
beria may be regarded as the crown and comple-
tion of all the rest, marking, as it did, an epoch in
29
OVERLAND TO CHINA
tlic history of Asia. It was no less than the seiz-
ure of the whole course of the Amur — a mafrnifi-
cent waterway, running for hundreds of miles along
the modern frontier of Manchuria, and affording
the communication with the Pacific so essential to
the development of Siberia. A vast tract of fertile
virgin country was, moreover, gained for Russian
agriculture, the value of which was much enhanced
by the means of transport at its very door. Polit-
ically, command of the Amur assured to Russia
eventual control of the rich province of Manchuria
— the cradle of the reigning dynasty of China — and
enabled her, by a blow at the nerve-centres, to para-
lyze at her pleasure the huge organism known as
the Chinese Empire.
All this was the work of one man, Mouraviev, and
never was title better earned than his — " Amursky."
No doubt the Russian instinct towards the open sea
must sooner or later have ended in the same way,
but Mouraviev Amursky anticipated fate — he cut
a path direct to the ever-desired goal.
Immediately on his appointment as governor-
general of Eastern Siberia, this statesman realized
that the value of the vast region he ruled over for the
Tsar depended almost as much on free communi-
cation with the Pacific, as the welfare of Egypt on
the Nile. Mouraviev's first step was to send a Pe-
tropavlovsk transport to discover the mouth of the
Amur. In doing this he had only the very half-
hearted permission of his government to go upon,
and was hampered by conditions and limitations.
3°
SIBERIA
But such a chief usually finds or inspires lieutenants
worthy of him, and Mouraviev's ideas found an en-
thusiastic executor in Captain Nevelskoy. In the
transport Baikal, the latter circumnavigated Sak-
halin, till then not known to be an island. Sakha-
lin blocks the mouth of the Amur, whose stream
divides, passing to north and south of it; and Nev-
elskoy soon discovered the estuary. But after no
less than forty-five attempts he was still unable to
enter the river itself.
Partially convinced, in spite of themselves, by Mou-
raviev's urgent and persistent representations, the
Russian Government, in 1850, fitted out the " Amur
Expedition," Nevelskoy being given the command.
This officer fulfilled the promise of his previous voy-
age by planting the Russian military flag for the first
time on the bank of the Amur, brinmnor the Giliak
tribe under Russian protection, and founding the
station of Nicolaevsk, on the Amur, sixteen miles
from the sea. During 1S51-53, other posts were
established.
While the world was still deafened by the cannon-
ading at Sevastopol, Mouraviev, after many appeals,
received the imperial authority to " navigate the
Amur." He immediately sent a notification of this
intention to the Chinese, but, without waiting for
an answer, set sail with a small though powerful
flotilla on the iSthof May, 1854. Proceeding down
the river Shilka, as the Cossack pioneers had done,
he entered the Amur, and reached the Mariinsk
anchorage a month after starting. There he joined
31
OVERLAND TO CHINA
liands with the land expedition of 1S53; and moral-
ly, as well as actually, the whole course of the Amur
— from the Russian upper reaches to the newly
founded posts at its mouth — was thus, at one stroke,
brought under the sovereignty of the Tsar. The
suitability of the Amur basin for colonizing pur-
poses was demonstrated at the same time as the
utter impotence of the Chinese to defend it. Under
General Korsakov, Mouraviev's successor, no time
was lost in colonizing the river-banks. This con-
tinued at high pressure for several years, in spite of
the passive dissatisfaction of the Chinese officials.
On the 1 6th of May, 1857, Mouraviev Amursky's
self-appointed task was crowned by the treaty of
Aigun — practically a Chinese cession to Russia of
the whole of the north, or left, bank of the river.
In the next year Russia commenced the "compul-
sory" colonization of the Amur province; and with-
in two years' time twelve thousand colonists and six-
ty-one Cossack posts, or stanitzas, were established
in it. Finally, in the year i860, while in China
French and English were winning, by force of arms
and at great cost, bare treaty rights to be as barely
observed, Count Ignatiev, alone and unsupported
save for Russian prestige, concluded the treaty of
Peking, giving into Russian rule the whole of the
Amur and Ussuri basins forever.
Simultaneously with her advance towards the Pa-
cific, and many other achievements above hinted at,
Russia had been extending her Siberian conquest
southwest — slowl)^ but surely driving a wedge
32
5 w
O
w
CO
Pi
O
M
s
o
02
SIBERIA
through the very heart of Asia. The methods em-
ployed were distinguished by a predominance of
ofificial over private enterprise, marking the impor-
tance of political as compared with industrial inter-
ests, of strategic over trading lines of advance. In
a great measure, of course, these interests coincided,
and the establishment of Russian rule was synony-
mous with the planting of Russian colonies. But
in the main the arid steppes and salt, treeless
marshes of Central Asia, though vitally important
politically — as an etape in the Russian southward
extension scheme — could offer but small induce-
ment to the settler.
It was in the year 1731 that Russia commenced
her advance into the steppes sparsely inhabited by
the nomad Kirghiz race. From that date she moved
forward step by step, sometimes halting but never re-
tiring from a position once taken up. Tribe after
tribe, weighed upon by her advance, and threatened
on flank and rear by other tribes, who were seldom
helpful against the common enemy, gave up the
struggle and sought Russian protection. Such
were received with effusive kindness, and Ics petits
cadeaux qui entretierincnt Vainitie, which Russia
knows so well how to use in flattering a barbaric
people. Decorations, rank, positions were bestowed
on the chiefs, who quickly developed pride in their
allegiance to the Great White Tsar.
The years 1824-34 saw the first settlements on
the Kirghiz steppes ; 1836-47 a ten years' delay, due
to the resistance of an unusually patriotic and de-
35
OVERLAND TO CHINA
voted Khan. The fertile lands of the Great Kirghiz
Horde were then entered upon, and in 1S54, — while
defending herself at Sevastopol and inaugurating
"the Kingdom of the East" on the Amur, the Titan
occupied the Zailiisk Altai, and established Fort
Vernoie — a centre from which she commanded the
whole of Central Asia.
Fort Perovsk was built four years later on the low-
lands of the Syr-Daria, and a chain of outposts es-
tablished. About 1S60 Russia decided on another
stride forward — to complete the subjugation of the
outlying Kirghiz and the lesser kingdoms of Turkes-
tan. This object was attained within four years'
time, when the fall of Tashkend brought all Tur-
kestan practically under Russian rule; though the
Khanates of Khiva and Bokhara are still, but only
nominally, " vassal " to Russia. The task was com-
pleted in 1 88 1 by the occupation of the Trans-Cas-
pian province to the borders of Persia and Afghanis-
tan, and by the laying of the Trans-Caspian railway.
By far the most important in this long series of
acquisitions was that of the Trans-Ilian Altai and
foot-hills of the Thian Shan mountains, the home of
the Kirghiz. It was solely thanks to \\\i^ point d\ip-
ptii that Russia was enabled to conquer Turkestan ;
and its settlements, now strongly rooted in fertile
country, and under a o^ood climate, still form an in-
valuable connecting link between the solid Russian
possessions to the north and her more vaguely de-
fined spheres across the desert.
Far above the burning steppe the Russian settlers
36
SIBERIA
have their homes, on rich soil watered from the
melting snow-peaks. Above them, up the mountain,
a belt of forest holds inexhaustible supplies of wood
and fuel. Still hiirher — between ei^ht and eleven
thousand feet — are the cool Alpine pastures whither
the disinherited Kirghiz, confined to certain pre-
scribed tracks as they pass through the Russian zone,
wend their way for summer grazing. A compara-
tively mild winter offers no hardship, a long summer
necessitates no hurried husbandry — in this, the last
and the best of all Russian colonies.
J/
CHAPTER II
THE OCCUPA TION
With the conquest stage of Siberian history passed
away the picturesque figure of the early pioneer.
Rougli but ready, and with a leaven of idealism to
redeem much crude barbarity, the Cossack explorer
had fulfilled his mission when once the limits of the
new empire were set, and thenceforth survived mere-
ly as an anachronism. As danger had been his ele-
ment, so courage was his characteristic; enterprise
and resolution had been developed in him by almost
insurmountable difficulties; and it is but natural that
these robust qualities should, in his successors, have
disappeared with the necessity which called them
forth. For the eager blood and hot imagination
which nerve the adventurer to disdain hunger, thirst,
and all hardship, do not necessarily furnish the other
kind of energy which is required for the humdrum
toil of the potato- field. Another type — in many
respects inferior — is required to carry on what the
pioneer has begun.
Equally natural is it that the two types should not
be mutually sympathetic, and it is therefore sug-
gestive of the homogeneity of the Slav people that
the rough Cossack and his gentler successor, in spite
38
SIBERIA
of a difference amountino: almost to antaofonism,
should be possessed body and soul with the one ideal
— Russia, Mistress of the World !
Representatives of the original pioneer Cossacks
survive, however, to the present day at the outposts
of the empire, — wherever, in fact, colonization still
goes armed — in sianitzas strewn along the suc-
cessive high-water marks of Russian advance. The
bitter dislike entertained for them by their non-mili-
tary fellow-settlers is a natural result of the favor-
itism shown them as pioneers by the crown — espe-
cially in grants of choice lands — and of resentment of
the arrogance with which the Cossack asserts his
privileged status. A much-quoted instance of this
feud is that of the Omsk railway station, placed at
a considerable distance from the town. This public
inconvenience is attributed to the greedy intrigues
of the Cossack proprietors of the intervening land.
An indirect consequence of their manoeuvres is that
the baffled engineers — byway of revenge, it is said —
have built the bridge over the neighboring river Irtysh
for the exclusive passage of rails, leaving unfortunate
foot-passengers to cross, as before, by a primitive ferry.
The Siberian estimate of the Cossack much re-
sembles Uitlander opinion of the Boer. His quali-
ties as a pioneer are not disputed, but to the eco-
nomic development of the country he is regarded
as a mere hinderance — indolent, rapacious, and hat-
ing all forms of progress. Quaintly enough, this is
much the opinion hitherto held by travellers of the
Siberian himself.
39
OVERLAND TO CHINA
The country inherited by the latter from his hardy
forerunner covers an. area twenty-five times greater
than that of Germany. Of this huge dominion at
least one -fourteenth is suitable for acjriculture :
lying in a belt traversing the country from west
to east — a riiban dc icrrc, as a French writer calls
it — some thirty-five hundred miles long by three
liundred and fifty broad. It is through this fertile
zone that the Great Siberian Railway will shortly
run from ocean to ocean. Roughly speaking, Si-
beria may be said to contain five divisions, corre-
sponding to the basins of its four gigantic rivers
— the Obi, Yenisei, Lena, and Amur, each three
thousand miles long — and of that of the Central
Asian Hi, which, though smaller, is even more im-
portant to the burned-up region it waters.
If the Central Asian provinces — which, consisting
for the most part of sterile wildernesses, have an al-
most entirely strategic value — are left out of account,
Siberia may be said to lie between China and
the Arctic, and the Urals and Pacific Ocean. The
Siberia, however, that at present is of practical con-
cern to the world is confined to far narrower limits,
and consists of the belt of country referred to, the
agricultural zone, through which for three hundred
years has run the great high-road to the East, now
followed by the Siberian Railway, and in which is
centred the immigrant population and the imme-
diate future of the country. It is bounded on the
south by the high and bleak mountain chains sepa-
rating Siberia from the Chinese Empire. To the north
40
SIBERIA
of it stretch thousands of square miles of forest and
morass, settlement in which is placed out of the
question alike by the rigors of the climate and the
nature of the soil. Beyond this again lies the Polar
Uuidra zone, a land of eternal frost, where the pine
forests gradually dwarf to bushes, and these by de-
grees to the lichens and mosses which are alone
found when the tundra zone is once fairly entered.
The above divisions are purely climatic, and de-
pend upon the average temperature during the sum-
mer months. In what has been called the " culti-
vated zone," the cold, though very severe for more
than half the year, is succeeded by a sulificiently
long interval of warmth to allow of the ripening of
crops, whereas, outside it, although a comparatively
high temperature is attained during one month of
the year, the warm weather is of too short duration
to allow of agriculture.* It is an interesting fact that
the temperature marking the northern limit of this
"agricultural zone" shows a consistent tendency to
fall with every degree of east longitude. Thus on
the Baltic Sea 60° may be called the northern limit
of cultivation, while in Western Siberia it barely
attains 58^, on the Yenisei it descends to 57°, and
beyond Lake Baikal to 55°. Decreasing steadily
* On the whole the climate of Western Siberia shows a lower
average temperature and greater severity of winter than in corre-
sponding latitudes of European Russia ; but, on the contrary, in the
"cultivated zone"— which includes a greater part of Tobolsk and
Tomsk, in all about six thousand square geographical miles suitable
for agriculture — the richness of the soil, plentiful 'forests, and more
numerous rivers give a great advantage to the Asiatic provinces.
41
O V E R L A N 1) r O CHINA
in the Amur basin, the limit of cultivation, on reach-
ins: the Pacific coast in the nei^rhborhood of Nico-
laevsk, falls to 54°, although that port is in the same
latitude as Hamburg.
This belt of cultivable country, thus increasingly
restricted, and a mere strip when compared with the
total area of Siberia, yet represents an enormous ter-
ritory. The original immigration having followed
in the track of conquest from west to east, it is
natural that in the western section of the belt — the
early settled governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk —
the population should be denser and the character of
the towns more industrial and more prosperous than
farther eastward — a difference in density of popula-
tion which the railway, however, is rapidly adjusting.
On traversing the wooded valleys of the Urals,
which, as already remarked, are mountains only in
name,* the traveller emerges into the vast plain of
Western Siberia, and his first impression is one of
disappointment. It is so hopelessly like the sad,
monotonous plains of Central Russia — bright with
flowers, it is true, but deadly flat and uninteresting.
In this whole plain there is only one kind of tree —
the birch ; only one type of village — the gray black,
straggling cluster of log-houses, to which the travel-
ler in Russia has become, so accustomed. This Sibe-
ria, then, one is inclined to complain, is no new and
*Thc entire length of the range is about seventeen hundred
miles. Its highest peak does not attain to more than six thousand
feet, while many parts of the range are not above two thousand feet
above sea-level.
42
SIBERIA
fascinating country, but a stale replica of tlic vast
Russian plains to which one was so glad to say adieu,
a landscape in a minor key, the spirit of which reflects
itself in the melancholy folk-songs of the people.
This great alluvial plain, only broken in its south-
eastern corner by the Altai highlands — a rich min-
ing region eight times the size of Switzerland, the
private property of the Tsar — is paT" excellence the
granary of Siberia, though many fresh corn-grow-
ing lands throughout the continent are being yearly
brought under cultivation. We may therefore pause
here to examine in some detail the conditions of
Siberian farming — which do not vary much through-
out the afjricultural belt — or rather the conditions,
now rapidly changing, which existed prior to the ad-
vent of the railway, enabling us to appreciate more
accurately the enormous stimulus which is thereby
now being applied to the prosperity of the country.
The Siberian plains must indeed have appeared
almost a paradise to the peasant settler escaped
from the over- taxing, over-crowding, and over- sur-
veillance of his Russian village. The climate, it is
true, is slightly more rigorous than that which he
was accustomed to, but, in compensation, the rich
black soil awaited him in virgin strength, and the
lands adapted for agriculture were often alternated
in ideal proportions with well-watered pasturage and
forest. The "gifts of God," as he termed them, were
bestowed on him without stint, and it is perhaps but
human nature that he should have used them with-
out thounfht of the morrow.
43
OVERLAND TO CHINA
The birch woods, a characteristic, as we have
said, of the agricultural zone of Siberia, supply the
first requirements of the newly arrived immigrant.
With the help of his axe — an essential item in the
small outfit dragged or carried so many weary
versts — he builds himself an isba of rough-hewn
lo2:s, roofed with bark. Out of the birch he fash-
ions his rudimentary implements, to last until he
can purchase better from the neighboring laistar,
a village of wood-workers, and on it he entirely de-
pends for fuel. Once housed, he can safely await
the harvesting of his first crop. The government
grant he has received supplies him with a reserve
of grain, and on this he can subsist, eked out, per-
haps, by an occasional capercailzie potted in the
cedar-trees, or a salmon netted through a hole cut
in the ice of the neighboring stream. The skins of
a few squirrels, shot during the long winter, suffice
for the renewal of his travel-worn fur coat ; or, per-
haps, if unusually energetic, he may join with a
neighbor in trapping foxes, should they have been
seen passing up the river on one of their strange
periodical migrations.
At last the frost breaks up and the snows melt.
For three weeks the much - dreaded rasputitza
renders locomotion almost impossible, for mud and
slush. Then comes the spring and summer, into the
five months of which the settler must concentrate a
year's labor. His simple implements are finished;
the seed, on the preservation of which his very life
depended, stands ready in undamaged sacks ; and
44
S I 1? E R I A
the black, virgin soil, clear of snow, charged with
fertile essences, awaits it. The true "gold of Siberia"
lies at the peasant's own door. Plough-horses are
the next essential, and the settler, for the equivalent
of six dollars a head, obtains his pick from the nomad
Kirghiz herds of the neighboring steppe. Half a
dozen of these hardy little animals, a few milch cows,
and some sheep purchased at the same time make
up a sufficient stock to start with.
Let us imagine that the season is a good one. The
cattle thrive and fatten in the lush pasture; the crops
of wheat and rye are heavy ; and the settler sees
himself, on the approach of winter, safe from imme-
diate want. The gathered harvest more than suffices
for his household needs, as well as for the following
year's sowing. The ease with which fortune has
come to him suggests no misgiving for the future,
and, as the winter season allows of no field work, the
farmer is content to doze the long months through
in his stifling isba, endeavoring to kill time over pipe
and vodka bottle, for all the world like a hibernating
bear.
Next year luck is again with him, and without
manuring or weeding, and with a minimum of
labor, he once more harvests heavy crops. His
cattle and horses have multiplied, and he is now
able to invest in some draught-horses from Tomsk,
slower than those of Kirghiz strain, but of more
power. His large surplus of grain he manages this
year to convey in sledges to the nearest fair — to be
thence distributed to Russia, to distant mining or
45
O V K R LAND T O C I II N A
non-agricultural districts, to the spirit distillers, or
for the supply of the great Siberian track, the high-
way to the East, In the course of a very few such
prosperous years the settler becomes well-to-do.
The virgin lands surrounding him will yield, with-
out rest or manure, and perhaps with only a change
from wheat to less-exhausting barley, and from rye
to oats, heavy crops for another twenty years. In-
deed, there exist lands in the south oi Tobolsk which
have been incessantly tilled for a hundred years.
The settler is able to pay off the government grant
and to increase his land. His foals at foot, gambol-
ling in the snow-fed pasture, promise good increase
of draught-horses. The cows and goats give more
milk than he can now consume, and, after supplying
his family, he is able to send his first lot of butter to
market. With the proceeds of the sale he pur-
chases from the Kirghiz a few of their special breed
of " Kurdiuk," or fat-tailed sheep — an improvement
on the light-fleeced Tobolsk breed with which he
has hitherto had to be content.
His style of living, however, does not keep pace
with the improvement in his financial position.
The log-house is by this time blackened with weath-
er and smoke, but still suffices for his simple tastes.
A little white paint on the window-frames, which
then stand out in bold relief on the black back-
ground of the 2sda, is the only concession he
makes to osstheticism. The same red shirt, over
which his long, curling beard and tangled flaxen
locks fall in wild profusion ; the same battered cap,
46
SIBERIA
with a yellow band round it if he be a Cossack,
and as such subject to special military calls ; the
same greasy trousers, tucked into the same clumsy,
crinkled high boots; the same brown home-made
kaftan, or summer overcoat; and the same vermin-
haunted s/ncba, or sheepskin, will always suffice
his not very critical taste. He needs no books,
for he cannot read. Uneducated and brutalized,
wealth is of no use to him ; warmth, tobacco, and
the nepenthe of intoxication alone appeal to his
undeveloped instincts — though, if opportunity offers,
the national passion for gambling will strike a quick
response in his Russian blood.
But to return: his flaxen - haired children, play-
inc: round the farm, in orthodox red tunics, each
with a medallion of St. Vladimir or St. Paul round
his neck, are, one and all, plump and rosy-cheeked.
Everything points to a steadily rising tide in our
farmer's affairs. No imaginative anxiety as to the
future troubles his Siberian phlegm. The logs, it is
true, have to be brought a longer distance now than
when he first settled on the spot, but the woods
behind still appear inexhaustible. His fields, no
doubt, are gradually losing strength, but why should
he labor to manure them when, at his pleasure,
they can be abandoned for new 1 And as for the
education of the children, the settler is himself too
ignorant to even appreciate the advantage of it. In
the country districts of Siberia only one child in a
hundred receives any schooling whatever; in the
towns, less than five per cent.
47
OVERLAND TO CHINA
The utter wastefulness of Siberian farming is its
principal characteristic. The surface-soil is merely
scratched by rudimentary implements, the sub-soil
being left unutilized. Manuring is unknown, or,
at any rate, not practised. The thin layer of sur-
face soil, however rich, is rapidly exhausted, and,
when exhausted, abandoned. After a long interval
of years such land is sometimes — on the reappear-
ance of certain weeds indicating a return of strength
— placed again under cultivation, though for a much
shorter period. But in few cases does the actual
yield of a Siberian farm exceed a fraction of the
possible production under scientific methods and
judicious handling.
Suddenly, however, in full summer of the farmer's
prosperity, there " comes a frost," a year positively
fraught with disaster. As the cattle have hitherto
managed to feed themselves throughout the winter
by scratching away the snow from the herbage, the
ease-loving farmer has not troubled to make pro-
vision of hay. But the usual first snowfall of au-
tumn is, this year, followed by rain, and that again
by frost ; and nearly the wdiole of his flocks, unable
to pierce the hard-caked surface, starve before his
eyes. The remnants suffer further loss in an unu-
sually severe buran, or blizzard, swept over preci-
pice and into snow-drift. To add to these misfort-
unes, when spring comes, the farmer, in his fear of
autumn hoar-frosts blighting the almost ripened ear,
is a day early in sowing, and the young shoots get
nipped by a late spring frost. Or, when he has
48
S I B E R I A
imagined his crop assured, the locust of the Kirghiz
steppes, the dreaded kobyllca, discovers and devours
them. And finally, in the autumn, the chuma
gives the finishing stroke to those of his draught-
horses that have survived the other plagues. Under
these repeated calamities his position changes rap-
idly indeed. There is no system of organized credit
to help him, and, although his whole district has
suffered, no assistance is forthcoming from the im-
mensely distant (though ofificially neighboring) gov-
ernment. Such is the want of means of transport,
that surplus in Tomsk cannot supply deficit in
Tobolsk. Nor can the ruined farmer hope for any
repayment in kind of the grain he has disposed of
in prosperous years; except, perhaps, from the dis-
tilleries, in the form of vodka to drown his troubles.
With such risks to be taken into account, it is
not surprising that, until recently, many a settler
turned from agriculture to the more certain, if in
some years less remunerative, livelihood to be
earned on the great Siberian track. This was,
until the coming of steamers and railway, the great
artery of traffic between East and West. It em-
ployed tens of thousands of men and hundreds of
thousands of horses. If the settler opened an inn,
custom was assured to him from the continuous
stream of travellers, prisoners, troops, and officials
passing his door. Or he might earn a good and,
what was scarcely less valued by him, a lazy living as
a teamster. The chief imports from Russia, varying
from millinery to machinery and from buttons to
D 49
O V E R L A N 1^ JX) CHINA
bar -iron, passed that way; and he could return
westward witli a load of grain, hides, tallow, or skin-
bound chests of China tea. The owner of a sledge
and a team of five i^ood horses often earned in the
old days as mucli as ^25 for a two-thousand-mile
trip from Tomsk to Irkutsk and back, occupying
two months; and, into the bargain, was found in the
keep of his horses. Having pocketed, and perhaps
partially converted into vodka, the bargain -money
for the trip, he could take his seat with a light heart
on the forepart of the sledge, and, muffled in warm
sheepskins, give himself up to vacuous enjoyment.
But with steamer and railway competition sledge
freights have been cut down to nothing, and the
population of the Siberian track is gradually being
converted to agriculture — against its will, however,
and with many an anathema on the new railway.
The manner in which land is divided anions: the
farmers is naturally very varied — there being in some
districts more than can be cultivated, while in oth-
ers tillable land has to be created, bv drainaore or ir-
rigation, and, again, elsewhere arable preponderates
over meadow, or forest over arable. All land, how-
ever, belongs to the crown, and is only held by the
peasants in usufruct ; though in certain parts of the
country the areas are practically limitless, and the
peasants claim rights " wherever hatchet, scythe, and
plough may go." In others — e.g., the villages of
Tobolsk — a strict thirteen acres, and no more, is
the allotment to each male. The averao^e throuerh-
out Siberia is forty-eight acres /^r ^^/?^/ male.
50
S 1 ]^ E R I A
No uniform government survey exists. In some
cases a general boundary has been fixed for whole
volosts of fifteen thousand souls, leaving the peas-
ants to use the land in common or divide it accord-
Ino- to settlements. In other cases the s^overnment
surveyors have marked out the lands of each settle-
ment, or even of each group of villages.
In newly settled districts the zainika is the
form of division. Each farmer leaves the village at
the commencement of spring for his own farmstead
or zaiinka. Here he lives throughout the summer,
only returning to the village for winter -quarters.
Around his zaiinka he cultivates any land he
chooses — the rich man perhaps two thousand acres;
the poor, one hundred and fifty. But there is no
opening for envy, as rich and poor alike are free to
seize any additional unoccupied land, and there is
plenty of room for all. Nevertheless, gradually all
the good land gets taken up, and more is required
by the increasing population, and the zaiinka de-
velops into the volnaia system. This is the com-
munal system principally followed in Tomsk and
Tobolsk. By it a man has right only to that land
into which he puts his labor, and only for so long
as he continues to cultivate it. Meadow-land grass,
grown without labor, is free to the community; each
peasant mows where he wills, but the hay belongs
to him who cuts and makes it. Similarly, the forest
is free; becoming private property only where en-
closed by a ditch, cleared of dead wood, or otherwise
labored upon. Pasture is free, each member being
51
OVERLAND TO CHINA
allowed to graze his cattle on the ground set apart
by the community for the purpose, but none may
enclose a piece for his own sole use.
Such is the agricultural aspect of "Western Si-
beria," a country whose development has been much
retarded by the fact that the Obi, its chief waterway
— a noble river, 31 So miles in length and navigable
throughout — flows north at right angles to the trend
of traffic, and, falling into the ice-bound gulf at its
mouth, affords no practical communication with the
markets of the world. But the Siberian Railwav is
now supplying the long -required means of com-
munication.
52
CHAPTER III
THE OCCUPA TION—iCotttznued)
Some sliglit bints have already been given as to tbe
undeveloped moral state of tbe colonists. French
travellers, in spite of tbe fond alliance, are particu-
larly vivacious on the subject, and, in view of the
bias which their Russian sympathies may be sup-
posed to lend, their estimate can be quoted without
suspicion of unfairness. In general, the great Na-
poleon's famous dictum is confirmed — "Grattez le
Russe, et vous trouverez le Tartare." One modern
Gallic traveller describes the Siberian race as in-
dolent and apathetic beyond all imagination — even
a«French journalist's ! — and in his opinion Siberian
sluggishness is exceeded by only one thing — Siberian
pig-headedness ! The Spartan Siberian, he asserts,
will forego every luxury rather than raise a finger
to work for it, and he concludes by declaring that
Siberia is the only country in the world where the
almighty dollar becomes impotent in face of the ex-
traordinary vis inertics of the peasantry. All for-
eigners whom the writer met in Siberia, and even
European Russians, and all travellers, Latin and
Teutonic alike, agree in further crediting the Si-
berian with having brought lying to the rank of a
53
OX'KRLAND TO CHINA
positive fine art. But it is perhaps M. Legras who
most picturesquely voicf.s the general opinion when,
in the preface to his En Sibcrit\ a work enjoying a
considerable popularity in France, he says: "... on
ment avec delices, le plus souvent sans interet, par
habitude, par desceuvrement, pour I'amour de Tart."
This does not prevent the Siberian from being,
like the Boer, extremely fond of quotations from
Holy Writ, when judiciously applied. As might be
expected, however, the texts hanging in pious pro-
fusion from his walls usually exhort to self-denial
and abstention rather than to enterprise and effort.
Accordingly, a favorite verse is, "Blessed are the
poor in spirit, for theirs is the Kingdom of Heav-
en," or, as read bv the diss^usted traveller through
the murky fumes and greasy darkness of a wayside
Siberian hostelry, " Happy are they who expect lit-
tle, for verily they shall not be disappointed." These
hostelries, which have been denounced in unmeas-
ured terms, though extremely primitive, are not,
however, more so than is usual in newly made
colonies. If reasonable allowance be made, the ac-
commodation is not bad, although many things which
to the Western mind are absolute essentials — towels,
bed -sheets, or baths — are treated as unnecessary
luxuries, obtained with difficulty, and charged for
egregiously. The traveller must bring his own pro-
visions, too, for boiling water is the only thing he
can relv on findimr.
We have seen how the isfnorant farmer besruiles
the long winter hours, seated, pipe in mouth, by his
54
'■— < 1
D
■/
<
Q
<
u
K
SIBERIA
fireside. His one idea of enjoyment out of doors
— which he shares with all his uneducated coun-
tr3'men — is to listen to a hand -organ, and, should
good -fortune take him to a town, to ride on the
eravitatins: railway, a form of amusement which
was originally invented by a Russian. The pleas-
ures of the rich mine - owner, though more expen-
sive, are scarcely less boorish. The unique aspira-
tion of the average magnate is the gross display of
wealth, effected in true Oriental fashion. For, meta-
phorically as well as sartorially, the dress-coat he so
much affects is no guarantee of irreproachable linen
beneath it ; his mansion, which costs a fortune, is
comfortless ; his retinues of servants dirty and inef-
ficient; and, of a stableful of horses, none is fit for
his guest to ride. The generally accepted criterion
of magnificence appears to be profuse libations of
champagne. A cigarette- bowl, too, hollowed from
a solid gold nugget, stamps the fortunate possessor
a " Corinthian " of taste. Or the man of cultured
aspirations may — and, unless rumor lies, sometimes
does — achieve refinement by having his sitting-room
f^oor washed occasionally with Piper Heidsieck. In
fact, although the subject of it be two hundred years
old, Lord Macaulay's epigram is scarcely antiquated,
and one can without much difificulty still imagine
the Siberian grandee appearing at court "dropping
pearls and vermin."
The most intelligent, progressive, and by far the
best -informed section of Siberian society are the
Germans, or descendants of Germans. They are
57
OVERLAND TO CHINA
found at the extreme borders of the empire, and are
not merely the most enterprising traders, but provide
some of the best teachers and most skilled workmen
to be found in the whole country. A type of these
was met by the writer at Kiachta, who, with another
German friend and his daughter, was able to beguile
an evening with really excellent music and most in-
telligent talk. It was a curious sensation, in the
primitive room of a wooden house, far away from
everything that means culture and refinement to a
Western mind — in a half-savage town on the very
borders of civilization — to listen to airs from Mozart
and concertos by Beethoven, which were last heard,
perhaps, in some gilded salon of Berlin or concert-
room in London.
Latterly, of course — greatly owing to the educating
influence of the railway — a very marked difference
has come over the outward appearance, at least, of
Siberian social life. In the large towns, such as
Tomsk and Tobolsk in Western, and Krasnoiarsk*
in Eastern Siberia, there are cathedrals, theatres,
universities, museums, schools, libraries, and other
means of public instruction and amusement. Many
of these buildings are handsome, and one at least,
the cathedral at Irkutsk, has some pretensions to
architectural beauty. Tomsk, the capital of W^est-
ern Siberia, the seat of government and residence
of the Russian archbishop, has a very important
* The population of Tomsk is 40,000; Irkutsk. 50,000 ; Tobolsk,
20,000 ; Krasnoiarsk, i 5,000.
58
H
I/,
o
Q
Qi
SIBERIA
university, with a really good library and museum.
Hitherto it only possessed the faculty of medicine,
but now has clinical and other lectures, and is the
first of the numerous government establishments for
public education. Even here, however, the streets
and squares — many of them built of stone — are badly
kept and out of repair. The lack of completeness
and harmony is noticeable in all Siberian towns —
for instance, at Irkutsk a really fine opera-house is
spoiled by miserable corridors and foyer. In this
large city, whose population is already over fifty thou-
sand, there is only one indifferent public library, and
the booksellers' shops contain merely a second-class
collection of books, such as French novels, Z^ yV?^ ati
Salon picture-books, and equally edifying publica-
tions. It does not speak well for the civilizing mis-
sion of Russia to the "savage tribes" amono: whom
she has planted her flag that such a state of things
should exist in her great outpost cities, which ought
to be centres of light and learning. The inhabitants
of these cities have not yet acquired, even in the
smallest degree, " the gentle art of beauty." Their
clothes, bought ready-made (there are only four
tailors in all Irkutsk), are ugly and unbecoming, a
fact much to be regretted, especially in the case of
the fair sex, who are no better in this respect than
their male-folk, for the Siberian woman is not suf-
ficiently endowed by nature to be able to dispense
with artificial aids to comeliness.
It is, however, doubtful whether any efforts
of an eclectic nature would have much influence
6i
O V E R L A N I) TO CHINA
at present, in raising the standard of life, for from
highest to lowest the ruling passions are still gam-
bling and drinking, wisile lying and all sorts of offi-
cial corruption are still notoriously the rule and not
the exception. Academical education is not enough.
What is essential is the infusion of a new spirit
from outside, consequent upon the opening up of
the country to the world ; new objectives and ideals,
competition and rivalries, which will leave no room
for the existing slothful debaucheries ; new stand-
ards of morality, or, at the least, of commercial ex-
pediency, which will discredit as stupid and clumsy
such a semi-civilized weapon as promiscuous lying.
The character of the country remains unchanged
until the river Obi is reached. Then the birch
woods, through which we have travelled for some
hundreds of miles without ever noting another
species of tree, commence to include an increas-
ing proportion of pines. The plain itself becomes
broken up; the horizon is no longer one flat circle,
but undulates in hills. On the farther side of the
Yenisei these hills develop into mountains, the
advance-guards of an extensive country of forest and
mountain. The road, of course, also loses its hith-
erto monotonous character, and now winds its way
up hill and down dale, bordered on either side by a
solid wall of pine forests, leaving a general impres-
sion of bare, red, straight stems and dusky foliage.
The very waters of the rivers become altered, the
turgid streams of Western Siberia being succeeded
by the limpid waters of the noble Yenisei.
62
H
l}f'^
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I V ' K ' f^
till mMMr;MM
mMwMm
WWM¥k
'IjliiiiiinVr
iV)
3
Pi
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1
SIBERIA
The Yenisei shares with the Obi and Lena the
disadvantage of a northerly direction, at right angles
to the trade routes, but its embouchure is far more
accessible than theirs, thanks partly to the action
of the tail-end of the Gulf Stream in clearing the
ice of the Kara Sea. It was an Englishman, Cap-
tain Wiggins, of Newcastle, who, in 1874, proved
that a vessel can make Yenisei Bay in late autumn
and slip away again before the ice closes in, and
who thereby won a bonus of ^2000 offered by the
explorer Sidorov.
Eastern Siberia, the second of the five great
divisions, occupies, roughly speaking, the basin of
the river Yenisei, and comprises an area equal to
twice the combined extent of Germany, Austria, and
France. In climate it is even less favored than
Western Siberia, and one-twelfth only of its whole
area is at all suitable for cultivation, the rest being
forest, morass, and tiuidra. Agriculture has con-
sequently given way to cattle-breeding to a great
extent, and the proportion of domestic animals to
man — a sure index of the industrial development of
a country or the reverse — is correspondingly high.
Whereas, for instance, in Great Britain and Belgium
the percentage of horses to human population is
only five, and in the United States and European
Russia but twenty-two, in Eastern Siberia it reaches
the high figure of seventy-two.
Another indication of the changing character of
the country is the increased proportion of natives,
who, while rarely met with in the highly cultivated
E 65
O V E R L A N D TO C 1 1 I X A
districts of Tomsk, form in the Ycnisseisk and Ir-
kutsk governments twenty-three per cent, of the pop-
ulation. Of these the greater part are Buriats, a
tribe of cattle-breeding Buddhists who migrated
north in the thirteenth century, when Genghis Khan
ruled supreme in Mongolia. Although subdued by
the Cossacks two centuries later, after a protracted
struggle, it is noteworthy that this people do not as
yet show the usual native tendency to die out when
in contact with the Russians.
The principal mountain chain of the region is the
Sayan, separating it on the south from China. One
of the valleys in this range, shut in on all sides by
high mountains, was known in ancient times as the
Ir"hana-Kon, and is celebrated as the cradle of the
great Tiursk tribe, the nucleus of Central Asian
peoples. In another valley of the Sayan, guard-
ed by Mount Khamar- Daban, lies Lake Baikal,
one of the largest sheets of fresh water in the world.
One of its many phenomena is a species of seal.
Water-fowl frequent its shores in countless numbers,
and gulls in particular are so numerous that the rocks
are covered with thick layers of guano, which, when
the Siberian farmer is eventually compelled to ma-
nure his fields, will supply him, it is estimated, for
generations. Frozen in winter, the Baikal lake then
affords a route for sledges, while in summer steam-
ers ply on it. No long interval elapses between
the two, for in these latitudes the first ice-grip of
autumn comes suddenly, and the story, almost true
enough to be good, told in North China of the last
66
1—4
<
S3
•J.
<
a"
o
o
CO
SIBERIA
Peiho steamer of the season being compelled, as she
rammed her way out through the ice, to whistle a
warning to the carts crossing her bow, applies to
Lake Baikal, for the track across the ice is dotted
'•-"JHi'iP^ Deserts
C Fer-v-n
Basins nathout outlet to the sea
BARREN REGIONS AND BASINS WITHOUT OUTLET IN ASIA
with booths and stations, and the traflfic is often
cleared just as the whole surface is about to give way.
Far larger than either East or West Siberia is
the Yakutsk region situated in the northeast, an in-
69
OVERLAND TO C 11 1 X A
hospitable, mountainous area, 70,000 miles square,
Arctic in climate, covered with impenetrable forest,
morass, and polar tundras only fit for reindeer-
breeding. Its waterway, the gigantic Lena — free
of ice during only one hundred and sixty days of
the year — is even less practicable for navigation
than the Obi or Yenisei, falling as it does into
no gulf or estuary, but winding its way to the sea
through an intricate maze of delta. The population
of this miserable country is mostly native, and con-
centrated in the forest zone at an average of six
inhabitants to a square mile. In the polar tundras
there are but six to each ten square miles. In such
a region it is not surprising that the Russians, who
have valiantly preserved their national characteris-
tics even in Amur swamps and Kirghiz deserts,
should have found the burden of local conditions
too heavy for them, and, intermarriage aiding, have
sunk to the brutish level of the natives.
Aorriculture and cattle-breedinor are in Yakutsk
replaced by hunting, trapping, and fishing. The fur
animals, gradually exterminated in the cultivated
zone, are still abundant here. The white bear is
sometimes carried to its shores on floating: ice from
its habitat in the polar islands; the brown bear and
elk roam the forest ; the sable is common ; the fox
abounds, and many other species. Commonest of
all is the squirrel, of which the hunter bags, on an
average, three hundred head in a season. In the
pursuit of the large fur animals success is greatly
a question of luck. The bear-hunter may make his
70
SIBERIA
hundreds of rubles in a few weeks, or he may wan-
der through the forest the whole winter and scarcely
earn the keep of his dogs.
There are no exact statistics of the fur trade, but
some idea may be formed of its extent from the
ofificial figures of a few years back. These gave for
the whole of Siberia a total of no less than one and a
quarter million skins of eighteen varieties of animals.
The rarest enumerated were four tigers, shot per-
haps in the reed swamps of Lake Balkash, twenty
black foxes, and forty-five white polar bears. The
commonest were one million squirrels and over
thirty thousand sables. The central marts of the
Siberian fur trade are, curiously enough, not in
Russia, but in London and Leipzig, where the in-
dustry is now firmly established.
The native hunters, as was to be expected, have,
since they came in contact with the civilized world,
been much exploited. On the distant coasts and
islands of the northeast, foreign whalers have for
years obtained quantities of furs in barter for spirit
of the vilest quality and other contraband products
of civilization. Other fur-hunting tribes within easier
reach by land are still more systematically taken ad-
vantage of: the Kamchatkans by the Russians them-
selves; the Golos, or Orochs, by the Chinese; and the
Tunguses by the Yakuts. The usual system is to
make advances on the season's furs, and thus en-
tantile the guileless native in debt. That accom-
plished, he is never allowed to escape the toils, and
the furs are procured, year by year, for prices far
7'
OVERLAND TO CHINA
below their real value. Iri other branches of trade
the natives are no less shamelessly cheated, Russian
officialdom offering no protection.
The fresh-water fishing industry, though carried
out on a large scale, is at present of hardly more
TUNGUSE IN WINTER HUNTING COSTUME
than local importance. The fish is mostly con-
sumed locally, Siberian salting being too roughly
executed to have created much export trade. Origi-
nally the Siberian rivers abounded in fish, but the
wasteful and indiscriminate methods which have
characterized the fisheries during the past genera-
tion have had a visibly perceptible influence on
72
SIBERIA
their numbers. A conservancy department and im-
proved processes of preparation for distant markets
would, however, notwithstanding past waste, establish
this industry as one of the leading auxiliary sources
of revenue of the countr}^ The same remark applies
to the fur industry, which, under the present want of
system, is also threatened with serious diminution,
owing to the ruthless and ill-regulated slaughter of
fur animals. The cheaper skins, those for example
that find their way into China, are open to the
criticism of being badly prepared for export.
Siberian fish include some splendid species of
sturgeon and salmon. The latter especially are said
to ascend the Amur in countless numbers, and
Vladivostok, smoked salmon is a well-known deli-
cacy. The spectacle of these fish, frozen stiff, and
propped on their tails in rows against the counters,
is extremely quaint and often remarked upon by
travellers in Siberia.
Of far greater interest than the Yakutsk mainland
are the "three new Siberian islands" off its coast.
Traders in mammoth ivory and morse tusks reach
them in sledges across the frozen sea, spend the
short summer there, and return as they came when
the ice sets in. These islands hold the buried rec-
ord of the whole organic world, as it formerly existed
in 75°-76° north latitude. The shaggy, red-haired
mammoth, the rhinoceros, buffalo, musk-ox,and other
extinct species have here their cemetery ; and trees
allied to those of the temperate zone, such as the elm
and hazel, are here found fossilized.
73
OVERLAND TO CHINA
The fur trade and minor industries cannot, how-
ever, suffice for the development of the " coldest
country in the world," and the future of Yakutsk
must depend, like that of the Klondike, on the de-
velopment of its mineral wealth. This, unfortu-
nately, is a more or less remote potentiality, the
precious metals being, so far as is at present known,
but thinly scattered over a vast surface.
The fourth great division of Siberia is the Amur
littoral region, which includes the basin of the Amur
and the whole coast-line from the peninsula of Kam-
chatka to the island of Sakhalin. Of this the Trans-
Baikal province is the corn-growing centre, enjoying
a powerful sun, clear air, and an almost snowless win-
ter. Here the rhododendron of the western ranores
grows, together with the oak, elm, hazel, and wild ap-
ple of the temperate zone, and the wild apricot, dog-
rose, and tamarisk, peculiar to this part of Siberia.
Along the Amur and Ussuri rivers the climate is
less favorable, a general excess of moisture causing
in the cereals a tendency to run to straw, so that
Amur crops, though heavy, are often poor in qual-
ity. Some districts have even had to be entirely
abandoned on account of the " intoxicating bread "
they produce, due to fungoid growths in the ears of
corn. In these damper regions flourish the Man-
churian cedar, the pitch-pine and the yew, peculiar
to the Caucasus and indicating approach to the sea;
the maple and ash, unknown elsewhere in Siberia ;
and a cork-tree, not met with in all Russia. The
shrubs include a number of Chinese kinds.
74
S I BE R I A
Bordering on their own, these lands naturally
attract many thousands of Corean and Chinese set-
tlers, whose careful and intensive farming offers a
contrast very unfavorable to that of their Russian
neighbors. Ownership of fields may be told at a
glance — the ones sown in mathematical rows, copi-
ously manured, and scrupulously weeded ; the others
left to Q^row untended and choked with weeds. The
Corean's principal crop is " buda," of which a couple
of well-sown acres will support his whole family for
more than a year.
Along the sea-coast north of the Amur the cli-
mate becomes execrable. The Kamchatkan penin-
sula is described as alternately " wrapped in fog,
drenched with rain, or smothered by snow." The
Sea of Okhotsk, though of the same latitude as the
English Channel, is polar in its character, and is,
besides, subject to " monsoons," caused by the rapid
cooling and heating of land as compared with sea.
These gales blow with such force across the neigh-
boring Stanovoi range that neither men nor pack
animals can stand against them. Of the stunted
flora of this desolate land the most characteristic is
a nettle which is rapidly ousting all other vegeta-
tion. Settled agriculture is out of the question, and
the whole land is practically abandoned to the abo-
rigines, who correspond in character to those of the
north coast of West Siberia, and maintain them-
selves by fishing, trapping, and reindeer breeding.
Of these animals they own large herds, often in the
proportion of six to each member of the tribe, and
75
O \' E R L A N D TO CHINA
the reindeer is as essential to their existence as the
birch-tree is that of tl-.e settler in the southwest;
while living it is invaluable as a means of transport,
and when dead its skin provides clothes, its flesh
food, its sinews thread, and its bones needles and
knives. The natives also own numbers of sledge-
dogs resembling the Esquimau breed, which are
harnessed in teams, without reins or bridles. One
dog, specially prized, and valued at nearly £6 — a
fortune to the Koriat — leads the way as guide, the
others draw a load, averaging one hundred pounds
per dog, at the rate of some eight miles an hour. A
peculiarity of these valuable animals is that they
cannot bark. How precarious is the existence of
these wandering peoples is evidenced by the fact
that they regard death from starvation as a natural
ending, and, till comparatively recent times, practised
the filial duty of stabbing an aged parent to save him
from more protracted pangs.
In vivid contrast to its climatic rigors, the coast
of Kamchatka is dotted with giant volcanoes, many
in full eruption. The red glow of their craters on
ice-pack and frozen cape ; the torrents of boiling
snow — if the description be allowable — which scar
their sides; the silent line of huge white sentinels,
standing with quenched fires guarding the Arctic
seas — all serve to form an impressive picture of the
warring forces of nature.
The development of land industries being hope-
less, the economical future of this region centres
in the vast sea industries of its coast. The Sea
76
■3
m
6
o
3
SIBERIA
of Okhotsk and Bering Sea have always been a
favorite feeding-ground for marine animals, abound-
ing in fish, mollusks, crustaceans, and beds of "sea-
cabbage," Specimens of the now extinct sea-cow,
an animal weighing fifty thousand pounds, were
last killed on Bering Island in 1780. The fast-dis-
appearing sea-lion also frequented these waters;
'\^'
SAMOYEDE PILOT
whales, dolphins, and seals are here in thousands,
and cod, herring, and other fish in countless shoals.
The chief spoils have, however, gone to the American
whaling and sealing schooners, a contraband trade
79
OVERLAND TO CHINA
which the Russians have feebly endeavored to
check by means of one or two patrolhng gunboats.
It is amusing to note in a Russian government re-
port that tlie crews of captured vessels have been
" always set at liberty without the exaction of any
fine"; but the United States scaling skipper, unlike
European governments, does not pay so much at-
tention to what Russian officialdom says, as to what
it (i^ocs, and has a holy horror of falling into such
generous hands.
The seal-fishery is a subject of international im-
portance, owing to the conflicting interests involved,
besides being the principal source of government
revenue along the inhospitable coast described, and
a few remarks may therefore be permitted on the
subject, even though they can claim no novel inter-
est. The seal is known in Russian as the morskoi
kotik, or sea-cat, the common name among fisher-
men for a full-grown specimen being i-^V/'^:^//, sup-
posed to be a corruption of the English "sea-
catch." The younger ones are called in Russian
kholostiak, or bachelor, the equivalent term in
the foreiocn trade beino^ holiischickie. It is the
latter that are principally slaughtered, betw^een ist
of June and 15th of July, when the moulting sea-
son commences. The seals never show fight, and
a couple of men can " hold " a herd of several thou-
sand — i.e., prevent their breaking back to the sea-
shore, the seal being easily killed by a slight blow
on the head with a stick. Slaughtering, skinning,
salting, and packing proceed simultaneously, the
80
SIBERIA
seal islands being during the season the rendezvous
of many different aborigines — natives of Kamchatka,
of Yakutsk, of the Aleutian Islands joining with the
Cossacks in the seal-skin business. Seals were first
known on the Commander Islands, called after the
intrepid Bering, but the fur-traders were soon con-
vinced that the seal must have other haunts, which
were eventually discovered, after a two years' voy-
age, in the Pribylov group, named after their dis-
coverer; and these islands, now the property of the
United States, have since been the best-known seal-
ing resort. It was only, however, after the thirties
that the seal-skin industry developed to anything
like its modern dimensions. Till that time the
demand for seal-skins had been for the greater part
confined to Russia and China. But in the thirties
a new process was discovered, the secret — that of
plucking out the long hairs in the seal-skin and
dyeing the down which remains — being for a long
time successfully guarded. A demand sprang up in
England, the fur thus artificially treated became the
fashion, and the whole trade, as already said, gravi-
tated to London and Leipzig.
8i
CUAJ^rER IV
THE OCCUPA TION-(Continucd)
The fifth and last administrative division of Si-
beria is the Kirghiz steppe region of Central Asia.
As has been already observed, this vast territory,
though belonging to Siberia Proper, scarcely forms
part of the modern Siberia, the new industrial and
commercial field in which the world is interested.
In the scheme of the Russian invasion of the south,
the Kirghiz steppe is of supreme value as a line
of communication, but is not altogether valueless
from other points of view, though lying far beyond
what promises to be the beaten track between
west and east. A third of the area of the Kirghiz
steppe region — twenty-five thousand square miles —
is mountainous, the rest barren steppe. These arid
plains are totally impracticable for cultivation — salt,
treeless wastes, whose chief future value lies in the de-
velopment of mineral riches. Coal-fields are known
to exist, of which some are now in operation, while
copper, lead, and silver ores have been prospected.
There is some possibility also of the region being
made available as a cattle-raising country on a large
scale, this being practically the only use to which
the former possessors, the nomad Kirghiz, have ever
SIBERIA
been able to put it. The great want is, of course, a
sufficient water supply, though there are two water-
ways of considerable, and even majestic, propor-
tions. The Hi, which is a thousand miles long, and
the Narym traverse the country, but the other
streams are on a totally insufficient scale, and elabo-
rate irrigation works are required before the present
sterile nature of the desert can be modified. The
mountain-streams run into the arid, burning wastes,
to meander sluggishly through the desert — their
course marked by the solitary trees to be seen in
the plain — until they are sucked up by the sands
or evaporate into what may be called the atmos-
pheric ocean. The burning surfaces around are
bare, except for one characteristic plant, a dwarfed
and crooked shrub, on whose silvery foliage camels
delight to browse. Country such as this occupies,
as we have said, two-thirds of the steppe region of
Siberia.
The other mountainous third has as its principal
chain the Thian Shan, consisting of lines of snow-
clad summits running parallel to the Chinese frontier.
The passes are rugged, and attain a height of thir-
teen thousand feet. At the foot of these mountains
and extending: to the Zailiisk Altai on the north,
stretches a zone of fertile soil brought down by the
mountain torrents and watered from the snow-peaks.
This zone, however, ceases wherever the mountains
are below the snow -line, and is consequently of
comparatively small extent, but it is eminently suit-
ed for colonization and represents the cream of
83
OVERLAND TO CHINA
Siberian arable land. Lying between two thousand
and five thousand feet above the burning steppe, it
enjoys a climate among the best in all Russia. Gar-
dening is here possible, as nowhere else in Siberia,
and even grape-culture. Between five thousand and
eight thousand feet lies the forest belt, providing a
supplementary industry for Russian settlers. Above
this again, until the line of eternal snow is reached
at about eleven thousand feet, lie the "Sazas," or
Alpine meadows — the cool summer pastures of the
Kirghiz who winter on the steppe. These nomads
have been partially compensated for the loss of their
lands — the temperate zone at present occupied by
the Russians — which they cultivated only in des-
ultory fashion, by the ready market now provided
for the disposal of their cattle.
These upland pastures are luxuriantly verdured,
and are rich in flora. Among the most character-
istic is the gray - leaved, yellow - on - rose - flowered
"camel's-tail" ; and the large yellow-petalled wild
onion, from which the Thian Shan range gets its
Chinese sobriquet of " Tsun Lin," or " Onion,"
Mountains. The fauna of this region is no less
varied and numerous. On the inaccessible peaks
beyond the snow-line roams the kochgar, a wild
sheep called after the old Venetian traveller, Ovis
Poli ; the tiger of Southern Asia reaches his north-
ern limits in the reeds of the neighboring Lake Bal-
kash; wild boars and Himalayan bears frequent the
wooded slopes ; the arkJiar, another species of
mountain sheep, is common ; a great concourse of
84
SIBERIA
wild fowl breed in the solitary lakes and rivers of
the steppe ; and the pelican has here his habitat.
Many beautiful species of pheasants are found in
the sheltered valleys of the mountains, and here was
probably the original home of the hardy pheasant
which, introduced into England some fifty years ago,
is now the dominant species in English preserves.
It was from these fertile slopes that the Huns
migrated westward two centuries before Christ, and
that successive irruptions of the Central Asian pop-
ulations have followed, some overflowing into the
rich plains of China, while others, sweeping north
or south of the Caspian, poured into Europe. Last
of all came the great Mongolian wave of the thir-
teenth century under Genghis Khan, which depos-
ited the Kirfjhiz hordes far to the southwest, and
the Buriats, as we have seen, beyond the Amur.
Hemmed in as is this region by lofty mountains,
impassable to nomads with their herds, these mi-
grations w^ere only possible owing to there being
three vast natural gateways available — the Hi valley,
the Lake Ala-kul depression, and the plain stretching
between the Tarbagatai and Altai highlands. From
the establishment of the Russians on this hospitable
oasis, situated between the almost Arctic expanses
to the northward and the burning wastes extending
to the Himalayas, virtually dated the Tsars conquest
of the heart of Asia.
The acquisition of such vast unpopulated areas
as those of Siberia necessarily gave rise to the State
problem to which the Russian Government has dur-
85
OVERLAND T C) C 11 I N A
iiig a century givcii continual attention — namely, that
of immigration. The impression has falsely passed
into currency that the principal stock of the Sibe-
rian population is made up of the convicts and polit-
ical exiles who preceded the voluntary immigrants.
The numbers of prisoners sent to Siberia, how-
ever, have been too unimportant of themselves to
have any marked effect on tlie population; and
the conditions of their life precluded much likeli-
hood of serious increase beyond their original num-
bers. Male exiles were often separated from their
wives, or wives from their husbands ; and while the
Bohemian restlessness which had probably been a
factor in their original offence made the prospect of
a settled conjugal life distasteful to the single mem-
bers of the exile communities, there was also a not
unnatural prejudice on the part of the peasant
settlers and other inhabitants against union with
people on whose life lay a shadow if not a stain.
Vice and disease, very prevalent among the convicts,
also contributed to the stationary totals. Neither
did the secret colonization, before referred to, proba-
bly contribute largely to the census, and legitimate
immigration under government auspices may be
taken to have filled by far the largest role in the
populating of Siberia.
During the last decade intending immigrants
have had to undergo a strict censorship on the part
of the Russian Minister of the Interior. Only those
families who by reason of numbers, health, and the
possession of a certain small capital proved eligible
86
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SIBERIA
were allowed to emigrate from their native provinces
and to attempt to settle in the more thinly populated
yet favorable districts of the Siberian governments.
Government help was bestowed in the form of an
advance of capital, of grants of land on extremely
favorable terms, and of exemption, during certain
periods, from military service and civil taxation.*
Still more energetic measures were taken in those
parts of the dominion where, as in the Amur re-
gion, there was urgent political necessity for knit-
ting together the loose, newly acquired territories
with industrious human fibre. Not only was immi-
gration to these parts allowed, but the Government
tried the comparatively costly experiment of im-
porting peasant immigrants from the Black Sea — a
process which has been termed "compulsory" colo-
nization, though the persuasion used probably resem-
bled closely that of an ordinary emigration agency.
The more lately acquired, more distant, and alto-
gether less attractive South Ussuri region was thus
in three years furnished with a population of forty-
five hundred colonists, brought out via Suez in
steamers of the "volunteer fleet," and at a cost of
over a million rubles. Since the opening of the
railway immigrants have poured in at the rate of a
quarter of a million souls a year, and what has till
lately been regarded as the "cesspool" is rapidly
* Assistance has also been given to immigrant settlers in various
other forms ; for instance, they are conveyed at a rate of three
rubles per one thousand versts, or less than one shilling per one
hundred miles.
89
O \' E R L A X D TO CHI X A
becoming the "reservoir." In Siberia the overflow
of Russian life and hibor can for many years to
come find a prosperous outlet.
According to more than one observer before rail-
way days, who, travelling through Siberia in quest
of information, had been granted "every facility" for
seeinsf life as it does not exist bv the Government
at St. Petersburg, the evils of the convict system
have been o^rosslv underrated. It has even been
represented as almost an ideal system, which the
rest of Europe might well study. By others again,
in past days notably by Kennan, it has perhaps been
painted in unduly black colors. However this may
be, it is certainly an error to consider the Siberia of
the end of the nineteenth century as merely a great
convict settlement; nor would the word "Siberia,"
uttered in sepulchral tones, be a name of such terror
to Russians in general as the usual Nihilist novel
would have us suppose. Since the sixteenth century
a steady stream of immigration, only at first com-
pulsory, has been kept up, and with the acquisition
by Russia of the more fertile provinces has grad-
ually come an improvement in the convict system
and a distinct voluntary movement, though gravely
hindered by the fact that many unnecessary legal
forms must be gone through and of^cial formalities
be complied with before a peasant can leave Euro-
pean Russia.
"The old order changeth"; but before we say
good-bye to every method of travelling but by rail-
way, it may be as well to refer to the various modes
90
SIBERIA
by which, hitherto, distance has been bridged. Most
picturesque perhaps, save to the unfortunate being
who is compelled to employ it, is the tai'antass, the
typical Russian conveyance, to which reference will
be found elsewhere. If the traveller be suflficiently
experienced to have avoided any luggage with cor-
ners to it, and to provide himself with cushions and
rugs innumerable, he may hold on tight while the
three loosely harnessed horses dash down a steep in-
cline and bump the cart violently across a corduroy
bridge of poles, but he will not escape without a
shakinor and the bruises which are the lot of the
less wary. In the Kirghiz highlands, and among
the Buriats in Trans- Baikatia, camel -sledges and
carts are in use. The writer in his journey from
Kiachta to Peking employed no less than five
methods — namely, tarantass, telega, camels, camel-
carts, and mule litter. As far as railway and sledge
travelling is concerned, much misapprehension has
hitherto existed as to the difficulties and dangers of
overland journeys in Siberia. As a matter of fact,
travel has for many years past been as free from risk
as in Europe or the United States. Delicate ladies
have made the journey from Peking to St. Peters-
burg, and, bathed in the elixir of steppe air, they
have, notwithstanding the hardships, found " rough-
ing it " invigorating rather than exhausting.
The public impression of the hazards of Siberian
travel has, however, been unavoidably influenced by
the ridiculous heroics of certain travellers seeking
cheap glory rather than information. Conspicuous
93
OVERLAND TO CHINA
among these is the lively Gaul. He feels ap-
parently obliged to play up to the photograph of
himself in furs, which seemingly is the chief in-
ducement to make the journey. Who, for instance,
from this description of M. IMeignan's, would im-
agine he was describing the common sledge route
across Lake Baikal ? " Between life and death, be-
tween the air we breathed and the bottom of the
lake, there was only one foot of ice, . . . Who at this
distance could have heard our last desperate cry
of anguish, at the moment when the ice, breaking
under our weight, would open and then close over
us forever.?"
The same author, havino: lost his wav for a few
hours in a snow-storm — not a very terrible experi-
ence in a well-covered sledge, with abundance of furs,
victuals, and cognac handy! — thus (naively, we think)
describes his feelings for the benefit of his fellow-
countrymen : " We saw passing, in imagination, car-
avans of Kirghiz — from whom we were, in reality,
not distant — and we fancied ourselves led prisoners
into Tartary, in some wild, lawless territory not yet
brought under subjection ; we saw also — but this
time it was not a vision — five or six packs of wolves
prowling around our poor beasts." The Mongol,
most harmless of men, is painted by this gentleman
in no less vivid colors : " Armed as formidably as
they appeared to be, sometimes with a bow and ar-
rows, sometimes with a musket bristling with a spike,
and always with a murderous-looking knife, these
savage-looking rovers were calculated to fill one with
94
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SIJiERIA
misgivings as to their pacific intentions." Another
French writer of the same mettle has to walk, un-
armed, a mile home to his inn after dinner, on a fine
night. His Siberian host — in the sinister- sound-
ing town of Krivochokovo, whose eleven thousand
five hundred inhabitants, he assures his readers,
were all of them the scum of Siberia — does not
order out the carnage at ten o'clock at night; con-
sequently: "What a whirl of thoughts! Rage,
anger at my host, regret for my carelessness, good
resolutions for the future — should I ever come out
alive — then terror, and finally resignation to the
worst. Must I detail my agony, my hesitation, my
stumblings? ... I reached my room drenched with
sweat, shaking with fever and fatigue, and collapsed,
fainting, only conscious that I had spent an hour
and a half . . ." — in a badly lighted street !
Books written in this tone of heroic combating:
with windmills do not give much helpful informa-
tion as to the real Siberia now in process of devel-
opment. Neither do dusty volumes of government
gazetteers, packed though they be with geographi-
cal and ethnographical statistics; nor picturesque
and propagandist descriptions of exiles and Jews.
The need of information is, however, urgent — of in-
formation neither too dry for assimilation nor tan-
talizingly frothy.
A new era is dawning for Siberia: improved min-
ing methods ; systematic conservancy of forests, fish-
eries, and hunting-grounds; organized credit. Good
communications, with accessible markets, will soon
G 97
SIBERIA
throw her, armed at all points, into the commercial
arena. The gravity of the prospect can scarcely be
overrated.
The awakening to life of a whole fifth of the
world's surface, long thought dead, must necessitate
no slight readjustment among the other occupants.
And when, with the dawn of the twentieth century,
the new challenger enters the world's lists, it will not
do for the Anglo-Saxon to plead that he had had
no notice of the jousts !
98
CHAPTER V
INDUSTRIES AXD PRODUCTS
Prominent among Siberian industries stands min-
ing, and of all the mining exploitation at present
carried on in the country, that of gold is the most
important, Siberia ranking as a gold-producing re-
gion next after the United States, Australia, and the
Transvaal. That she occupies such a position is
all the more noteworthy when one considers that
hitherto only the easiest and richest surface de-
posits have been touched, and that modern ma-
chinery, such as is now employed in all the great
gold-fields of the world, has till now been dis-
pensed with. So far as such limitations have al-
lowed, however, gold has been exploited throughout
Siberia: on the banks of the Obi, Yenisei, Lena, and
Amur rivers, and on the shores of Lake Baikal.
The deposits have hitherto been found chiefly below
the elevation of two thousand feet, and on the west-
ern slopes of mountains connecting the Arctic Ocean
with the Siberian lowlands. The prospecting has
been, howev^er, of the most rudimentary nature, and
the wealth already known to exist must be consid-
ered as but an indication of the vast riches still
awaiting discovery.
99
OVERLAND TO CHINA
The deposits in the Yenisei region rank as the
richest in all Russia, and as large a proportion as
seven-tenths of the total Russian gold production
may be said to come from Eastern Siberia, Western
Siberia supplying only between five and seven per
cent. The total export from Siberia to European
Russia a couple of years ago had already reached
an average of five millions sterling per annum. The
number of miners at present employed in Western
Siberia is about ten thousand, while in Eastern
Siberia three times that number are at work, the
ratio of production to the amount of labor employed
in the respective districts being sufficient testimony
to the superior richness of the Eastern Siberian
deposits. There is no doubt that in Siberia, as in
other parts of the world, the result of the mining in-
dustry has been to improve the condition of things
generally, and especially in the matter of roads,
steam navigation, and education.
One of the most noted Siberian mininq; districts
is the Olekminsk, in the Yakutsk region, where, in
1880, a single company produced gold to the value
of over a million sterling, and has even now an
annual output of three-quarters of a million. Ten
years ago these mines were employing two thousand
three hundred horses and over two thousand reindeer
for transport purposes. With the railway will cer-
tainly come more liberal legislation and improved
methods, and these cannot fail to attract an ever-in-
creasing amount of capital to Olekminsk, as well as
to the mining-centres of Trans-Baikalia, the Amur,
100
SIBERIA
and the Lena, all very rich in auriferous deposits as
yet only partially developed. It is possible, indeed,
that the improved conditions may even cause a re-
vival of the Yenisei and Altai mining industries,
where the miners have hitherto, so to speak, merely
scratched the surface, or, as the Russians say, picked
out the eyes and then abandoned the carcass.
The system known as "placer mining" is the
usual method adopted, being, in fact, almost the
sole system employed so far. Apart altogether from
drawbacks of climate and restrictions imposed by
Government, the obstacles presented by difficulty
of transport, absence of skilled labor, and want of
capital wherewith to provide the necessarily costly
crushing apparatus required, have tended to retard
the development of quartz or veinous gold-mining,
which has been hitherto almost entirely neglected.
All Siberian methods are characterized by their in-
efficient and rudimentary character. The "heroic"
period of mining, so to speak, is as yet scarcely
past, the aid of modern science having but recently
been evoked with the introduction of more business-
like methods and a larger amount of capital. The
inhabitants are wont to plead that the backward con-
dition of Siberia is not unnatural, and that the want
of enterprise hitherto evinced on all sides has been
due to the absence of communications and to the
enormous distances involved. Machinery, for in-
stance, they tell one, which had to be transported
from the Ural, could only be procured at treble its
original cost. But, true though this may be, Sibe-
lOI
OVERLAND TO C 1 1 I N iV
rian inertia, due to isolation and want of education,
for which vodka is so largely responsible, has also
been to blame. Affairs will doubtless assume a
ver}' different aspect as soon as outside energy,
no less needed than outside capital, shall find its way
into the country, as it will inevitably do in the wake
of the railway.
A more advanced state of things already obtains
in the Amur region, wdiere the mines are worked
by well -capitalized companies, instead of being in
the hands of private individuals, and when the rail-
way, with its numerous branches, is in working
order, it is probable that this superior condition of
mining will spread through other parts of Siberia.
The mineral wealth of Siberia and Manchuria is in-
deed considered by the Russians, and not merely by
them, to have a great future before it, and, if one
speaks merely of gold, the "dreams of avarice" might
well be satiated by the prospect. At least that is the
tune which is being played to the phlegmatic Si-
berians by enterprising Russian concessionaires and
enthusiastic British and American mining engineers,
many of whom the writer met at various stages of his
journey, traversing the country in quest of adventure
in their own particular line. It is chiefly on the re-
sults achieved in South Africa that are based their
extremely sanguine calculations : " Beats the Rand,"
is what one hears on all sides, and, dull though they
be, the natives are not so indifferent as to be insen-
sible to the voice of the charmer who carries gold for
his talisman; and having heard, of course in an ex-
102
SIBERIA
aeeerated form, of the colossal fortunes made in min-
ing enterpises in South Africa, they are quite ready
for the early advent of a great "boom" in Siberia.
Speculators in town land are on the alert, and the
idea is being diligently disseminated that Irkutsk is
to become the " Chicago of the Far East," and that
building-plots there will ere long be sold at so many
thousand rubles a foot. Allowing a reasonable dis-
count in estimating at their real value these optimis-
tic views, it is certain that gold in immense quantities
does abound in the country. Still, much has yet to
be done in the way of prospecting before it is pos-
sible for the industry to be raised to the level of the
modern standard of production. As for Irkutsk it-
self, that city has immense advantages. There can
be little doubt that its future prosperity is assured, for
it has the great advantage of proximity to several of
the most important waterways of Siberia, and is, in
addition, admirably situated at what will be the cen-
tral junction of the principal lines of railway, in the
very centre of a large and promising gold-yielding
reo^ion. A ori'eat obstacle to the advance of irold-
mining in Siberia, and consequently to the prosperity
of the whole country, has to be faced in the terrible
winters that prevail. During the four or five months
when the country is ice-bound, every industry is at a
stand-still, and all mining operations have perforce to
be carried out between May and September, when
the days are bright and sunny and the nights clear
and frosty. Nothing could be more favorable for
work or more enjoyable than this season, but towards
103
O \' E R L A N D TO C U I X A
the end of September a complete change may be
brought about within a few hours, and one may be
placed without notice in the heart of winter, as the
writer knows from experience, when further mining
operations become of course out of the question.
Existing legislation, too, is also a serious handicap
to the prosperity of gokl-mining. Under the Gold
Industry Law of 1S70, still in force, miners on pro-
prietary lands pay a tax on the output, those on state
lands being charged a royalty in addition. Thus the
Olekminsk mines pay a ten per cent, tax and about
four rubles per acre ground-rent; those in the Amur
region five per cent, tax and five rubles royalty; and
other mines throughout the empire three per cent,
tax and one ruble royalty. Worse, however, in its ef-
fects than either tax or royalty is the regulation pro-
viding that all Siberian gold must be sent to the
Government smelting-houses (which are situated at
Tomsk for Western, and at Irkutsk for Eastern Si-
beria), where the gold is smelted, assayed, and then
despatched to the St. Petersburg mint, the mine-own-
ers receiving bills payable only on arrival of the con-
signment in the capital. The many objections to
this antiquated system are obvious. It offers a di-
rect incentive to the merchant to engage in illicit
dealings and to circumvent the Government by ef-
fecting a sale on the spot or by shipping direct to
some foreign agency ; for by so doing he not only
saves the legal Government dues, but also avoids the
official peculations which prevail, and against which
he has but little redress — less redress in Siberia, it will
10 1
SIBERIA
be readily understood, than he would have in Eu-
ropean Russia — while at the same time he does not
have to remain for so long a time out of pocket. As
it is, not being able to sustain the alternative of long
delay, he is frequently forced to have his Government
bills discounted locally, at an extortionate rate of
course. The whole machinery, extremely cumbrous
even from a Government point of view, necessitating
as it does an armed road-escort and other precautions,
must soon give way, in its turn, to some system more
in consonance with the spirit of the time.
Next in importance to gold come iron and coal
mining, neither of which, however, has been as yet
to any extent developed, although incalculably vast
deposits of both are known to exist. Such iron as
was imperatively required was till recently supplied
from "that metallurgical treasure-house of Russia,"
the Ural IMountains, geographically part of Siberia,
although, strange to say, still ofiRcially classed as
belonging to Europe. Until the other day, only four
iron-works were in operation throughout the whole
extent of Siberia, but doubtless the railway will give
rise to a great change in this respect, and will lead
to the development of some of the other iron-fields
which abound, as well as to the opening up of the
valuable coal-fields w^hich are known to exist in every
province, but which are at present only worked in the
Kousnetsk basin, on the island of Sakhalin, and in
the Kirghiz steppes. In the Kousnetsk region, which
lies on the eastern frontier of the Altai mining re-
gion, the value of the coal deposit is much increased
105
OVERLAND TO CHINA
bv its JLixtapositifm to inexhaustible supplies of fuel
and rich deposits of magnetic iron ore. The Sak-
halin coal, of a quality equal to the best Welsh coal,
has for thirty years been used by Russian and other
vessels frequenting the Pacific coast, the present
annual output exceeding twenty-five thousand tons.
The discovery of coal on the Kirghiz steppe, after a
most careful and protracted search on the part of
the Government, was a matter for congratulation, the
steppe having otherwise no fuel, with the exception
of dried dung, even for heating purposes, and much
less for the development of its vast stores of sil-
ver, copper, and lead. Since the recent fortunate
discovery, however, the Kirghiz highlands may be
considered as fully guaranteed in this all-important
respect.
The silver, lead, and copper of Siberia have as yet
chiefly a potential value. In locating the mines,
Russian prospectors have in some instances been
aided by the discovery of certain old workings, at-
tributed to the " Chuds " or " Wander " men, abo-
rigines of the Stone Age. The Altai Mountains
have been found to be particularly rich in the miner-
als mentioned, but these industries, in proportion to
their possibilities, have been barely touched in recent
years, although some really valuable copper-smelting
works were established as early as 1726. Notwith-
standing that as many as eight hundred deposits of
metallic ore are known to exist in the Altai region,
only eight silver and two copper mines, and those
on an insignificant scale, are now in operation. In
106
S I B E R I A
this connection it is perhaps not generally known
that as long ago as 1766 a mining engineer named
Polzounov is said to have erected at Barnaoul an
eno;ine worked bv steam and used for the blast-fur-
naces, by virtue of which achievement he is claimed
as a Russian precursor of Watts. Tin and mercury
were early discovered and made use of by the half-
savage Buriats and Yakuts, but no Siberian works
of any importance have as yet been established.
Graphite, first introduced to the world at the Lon-
don Exhibition of 1S62, the principal mine -owner
helping Faber, the well - known pencil - maker, to
make a large fortune by inducing him to adopt it,
is found in the Kirghiz steppe and in the re-
o:ions belono-ino- to the Yenisseisk and Irkutsk
governments.
Another important product of Siberia is salt, which
in the western districts is obtained exclusively from
the self-depositing lakes, while in the eastern portions
of the country, though rock-salt abounds, the richest
deposits and the best salt-springs are situated in
sparsely inhabited districts, where transport is at pres-
ent extremely costly. Improved means of communi-
cation will before long open up large stores of this
product, and when the writer was in Siberia projects
were already being discussed between sanguine con-
cessionnaires and the local governments. The pres-
ent annual production is altogether insufficient for
the wants of the population, and Government assist-
ance is therefore given at an annual expenditure of
one hundred thousand rubles, salt being issued free
107
OVERLAND TO CHINA
to the Kirghiz and Cossack levies, while in the salt-
less regions depots have been established where the
Government article can be procured at a low price.
Foreign salt is allowed to pass duty free at the
Siberian Pacific ports.
Precious stones and minerals are known to exist
in large quantities in various parts of the country,
the chief centre of these deposits being Trans-Bai-
kalia, a subdivision, as before described, of the Amur-
Littoral region. Between the rivers Onon and
Onon-Borza rise the granitic mountains Admar-
Chilon, celebrated for topaz, beryl, aquaniarine, and
other precious stones, while on the Onon, fifty miles
from Nertchinsk, are found garnets of a good quality.
In the Baikal Mountains lapis-lazuli, put to many
artistic uses in the various imperial palaces, is abun-
dant, as are also red garnets, mica, and asphanite.
The Altai Mountains are famous for their porphyry
and jasper, which are in great demand for the court
at St. Petersburg, whither they are sent after pass-
ing through the Kolivan polishing works. In the
Altai region there are altogether eight quarries pro-
ducing porphyry, jasper, agate, topaz, and chalcedony,
together with a variety of building -stone, felspar,
quartz, and other more or less valuable rocks and
minerals.
Next after the mineral resources of the country
comes, in natural order, the forest wealth. Till
quite recently this was made use of only for local
needs, the most primitive methods of working be-
ing employed. Indeed, the indiscriminate and reck-
loS
SIBERIA
less felling, together with the frequently recurring
forest-fires, must ere this have reduced to a low cbl)
even such extensive forests as these, had they been
readily exhaustible. They may be said to run
through Siberia in three zones, from west to east,
the first of these extending between the meridian of
cultivation and the Polar tundras in vast areas of
unbroken and in many parts absolutely virgin forest.
Here are found hundreds of miles of pine woods,
whose lonely aisles of bare red trunks are said to
be avoided even by all wild animals, and where, even
if this were not the case, the most experienced trap-
pers would scarcely trust themselves. Here, locked
up for want of communication, lies a storehouse
of timber representing vast future revenues. The
second zone is that of the birch, which, to the
exclusion of all other trees, covers the Western
Siberian plains. The trees grow in koloks, or spin-
nies, which, viewed in masses from the road, pre-
sent the appearance of an unbroken forest. Birch-
wood serves many purposes in Siberia, being em-
ployed as building material and as fuel, while it is
also largely used in the manufacture of farm im-
plements. It is being fast used up, however, and
preservative measures are urgently required, espe-
cially as the railway will enormously increase the de-
mand for fuel. The third belt of forest-land extends
along the northern slopes of the almost uninterrupted
chain of mountains which, under various names, con-
nects Semirechia with Vladivostok, while dividing
Siberia from China. These forests consist chiefly
109
OVERLAND TO CHINA
of conifers, but although the timber is excellent the
difficulties of felling and of transport are so great
that it is scarcely worth while to bring it to a mar-
ket. No raftage is possible on the wild mountain
torrents of this neighborhood, and the logs have
•sometimes to be actually transported on camel-back.
According to law, the forest was at one time free
to the inhabitants, and the peasants therefore came
to regard it as their own, as a "gift of God," in fact,
like air and water, and to be squandered accordingly.
Consequently the forests easiest of access are in a
chaotic condition, and in some districts the country-
side is absolutely denuded of trees. The terrible
fires, too, which may be seen by the traveller as the
train rushes through the country, are playing vast
havoc. A "Woods and Forests" Department is
urgently needed, to assume control and turn what
is at present most wanton waste into an increas-
ingly valuable source of revenue.
Amona: the natural resources of Siberia one ouq-ht
to be able to give a foremost place to the abundance
of fish in the rivers, which at one time was almost
fabulous; but, as has been already said, the same
lack of forethought, which is denuding some parts
of the country of valuable timber, has led to a
reckless waste in fishing also, and in the cultivated
zone the supply now only suffices for local wants.
The fishing is mostly done individually, and with-
out any organization, being only carried on whole-
sale during the summer with huge drift-nets, many
as much as a mile in length. In spring the fish are
1 lO
SIBERIA
caught while rushing up small streams, through holes
cut in the ice. If sent to market they are frozen
or salted, but the process is not well carried out,
which greatly hinders the development of what ought
to be an important industry. The fur industry has
suffered in the same way from indiscriminate slaugh-
ter, and in Western Siberia fur animals have almost
disappeared, the supplies now coming mostly from
due north of Eastern Siberia. The squirrel affords
the most certain livelihood to the hunter, the averasfe
beino- three hundred head in a winter. The laro;er
animals, bear and elk, must be carefully stalked, and
much depends on luck as well as skill in the killing
of them. Fire-arms are used, and traps of the most
varied construction, but the natives, who are the chief
hunters and traders, still adhere in some parts to the
primitive bow and arrow. In Yakutsk sables are
still plentiful, though hunters are few, and the Arctic
fox can be trapped in large numbers during its cu-
rious migration from the sea up the rivers. Dur-
ing a great migration in i860, seven thousand were
caught, the rivers being fenced in at certain points.
Several varieties of birds, such as the ryabtchik (the
delicious gelinotie, or hazel-grouse), are shot for Euro-
pean markets, while the wild goose, duck, and black-
cock are merely shot for sport.
To pass from products to industries: Owing to
scanty population and to wretched communications,
the Siberian manufacturing industry, like the min-
ing, has not developed in proportion to the natural
wealth of the country. Manufactures were, indeed,
III
OVERLAND TO CHINA
initiated with great difficulty, and have onh^ succeed-
ed where they immediately supplied a local want, or
(and this not very often the case) when they pro-
duced articles of sufficient value to cover the hi2:h
cost of transport. The total product of Siberian
manufactures did not till recently exceed ten million
rubles in yearly value, an altogether insignificant
figure for such a vast territory, and one possessing,
too, such illimitable resources. Oil-mills and cheese-
making represented forty-five per cent, of this, naph-
tha of a quality resembling the Caucasian product
being found in large quantities in Sakhalin ; second
to these come tanning and sheepskin-dressing, then
tallow-making, soap-boiling, and kindred industries,
the cultivation of beet-sugar occupying a not un-
important place. The distilling of spirits from grain
and potatoes ; the growth of a poor kind of tobacco
for local consumption; the manufacture of matches,
and other industries exist, but all to an insignificant
deojree.
The total taxes for the whole of Siberia amount to
scarcely one million rubles. Of the annual turn-
over, woollen and cotton goods represent thirty-six
per cent, groceries fifteen per cent, and liquors eleven
per cent. The exports westward are principally the
raw materials of agriculture and cattle-raising, and
include grain, flour, flax, linseed, tow, nuts, tallow,
butter, hair, wool, hides, skins, and furs. The im-
ports (mostly Russian, although a small proportion
of foreign goods also change hands) are chiefly the
products of manufacturing industries, such as cloth,
I I 2
SIBERIA
haberdashery, groceries, metals, pottery, glass, spirits,
sugar, tobacco, and mineral oils. Owing to the ex-
tent to which the Siberian population is scattered —
only eleven cities of over ten thousand inhabitants
are to be found throughout the length and breadth
of this enormous territory — monopolies and "cor-
ners" are frequent, the absence of good communica-
tions being an effective factor in their operation.
Fairs have hitherto been a prominent feature in
Siberian trade, as in European Russia, the most an-
cient being that founded in 1643 ^^ Irbit, in the
Perm Government. During February of this year
(1S99) this little town accommodated no less than
fifteen thousand strangers, and transacted business
amounting in value to some fifty million rubles.
Other fairs, often dealing with a special class of arti-
cles such as tallow, butter, hides, live cattle, or furs,
are held in various parts of the dominion.
The Arctic shores of Siberia being practically
closed to navigation, foreign trade is confined to the
Pacific littoral and the frontier of the Chinese Em-
pire. The development of trade relations with China
is a traditional aim of Russian policy, and various
commercial treaties have from time to tinie been
made in order to further this object; but, principally
owing to want of good communication, the overland
trade with the south has so far shown but little
tendency to increase. The most important route
for trade between China and Russia, as it is also
the one most frequented by travellers, is that vm the
Siberian track, Irkutsk, Kiachta, Maimachen, Urga,
H 11^
OVERLAND TO CHINA
and Kalgan,thc route which tlic writer followed, and
which is largely used for the import trade. Two less
important roads, principally used for export to China,
connect Peking with the province of Semipalatinsk.
The value of the Siberian exports, it may be noted,
has never exceeded three million rubles, while the
imports reach the amount of fifteen million rubles,
of which, how^ever, twelve millions represent tea in
transit to Russia, thus leaving Siberian exports and
imports about equal. The Russian trade with Mon-
golia is carried on chiefly from the Trans-Baikal terri-
torv. The tea trade with China has existed for over
two centuries, reaching latterly the huge total of over
sixty- four million puds a year, one -half being im-
ported overland through Siberia, and the other going
by sea to Odessa. The finer kinds (as, for instance,
bohea), required for consumption in Russia, are sent
by the latter route, but coarser varieties, made up
in " bricks," and intended for consumption among
the Siberians, Kirghiz, and Kalmuks, are, as a rule,
despatched overland. The tariff for bohea is thir-
teen rubles per pud (equal to thirty- six pounds in
British weight) at Irkutsk, and twenty-one rubles on
the European frontier, the difference in price being-
due to the increased expense, risk, and delay of the
land transit, which often occupies a year from Han-
kow to Nijni-Novgorod, thus necessitating extremely
careful packing and supervision. Here again the
railway will introduce a completely new factor in the
development of the trade.
As to other items of foreign commerce, all im-
1 14
S I B E R I A
ports into Siberia are duty free, with the exception
of sugars and confectioneries, liquors, mineral oils,
and matches, these exceptions, however, being al-
lowed only on the route passing through Eastern
Siberia. Forei2:n Q-oods enter this Eastern rec:ion
by four routes — Vladivostok, Nicolaevsk, Blagove-
chensk, and Ayan — but by none of these routes can
payment of customs dues at Irkutsk be avoided.
The foreign imports may be classified as follows :
From European Russia — cheap cottons, woollens,
tobacco, spirits, sugar, illuniinants, leather, manufact-
ured iron, stationery, haberdashery, and articles dc
luxe. From Great Britain — cotton and woollen yarn
and fabrics, iron, tin-plate. From Belgium — glass
and yarn. From France — ariicles de hixe,\i\'QSQXvQS,
wine. From the United States — flour and other
articles of food, machinery, and agricultural imple-
ments, leather goods, and guns. From Germany —
various goods, mostly of inferior quality, including
furniture, sugar, wine, kitchen utensils, cottons, and
woollens. From Korea — grain, vegetables, and cat-
tle. From Japan — wheat, rice, salt, fruits, and ai'ti-
cles de luxe. From China — tea.
At Vladivostok, the principal place of import, cot-
tons and woollens represent twenty-five per cent, of
the imports; grain and flour fifteen; and other pro-
visions ten per cent. Of these, Germany provides
thirty per cent, European Russia twenty-five, Eng-
land thirteen, Japan thirteen, China twelve, and
America five per cent. The Vladivostok trade is in
the hands of foreigners, chiefly Germans and Chi-
115
OVERLAND TO CHINA
nese, its exports being principally confined to the
products of the whaling and the horse industry —
about one and a half million rubles, and furs one
million. Sea-weed, timber, and sundries make up
a total of some three million rubles, a truly insig-
nificant sum for a seaport which, on the comple-
tion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, is destined per-
haps to become as important as Southampton, just
as Talienwan will become another Hong-Kong or
Hamburg.
ii6
CHAPTER VI
THE GREA T TRANS-SIBERIAN-MANCHURIAN
RAIL IVA V
It is a well-known fact that there are two ways of
seeing Russia in general and Siberia in particular.
The first is under quasi- government conduct, and
all those whose object is to travel in luxury or to
meet everywhere with deference, and frequently with
obsequiousness, naturally seek for official introduc-
tions to hioh oovernment authorities. But, like
everything else, the convenience and comfort of the
personally conducted system have to be paid for, and
the payment in this case takes the form of general
restriction of view, coupled with an obligation, en-
joined by the merest courtesy, to speak nothing but
what is pleasant and flattering to the country. One
may, therefore, spend months under the vigilant
care of Russian officials, so that not a hair of one's
head shall be injured, and yet learn just as little of
the country as does, for instance, a Viceroy of India,
during his progress from Calcutta to Simla, of the
dominions under his rule.
Those, however, who are prepared to face some
amount of discomfort, or to chance the risk of de-
tention, in order that they may be able to use their
117
O \' E R L A N D TO CHINA
own eyes, without haviiig the everlasting ispravnik
(chief police official of a district) to take them by the
hand at every stopping-place, will probably find that,
by travelling as individuals of no consideration, they
will obtain a larger amount of information than
would be possible under official patronage. This, at
any rate, was the plan adopted by the writer when
travelling in 1S98-99 by the great Siberian Railway
from Moscow to Irkutsk (to which point the railway
was even then in working order) on his way to China.
Whenever deviation was made from the plan of ac-
tion decided upon, disappointment was the result, of
which the following instance is an example. It was
important to shorten the journey from the Siberian
frontier to Pekino:, owinq; to the lateness of the sea-
son. On arrival at Kiachta, there was some difficulty
in hiring the necessary conveyance, and the writer,
therefore, wired to the British Ambassador at St.
Petersburg, asking him to kindly procure from the
officials concerned telegraphic instructions to the
commissioner of the frontier, to aid in securino;
horses for the continuation of the journey as far as
Urga, on the edge of the Gobi Desert. That func-
tionary, however, found himself unable to give as-
sistance, alleging, " with much regret," that he had
no instructions. A second telegram was thereupon
despatched to the ambassador, who replied that or-
ders had been sent by telegraph both to the com-
missioner at Kiachta and to the consul-s^eneral at
Urga, by the ministers for home and foreign af-
fairs respectively. But evidently the ambassador
118
IX.
<
Z
<
b
SIBERIA
had been misled by a Russian " assurance," which,
though legal tender at St. Petersburg, would not
pass current on the Russo-Chinese frontier, for both
the frontier commissioner and the consul -sfeneral
declared that no instructions of any kind having
any reference to the journey had been received.
Later on, however, the writer had reason to believe
that the Asiatic Department at St. Petersburg had
communicated with at least Urga, concerning the
matter of the journey. It may here be mentioned
that the traveller who obtains Russian official as-
sistance can cover the distance between Moscow and
Peking in thirty and a half days — that is to say, by
rail to Irkutsk, ten and a half days; thence to Kiach-
ta by the post-road, four days; Kiachta to Urga by
post -road, three days; thence to Kalgan over the
Gobi Desert in ten days, or even less ; Kalgan to
Peking in three days.
Many " hints to travellers " might be given, but
one in particular should be remembered by those
who go to Siberia in quest of information. It is to
avoid the discussion of all political questions, and
especially those of the prison administration and the
convict system, as one would shun the plague. An
American, who when young had spent some years in
Siberia as a mechanical engineer, was once relating to
the writer some of his experiences, and incidentally
spoke of certain advice he had received from an old
hand, a fellow-countryman of his own : " Young man,
let me whisper something in your ear. If you wish
to stay in Russia, avoid politics and religion ; above
121
OVERLAND TO CHINA
all, never allow yourself to know there is such a thincr
as a ' convict system.' " At the present moment,
perhaps, this advice may be considered less neces-
sary, for the first place in the mind of every one in-
terested in Russian development is now of course
occupied by consideration of the great railway
scheme, of which the world has but recently taken
cognizance, but which, nevertheless, is the slowly
ripened fruit of nearly half a century's inspirations,
suggestions, plans, and deliberations.
Whether regarded from a commercial or a politi-
cal point of view, the urgent need for good communi-
cations in Siberia has been obvious to the Russian
authorities for over a quarter of a century, although,
it is true, this stupendous conception of a Russian-
Pacific railroad was not from the beginning grasped
in its entirety. The earlier plans combined rail and
river communication, tramways and ferries, and it
was but orraduallv that the idea was conceived of the
unparalleled achievement to which the imperial re-
script of March 17, 1891, was to give birth. That
famous document, read by the present Emperor, then
Tsarevitch, at Vladivostok, in May of the same year,
notified the adoption in fullest measure of the much-
hoped-for undertaking, and announced " the imme-
diate construction through the entire length of Si-
beria." Until the year iSSo the sectional system
of railways was the one favored, but eventually the
Emperor took the matter in hand, and a grand uni-
fied scheme was adopted. The knot of all the tech-
nical official controversies between rival projectors
122
S 1 B E R I A
was cut by him in the manner of his grandfather,
who forty years previously settled the question of
the route to be followed between St. Petersburg;'
and Moscow by laying the ruler across the map and
drawing with his pencil a straight line between the
two termini. With what incredible energy the work
— which marks, unless forecasts deceive us, a new
era for the whole world — has been carried out since
it was sanctioned by the Tsar is known. Outside
interest, at first vaguely informed and rather lan-
guid, has increased with the approaching realiza-
tion of the enterprise; and the great Siberian Rail-
way now commands in public opinion the respect
due to an almost accomplished work of such vast
importance.
In course of construction the line has, however,
become much chanired in character. No lono^er a
purely internal enterprise — running through un-
known territories, to terminate at an obscure Rus-
sian port far away somewhere in the north — by the
Manchurian alignment it has become the world's
highway from West to East, a route which is to
bring the vast empire of China for the first time
into intimate touch with Europe. The scope of
the railway has been infinitely enlarged. From be-
ing a merely domestic work, pertaining solely to
internal administration, it has become a great inter-
national undertaking, and has passed into the do-
main of foreign affairs; from being little more than
a local enterprise, it now promises to develop into
one of the 2:reatest arteries of trafific the world has
123
OVERLAND TO CHINA
yet seen, and into a political instrument whose far-
rcachinc^ effects it is difficult to q;au2:e.
How far this is the result of what would appear to
be a fortuitous combination of circumstances, and
how far the outcome of Russian foresight, must be
largely matter for conjecture. Whichever view may
be the true one — whether the result was brought
about by chance or by statecraft — the fact remains
that nothing could have turned out more happily for
Russia. The course mapped out for the Siberian
Railway, as originally announced to the world, could
not possibly provoke either jealousy or hostility,
whereas had the 1891 programme included, as does
the present one, a short ctit across a Chinese prov-
ince and the extension southward to Port Arthur,
with the establishment of a terminal fortified stronq;-
hold — another Sevastopol, in fact, commanding the
whole Gulf of Pechihli and even Pekino; itself — the
inevitable shock to the world must have jeopardized
success. But, whether by design or accident, that
shock was spared to the world, and the warnings of
the few who could foresee events passed unheeded.
The radical change in the character of the line has,
indeed, been effected with the graduated gentleness
and the assured result of a process of nature. That
the railway is primarily a strategic line is beyond
question, this being emphasized by the provision
which has been made to keep the main line clear
for through traffic in case of emergency.
Final choice of the line the railway was to take
through Western Siberia lay between three much-
124
SIBERIA
discussed alternative points of departure — namely,
Tinmen, Zlatoost, and Orenburg, at each of which
points the Russian railways cut the Ural Mountains.
Of these alternative lines, the one chosen was in
any case to make its way to the fixed point of Nijni-
Oudinsk, half-way between the Yenisei and Lake
Baikal. The one via Zlatoost and Cheliabinsk,
known as the central project, was the one selected.*
According to the imperial rescript, the total dis-
tance of line to be constructed, at a total cost of
^"34,700,000, was, in round numbers, 70S0 versts, or
over 4700 miles; and it was divided into six sections,
on which work was to be commenced simultaneously.
These were Cheliabinsk to the Obi, via Omsk, 8S5
♦The chief features of the three routes receiving consideration,
which led to the adoption of the central project, were as follows :
I. IfTiumen were made the starting-point, the distance to be trav-
ersed to Nijni-Oudinsk would be 1638 miles. But the Ural Railway,
of which Tiumen is the terminus, not being connected with the
Russian system, it would be necessary to first fill in a hiatus of 663
miles (between Perm and Nijni-Novgorod), making the total length
of the Tiumen alternative 2300 miles.
2. By the central project, which took Zlatoost as the starting-
place, 92 miles already open between that town and Cheliabinsk could
be utilized ; this would therefore only necessitate the construction
of 1817 miles of new line. In places it would have the disadvantage
of skirting the barren steppe, but, on the other hand, it would tap
the great industrial centre of Omsk, and would, generally, traverse
a more fertile region than that which the proposed northern line (i)
would pass through.
3. The immense extent. 2319 miles, of sterile and mountainous
country through which the southern or Orenburg line would have
to pass put the adoption of that route out of the question, and the
central project, starting from Cheliabinsk, was the one finally de-
cided upon.
125
OVERLAND TO CHINA
miles; the Obi to Irkutsk, via Krasnoiarsk, 1169;
Irkutsk to Listvenitchnaya and Mysovsk, on Lake
Baikal (with ice-breaker, pier, harbor, and "train-
ferry" across lake), 195; Mysovsk to Stretensk (the
Trans-Baikal section), 673 ; Stretensk to Khabarovsk
(the Amur section), 1333; and Khabarovsk to Vladi-
vostok (the Ussuri section, which is completed), 486
miles. This plan has been, however, as will be seen,
considerably modified ; particularly in regard to the
abandonment of the permanent "train-ferry " cross-
ing of Lake Baikal, in favor of a line to run round
the southern edge of the lake, and of section five
(Stretensk to Khabarovsk) — the longest and certain-
ly not the easiest of all. Until the Amur section was
reached, the railway survey followed pretty closely
the natural high-road eastward, and practically the
only one traversing Siberia. Each section so far had
been already surveyed and was easily determined on.
But in Trans- Baikalia and the Amur re2:ion it was
a far different matter. In the latter, the only road
was that provided by the lower slopes of the river
itself, the sole traffic on the lower Amur being by
steamer in summer and sledge in winter. Around
the southern edge of Lake Baikal some heavy tun-
nelling has to be done,'^ and the difficulties both of
survey and execution were here, but in Trans -Bai-
kalia especially, enormously increased, and it is rea-
sonably open to doubt whether the authorities ever
seriously intended to make the main line run via
* At one time as much as two and a half miles of tunnel-work was
anticipated, but this has been largely reduced.
126
SIBERIA
the Amur. The fact that Russian engineers secretly
made surveys in Manchuria even some years prior
to the crisis of 1895, and the haste with which Chi-
nese permission for the running of the line through
Manchuria, with the necessary pohce to protect it,
was then claimed — as recompense for Russian help
against the Japanese — cannot be forgotten. It
would therefore appear by no means improbable
that a short cut across Northern Manchuria to Vla-
divostok had been planned many years ago, and that
the inclusion of section five in the programme was
merely tentative, while the project was maturing.
As originally planned, the railway was to be con-
structed simultaneously from both ends, the line
from the west to meet that from Vladivostok at
Irkutsk. In the modified plan, however, the sec-
tion completed from Vladivostok to Khabarovsk is
not utilized, while from the other end the main line
branches off at Onon, 100 miles on the west side of
Stretensk, and at Nikolaevsk, 67 miles north of Vla-
divostok, joins the already opened section between
that port and Khabarovsk. The section between
Onon and Nikolaevsk is estimated at 1200 miles,
of which some 900 are on Chinese and over 300 on
Russian territory. This reduces the total distance
between Cheliabinsk and Vladivostok to about 4000
miles, instead of 4700 ; but these estimates of dis-
tance are vague and probably below the mark.
The line from Onon junction will, however, be
continued, as originally planned, to Stretensk, where
it will be connected with steamboat traffic on the
127
O \^ E R L A N D TO CHINA
Upper Amur, tlie main line running from Onon
southeastward, probably past Tsitsikar, Kirin, and
Mukden, to the Gulf of Pcchihli at Port Arthur;
wliile a branch line will be built from Vladivostok,
or rather from the Nikolaevsk junction, to join the
Manchurian Railway at some central point on the
Sungari, These sections are timed to be completed
in the autumn of 1902, but before this date, in 1900,
Russia, it is important to note, pending the full com-
pletion of the Siberian - Manchurian Railway, will
have at her disposal an uninterrupted line of rail
and river communication — rail to Stretensk, thence
steamer to Khabarovsk, and again rail to Vladivos-
tok on the Pacific. As a supplementary measure,
train-ferry-boats, as used in America and Denmark,
are to be run across Lake Baikal from Listvenitch-
naya (the harbor and pier on the west shore of Lake
Baikal), to the opposite shore at Mysovsk.*
The estimate of the time required for the com-
pletion of the line to Port Arthur is based on the
work already accomplished, which has all been done
within the time calculated, the estimate not hav-
ing been exceeded in any of the sections as yet
opened. As the most extraordinary exertions are
beinsf made with the construction round the south
end of Lake Baikal and from the Port Arthur ter-
*The ice-breaker to be used on Lake Baikal was constructed by
Messrs. Armstrong, and shipped in sections to its destination. Built
entirely of steel, two hundred and ninety feet in length, it is capable
of breaking through ice several feet thick, and is to be in use dur-
ing the winter months — that is, from October onward. The railway
cars are to be run direct on board, and ferried across the lake.
128
S I 1? E R I A
minus, working both ways, as well as in the centre,
by means of the Manchurian waterways (the Sun-
gari, the Argun, and the Ussuri, which are being
made use of for the transport of material, some
special tug-boats for towing rail-laden barges having
already been imported from England), it is as cer-
tain as any such calculation can be that the time-
limit for the remainder of the operations, i.e., 1902,
will not be exceeded.
If the original financial estimates have been ex-
cecded, that, after all, is the affair of the Russian
Government. The world is only concerned in the
due accomplishment of the task which will work
so cfreat a revolution. It is of some interest to
make, as far as the data are known, a rough com-
parison with what has been previously accomplished
in the way of gigantic railway construction, and for
that purpose we may take the first American line
between the Atlantic and the Pacific. It must, how-
ever, be remembered that in the quarter of a cen-
tury which has elapsed between the execution of the
two undertakings wider experience and improved
knowledge have accumulated, to the great advantage
of the Russian enterprise.
In sheer length the Trans-Siberian will be almost
double that of the Trans- American continental rail-
way. The maximum altitude of 3608 feet, overcome
by very gentle gradients while crossing the Yablonoi
or "Apple " Mountains (so called from their rounded
contours), cannot, however, for a moment be com-
pared with the giddy precipices of the Sierra Nevada,
I 129
OVERLAND TO CHINA
or the 6500 feet ascent of the Rocky Mountains.
And although the Siberian plains are, perhaps, as
scantily populated as were those of the Far West
in 1S60-70, they include no such waterless tracts as
the Utah and Nevada wildernesses. Leaving Trans-
Haikalia and Manchuria out of the question, the
Siberian line was an exceptionally easy one from an
engineering point of view. Beyond the Urals the
rails could be laid in straight lines over immense
plains. Between the Obi and the Yenisei there are
but ofentle undulations to be overcome. After cross-
ing the Yenisei, a series of hills, never exceeding
2000 feet, are traversed at right angles. In the whole
distance from Cheliabinsk to Irkutsk no single tun-
nel occurs, no gradient steeper than 17^ in 1000,
no curve sharper than a 270 yards' radius. Beyond
Irkutsk, however, there is really serious work to be
done, and the obstacles which have had to be over-
come so far may be regarded as infinitesimal when
compared with those which must be surmounted.
These are, (i) round the southern edge of Lake
Baikal; (2) eastward, across Trans - Baikalia from
the lake to the navigation limit of the Amur (at or
near Stretensk) ; and (3) from the point where the
Manchurian line, leaving the Trans-Baikal section of
the Siberian Railway — whether at Onon, precisely,
or some other point, has not yet been finally decided
— passes across the hilly country enclosed between
the Argun and the Upper Amur, skirting the lower
slopes of the Yablonoi range, from the Argun con-
tinuing its route across the Khingan range via Hai-
130
S I B E R I A
lar to Tsitsikar (or some place south of that town)
on the Upper Sungari, in Manchuria. Beyond Lake
Baikal there is a gradual ascent from 1 300 to 3600
feet, through the valleys of the Selenga and its tribu-
taries ; then a somewhat abrupt descent to the Amur,
and after that a short section of some 200 miles
along the mountain spurs and across the occasional
marshes in the valleys of the Ingoda and the Shilka.
Much attention has been given to the bridges, of
which there are many, the Siberian waterways run-
ning in general from south to north, at right angles
to the railway line. The four most important bridges,
all now completed, are those over the Irtysh and
Obi, each about 930 yards long ; and over the Ye-
nisei and Selenga, each about i 700 yards in length.
The Obi bridge is a particularly fine structure, being
at least 50 feet above the river at times of flood,
while on ordinary occasions one looks down upon
the waters from a hei2:ht of 80 feet. The Yenisei
bridge is similar in many respects, and, indeed, all
the bridges are of the same type, being constructed
of iron, with stone piers supporting spans which in
some cases measure as much as 100 yards in length,
and across which a sinHe line is laid through irirder
lattice work. Most Siberian bridges are of specially
difficult construction, owing to the great variation of
heat and cold, the swamp)', inundated, and yielding
nature of the river -banks and approaches, and the
unusually solid stone supports required to resist the
impact of ice.
In point of actual rate of construction, the Siberian
131
OVERLAND TO CHINA
maxiniLim is far behind the American one, though
it must be considered fast under the circumstances.
Six versts, or three miles and three-quarters, per
diem, is the highest ever achieved by the Russians
— a poor record when compared with the ten and a
half miles credited to American brain and Chinese
labor on the San F"rancisco section of the American
line. But the Americans, on the other hand, took
nearly seven years to complete a distance of 1800
miles ; whereas in Siberia nearly a thousand miles
beyond that amount was accomplished in less than
eicrht years. As has been shown, the difficulties of
the country itself were immeasurably greater on the
American line, but, as a set off, it must be remem-
bered that the working season in Siberia lasts only
six months, from April to September, at other times
the eround beino: frozen too hard for anything to be
done. As the line is single, and the rails are merely
laid on notched sleepers and clamped down on the
inside, the speed in construction might perhaps have
been even or^ater. Great precautions are taken in
working the line, men being stationed at very short
intervals with green flags, to show their section to
be clear.
On the Siberian Railway the labor question— an
enormously important one, since during the greater
part of the construction no less than 150,000 labor-
ers were employed — was saved from developing
into a "problem" (as it would have done in another
country) by the exceptional character of the Rus-
sian peasantry, who are not averse to being moved
y
-I
<
SIBERIA
from one place to another. The population along
the Siberian track proved, as had been foreseen,
quite unable to provide the labor required. Neither
were soldiers, as in the case of the Trans-Caspian
line, available in sufficient numbers. Convict labor
was tried, but, except in the neighborhood of Ir-
kutsk, proved a failure. Fortunately, as remarked
above, the Russian peasant is always willing to leave
his home for two or three years, and proceed to any
distance for assured employment. If possible he
likes to set home-leave for the harvest-time, but in
the case of the Siberian Railway, laborers had to
content themselves with leave during the slack win-
ter season. No foreigners are employed. The Si-
berian Railway, as described to the writer during his
journey, is "a Russian railway, made by Russian en-
gineers, for Russia."
Speaking generally, when all the difficulties are
taken into due consideration, credit is due to the
Russian authorities for the excellence of the main
plan of the line, the good general organization, and
the rapidity of the execution. The last, indeed, may
be held to cover a multitude of sins. The main ob-
ject was, first and foremost, speed in completion — a
rapid linking of west and east — and that has been
attained. Overland communication, by rail and
steamer, has already been almost established be-
tween Europe and the Pacific. Trains fitted up
with all modern luxuries are now actually running
throuijh the heart of the Siberian wastes. As far as
Ob-Krivoschikovo (the junction for Tomsk) a train
'35
OVERLAND TO CHINA
dc luxe is available, which includes library, gymna-
sium, bath-rooms, lavatories, and even a piano, and
thence to Irkutsk, the ordinary trains are provided
with buffets and other comforts and luxuries. In
view of such a brilliant result it may seeni almost in-
vidious to criticise such minor shortcomino-s as, until
recently, the comfortless journey in cold weather
across the Yenisei and Oka by ferry. The bridges
over these rivers were not yet entirely completed
when the writer passed, in the autumn of 1898.
There are, however, more serious shortcomings
than this. In the first place, the general plan, though
in itself excellent, has been badly worked out in de-
tail. The Russian -European engineers, quite un-
used (be it said in their defence) to mountains,
which are rarely met with in their own country, of-
ten avoided easy slopes along the hills and carried
the line through marshes where solid foothold was
difficult to obtain, and where the line must be contin-
ually subject to inundations. The want of solidity
of the low-lying sections was, indeed, the only prob-
lem of any difficulty that the Siberian Railway en-
gineers, until they reached Lake Baikal, had to face,
and their solution of the difficulty redounds but little
to their credit. In places cuttings, too, were fre-
quently made where tunnels might well have been
employed. To this fatal want of confidence in
their skill in dealing with such problems, and the
consequent frequency with which the line, often
quite unnecessarily, is made to traverse swampy
valleys, is mainly due the disasters that have hith-
SIBERIA
erto occurred, such as destruction of the permanent .
wa}' by inundation. In tlie Stretensk section the
spectacle has actually been seen of three miles of rails,
afloat on the sleepers, being carried down -stream.
In the section beyond Baikal, now in hand, the diffi-
culties, as before remarked, will be greatly increased,
and will test the skill of the Russian engineers.
It is not only in the matter of engineering work,
however, that the carrying out of the scheme is open
to criticism. Many of the sections of the permanent
way will have to be re-made, and most of it is insufifi-
ciently ballasted. As at present constructed, the
lines would be incapable of supporting a continuous
or heavy train service, and it is indeed proposed to
use the rails for the construction of light branch lines
for the transport of local products to favorable mar-
kets, and to lay down heavier metals in their place.
Even in 189S, ^10,000,000 were voted for the im- ^
provement of the permanent way in the western half
of the line alone, although it was only just com-
pleted!*' Bad material, too, has often, from motives
*The present intention is to re-lay the whole of the central and
Trans-Baikalian sections with rails weighing 24 pounds to the foot,
instead of the 18-pound rails now in use. In addition to this, 1429^1 ;(^ 'k
wooden bridges are to be replaced by stone and iron ones. The
stations, all built on sidings, are at present about 25 miles apart; a
recent order provides for the construction of additional sidings
every few miles, the total additions amounting to 91. Orders have
also been given for the ballasting of a greater portion of the perma-
nent way. The expenditure involved in all these improvements is
to be spread over eight years, by the end of which time it is hoped ,.
that a maximum speed of 33 miles an hour for passenger-trains will I
have been attained.
157
OVERLAND TO CHINA
best not inquired into, been ordered from small
l(Kal contractors. There has been, and still con-
tinues to be, a large amount of what must be re-
garded as barbaric waste. New engines have been
seen lying uncased and rusting on the ground; twist-
ed rails strewn alongside the track; sleepers allowed
to rot before the time came to use them. Neither
is it without good reason that peculation and misap-
propriation are alleged to be common.
Again, as previously mentioned, the cost of the
line will greatly exceed the original estimates, at first
thirty-five and later thirty- eight millions sterling,
which were in their mileage rate low as compared
with that of England. According to competent au-
thority, this is estimated at ^50,000 per mile, at
which rate fifty millions sterling would not have car-
ried the Siberian Railway much beyond the Obi,
But in comparing the English and Russian charges,
the cheapness of labor, and the altogether insignifi-
cant cost of land — in the latter country practically
nil — must be taken into account. The final cost of
the Russian scheme promises, according to a well-
disposed French critic, to rival that of any line in
Europe or America, a view which must, however, be
accepted with caution. But here again it must be
remembered that the total is swelled by such items
as Russian rails and girders employed when English
or American could have been purchased at half the
price — an outcome of the protectionist ideas favored
in Russia. Seeing, however, that Indian railways, in
spite of their enormous initial cost, pay fairly well,
138
S I B i: R I A
there is every probability that the Siberian Rail-
way will also eventually pay as a purely commer-
cial speculation, notwithstanding the corruption and
waste which are so prevalent at present. As a Gov-
ernment state measure, the success of the railway is
of course already assured. Additional engines and
trucks, ordered in hundreds, are yet insufficient to
cope with the goods traffic on the sections of the line
already opened. Under special exemption from the
imperial ukase which forbade the use of any but Rus-
sian rolling-stock, and as a matter of special urgency,
order after order has been placed abroad, principally
in the United States and France. In 1898 it was es-
timated that expenditure for new rolling-stock on the
western section alone would reach twenty million ru-
bles. In the autumn of 1897, freight exceeded 490,000
tons — or double the amount anticipated in the most
sanguine expectations. Of these, 320,000 tons were
cereals for Russia. In spite of 600 new trucks and
1600 wagons borrowed from other Russian lines,
70,000 truck-loads of grain and other produce could
not be carried. The estimated freight for 1899 is
600,000 tons; and by 1901 it is expected to rise
to 800,000, owing to the large immigration along
the line and the rate at which land is being taken
up. Opinions differ considerably as to the ulti-
mate fate of these immigrants, the land on which
they are settling being described by some as highly
productive and by others being spoken of in very
gloomy terms. But the fact remains that 200,000
immigrants arrived during 1897 and took up home-
139
OVERLAND TO CHINA
steads, and the same number in 1S98; and this in
addition to an ordinary passenger traffic of some
400,000.
Still more assured is the prosperity of the line as
a i^reat international undertakino^. The savinc: in
time would alone insure a large passenger traffic be-
tween Europe and the Far East, for, from the very
outset, an average of sixteen miles an hour may
confidently be expected — which, on the completion
of the line, will land the traveller at Port Arthur
within fifteen days of his departure from London
— a journey at present occupying more than double
that time. When the line has settled down into
smooth working order and is more permanently bal-
lasted, at least the same pace may be expected as is
maintained on the ordinary American and Canadian
trans-continental lines — i.e., an average of twenty-
five miles an hour. Lidced, when the heavier rails
(twenty-four pounds) are laid, as much as thirty-three
miles per hour is counted on by the railway authori-
ties — a somewhat sanguine estimate. The journey
from Paris to the Pacific coast will then occupy eleven
days only, and that to Shanghai, at the most, fifteen,
as compared with the present minimum of about
one month and a half. The Siberian Railway will
proportionately shorten the journey to all places in
the east which are north and east of Tonokinor
while the saving in money will be no less marked
than the saving in time. At present a first-class fare
by mail-steamer to Central China (say to Shanghai),
costs just over ^70, whereas the expenditure for the
140
SIBERIA
journey overland will amount to less than half this
sum, made up as follows :
£
Express from London to Russia 7 o
Rail to Port Arthur 1 1 lo
Cost of Meals, etc 8 o
Steamer, Port Arthur to Shangliai .... 6 o
Total 32 10
And when there is railway communication between
Northern China and the Yangtsze valley, the above
rate may possibly be still further reduced, if the
Russian rates are not raised later on, a contingency
which must be taken into account.
Many people, of course, who do not happen to be
pressed for time, and who dread the exhausting
strain of a fortnight's incessant railway travelHng,
will still prefer the sea-route ; but there are large
numbers to whom the Far East would forever re-
main a closed book were there to be no means of
approaching it but by sea, and to whom the attrac-
tion of a journey through such novel longitudes will
to some extent no doubt neutralize any possible dis-
comfort involved. The commencement of the jour-
ney is certainly anything but interesting, passing, as
it does in the Akmolinsk province, through dreary,
desolate regions inhabited by a sparse population of
Kirghiz nomads, who maintain a precarious exist-
ence on the borders of the far-stretchinsf " Hunofer
Steppes," where the very water — what there is of it
— is salt, and where clouds of sand still blow over
the regions where the ruins of many buried towns
141
OVERLAND TO CHINA
are to be found. After passing Omsk, however, a
more flourishing country is traversed, of which the
inhabitants are chiefly fishermen and trappers, but
which will probably in time become an agricultural
district. Indeed, the ever -varying character of the
country to be seen Throughout the province of
Tomsk will alone probably reconcile the traveller
to the overland route, and should this not suffice,
there is the striking scenery round Lake Baikal and
in Trans-Baikalia.
As regards the goods traflic : the present average
freight per ton from Shanghai to London may be
estimated at 32^. ; therefore, leaving out of the ques-
tion the freifrht from Shan2:hai to a Siberian centre,
it is evident that, in order to successfully compete
with present charges, the railway freight must not
exceed 32.s\ — i.e., half the actual rates charged on the
cheapest lines in the world for such a distance! It
is practically certain, then, that no heavy through
Sfoods traffic from Central China is likelv to be in-
augurated ; though valuable and easily damaged
articles like silk and tea, as also light goods and
postal packets, would probably prove exceptions,
and would be sent by rail.
In the Manchurian section of the line, only Rus-
sians and Chinese are allowed to become sharehold-
ers. The president, chosen by the Chinese Govern-
ment, with the supposed mission of guarding Chinese
interests, is happily described by a French writer as
" un president chinois de parade " — in other words, a
mere figure-head. A vice-president is, theoretically,
142
S 1 1^ E R I A
elected by the shareholders as the head of the ex-
ecutive, but his nomination is liable to the veto of the
Russian Minister of Finance! The appointments of
chief-engineer, constructor, heads of departments,
and all engineers, have similarly to be ratified by the
minister, and all plans and estimates have to be ap-
proved by him. In all other conditions the line is,
as essentially as in the above, a Russian line. Gauge
and speed are to be the same as on the Siberian line;
tariffs are to correspond; mails must be franked; and
all material is to be exempted from duty. On the
other hand, to China is reserved, after thirty-six years
from the opening of the line to traffic, the right to
buy out the company — but only by paying every
expense, every debt, every fraction of interest, or
other liability incurred in the mean time — and what
a bill that will be, prepared, too, by the hands of the
Russian Government ! Should this arrans:ement
fall through, China is to enter into free possession
after eighty years ; but it requires no special gift
of foresight to see to whom the railway — and not
merely the railway — will belong before the expi-
ration of this period — within the next few years,
indeed !
Russian opinion on the subject is, as usual, more
clearly indicated in deeds than in Vv^ords, though even
in words the Muscovite does not trouble to veil a
brutal frankness. Practically, under the excuse of
the necessity for protecting the railway, Russia has
already overrun Manchuria with Cossacks, terroriz-
ing the inhabitants, securing railway land either "by
M3
OVERLAND TO CHINA
purchase of pike and carronade," or at purely nomi-
nal rates, and adopting generally an attitude of vce
victis! These high-handed proceedings must bring
their own retribution, in insurrections and riots ; but
in the mean time they clearly show — and whoever
runs may read — how Russians regard the probabili-
ties of the railway reverting to China eighty years
hence !
Reeardine the natural difficulties of the Manchu-
rian section — Manchuria consists, from the engi-
neer s point of view, of the basins of the Sungari (a
tributary of the Amur) and of the Liao River, which
debouches at Newchwang. There is an intermediate
zone of steppe, 125 miles broad, which is the con-
tinuation of the Desert of Gobi. 1 he railway will
have to traverse: (i) 364 miles of mountainous coun-
try, with several ascents to over 3000 feet and an
ultimate descent into the Argun valley (altitude
1800 feet); (2) 130 miles of uninhabited, unexplored,
mountainous country, where the line will again rise
to over 3000 feet; (3) 330 miles across the valley
of the Sungari River; and (4) again up and down
over the mountains at an average height of 2000
feet, until finally the line descends to Nikolsk, 130
feet above sea-level. Here again the mountains are
not the principal obstacle, which is encountered in
the yielding character of the soil. The whole plain
of the Sungari is reported to be in autumn one ex-
panse of liquid mud — with, however, a stratum of
gravel at a depth of a few feet.
The Manchurian line alone is estimated to cost
144
SIBERIA
sixteen millions sterling, but, as hinted before, there
is in its construction, as in that of the Siberian
Railway, little question of expense or of economy, of
easy country or shortness of route. It is, as has
been said, above everything a political and military
line, passing close to the Gulf of Pechihli, and from
Port Arthur, when fully fortified, commanding Pe-
king and the Gulf of Pechihli. Russia will be able,
at her pleasure, to transport large bodies of troops
to advantageous points on the neighboring frontier,
and to dominate Northern China, while she pushes
southward her railways, by means of which she
intends to conquer China bit by bit. Although
the acquisition of Port Arthur (now " Dalny ") and
Talienwan — unlocked for, so far as one may say
what Russia does or does not look for, when the
Siberian Railway was commenced — has necessitated
the construction of a line of 530 miles or so to those
ports, Vladivostok is not to be abandoned. That
port is not only a growing commercial centre, but a
safe harbor, and open throughout the year, now that
the new ice-breaker can be effectively employed,
and would be of great importance in the event of a
war — for instance, with Russia's neighbor, Japan.
Although not properly pertaining to the Trans-
Siberian - Manchurian Railway, it is necessary here
to specially note the three alternative plans for a
great line in Central Asia, to be built after the com-
pletion of the Trans-Siberian, with which it is to be
linked, thus joining the two great systems, the Trans-
Siberian and the Trans-Caspian. These are: (i) by
K 145
OVERLAND TO CHI N A
a line from Tashkend through Ahiata, Vernoe, Semi-
]5alatinsk, Sergiopol to Barnaoul and Polotentse on
the Siberian Railway, 2100 miles ; (2) from Orenburg
via Turkistan town to Tashkend, 1800 miles; and
(3) from Saratov across the Uralsk steppes south of
Lake Aral to Khiva-Charjui. The first is probably
the line that will be constructed, as Prince Hilkoff
(the Minister for Ways and Communications) is
strongly in its favor, and as it will pass near impor-
tant Crown coal and mineral mines at Barnaoul.
The fact to be always kept in mind with regard
to this great Russian railway is, then, that it is a
strategic line, which has been carried out at high
pressure, from start to finish, expense being disre-
garded as an unimportant item when compared with
the results aimed at, one of the most noteworthy
features in its construction being the vast number of
sidings built, in order that the single main line may
be always kept open in case of emergency. The
importance of a line such as this, which will pass
rijiht throufjh from St. Petersburg to Port Arthur,
being joined later by a branch from the Trans-
Caspian system, is obvious. The bear's arms are
closinsf on India.
The commercial future of Siberia cannot be re-
irarded as difificult to foretell. All authorities agree
as to the vast riches of the country, which, although
at present chiefly potential, are in no wise chimer-
ical. Siberia could, without doubt, achieve high com-
mercial status as a corn-growing country alone; or
as a cattle-raising land. Or, again, she might rely
146
S I B E R I A
on her vast wealth in timber, on which future gen-
erations, in view of the rapid exhaustion of forest
in other quarters of the globe, will be compelled to
draw. As a gold-producing region Siberia, in spite
of ridiculously antiquated and ineffective methods,
alread}' holds the fourth place in the world's produc-
tion, while her stores of iron, coal, and copper would
prove a no less valid title to a high place in the
world's market. Any one of these resources would
suffice — and Siberia possesses them all. The treas-
ury is there, and but awaits the golden key.
This key is Good Communications. These cover
all obstacles to Siberian progress that have ever
been adduced — difficulties of transport, prohibitive
wages, unscientific methods, deficient capital and
organization, official maladministration. With the
iron road awakening the echoes of the vast tracks
of solemn forest where, three centuries ago, the
Tunguz and Buriat might only note the cries of ani-
mals scarcely wilder than themselves ; and bridging
rivers where, till yesterday, the fisherman's birch-
bark canoe alone glided through the solitary reaches,
Siberia will be, indeed, conquered, and, with a steel
yoke about her neck, compelled to yield her all : of
grain and cattle, furs, fish, and timber; porphyry and
gold; coal, lead, and mercury; silver, copper, and iron
— all the wealth she has, under guard of eternal snow
and ice, so lona: held in trust for future centuries.
Nor, once opened up to free intercourse with the
civilized world, will Siberia gain advantages merely
of an economic order. Intiniate relations with think-
147
OVERLAND TO CHINA
ing, energetic, and progressive humanity will supply
the boorish moujik and the arbitrary official with an
education that no mere Government schools can offer
him. The method of Siberian exile, even now under
process of amelioration, will be revolutionized slowly
but surel}', and the present crude and antiquated
system will be swept away by the vivifying current
from the swift streams of the outer world, and the
complete transformation of the country will be ef-
fected through the moral elevation of its inhabitants.
The political future of Siberia requires no more
profound power of prophetic judgment. She must
benefit more and more, together with European
Russia, by her position on the future world s-route
to the East. Whatever the eventual destinies of
China, Siberia cannot but profit by close neighbor-
hood to the last and "greatest viro;in market now re-
maining to the world, and by the commanding posi-
tion now held by Russia on the Pacific. No graft,
but an actual sfrowth of Russia, Siberia has a conti.
nental solidity which should enable her to defy all
attack. There seems now no likelihood that she
may prove to have outgrown her strength, and that
she may split up from sheer bulk, that the Eastern
(Mongolian) Siberia may throw off allegiance to the
Slav. Those who hold this theory, and speak of the
possibility of a Siberian Republic, do not appreciate
the power of the iron road to Russianize Siberia,
and have small conception of the absolute solidarity
that welds all Russians, from autocrat to moujik.
Whatever may be the case in European Russia, the
148
S I 1^ E R I A
feeling of revolt and disaffection, which many sup-
pose to be fermenting the masses in Siberia, does
not exist there. The average Russian abroad, safe
in an English or American drawing-room and among
sympathetic democratic companions, may inveigh
against the official class, but the people speak of the
expansion of Russia with hearty enthusiasm, and are,
in this respect at least, in thorough sympathy with
the aims of the bureaucracy. " Russia, Mistress of
the World," is a motto which unites all Russians,
from Archangel to Port Arthur.
Thus is Russia entering into possession in Asia,
developing strength on strength in her own terri-
tories, and paralyzing the vital centres of the neigh-
boring Chinese Empire, which her "destiny" will
later on force her to absorb. Under the cloak of
lesfitimate effort, she has as^ain secured the world's
approval, and has retained it until the matter had
gone too far for other powers to do anything but
review another " stricken field." The lesson is
never learned, though examples may be multiplied
ad infinitum. While the sentimentalists in Britain
and the United States have scarcely dried their
tears of Christian joy over Russia's magnanimous
and self-imposed mission of peacemaker to the
world, Russian statesmen are busy on the task of
stirring up a world-w^ide coalition against "England
the Tyrant" — which coalition, it is intended, shall
pick Russia's chestnuts out of the fire, and deal a
death-blow at Anglo-Saxon power and progress.
149
CHAPTER VII
PEKING: PAST AND PRESENT
Of the many memorable sights of China — quaint,
charming, or revolting — that which leaves the deep-
est impression is, in the writer's opinion, one's first
view of Peking. Other spectacles have, for the most
part, some parallel in Western countries: cliff-dark-
ened rivers; hills glowing in an arrested sunset of
rhododendron blossom ; turquoise waters gemmed
with green islets ; the throng and roar of busy
streets; the tawdry pomp of mandarin processions
— these can all be matched. Peking alone stands
incomparable and apart; typifying what is, when we
come to think of it, the most astounding piece of
antiquity that yet survives — the Chinese Empire!
In it we have no mere fossil remains, to be recon-
structed and labelled for us by the archaeologist :
we need pore over no cuneiforms and ransack no
musty libraries in order to appreciate it. The Past
itself confronts us — no mere dry bones, but the
breathing fiesh — in the city walls, still guarded by
bow and arrow and painted cannon ; in the ruins,
still inhabited ; and in the language, literature, dress,
and manners of the citizens, practically unaltered
since the period when our woad-stained British fore-
150
PEKING
fathers yet ran naked in the woods. Until quite re-
cently no echo from the great outer world had dis-
turbed the quiet courts of the Middle Kingdom, and
nothing had moved forward beyond the lines of that
early attained civilization. Broken bridge, gaping
drain, and crumbling pagoda point rather to how,
during many centuries, things had retrograded.
The Nankow Pass, through which Peking is ap-
proached from the north after leaving Kalgan (" the
Barrier "), is the last mountain gateway on the long
road from St. Petersburg, and marks the final stage of
the journey. On emerging from its rocky defile the
traveller finds himself in a cultivated plain, which
stretches unbroken to the Gulf of Pechihli, a hundred
miles away. A day's ride out into this plain lies
Peking. The blue barrier of mountains, curving
northeast until it cuts the sea at Shan-Hai-Kuan,
forms a fitting background to the great city of Asia.
F'rom summit to summit over the bare mountain-
crests runs an offshoot of the "ten thousand li wall"
— the Great Wall of China — crossing the Nankow
Pass at right angles and disappearing to right and
left, like some huge gray snake, over the mountain-
tops. This portion of the " wall " is in reality a
rampart of solid masonry, about twenty feet wide
and nearly as high, with double -crenellated par-
apet, and w^atch - towers at short intervals — won-
derfully little impaired by the centuries that have
passed over it. The effect of this elaborate struct-
ure maintaining its imperious course without re-
gard for natural difficulties — now^ assailing a rug-
151
OVERLAND TO CHINA
ged crest, now plunging into a valley — is not soon
forcjotten.
These mountains have a further historical interest
as the last resting-place of Chinese sovereigns. In
a secluded valley to the north of Nankow are the
tombs of the emperors of the Ming dynasty. An
avenue of giant stone figures guards the approach
— elephants, camels, horses, and ministers of state,
in pairs, alternately standing and kneeling. This
weird gray line of watchers extends for fully a mile
up the centre of a valley of desolation, lonely as a
dried -up watercourse, silent, bowlder -strewn, and
shut in by barren hills. No human habitation dese-
crates, no voice breaks the eternal stillness of this
abode of awe and silence. The mighty dead sleep
undisturbed.
At the upper end of the valley, masked by trees,
are grouped the tombs — magnificent temple-like
pavilions, tiled with imperial yellow, and supported
by wooden pillars each hewn from a single giant
trunk. The entrance gates and successive court-
yards and terraces are on the usual plan of Buddhist
temples. First among these tombs is that of the
Emperor Yung Lo, who in 1426 transferred the
court from Nanking, the " southern," to Peking, the
*' northern capital." Both the Great Wall and the
" Ming tombs " are favorite objectives of tourists,
some of whom brave a roughish trip, including the
prospect of two or three nights in a native inn, ap-
parently for the questionable satisfaction of scrawl-
ino: their barbarian names over the historic stones.
152
PEKING
When the writer passed that way in late autumn,
the high crops of maize had of course been cut,
leaving the plain bare. In the open country there
are no hedges, walls, or fences to break the dead
level of the fields. The brown expanse is, however,
relieved by frequent clusters of trees, denoting ham-
lets, and by symmetrical pine-groves marking the
private burial-grounds of the wealthy. The result-
ing effect is that of a fairly wooded country. The
Chinese, however, take no pains to grow trees, except
around villages and graves — the abodes of the living
and the dead, over which the whispering branches
are supposed to exercise a benign influence. Though
undoubtedly possessing a feeling for the picturesque,
they do not indulge it except where no sacrifice of
good husbandry is involved.
Beyond Peking the plain becomes more open
still, and often extends uninterruptedly to the ho-
rizon. Like the sea, however, the barest stretch of
plain has surprises for us when brought under the
alchemy of a brilliant sun and sapphire sky. Dull
russets then become golds, saffrons, and chocolates,
while the universal blue coats of the peasants seem
to reflect a little of the sky itself as they move across
the brown plain.
The country roads are mere loose, sandy tracks
— worn, not niade. Carts struggle through them
with much straining and creaking, and seldom faster
than at a walk; but foot-passengers and horsemen
usually find an alternative path affording firmer go-
incr along the edges of the fields. Cycling would be
153
O V E R L A N D TO CHINA
quite out of the question. In bad weatlier such
travelling is most depressing. The crumbling, earth-
walled cottages are squalid ; the roads, after snow or
rain, mere quagmires ; and the whole country re-
solves itself into mud and water. The brilliant
North China sun and sparkling air are essential to
the landscape ; and it is fortunate that, for the
greater part of the year, such perfection of weather
can be reckoned on.
Some twenty miles from Nankow, on rounding an
outlying mountain-spur, we strike a stone causeway
which leads to the capital. Like everything else, it
is in the utmost disrepair; and not much used ex-
cept when the summer rains have made the by-ways
impassable. The character of the road now changes.
We begin to pass high walls and enclosures — private
gardens and princely residences ; a few shops and
houses, neatly built of gray brick, spring up on either
side ; while through vistas of trees we occasionally
catch a glimpse of the curved roof and faded ver-
milion walls of a temple peacefully basking in the
open country beyond the road. The wooded emi-
nences of the summer palace — known as the Wan
Shou Shan, or " Hill of Ten Thousand Years of
Life " — risins: on the riolit, lead our thous^hts back
to i860, when the Yuan jMIiiq- Ytiaii, standing in
those same lovely gardens, was burned to the ground
by the English forces, as a retribution which should
fall on the Emperor himself, and not on his innocent
subjects, for the treacherous murder of a party kid-
napped under flag of truce. The French, who, ar-
154
PEKING
riving first, looted the palace in the most undisci-
plined manner — smashing priceless porcelain and
objets cCart in the wantonness of destruction — held
up their hands at our barbarity, and have ever since
quoted what was a stern and calculated act of jus-
tice as an example of Anglo-Saxon vandalism !
Between the summer palace and Peking the cause-
way is irregularly bordered with venerable trees.
There are, however, no signs of saplings, excepting
a few waifs sown by nature, and the whole scene sa-
vors of decay — of past splendor defaced by sheer
force of time and of neglect. After passing through
the villas^e of Hai Tien — a name often recurrino: in
the annals of the war, but now only associated with
good snipe- shooting — the country, except for oc-
casional houses, temples, and enclosures, remains
open, without sign of suburb. But indication of ap-
proach to the capital is sufficiently afforded by the
increasing bustle and traffic of the road. We begin
to meet tinkling files of donkeys, evidently fresh
from town ; the little beasts pattering along resign-
edly, though often so overtopped with Chinaman as
to suggest the simile of an " improper fraction."
Then a string of creaking wheelbarrows, pushed by
perspiring coolies, bronzed to the waist, their glisten-
ing muscles standing out like polished metal. The
barrow resembles a miniature jaunting-car on a single
wheel, and is often used, especially in the south, for
carrying passengers, farmer and pig sometimes bal-
ancing each other, one on each side. In the early
Shanghai days, English ladies are said to have used
155
MR
OVERLAND TO CHINA
them, in default of sedan-chairs. These wheelbar-
rows, employed in the north principally for goods,
are occasionally seen with a rag of a calico sail set;
to which Milton may have alluded when, in Para-
disc Lost, he speaks of
" Where Chineses drive,
With wind and sail, their caney wagons light."
The neighborhood througli which we are passing
being one where imperial and princely residences are
frequent, there is, too, a considerable va-et-vient of
officials and mounted messengers along the cause-
way. The former ride, like ourselves, in carts ; man-
darin and muleteer alike dressed in regulation offi-
cial robe and black winter hat, these differing only
in material. They pass us with an expression of
freezing indifference. The grimy-faced messengers,
ra2f2:ed, but none the less official — witness the stiff
felt hat and (once) crimson tassel — clatter past on
unkempt ponies with flowing mane and tail. Most
quaint apparitions ! The rider is perched, knees close
to chin, on a high peaked saddle, whose black leath-
er fiaps half envelop the pony's barrel ; broad, dark-
blue cloth reins, jingling bell, enormous chased metal
stirrup-irons, and short-handled whip completing the
equipment. It is noteworthy that natural horsemen
— Arabs, Cossacks, Kirghiz, Mongols — all ride with
these extremely short stirrups. Then from a side-
road emerges a farmer's cart, filled with cabbages.
The team — in this case a bullock, donkey, and pony
— are roped together somehow, though quite effec-
>5^
PEKING
lively, in an apology for harness, and are driven by
voice without aid of reins. This old-fashioned equi-
page is succeeded by a specimen of the Peking/V?^-
7i€ssc doree, who, arrayed in silks, ambles haughtily
past on a very tall, sleek mule, richly caparisoned.
As we near the capital the stream of life becomes
continuous. INIule- litters and sedan-chairs, though
less frequent, add their touch of quaintness to the
scene; and strings of solemn, silent- footed camels
occasionally block the roads — each tied by a string
throuo:h the nose to the tail of its foresjoer. From the
shaggy neck of the leader jangles a deep-toned, not
unmelodious bell ; and on its back a Mongol nods
and sways half asleep, his purple robe and yellow
sash adding a note of color to the dingy humps he
bestrides. The scene is a fascinating one for the
new arrival, whether from over seas or over land : the
tinkle and clang of mule and camel bells; the cries
of the drivers; the grunting sing-song of the barrow
coolies; the strange, blue -coated, bronze -featured
throne, all workins^ out their existence unconscious
of any world beyond a radius of a few //. And yet
so civilized! To our polite "Chieh Kuang!" (Lend
me your light!) they make way at once, showing
no rude surprise at our sudden appearance, incon-
srruous and travel-stained. Often the conventional
"Shancr na'rh?" is asked in return — a "Whither
bound r to which we are at last able to reply, not to
such-and-such a village or mountain-pass, but "Chin
Ch'eng !" (To town !).
This medley of new, strange life is set in as pict-
157
OVER L A N D TO CHINA
uresquc a framework: the broken causeway over
whose gray flag-stones — now flecked with sunshine
and a tracery of leafless branches — so many imperial
pageants ha\e passed in a bygone age; the sombre
groves of pine, contrasting so artistically with the
frequent vistas of country and farmsteads mellowed
in the sunlifjht; and the keen.exhilaratinsf air circu-
lating through it all — reminding us to push on be-
fore the sun goes down. Although there is neither
steeple nor minaret to guide us, and the country is
still open, we. feel that Peking must be close at hand.
Even our weary mules seem to know instinctively
that their long journey is finishing, and of their own
accord quicken the pace. The excitement increases
with each turn of the road, with each obscuring
clump of trees; and the suspense is become so tense
as to be almost unpleasant, when, quite suddenly, the
huge walls stand before us. Revealed at once from
base to parapet, they dwarf all else to insignificance
and fill the entire landscape. In the last rays of the
afternoon sun the weather-beaten masonry is suffused
with rose tints, the sands glow, and the moat beyond
becomes a stream of molten gold; while overhead
the clear air thrills with the sweet, sad strain from
the flocks of pigeons wheeling and flashing through
the limpid blue.*
How far and dim the cramped architecture and
feverish bustle of Europe seem, when, in the hush
of sunset, we gaze on such a scene ! Before us,
* A small whistle, or set of pipes, is fastened to the tail-feathers
of pigeons, to frighten the hawks.
P !•: KING
springing straight from the sand, tower the monu-
ments of the conquering Manchu, so lofty that men
are dwarfed by them to pygmies, so broad that three
chariots might race abreast along their jungle-cov-
ered tops, and solid as the walls of Jericho before
the trumpet blast.' fn tliat pure air the crenel-
lated parapets stand out clear-cut, distance is prac-
tically annihilated, and the eye can follow bastion
after bastion, stretching away in a long line, from
which, like giant sentinels, the many-storied towers,
markinir the nine c^reat spates, look out across the
plain. The walls themselves are of earth faced with
huge bricks, and are built at an inward slope from
base to parapet. To the interstices cling many a
bush and even trees, while from the gate-towers
frown tier upon tier of painted representations of
cannon. As our cart clatters under the echoing
arch of the vast gateway the sun sets ; and in a
dusty stream of camels, horsemen, and strange ve-
hicles, we enter the Middle Ages. The grooves in
the flag-stones, in which we jolt, have been worn by
generations of traffic; the tattered proclamations in
the gateways might — both for form and matter —
be a thousand years old. Under the gloomy arch-
way and in the chill quadrangle beyond it is already
night; and not without some slight uneasiness do
we reflect that in a few minutes, when complete
darkness has set in, the ponderous gates will be
closed behind us, and we shall be prisoners till the
daybreak.
159
CHAPTER VIII
J\lSr AXD PRESENT— {Continued)
OxcE inside the gates we find ourselves in a Tar-
tar camp, with a wilderness of mushroom houses for
tents. The city occupies a square, facing the cardi-
nal points. Each wall is three miles long and con-
tains two crates, a mile from each corner, and, conse-
quently, from each other. In the south wall a third
gate in the very centre corresponds to the main gate
of the imperial palace within. From each gate-tower
a vast thoroughfare runs straight through the city
to the opposite gate, making four main thorough-
fares in all — running east and west, north and south.
The city is thus divided into nine squares, each fac-
ing the cardinal points — an arrangement which much
facilitates the finding of one's way. Roughly par-
allel with these main arteries run roads of lesser di-
mensions; the intervals being fi.lled up by houses,
rubbish spaces, and an infinity of tortuous lanes and
alleys. Attached to the south side of the city proper,
or " Tartar City," is the " Chinese City," a large
walled-in suburb in which are situated most of the
shops, restaurants, and theatres. Communication is
absolutely closed between the two cities at sundown,
except for a few minutes after midnight, when the
i6o
I
PEKING
" night gate " is opened to admit officials on their
way to palace audiences at three o'clock in the
morning.
Viewed from the wall in summer, the Tartar City
appears a mass of foliage, with roofs peeping through
here and there, a harmony of green and gray, each
main thoroughfare a broad, dark track, swarming
with atomies and running in long perspective to the
irate-tower risinq; in the blue distance. In the centre
of all is the " Forbidden City," enclosed in high walls
of faded vermilion, and appearing from the city wall
to consist mainly of a line of glittering, yellow-tiled
pavilions, extending to just within the" Ch'ien Men,"
or " front gate," before alluded to. No other build-
ings of more than one story being permitted in the
city, the palace roofs stand high above the gray sea
of tiles that surges all around them. Exceptions are
the temples and pagodas, and the French Catholic
Cathedral — the only spire in the city and a great
eyesore to the Pekingese. On descending into the
streets, the trees, which appeared so marked a feat-
ure from the wall, are barely noticeable ; there are
no boulevards, and, except in court -yards and gar-
dens, scarcely a tree is growing. The thorough-
fares on nearer examination are found to be earthen
tracks, some fifty yards wide, and appearing even
wider by contrast with the mushroom houses that
border them. Roads they cannot be termed ; at
least in the sense of macadam or any sort of pav-
ing. Down the centre runs a loose earth embank-
ment, just wide enough for a double line of wheeled
L l6l
O \' !•: ]^ L A N D TO C IT I N A
traffic, while on cither side a hollow separates the
embankment from the houses — a waste of refuse,
stagnant water, and filth, through which run the re-
mains of an open stone drain. Foot-passengers
pick their way along the shop fronts, by ^n uneven
track beaten in the mud or dust, as the case may
be. Durini^ the summer rains these thorouo^hfares
become sloughs of unimaginable despond. Men and
mules have been drowned in the cesspools which
form between the houses and the embankment, and
even the street in which the foreign le2:ations are
situated is not much better. Outside the Nether-
lands legation a few years ago a pond of this sort
was appropriately named the ZuyderZee. Fishing
" waders " would form a useful adjunct to evening
dress for any one rash enough to venture out on
foot when the rains are at their worst. A Russian
charge has been known to ride out to dine with his
United States colleague " pick-a-back " on a Cossack
of the Escort. When cesspools, foot-path, and boun-
dary-stones are thus submerged, only an kadiine who
remembers the bearings of every stone and every
hole could make the journey to the club without risk.
A sickly odor given out by the slime as the waters
evaporate under a midsummer sun is not the least
objectionable feature. Then follows dry weather, dur-
ing wdiich dust, stirred by each cart, hangs in heavy
canopy over the streets — transformed to a golden
haze in the evening sun. The only Watering is done
with slops and sewage, resulting in such a stench as
to make one welcome the acrid dust again. Practi-
162
P E ICI N G
cally there is no street lighting, wliich is the less
missed as the majority of Chinese stay at home after
dark. There are, it is true, quaint wooden stands
about four feet high and witli tops forming a sort of
lantern cage, which rise like beacons at intervals
along the edge of the embanked roadway. But the
mutton-fat dips which they are intended to burn are
only lighted for a few minutes in each month, while
the cortcQ-e of the " General of the Nine Gates " (the
Governor of Peking) is passing on his round of in-
spection ! The consequent blackness of a moonless
night in Peking is difficult to describe — an inky,
tangible blackness, in which the paper lanterns of
belated foot-passengers and carts flicker like will-o'-
the-wisps. Even when armed with a lantern, caution
is required to avoid leprous beggars, pariah dogs,
and cesspools — all mere smudges in the general dark-
ness. Without a lantern one might almost as well
be blind.
As will already have been made clear, European
life in Peking differs greatly from that in " the ports."
There is, to begin with, no " concession," no mu-
nicipal council, no " Victoria Gardens," no foreign
houses, no macadam, no dog-carts or jinrikishas, no
electric lighting ! The merchant at the treaty port
remembers the hour's visit he was once curious
enough to make to the " filthy native city " as a
sort of horrible nightmare, and is only too content
to pass his remaining twenty-five years in China
within the bounds of the well-ordered Settlement.
In Peking, it is in the very heart of this "native
163
OVERLAND TO CHINA
city " that gentle lady and fastidious attache have
to be content to live. And there are, besides bad
roads and odors, dust and dirt, corresponding dis-
agreeables of a moral nature. In the treaty- port
concession the foreigner is on his own ground; it
is, if any one, the native who appears ridiculous and
out of place. In Peking the case is reversed. It is,
one feels, only the ever-present fear of bodily chas-
tisement that restrains the populace to an attitude
of sullen dislike, or, at very best, of polite indifference :
their true sentiments being, however, voiced by the
rowdies who, from a safe distance, shout constant
abuse — obscenity of which the mildest specimen,
and one incessantly heard, is not repeatable here.
On the foreigner's approach, Wang calls to Sung:
" Ni chiu chiu lai la !" (Here's your maternal uncle !)
— a roundabout insult, not to the man addressed, but
to the foreigner's sister !
Chinese in foreign employment do, I believe, ap-
preciate our good qualities, and gradually become
accustomed to our indecently short, tight, or decol-
lete costumes, our taillessness (as eccentric as the ap-
pearance of a bobtailcd sheep-dog or Manx cat), our
unshaven scalps (as if we were in mourning !), our
general beardedness (though we cannot possibly be
all forty years old), our ever -brandished stick, our
curious mania for physical exercise, our cooled drinks
and heated apartments, and the thousand incongrui-
ties of bearinor that make the little Manchu children
laugh so heartily. A " boy " has, for instance, been
overheard explaining to a carter: " Wai kue jen pu
164
PEKING
huai sa hiiang!" (Foreigners never tell lies!), and
there is, no doubt, some slight leaven of the sort
steadily at work. But the legation and other ser-
vants represent only a small fraction of the popula-
tion, and evidence of theirs in our favor is consider-
ably discounted by the stigma which attaches to a
" foreign devil's slave." On the foreigner's side there
are equal difficulties in the way of sympathy with the
people in the street. You may be thoroughly con-
vinced of the sterling qualities of the Chinese and
sincerely well disposed towards them as a nation, and
yet a brick hurled from the city wall as you ride be-
low, or a reflection on female relatives of whom you
happen to be fond, bawled in your ear, may make
the most forbearing very angry. And how can one
prevent disgust and loathing from getting the bet-
ter of any theoretical admiration when greeted v/ith
such sights and smells as meet one in Peking on
every morning stroll or afternoon excursion ? The
sunny side of a legation wall, at noon, within two
feet of a frequented path, is by the Pekingese con-
sidered sufificiently private for any purpose. The dis-
gusting scavenger duties which pigs, dogs, and fowls
dispute with biped professionals give the finishing
touch to one's rising gorge. " T/ii's the polished, the
civilized, the exemplary Chinese people ! Why, they
are worse than brutes!" one exclaims, in one's first
hot indio-nation.
Fortunately this is but the revers de la vtedaillc,
and the epigram of a late German plenipotentiary is
no less true for being witty: "You approach Peking
OVERLAND TO CHINA
in tears, but you leave it weeping!" The factor
mainly responsible for such a miracle is the quality
of the air — in winter dry and sparkling, the very
champagne of atmospheric vintages; in spring and
autumn a delicious blending of frost and sun. Life
is then one continual exhilaration ; the floods of light
pour a tonic into the blood, the keen air braces the
nerves until mere movement is a joy. After the
summer heats and steamy downpours, who shall de-
scribe the first crisp blow from the north — the whis-
pered message of autumn from the steppes.-* Or
who forget the sweet yEolian melody of the wheeling
pigeons ; the almost motionless wings of the great
brown hawks, poised against the blue ; the sparkling,
frosted hills when snow has fallen and everv outline
shines clear in the luminous air; the tinkle of distant
camel-bells; or, indeed, any of the hundred nothings
that make up the unique and indescribable Peking
atmosphere.'*
But it is not only the health and physical enjoy-
ment of their sojourn that people remember wistfully
in after-years. Peking society — at any rate, till quite
recently — had also its special charm. The capital
not being " open to trade," the community practically
consisted of the diplomatic corps and the inspector-
ate-general of Chinese maritime customs, amounting
in all to about a hundred, of whom about fifteen were
ladies. The social atmosphere was as genial as it was
refined. Old friends met aoain who had last known
each other in Rome or Washington, Vienna or The
Hague. Outside his chanccllcric, no one was Rus-
i66
r I-: K I N G
sicin or British or Spanish, but only one of a Httlc
band of foreigners isolated in a semi-hostile country.
Every function bore a cosmopolitan character, and the
geniality of good-fellowship was agreeably controlled
within tactful diplomatic forms. A minister's as-
sured position, which no one disregarded, did not
prevent his being bon enfant; nor, on the other
hand, did mere rank, as such, monopolize attentions.
A talented student might be, for the time, a greater
personage in the salon than a dull plenipotentiary,
and a brilliant cotillon leader eclipse even a cham-
bcllan de V Empereiir (but gouty) while the music
lasted. Neither was there any incentive to vain dis-
play where ranks and incomes were so clearly de-
fined. If any stranger were in doubt as to his exact
status, it was only necessary to send for the old Pe-
king barber and see what position he was assigned
in that artists rigid scale of charges: hair cutting,
;^i for a plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary,
So cents for a charge cC affaires, 30 for an attache, 20
cents for a student, and 10 for a missionary, with all
intermediate and subtle graduations — customs com-
missioner, secretary of legation, and so forth.
In those days the tone was set by the British le-
gation, whether in diplomatic or social matters. The
preponderance of British trade — over eighty per cent,
of the whole — was too indisputable to be competed
with ; the exquisite old-school courtesy and the pro-
fuse hospitality of the British minister equally ad-
mitted of no successful rivalry. Stiff but friendly
German, official Frenchman, genial American, smil-
167
OVERLAND TO CHINA
ing Japanese, and suave Russian followed with good
firace where the Yincr Kuo fji* led. The smaller
fry — Italians, Belgians, Spaniards, and Dutchmen —
were even more glad to benefit by the British ice-
breaker, although, to be precise, ice- breaking was
rarely needed. If we except the pretensions of France
to control Roman Catholicism — of whatever nation-
ality — in partibiis infideliiun, there may be said to
have been no conflicting interests ; negotiations with
China in those golden days being practically confined
to the audience, transit pass, and missionary ques-
tions (including the settlement of perennial claims),
questions all so long outstanding as to have become
chronic. The legations, when action was necessary,
made common cause, the victory of one being hailed
as a gain to all, and the initiative being usualh' in-
trusted to H. B. M.'s representative. It is, however,
open to doubt whether the honorable and consider-
ate tone that then prevailed was appreciated as fully
by the Chinese as it would be now. They have ex-
perienced other treatment since with which to com-
pare it.
Relations with the Chinese were, however, very
limited. Visits to the Tsungli Yamen were in those
days of rare occurrence, being held to mean merely
a fruitless half- hour in a chilly, stone-floored out-
house, sitting round a table nibbling melon-seeds
and sipping green tea with the quorum of heavily
befurred ministers, whose dexterity in passing the
* British legation
i68
PEKING
ball before being collared would have done credit
to a Rugby forward, and successfully prevented a
discussion from ever being brought to a definite
issue.
A running fire of correspondence was also kept
up: red-enveloped despatches written in Chinese,
and for the most part threshing out the same old
chaff so often threshed before; or perhaps announc-
ing that the Emperor was to pass along a certain
route at a certain hour, and inviting each minister
to keep his nationals out of the way, "lest there
might be a disturbance " — whether caused by the
said nationals or not being left in polite ambiguity.
All this insured a moderate amount of routine work
for the highly qualified Chinese secretaries, but left
the diplomatic birds of passage, the secretaries of
legation, with superabundance of leisure for mani-
fold duties as honorary aides-de-camp to the minis-
ter's wife — in organizing picnics and cotillons, draw-
ing up invitation lists, and, on occasion, acting as
M. C. As the British legation roll includes such
names as Malet, Goschen, Howard, Greville, and
Beauclerk, it seems as though there must inevitably
have been great waste of force. A plenipotentiary,
first and second secretaries, Chinese secretaries, an
accountant, two consular " assistants," a physician, a
chaplain, and half a dozen student interpreters, ap-
pearing indeed ponderous machinery for cracking
such an egg as the audience question — and only to
find it addled.
The introduction-call of a newly appointed minis-
169
OVERLAND TO CHINA
tcr would be returned by the members of the Yameii
at his legation ; and at New-year the Chinese minis-
ters came in a body to offer the compliments of the
season, to be returned by the diplomatic corps at
China New-year (which comes later). But beyond
these formalities there w^is absolutely no personal
intercourse whatever, no Chinese minister beinc:
able to risk cold shoulder at court for foreign pro-
clivities by visiting a legation on his own account,
and no suggestion could make him more uncom-
fortable than that of receiving at his residence the
visit of a foreign plenipotentiary. A member of
the Tsungli Yamen a few years ago, as Chinese
minister in St. Petersburg, became extremely inti-
mate with Count Cassini — dropping in w'ithout cere-
mony to lunch, driving out with the Count, and so
forth. But thouo^h the Chinaman afterwards found
himself in his own capital at the same time as his
former friend — who meanwhile had become minister
to China — much to the Count's half-amused diss^ust.
he carefully avoided the Russian legation, except
when visiting it with his colleagues as a unit of the
Tsungli Yamen ; nor did he ever show sign of re-
membering the old days on the Neva.
The New-year visits were often attended by amus-
ing incidents, which might, had the occasion occurred
more frequently, have developed into closer relations.
On a day fixed beforehand, the Chinese ministers,
presidents of the various boards, and others — fonn-
ino: a formidable column of sedan-chairs and out-
riders — ran the gantlet of all the legations in one
170
PEKING
afternoon. No light undertaking this ! At each
they were regaled with choice vintages and cakes,
of which etiquette compelled them in every case to
partake. However soberly they might set out for
the Belgian legation, the first to be visited, they
arrived rumpled and flushed at that of the United
States, at the other end of the line. All ceremonial,
all stiffness had by that time dissolved, the habitual
masks had been discarded, and the real men came
forth from underneath. At this sta2:e the Confu-
cians were to be tickled by a straw. Solemn viceroys
would evince a disposition to change hats with their
foreign hosts, and consequential ex -governors of
provinces as large as England would find a source
of innocent merriment in the elastic properties of
the cords of military epaulettes, which they would
pull out and then release, amid peals of laughter.
Sweets, comfits, and (one lady maintained) even cu-
rios, were stuffed into capacious satin boots — for
the children — while occasionally a president of the
board of ceremonies would stumble into an alcove
and give disastrous vent to his pent-up emotions.
No satisfactory relations, then, being cultivable
with the mandarins, and no burning questions de-
manding settlement, Peking life in the halcyon days
was one of much leisure for all parties. Two excep-
tions there were, however — the Russians and the
Japanese. Belonging themselves to the Asiatic
world, they alone possessed a working clue to the
Chinese mind, and were able and willing to play like
against like. If in those days you were to pay a sur-
17T
OVERLAND TO CHINA
prise visit to the Japanese legation you would find
the minister in a kimono, drinking sake and eating
raw fish — very unlike the correct official who, smoth-
ered in gold lace, would, a few hours later, welcome
you in his stiff, Europeanized drawing-room. A
similar visit to your Russian friend would, nine times
out of ten, catch him in a frowsy flannel shirt, play-
ing a masterly game of Russian whist with rather
greasy cards, the atmosphere, generally, one of Rus-
sian cigarette-smoke, vodka, and yellow-backed deca-
dent French novels.
Neither Jap nor Muscovite would thus appear
very dangerous. They were treated with con-
temptuous indifference, and yet their legations have
proved intelligence bureaus of the highest order.
The ground was being prepared for coming events.
Long before the outbreak of the war with China,
the Japanese legation at Peking had transmitted to
Tokio exact surveys of the whole country, with most
minute detail — for instance, the w:dth of every water-
course, at every important point and at each season
of the year. Later developments have shown, among
other things, that the intricate network of Russian
intrigue has been for years enfolding recruits from
among the Chinese officials who might later on
prove useful. And while these two legations were
thus, mole-like, working for empire, the rest of the
community were, without realizing it, filling the role
of mere spectators.
Winter was the season for every sort of gaiety —
dinners, balls, concerts, theatricals following in con-
172
PEKING
tinuous succession, which derived additional piquancy
from the surroundings, so far removed- from the com-
monplace of Western cities. For instance, the set-
ting out, in sedan-chair or mule-cart, for the ball;
the ladies, unrecognizable bundles of Tibetan sheep-
skins, terminating in ungainly " Mongol socks " —
loose top-boots of white felt worn over the dancing-
shoes, a necessary protection when the thermometer
stands below zero. Then the fantastic lantern-lights,
revealing for an instant, as one jolted along in ruts
and hollows, small impressionist pictures framed in
darkness; a moaning beggar curled under a wall, two
snarling pariahs, a deserted alley — to be as instantly
swallowed up again in shadow. Finally, the entrance,
straight from out this mediaeval horror and darkness,
into the warmth, light, and music of a ballroom —
a hundred tapers reflected from trembling chande-
liers in the shining parquet, diamonds flashing, the
stream of dancers swaying to the rhythm of the
waltz, the ripple of merry laughter, . . . who in this
scene of fairyland could spare a thought to the fro-
zen squalor of the sleeping city outside, in whose
streets, each winter dawn, men are found dead of
starvation and cold ?
In the British and French legations — formerly
princes' palaces, or /?i — ^a very happy compromise
has been effected between Western comfort and
Eastern magnificence, as preserved in the red-lacq-
uered pillars, curved roofs, and pavilion-like charac-
ter of the buildings, and in the wonderful carved and
lacquered ceilings and panels of the saloons. The
173
OVERLAND TO CHINA
original occupiers would, however, scarcely recognize
in the warmed and elaborately carpeted passages, and
the luxuriously furnished foreign drawing-rooms, their
naked and draught-swept halls. Other legations have
been specially built, somewhat in Chinese style and
of only one story, for European occupancy, and are
neither very beautiful nor convenient. One alone is
of purely European architecture — naturally that of
the adaptive Japanese. Most legations have large
shady compounds and immense boundary walls;
and all have traditional Chinese vermilion-colored
gates — ponderous doors in which a wicket is cut for
ordinary exit and entrance. Russian, British, and
French have also their chapel and surgery within
the grounds. Members of these legations can thus
cut themselves off, if they so choose, from all that
jars on one in the street outside.
So the winter speeds away in a whirl of entertain-
ments. A French comedy at the British legation
(where there is a specially built theatre) is succeeded
by a bal costume at the Russian, and that again by a
concert at Sir Robert Hart's. Dinners follow one
another uninterruptedly — varying from the strictly
official function of the diplomatic corps to the jolly
carousal of a students' mess, where speeches begin
soon after the joint, stories with the cheese, and
comic songs at one in the morning still find delighted
auditors. Card -parties, too, arc many, increasing
from the mild " dollar-and-quarter " whist at the club
to the "ten-dollar limit" and all-night poker-parties
in an attache s rooms. Solemn meetings of the
174
P F, KING
Oriental Society must also be recorded, where pro-
found Chinese erudition used to be displayed to sad-
ly unappreciative audiences; dancing afternoons and
riding-parties, gala nights at the skating-rink and
bowling-alley competitions, with many other amuse-
ments. A specially charming reminiscence is that of
the Sunday tiffin party — the preliminary sherry and
caviar in the study; the luncheon-table bright with
chrysanthemums ; the vicmi, written on red paper,
whose items are so much less difficult to tackle in the
concrete than the Chinese characters which represent
them ; the dessert, including the little apple-shaped
pai li, a yellow pear of delicate aroma, for which Pe-
king is famous. Then the adjournment — though
midwinter — to the sunny veranda, where the patient
dealers week after week undo their blue -cloth bun-
dles and, amid a fire of chaff from "sherris-warm'd"
hearts, produce their '■'' oXdC' cloisonne and sang-dc-bceiif
vases, dainty porcelain snuff-bottles, wonderful satin
embroideries, and handsome skins — long-haired
Manchurian tiger, wolf, leopard, or Tibetan lamb.
The baroainino's which ensue are often carried on
O O
from week to wxek ; the dealer gradually coming
down, the cautious foreigner slowly rising, until they
meet somewhere about the fair market price. Time
and patience — and plenty of them — are essential to
curio-purchasing in Peking.
Among milder pleasures, mention must not be
omitted of the winter afternoon walks — chiefly curio-
hunting — into the " Chinese City," for instance, or
to the great fair of " Liu Li Chang," taking care not
175
OVERLAND TO CHINA
to get shut out of the gates at dark. Paradoxically
enough, good Chinese porcelain is becoming very
difficult to procure iu China, owing to steady expor-
tation to Europe and the United States for genera-
tions past ; while, on the other hand, many fine speci-
mens of Louis - Ouatorze clocks and watches are to
be found in Peking — the jetsam of early embassies
and gifts of European sovereigns to the Chinese
court.
In the matter of show-places, Peking is badly off,
although, like Barnum's, itself the greatest show^ on
earth. The ordinary Peking street-scenes — for in-
stance, the "hung shih " and " pai shih" (weddings
and funerals — literally, " red " and " white affairs ") —
being particularly interesting. The " Llama Temple,"
the "Temple of Heaven," and the " Hall of the Clas-
sics " nearly exhaust the official list. These are,
moreover, disappointing, and it is becoming increas-
ingly difficult for Europeans to gain admittance,
parties of foreigners having frequently of late been
subjected to great insolence, and even violence, in
the attempt. A " sight " of more real interest is the
extraordinarily fine so-called " observatory," a collec-
tion of lars^e bronze astronomical instruments of
exquisite workmanship, heaped on the city wall and
left exposed to the weather. Some were made by
the early Jesuits, but others date back to the time of
Kublai Khan. Another place of interest, and not
difficult to obtain a sight of, is the literary examina-
tion ground, where thousands of open-air cells in
rows, resembling cattle - pens, receive the provincial
176
r K K I N G
candidates for the metropolitan examinations. The
scholars are confined for three days, each in his cell
— with a supply of water and such food as he may
have brought with him — while writing the essay
which is supposed to determine his future career.
The elaborate safeguards against swindling are, how-
ever, as usual in China, very much of a farce. Lastly,
the French Catholic cathedral is worth a visit, if only
to see the Jesuit priests officiating in Chinese dress
and queue, and hear a congregation of Chinese con-
verts singing the responses. In this connection it
may be remarked that Russia has practically sent no
missionaries to China.
M 177
CHAPTER IX
PAST AND PRESENT— {Coniimied)
In so polyglot a society there could not fail to be
a considerable comic element. When, for instance, a
plenipotentiary, speaking in French — which was not
his native tongue — proposed the health of a depart-
ing colleague, whom, he said, he loved as a friend
and admired as an ccolier. As to his excellency's
wife, he added, " C'est une sage-femme !" Nor were
such mistakes always confined to the English-speak-
ing side. A lady belonging to the linguistic Russian
nation, describing a picturesque farm-house she had
come across that afternoon, waxed enthusiastic over
an old sow that had come running up to her, fol-
lowed by, " Oh, such de-ar little hams !" The lady's
husband on the same occasion had been " projected "
from his pony. There was, before the war. a Japan-
ese minister at Peking who was the source of much
innocent enjoyment. He was a tiny fellow, of cheer-
ful countenance, and, not speaking much English,
and still less French, he filled in the gaps with peals
of most infectious laughter, though not always very
apropos — " You fader have die } Ha ! ha ! ha ! ha !"
Foreign dinners bored him fearfully. Duringone long
official function at his own table, he took XX^'Z punch
17S
V !■: KING
a la Roniaiuc :\s an indication that dinner was ended,
and joyfully led the way into the- smoking-room.
His error was explained to him by a secretary, more
versed in the intricacies of foreicrn mentis, and the
poor little chap returned to his seat most comically
rueful. In the matter, however, of the Chinese lan-
guage, tlie Japanese had a great advantage over other
nationalities. Even if they could not speak, they
could explain themselves fluently in writing, the
Chinese characters being the same as their own.
They could appreciate such a present as one of
them was fond of displaying in his study, converted
on dinner nights into a smoking-room, viz., an auto-
graph scroll sent him by the Empress Dowager.
Pid2:in- Encrlish is little available in Pckinsf, and
the majority of foreigners — being officials and not
merchants — speak some Chinese. Absurd mistakes
are, of course, constantly being made, especially slips
over that stumbling-block of students, "the four
tones !" " Ard fish going to fall.''" inquires the bud-
ding sinologue ; " Must I put on leaj'uing, or will
blood do V (He is, of course, quite satisfied that he
has asked whether it is likely to rain, and whether
he had better change his shoes for boots ; Yi'i, fish,
being spoken in the shrill "second" tone; whereas
y?V, rain, is in the bass "third," and so on). Fortu-
nately, the demands of foreigners are usually con-
fined to fairly beaten tracks ; whiskey remains
" whi-ser-key," and brandy only changes to " b'lan-
tee." Usually the word chiu (wine) is added, pro-
nounced djee-o; and a lady new to Peking, hearing
179
OVERLAND TO CHINA
frequent shouts to the servant of, " Na sherry chiu !"
(Bring sherry wine!), or, "Na champagne chiu!" con-
cluded the "boy's" name was " Joe," and called him
so ever after.
With the month of April comes the spring race-
meeting — a great event. The "griffins" (or maiden
ponies) have, as a rule, been purchased during the
winter, as they arrived in shaggy, travel-worn droves
from Mongolia. The race - course, rented for the
community by the Tsungli Yamen (to get the awk-
ward foreigner as far removed as possible from the
former course, close to the city wall), is situated six
miles out of town, towards the hills. The track is
of turf and is a mile long. It is surrounded by trees,
and boasts a charming grand-stand and paddock. In
the backsfround rise the blue mountains, the neiirh-
boring country is attractive, and near by are some
reedy lakes and ponds, where snipe and duck abound.
Leisured Pekingese take up their quarters for the
training season in temples, dotted about near the
course, and converted pi'O tern, into racing-stables ;
Buddhas and gods of war making room for likely
winners of the maiden stakes, the Union-Jack cup,
or the Peking St. Leger(for there is also an autumn
meeting). The fact of the purchasing, training, and
riding being entirely amateur, lends a picnic air to
the whole thing; and he who has spent such a six
weeks in the perfection of spring or autumn weath-
er — riding gallops in the frosty morning air, snipe-
shooting till lunch, and. waiting for the flighting
duck at sunset, with interludes for jovial breakfasts
i8o
r E KING
and afternoon rubbers — will never remember Pekins:
ungratefully.
At the commencement of June a general move
used to be made to " the hills " — since the advent
of the railway, to a great extent superseded by the
sea-side resorts of Pei Tai Ho and Chefoo. " Pi
Hsu " was the concise and classic description used
in explaining this exodus to the Tsungli Yamen, to
" avoid the rat " — the equivalent of our dog-days. It
was, indeed, a great relief to get out of the dust and
noise of the sun-baked city and set one's pony's head
towards the cool refuge, thirteen miles away, the
Simla of Peking. Although the hills themselves are
treeless, and barely clothed with grass and boulders,
there are here and there ravines where, as in the
sheltered hollows of the English Southdowns, woods
have sprung up. One of these ravines, known as
the Ssli Ping Tai (The Four Terraces), is the re-
treat to which, for many years past, the legation
staffs have retired from June to September.
The Buddhist abbots evidently possessed as quick
an eye for picturesque and agreeable sites as did our
own monks of old, and wooded ravines like these,
where the path zizzags upward along a torrent over-
hung with ferns, are dotted at successive levels with
charming temples — the "Pearl Grotto," the "Pool
of the Dragon Prince," and the "Temple of the God-
dess of Mercy," while farther along the hill are the
" Temple of the Sleeping Buddha," the " Temple
of the Azure Cloud," the '; Black Dragon Spring,"
and many others. Submerged in a sea of foliage,
i8i
OVERLAND TO CHINA
their terraces, as it were, floating on the tree - tops,
these temples command magnificent views clown the
valley and out over the plain below, in summer a
patch-work of golds and greens, in autumn a brown
sea across which the lischts and shadows course in a
kaleidoscopic series of enchanting effects. It is to
look out on a fairy world from an eagle's eyrie !
Guided, perhaps, by a heliographic flash from a
glazed tile in the palace roof, the eye can just trace
the mathematical square of the gray Peking walls
in the shimmering haze of the distant plain. But
after allowing the fancy to roam to the far horizon,
one turns with satisfaction to the tranquillity of the
temple. No surroundings could be more conducive
to the quiet abstraction of Buddhistic tenets. The
fragrant pine-shaded court-yard, whose gray stones
are set off by a few quaint, twisted shrubs and care-
fully tended flowers ; the Pai Ling, or hundred-
spirited skylark, hanging in airy cage outside the
head priest's door ; the temple dog, a handsome,
bushy-tailed collie, stretched on the cool stone flags;
the pigeons cooing from the roof; the sparrows
chirping in the branches ; the murmur of the stream,
mingling with the sough of the Sung Feng, or pine
breeze, and, loud above all, the monotonous whir of
the "scissors-grinder" (^/f^^^) adding to the sleepy
peace of noontide. Nothing could be further re-
moved from the madding crowd and the vain heart-
aches of the world.
Such, in brief, was life at Peking up to the con-
clusion of the Franco-Russian entente. From that
182
PEKING
date commenced a change. The happy family circle
was broken up into cliques ; mines and countermines
were sprung; intrigues of all sorts spread bitterness
and jealousy. The old-fashioned, chronic questions
of transit and audience gave way to fierce threats
and demands for territory and special concessions.
The French and Russian ministers alternated their
daily visits to the Tsungli Yamen, and bullied,
stormed, and threatened, until the Chinese — who
looked in vain for help from England — were com-
pletely cowed. A rude awakening, indeed, from the
old days of Sleepy Hollow diplomacy. Concession
hunters, svndicates, and adventurers flocked to Pe-
kins: as vultures to a carcass.
Nor were this rivalry and strife confined by the
allies to official matters in which they represented
their Qrovernments ; these were also allowed to tino-e
their social relations. Under the old rezitnc, for in-
stance, no foreigner would negotiate for a temple
or bid for a pony for which another foreigner was in
treaty. It was Count Cassini who first violated this
excellent rule b\' sending M. Pavloff secretly to
outbid the British charge d'affaires for the temple
which had been leased by H. B. IM.'s legation each
summer for thirty vears. Every annoyance, petty
or otherwise, that the two allied ministers could
contrive to spite the hated Britisher, no scruples of
2:ood taste or Q-ood manners withheld them from
putting into execution. English students were even
excluded from the general invitations issued by the
Russian leo'ation to all Pekins;. " Vous me faites
183
OVERLAND TO CHINA
line guerre aff reuse," complained Count Cassini to
Mr. Beauclerk, in insolent mockery.
In the French case this want of good manners
was not so surprising. The Russian representa-
tives had so far always been gentlemen, which could
scarcely be said of their allies. One French minister
was recalled, it was believed, on account of the coarse
gallantries which had for a number of years been
carried on under his nose, but which at last became
too notorious even for the Quai d'Orsay. His suc-
cessor was in turn disgraced for levying bribes upon
a French syndicate, the facts being eventually ])ub-
lished by a French journalist under the suggestive
title of "Les Pots de Vin du Consul." Then came
M. Gerard, the zealous colleague of MM. Cassini and
Pavloff in all anglophobist matters. This gentle-
man in turn made Peking too hot for him, and tiie
manner of his downfall is so ludicrous and so abso-
lutely authenticated that one need not hesitate to
describe it at some lens^th.
The Peking Club is a charming little institution
— the meeting-place of the male community. The
club committee is elected by the members, and is
chosen with primary regard to business capacity and
special qualifications for " running" such adjuncts as
skating-rink, race-course, and tennis-court, or assist-
ing the honorary secretary in the management of bar,
billiard -room, card-room, or library. If these useful
qualities are forthcoming in a plenipotentiary, his
presence on the committee is considered especially
desirable as lendins: a certain cacJiet and weight to
184
PEKING
the governing body. The club being cosmopolitan,
it is naturally desirable that the committee should
be so likewise. M. Gerard considered that as French
minister he was entitled, ex officio, to a seat on the
committee. This, however, being contrary to the
rules, he had to submit like every one else to the
hazard of the ballot-box — his own staff, of course,
and that of the Russian legation, voting with the
solid unanimity of a claqiic. But M. Gerard was not
elected. He thereupon resigned from the club, self-
ishly compelling his unhappy subordinates and the
still more disgusted Russians to do likewise. Their
secession did not, however — as M. Gerard had hoped
— bring the club to ruin. On the contrary, the har-
mony of the golden days commenced to revive ;
although, it must be added. Count Cassini and his
staff, who had always been popular as club mem-
bers, were much missed — not for their subscriptions,
but for their personal qualities. What were the in-
credulity and amazement of the members to hear
some weeks afterwards, through the Chinese club-
servants, that the French plenipotentiary, who had
meanwhile made great show of haughty indifference,
was in the habit of visiting the club clandestinely,
in the early morning, to read the papers and maga-
zines, and even to take them away ! When officially
taxed by the committee, M. Gerard's sole concern
appeared to be lest the story should get into the
newspapers. An amusing sketch did, however, ap-
pear in The Rattle, a Shanghai illustrated comic
journal : " Club Library, Peking : 6 a.m. M. Ge-
185
OVERLAND TO CHIN A
rard discovered, in pyjamas, devouring La Vic Pa-
risieiiuc "/
M. Gerard was soon after transferred, on pro-
motion ; and the universal jubilation was neatlv
expressed by a minister of the TsungH Yamen: " I
am so glad," he said, " M. Gerard is promoted (am-
bassador), although he can, unfortunately, never noiu
return to Peking !" (a legation, not an embassy).
Count Cassini's secession also terminated with rather
less eclat than it had beo-un. Forojettins: that the
Race Club formed part and parcel of the Peking
Club, the Count — an ardent sportsman and first-class
pistol-shot — duly sent in his entries for a forthcom-
ing race-meeting. These, to his astonishment, were
ofHciallv returned to him, as he was no lon2:er a
member of the Race Club. French feelings, how-
ever, could not be considered where the chances of
his ponies were concerned, and he at once rejoined
the club, presenting a handsome cup as a peace-
offering.
The Franco-Russian alliance and Japanese war,
the successive seizures of Kiao Chau, Port Arthur,
and Wei-Hai-Wei, have, indeed, wrought a change
in the "Peking" dear to old memories. But, more
than all, the advent of the railway to the very gates
of the city — so long secluded, and only to be reached
by a path of difificulty, if not of adventure — has for-
ever broken down the barrier which the Chinese 2:ov-
ernment had stubbornly maintained between Peking
and the outer world. Unless other powers feel suf-
ficiently interested to prevent it, Russia niay at any
1 86
PEKING
moment now lay hands on the Chinese capital, thus
bringing about the prophecy of Chinese Gordon to
the Tsungli Yamen in 1880. To render Peking se-
cure he recommended the removal of its suburbs.
The ministers said that could not possibly be done.
" Very well," said Gordon, " the Russians will be in
Pekins: within a month of crossino: the frontier."
" Then what arc we to do ?" they asked. " Move
vour Oueen Bee to Nankino," said Gordon.
We may wonder whether those words are ever
remembered now by the Chinese as they watch their
Fulfilment advancing on Peking — slow as the tide,
but as sure.
187
CHAPTER X
MANCHURIA
At the present moment Manchuria has arrived at
an interesting point in her history, for she provides
the stepping-stone whereby the Russians, substitut-
ing'- peaceful for wadikc methods,* may emulate her
own example of two hundred and fifty years ago.
Entering China for the purpose of rescuing Peking
from rebels, of restoring order, and generally of pre-
serving the integrity of the empire — that is, of pro-
tecting China — the Manchus themselves ended by
establishing their own dynasty on the imperial
throne. The position of Russia, as achieved during
the past few years, is already that of virtual protector
of China. Whether events will continue to move
in a parallel line with past history until ultimately a
similar groal is attained remains to be seen.
"Ah, yes! We know the price of protection!"
said a Chinese official, in 1897, to the writer, while
* Among these peaceful means is the influence brought to bear
upon the Empress, and upon Li Hung Chang, whom the Russians
designate " our man." On the cupidity of these two they are playing,
on their fears they are working, on their prepossessions they are
trading. To the Empress, China means the Manchu dynasty, and
the Manchu dynasty her imperial self.
18S
MANCHURIA
discussing the terms on which Russia had then re-
cently acquired Manchuria; "early in the thirteenth
century the Mongolians, or western Tartars, were
called to 'restore order' — and conquered the coun-
try. And, again, the Manchu Tartars established
themselves in Peking in 1644, ^^^ i" seven years
conquered nearly the whole empire." Nor is this
view an isolated one. The writers journey through
China, from Peking to the southern borders, made it
quite clear that the majority of Chinese literati and
officials are now under no delusion as to the price to
be paid for protection — viz., absorption — gentle ab-
sorption, it is true ; none the less real and perma-
nent, however, because the process is disguised by
judicious doses of nepenthe. The confessed aim of
the Russian people, who look upon themselves as
the coming race, is the " sunny and golden South."
" China is our India," is the frank avowal of a Rus-
sian statesman whose influence is great ; and such
is the spirit animating a large section of the Musco-
vite bureaucracy.
The ulterior motive of Russia in acquiring Man-
churia is, therefore, obvious. " What a base for fur-
ther operations !" remarked a German officer in
Siberia, with a deep-drawn sigh. And in this con-
nection it may be noted as a feature of importance
that Russia's frontier territories, always a source of
strength by reason of their effective military organi-
zation, generally form a centre for further extension
of territory, while Chinese frontier colonists merely
settle down as peasant farmers, constitute no reserve
189
-T
OVERLAND TO CHINA
of strength for the imperial government, and are,
indeed, more than likely to make terms with tlie
enemy. It is, however, a recognized fact that there
are also more immediate reasons for Russian expan-
sion. Hindered in her commercial progress in Asia
by the intense cold of the long Siberian winter, last-
ing for eiglit months out of the twelve — something
unknown in any other large tract where men live in
a ci'.ilized state — Russia has for no inconsiderable
time been covetous of the advantages likely to ac-
crue from enjoyment of the fertile lands and the
f comparatively temperate climate of Manchuria.
A total change has, in fact, come over the spirit
of the scene since the mao-nificent territories of Man-
churia and Liaotuno^ have been added to the s:reat
inland region. In the eyes of Siberians, Manchuria
is paradise, with a climate more moderate than that
of Canada, with winters which they speak of with
enthusiasm. The acquisition of this new country,
so gratuitous, so sudden and so unexpected — at least
for fifty years to come — has absolutely intoxicated
the Russians, who are hungering to enter into pos-
session. This temper will do more, than any dry
economical considerations to stir up the dormant
ambition of the whole of Russia, will do more to
draw the wliite population eastward and to hasten
the full occupation of Siberia than any ukase of the
Emperor or prospectus of gold- miners. This rich
country — the future garden of Siberia and of Rus-
sia — was dismissed in a sentence in a recent report
by a British official. " Nothing," he said, " can be
190
MANCHURIA
expected, commercially speaking, from Manchuria, a
desolate region, through which about a thousand
miles of the trans-Siberian will run." The best com-
ment on this opinion is that nothing could well be
further from the truth, for, whether the country in
question be regarded from the agricultural, the min-
eral, the strategical, or the merely aesthetic point of
view, it is a land of promise, flowing with milk and
honey; and its possession exemplifies to the full the
meaning of that word of glorious augury to every
Russian — Vladivostok, the " Dominion of the East."
Russia was quick to recognize, what has been
frequently pointed out, not only the great latent
strength of China in this province, with its sturdy
population and its facile transport service, but also
the many natural advantages of the country. A
moderately energetic use of these resources would
have enabled China, in Manchuria, to defy the
stroncrest force that misrht bebrouq;ht to that theatre
of war. On the other hand, the neglect of them was
certain to throw all those advantages into the hands
of a capable invader, while it is evident that the
natural richness of Manchuria must ever have been
an overmastering temptation to a power owning
such a miserably inhospitable territory as the Rus-
sian empire.
Attainment of the longed-for prize has given an
added impetus, of irresistible force, to the ambition
and enterprise of the Russians. Sweeping the hand
across the map southward as far as the Great Wall,
" All that is ours!" they exclaim, in astonishment, con-
191
OVERLAND TO CHINA
tcmplating their extraordinary windfall ; and they are
liastcninof to take full advantaoje of their cjood-fort-
line, as is evidenced by the phenomenal activity re-
cently witnessed at Port Arthur, Talienwan, and in
the Hinterland, where many thousands of Cossacks
and large bodies of Chinese arc employed on for-
tifications, harbors, and railways, and by the in-
creased zeal and energy with which the construction
of the trans-Siberian railway is being carried on.
Many Russians, indeed, more advanced in their
views, already include Tientsin and Chefoo (that is
to say, the wdiole Gulf of Pechihli)and even Peking;
yj: and as the first Muravieff, who took possession of
the valley of the Amur, obtained the title of Amur-
ski, so Muravieff number two is already spoken of,
only half in jest, as Muravieff Pekingski. The align-
ment of the railway has been several times shifted
farther and farther to the southwest, followinir the
rapid succession of diplomatic achievements of Mu-
ravieff Secundus. Manchuria and Liaotuns: are now
the objectives of the trans-Siberian railway. No
longer on the Pacific coast, but on the inland sea
of China, is to be the terminal point; and what was
originally laid down as the last stage of the main
line — namely, the Kirin- Vladivostok section — will
now be treated as a branch. Even the present route
cannot be deemed final, for it is by no means the
only one available. There is a still shorter cut, from
Kiachta to Peking across the grassy desert of Gobi,
the route followed by the writer, which may some
day also be utilized.
192
xMAXC II L RIA
The acquisition of the vast territory on the Pacific,
throuoh the darins: initiative of Muravieff Amur-
ski, between 1S50 and 1S56, and what might be((^
called the masterly diplomacy of Ignatieff in 1S58 (if
to gallop rough-shod over a helpless negotiator may
be termed diplomacy at all), has puzzled the world
for forty years. How an empire could change hands
without an angry shot, without equivalent or consid-
eration of any kind except " drink-money " to corrupt
officials, was a mystery. Yet the second Muravieff
has deliberately repeated the proceedings of his
predecessor, with the whole world of diplomatists
and qiiidmincs looking on ; and the Anglo - Ameri-
can peoples seem to be as much at sea as to what
has been done, and how it has been accomplished,
as the world was forty years ago, without its tele-
graphs, special correspondents, and ubiquitous news-
mongers. It almost seems that the British and
United States governments are still unaware of any-
thing particular having happened in Eastern Asia.
While Russian diplomatists, quietly working with
a clearly defined end in view, have effected the peace-
ful cession to their country of a territory so vast in
itself, and presenting such great commercial and
political potentialities, the British government has
been emulating the ostrich. It has ignored all un-
pleasant facts, and, endeavoring to find protection
under an avalanche of words, opposes " stale, flat,
and unprofitable" discussions about an " open door,"
"spheres of influence," and "preservation of the in-
tegrity of China" — which bear about the same rela-
N 193
OVERLAND TO CHINA
lation to realities as the paper " sycee " so plentifully
burned at Chinese funerals does to solid silver — to a
policy which aims at and obtains absolute posses-
sion, and to a force which, dc facto, and all discussion
notwithstanding, is hurrying on the dismemberment
of the Chinese empire. And what is here said of
the British government is apphcable also to that of
the United States, in whom, however, ignorance and
neglect of such a question, in view of the fact that
they are but just embarking on a foreign policy, are
more pardonable.
The diplomatic agents, of course, naturally follow
the lead of their governments in their determination
to remain in ignorance, and the real dynamic forces
pass over their heads, like messages over the tele-
graph wire, leaving no trace. Wherever one goes
in making the overland journey to China the tone
is the same. At St. Petersburg the trump card is to
get on with Muravieff, and at Peking the instruc-
tions are evidently the same — " get on " with your
Russian and French colleague. But there is no
peculiar merit in getting on with Muravieff. The
merest tyro in diplomacy can do it. All that is
necessary is to let Muravieff have his own way in
everything, for then he will be found the mildest-
mannered man that ever built up one empire by un-
derminins: another.
It is unnecessary here to recall in detail how the
famous Cassini convention was flouted by Lord
+|! Salisbury and derided by Sir Claude MacDonald up
to the very day when Port Arthur was occupied.
194
M A N C H U R I A
Indeed, it is supposed that they still please them-
selves with the fancy that there was an element of
fiction about that classic document. The habit of
vehemently denying, instead of taking thought and
acting on, the truths which are brought to their no-
tice, is still rampant among British representatives,
which is partly accounted for by the fact that they
possess no intelligence department. It seems hardly
credible, but it is nevertheless true, that during the
last few months of 1898 stirring and tragic events
happening in the imperial palace at Peking and
occupying the intelligence agents of some of the
legations there, scarcely even penetrated the thick
wall of the British legation. The air was filled with
sciiemes of reform, and the arch-reformer, Kang-Yu-
Wei, spent months in Peking and was known to
many there. Will it be believed, then, that his
very name was unknown at the British legation un-
til the explosion of the coup cTciat and the order for
his arrest.'* It was from no desire to hide his licrht
under a bushel that Kansf-Yu-Wei was a strano;er to
British oiificials, for his chief English confidant, a
man entitled on his own account to every courtesy,
was refused admittance to the minister, to whom he
wished to impart information as to what was going
on in Chinese official circles.
All this is part and parcel of our system of letting
Asia shift for itself, a system which is such an enigma
to all on-lookers, whether friendly or otherwise. For
instance, the Russian consul-general at Urga, and
others in Siberia, absolutely refused to credit the
195
OVERLAND 1 O CHIN A
writer when lie had to acknowleclGfe that in the Brit-
ish ijovernment administration there was no Asiatic
Department. They evidently drew the inference
that what did not appear on the surface was worked
more efficiently under ground. It is true that some
Anfjlo-Indian officers are now beinor sent to Peking
to studv the Chinese lansfuasfe ; but the fact remains
that in the north of China, at the present time, the
British have not one man, militar}- or civilian, who
is able to speak Russian.
And while such a condition obtains in the British
service, a scheme is now under consideration by the
Russian government to establish an Oriental Insti-
tute at Vladivostok, for which candidates who have
passed through a secondary school will be eligible,
the institute having for its aim the special education
of those who are preparing for official posts in the
civil service and for commercial pursuits in Asiatic
Russia and the neighboring countries. It is in-
tended that the course of education shall be of an
entirely practical character, for the benefit of those
to whom a working knowledge of the Chinese, Jap-
anese, Korean, Mongolian, and Manchurian lan-
guages will be not only an advantage, but a neces-
sity. The course of study is to be of four years'
duration, and all students will be compelled to learn
Chinese, to which no fewer than twenty-eight hours
weekly are to be devoted, while the most promising
in all classes are to spend their holidays in China,
Korea, or Japan. Besides the regular students, there
will be admitted to some of the lectures strangers
196
^I A N C H U R I A
holding a certain social position or of certain occu-
pations. A boarding establishment will be carried
on in connection with the institute, where thirty stu-
dents will reside as state-pensioners. In addition,
four officers will be annually selected by the governor-
general of the Pri-Amur province to attend lect-
ures which he shall select, and these officers will be
required to submit themselves to examination with
the rest of the students. Among the special sub-
jects to which attention will be devoted will be gen-
eral instruction as to each country dealt with. Thus,
in the Chinese-Japanese division the Japanese lan-
guage will occupy a prominent jDlace; and so on in
the other divisions.*
From what has been said it must be evident that
the most important events may be incubating in
China without the least intimation of their purport
reaching the ears of any British agent. Under ex-
* From the beginning of the second j'ear of study, the subjects of
instruction will be divided into four groups: Chinese- Japanese.
Chinese- Korean, Chinese- Mongolian, and Chinese- Manchurian.
The subjects common for all divisions are theolog}', Chinese, Eng-
lish, and French (the latter not obligatory), a general study of the
geography and ethnography of China, Korea, and Japan ; a general
review of the political and religious organization and customs ; the
political organization of contemporary China, and a review of its
trade and commerce; the history (during the nineteenth century) of
China, Korea, and Japan in connection with their relations with
Russia; and the commercial geography of Eastern Asia, and his-
tory of the commerce of the Far East. Political economy, inter-
national law, the organization of the Russian state and of one other
European country; elementary civil and commercial law, book-
keeping, and mercantile knowledge generally, are also included in
the curriculum.
T97
OVERLAND TO CHINA
isti ng conditions, who can wonder at tlic surprises
Vvith which British ministers are continually being
confronted ! What has happened before will happen
again, unless there be drastic reform in our system.
In order to rightly understand the present position
of affairs, some little insight into the past history of
Manchuria is necessary.
It is, perhaps, known to a few that China is now
for a third time ruled by a Manchu dynasty, although
very little interest has been felt hitherto in the coun-
try which has given her so many rulers. The first
invasion by Manchu Tartars was merely one of the
overflows which seem to have taken place more or
less frequently, China being overrun first by the
Mongols, who, beaten back by the Manchus, in turn
got the upper hand again. The second invasion led
to the founding of the Kin dynast}-, which held its
own for more than a century, until expelled by the
Mongols under Genghiz Khan. Under the Kin
dynasty the present method of shaving the head and
wearing a queue was introduced and enforced with
the utmost rigor, and the "pig-tail," which to the
average Westerner is exclusively Chinese, is in re-
ality worn under protest, and is still regarded as a
sign of subjection to the Manchu conquerors. In-
deed, it is customary, in some of the revolutionary
secret societies with which China is honeycombed, to
cut off the queue of a candidate for admission, and,
as the non-wearing of it would at once proclaim the
rebel, to braid on a false one, which is worn in the
outside world ! The tight sleeve, instead of a full,
198
M A N C II U R I A
open one, was also introduced and made compulsory
by the IManchus.
But who were these redoubtable IManchus, who
were able to impose their will on a people so much
more numerous than themselves ? Originally, no
doubt, they were connected with the great Mongol
family, and partook of the warlike qualities and no-
madic habits which characterized the people of Gen-
ghiz Khan. They were also, however, of Tungusic
origin, and from an early period seem to have been
actually the rivals of the pure Mongols, with whom
they contested, as we have already noted, the north
of China for many centuries. The name "Manchu"
was not known to, or adopted by, them at the time of
the second invasion, but was taken later by the suc-
cessful chief of one of the tribes, who, having over-
come most of his neighbors, extended his own tribal
name to all his tributaries.
When the third invasion took place, the victorious
Manchus adopted this as their reign name, in contra-
distinction to that of the previous dynasty — i.e., Ming,
signifying brightness, as of light; while Manchu
means clearness, as of water. The word " Manchu-
ria" — a merely geographical term, it may be men-
tioned — is unknown to the Manchus themselves, and
also to the Chinese, whose name for the country is
Kuantung ("east of the barrier") or San Tung
Sheng (" the three eastern provinces ").
With the exception of a few wandering tribes,
there are now no nomad Manchus. The whole race,
indeed, although retaining in its native country cer-
199
OVERLAND TO CHINA
tain of the old characteristics, such as courtesy and
generosity, is becoming more and more commingled
with and absorbed by the Chinese. Even now, in
some of the frontier districts it is difficult to distin-
guish between the two races, and the love of speedy
justice, hatred of corruption, and respect for women
which used to characterize the Manchus have lone
since vanished. Although the conquerors of China,
their influence on the nation has not been of a last-
ing character. On the contrar}', the Chinese have
themselves forced their way into the lands of the
Manchus, who have gradually been driven farther
north, and, as a nation, are rapidly becoming extinct.
Indeed, owing to this Chinese immigration, and to
the exodus of natives for the purpose of serving in
the Chinese army, the proportion of pure Manchus
in Manchuria itself has been for some time steadily
decreasing and now probably constitutes only about
five per cent, of the entire population. There are
several tribes, varying slightly in characteristics and
customs ; of these, the Solons, or Salons, a brave and
good-natured people, are the best representatives of
the primitive Manchus, having preserved many na-
tional customs and observances of their ancestors ;
as, for instance, the burning of their dead and the
subsequent suspension of the ashes in sacks on the
branches of trees. The members of this tribe, reject-
ing Buddhism, still believe in the Shaman wizards
and their rites. They are, nevertheless, capable of
adapting themselves to fresh surroundings and of
assimilating new ideas.
2CO
-•H
GROUP OF TUNGUZ AND TENT
M A N C H U R I A
Buddhism is the chief reHfrion of the Manchus,
but they have grafted on it many of the doctrines of
Confucius, and not a few of their own ancient super-
stitions. The Chinese, with whom the Manchus are
being so rapidly merged, have three rehgions, whicli
they frequently profess at one and the same time,
selecting from the tenets of each whatever appeals
to them most forcibly. This triple creed is made
up of Confucianism, which is purely Chinese, and
appeals to the moral nature ; Taoism, also indige-
nous, and entirely materialistic, ascribing miraculous
powers to all sorts of plants, to the elements, and
to combinations of time and space ; and Buddhism,
which was transported from India, and is intensely
metaphysical.
There are also Mohammedans, who have their
temples and priests, but, as a sign of submission to
the reigning power and official religion, each Mo-
hammedan mosque contains a tablet in honor of
the Emperor. This is sacrilege, of course ; but al-
though the Manchu Mohammedans, as in southwest-
ern China, practise circumcision, and are acquainted
with some of the outw^ard forms of their religion, yet
they are deplorably ignorant of the doctrines of
Islam. They are, nevertheless, as a rule, a kindly and
courteous community, and at Yunnan. Fu, near the
end of his journey, the writer was very well received
and entertained by Mussulman leaders.
Christianity does not seem to make much progress
with the Manchus, for as early as the first years of
the present dynasty in China certain Jesuit mission-
203
ovi-:rland to china
aries had not only introduced the faith, but had ac-
quired much influence over the monarch and court
by their knowledge of medicine and science. They
afterwards fell into disfavor, probably because they
had not the wisdom to refrain from meddling in
politics, and, although their missions are found even
to the present day, they have undergone niuch per-
secution, and were at one time ordered to leave the
country. There was a still earlier mission of Nesto-
rian Christians to China which has an extremely in-
teresting history, although its records are far from
complete. The most ancient Christian monument
found in Asia, and one of the most valuable relics
GOLD WOMAN, " FISH SKIN " TRIBE
204
MANCHURIA
in all China, is the Nestorian tablet, which contains
the only record of this mission. This places the
date about the sixth century, and shows that Chris-
tianity was at first well received and largely adopt-
BURIAT WOMAN IN FETE DRESS
ed, although subsequently it disappeared, like the
monument which tells of it, buried during the great
persecution, and not coming to light until centuries
later. Although this has not, strictly speaking, any-
205
OVERLAND TO CHINA
tiling directly to do with the history of Manchuria,
it has a bearing on it, since the frequent irruptions
of the Manchus into China doubtless brought them
under such influences as have been described.
The total population of Manchuria has been esti-
mated at widely varying figures. Twenty millions,
however, would appear to be a moderate and prob-
able estimate, and wuuld tally fairly with the sum
total of the three provinces taken separatel}^ The
Sungari basin is thickly peopled, and another popu-
lous district is Southern Manchuria, especially the
valley of the Liao-he River. The three races to be
found are the Tungusian (including the Solons, the
Golds and Manchus generally, and also the Koreans) ;
the Mongolian (including the Buriats) ; and the Chi-
nese (by far the most numerous). The Manchu-
rian language is only preserved from entire disuse
by the fact that it is the native tongue of the ruler,
and, as such, must be spoken at court and in diplo-
matic circles. The written characters were originally
borrowed from the Mongols, and are founded on the
Syriac forms which, it is supposed, were introduced
by the Nestorian missionaries to the Uighur Turks,
and adapted by the Mongols to their own language.
These were largely modified and improved. The
language differs in many respects from the Chinese,
belonging to the Turanian group and being poly-
syllabic. There is very little Manchu literature, only
about two hundred and fifty works in all, many of
which are literal translations of the Chinese classics.
In Europe, and perhaps still more in the United
206
M A X C 1 1 U R 1 A
States, it is little understood how recent has been
the rise to power of the Manchus. Even as late as
1624 Manchuria (at that time a rising state known
as the " Land of the Northern Barbarians ") recog-
nized China as the suzerain power, and paid tribute
to her. When required, the Manchus in return re-
GROri' OF BURIAT WOMEN AT IHKIR NATIONAL FETE
ceived the assistance of troops to help them against
the invading nomad tribes from the valley of the
Oxus. But at this time the Ming dynasty was tot-
tering. Like all Chinese dynasties, it had begun
amid war, securino: the throne bv the violent means
of rebellion. Later, peace and prosperity reigned,
207
OVERLAND TO CHINA
battles and warlike expeditions were few in num-
ber, and directed only against troublesome border
tribes. It had now reached the last stage, when,
believing the imperial power to be well and firmly
established, the Emperor is apt to lapse into effem-
inacy and luxury, while his court becomes corrupt
and the state is neglected. It was not long before
the empire was thrown into hopeless confusion, one
of the frequently recurring rebellions culminating in
the suicide of the " Son of Heaven." The com-
mander of the frontier forces invited the Manchus
to come and help in the restoration of order, and
Dorgun, regent of Manchuria and uncle of the boy-
king. Shun - Chi, complied with the request. He
marched an army to Peking, and succeeded in qui-
eting the country; but, when asked to return to
his own land with a gratuity, he declined, and pro-
claimed his nephew Emperor of China. Thus, in
1644, was founded the dynasty which to-day is rul-
ing in Peking.
But a totally unforeseen result accrued. The
moving of so large a body of Manchus into China,
while denuding Manchuria of the flower of her pop-
ulation, also opened that country to numbers of
Chinese immigrants; and the process has been since
aggravated by the necessity of maintaining garrisons
throughout the Chinese Empire, while the Chinese
have poured into Manchuria in ever-increasing num-
bers. These immigrants were at first of a far from
desirable kind, usually escaped convicts, outlaws,
and, indeed, bad characters of various sorts who had
208
M A N C H U R I A
found the mother-country inhospitable. PoHtical
offenders also found in this Alsatia an asylum.
At the same time the natural advantages of Man-
churia, with its fine climate and its virgin soil, at-
tracted the Chinese, and especially the trader, who,
notwithstanding the many difficulties he had to
contend with, especially the lawless state of the
country, and despite the fact that colonization was
only permitted by law since 1820, has by degrees
established himself firmly in Manchuria. To-day
not merely all the merchants, but the artisans, gar-
deners, and working-classes generally, are purely
Chinese.
The effect produced on the Chinese as a nation
by the Manchu conquest has been to considerably
alter their former customs and practices. Before
that time they had been liberal and enterprising in
dealing with foreigners, and records are extant
which prove that the advantages of foreign inter-
course and trade were fully appreciated by them.
With the advent of the Manchus, however, things
were altered.* Foreigners were as far as possible
excluded, trade being limited to Canton. Anti-
foreign feeling, in fact, began when the conquering
race found the foreign trader no longer powerless
and suppliant, but strong and self-assertive; and to
this day it has been the policy of the Manchus to
represent Europeans as a race seeking only com-
mercial sfain, and that at whatever cost to others.
* See China in Transfonnation, pp. 34.35.
O 209
OVERLAND TO CHINA
^Liny other exclusive measures were introduced, all
designed with the object of maintaining the IVIanchu
power and of upholding the dynasty. No mandarin,
for instance, was allowed to hold of^ce in his own
province, nor to remain in one place for any consid-
erable time. Thus it has come about that the Chi-
nese as a race have unjustly acquired a character
for national exclusiveness and immobility, and many
customs introduced by the conquerors have been
ascribed to a survival of Chinese antiquity. This
Manchu policy of exclusiveness can at the present
day be most clearly seen in the case of Tibet, which
is still closed to the world. It is not to be assumed,
as is usually the case, that the inhabitants of the
Flowery Land submitted tamely to the Manchus,
any more than they accepted the wearing of the
queue, or pig-tail, without a murmur. They bowed
to fate, as the Chinese alwavs do when once mas-
tered, but they opposed the Tartars for many years
throughout China, and for eighteen years a large
portion of the southern provinces was in rebellion,
before complete submission was enforced.
The Manchus have been so far successful in their
policy that, even with their small numbers, they have
been able to maintain peaceful and absolute domi-
nation over an empire which, whether considered
from the point of view of numbers or extent of
territor}', is the vastest in the world. But, with the
Western powers coming into closer and closer con-
tact, such a state of affairs clearly could not last. As
wrote the Abbe Hue, in a fine passage: " These for-
2IO
MANCHURIA
eigners, these barbarians, whom the government of
Peking pretends to despise because it fears them,
will eventually become impatient before the obsti-
nately closed doors; one fine day they will cause
them to fly in splinters, and will find, behind, a peo-
ple innumerable, it is true, but disunited, without
power of cohesion, and at the mercy of any one
who chooses to seize a whole or a part."
Even before the establishment of the Manchu dy-
nasty in 1644, the Russians had cast covetous eyes
on the rich country separated from them by the
river Amur. Hitherto they had never ventured up
the Sungari, but in that year, having heard of the
fertility and productiveness of the country it drained,
they organized expeditions, under the command of
Stepanov, to examine the terra incognita, and began
to buy provisions, collect tribute, and so forth. The
Peking government, mustering a force at the mouth
of the Sungari, put an end to these invasions.
Stepanov was murdered in 1658, and for two cen-
turies no Russian again appeared on this river.
During the following years, however, several trading
settlements were founded on the Amur delta.
It is a noteworthy fact that China — at that time
superior in wealth and in civilization, and possessing
a strong and intelligent government — in her early
dealings with Russia always gained the advantage
in settling questions of frontier. The White Tsar's
ambassadors to Peking were treated in the same
way as were other "tribute- bearers." As their
northern neighbors became stronger, however, the
211
OVERLAND TO CHINA
Chinese court was gradually growing weaker and
more effeminate; the people were oppressed, and
briirandao^e flourished. On the conclusion of the
Crimean War, Russia, able to devote more atten-
tion to her Eastern affairs, proceeded to secure her
position. The great Proconsul, Muravieff Amursky,
who was the chief promoter, if not actually the
originator, of the Trans-Siberian Railway scheme,
obtained for Russian subjects (by the treaty of
Aigun, in 1858) the right to navigate the Amur
and its tributaries, the Sungari and Usuri. The
treaty was signed merely by local officials, and was
not ratified by the imperial government until two
years later (i860), when, Peking being in the hands
of the Anglo-French forces, and China m extremis.
Count Ignatieff saw liis way to obtain still further
concessions. Making full use of her opportunity,
Russia demanded and obtained the cession of the
Manchurian sea - coast, extending for six hundred
miles, and of the country stretching between the
Usuri and Amur rivers and the Sea of Japan, for
the first time acquiring, on the Pacific littoral, har-
bors which were not ice - blocked for six or eight
months in the year. Thus, merely by diplomatic
pressure skilfully applied, without even a considera-
tion of any kind in return, a magnificent territory,
the northern approach to China, was made over to
Russia ; and China voluntarily closed to herself for-
ever all access to the Japan Sea, an act, referred
to elsewhere, which was a turning-point in the
world's history. In spite of the treaty concluded,
212
MANCHURIA
the Chinese government stubbornly resisted every
effort of the Russians to navigate their vessels on
the Sungari, or otherwise to introduce their trade.
Various attempts were made by private individuals
and firms to ascend the river, and to trade with the
natives of that fertile region; but, owing to the hostile
attitude of the government at Peking, these expe-
ditions were all failures and cost more than one
trader his life.
By reason of the rapid economical growth of the
Amur province, and the recently arising necessity
to obtain provisions for the laborers engaged in the
construction of the Northern Usuri section of the
Siberian Railway, it became imperative for Russia
to develop commercial relations with the inhabi-
tants of the Sungari region. In 1895, therefore, the
Tsar's representative in Peking took steps towards
obtaining from the Tsungli Yamen an order to the
governor of the Kirin province to render every
assistance to Russian traders, and with a success-
ful result. Utilizing this opportunity, the first trad-
ing expedition was undertaken by two merchants,
Boganoff and Tifontai, accompanied by Captain
Griiler (of the general staff), which penetrated to the
extreme west of Manchuria and was well received by
the Chinese authorities. A still more important mis-
sion was despatched later, when Matunin, Zimoreff,
and Dobrividoff (members of the Imperial Geographi-
cal Society) collected valuable information about the
country in general and the Sungari and its tribu-
tary, the Nonni, in particular, paying special attention
213
OVERLAND TO CHINA
to the commercial aspect of the question. The
privilege already acquired by Russia of trading on
the Sungari, of which she at last was able to avail
herself, gave her access to the very heart of Man-
churia. This advantageous position was further
assured, in 1897, by acquisition of the right to build
railways and to station troops throughout the coun-
tr}' — everything in connection with the railways being
Russian, except the figure-head in the form of a
Chinese president — and by the establishment of
Russia, under the guise of a "lease," at Port Arthur
and Talienwan.
At the present time the country is still divided,
for purposes of government, into three provinces :
Fungtien {i.e., " Ordained of Heaven" — a name given
by way of compliment, after the Manchus became
rulers of China) or Shengking, with Mukden as capi-
tal, in the south; Kirin in the centre, the chief town
bearing the same name; and Helungkiang in the
north, with Tsitsikar as capital. Fungtien is gov-
erned on the same system as is customary in China,
the two other provinces being under military govern-
ment and both having a commander-in-chief. Since
1878, however, the Chinese agricultural population
has been practically under civil law alone. The
official posts are all given to Manchus, the army is
exclusively composed of them, and, notwithstanding
the fact that they are being gradually merged in the
Chinese race, the country has hitherto preserved a
sort of political and racial independence, being
directly subject only to the Emperor — an inde-
214
MANCHURIA
pendence which has, naturally, been fostered by
the reigning dynasty for its own advantage.
It must have become painfully apparent, however,
to the Chinese people that, with the whole of Man-
churia, including Mukden — always held sacred by the
^'Ihi ['^'
MANCirU WOMAN
Manchus as the burial-place of their early khans—
in the hands of Russia, the power of the " Son
of Heaven" is rapidly declining in favor of that of
the "White Tsar." Assuredly, Russia herself is not
slow to recognize and take the fullest advantage of
her opportunities. She is gradually pushing her
battalions, both infantry and cavalry, farther and
215
OVERLAND TO CHINA
farther south and southeast, and forming a chain of
military posts commanding the whole Chinese fron-
tier from Blagoveschensk to Port Arthur, and an-
other series from Blagoveschensk, along the Sun-
srari River and its tributaries, to the Great Wall
itself. The old and for many years neglected
high-roads to the frontier are being repaired, new
ones constructed — among others, one from Ai-
cun to ]\Iero;en — and other routes are receivinir
attention, the great road from Kirin to Peking
being, indeed, entirely under Russian domination.
To add to all these powers of menace against
China, Russia has still another advantage in the
truly magnificent waterways provided by the three
great Manchurian rivers ; while, to crown all, her
railway, when completed, will give her coniplete
command over her newly acquired territory, and will
admit of her introducing troops, ammunition, and
provisions without limit — a portentous outlook for
China, and not only for China, but for the whole
world.
216
CHAPTER XI
MANCHURIA— {Con/rnued)
Because China is so vast, and Manchuria is (to bor-
row the Chinese phrase) merely a "cut-off region,"
remote from the world's chief highways, people in
Europe and the United States have been in the
habit of thinking of the latter as a paltry territory
of no great value. If one considers merely its geo-
graphical position and climate, an appreciation of
its size alone, without special regard to its natural
resources, should suflfice to dispel this view. Amid
so many conflicting estimates, and in the absence
of a proper survey, it is difficult to ascertain the ex-
act size of the country, but it is probably well over
363,000 English square miles. It is more than twice
the area of Japan, and nearly as large as Austria-
Hungary, one-fourth the size of China proper, and
over six times the size of England and Wales.
Turning for comparison to America, it is consider-
ably more than twice the size of the North Atlan-
tic division of the United States, including Maine,
Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island, New Jersey, Vermont, Connecticut, and
Pennsylvania.
It is bounded north and east by the Amur River
217
O \' E R L A N D TO CHINA
and its tributary the Usuri; soutlieast by the high-
lands and soHtudes separating it from Korea, and
by the Yalu River; south by the Yellow Sea; while
westward, towards Mongolia, there are no natural
frontiers. The border-line here was once delimi-
tated by a line of palisades, the first of which was
erected four centuries ago by the Ming dynasty to
keep out the Mongols from Liaotung. A second
was designed to keep out Manchu and Tartar rob-
bers. They had, however, no strategic importance,
serving simply as a "sort of magic circle traced
round the land, which was thus placed under the
protection of the terminal deities." These pali-
sades can no longer be traced, only an occasional
mound or row of trees marking where they once
stood, and this region remains a veritable " No
Man's Land."
The northwestern portion of Manchuria, com-
prising the highland of the Great Khingan Moun-
tains, has not been fully explored. A much-used
route runs across this tract from Kailar to Tsitsikar —
the line of the Trans-Manchurian Railway — but out-
side this particular region we have scanty information
as to the nature of the country. The soil here, how-
ever, is remarkable for its porous qualities and power
of retaining water, so that swamps and bogs — not
the ordinary mossy peat-bogs — are exceedingly com-
mon, and even occur on steep hills, but (the sub-soil
being stony) are not deep. West of the Great Khin-
gan range stretches the Mongolian Desert, which is
gradually encroaching to the east and south. The
218
COMPARATIVE AREAS of
CHINA PROPER 1.534 353 siiamle
MANCHURIA 363720sqmiles
NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION of UNITED STATES
including"
Maine . ^trw Hamp shir e . Ver* mont .
Massacliuset^yS. jRlio(3e Isla-nd. Connecticu't.
New \ork. i^ew Jersey: Pennsylva-rua.
162.065 sqinilas.
§
ENGLAND & WALES 58 378 sg^miles
J.IV ADDISON.
COMPARATIVE AREA OF MANCHURIA AND OTHER LANDS
OVERLAND TO CHINA
other chief mountain ranges are: i. The Lesser
Khinsan.in Northern Manchuria, which forms a sort of
boundary to the sandy steppe enclosed in the fork of
the rivers Sungari and Nonni. 2. The Kenteh-ahn in
the east, parts of which are covered with fir forests.
3, The Chan-guan-tsai-Hn, in Central Manchuria, the
top of which, so far as known, is a great uneven table-
land, covered \vith thick forests and full of swamps,
but wdth fertile valleys. 4. The Chang-pai-shan or
Shan-alin, otherwise the " Long White Mountains,"
which lie to the north of Korea. These, the sacred
mountains of the country, are the favorite subject of
the Manchu poets, who love to sing of them as the
revered home of their forefathers — " the fairest land
in the world, with its woodlands, sunny glades, and
sparkling streams all bathed in the bright atmos-
phere of heaven." The formation of the range is
partly volcanic, and in the centre is a lake enclosed
in the crater of an extinct volcano. They are the
highest mountains in the country, some peaks being
considerably above the snow-line, and, standing out
impressively in their white garment of snow, they
probably derive their name not merely from this fact,
but also by reason of their limestone formation,
which renders them dazzlingly white. The summit
of the highest peak is of pumice-stone, pieces of
which are carried down several hundred miles, float-
ine on the surface of the waters of the Yalu, and
greatly astonishing the simple natives.
Another interesting range is the Kwanguing,
which skirts the west side of the Liaotung Gulf.
220
MANCHURIA
These mountains are also sacred, one of the peaks
(Mount Wulin) having been from a remote period con-
sidered one of the " nine guardians of the empire."
Here is still shown the hermitage where Yenwhang,
one of the most renowned of Chinese princes, passed
his days, " far from the madding crowd," surrounded
by books and manuscripts. Every notable mountain
in Manchuria has one or more monasteries, either
Buddhist or Taoist, some of extreme antiquity, and
tracins: back their existence for at least a thousand
years, the former being the more splendid and the
latter the more numerous. European and American
missions have as yet scarcely made their influence
felt in Manchuria, and with the advent of the Rus-
sians will probably disappear, as is the case else-
where whenever Russian authority is established.
The Greek Church, even with all the weight of Russia
behind, is not likely to err on the side of overzeal or
indiscreet interference with the ancient institutions
of the Chinese, as has too frequently been the case
with both Roman Catholic and Protestant missions.
The most important waterways are the Sungari,
with its tributaries, and the Yalu ; the basin of the
former being, in parts, the most fertile and densely
populated district in the country. To decide the
question as to how far the Sungari is navigable has
been the object of various expeditions since it was
nominally opened to foreign trade by the treaty of
Aio^un. It seems certain that in the summer season,
between the middle of April and the end of October,
it is navig:able as his:h as its tributarv, the Nonni,
221
OVERLAND TO CHINA
thus providing a waterway riglit across Central
Manchuria. It is possible, indeed, to go by water
as far south as Kirin, where boat-buildins is a lar<Te
industry, but only this at certain periods. The Nonni
itself, too, is navigable as far as Tsitsikar, while an-
other large tributary, which runs southward from
Sansing, is also available for small craft. In some
places the Sungari, over a mile wide, increases great-
ly in volume during the summer, when the snow is
melting on the White Mountains. During the floods
it resembles an inland sea dotted with islands and
covered with flocks of geese, swans, and other wild
fowl. The basin of the Usuri, a tributary of the
Sungari, forming the eastern boundary of Manchuria,
suffers much from these floods, which entirely spoil
this region as a country for colonization, despite its
numerous natural advantages. The water rises sud-
denly to a great height above the ordinary level, and
sometimes even submerges the houses, notwithstand-
ing the fact that they are built as high as possible.
The Yalu River (or Liao-he),* which drains south-
ward to the Liaotung Gulf, is chiefly important as
affording the only practicable water outlet possess-
ed by Manchuria to the China Sea. It is not, how-
ever, at present navigable, except in its lower course,
and then only by small boats. The soil of the val-
ley is in parts extremely fertile, and as one of the
granaries of Manchuria this region has always been
* Where two names are given for towns, mountains, and rivers,
the first is the Manchu name, generally used by Europeans, and
the second that in common use among the Chinese.
222
MANCHURIA
jealously guarded by the Chinese government, as it
will be, but in more effective fashion, by its new
owners.
Remains of ancient forests are said to be in ex-
istence on the right shore of the river, but at pres-
ent the lower portion of the valley is very sparse-
ly wooded, chiefly with poplars, willows, and elms,
which the people have planted round their houses
and graves. The upper parts of the basin are cov-
ered with fir-trees, which are felled and floated down
the river, the carrying-on of this industry being at
present the chief use to which the Yalu is put.
The climate of Manchuria has been likened to
that of Canada by those who have had experience
of both, and the two countries are, indeed, similar in
other respects. " How important has Canada been
esteemed," said a Russian oflicer of high standing
to the writer, repeating the very words employed
many years ago by Williamson, a most acute ob-
server, " and how poor is our appreciation of Man-
churia, yet the latter is perhaps the richer country
of the two. ' To briefly sum up the matter, the Man-
churian climate may be described as a Canadian
winter and summer, with this difference only, that
there is a blue sky throughout the year. On the
whole, and especially in South Manchuria, it is ex-
tremely healthy, and well suited to Europeans. Ex-
tremes of heat and cold are felt, in summer the
temperature varying between 70° and 90°, and in
winter between 50" above and 10° below zero. The
rivers are frozen over soon after mid- November, and
223
O \' E R L A N D TO CHINA
are not again navigable till towards the end of
March. A great difference distinguishes the re-
gions north and south of the Sungari, the former
belonfrins: to the Siberian world, while the latter,
both in climate and vegetation, is similar to that of
the Flowery Land.
Judging from the scanty information afforded by
travellers, chiefly English and Russian, and from the
existence of indisputably valuable mines, one may
conclude that Manchuria is exceedingly rich in
minerals; gold, silver, lead, iron, coal, and salt being
all found in varying quantities. Indeed, now that
Russia is practically in ownership and is opening
the country, the great natural riches seem to make
it possible for Manchuria one day to rival South
Africa or Australia. So far, however, little has been
done to develop her resources, and such mines as
already exist are worked in a very elementary and
unscientific way.
Gold has perhaps the largest range, being found
alonor the river Amur and its tributaries in the
north, on the Sungari and its tributaries in the
centre, and in the Chang-pai-shan Mountains and
Liaotung peninsula in the south. There are, be-
sides, many isolated gold-fields, some of which are
hardly worked at all. It has always been the policy
of the Chinese government to suppress gold pros-
pecting and mining in Manchuria, partly, no doubt,
from superstitious reasons, which make it unlucky to
disturb the configuration of the earth, and thus to
" open the dragon's veins," but chiefly because they
224
MANCHURIA
feared that the gold-digging communities, never easy
to control wherever met, would some day prove un-
manageable. At all events, the illicit gold-digger
and the robber were until recent times on the same
footing in Manchuria, and when captured were gen-
erally put to death. All the gold-fields are a govern-
ment monopoly, which results in their being worked
in an unprofitable manner. The monopoly has been
but indifferently respected, for, apart from the bands
of Chinese illicit gold-seekers, the Cossacks have on
occasion engaged in this commerce.
The best -managed gold-fields are worked by an
organized community, presided over by an elder
elected by the most respected members and styled
the da-e. He has one or two assistants, and is the
supreme authority in the community, being empow-
ered to punish evil-doers with whipping or even
death. In the latter case, however, in order to pre-
serve a somewhat superfine distinction, no blood
must be shed — and the victim is therefore buried
alive or drowned ! The da-e receives all the o-old
O
which is found and distributes it again, and also
has charge of all widows and orphans. The mem-
bers are free to leave the community and join another,
but, having left, they cannot be readmitted. An organ-
ized community like this, with its strict discipline, is
the more remarkable in a robber-infested country
like Manchuria, ruled over by a decadent dynasty
and a corrupt officialdom. The existence of such a
self-constituted and law-abidins: little kinordom illus-
trates the manner in which men of all races and
p 225
OVERLAND TO CHINA
ranks, drawn to t)ne place by a common pursuit,
will band together for mutual control and defence,
and out of the most heterogeneous parts evolve a
coherent whole — a characteristic of mininor com-
munities which may be noticed in all parts of the
world.
The Chinese government once, and once only,
tried the experiment of opening one of the Manchu-
rian fields to all comers, and with disastrous effect,
owing no doubt largely to the incapacity and weak-
ness of the local officials. In 1889 the gold-fields
on one of the Sungari tributaries were thrown open
to all, on condition that ten per cent, of the washed
gold should be paid to the Treasury. Swarms of
gold-plunderers were at once attracted, chiefly Chi-
nese, from Vladivostok and the South Usuri districts,
and serious disturbances arose. As soon as the
news reached Peking the order was cancelled, and
soldiers were despatched post-haste to evict the dig-
gers. Little resistance was offered, but about a
thousand men died meanwhile of typhus and dysen-
tery, brought on by overcrowding and bad hygienic
conditions, and the evicted miners spread over the
neighboring districts, adding to the number of tramps
and robbers. This gold-field is still being worked, but
in a most primitive manner and without machinery,
the output being inconsiderable. When visited
some years ago the community was small and not
very prosperous, but it is difficult to get any reliable
information, on account of the suspicious attitude of
the miners, who are naturally inclined to conceal
226
MANCHURIA
any success they may have. At Guan-i-san (on the
Amur) is a gold-mine worked by private capitalists,
by special permission of the government, where, ac-
cording to the Russians, a more satisfactory out-
put is obtained. In Southern ]\Ianchuria the richest
gold-fields seem to be in the Chang-pai-shan Moun-
tains, where is also situated a silver-mine, probably of
considerable value, but handicapped by want of fuel,
as well as by the usual lack of proper machinery and
mechanics.
To summarize the scattered information Qrleaned
from various sources, gold is found (i) in Northern
INIanchuria : on the Russian frontier, along the rivers
Urga, Sheltuga, and Fabira, all tributaries of the
Amur; also along the Amur itself; (2) in Central
Manchuria: in the Ninguta district, along the Sungari
basin, and on the river Tun, or Davokha, which
drains the Lesser Khingan ; (3) in Southern Man-
churia: at Tsai-pi-how, in the Kulah Mountains,
Kirin province; in the Chang-pai-shan Mountains;
in the eastern part of the Liaotung peninsula.
In the extreme south of Manchuria, in the Liao-
tung peninsula, lead and copper mines exist, but they
do not seem to be extensively worked. Iron is
found in the same region, and also at Kirin, where it
is used for the government arsenal, and still farther
north again at Sansing, where it is reported that
there was once a flourishing cast-iron foundry.
Numerous coal-beds are found throughout Man-
churia, but from the somewhat meagre reports it
does not seem, on the whole, that coal, especially
227
OVERLAND TO CHINA
in the north, is of a first-rate quality,* though
some seams are both extensive and good. In many
cases, however, the beds are only worked on the sur-
face, and in the same district as some of the largest
seams there are silver -mines actually un worked be-
cause of " lack of fuel." The principal coal seams
now being worked are found in the Liaotung penin-
sula and on the adjacent islands; in the southern
province of Shengking; in at least ten places in the
province of Kirin ; in the eastern part of Northern
Manchuria, where there are open beds ; and on the
left bank of one of the Sungari tributaries, opposite
Sansing. A reference to the map will show^ how
general is the distribution. In the Liaotung Gulf
salt is also found in large quantities. The method
of obtaining it is very simple, the sea-water being
merely run into square pits, which are closed when
full. The heat of the sun causes rapid evaporation,
and a certain amount of salt is left, which the ow^ner
gathers into heaps and covers with mats. There is
said to be mineral salt at Ninguta, but there is na
positive evidence of this. Sulphur would seem to
exist in the southern districts of Manchuria, and
also in the north, not far from Mergen. It was near
the latter place that earthquakes happened in 1720,
in the neighborhood of the Sakuanshan, or " Sul-
phur Mountains." There is every indication that
* The mines in the hills southeast of Mukden supply the town
and metal-works, and also tlie steamers plying in the Yellow Sea.
This coal is said to be superior to that of Japan and equal to the
best Cardiff.
228
M ANCH U RIA
in the remote past earthquakes were severe and vol-
canoes active, and in the neighborhood of Ninguta
there are numerous lava- beds, which emit a hollow
sound when walked upon. The foundations of the
stronghold of Kuantien, in South Manchuria, are
built of black lava, found close at hand; in the same
region also occur great blocks of " pock-mark stone,"
as the Chinese call it. A coarse white marble is
fairly common, and is burned for lime in the south ;
and some sixty miles east of Newchwang is found a
variety which is largely quarried and made into
ornaments, pipe mouth -pieces, and articles de luxe,
which find their way all over China. This marble
is creamy white, irregularly patched or streaked with
light green, and bears a resemblance to jade. Agate
is common on the Amur, and in Eastern Man-
churia a conglomerate of peculiar hardness is found,
which takes a polish equal to granite. Gneiss is not
uncommon, but basalt and granite, both red and
white, are more general.
Although possessed of natural resources in pro-
fusion, there is not as yet any large manufacturing
industry in Manchuria. The most important is the
distilling of bean-oil, which also constitutes the most
important export. It is made wherever there is a
sufficient crop of beans or pease, from which the
oil so universally used in Chinese cookery is ex-
pressed. The residuum is pressed into cakes,
which are used for cattle or transported as manure
for the sugar-canes. The beans are also ground
into pulp, and concocted into a dish known as
229
OVERLAND TO CHINA
"bean-curd," which is considered a dchcacy. The
chief oil factories are found in the Sungari basin,
where there are sometimes as many as forty or fifty
in one town. Oil is also made from many other
plants besides beans and pease. For food and Hght-
ing it is extracted from hemp and from the ricine
plant; the sesamum or siitai yields the so-called
grass-oil, much used in Chinese kitchens, and even
the kernels of peaches and apricots are utilized for
this purpose. Distilling is carried on in the same
districts, the smaller distilleries being situated in
private houses, while the larger are in special
buildings surrounded by walls and groves of trees,
and guarded by armed men, so that from a dis-
tance they present the appearance of small forts. A
spirit distilled from sorgho is much drunk by the
people, " to the forgetfulness of good and evil," as
their saying is. Pottery for home use is made in
most parts, the largest works being in South Man-
churia. A special kind of large glazed pot is worthy
of mention, being used in every Chinese house-
hold for keeping salt provisions, pickles, vinegar,
etc. F'ur-dressing has attained to great perfection
in Manchuria, and is very general, tanneries being
found in most towns. The leather is good, sheep-
skins being particularly w^ell dressed. The procur-
ing and dressing of sable-skins is a fairly large in-
dustry, part of the yearly tribute to the government
being paid in these. They are, however, getting
somewhat scarce, and are dark in color, the fur
being by no means equal to the Russian variety. A
230
MANCHURIA
special kind of foot-gear, called n-la or wti-la, not
met with elsewhere, made from one piece of leather
and roughly rounded at the heel and toe, is found
throughout Manchuria. These shoes are fairly wa-
terproof and are in great demand in swampy and
mountainous districts, being invariably worn by
hunters. Wool -felting and carpet factories are
found in some of the large towns, the greatest num-
ber being at Petuna, in Central Manchuria. The
carpets are made from sheep wool, mixed with camel
and cow hair, and are cheap and poor in quality.
A coarse kind of paper is made at Petuna from
hemp -combings, a better sort being manufactured
farther south. Snuff-boxes and pipes, which play
such an important part in the social life of the Man-
chus and Chinese, are made of various substances,
the most sought after being of stone, though some-
times they are of chalcedony and carnelian, which
are found on the banks of the Amur, and are elab-
orately worked and very valuable. Every Manchu,
as well as every Chinese, thinks it his duty to possess
a stone mouth-piece to his pipe.
Mention must also be niade of the factories for
making maccaroni and starch, the latter manufactured
from maize. The curious pasteboard figures of men
horses, bulls, etc., covered with fringed paper to look
like wool, which are made in most parts of China,
and burned by the Chinese in memory of their dead,
are produced in large quantities in Manchuria.
There is also a manufacture of a rough sort of
cotton texture much used by the people, made from
231
U V E R L A xN D TO C H 1 N A
native cotton, as well as from Indian yarn, the im-
port of which increases yearly.
From time immemorial, accordino; to Chinese his-
tory, Manchuria has been celebrated for its pearls,
said to vary in size fiom half an inch in diameter to
the size of a millet seed, which are chiefly found in
the Sungari and its tributaries, and in some of the
smaller lakes. The fisheries are a government
monopoly, and are strictly forbidden to private per-
sons, with the inevitable result that at present the
pearl trade is almost nil. All the rivers in Man-
churia abound in fish of various sorts, and fishing
forms the occupation of a considerable part of the
inhabitants. One of the tribes, the Golds, who live
along the banks of the Sungari and Usuri, make
their livelihood entirely by hunting and fishing,
catching salmon, sturgeon, and various small fish.
The salmon of the Sungari are so large and plenti-
ful that the Golds use their skins for clothins: in the
summer, the women embroidering them elaborately;
hence their Chinese sobriquet, " The fish-skin peo-
ple."*
The thick and extensive forests with which Man-
churia was originally covered, on all her mountain
slopes, are gradually disappearing with the increase
of population. Indeed, so largely have they been
destroyed by the system of " brand-tillage " in vogue,
* The salmon, called by the Russians veia.and locally tainakhg, is
darker than sahno salar, and has not its silvery shimmer. During
the season all the Golds are occupied, the men in catching the fish
and the women in preparing what is called khola — /. <?., dried fish.
232
M A X C 1 1 U R 1 A
that in some parts the character of the country is
quite changed and even the climate affected. The
work of demolition has been carried on without
any particular method, and consequently is of no
advantage to the country. Under this plan, where
the timber is got rid of and the ashes serve as
dressing — a system still to be seen in many parts of
Indo- China and India — the land is cultivated for a
couple of years and then abandoned for a new plot.
There is no regularly organized forest trade, and
when there has been an unusual demand for timber
it has actually been found easier and cheaper to im-
port lumber from the United States than to trans-
port the home growth for a dozen miles or so in a
roadless country. There are, however, still vast un-
exploited forests on the slopes of the Great Khingan
and Chang-pai-shan ; and when proper forest regula-
tions are enforced, as, doubtless, they shortly will be
under Russian rule, these should prove a vast re-
serve of available wealth.* The forests in most parts
of Manchuria are full of birds, generally of species
analogous to those of Western Europe. Ravens
are found in large flocks and are held sacred, as the
Manchus believe them to be the spirits of their an-
cestors. There is also a peculiar bird, only found in
* The trees found in Manchuria include the larch, willow, oak,
ash, birch, poplar, elm, cedar, common fir, and hazel ; there are vari-
eties of well-known brushwood, while the ordinary wild flowers of
an English wood, the blue-bell, larkspur, dog-rose, and hawthorn
grow in abundance, as do the Scotch-thistle, ferns, mistletoe, etc.
The largest trees are the larch, oak, and black birch.
233
o V r: R L A N D r o china
Manchuria, resembling a lark in appearance, but
having the faculties peculiar to a mocking-bird.
Wild beasts still infest the forests of this country.
Panthers, the man-eating tiger (or " lord," as the na-
tives call him), wild boars, bears, foxes, wild-cats, and
pole-cats are numerous,and in the northern forests the
squirrel and sable are so abundant that the hunting
and trapping of them is a staple industry for a large
section of the population. The abundance of moun-
tains and forests in Manchuria offers 2:reat attractions
to the professional hunter, notwithstanding the bad
roads and the scarcity of population ; but the mere
sportsman has been deterred by the rough life in-
volved, and by the difficulties in the way of procur-
inq; safe-conduct.
The roebuck, which is found in many parts, is
valued for his young horns, called " panty," as well
as for his sinews. The young horn is composed of
a very tender vascular substance covered with a thin
skin, while bearing which the animal avoids touch-
ing the trees and bushes with the horns, and
prefers, though at grave risk, to remain in the
open spaces. After several months the skin begins
to scale, causing irritation to the animal, who then
rubs the horns on the tree branches, the moss-cov-
ered bark, or other soft things. This helps the scale
to fall off, and then begins the second phase in the
development of the horns, which now become harder.
Some time after reaching full development they fall
off, to be replaced by new ones. The change takes
place every year, beginning from the fourth year of
234
MANCHURIA
age of the animal. The horns obtained in the first
period of their growth, particularly in June, are
held by Chinese doctors to be a very efficacious
remedy in strengthening weakened constitutions,
especially in a damp climate, and experiments re-
cently made have confirmed the Chinese opinion.
The remedy is used in the form of a glue, which is
extracted by boiling the " panty." According to
some authorities, a pair of young, tender, and vas-
cular horns, about a foot long, is worth ^50 to ^60
sterling, whereas a pair of fully developed horns is
worth only about seven shillings. The Russians,
however, put the price of the best " panty " in the
South Usuri province at 300 rubles, or about
^30. In the Kirin district experiments have been
made to tame roebucks, but the " panty " got in this
way was not so valuable. Besides roebucks, the ka-
barga, found in the northeastern part of the Kirin
province, is hunted. The males have under their
belly a little pouch, about one and a half inches in
diameter, which contains musk, the best quality be-
ing got from fully developed animals. The very
young have nothing in their pouch, and the old ones
musk of an inferior quality. Tigers are valuable, not
merely on account of their skin and claws, but also
for some of the bones. The skin of the Manchurian
tiger, with its long, silky hair, is even more highly
prized than the Indian.
Before the conquest of China by the Manchus,
the profession of arms was the only one held in any
respect in Manchuria, and agriculture, like other in-
235
O \' E R L A X D TO CHINA
dustries, was little practised, the raising of crops
being left niainly to women, as the men were all
engaged, directly or indirectly, in the army. Un-
der such circumstances irrigation was neglected, no
attempt was made to clear the land of timber, and
only the pressing needs of the individual family were
provided for.
From the agricultural point of view, the country
may be divided into two chief sections — the north-
ern and the southern.
In Northern Manchuria some parts of the country
offer great possibilities in the way of agriculture,
while others are practically useless. In the centre,
between the rivers Nonni and Sungari, is a barren
steppe, to the east of which again lies the basin of
the Sungari, the most fertile portion in the whole
of Manchuria. The worst cultivated district of this
neighborhood is near Kirin, where the country is
mountainous and boggy, while a little lower down
the river the people devote themselves more to fish-
ing than to agriculture. To the west is the basin of
the Nonni, also fertile, though not cultivated to the
same extent as the Sungari district. Tsitsikar and
Mergen, in the eastern and northern districts, are
the best cultivated portions of Manchuria. North of
the steppe already mentioned lies the thickly wood-
ed Lesser Khingan range, and, still farther north,
the basin of the Amur, where the severity of the
climate makes agriculture difficult. In Southern
Manchuria there are two distinct regions — a plain,
and an elevated country with high mountains. The
236
MANCHURIA
somewhat monotonous plain is well cultivated, and,
on the whole, fertile. The mountainous portion,
abounding in vegetation and affording grazing-land
for cattle and goats, is picturesque, its scenery a
varied panorama of waterfalls, hills, and valleys.
The soil generally is unlike that of the neighboring
countries, although the formation of loess in the
southern parts, which is in active progress, connects
it intimately with China ; indeed, the Great Plain
of China extends for many hundreds of miles into
Southern Manchuria. The most fertile soil resem-
bles a mixture of clay and sand, and is so rich that
in a vircjin state it will act as manure. Eastern
Manchuria is mountainous, the rocky surface of the
land being but thinly covered with soil, and is liable
to droughts, which occur every few years.
The plants most commonly cultivated in all parts
of agricultural Manchuria are : millet, bean-plants,
various cereals, wheat, oats, buckwheat, and maize ;
tobacco, indigo, the ricine plant (of which a fine va-
riety, equal to a famed Japanese rice, grows in the
north), potatoes, and all kinds of vegetables, which
form a large proportion of the food of the natives,
and are very cheap. Millet is a popular food among
the poorer classes, and a drink called kanshm is dis-
tilled from it, while some varieties are only used for
cattle. Beans, black, white, and red, are largely used
for oil-making, as are the larger kinds of pease.
Tobacco grows almost everywhere, especially on the
middle course of the Suno^ari. Manchurian tobacco
is highly prized throughout China, while the local
237
OVERLAND TO CHINA
consumption is enormous, the inhabitants, both men
and women, beginning to smoke from the age of
eight or nine and continuing the practice ahnost
without intermission during the whole course of their
hves. Cotton is cultivated to a certain extent in
the southern districts, on the shores of the Liaotung
Bay.
After the conquest of China, the Manchus adopted
in their own country the method found in use in
the Celestial Empire of reserve stores or granaries
for corn, of which there are two kinds — the govern-
ment, and the village or communal. The former,
situated in larcje towns and manasjed by ofificials, are
intended to supply the whole district in case of
need. Owing, however, to official corruption and
mismanagement, which have been, if possible, more
rampant in Manchuria than even in China, these
stores are of very little service, and in case of famine
are generally found to be empty. The village stores
are really useful, each being managed by a repre-
sentative elected in the village. No one who has
not contributed is entitled to receive help in time
of need, and the community itself decides the per-
centage to be stored each year, which in ordinary
times does not exceed one per cent, of all the crops.
The cultivation of the poppy for opium, which
dates from quite recent years, about the "sixties,"
has already attained large proportions and has begun
to compete seriously with the import from India.
The poppy, in fact, fiaunts its red flag in almost
every part of Manchuria, more especi*hlly in the
238
MANCHURIA
Sungari region, and is the most profitable crop an
agriculturist can raise. It is, therefore, inevitable
that, with the Chinese arriving yearly in increasing-
numbers, the opium trade will rapidly reach even
greater proportions. There are no less than five
inducements for the development of poppy culture:
the increasing habit of smoking opium ; the expen-
siveness of the foreign article ; its easy transporta-
tion in a practically roadless country; the increasing
export of the native opium, especially to the Chihli
province ; and the early ripening of the poppy,
which makes it possible to rear a second crop on
the same ground. The use of opium as money is
in some parts very common ; the laborer coming
from the north preferring to be paid in opium, which
is easily carried in his wallet and increases in value
as he makes his way southward.
Formerly Manchuria produced a great number of
medical plants, roots, grasses, and bark,* chief among
which the highh' prized ginseng, now the more
sought after because it is becoming very rare. In
its native state it has a very narrow range and is a
government monopoly, although a large amount of
secret illicit selling takes place. So scarce and
costly has it become that attempts are being made,
not without success, to raise it artificially. The
extraordinary virtues ascribed to this plant by the
Chinese are manifold. It is believed that it will
prolong a man's life, and, notwithstanding the opinion
* Agassiz specifies sixty sorts, while Colonel Putiata, a Russian
authority, names as many as two hundred.
239
O X" E R L A N D TO C H I N .\
held by Western doctors that it is of a very ordinary
character, the people cling tenaciously to their belief
in its miraculous healing power.
Sericulture is practised in the south and south-
east, being especially common in the large towns on
the Liaotung peninsula. It is entirely a primitive
home industry, without any attempt at division of
labor or investment of capital. In quality the silk
is good, but inclined to be dark in color, for, owing
to the amount of soda used in its preparation, it will
not take light dyes. The export has hitherto been
to China only, but this will probably soon be altered,
and a large increase in the amount woven will,
doubtless, be the result of a determined effort on the
part of foreigners to develop this industry. Many
of the dyes used are rendered fresher and brighter
by the application of a sort of extract of mushrooms.
These are called mu-err, and, being much used in
cooking, afford a means of livelihood to a consider-
able number of people, who hunt for them in the
woods. Before being cooked they are soaked, thus
producing the extract used by the manufacturers of
silk. This trade is chiefly developed in the eastern
mountains, where the oak forests have been greatly
injured by the practice of cutting down the large
trees in order to grow good crops of mushrooms on
their stumps.
As Manchuria may now be regarded as practically
Russian, only a few words are necessary regarding
the taxation which has hitherto been enforced. In
former times no such thing as a land tax existed in
240
MANCHURIA
the country, but one was introduced in the early
days of Chinese immigration, and now the only ex-
emption is in favor of land belonging to temples.
Every one is free to occupy as much land as he can
pay for, the local authorities having merely to grant
permission and register the occupation. Useful laws
hinder the accumulation of large land properties by
individuals ; for instance, if arrears for six years are
not paid, or if the ground is allowed to remain un-
cultivated for three years after occupation or regis-
tration, the land lapses to the government.
Gardening is as yet little developed in Manchuria,
and there is no trade in garden produce. The fruit-
trees most cultivated are pear, apricot, and cherry ;
apple-trees are also met with, and, in a few orchards,
the raspberry is grown. Manchurian pears are cele-
brated, and attain an enormous size in the Sheng-
king province, where grapes, chiefly wild, are also
found in the mountains. They are, however, culti-
vated in some parts of the province, and wine of
very fair quality is produced by the missionaries.
Latterlv there have been some not unsuccessful
attempts to develop the wine-making industry on
a larger scale.
Cattle-breeding in Manchuria is practised only
on the steppes and in the extreme west, in the " no
man's land " bordering Mongolia, where is a vast
upland altogether unfitted for agriculture. This
region is specially favorable for cattle-breeding, be-
cause of its great extent, nutritious grass, and com-
parative abundance of water. On this plateau cattle-
Q ^41
O V I-: R L A N D T O CHINA
breeding is practised, not merely on the steppes,
but also in the valleys, where, however, the grass is
too watery and not sufficiently salt, and therefore
not so Gfood for cattle. The hi2:hland cattle are of
the same species as those of Northern Mongolia,
where they feed on dry saline grasses. The horned
cattle are of the big species, but the horses are of
small growth, distinguished, however, for their powers
of endurance, like those of the Mongolian breed. In
other parts of Manchuria, also, cattle-breeding is car-
ried on, but to a very limited extent, the only demand
being for agricultural work in spring and summer,
and for carrying purposes in the winter.
242
CHAPTER XII
MAXCHURIA— {Continued)
As in the case of agriculture, commerce was held
in contempt by the Manchus, but with the advent of
the first Chinese settlers began a new era. At the
outset, however, the lawless and unsettled state of
the country offered a most serious obstacle to trade,
one that has indeed continued down to the present
day, owing to the lax rule of the Manchus, who were
entirely preoccupied with enforcing their supremacy
in China. jNIany of the Chinese immigrants were
outlaws and escaped convicts, and these, joining with
the worst class of the natives, formed themselves
into oro^anized robber bands, such as that of the
Hiin/mize, or Red-beards, called by the Russians
" Kunkhusi," who even now are a constant menace
to peaceful settlers of the districts where they have
established their strongholds. They defy the Chi-
nese authorities, and, having smuggled improved
weapons across the Russian frontier, invade villages
and farms, and their red fiag, with the inscription
" Vengeance," still strikes terror into the poor up-
country trader. In the old days, and till quite recent
times, these robbers were so audacious in their call-
ing that they found themselves in danger of alto-
243
OVERLAND TO CHINA
octher losin<i their means of livelihood — no one
would dare the risks involved in trading with inland
towns, and, therefore, there was nothing to steal.
They accordingly established a sort of insurance
office at Newchwang, where the merchant who
paid toll to them — and every one took care to do so
— was supplied with a little flag, which fluttered on
the front of his cart, a magical passport which gained
him an unmolested path through the robber-infest-
ed country. It is still customary to insure goods
before sending them inland, and altliough the under-
writers would doubtless repudiate with scorn the
idea of having any connection with the present-day
Red -beards, yet the same little flag still flies on
the front of the carts, indicating with which ofiice
they are insured. Whatever the secrets of local in-
surance may be, the first condition of successful
trading, safe and swift transport, has been sadly
lacking in Manchuria, a fact hardly to be wondered
at, since a not dissimilar state of affairs has till
recently obtained in Northern China,* and may
be said to continue to this very day. An in-
stance of the insecurity of traflic in China, even on
the high-roads, was the case of Mr. Burlinghame,
then the lately appointed United States minister,
who, in 1863, was stopped and nearly captured by a
band of robbers quite close to Peking. The prices
of provisions in Manchuria have been known to rise
one hundred to two hundred per cent, because the
* See China in Transformation, pp. 300-302.
244
MANCHURIA
Htinlmtze were interfering with the shipping of corn
on the Sungari. At the time of the Tai-ping rebel-
lion no man went about without arms.' Field laborers
carried spears and matchlocks while working, and rob-
ber gangs held to ransom high officials and even towns.
Even now the brigands, sometimes known as
Hongus, who infest the country between the Usuri
and the Amur, are a source of great trouble to the
Russians, by reason of their unprovoked attacks on
Russian subjects, of which the recent massacre of a
band of Cossacks is by no means an isolated example.
The Russian government, in connection with the
construction of the railway through Manchuria, made
the protection of the laborers against the attacks of
these bandits their reason for quartering troops all
over the country, and each massacre of Cossacks
wall certainly furnish a reasonable pretext for the in-
troduction of a still greater number of Russian sol-
diers. Chinese troops invariably take to flight on
the approach of the robbers, whose horses are so
fleet as to carry them rapidly beyond pursuit of
even the trained Cossacks.
Travel in Manchuria is a slow and tedious busi-
ness. The ordinary two-wheeled Chinese carts,
drawn by mules and ponies, are the usual means
employed in transport traffic. The cost of convey-
ins soods is small, but. on the other hand, the
charges for passenger traffic are very high, and the
rate of progress extremely slow.* The best times for
* A cart capable of carrying three tons of produce, drawn by six
245
OVERLAND TO CHINA
trade arc the autumn and winter, when the roads are
good and the agricultural population is not employed
on the land. There is then a constant stream of
caravans along the great roads, especially those con-
necting the fertile lands of the Sungari with the
Lao-khe River and Liaotung Gulf, while the inns,
empty in summer, are crowded with people and
animals. In winter sledges are much used for pas-
sengers, and are quicker and more comfortable.
The roads, as a rule, are extremely bad, though they
have been improved since the development in col-
onization; on the whole, the best road — or, rather,
the least bad — is that between Peking and Mukden.
At one time, when Chinese troops were gathered
on the northern frontier of Manchuria to repel the
Russians, it was proposed to construct a waterway
across Manchuria from south to north. The proj-
ect, of course, like so many Chinese projects of re-
cent times, came to nothing, but is still quite feasi-
ble. No attention is given to keeping the roads in
good condition ; irregular and uneven, they usually
consist merely of ruts, gradually becoming impas-
sable but for the rains, which convert them into a
common puddle. When the rain ceases the carts
form fresh tracks, which harden in the sun. Inns,
of a primitive character, it is true, but welcome
mules or ponies, and accompanied by a driver or conductor, can be
hired for about 5^. per day. Such a cart could travel twenty-five
miles a day on a long journey, and more on a short one. A pas-
senger-cart of the common kind, drawn by three ponies, can only
accommodate one passenger; its hire is 3^'. per day.
246
xM A N C H U R I A
enough to the traveller on Manchurian roads, are
found plentifully in this country, as in China. Here
shelter, fire, and hot water are provided, the traveller
bringing his own provisions, and, if he likes, his cook.
These hostelries have the merit of being exceedingly
cheap.
The advantages to be looked for in the construc-
tion of railways in Manchuria were first pointed out
by the Scotch missionary Williamson, who suggested
a line from Talienwan Bay, with its rich coal-
field, through Kin-chow, Fu-cliow, Kai-chow, Hai-
ching, Liau-yang, and Mukden — the whole course
rich in minerals, terminating in the pulse and indigo
producing districts in the north, and thus command-
ing the entire commerce of the country. He ex-
pressed the opinion that in the construction of such
a line there would be few difficulties to overcome,
the excellent harbor at Talienwan being open nearly
all the year round, and the country on the line of
route consisting of a series of valleys running north
and south, with here and there a few insignificant
ridges, and requiring no tunnellings or cuttings.
This is practically the very line now adopted by the
Russians, who in this, as in so many other instances,
have profited by information acquired by English-
men.
Railway proiects here, however, no less than in
China, have often met with opposition. Even when,
in iS85,the Emperor of China had at last been in-
duced to consent to a line between Tientsin and
Peking, local opposition brought about the abandon-
247
OVERLAND TO CHINA
ment of the scheme; and in Manchuria, after the
country had been surveyed and the route marked
out for a trunk-hne from Peking to Mukden, an 0)3-
stacle was encountered in the objection raised by
the miUtary governor of Mukden that the Hue woukl
pass too near the Imperial Tombs in that district.
The contemplated route was to pass these tombs at
a distance of twenty miles, but the geomantic^ influ-
ences were not to be disturbed, a compromise had
to be made, and was eventually provisionally ac-
cepted, by which it was arranged that the railway
should pass the tombs at a distance of hventy-three
miles! The telegraph, whicli has been carried across
Manchuria for a distance of over two thousand
miles, and connects Port Arthur, Kirin, and the
chief towns with Newchwang, which again is con-
nected with Tientsin and Peking, was mainly used
by the Chinese officials, and could not be relied on.
* Geomancy, the Fimg s/uci oi the Chinese, is a superstition which
has an enormous hold upon all classes throughout the empire.
It is based on the rudiments of natural science, to which have
been grafted various doctrines from Confucianism and Buddhism,
while it retains some of the Taoist superstitions. The worship of
ancestors is a part of it, and it ascribes all kinds of occult influences,
powers, and properties to the elements. No enterprise can be under-
taken without consulting the geomancers, who make an excellent
living out of the gullibility of their clients. An amusing instance is
given, arising from an event which occurred when it was proposed to
construct a telegraph line between Canton and Hong-Kong: Canton
is the City of Rams or Sheep, the mouth of the river is known as
the Tiger's Mouth, the district opposite Hong-Kong is the Nine
Dragons (Kaulun). What more unpropitious combination could
arise — a telegraph line to lead the sheep into the Tiger's Mouth and
among the Nine Dragons!
248
MANCHURIA
As generally throughout China, so in Manchuria,
but in a greater degree, taxation forms a substan-
tial hindcrance to commerce. Besides the refrular
government taxes, the local officials levy dues quite
arbitrarily upon goods going to or coming from the
interior.
If, under such unfavorable circumstances, com-
merce is carried on at all, it is owing to the personal
qualities of the merchants, who are nearly all Chi-
nese from the province of Shansi. The natives of
this province are distinguished as being among the
best traders and quite the best bankers in the empire,
and are noted for their sagacity, temperance, econ-
omy, and esprit de corps. Their assistants are invaria-
bly also Shansi men. In the absence of any effective
government, the local merchants have formed them-
selves into guilds for mutual protection and guid-
ance, somewhat like the great trade - guilds of the
Middle Ages in Western Europe. Their method
of self-government, by which certain members are
chosen yearly from the large firms, to settle all ques-
tions which may arise, and to represent the merchant
class before the authorities, is based closely on the
practice obtaining in China. These firms have the
riorht to issue credit notes.
In some parts of Northern Manchuria, in those
districts where the nomadic and hunting population
is found, markets are held from time to time, giving
the people an opportunity of exchanging their vari-
ous goods. Such are held at Sansing in June and
July; at Tsitsikar usually in the same months, when
249
OVERLAND TO CHINA
the yearly " tribute " of deer and sable skins, exacted
by the Chinese government from some of the Man-
chu tribes in lieu of military service, is brought to
the treasury, and gifts are bestowed in return. An-
other big market is held at Ganchur in August
and September, at the time of the pilgrimage to the
local convent, and people come very long distances
to dispose of their goods here, chiefly by barter, sil-
ver being very little circulated, while tablets of tea
are largely used.
The trade of Manchuria mainly consists of —
1. Exports of the produce of the country.
2. Imports of foreign goods from Europe and the
United States.
3. Imports of Chinese goods and produce.
The most important export is that of bean-oil ;
tobacco and a particular kind of silk being also
largely exported to China.
Cotton goods of various kinds are the most con-
siderable import. British yarn, we are told, is be-
ing supplanted by the Indian. Manufactured cotton
goods come chiefly from Britain and America, but
also from Holland, India, and, since 1894, from
Japan. Notwithstanding the extreme cold of a
Manchurian winter, woollen goods are not in much
demand — the lower classes, as in Northern China,
keeping themselves warm in sheep-skins, cotton-
cloth, or wadding — and there is practically no woollen
manufacture in the country. Both demand and sup-
ply, however, might be further developed. A cheap,
rough woollen cloth, as Agassiz remarks, would
250
MANCHURIA
probably command a good sale, and with the open-
ing up of the country the purchasing power of
the inhabitants will of course rapidly increase. As
regards such articles as kerosene, matches, sugar,
etc., Europe and America have a great advantage
over Russia, on whose imports a heavy duty is
levied.* The local Russians consider this duty a
mistake, being of the opinion that a remission of such
prohibitive excise, which would tend to considerably
increase both import and export trade, would be
greatly to the advantage of Russia generally.! With
the occupation of Manchuria by the Northern Co-
lossus a magnificent opportunity for developing the
trade of Great Britain and the United States has
passed away.
While the actual currency is much the same all
over the country, and resembles the Chinese, the
value of the "cash" (the English term for the tsien,
the most used coin) varies in different parts, there
being, it is said, three distinct methods of reckon-
ing.| Paper money is circulated by one private
* The American kerosene, however, is said to be very superior to
Russian, and to hold its place by virtue of its superiority.
t Matunin gives a list of Russian manufactured goods which might
find a market in Manchuria. This includes several kinds of cotton
material, drills, calicoes, reps, etc., black and colored cloths, plush,
and flannel. He emphasizes the point that they must be cheap, for,
ready money being scarce, the people do not look for quality.
\ The three methods of reckoning seem to be:
1. In Western and Central Manchuria (from Aigun in the north
to I-tun-chau in the south), i coin = 2 cash ; 49 coins=ioo cash; 490
coins=i dao. This varies a little ; for instance, in Sansing, 500 coins
251
OVERLAND TO CHINA
firm, and the notes issued by the loan banks are in
great request, the banks, as in China, working under
a system of mutual guarantee. There is also a silver
currency of a primitive nature, the silver being made
in bars, which are cut into pieces when necessary.
The Russian paper rubles have for some years past
circulated in the north, and are generally in use,
being much preferred to the silver ruble. Mexican
dollars and dao are also used as small chancfe. Much
of the Manchurian trade, however, as explained else-
where, is still done by barter, and tea-tablets are
frequently used as money, while in the poppy-culti-
vating districts laborers are usually paid in opium.
The incompleteness and insufficiency of the in-
formation at present available concerning Manchu-
ria is startlingly evident to any one who examines
closely into the subject. Taking into consideration
the vast extent of the country, the ethnic variety of
its inhabitants, its natural resources, and the rapid
development which has taken place during the last
few years, under conditions which at first presented
grave difficulties, it is matter for surprise that the
Western world should be content with so meagre
= idao; in Bayansusu, i cash = 2 coins, 1800 coins=i dao. This
reverses the relative value of cash and coins.
II. In Southern Manchuria, i coin=6 cash; 16 coins= 100 cash;
160 coins=i dao. (N.B. — The reckoning has to be done approxi-
mately in sixes.)
III. (Used only for very small payments.) i coin (tao-tsien, or
dan)=i cash.
Spoiled and defective coins are not taken at all.
The dao, or iao-tsie7i, nominally contains 1000 cash.
252
MANCHURIA
a knowledge of IManchuria as they at present pos-
sess. No doubt the indefinite nature of our infor-
mation as to the country is in great measure owing
to geographical and political conditions, but it is
also in part due to the lack of interest shown by the
Western peoples as regards Far Asia, and to the casual
character of the expeditions which have from time
to time been undertaken in Manchuria, for the most
part accomplished by individual Englishmen and
official Russians. The importance of studying the
country is now, however, more fully recognized by
the world at laro;e, and the lack of knowledsfe at
present prevailing as to this vast region — this East-
ern Canada, with its magnificent geographical posi-
tion and immense resources — will soon be a thins: of
the past.
When the trans-continental railway through Sibe-
ria and Manchuria is completed, Russia's relations
with the rest of the world will be materially altered,
for she will then occupy a commanding situation in
the Gulf of Pechihli and a powerful position on the
Pacific. It is probable, however, as already suggest-
ed, that her advance into China will be gradual and
by peaceful means. It may be assumed that her
present occupation of Manchuria, although pre-
eminently a military one, is not altogether due to a
passion for conquest, but is in part the outcome of
geographical circumstances, and of that moving
force which compels a vigorous and dominant peo-
ple, hemmed in by the ice-locked northern seas, to
push a way for themselves towards the open sea.
OVERLAND TO CHINA
Russia, in the Far East, as in Central Asia, is aiming
at the south — always the south. Wliatever changes
may take place in the system of government, this
movement, as the writer has always maintained, will
not, in the nature of things, cease, unless checked by
a resisting force — that is to say, by some power as
strong and as determined as Russia herself.
In Manchuria, as elsewhere, her progress will be
marked by the incorporation of the subject races.
Whatever her military and commercial aims, she
does not neglect social and religious matters. Her
Church, indeed, takes a leading part in the moulding
of the conquered peoples, confession once in two
years being the only obligation imposed on a con-
vert, and many adherents being gained. Nearly all
Koreans immigrating into Manchuria become con-
verted, the Chinese alone remaining obdurate in this
respect. It would be unjust not to note the fact
that the (general influence of Russia in the terri-
tories she has acquired in the Far East has been
for good. Not only has she introduced a higher
degree of civilization, but she has opened up vast
regions to commercial, scientific, and general devel-
opment, not shrinking from the initial expenditure
involved in the construction of roads and other
means of communication through difficult and often
dangerous territories. And these benefits are al-
ready apparent in Manchuria, where, from the very
commencement of the Russian occupation, a silent
transformation has been taking place and is now
proceeding at lightning speed.
254
CHAPTER XIII
EASTERN MONGOLIA
On leaving Siberia for China, the season of the
year is a matter of great importance, and has natu-
rally much to do with the rate of travelling. There
are certain months when the Russians say there are
" no roads," and they do not think of making a jour-
ney during that period, except on a matter of life
and death. What is called " the commercial road "
from Irkutsk to Kiachta, the one used by the writer,
though shorter than the old postal route, is so broken
and hilly that the rain and snow of the autumn ren-
der it extremely arduous. The writer encountered
some serious difficulties on this portion of his jour-
ney, the yamfsc/nk (driver) refusing to proceed on
more than one occasion when the weather sfot bad.
There are also many more hinderances to travellers
than on the regular government postal roads, where
are generally provided ample relays of post-horses,
as well as accommodation of a primitive kind ; and
the inconvenience in question is not always to be
commuted for money. '' Schimpfen oder bezaJilcn''
(abuse or pay), said a Russian officer to the writer.
But, judging from experience,"//?/^" might well be
substituted for ''oder.'' The knowledge of even a
255
OVERLAND TO CHINA
very limited vocabulary of Russian is extremely use-
ful on the road — indeed, necessary — when travelling
without the aid of an interpreter. Mongolia should
be avoided even as early as October. Snow, ice,
and atrocious weather must then be expected, as the
writer can testify from experience, and it is bitterly
cold, even with the wind behind. The traveller must
equip himself, Russian fashion, with felt, furs, or
sheep-skins, and, if possible, should carry a small
charcoal brazier of Siberian or, even better, Japanese
manufacture.
On reaching Kiachta, the writer was compelled to
interview a Chinese police of^cial through the me-
dium of a small boy from the local " hotel " (a con-
fectioner's house). He spoke in Russian to the offi-
cer, and, receiving the replies of that personage in
extremely broken Pidgin - Russian, translated them
aorain for the benefit of the writer's limited intelli-
gence — a conversation not likely to lead to any
clear understanding. The Chinese here, as at
Peking, look upon the Mongols as an exceptionally
stupid people, an altogether inferior race. But it
is not merely the Mongol, it is hardly necessary to
say, who is thus regarded by the Chinese. All the
beniirhted beinQ:s wdio have the misfortune to hail
from the " cut-off regions " — that is, from anywhere
outside the Chinese Empire — are held in like poor
esteem. At this place it was necessary, as already
mentioned, to invite the assistance of the Commis-
sioner of the Frontier towards procuring the neces-
sary transport for the journey from Kiachta to Kal-
256
EASTERN INI O N G O L I A
gan. He, however, found himself unable to move in
the matter, such facilities being only accorded to
ofificials on service, or to those provided with special
letters from the St. Petersburg authorities. The
writer s object was to enlist the sympathetic co-oper-
ation of the Commissioner's wife, a lady who spoke
both French and German, but with no successful
result, and it was impossible to procure either horses
and tarantass (the quickest means of conveyance), or
even camels. The only thing to do, therefore, was
to telegraph to the British ambassador at St. Peters-
burg, but even he was unsuccessful in his kindly
efforts at assistance. Eventuall}'- it was found pos-
sible to get away by means of a judicious use of
the ruble, a cart drawn by camels being secured to
proceed as far as Urga, where fresh arrangements
had to be made for the continuance of the jour-
ney to Kalgan. While endeavoring to engage the
required conveyance — tarantass and horses — at
Kiachta, the writer underwent the experience of
driving a bargain with a patriarchal old man who
made a livelihood out of such transactions, and
whose venerable appearance and air of transparent
honesty were somewhat discounted by a pair of
bead}', cunning eyes. He asked three times the
price which he ultimately agreed to accept. Next
day it was found possible to make other arrange-
ments, and he was offered part of his price to cancel
the contract, but he would not be satisfied with this;
he demanded the whole amount, declaring that he
had been put to great expense, and using many
R 257
OVERLAND TO CHINA
similar arguments. His demand being refused, he
went off, calling upon all the saints in the calendar
to witness the ignoble conduct of this Englishman,
An Austrian, the sausage-maker of the place, and
an important personage in his way, intervened, and
advised a settlement of the difficulty, saying : " Don't
let it get to the police office ; he is a friend of the
old man's, and, in any case, you would have to
give so many tips that it would cost you many
rubles to Q:et clear of the business." Advice
which, there is reason to believe, was thoroughly
sound.
On entering Kiachta, a traveller froni Siberia is
at once reminded of his near approach to a foreign
and Oriental land by the continual procession of
camels through the streets, the mingling on all sides
of Chinese and Mongols, and the unintelligible
language which prevails. The streets are, on the
whole, well kept, at least so they appear in dry
weather, the sidewalks being generally of wood. Sit-
uated on the Russo-Chinese frontier, this town is of
considerable importance as the headquarters of the
rich merchants engaged in the overland tea trade,
and also as the residence of the Russian government
commissioner and other offixials. The inhabitants
of the Chinese town Mai-mai-cheng, separated from
Kiachta by a neutral zone, are all officials or Chinese
traders, and are forbidden bv law to brinor their fam.-
ilies with them.
The journey between Kiachta and Peking is te-
dious to a degree, and yet there is a certain charm
258
EASTERN MONGOLIA
about it, mainly, no doubt, the charm of novelt}^ The
most interesting point on the route is on arrival at
the great Mongol headquarters, or " camp," at Urga*
(known among the Chinese as Kuren, or " the great
enclosure"), where, as stated by the Russian consul-
general, there are more than ten thousand llamas
congregated in the two huge llamaseries, which
are separated by the deep ravine through which
the post-road passes. The population of the town,
about thirty thousand, is dependent upon these
monasteries and on the. regular transport of tea be-
tween China and Russia. Urga consists merely of
a straggling collection of huts, or, as they may be
called, tents, situated on the river Tola (a tributary
of the Orkhon), at a distance of about six hundred
miles from the northern frontier of China at Kal-
gan, and about two hundred and fifty miles from the
southern frontier of Russia at Kiachta. It is di-
vided into two parts — the Mongolian quarter (Bogdo-
Kuren) and the Chinese quarter of Mai-mai-cheng
(place of trade). Among the many temples in the
Mongolian quarter is that dedicated to Maidari,^
and in this quarter also is situated the palace of
the Kutukhtu, or " living representative of the Di-
* From the Russian Urgo, a palace, otherwise known as Bogdo-
Kuren or Ta-Kuren (sacred encampment); known also among the
Mongols as " Hurae" — /.<:., enclosure or encampment — the full Mon-
gol name being" Bogdt Lama en Hurae," the " enclosure or encamp-
ment of the supreme Llama."
t Mai'dar/, according to Yule, is the Mongol form of the Indian
Maitreya, the name of the Buddha next to come, and who will be
the fifth of the present World-period.
259
OVERLAND TO CHINA
vinity." The whole town of Urga is surrounded
by mountains, some of them thickly wooded ; the
climate is good, but cold winds are prevalent.
The commanding site in the town is occupied by
tlie Russian consulate, or " Green House," which
stands on an elevation to the south, overlooking the
river Tola, and midway between Mai-mai-cheng and
Boo'do-Kuren. Here the writer received the ofreat-
est kindness and hospitality from the consul-general,
a cultured and travelled gentleman, the sojourn there
leaving very pleasant memories. The Russians have
had a consulate here for forty years, and it is one
of the significant features in connection with the
territorial aspirations of that nation that during all
that period the Chinese territory as far south as Urga
has been included in the maps published by the
government at St. Petersburg or elsewhere. The
Chinese themselves have practically no maps of their
outlying positions. During all this time a process
of silent, imperceptible assimilation has been going
on between the Muscovite ofificials and merchants
and the Mongolian herdsmen, who supply all the
transport animals for goods and travellers, and in
sundry other ways find it to their advantage to serve
the Russians. The natural result of their intercourse
has been a steady strengthening of the ascendency
of Russia, and a corresponding diminution of the
power and prestige of China, so that, in the event of
any political upheaval in that part of the world, it
may be expected that the Mongol tribes will go over
in a body to the Russian standard; and even should
260
EASTERN MONGOLIA
no such upheaval occur, they will be gradually leav-
ened by the Russian yeast.
Till very recently the principal medium of ex-
change at Urga was brick-tea, first moulded and
pressed solid, sawed into small lumps, which buyers
either carried iu their arms to the market or brouo-ht
O
lashed to their saddles, bartering it for other goods.
For a sheep, for instance, they would pay from
twelve to fifteen bricks, and for a camel from one
hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty.
Latterly, however, Chinese brass cash has been in-
troduced as a circulating medium in the retail trade.
Perhaps the feature in Urga which makes the most
impression upon a traveller is the presence there of
a certain class of mendicants who, taking up their
quarters in the cold, bleak market-place, accept what
charity comes their way, and remain exposed in all
weathers. They are regarded with indifference, and
when they die their bodies are removed to some
ravine at a little distance from the town and left to
the dogs, while their rags and any other posses-
sions are appropriated by some of the surviving
beggars.
The greater part of Mongolia consists of a vast
arid steppe known usually as the Gobi,* the Chinese
name, however, being Shamo — literall)', the " sandy
desert." This desert traverses Central Asia oblique-
ly, and is for the most part bounded by mountainous
* The word " Gobi " in Mongol literally means a waterless, barren
plain, almost devoid of grass; the word for steppe is "Tala."
261
OVERLAND TO CHIN A
regions. In size, that part of it which belongs to the
Mongols, if we include Northern Mongolia, almost
equals the whole of China Proper. In the general
configuration of the land it is unlike that country,
from which, moreover, nature has separated it widely
by climatic conditions.
The traveller crossinq- the Gobi leaves the last
stream, the Tola, behind him at Urga, and here,
too, he may say good-bye for a time to all trees and
shrubs, for no rivers cross the wide expanse of the
desert, and it is possible to ride six hundred miles
without seeino- even a stream. Here and there
are dried - up watercourses in the bed-rock, and
these are filled with sudden torrents by the summer
rains, but the fierce winter gales, hot, dry winds, and
rapid evaporation make it impossible for a perma-
nent stream to develop. The Gobi must, therefore,
forever remain a dreary waste, where, for the most
part, even grass can scarcely grow, where trees are
so rare as to be beheld with awe by the wandering
Mongol, and where only birds of prey can exist in
large quantities, feeding on such camels and men as
fall victims to the thirsty desert, and on the few wdld
animals which are found there.
The grass called by the Mongols dudsiui, common
also in Russian Turkistan, which is found in some
of the more favored spots, is the most flourishing
vegetation, being from four to five feet high ; but, as
a rule, only a few weeds or small flowers or a kind
of wild leek are found orowins: in the sand. These,
with an occasional patch of scrub, are the only things
263
a!,
w
Q
o
o
z
I— t
en
o
Pi
u
EASTERN MONGOLIA
that break the terrible monotony of the interminable
waves of sand which stretch away as far as the eye
can see. The distance is not infrequently rendered
deceptive by the mirage, vi^hich dances forever on the
horizon and seems to take a malicious pleasure in
deluding the traveller and puzzling him by the quaint
shape of the objects it reflects. All traces of hab-
itation gradually disappear, until at length even the
road ceases, and a region is reached whose desola-
tion is emphasized by the black rocks projecting
from the ground on all sides. The soil is a red-
dish gravel or sand, mixed with various stones, the
celebrated "Gobi stones" — quartz, pebbles, agates,
carnelians, and chalcedony — and these, with their
greens and blues strewn together, make a welcome
change from the monotony of color presented by the
sea of sand.
The climate varies from Indian to Siberian, and
that sometimes in a few hours. In summer the des-
ert is swept by a hot, dry wind — the southeast mon-
soon — and in winter by a fierce northeasterly gale
from Siberia, which uproots all vegetation and drives
the sand into deep drifts. The intense cold of the
Gobi winter at one time led travellers to estimate its
elevation at far too high a figure. As a matter of
fact, it varies from four thousand to five thousand
feet above sea-level in the east, to considerably less
in the west, while in the region of the Kiachta-Kal-
gan caravan road it actually drops to about two
thousand feet, continuing at this level for some sixty-
five miles. On the whole, the Eastern Gobi, which
265
O \' K R L A NM:) to C 1 1 I X A
borders Manchuria, is not so barren and desolate
as the other parts.
If vegetation is scanty, animal life is still more so.
Herds of dzcrcn, belonging to the antelope species,
about the size of a goat, are sometimes met with, and
are lound principally in the eastern portion of the
Gobi. They are generally seen in herds of froni fif-
teen to forty, but in those rare spots where there is
good pasturage the herds number hundreds or, occa-
sionall}^ even thousands. They avoid man, are very
swift, and have great intelligence. One of their
ofreatest enemies is the wolf. Durina^ the winter
they often travel hundreds of miles to get away from
the snow\ and they will also cover great distances
in search of food, choosing always the best pastur-
age, but keeping entirely to the plains. Their avoid-
ance of thickets, high grass, or any kind of cover,
renders it a matter of extreme difficulty to get near
enough to shoot them, and when merely wounded
they generally escape. The method adopted by the
Mongols is to dig pits at intervals in those parts
where the dzeren are plentiful, and these are left for
some weeks, so that the animals get accustomed to
the sight of them. After this some of the hunters
armed w^ith matchlocks conceal themselves in the
pits, while others make a circuit round the herd and
gradually drive them towards the ambush, no shot
being fired until the animals are within fifty paces
of the guns. Another method is for a Mongol to
lide over the desert on a camel till he sights a herd
of dzeren. He then dismounts, and, concealing
266
EASTERN M O N G O L I A
himself as much as possible behind the camel,
approaches the herd, sometimes getting within as
close as a hundred paces.
In addition to the dzcren, a small animal of the
marmot species is found, which burrows its way in
most parts of the steppe, but as a rule no sign of life
is seen in the desert save the wheelino; flocks of
ravens and crows, on the lookout for a meal. These
birds are held sacred by the nomads, who call them
"the Sepulchre of the Mongol," and will not kill them.
Consequently they are very bold and rapacious, and
will almost enter tents, while they peck open the pack-
ages of food and often attack the camels by tearing
at their humps. Sand-grouse, which lay their eggs,
three in number, on the bare sand, are fairly plentiful,
and are seen flying at great speed in search of water,
after their morning meal of various grass seeds.
Wild animals are numerous in Mongolia, and in-
clude the tiger, the panther, a wolf of great size and
ferocity, and the brown and black bear, the ounce,
elk, stag, wild goat, wild ass, hare, and squirrel. The
yak also, the "long-haired" or "grunting" ox, is
found near the Tola River, although it was at one
time supposed that this animal was peculiar to
Tibet. The wild duck and the merganser, which
make their appearance in such large flocks in the
neighborhood of Pekinc: and Kals^an during the
month of March, forming quite a distinct character-
istic of the scenery, set out in flocks for the Mon-
golian desert and Siberia as soon as the temperature
in these places gets warm.
267
O \' i: R L A N D TO CHINA
The lack of agricultural enterprise among the
Mongols has prevented the resources of the country
from being exploited, but in the lower valleys of
the mountainous regions oats, potatoes, and barley
are grown, and in the southern parts the ordinary
products of Northern China. Indigo, the poppy, and
the mulberry- tree are reared in the east, on the
borders of Manchuria. The plains are for the most
part covered only with prairie grass ; but, in the
south and southeast especially, as one descends from
the plateau into the valleys towards China Proper,
the country is fertile, and in summer there is an
abundance of wild flowers. The 2:rass and flowers,
however, bear no comparison in coloring or luxuri-
ance to those of the meadow-lands of Europe, and
a couple of days' journey northward from China
brings one again to a desert country covered only
witli scrub. The southern valleys themselves are
populous and thriving, and far from presenting an
uncheerful aspect. Monotony and melancholy are,
however, the chief features of the Gobi Desert.
The desert stretches south almost to the verse of
China Proper, from which it is separated by the
Great Wall. This structure has long since ceased to
form a real boundarv to China, owins: to the immi-
gration of agricultural Chinese, who, establishing
themselves in the valleys which slope down from the
Gobi, have reclaimed a portion of that desert, which
they call Tsaoti or "Grassy Lands." As the writer,
late at night, reached the Great Wall, some twenty
miles from the Chinese frontier town of Kalean, a
268
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EASTERN MONGOLIA
Chinaman put his head into the cart, and, to the great
astonishment of the writer, addressed him in Russian:
" Vi-H Gospodin kotori dolshen pribit Kalgan ?" (Is
master going to Kalgan?) The man had been sent
bv one of the Russian tea firms at Kaloran to meet
the "foreigner." On passing from the Gobi into
China, and as the Great Wall is left behind, the
climate gradually becomes warmer, the streams more
plentiful, the whole scene more animated, until at
last we are in the Flowery Land, with its numerous
villages, busy roads, and industrious population.
And, pace M. Hue, the first sign of China is the
pig, the hideous black pig beloved of the Chinese,
"gavorting" in the distance; and not the "all-per-
vading musk," as the Abbe says.
And here it may not be out of place to remark
on the striking similarity of type, noticeable as one
passes southward, between the Buriat, the Mongol,
the Chinese, the Shans, and the Burmese. Their
singing, especially, has a strong resemblance. A
Mongol cameleer crooning to himself was the first
thing to make the writer thoroughly realize that
Russia was left behind, and that one was moving in
the direction of China. Music, indeed, plays an im-
portant part in the social life of the country we are
now entering. The travelling minstrel, with guitar
or flute, can pick up an easy living among \\\^ yourtas
of the Mongols, who gather round to hear him chant
in monotonous tones, but with a note of wild pathos,
the songs of the country. Some are love ditties, but
most have reference (like the Norwegian Saga and
271
OVERLAND TO CHINA
the folk-songs of so many countries) to the daring
exploits of warrior ancestors in the past — perhaps
of Genghis Khaii and his victorious armies. The
modern Mongol, sunk in indolence and apathy, must
still have a spark of the divine fire left, since he loves
to remember the days of bygone glory. Such a lay
is the " Song of the Black Colt," the most popular
in all Monoolia.
The Chakhar country, as the south of Mongolia is
called, is a belt about one hundred and thirty miles
wide by three hundred in length, forming a sort of
neutral zone between China and the Gobi, and is in-
habited very largely by Chinese, or by a mixed race,
the offspring of Chinese fathers and Mongol mothers.
This region, besides being agricultural, affords good
pasturage. Its inhabitants are largely employed by
the Chinese government as a sort of frontier militia,
whose raison d'etre would seem to be to supply a
considerable number of officials with more or less
lucrative positions.
Mongolia is peopled partly with nomadic and partly
with agricultural tribes, all claiming descent from the
ancient Scythians and Huns, whose sphere of action,
far from being confined to Asia, spread to the very
sea-coast of Western Europe. These ancient con-
querors gradually made their way to the borders
of the Chinese Empire, and in the third century
before Christ became so formidable that the Chinese
built the Great Wall to check their inroads. No
other people ever so greatly disturbed the neigh-
boring nations, and, while acting up to the spirit of
EASTERN MONGOLIA
their proud motto, "Erein mor nigeii bui " (A mans
path is only one) — namely, through sufferings, bold-
ness, and valor, to attain eternal glory^they were in-
l ofG. 50-
100°
C Perron
Mongol
Empire
Empire of the
Grand Moghul
<?
Empire of
Tamerlane
INVASIONS OF THE MONGOLS AND CONQUESTS OF THEIR SUCCESSORS
superable. Their dominions at one period extended
from Poland to Hungary in the west, to China in
the east, and the Mongolian court of Kublai Khan
s 273
OVERLAND TO CHINA
at Peking was considered the most magnificent in
the world ; for a considerable period the Mongols
in Russia, under the name of " The Golden Horde,"
exacted homage from all the States, including Mus-
covy, which was eventually to rule not only Russia
in Europe, but a vast empire in Asia, including
the very descendants of these same Mongolian
tribes. But. though the success attending their
arms was extraordinary, their tribal divisions made it
impossible for them ever to become a great nation.
Some great warrior, some leader of commanding
personality, could band them together and lead
them to conquest, but the campaign once over they
broke up again ; then by degrees they lost their
national characteristics, became merged on their
frontiers with the peoples they had conquered, were
themselves subdued in the seventeenth century, and
are now merely a part, and a comparatively unim-
portant one, of the Chinese Empire. There is a fre-
quently quoted saying of one of the ministers of
Genghis Khan (the great Emperor and hero of the
Mongols, from whom all the present-day " princes "'
claim descent) : " The kingdom has been gained on
horseback, but it cannot be governed on horseback,""
a motto which betokens a surprising amount of en-
lisfhtenment for the time at which it was uttered.
It has frequently been said, and seemingly with truth,
that the ancient Monorols showed orreater considera-
tion, especially in the matter of religion, to the nations
they subdued than did the conquering hosts of many
Christian and Mohammedan countries. Such mod-
274
EASTERN MONGOLIA
eration points to a degree of civilization which is
lacking in the IMongol of the nineteenth centur}^,
who, were he capable of conquest, would certainly
be incapable of using his power rightly.
The prevalent impression that the influence of the
IMongol conquerors on Russia was slight and super-
ficial is inaccurate. Russia was, in fact, in the posi-
tion merely of a vassal state, having no Mongol or
Tartar population scattered throughout her terri-
tory, but being compelled to send her princes to
attend the Mongol Khans, even at Karakoroum, in
Mongolia, when called on. From these princes hom-
age of the most humiliating character was exacted;
for instance, they were forced " to lick up any drops
which fell from the Mongol's cup as he drank." And
this state of affairs continued till the year 1478,
when, for the first time, the Tsar refused homage
to the Khan of the Great Horde. In addition to this
exaction of homage, the Mongol power extended to
the collection of a poll-tax, and also to the requisi-
tioning of military contingents. The Grand Dukes
had to obtain a yarlik, or firman, from the Khan
before they could ascend the throne, and they could
not wage war without the sanction of the Suzerain.
Thus the Muscovite nobility became partly Oriental-
ized, and one of the Tsars actually was of Mongol
origin, while Russian dress became gradually more
and more Eastern in character, as witness the long,
flowing kaftaii^ or over-robe. The Mongol influence
was naturally most powerful in the case of the Rus-
sian rulers and aristocracy, who were in close con-
275
OVERLAND TO CHINA
tact with tlieir Mongol suzerain. The style and cer-
emony of the court were modelled after Asiatic forms,
and the Russian nobles even shaved their heads
and dressed as directed by their conquerors, wearing
skull-caps similar to those now in use in Central
Asia, while the very crown, called the " cap of Vla-
dimir Monomakh," is nothing but a Kirghiz cap
ornamented with precious stones.
Not merely in externals — dress, manners, and
habits of life — did the Russian princes and boyars,
the oflficials and richer merchants, imitate the Tar-
tars. The very spirit of the people was affected.
During the whole of the " Moscow period," up to the
time of Peter the Great, the control and the state-
craft generally were Tartar. The Tartar immi-
grants, drawn into Russian service, in the second
generation usually became orthodox Russians. But
to placate those who might object to such a process,
a special Khanate was founded — the Kingdom of
Kasimof — where for two hundred years Mohamme-
danism was the state religion. Two things gener-
ally cited as consequences of Mongol domination
would appear to be attributable to other causes.
The severe punishments formerly in use in Russia
came from Constantinople with the ecclesiastical
law, which became included in the civil law; and
the Mongols did not seclude their women, for they
appeared in public on all state occasions. The
knout, however, was probably introduced by the
Mongols, as was also the custom of the praviozh, or
public flagellation of defaulting debtors.
276
EASTERN MONGOLIA
The southern Mongols, especially those who live
on the borders of China Proper, have so much inter-
married with the Chinese that the national type has
been considerably modified. Unfortunately, the worst
traits of both people seem to perpetuate themselves,
with the result that the Mongol has lost his energy
and martial spirit, while he has acquired much of the
cunning and yf^^^i-j-^ of the lowest type of Chinese.
The combination is not attractive, and to these
characteristics must be added the childish credulity
of ignorance, and the slavish superstition of a priest-
ridden nation. This degeneracy, however, must not
be attributed entirely to the mixture of Chinese
blood, for even in the Mongols proper (if any be
really entitled to that name), such as the Kalkas,
who occupy the northern and northeastern regions,
there is a noticeable falling off in character. These
are mostly tribes of the more strictly nomad descrip-
tion — whose fiocks and herds provide for their daily
needs, the cattle being exchanged with town-dwellers,
and the wool being spun and woven by the women
— who are simpler and less suspicious than their
southern brethren. The crafty Chinese make great
profit out of their stupidity and inability to under-
stand business. In his Souvenir dun Voyage, the
Abbe Hue gives an admirable description of the
way in which the Chinese beguile the Mongol who
has come to a Chinese city, probably to sell his tea
or dispose of cattle. " Tea is prepared for him at
once, his cattle are attended to, a thousand little
attentions are shown him ; he is caressed, flat-
277
OVERLAND TO CHINA
tered, almost mesmerized. A good meal is served
him free of charge in the room behind the shop,
and this finally convinces him of the devotion of the
Chinese confraternity. No sooner have they become
friendly with the poor Mongol than they never leave
liim. They give him spirits in abundance, making
him drink till he is almost intoxicated. They keep
him thus three or four days in their houses, never
letting him out of their sight, making him eat,
drink, and smoke, while the shop assistants sell his
cattle at their pleasure, and buy him sucli things as
he may need." Not altogether unlike the poor up-
country prospector and miner or ranchman in Aus-
tralia and California, who is subjected to much the
same sort of treatment as long as anything remains
in his pocket ! As for the Russian opinion of the
Mongol, it is graphically illustrated by their prov-
erbs, " The Tartar, like a dog, has no soul — only
vapor," say they, while their favorite epithet for the
Mongol is " Swine's ear" — peculiarly offensive, as
the pig is considered unclean.
The Mongols have the childish inquisitiveness of
the savage, and pester a traveller with the most trifling
questions, the answers to which they often do not
understand, for the extremely conservative order of
their minds and the monotonous existence they lead,
out of touch with any world but their own, makes it
difficult for them to grasp anything outside their or-
dinary experiences. Still, the common people, or
"black folk, "as they are called, when uncontaminated
by Chinese or priestly teaching, are kind and simple-
278
EASTERN MONGOLIA
minded; but their extreme laziness, lack of enter-
prise, and abnormal gluttony make them but degen-
erate descendants of a race of great warriors, who in
their time mastered so considerable a section of the
world.
Love of money characterizes nomads and agri-
culturalists alike, and bribery is not only common
but invariable. Few thino^s in ]\Ion2:olia can be
accomplished without it, and nothing is more char-
acteristic than the extreme circumlocution with
which a bargain is accomplished. Tea - drinking
and general conversation invariably precede any
business on which a would-be purchaser and seller
meet, and very gradually, and with great precaution,
the subject is led up to, when, of course, the buyer
offers less and the seller demands more than he is
prepared to agree to. As the proverb says : " When
the seller cheats up to heaven in the price he asks,
you come down to earth in the price you offer."
The whole affair takes several hours, being con-
cluded without word of mouth. The barsrain is
struck by merely a pressure of the fingers, concealed
by the long, hanging sleeve, so that the utmost secrecy
may cover the whole transaction. The matter is not
even then ended, for the silver offered and the scales
in which it is weighed come in for the most search-
ing scrutiny ! The Mongol is evidently persuaded
that honor must not be expected, even among thieves.
Gluttony is another common failing, and this in
an extraordinary degree, mutton (of a most delicious
quality, it must be owned) being the favorite dish.
279
OVERLAND TO CHINA
Mutton, in fact, is a passion with the Mongol, and
the highest praise he can bestow on anything in the
world is to say it is " as good as mutton." Even the
lovelorn Mongol swain can find no more enthusiastic
description of his Dulcinea than to put her in the
same category as his favorite food. The Mongols
also eat the flesh of goats and horses, and, more
rarely, of cows and camels, while they dislike fowl
or fish, which they consider unclean. The lamas, or
priests, who refuse ordinary meat, have no objection
to carrion, especially if at all fat. Cookery in Mon-
golia is a very simple business indeed. The usual
method of preparing the mutton is to boil it, the
breast being sometimes roasted as a delicacy.
When frozen, as is the case on a winter's journey,
and therefore requiring a long while to cook, they
slice off pieces from the surface, which are eaten
half raw, returning the meat to the pot — a disgusting
performance. The extent of their appetites is stu-
pendous. A Mongol will eat more than ten pounds
of meat at a sitting, and some have been known to
devour an average-sized sheep in the course of twen-
ty-four hours ! On a journey, when provisions are
economized, a whole leg of mutton is the ordinary
daily ration for one man. Another favorite food is
" meal tea," a compound made with " brick tea," fat,
and meal (and of about the consistency of porridge),
which is eaten in the morning and at mid -day.
Snow and ice are melted for cooking purposes in
the winter-time, ice-blocks being carried on one of
the camels ; and it is characteristic of the Mongol
280
EASTERN MONGOLIA
that, with a wooden shovel always carried for the
purpose, he gathers up the snow round his tent,
without any qualms as to its cleanliness.
If the Mongol is a glutton, he is even more of a
drunkard, and in engaging a servant it is useless to
stipulate that he should be sober. As with Siberian
servants, one can only hope that he may drink rather
less than usual. The most innocent beveracre is milk,
which is got from cows, goats, sheep, camels, and
mares. The mares' milk is kept till it is sour, each
day's pailful being emptied into tlie last, and the
whole being frequently stirred up. In Southern Mon-
golia it is kept in earthenware Jars about four feet
high, and in Central and North Mongolia in skin
bags of the same dimensions. This soured mares'
milk, a kind of arrak* if drunk in great quantities,
produces intoxication ; it is also used to distil a
species of whiske3^ largely produced and much
drunk, supplemented whenever possible by the Chi-
nese spirit, which is a good deal stronger. This
spirit is much prized by the Mongols, who rarely
visit China without bringing some back ; and the
itinerant Chinese trader, who travels from tent to
tent bartering his goods, usually balances accounts
with some of his whiskey, which costs hhii very lit-
tle, but is a costly luxury to the poor Mongol.
* The arrak, according to Gilmour, is put into a huge pot, covered .
with what looks like a barrel with both ends knocked out ; a vessel
is suspended in the middle of the barrel, and a pot kept filled with
cold water is set at the top; after a few minutes' boiling the vessel
inside the barrel is found filled with pure and good spirit.
281
OVERLAND TO CHINA
Tlic most repulsive feature of the Mongol's char-
acter is his dirtiness, which is simply unspeakable.
The least uncleanly Mongol (it would be a mockery
to talk of the cleanest) does not wash any portion of
his person more than once a day, and that in the
most elementary manner, while many never attempt
to wash at all. A little water is poured into the
ever-present wooden cup, from which it is either
emptied little by little into the hand, or taken into
the mouth and squirted out as needed. It is usually
considered quite sufficient to wash only the face and
hands, while, for drying, the Mongol uses anything
that comes first, and, as may be imagined, little
time is wasted in the cleaning of pots and cups,
which are simply licked out after each meal. The
natural consequence of such habits is skin-disease,
which is very prevalent. In defence of the Mongols
it is said that these peculiarities are partly due to a
superstitious belief common among them that if they
use too much water they will become fishes. Be
this as it may, they certainly avoid, in their more
permanent yoiirtas, or tents, the proximity of water,
preferring even to have to carry from a distance
what they need for cooking purposes. When on
the march they are obliged, for the sake of pastur-
age for their animals, to encamp not too far from a
stream or well, and on such occasions they display
a remarkable instinctive knowledge of locality, vary-
ing the length of their journey with much skill in
order to halt at a good grazing-place.
It is pleasant to turn to at least one good feature,
282
EASTERN MONGOLIA
and a highly attractive one, in the Mongol character
— their extreme hospitality — which is especially no-
ticeable among the poorer people. No matter who
he may be, the stranger alighting at any tent will
always be warmly welcomed and given food, and his
horse or camel attended to; and all without any
thought of remuneration, except, perhaps, the gift
of a little tea, should he happen to have any with
him. Any Mongol who refuses to offer hospitality,
or even q;ives a cold welcome to a traveller, is stie-
matized as " not a man, but a dog"; and it is a great
grievance with many Mongols that, having enter-
tained Chinese and foreigners to the best of their
ability in their own homes, they have been given
" the cold shoulder " on presenting themselves at
the Peking houses of their former guests. The
highest honor which can be paid to a guest is to
set before him the rump of a sheep with the tail
attached, because, each animal having only one tail,
it follows that the sheep must have been killed to
make the dish, and also that it must have been a
ofood one, for otherwise it would not have a tail fit
to be seen.
The snuff -bottle plays a very important part in
general social intercourse. These bottles vary in
value according to the rank and w^ealth of the
owner, the cheapest being of glass and the better
ones sometimes of stone, beautifully made. The
etiquette attaching to the use of snuff prescribes
that the visitor should first offer his bottle to the
host (in the case of a foreigner who does not carry
283
OVERLAND TO CHINA
snuff, the Mongol entertainer will present his), which
must be received in the palm of the hand, carefully
carried towards the nose, the stopper lifted, and a sniff
taken; then, the stopper being readjusted, the bottle
is with the greatest care and gravity handed back
to the owner. The possession of a large and well-
filled snuff- bottle is a sine qua non and a male pre-
rogative, but the Mongol woman apes her lord by
carrying a small, flat bottle, mostly unfilled, which
she will also present to a visitor. Politeness forbids
that the emptiness should be noticed, and the same
ceremony is gone through with due deliberation.
While it is proceeding, questions are asked as to
the health of the cattle, which every one by courtesy
is supposed to possess, and not until these questions
are answered does the personal welfare of host and
guest become a matter of mutual interest.
Besides his cattle, but longo intervallo, the two
most interesting subjects of conversation to a Mon-
gol are medicine and religion. As regards the for-
mer, he is always interested to hear of new cures,
and the foreigner is to him a wonderful person,
chiefly on account of his knowledge of disease and
its remedies. The Mongol is very credulous in such
matters, and easily imposed upon by the Chinese
doctors, while the dash of fatalism in his character
makes him accept calmly, if it comes, the news that
his case is hopeless. As to religion, it is here only
necessary to mention that it plays so important a
part in the lives of these people — among whom
every third man is priest or lama, and where every
284
EASTERN MONGOLIA
family when travelling (and they are on the move a
great portion of the year) carries its own priest with
it — that, necessarily, the miracles and ceremonies of
their faith enter largely into their lives and form one
of the chief topics of their conversation.
285
CHAPTER XIV
EASTERN MONGOLIA— (Continued)
The pre-eminence given to cattle in the inter-
change of social amenities is only natural, considering
the important position which the breeding and tend-
ing of cattle occupies in the life of Mongolia. Agri-
culture, except in the south, is little practised, and
as a rule the Mongol spends the whole summer,
when his animals are out grazing, in riding from
tent to tent, drinking tea, and gossiping, and only
exerts himself in the autumn and winter, when the
camels must be collected for the tea transport. The
exposure he can endure is extraordinary; he will sit
for hours on his camel in a cold wind with absolute
unconcern. Every Mongol, at least among the no-
mads, is a born horseman, and understands every
point of his animals. Girls are seen everywhere
mounted on horses and camels. Horse -racing is a
favorite amusement, and it is said that some years
aoTQ, at the festival held in honor of the birth of
a Mongol Buddha, there were actually over three
thousand competitors in the races. In traversing
even the shortest distances a Mongol will ride in
preference to walking, and invariably herds his cattle
on horseback. Even when intoxicated he can keep
286
EASTERN MONGOLIA
his seat and perform gyrations which would dismount
any ordinary horseman. In the south, flocks of goats
are kept on the hill-sides, and the herdsmen use a
curious crook with a bend in the end, by means of
which they can sling stones to frighten refractory
goats and prevent their getting into dangerous
places.
The most usual and on the whole most conven-
ient method of travelling in Mongolia is by camel
caravan, and, though oxen can be used in some
parts of the country, there are districts and times of
the year in which only the camel is possible, while
for rapid transport it is at all times indispensable.
The camel cart is a square wooden vehicle with two
wheels, long enough to enable the traveller to lie at
full length should he feel so inclined, though the
roughness of the roads, the lack of springs, and the
cramped nature of the vehicle do not exactly woo
one to repose.* The ox-carts are cheaper and are
much used for freight, but are, especially to the
Western mind, terribly slow. The speed of a camel,
if such a term can be applied to its progress, is a
little over two miles an hour, allowing for stoppages
to adjust loads and for the animals breaking loose,
and other interruptions incidental to travel in the
remoter regions of the Far East. The journey from
Kiachta to Peking, a distance of about one thou-
* The appliances usually carried consist of a wicker jar of oil for
the wheels, an iron lantern and stock of candles, and an arrangement
for blocking the wheels, when, the camel taken from the shafts, the
cart remains resting on a support in front.
287
OVERLAND TO CHINA
sand miles, can, however, be accomplished in twenty-
five days (vvhich means travelling sixteen hours to
cover forty miles a day), or even less, and for such
a speed the traveller is charged a higher rate, the
journey usually taking about thirty days.
As may be supposed, a journey through Mongolia,
though possessing some interest at first, soon be-
comes to the ordinary traveller almost unendurably
monotonous, the slow and tedious progress through
interminable undulating plains being wearisome in
the extreme. Of the various methods of travel,
horseback in summer-time is least open to this ob-
jection. Hill and vale, temples, Mongol tents, oxen,
are passed with greater rapidity, and the journey
may perhaps be varied by a chase after some un-
expectedly encountered herd of startled deer, with
afterwards a rest and a meal at the tent of some hos-
pitable though filthy Mongol. No one with fastid-
ious tastes would appreciate travelling in Mongolia.
The camels found in Mongolia are of the two-
humped Bactrian species, the one -humped camel
common in Turkistan being quite unknown here.
Their endurance is remarkable, and is only equalled
by their power of assimilation. Some will eat any-
thing that comes in their way — leather, old tents,
and even saddles, while most of them can find sus-
tenance in the sparse and wiry vegetation of the
desert, and regard the onion and the biidarhana as
positive delicacies. Salt is, however, a necessity of
life, and a dry atmosphere is the only one in which
they can flourish. Patient, helpless, timid animals
288
EASTERN MONGOLIA
these, without much intelHgence, and incapable of
defendins: themselves from the attacks of wolves or
birds of prey.
Before the departure of the caravan in autumn,
the camels, which have been at grass all summer, and
have put on too much flesh, are prepared for work
by being fastened with their halters to a long rope
stretched along the ground and secured at the ends
to two poles driven firmly into the ground. In this
way they are kept standing without any food for ten
days, or even more, only receiving a little water
every third or fourth day, a practice which hardens
them and takes down their spare flesh. A Kalgan
merchant is reported to have actually kept his camels
in this way without food, watering them only every
other day, for seventeen days! In March they be-
gin shedding their coats, and by the end of June the
hair has entirely disappeared, leaving the skin quite
bare. Grotesque-looking animals they are at this
period, when they are susceptible to cold, rain, and
every change of weather ; and so weak are they that
even a small load soon galls their back. But a fine,
short, mouse -like hair soon begins to cover their
whole bodies, and by the end of September the new
coat is full}'- grown. On a winter journey they are
hardly ever unsaddled, but on arrival at the halting-
place are at once let loose to graze. In summer
and hot weather the saddles must be removed ev-
ery day, and even then, with all due care and precau-
tion, sore backs cannot always be avoided.
The Mongol is almost a part of his camel, and
T 289
OVERLAND TO CHINA
on its back can sleep, read, and even write. The
writer's cliief camel-driver was wont to rest his head
on the front hump (as if it were a pillow) and sys-
tematically go to sleep, and the Chinese who accom-
panied the expedition as Mongol interpreter — al-
though, as a matter of fact, he knew nearly as little
Russian and quite as little Mongol as the writer him-
self, and was, moreover, in a continual state of war-
fare with the drivers — remarked : " Mongol man can
walkee top-side camel all day, all night." Indeed,
what the Mongol would do without his camel it is
impossible to say. The invaluable animal supplies
him with milk, and with wool for his clothing, be-
sides being his faithful companion and frequently
his means of livelihood. It " pays the rint " far
more literally than the proverbial Irishman's pig,
and, being a long-lived animal if well treated (fre-
quently attaining the age of thirty or even forty years),
it will last its master the greater part of a lifetime.
In damp weather it often suffers from coughs, and
occasionally from glanders, but the commonest form
of ailment is the mange, known as homtin by the
Mongols.
Postal communication throuQ:h Monscolia was es-
tablished by the treaties of Tientsin (1858) and Pe-
king (1860). These treaties gave to Russia powers
to organize regular transmission of mails between
Kiachta, Peking, and Tientsin. Russian post-offices
have been established at Urga, Kalgan, Peking, and
Tientsin, the post being carried from Kiachta as far
as Kalgan by Mongols, and afterwards by Chinese.
290
EASTERN MONGOLIA
Light, horse-carried mails leave Kiachta and Peking-
three times a month, the journey occupying about
twelve days. For the benefit of the Russian po-
litical and clerical Missions at Peking, the Chinese
government carries monthly, by means of camels, a
heavy post (not over twenty-five hundredweights),
which takes from twenty to twenty-four days. The
Russian government spends on this service annually
about ^2400, while the total receipts are only about
^430. On special occasions, such as the transport
of important official documents between China and
Russia, Cossacks act as couriers, travelline with re-
lays of horses in a two-wheeled Chinese government
cart. The journey, about one thousand miles, occu-
pies nine or ten days, the only payment made being a
gratuity of three silver rubles (about eight shillings)
left by the courier at each station.
The tea-carrying trade between China and Russia
is carried on to a large extent by the Mongols, the
tea being brought from Kalgan to Urga( the great
centre of the trade), where it is examined by Russian
agents, who then engage fresh carriers to transport
it to Kiachta. The necessity of having of^cials to
preside over this trade led to the establishment of a
Russian settlement at Urga, where, however, the
number of Russians is still small, being only aug-
mented when, for political exigencies — or, as the
Russians might put it, owing to the unsettled state
of the country — the subjects of the White Tsar
may require additional protection. It may here be
noted that the chief exports of Urga are hides and
291
OVERLAND TO CHINA
timber, the principal imports being tea and cloth-
ing material.
The Mongolian language has no relationship to
the Chinese, but in its written form resembles that
of the Manchus, who founded their writing on the
Mongol characters, originally borrowed from the
Uighur Turks of Kashgaria. This was the form of
writing used by Genghis Khan and his successors,
and was probably brought into Turkistan by Nesto-
rian missionary monks, who adapted it from the old
Syriac. The characters were somewhat modified in
tlic thirteenth century, and an attempt was made to su-
persede them by Tibetan forms in the time of Kublai
Khan, but eventually the Uighuresque characters
were more or less perfected, adopted at the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century, and remain in use to
this day. The colloquial language is very different
from the written, abounding in dialects and in modi-
fications. A line of Mongolian writing is said to be
like a knotted cord, while the people themselves say
it resembles water poured from a jug. As an illus-
tration of the difference between the spoken and the
written lanecuac^es of Mono^olia and Manchuria, it is
curious to note that, although their writing is closely
allied, their colloquial language is quite different.
There is practically no Mongolian literature, except
the sacred books and liturgies, for the Mongol is
so absorbed in his religion that it would seem to
him waste of time to write or copy anything on
other subjects. The lamas and princes are the
only people sufficiently educated to take any inter-
292
EASTERN M O N G O L 1 A
est in books, the poor people being as a rule quite
illiterate.
The dwelling of the nomadic Mongol is a
yotcrta * made of felt. This tent is round and
cone-shaped, having a skeleton of wooden laths made
lattice-wise, to expand or shut up. A sort of chimney
is constructed at the apex with poles, which are at-
tached to the laths and stuck into a hoop at the top.
Usually one or, in winter, two sheets of felt are
drawn all round ; a space about three feet square is
left in the laths for the doorway, which is closed in
with felt, and the chimney affords light and air.
The fire burns constantly in the centre of the tent,
and round it felt is laid down, while in the wealth-
ier yoicrias there are carpets for sitting and sleep-
ins: on, and the tent is lined with silk or cotton.
The domestic utensils and the household gods
{burkkans) complete the furniture, which has the
merit of being exceedingly portable. When a Mon-
gol wants to move he has no dii^culty in packing up
his home, while on the whole this primitive form of
dwellino- is warmer in winter and cooler and dryer
in summer than might be expected. The traveller
must be careful not to approach a yoiLvta except
from the front, making a wide detour, if necessary,
in order to do so. He must also shout vigorously
to the inhabitants to protect him from their dogs ;
otherwise he may find it a matter of some difficulty
* Yourta is the name used by foreigners. The Mongols call it
gi-rai, as distinguished from a travelling-tent, which they call mai-
chung.
293
OVERLAND TO CHINA
to ward off the attacks of these animals; but the
" fierce Mongol clog " of travellers' tales is not to be
met with. The agricultural Mongol does not live
in tents, but builds himself houses and villages much
like the Chinese. The houses are sometimes round,
but mostly on the Chinese model, and are built of
mud, or bricks made of mud, and furnished with
tables and chairs in the Chinese fashion. These
people are more civilized than their nomad brethren
in that they bury their dead, whereas the nomads
leave the bodies to be devoured by wild beasts and
birds of prey. The agricultural implements used
are like those of the Chinese, only rougher, the carts
being particularly uncouth, with great solid w^ooden
wheels, seldom circular, and wooden axles, not quite
straight, the whole primitive and unfinished.
The Mongolian women, unlike many of their
Kirohiz sisters, have none of the attractions, at all
events to a Western eye, which are usually expected
in their sex ; nor is their position an enviable one.
They are household drudges, and take little care of
themselves, with the result that very little is bestowed
upon them by their lords and masters. The marriage
laws give as much freedom to the idiosyncrasies of
the contracting parties as the most ardent Western
reformer could wish, only they betray a partiality for
the sterner sex which is not surprising in a country
where woman is still the mere accessory of man and
by no means his equal. The Mongols have proverbs
similar to the Russian ones : " Love your wife as
your own soul, and beat her like your fur"; " It is
294
EASTERN MONGOLIA
my wife, my thing." Thus a Mongol can have but
one lawful wife, but if the marriage turns out badly
he can divorce her, without returning any part of the
'V .i^S -^.^
KIRGHIZ WOMAN
dowry— usually the jj/^?^^/«, with all its fittings— which
he has received with her from her parents. He can
also divorce her merely for whim or caprice, but in
that case must return some part of the dower. On
295
OVERLAND TO CHINA
the other hand, a woman may leave her husband
if he is not "affectionate" — that is, presumably, if
lie works her too hard and beats her too often ; but
in that case she must repay part of the antenup-
tial settlement. As this, however — whether cattle,
clothing, or cash — has been handed to her relatives,
who naturally may not have the slightest desire to
return it, there is every probability that the average
wife will have to put up with her husband, whether
"affectionate" or not. Somewhat reversing the order
or a Western wedding, the only people of importance
at a Mongolian bridal are the husband's relatives.
Asa preliminary to the ceremony, the stars are con-
sulted, and, should they prove unfavorable, the wed-
ding will not take place.
The Mongolian type of countenance is not intel-
lectual, being distinguished by a low, narrow fore-
head, and, except when modified by Chinese inter-
marriage, by a somewhat childish expression. The
high cheek-bones and small, dark, elongated eyes
resemble the Chinese, but the nose is not quite so
short and flat nor the face so rounded. The Mon-
gols have coarse, black hair,* very scanty in the
beard and whiskers ; large, protuberant ears, a dark,
sun-burned complexion, and, lastly, a stout, thick-set
figure, rather above the average height of Asiatics.
Their distinctive characteristics are their general
gravity of expression and cautious, inquisitive mode
* There is a Russian proverb which says : " The red-haired Zyra-
nin is created by God; the red-haired Tartar, by the devil."
296
EASTERN ]\I O N G O L I A
of address. Those who live iii the immediate vicin-
ity of tlie Great Wall, and who have intermarried
with the Chinese, have also adopted to a large
extent their dress and manners ; but the true Mongol
is very conservative, and his costume and habits
have varied little indeed since they first became
COIFFURE OF A KIRGHIZ BRIDE
known to history. There is little difference in dress
between the sexes. In winter the clothinq; is of
blue daba (Chinese cotton stuff), with outer garments
of skins, while in summer silk is worn. The details
of dress, especially among the women, vary in differ-
ent districts, but the outer crarment of both sexes is
297
O \' E R L A N D TO CHIN A
invariably a wide, roomy coat, with ample sleeves,
which reaches to the ground, the women allowing it
to hano: loose from the shoulders, while the men
wear a belt. This coat is used as a blanket at night.
Gilmour gives an amusing description of the sur-
]Drise of a traveller watching a woman who, mounted
on a camel, was leading another harnessed to his
cart. " Her hands disappeared, and inexplicable
leanincjs and movements were seen about the shoul-
ders till at last the gown slid off and revealed another
more suitable for the heat of the day. The girl had
actually managed to change her dress while riding
one camel and leading another." The lamas invaria-
bly wear and carry, as originally prescribed by their
great teacher,
"... three plain cloths,
Yellow, of stitched stuff, worn with shoulder bare,
A girdle, alms-bowl, strainer,"
and at prayer-time they don special yellow mantles
and tall caps, according to their rank. Like the
Chinese, the Mongols shave the head, only leaving
sufficient hair for a long pig-tail behind. The women
plait their hair in two braids, and decorate it with
ribbons and glass beads or strings of coral, their
love for such ornaments showing that they are not
altogether devoid of the weaknesses of their sex.
Silver brooches (fastened in the hair above the
forehead), ear-rings, and bracelets are also customary.
Though the freedom of intercourse between peo-
ple and officials is a matter that has often been
298
EASTERN MONGOLIA
remarked on — they smoke and chat together with-
out restraint — it must not be imagined that class
distinctions have no place in the life of the Mongols.
They are divided into four classes; princes, nobles,
clergy, and common people. The first two form an
exclusive aristocracy, by which the common people
are held in a sort of serfdom. These "princes" are
so numerous that the Russians usually address all
Mongols ironically as " prince," and have a quaint
proverb which exhorts the " prince " to perform the
most menial duties : " Prince, O prince, take a
pitchfork and help to rake the dung-heap !"
A cattle tax is the only one levied, except on
special occasions, such as the visit of a prince to
Peking, or the marriage of one of his children, when
a special collection is made. The inhabitants of
Inner Mongolia consist of forty nine families or
clans, called " banners," each one having its own
chief and distins^uishins: flao^. These chieftains all
claim descent from Genghis Khan, and pay no tax
to China, being merely bound to military service.
On the contrary, the Chinese State subsidizes them,
allowing each one so much a year, in return for
which he is bound in allegiance to acknowledge the
Emperor as his over-lord, and not to enter into any
relations with a foreign power without reference to
Peking. There is a yearly assembly of princes, pre-
sided over by one of themselves, when local ques-
tions are decided, but this assembly is under the
control of the governor of the nearest Chinese prov-
ince. Each prince must appear at court two or
299
O \' I-: R L A N D TO CHINA
three times in the year, and take with him gifts,
sucli as camels and horses, in return for which he
receives presents of far greater value.
Tlie lamas are exempt from military service, and
form a class apart; it is no doubt partly owing to
the large numbers of this celibate priesthood and to
the diseases which, unchecked, ravage Mongolia,
that we must attribute the sparseness of the popula-
tion in comparison with the size of the country. It
has been variously estimated at between two and
three millions, but, whatever the exact figure may
be, there can be no doubt that the purely Mongolian
race is being rapidly assimilated by the Chinese.
The religion of Mongolia is Lamaism, which has
been called the " Romanism of the Buddhist Church."
In its complete development of the priestly preroga-
tive and assumption of temporal as well as spiritual
power, it has generally much in common with the
Church of Rome. The similarity, indeed, goes much
further, and becomes in many particulars so remark-
able, and in some cases even so grotesque, as to
have been the cause of much dismay and perplexity
among the missionaries of the Roman Church from
the days of the early Jesuits down to our own time.
It is to be regretted that this religion, which has
taken such a hold upon the people that in one of
the large cities it is said that every third man is a
lama, and that every Mongol family has its own
priest, does not exercise a better influence, on the
manners and morals of the people. In Tibet, the
lamaseries are served by nuns, who perform all house-
300
EASTERN MONGOLIA
work. These women dress as do other Tibetan wom-
en, with the exception that their dresses are of the
same material as that worn by the priests. These
nuns, who frequently live with theii" own families,
are treated with great respect by the people. They
are supposed, as are the priests, to devote themselves
entirely to the service of Buddha — a theory which,
according to common report, is not too strictly
carried out in practice. The lamaseries are not fa-
mous for a high standard of morality: " The monas-
tery faces the nunnery; there's nothing in that — yet
there may be !" says the cynical Chinese proverb-
Theoretically, Buddhism has many excellent doc-
trines, but its practical effect is to delude its votaries
as to moral guilt, and to encourage the sophisms
with which men are only too ready to gloss over
their evil deeds. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is
Nirvana, Eternal Rest and Peace, the shortest path
to which — according to the degenerate Buddhism of
the present day — is a life of complete non-doing, a
stagnant existence, passed merely in fruitless con-
templation. This chimes in exactly with, and largely
accentuates, the natural indolence of the Mongol.
What a falling off from the original teaching of
Buddhism, which contains so much that is rieht
and noble ! Truly the " Light of Asia," which be-
gan with such worthy aims, is setting in obscure
darkness.
There are four ranks of clergy, the word " lama,"
properly speaking, being only applied to one of the
higher grades. An examination in the Buddhist
301
OVERLAND TO CHINA
books must be passed before the candidate can attain
the first two ranks. The head of the whole Buddhist
hierarchy is the Dalai Lama, residing at Lhassa,
who is practically sovereign of Tibet, but owes fealty
to China. An able and enterprising Dalai Lama
could easily excite his people to revolt, but, though
the Lama nominally appoints his own successor,
China is careful to see to it that the choice shall
fall on sprne one of insignificant personality whom
they can easily dominate, and, if necessary, crush.
The Kutukhtu, or third person in the Tibetan patri-
archate, lives at Urga, which is the sacred city of
Mongolia, and only second in the opinion of the Mon-
gols to Lhassa. The Dalai Lama and the Urga
Kutukhtu, in Lama doctrine, are the living represen-
tatives of the Godhead, and when they die their
souls are reincarnated in newly born boys. These
Kutukhtus, or Gigens (who never make use of the
expression " at my death," but always " at my re-
newed birth"), are found in all the temples through-
out Mongolia and in Peking, all being lower in rank
than the one residing at Urga. The lamas educate
them, and, in order to preserve their own ascendency
(as any one of these boys may become the High
Priest of the order), do not encourage intellect or
character amonsf them.
Since the introduction of Buddhism, Tibetan has
been the Mongolian sacred language, in which all
the services are held and sacred books written.
There are three services a day in the temples, the
call to prayers being the blowing of trumpets made
302
EASTERN MONGOLIA
from large sea-shells. When the worshippers are
assembled the lamas seat themselves on the floor or
benches, and in a monotonous drone chant passages
from the sacred books. Their chanting is occasion-
ally broken by an exclamation from the presiding
lama, or by the clash of cymbals or brass plates,
which arc beaten at intervals. On festivals a more
imposing ceremonial is observed.
The divinities worshipped are not in all cases bor-
rowed from Tibet, and, consequently, from the Hin-
dus, as is the case with the purer form of Buddhism.
The Yaman-dag, or Goat -face, for instance, is of
national origin, a reminiscence of the old devil wor-
ship, and is represented as of a dark-blue color, with
a horned head adorned by a coronet of human skulls.
He is supposed to vomit flames, and has twenty
hands, all grasping human limbs or some instrument
of torture. In common with other uncouth divini-
ties, he is regarded with veneration by the Mongol,
who is profuse in propitiatory gifts at his shrines.
Superstition is rife in Mongolia, being an inte-
gral part of the religion of the priest-ridden people,
whose solitary, desert life is no doubt in part respon-
sible for their strong belief in the supernatural. The
Mongol has firm faith in soothsaying and augury,
and wastes large sums in propitiating the shamans.
No exposure of their fraud will convince him that it
is idle to rely on magicians and sorcerers, and his
every-day life is regulated by a series of the most
absurd superstitions. A journey must never be dis-
cussed beforehand; milk must not be sold in cloudy
OVERLAND TO CHINA
weather, lest the cattle should die; and many other
such rules must be followed if ill-luck is to be
avoided. The worship of the streams and lakes, of
the spirits of the wind, rain, clouds, water, and hills,
is still continued ; nor is this strange, when such wor-
ship is officially recognized even throughout China.
This is particularly noticeable in the north of Mon-
golia, the original home of the people, where all the
rivers and mountains are especially worshipped as
gods. Many are the legends connected with the
mountains. Both in Mongolia and in China there
are many traces of fetichism, as evidenced by the
number of sacred heaps of stones, known as obo, or
single stones and trees, to which offerings are made.
In both countries these possess "mystic potency" —
the ling of the Chinese. The Mongol holds them
in great reverence, and never passes without adding
to them a stone, rag, or tuft of camel's hair. In sum-
mer they arc the scene of religious festivals and the
meeting-place for the people on holidays.
It is probable, as already pointed out, that out of
every family one member at least, if not more, will
enter the priesthood. The Chinese government
encourages this system, fearing that if the country
became too populous it would be unmanageable.
Quite the contrary policy seems to be followed by
Russia, since among the Buriats, as the Mongols far-
ther north are called, lamas are comparatively rare.
Whether this is accomplished by official pressure or
by moral suasion, the fact remains. Unlike China,
Russia does not fear her ability to cope with a rap-
304
u
BURIAT LAMAS, WITH CHINESE INTERPRETER
EASTERN MONGOLIA
idly increasing population ; on the contrary, she
looks to them to aid her, when the time comes, in
overthrowing their present masters, the Chinese.
The Greek Church, supported of course by the Rus-
sian government, has taken an interest in the coun-
try, and has sent several missions to work in that
field ; so far, however, Christianity has made but little
headway.
At Kalgan, the town which guards the entrance
to the Great A\^all, arc three famous theological
schools for Mohammedans. It is said that the
^'faithful" in this town are far from beinq; strict in
their religious observances, and will at times smoke
opium, and even eat pork, " if only sold to them as
mutton."
All travellers in this country seem to agree that
the barbarous condition of the INIongols, and many
of their worst characteristics, are due to the mali2:n
influence of a debased religion. The sacred city of
Urga is famed for the number of its temples, one of
which, in the extreme west of the town, and on a
higher level than the other parts, is, with its imme-
diately surrounding houses, regarded as so peculiar-
ly holy that, according to report, no layman and no
w^oman is allowed to live there. Throughout the
town are placed praying-wheels, a turn given to one
of these being looked upon as equivalent to repeat-
ing the prayers wath which it is covered; and "fall-
ing worship" — /, i\, lying down fiat on the face and
marking with the forehead or with a piece of wood
the next place of prostration — is much resorted to.
307
OVERLAND TO CHINA
With scrupulous exactitude, too, does the Mongol
carry out in the letter the teachings of Buddhism
as to the sacredness of life. Even when one of the
small eagles, which hover over the outskirts of the
market, swoops down and makes a snatch at the
meat carried by a returning purchaser, he will, if it
has not been carried away, merely stoop down and
pick it up, and will then resume the interrupted tell-
ing of his beads as he proceeds on his way. And
vet Uroa is described as the wickedest and most
worldly city in the country, while the lamas, them-
selves brought up to a life of laziness — " only those
become bonzes who can't get a living," says the
proverb — with little learning, but immense influence
over the people, act as a sort of evil leaven, corrupt-
ing the whole mass of Mongolian society. They
can hardly be said to live up to the description
which has been given of them :
"The noble order of the Yellow Robe,
Which to this day standeth to help the Avorld."
On the contrary, it is their policy, in order to pre-
serve their ascendency, to manage that the common
people should remain so ignorant as not to be able
to recognize their true character; and so the whole
race is retarded in its progress, and rendered more
and more incapable of mental or moral development.
308
CHAPTER XV
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
The northern section of the writer's journey, from
the Baltic to the Gulf of Tongking, having as its
object the examination of the main line of Russian
approach to China, has now been dealt with. Siberia,
Mongolia, Manchuria, and Peking have been glanced
at, and the reader, it is probable, will have found many
of his views rescardino: this northern section of Asia
modified or even completely altered, and will, it is
hoped, be in a position to better appreciate the trans-
formation of Asia which is now taking place.
From the north, starting from Peking, it had been
the intention of the author to make his way overland
to vSzechuan, but the disordered state of that province
made it necessary to change the route and to proceed
southwards by sea to the Yangtsze. That great art-
ery, traversing the so-called British sphere, a region
immediately concerning not merely the British but
all English-speaking peoples, was ascended once
more by the writer, who made his way to Chung-
king in Szechuan, close to the navigation limit. On
arrival there the province was found to be extremely
disturbed, and all idea of travel in Central Szechuan
had to be abandoned. There remained the last
309
OVERLAND TO CHINA
portion of the writer's journey, namely, that across
Southwestern China, with a view principally of once
more examining on the ground the question of com-
munications from the south — on the one hand from
British India and Burmah, and on the other from
French Tongking — a question which for many years
had engaged the writer's attention.
It is unnecessary hero to give any description of
the Yangtsze River, of the marvellous resources of
that wonderful waterway, or the beauties of its upper
reaches. Those who are anxious to know somethino;
of this region can find information of a varied nature
in published w^orks.* Sufficient here to note that
the majority of travellers only ascend as far as
Hankau, and see but an uninteresting portion of the
river, while the few who enter the lower ororo^es
above Ichang, fine though these are, still remain
unacquainted with the most striking caiion scenery
of the river. Away from the banks, which alone are
seen from the steamer deck, the country is to them
still a terra ijicognita. In this chapter an impression
of the political situation obtaining in the Yangtsze
region is given, while in the succeeding pages will
be found information of a varied character reo:ardino-
Southwest China and Tono-kins:.
When all the concessions and counter-concessions
extorted by foreign powers from China since the
Japanese War have been balanced up, there remains
to the credit of Great Britain the territorial exten-
* China in Transfor/nalion, by the author; Yangts::e Gorges, by
Archibald Little; and Mrs. Bishop's last work.
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ID
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
sion of the island colony of Hong-Kong to the
limits necessary for its effective fortification ; the
lease of Wei-Hai-Wei, which is in any case a burden
— and, if it is to be made tenable as a place of arms,
a rather serious burden — on the British exchequer;
and, finally, the Yangtsze Valley as a "sphere of
influence " or of " interest," or an open market for
British (and American) merchants.
During the session of Parliament of 1898-99 the
nature of Britain's claim to that open market was
concealed by her Foreign Office, the government
pledging its word to Parliament and the country that
it was a valid and valuable acquisition. The coun-
try was scarcely satisfied with bare assurances, and
eventually the demand for the document itself, con-
veying our rights, could no longer be resisted. In
response to this demand the title-deed, so to speak,
of British interests in the great Yangtsze Valley
was produced, and never, probably, was a more re-
markable State paper issued to the public in a more
remarkable manner. It was no Convention signed
and sealed by the ministers of the two govern-
ments, scarcely even an official declaration, but an
off-hand reply to a query of the British minister in
Peking as to whether the Chinese government
would consent to alienate the 2:reat central zone of
the empire. " Of course not," was the laconic and
only possible reply of the Tsungli Yamen. It was
an absurd question to ask, and, as was observed at
the time, it was not unlike Ensfland beino: asked if
she had any intention of alienating the valley of
3^3
OVERLAND TO CHINA
the Thames. Such was the charter of British rights
and Hberties in the Yangtsze Valley! How it was
edited for publication, with the famous " strictly
speaking this is not grammar" annotation, is too
well remembered to need further reference than to
remark that the binding was worthy of the book.
To put the case without circumlocution, the al-
leged interest of Britain in this part of China rested
on no concrete basis whatever. It was not a title —
qua title — on which a usurer would have advanced
money at fifty per cent, interest. And yet, for all
that, the title was good and inexpugnable — on con-
ditions. It did not rest on anything which an im-
becile sfovernment miirht 2:rant, but on what a vi^;-
orous government might take. The concession, so
called, might be treated as a blank cheque, which a
strong power might fill in as it found convenient.
Most or all of the concessions obtained by Great
Britain on behalf of her subjects, in the form of
treaty rights from the Chinese government, con-
cessions which include a number of lesfal or leeit-
imate bases for claims in China — such as the man-
aging of railways, the opening and working of mines,
the navigating of rivers, the trading at certain ports
without let or hinderance, and the carrying-on of sun-
dry other activities — may prove to be of no practical
value unless, and in so far as, they are made good by
actual enforcement. They are legal titles against
all the world, but, in order to be effective, must be
made good by action — perhaps by force. It scarce-
ly appears that the British government has even
3H
THE YANGTSZE VALLEV
yet realized the inchoate and imperfect character of
these rights and concessions, or the fact that before
they can be developed into valuable realities a.
period of intense energy, of political crisis, and pos-
sibly of conflict, may have to be traversed. One un-
derstands the economies of truth which are imposed
upon responsible ministers. Weak and evasive as
had been their defence of the drifting policy in the
Far East, one could make some allowance for a
government so completely insensible to the more
remote interests of their country as was the British
administration a couple of years ago. Under the
circumstances, no one could cavil overmuch at the
subterfuges by which ministers sought to appease the
country, if ovAy it was certain that, in spite of their
illusory speeches, they were at last really awake, and
were doing their best to remedy past neglect. With
regard to the Yangtsze Valley, no practical man ever
attached the smallest importance to our paper title.
Whether grammatical or not was perfectly imma-
terial; the real title lay in the will and resolution
of the British government and in the enterprise of
British merchants. The value of the field lay not
even in exclusive legal possession, but in effective
occupation.
The interesting and only practical question now
is : What steps have been, or are being, taken to es-
tablish British influence or interests in the valley of
the Yanfrtsze ? — What is the British orovernment
doing? What are the manufacturers, financiers, en-
gineers, and miners doing to occupy a field whose
315
OVERLAND TO CHINA
paramount importance has been fully recognized
by all who have given any attention to it? A ques-
tion as to what they are not doing, what they are
neglecting to do, would admit of a more categorical
answer.
The provincial authorities in the Yangtsze prov-
inces, though subordinate to the central govern-
ment, nevertheless wield enormous power; in fact,
under normal conditions the power of initiative is
left wholly in their hands. In the present condition
of the country, and during the paralysis of the cen-
tral government, this local initiative must of neces-
sity be more and more asserted. Behind the vice-
roys and governors are the mass of the people, in-
dustrious, orderly, and peace-loving. Whoever in-
tends to do anything useful in the Yangtsze Valley
must reckon with these two forces, and if the British
government had entertained any serious idea of fol-
lowing up its own repeated declarations it would
have taken steps to cultivate relations at least with
the government authorities, an obvious measure
which has been so far entirely in abeyance.
The Court of Peking, the Tsungli Yamen, and Li
Hung Chang monopolize our whole attention, while
the men who actually rule two-thirds of the empire
are ignorant and neglected. Some of these high
functionaries are patriotic according to their lights,
and though they would gladly rid the country of all
foreigners whatsoever, they discriminate accurately,
and perfectly realize that, of all the foreign powers
who are knocking at their gates, the Anglo-Saxons
316
Till-: V A N G T S Z E V A L L E Y
represent the minimum of danger to China. Un-
doubtedly these men need guidance and enlighten-
ment, and it would be highly politic for the British
and United States governments both to cultivate
their sympathies and to assist them to clearer views
of their duty. Nothing at all, however, has been
done in this direction. Indeed, the British govern-
ment has, by the attenuation of its consular staff,
taken steps to put it out of its own power to gain
influence in these important central and southwest-
ern provinces. At those very points where it is
most important that Great Britain should be strongly
represented, she is not represented at all. Consuls
Hausser and Jameson, the British representatives at
Tengyueh and Ssumao, were drafted off to the Bur-
ma Boundary Commission, and, what is even worse,
the only British official in Szechuan — Mr. Litton,
vice-consul at Chungking, the most important point
in Western China — was sent on a wild-goose chase
to Kweiyang, the capital of another province, by
orders from Peking. A wild-goose chase it may be
called, because such inquiries into the murder of a
missionary, where the British are concerned, are
quite well understood by all the parties concerned
to be mere pretexts for evading action. When the
other powers have missionary outrages to deal with,
they proceed in a wholly different fashion and make
an entirely different kind of impression on the Chi-
nese. France and Germany are known to mean busi-
ness, and receive prompt satisfaction accordingly,
while the despatch of a young man to prosecute in-
317
OVERLAND TO CHINA
quiries in a nest of Chinese conspiracy and intrigue
is a clear indication that the British mean no more
than to "save face." The proceeding is, in fact, re-
duced to the level of an official speech in Parlia-
ment. Mr. Litton Vv^s compelled to leave the con-
sulate at Chungking absolutely tenantless, for there
was no ofifice assistant there. In fact, in the whole
vast province of Szechuan, which is at present of
such crucial importance to Great Britain, there was,
when the writer passed through it early in the year
1899, neither consul nor vice-consul to represent
British interests. No clearer proof could be given
that neither the minister at Peking nor the govern-
ment at home had at all realized what the Yangtsze
Valley means.
There is strong evidence that this lukewarm,
negative policy has tended to alienate the provin-
cial magnates of the Yangtsze provinces. They
were at one time pro-British, seeing in Great Britain
their only hope of being saved from the domination
of aggressive and tyrannical powers, and it would
have been easy for a few capable men, without any
great subtlety of diplomacy, to enter into an arrange-
ment with the viceroys of the Yangtsze which would
have given Britain a footing there befitting the im-
portance of her interests. ' Such politic procedure,
however, as has been said, has up to the present time
been neglected. What is certain is that Chang
Chih Tung, who may be considered the leader of
the provincials, being a man of strong character,
official purity, real patriotism, and, above all, having
v8
THE VAXGTSZE VALLEY
the courage of his convictions, has become very scep-
tical as to the probabiHty of Great Britain asserting
her right to a legitimate position in the Yangtsze;
and unless he and his confreres regain confidence in
the strength and resolution of Great Britain, they
will feel themselves compelled to follow the example
of the invertebrates in Peking and purchase safety
by throwing their weight into the scale of the strong-
est power.
China has now passed into such a condition that
indifference is no longer possible for her, neither
will it be long possible for us. It is pre-eminently
true in China that whoever is not for Britain is
against her, and the alternative must soon be faced
by the most reluctant of governments: shall they
vindicate the interests of the British — and of the
Anglo-Saxon race generally — vigorously, manful-
ly, and straightforwardly, or submit to their being
completely crushed by the powers who are pressing
forward their own claims to the entire exclusion
of those of Britain ? It is not, moreover, merely a
negative policy in the Yangtsze Valley that has to
be deplored. Instead of active steps having been
taken to win the favor of the ofHcials and people,
every opportunity has apparently been sought to in-
cur their aversion — as, for example, in the collection
of likin dues. The Chinese provinces, as is well
known, had little sympathy with the central govern-
ment in the prosecution of the w^ar with Japan.
They were, indeed, among its most unsparing crit-
ics. But the British have undertaken to levy from
319
OVERLAND TO CHINA
these provinces a special heavy contribution towards
tlie indemnities extorted by Jaj^an. The interest of
the Anglo-German loan was secured by a collection
of likin dues in the Yangtsze Valley, of which the
customs had undertaken to make a collection. The
likin collection throughout China is, after the mis-
sionary question, the most thorny subject in any in-
tercourse with the provincial authorities. It is their
special source of revenue, and they naturally object
very strongly to its being taken from them in order
to provide tribute money for foreigners. But the
British made a great point of these collections in
the Yangtsze Valley being hypothecated for the ser-
vice of the loan. That would have been sufficiently
odious to the officials and people so mulcted, but it
was furthermore insisted that the collection should
be actually made by the hands of the Maritime Cus-
toms, which to every Chinese mind is a distinctively
foreign institution. Moreover, at the same time the
British government also went out of their way to
attempt to make the customs service not only foreign,
but British, having claimed of the Chinese govern-
ment that the head of the service should be of
British nationality.
Thus we have the spectacle of a tax, obnoxious in
itself, on the double ground of its proceeds being
unfairly withdrawn from the provincial budgets and
of its appropriation to an odious purpose, being col-
lected by Englishmen, and, as the people say, paid
into a British bank. That the Yangtsze provinces
should make a grievance of this is only what was
320
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
certain to happen. Was it not, then, a short-sighted
poHcy to impose this special taxation not only on
British trade, but on the particular provinces in
which it was Britain's paramount interest to appear
rather as the protector than the oppressor ? The
tax-gatherer, never a popular character, is most liate-
ful when, as Mr. Gladstone said of Ireland, he ap-
pears "in foreign garb," and to insist that the foreign
garb should be no other than British was clearly
hardly the way to conciliate the not unnatural feel-
ings of the Yangtsze populations. But this leads
up to the question of the general relations between
the British government and the Chinese customs
service, which cannot be here discussed in detail.
Various reasons might be given for Britain main-
taining towards China her habitual attitude, one in
particular being that a succession of ministers had
grown accustomed to rely entirely upon what they
deemed a special source of information, a special
vehicle for exercisinsf influence at Pekins:, and a
special protection for British interests. They had
come to believe, in short, that the inspector-general
of Chinese customs was an unpaid British agent on
whom they could rely far more than upon their ac-
credited representative. It never seemed to enter
their minds that a faithful servant cannot serve two
masters, and that it was impossible for a man of the
liigh character of Sir Robert Hart to use his posi-
tion as a trusted employe of the Chinese govern-
ment in order to further exclusively British interests.
Such fallacies, however, not only exist, but are very
X 321
OVKKLANl) TO CHINA
tenacious of life. Even tlie recent revolutions were
insufficient to undeceive the British government,
who considered it a crreat score ac^ainst the massive
aireressions of Germany and Russia that an Enf^lish-
man was confirmed in his post as collector of Chinese
revenue. This line of argument has been repeated
every time diplomatic successes have been recapitu-
lated by members of the government, though in
what manner Britain was to benefit by the arrange-
ment no one, cither in the gov^ernment or outside
of it, has been able to explain. In what way has the
inspectorate of customs been of advantage to her in
supplying information, advice, or assistance of any
kind, since it has been put to the test? In the only
way in wliich it could have been of service to her
without perfidy to its paymasters. No one can now
be so blind as not to perceive this, for even the
Anglo-Chinese papers are beginning to reflect on the
evil influence which the fetich has exercised over
the Ih'itish government, and to preach on the text
" No man can serve two masters."
Intimately connected with the development of the
Yangtsze Valley is the right of foreigners to navi-
<xate all the inner waters of China. This has been
treated by the British government as a special con-
cession to Great Britain, and was hailed by the mer-
cantile community in that country and in China as
the one item of value among the so-called conces-
sions in which the British j^eople were interested.
The satisfaction felt with regard to this promise
of new openings for trade was, however, always ex-
322
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
pressed with the quahfication that its value depended
on how it was to be carried out. The government
itself, it must be confessed, made no such reservation,
but declared with repeated emphasis the plenar)'
character of the Chinese concession. Those who
had experience of Chinese practices and of the way
in which previous advantages had been allowed to
lapse, with the connivance of the British represen-
tatives, were still sceptical until the reality of the
new concession could be tested by experience.
Their misgivings seemed to be more than justi-
fied by what took place with regard to the West
River, connecting Yunnan with Canton. After manv
years of vain efforts, the opening of that waterway
had been announced as a triumph of British diplo-
niacy, for which the government accepted full credit.
But it soon appeared that exultation was somewhat
in advance of fact, for, the French having intimated
an objection to the opening of the one important
mart on the river — namely, Nanning — the British
government apparently acquiesced, temporarily at
least, in the restriction to the lower reaches of the
river of their right of trade and navigation. Such
a staring object-lesson would not be lost on the
Chinese, who would naturally suppose that a power
which would thus yield to the objections of the
French might certainly be relied upon to give way
to the more legitimate objections of the Chinese
themselves in the case of the other water -routes
which are nominally thrown open to foreign enter-
prise.
323
OVERLAND TO CHINA
So it comes about that the riglit of inland navi-
iration lias not yet received effect. Nor will it be-
come a reality unless the British government hon-
estly wills that it be made so. In the present state
of feeling among the provincial officials, and in view
of the inci})icnt anarchy in Central China, all enter-
prise on the part of British pioneers will be nipped
in the bud unless assurance is given to them that
the capital they may invest shall not be exposed to
pillage and spoliation. If inland navigation is to
be carried out anywhere at all in China, it is in the
region drained by the great father of waters, the
Yangtszc, for into that main artery flow navigable
streams innumerable, traversing vast tracts of well-
peopled country, offering tempting facilities for traf-
fic. But in order to utilize these promising chan-
nels, some assurance of protection must be given to
the adventurers. This can easily be done by arrange-
ment with the high provincial authorities, backed
up by an effective patrol of light-draught gunboats
carrying the white ensign. If some measures of
this kind be not taken, then not only is the one
important concession obtained by British diplomacy
rendered a dead letter, but before long the absence
of this preservative force, and the consequent dis-
solution of the bonds which keep the Chinese ad-
ministration together, will open the door to quite
another kind of enterprise — that of filibusters and
pirates.
The revolution in China is proceeding with great
rapidity, and though it is impossible for any one to
324
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
foretell the issue of the various disturbances in the
provinces, any more than to foresee the outcome of
the palace feud in Peking, yet it is folly to shut one's
eyes to the fact that the elements of great changes
are in active conflict, and that unless controlled and
guided by some strong but kindly influence they
cannot but lead to widespread calamity. The pres-
tige of the dynasty has been shattered, first by the
shock of the Japanese War, and next by the bullying
of Russia, France, and German}^
The viceroys and governors are necessarily par-
alyzed by the recent events in Peking. Not know-
ing which side would eventually issue triumphant
from the struggle, they have mostly assumed the
attitude of sitting on the fence. As regards the re-
lations to foreigners, they are particularly circum-
spect, and w^ait to see whether hostility or friendship
with them is likely to be the winning card. The
people are no less unsettled, for, though entirely
devoid of political passion, they are keenly alive to
their own material wants and to the sanctity of their
hearths and homes. What they see before their
eyes and what they hear rumored from distant parts,
greatly exaggerated, of course, fills them wdth fore-
bodinsrs. Outbreaks wliich the authorities are un-
able or unwilling to suppress giv^e encouragement
to risings all round, and one rising begets another.
If the W'orking people should be driven to arm them-
selves for defence against brigands, the temptation is
o-reat to use such new-found couras^e and force for
aggressive purposes. There are no large bodies of
325
O \' !•: K L A N I) TO CHINA
men in the world so docile and so easy to govern as
the Chinese, but once the social and family bonds
which hold them toLiether are loosened the artisan
may as easily become a briirand as the laborious fish-
erman becomes a pirate.
The process of dissolution is going on. The
anarchy which has been the nightmare of all who
haye studied Chinese affairs for the last twenty years
is loomins: in sioht. Great events are in course of
incubation. The process cannot be arrested with-
out the application of a vigorous hand, and it will
not wait the convenience of any lukewarm onlooker.
The truth of the matter is that Britain's inheritance
in the Yangtsze Valley will be in a state of chaos,
that the slumberins: embers will be all ablaze, be-
fore she thoroughly rouses herself to apprehend its
value.
The question naturally arises : " What must be
done to save the situation .'^" Faults of omission
have already been partially indicated, and before
entering on the positive side of the question it will
be interesting to see what the other powers are
doing. Russia, not content with the absolute pos-
session of Manchuria and the military occupation of
Newchwang — a treaty port in which the British are
largely inteiested — and the assumption of control of
all the territories north of the Great Wall, is exceed-
ingly active also in the centre of the Yangtsze Val-
ley. Cossacks were already to be seen at Hankau
when I passed through early in 1899, and have
distinguished themselves by their interference with
326
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
English trading firms in that place ; while the
redoubtable Pavloff, who recently established such
a distinguished record in Peking, at the end of
1898 paid a visit to that city ostensibly to "settle
the land question," which needed no settlement.
If he intended to meddle with the land question
at all, it may be taken for granted that he would
be more likely to "unsettle" than to "settle" it.*
For many years the Russians have been laboring
to establish themselves in Hankau, and M. Pavloff's
visit was certainly not unconnected with Russian
aspirations in that quarter. No doubt the immedi-
ate object was to confer with the French agents and
to concert common action with them. The French
were then and are still absolutely dependent on the
support of Russia, and, though Russia approves gen-
erally of French aggressions, she claims the right of
checking the pace ; and as she will not be ready for
several years to come — that is to say, until the com-
pletion of the Siberian Railroad and its branches —
to afford France material assistance, she does not
wish her partner to force her hand by bringing mat-
ters to a rupture prematurely. No doubt the asser-
tion of British prestige at Fashoda temporarily
inspired caution in both allies, and recent " amica-
ble " communications between London and St.
Petersburg had also probably something to do with
the peaceable character of M. Pavloff's visit.
But France can do an immense deal without
* The question has been decided in favor of Russia (Jan., 1900).
327
(n'KRLAND TO CHINA
bringing matters to a crisis. By means of the Ro-
man Catholic propaganda she is driving a wedge
through the very heart of Chinese government and
administration. The sole interest that France has
ever had in China has been the protectorate of Chris-
tians. It was seen how, more than twelve years ago,
the tentative attempts of the Vatican to appoint an
Apostolic Delegate at Peking were frustrated by the
interference of France, who delivered her ultimatum
to the Pope, declaring that if he did not abandon
that intention the republican government would
confiscate the revenues of the Church in France. It
was almost with tears in his eyes that the Holy
Father eventually declared his inability to carry out
the proposed measure, saying: " Much as I love the
Church in China, I cannot sacrifice my children
nearer home."
The account of this transaction sciven in the
Revue des Deux Mondes*' puts the matter plainly
enough : " M. Lefebvre de Behaine opposa nette-
ment le veto gouvernement de la Republique au
dessein que les anglais et les allemands avaient
su inspirer a Pekin et faire accueillir au Vatican.
Le pape ceda; il fit imprimer et envoyer aux eve-
ques frangais une brochure oti il expliquait pour-
quoi, malgre son vif deplaisir et malgre I'avantage
qu'il avait espere pour la foi catholique de la crea-
tion d'une nouvelle nonciature, il daignait conde-
scendre au voeu de la fille ainee de Teglise.' " It is
* September i, 1898.
328
THE YAXGTSZE VALLEY
reported that the Apostolic Delegate is actually to
be, or has been, sent, but entirely shorn of his inde-
pendence. He is, in fact, to be the head of the
French propaganda.
The blood of the martyrs is in China the seed of
French aggrandizement. France uses the mission-
aries and the native Christians as agents-provocateurs ;
and outrages and martyrdoms are her political har-
\est. What the preponderance of her commerce
does for England the Catholic protectorate does for
France, so that the influence of their respective
positions vis-a-vis the Chinese is nearly balanced ;
but France makes ten times more capital out of her
religious material than Great Britain has ever done
out of her commercial. Under the fosterino: care of
the French government the Catholics have become
a veritable imperi2ini in iuiperio, disregarding local
laws and customs, domineering over their pagan
neio'hbors, and overridinq; the law of the land.
Whenever a Christian has a dispute with a heathen,
no matter what the subject in question may be. the
quarrel is promptly taken up by the priest, who, if
he cannot himself intimidate the local ofificials and
compel them to give right to the Christian, rep-
resents the case as one of persecution, when the
French consul is appealed to. Then is redress
rigorously extorted, without the least reference to
the justice of the demand. The assurance that this
kind of interference on the part of a foreign power
is certain to follow, leads, of course, to the grossest
abuses being perpetrated by the Christians. And
329
( ) \' i: R L A N 1 J T O CHINA
while the l^-ench missionary may go far, the native
Christian goes infinitely further in browbeating the
authorities and tyrannizing over the people.
A recent example of this, one of many, was related
to the writer when travelling on the Yangtsze re-
cently. A Roman Catholic priest (Chinese) was
riding into a town, when some of the country people
cursed him. He at once got out of his sedan-chair,
called for the leading men of the town, and told
them that unless they paid him $ioo he would de-
nounce them to the magistrate. Ignorant of what
the consequences of their getting into the hands of
the mandarins might be, the people collected the
ransom demanded and paid it to the priest. It is
said that he invested the money in a house in the
neighborhood, and settled down in it to propagate
the doctrine. It is not surprising that arbitrary pro-
ceedinofs like this should cause the Christians to be
feared and hated, and we need not wonder at the
occasional murder of a priest when such feelings
are spread generally throughout the country. Every
such incident, too, is utilized by France to extort
more and more privileges and concessions in the
Yangtsze Valley. She has at the present moment
in her current account the followinQ- debit entries
against the Chinese government: One hundred
murders, two of them beinq; foreiijn fathers: twentv
thousand Christians driven from their homes and
reduced to beggary; and 5,000,000 taels' w^orth of
property destroyed. This heavy bill is being added
to daily, and in the liquidation of it France has a
330
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
magnificent game to play. She can either wring
whole provinces from the central government, or
lie in wait for local reprisals, or combine the two —
as Germany did in the case of Kiaochau — which
procedure may take the form of heavy drafts on
Yangtsze territory or of such exclusive claims as
may effectually bar tlie development of that region
by any of the really commercial powers, for in her
Far Eastern policy France cannot be called com-
mercial.
Thus, through Britain's abstention on one side,
and the energy of her rivals on the other, she may
come to find that her position in the Yangtsze
Valley is this: tliat Britain is the only power who
will eventually be excluded from it. If we realize
the fact that France claims jurisdiction over more
than one hundred thousand converts in the prov-
ince of Szechuan alone, besides large numbers in
Hunan, Honan, Hupeh, and in other of the Yangtsze
provinces — every individual convert being as the
grain of an explosive which is able under skilful
handling to burst China in pieces — if we realize this,
we shall see that the peaceful development of this
ijreat central zone of China will never be accom-
plished by a merely lukewarm policy on the part of
Great Britain. France is working at high pressure
for the disintegration of the existing polity, and it
is a significant circumstance that the same agent
whose machinations in Upper Burma had so nearly
cut off the British hinterland — which the Indian
2:overnment was forced, aoainst its will, to annex —
33^
OVERLAND TO CHINA
had been, when tlic writer passed through Chung-
king early in 1899, and has since been, working
Hke a zealot to foment disturbance in Szechuan, out
of which F" ranee may find occasion to prosecute her
ereat scheme of ao:orression. It is another interest-
ing circumstance that, while this very active French
consul has been making such strenuous exertions
at Chungking, the British consulate in that impor-
tant city was for a time left without a consul or
British representative.
\\1iat the French scheme is has been sufficiently
obvious in various parts of the world for many years.
On the Nile, the Niger, the Irrawaddy, the Meinam,
the West River, and the Yangtsze, the aim of France
has been and is identical. It is a consistent, pre-
conceived secular determination to block the path
of Great Britain by every kind of device. This is
what has been euphemistically called in Britain the
"policy of pin-pricks," but this is an altogether in-
adequate description of the process. It is a policy
of relentless and ubiquitous opposition, carried out
to the utmost limit of endurance. And inasmuch
as it costs less in time, in money, and in human re-
sources to throw an obstacle in the way of an as-
sumed rival than to pursue a positive policy of solid
self-aggrandizement, the aim of obstructing Great
Britain in the present and for the future takes pre-
cedence of the advancement of the substantial in-
terests of France. And in the pursuit of this pol-
icy iM-ance has few more indefatigable pioneers than
i\I. Haas, the consul at Chuno-kine.
33^
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
Though, therefore, it be the case tliat Russia is
holding the rein on France to prevent her precipi-
tating a crisis which would force Great Britain into
action, this, as already explained, means no more
than that the time is inconvenient for Russia's sup-
port of France to be put to any severe test. Yet
France is thereby not hindered from accumulating
combustibles aoainst the dav when the word can
be safely given to apply the torch. Nor is the si-
lent undermining process, in which both powers can
without danger unite their forces, retarded.
Besides the protectorate of Christians, the French
hold another card in the game they are playing to
thwart the development of British interests in China.
And they are entitled to hold it as the reward of the
foresight of their statesmen. By the instrument
known as the Siam Convention of 1S96, the British
government agreed to a kind of hypothetical con-
dominmin with France in the Chinese provinces of
Yunnan and Szechuan. And, though at the first
blush it may appear a square bargain, we know by
long experience that it will not be so in practice.
The French have their own canons of interpretation
to apply to agreements with Great Britain, and it is
quite certain that the respective parties to the Siam
Convention did not hold identical views as to its
working. It puts into the hands of France a weapon
by which she can, if so minded, frustrate British
enterprise in those provinces, whether it be in the
development of minerals or the construction of rail-
ways. And, as the persistent object of France, in
333
O \' I-: R L A \ D TO GUI X A
which she lias tlie covert support of Russia, has
been, and is, to cut off communication between India
and Central China, it is easy to sec what a strong
position has been given to her for working towards
that end. .At the same time she is very energetic in
pushing her own schemes in tlicse provinces, witli
licr expeditions of survey in connection witli railways
and mining, and proofs of "effective occupation";
and there are other evidences of her determination
to exploit Southern and Western China and create
defensible rights there.
oo4
CHAPTER XYI
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY— {Continued)
The British government is not, however, idle, for
(although at the eleventh hour) railway surveys are
now being conducted on a respectable scale from
the Yans^tsze as well as from the Burmese side of
the frontier. In the dry season of 1S98-99 an
expedition, headed by several British officers, was
organized to work from Szechuan, while at the same
time investigations were being 'made between Han-
kau and Kweiyang-fu, passing through Yunnan-fu,
and extending towards Burma, another party work-
ing from the Kunlon Ferry (on the Burmese border)
to Tali, and eventually as far as Yunnan-fu, a natural
meeting -point for both expeditions. And thus at
last the work so frequently urged by the writer in
season and out of season for the last sixteen years is
put in hand ; and as to this newly awakened energy
we can only say, " Better late than never." This
line of communication between China and India
is the one thing most needful to establish British
influence and to promote British interests in Central
China, and the British government is to be con-
gratulated on this initial step. Let it be clearly
understood, however, that it is only a preliminary
^ -1 r
OVRRLAND TO CHINA
step, tliat it lias to be vigorously followed up, and
that it is prudent to look forward and see the
outlines of the problem which lies beyond it. It
is as certain as such matters ever can be, that
one of these days some power will be called upon,
or feel itself called upon, to intervene to preserve
order in China, for confidence is gradually being
undermined all round, and cannot be restored out of
native resources. The high officials are, so to speak,
trembling for their heads; the common people are
sinking deeper and deeper into poverty; trade and
industry are more and more burdened by arbitrary
taxation and by the neglect of all public works —
such as embankments, roads, and water channels —
and the numbers of disbanded soldiers, secret-society
men, and thieves keep the law-abiding, industrious
people in a state of chronic terror. There is no
sense of security anywhere. This condition of things
the writer saw for himself in icSgg in the Yangtsze
provinces— Britain's boasted "sphere of influence."
Provincial governments have been, and are, afraid
to exercise their authority to put down insurrection,
for fear of "putting their money on the wrong horse."
They left, for instance, the rebel leader Yu Mantze,
who had obtained a large following, a free hand in
Szechuan to follow his anti-foreign crusade, being
unable to divine, in the confusion of affairs at Peking,
what the next motdordre respecting foreigners might
be. At the end of 1898 they had witnessed the
degradation of Chen Pao Chen, then the Governor of
Hunan, an enlightened and courageous man, who
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
had encouraged the study of English in the schools
of Changshah, his provincial capital, introduced ma-
chinery into that city, lighted up the great examina-
tion-hall with electric light, and endeavored in every
possible way to familiarize the Hunanese with the
products of Western civilization. When the noto-
rious Chow Han, whose calumnies excited the anti-
foreign riots of 1 89 1 , ventured in 1 898 to recommence
the issue of his vile inflammatory literature, Chen
Pao Chen had him arrested and imprisoned, and,
when the students of the neiohborhood threatened
to organize a strike in the public examinations and
to put a stop to all the business of the province, this
vigorous Governor at once laid hold of the rins:-
leaders and had them punished — an exhibition of high
courage rarely met with in any Chinese ofificial. The
degradation of this Governor may have had no motive
outside the dynastic quarrel then raging at Peking.
He had, unfortunately, recommended one of the re-
former Kang Yu Wei's disciples, named Tan, to the
Emperor. By common consent Tan was the noblest
of the whole band of reformers, and was one of the
first to be beheaded when the Empress Dowager
usurped the throne. Whether Chen's progressive
ideas, irrespective of the Peking plot, had anything
to do with the vengeance taken on him by the Em-
press, it is difficult to say ; but the fall of such a
man at such a moment is, to say the least, little cal-
culated to encourage others. Chen left the city,
for which he had done so much, execrated by the
lawless mob for his good government, w-hile the more
Y 337
() \' E R L A N D TO CHINA
enlightened of the inhabitants were awed into silence.
How the new Governor will acquit himself remains
to be seen, but those who know Hunan best will not
be surprised at a recrudescence of the anti-foreign
policy which so long has been characteristic of that
jDrovince.
Hunan is one of the richest provinces of China,
and the opening of a port within its borders has
Ions: since been a desideratum of commerce. It is
exceptionally well served by waterways, which are ca-
pable of accommodating vessels of considerable ton-
nage and draught. If, therefore, the commerce of
the Yangtsze basin is to be exploited at all, Hunan can
certainly not be left closed. Of the four trading marts
recommended for immediate opening in the Yang-
tsze basin, three are important centres of trade with-
in the province of Hunan, and the fourth is Laohokeu,
situated four hundred miles up the Han, a deep-water
affluent of the Yangtsze on its left bank, which gives
its name to Hankau. The Hunanese ports are
Changshah (the provincial capital), Chang-teh, and
Siangtan, all busy marts, as shown in the report of
the deles^ates of the Shanohai chamber of commerce
thirty years ago. But we know the value of the nom-
inal opening of new ports of trade. It is a very simple
procedure, and what was formerly extorted from the
Chinese government as a concession to foreigners has
in these later days been almost forced on foreigners by
the urgency of the Chinese government. That state
of things, however, applied rather to the sea -coast
than to any of the inland districts. With regard to
33^
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
these there has always been a reluctance on the part
of the British government to seek for any facilities
for British subjects to reside or trade in the interior.
So far, indeed, has this reluctance been carried, that
rights and privileges claimed and exercised by oth-
er nationalities have been forbidden to Englishmen,
who are denied bv their own government the rio^ht
of residence in the interior. The effect of the vol-
untary abandonment of this right appears to be that
Germans, Belgians, Frenchmen, and Russians are
able, where Englishmen are excluded, to acquire land
and mining properties in their own names, and to
have their titles to the same registered by their con-
suls. Sometimes it has actually happened that, in
places where, for the time being, there was no consul
of the particular nationality concerned, the British
agent has been asked to render his friendly offices ;
and a curious result of this situation is that the Brit-
ish consul, when acting for another nation, is able-
to register properties for non-British subjects which
he is forbidden by his own government to do for his
countrymen. This will serve to illustrate one of
the many disadvantages under which British sub-
jects labor in China. It is obvious, therefore, that
the extension of British commerce in the interior
will necessitate considerable change in the attitude
of the British o^overnment and its a2:ents in China.
Even so, however, the effective opening of such an
important province as Hunan would not be so sim-
ple a matter as opening a number of ports on the
sea-coast.
339
OVRRLAND TO CHINA
The llunancse as a wliolc, and on principle, have
always been averse to the inroads of foreign men
and foreign things. They are proud and conserva-
tive, possessing the courage of their opinions in a
much stronfjcr deforce than is the case with the na-
tivcs of any other province. There has thus grown
up in Munan a kind of anti-foreign public opinion,
which forms a background and a basis for the mach-
inations of fanatics of the literary class and of the
lawless ruffians of the streets. These things require
to be considered, and it is partly such considera-
tions which have held back the British government
from pressing more urgently for freedom of trade
within that province, and which induced it to accept
as a substitute the port of Yochau, which is not
within the province at all, but on the extreme outer
margin of it. Probably it was a similar course of
reasoning — namely, that the people were not yet
ready for it — which deterred them for so many years
from exercising the treaty right of entering the city
of Canton, and more recently induced them to forego
another treaty right — that of navigating the Upper
Yangtsze by steam. These scruples, in both cases,
proved themselves to be unfounded, for there was
no difficulty whatever with the people so soon as a
resolute stand was made and the authorities forced
to show a little strength of purpose ; but, in the case
of Canton, at least, they cost both British and Chi-
nese a considerable amount of trouble, expense, and
bloodshed. The lessons gained from these experi-
ences, and from others which might be instanced,
340
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
should not be forgotten at the present juncture, for
it is precisely the same question which always crops
up, and it can only be satisfactorily dealt with in the
same way. What is wanted, in order to smooth over
all difficulties, is the intervention of the British to
stren2:then the hands of the native authorities and
prove to them that their own safety lies in keeping-
order by exercising the power they possess.
The problem thus becomes absolutely simple, as,
indeed, all Britain's intercourse with China might
be ; the complications, which are many, have inva-
riably been of her own creation. There is no more
reason why she should be afraid of dealing with the
Yangtsze basin than the Nile basin ; if she has the
men for the one, she has also the men for the other
— men of sobriety of judgment, force of character,
and simplicity of mind; while from the Chinese
point of view the advent of such a power would be
a godsend. It is the one thing which can preserve
many millions of people from the horrors of anarchy.
Whatever Great Britain may do for China, to im-
prove the condition of the masses, would promptly
be productive, and she would receive back her own
with usury; and, as a student of China, writing from
the interior of the country, observes, Britain would
find it paid her better to have an open door to fifty
millions of prosperous people than to four hundred
millions of beo^ijars clothed in sackcloth.
To infuse into China a healing and saving influ-
ence on a clear financial basis is "the white man's
burden" which Britain is called upon to take up. It
341
OVERLAND TO CHINA
is no light task, but it is not inglorious if under-
taken with honesty. No tinkering or mere oppor-
tunism will serve, nor will the fine-spun orations or
smart answers which some of the British politicians
seem to consider conclusive be of the least service.
It is a man's job that has to be done.
The Chinese are not a difficult people to rule;
thev are, indeed, remarkablv docile. As for the
authorities, it has been the rule, whether a wise one
or not, that no official of rank should hold office
within his native province ; consequently they are
as much birds of passage as British governors of
colonies, and are often entire strangers to the peo-
ple they are set to govern. The officials share with
the people the high philosophic quality of cheerful
acquiescence in the inevitable. With a clear voice,
and a strong hand behind, it would probably be as
easy to make friends of the provincial magnates as
to make enemies of them. It is a fact not to be
forgotten that the appreciation of justice in others
is not to be measured by the lack of that quality in
one's self. The most corrupt of Chinese understand
purity, the most arbitrary understand justice, and
the most cowardly respect courage. The key to the
whole problem, therefore, of what is to be done in
China is to be found in British resolution, in British
manhood. Like the conquest of the Soudan, it is
as easy under one set of conditions as it was difficult
or impossible under another, the difference lying
in the nervous constitution or will-power of a few
individuals. The kev of the Yan^rtsze basin is in
34^
T 1 1 K V A N G T S Z K V A L L E V
London, and the practical question to be determined
is simply this: Is the game worth the candle?
It was an ominous day for her iVsiatic Empire
when Britain's statesmen surrendered their initiative
in the Far East, because, though the mischief was
done in a fit of preoccupation and absence of mind,
and in a situation which had been suddenly sprung
upon them and in whicli they were left without any
guiding intelligence, yet the step is irretrievable;
for the other great powers of Europe, better in-
formed, stepped in without hesitation and occupied
the place that Great Britain had vacated. Ever
since that fatal day five years ago, British interests
in China have been in a derelict condition, like a
disabled ship on the ocean, making signals of dis-
tress to everything that comes in sight. Where
Great Britain had led for two o-enerations, with an
undisputed title of priority in all external affairs of
China, she has since 1S95 been glad to follow the
lead of powers over whose interests she aforetime
cast the a^gis of her protection.
It is this fundamental act which has shifted the
centre of gravity, a fact which is not noticed so
much in the West as it is in China, for the British
government, of course, disguised it, and perhaps not
unnaturally so. In the Far East itself, however, it is
a bald, staring fact that Britain is the only great
power without a definite policy. She has, instead,
certain nebulous impracticable aspirations. It has
been frankly admitted in the British Parliament that
the proceedings in China lacked originality and
343
OVERLAND TO CHINA
independence, and tliat the plan adopted had been
to follow — it might have been added, at a very long
distance — the action of those powers who had a pro-
gramme and carried it out. On all sides, and in every
department, in fact, the working of this new depart-
ure is apparent. It is, of course, a mere chateau, en
Espagnc to place reliance for the promotion of Brit-
ish interests in China upon an alliance, or a work-
ing understanding, implicit or explicit, with no few-
er than three powers, and these the United States,
Japan, and Germany. Before such a conception as
this can be reduced to definite action, the interests
of- the country will have evaporated. In a very
vac^ue, c^eneral sense the interests of the four coun-
tries are no doubt harmonious, but that is a consid-
eration quite in the clouds. When we come down
to the region of practical politics we find the in-
terests diverge. Germany in Shantung admits no
British partnership, though German financiers are
willing to allow a share in a railway from Tientsin
to Chinkiang, with a view to getting the full advan-
tage of the greatest money market in the world, it
being assumed — though the grounds for this belief
are not very clear — that Germany has agreed to
abstain from aggression against Britain in the ^-
Yangtsze Valley. That the British people have in-
deed learned to be thankful for small mercies is ob-
vious when it is seen with what delight they regard
such a concession from friendly Germany. It is
evidently a small matter, in their opinion, that Ger-
many, or at least Germans, actually continue to nib-
344
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
ble at concessions within the Yangtsze Valley sphere.
This very Chinkiang Railway, for instance, in which
they are willing to admit partnership, intersects the
Yangtsze \\'\lley in its richest section. Germany, in
short, like a wise and eminently practical power,
plays her own game in China, and not Britain's in
any sense whatever. The United States, too, have
with the approval and applause of the British press
secured the concession of the Hankau-Canton Rail-
way, which also intersects the Yangtsze Valley
through its very centre. The British come in to
supply cheap money, but the Americans take, by
one means and another, the substantial profits >of
the concession itself, by means of an intermediate
"construction company," out of which and the sup-
ply of material certain w^ell-known Chinese also look
for remuneration. Japan, wisely, plays a deep and
waiting game, and prepares for eventualities.
Alliances on such terms will always be obtainable
so Ions: as the sireat reservoir of Lombard Street
holds out, but the conditions require that Great
Britain shall politically occupy a back seat, and com-
mercially accept the shell of the oyster for her share.
We have seen what the concerted action of the
powers in the north of China means; even outrages
on British subjects have been referred to this vague
cosmopolitan tribunal. It is a pusillanimous policy,
wholly unworthy of the prestige and substantial posi-
tion of Great Britain in the world. It is, moreover,
a policy founded on falsehood, and on that account
alone must fail ; and not only fail, but lead to a mo-
o4o
o\'i: Ri.Axn TO CHINA
rass of troubles and possibly disputes with those
very powers to conciliate whom so much is being
sacrificed. What the people of China expect and
long for, what the people of Great Britain ought not
i>nly to long for but also insist upon, is that Great
Britain should no longer wait humbly on the action
of the powers, but should resume her former posi-
tion and lay down her own policy, following it out
in her own way. British Imperial interests immeas-
urably transcend those of all the other Western
powers put together, and the only way of securing
the concerted action which seems to be so much de-
sired is to act decidedly, clearly, and strongly. Then,
and then only, will the other powers fall into line,
and then will be revived the good understanding of
former times, when British action was recognized by
all to be for the equal benefit of all. The cry of
Britain's representatives is: " W'hat is to be done?"
And the only answer forthcoming from official quar-
ters advocates either this general arrangement with
all the world, or some special agreement with Russia.
It is a melancholy circumstance that the hope of
British statesmen should now rest on an understand-
iuiT with Russia, for it is the day after the fair.
Time was, perhaps, when Russia might have courted
a settlement which would have obviated the whole
trouble in the Far East, but that time was when
Britain had all the cards in her own hands. Neither
her government, however, nor her representatives
abroad, were able to see the " accepted time," when
solid reciprocal arrangements were open to them.
346
THE VAXGTSZE VALLEY
British statesmen constantly deplore their impo-
tence in baroainino; with nothinir in hand. K\ci\-
thino-, thev are wont to sav. was Liiven awav bv
Cobden and the Cobdenites, and nothing is left to
barijain with. In the case of Russia and China,
however, everything was in hand, and everything
has been given awav bv successive governments ;
not, unfortunately, with a good grace, but with a snap
and a snarl and a turning of the tail. Had it been
Britain's policy to bring Russia into Liaotung, she
could at least liave obtained solid advantages in
return for her acquiescence. Had it been to her
interest to allow Russia to occupy the stronghold of
Port Arthur, she could, while demanding a substan-
tial quid pro quo, have secured the frontiers of her
empire for a generation. It is needless to recall her
humiliating scuttle from that harbor, except to sav
that Russia gained that immense prize bv niost
audacious bluff on a verv weak hand, for it has been
stated, on authority which cannot be contradicted,
that at the time when tlie British ships were with-
drawn under the Russian menace the Russian
admiral had already received instructions to leave
the harbor; a fact of which everv one there with
whom the writer conversed on the subject was well
aware.
As Britain has thus exposed her weakness, or
blindness, and allowed Russia to sweep the board
and establish lierself in virtual control — not of this
or that sphere, hut of the ca-ebral centre of the
Chi)iese i^oz'erunient i/se/t — the arran^cement now
347
O \' E R L A N D TO CHINA
talked of as so desirable, which, if made, will
draw down profuse decorations on the heads of
Hritish agents, can only be a ratification of the pos-
session by Russia of all that she desires, in return
for which Britain will receive no equivalent except
the assurance that Russia will not enter into hostili-
ties with her — a thing which, in any case, that coun-
try would not dream of doing.
Among tlie disturbing elements now at work in
furthering the general state of anarchy prevalent in
China, the missionary cjuestion is not the least im-
portant.
It has often been remarked that wherever the
viceroy of a Chinese province was resolved to keep
the peace with foreigners, orders were given to sub-
ordinate of^cials to avoid quarrels with the Catholic
missions or their converts, and, when quarrels did
break out, the orders were to patch them up imme-
diately and to cede everything that was required, to
prevent the missionaries from making a claim through
their consuls. Such was the rule rigorously main-
tained during the whole of Li Hung Chang's vice-
royalty of the province of Chihli, and the conse-
quence was that no outrages were reported from that
province between 1S70 and the present time (1899).
The rule was partly followed and partly disregarded
in other provinces, and this has been especially the
case in Szechuan, where sometimes the higher author-
ities, as has been said, have winked at, if not encour-
aged, the attacks on Christians, while at other times
they have repressed these attacks with severity.
348
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
Probably it has been always a matter of calculation
as to which course would entail the least inconven-
ience on the hioh officials themselves. On the one
hand, they would make themselves popular by con-
niving at attacks on foreigners ; on the other hand,
these attacks might get them into much worse trou-
ble, according to the amount of pressure applied, by
the foreign representative concerned, on the Peking
government.
It is necessar}^ to bear these facts in mind in order
to understand the vacillating conduct of the authori-
ties in Szechuan, and the reason for such vacillation
was fairly well illustrated in the history of the par-
ticular case of Yu Mantze against the Szechuan
missions. He had been at one time arrested by the
authorities on account of a quarrel which he had
with the Roman Catholics, and he was imprisoned,
probably with little regard to his guilt or innocence.
The mob thereupon arose, attacked the prison, and
released him. The official concerned, either under
compulsion or by connivance with the mob, went
through the form of a trial and acquitted the prisoner.
So far the popular side. But this same official then
got into trouble with the higher authorities, was
obliged to retire from the public service, and is be-
lieved to have committed suicide. The whole inci-
dent, of course, greatly enhanced the prestige of Yu
Mantze, who set about collecting a large following,
and then went into open rebellion, with the secret
approval, it is believed, of many of the local officials.
The affair of Father Fleury was by no means a
349
OVERLAND TO CHINA
sudden outbreak of anti-Christian fanaticism. Yu
Mantze had. in fact, been at feud with the Catholic
missions for about ten years, and there had been a
good deal of trouble between them before the rising
which took place in June, 1898.
The story of M. de Fleury presents many feat-
ures which distinq;uish it from other outrasfes
which from time to time have been made on mis-
sionaries by the Chinese. He was carried off in
June, 1898, by Yu Mantze, the rebel leader in
Szechuan. He was neither killed, tortured, nor
starved, but was carried about in the rebel train, and
made an unwilling accomplice in depredations and
atrocities. Wh.en in Chungking, the writer had an
interview with the priest, and found him to be a man
of about forty-five years of age, with dark eyes and
hair, harmonizing well with the Chinese costume he
wore, a sallow complexion, and a broken-down aspect.
Were there time to tell his story in full, Father Fleu-
ry's experiences would furnish a thrilling record of
adventure, including some terrible trials. While he
was being dragged about from station to station he
was not merely compelled to witness the destruction
of property and the expulsion of its occupants, but
was forced to look on while his own people, the
Roman Catholic converts, were being tortured and
killed. He at first refused absolutely to witness
these terrible scenes, but his captors were inexorable
in their insistence. After remonstrances and aro:u-
ments had been exhausted, " We will kill you if you
do not come with us," they said. To this he replied:
350
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
" It is in your power; kill me." Then they carried
him along by main force. Apart from these tragic
experiences, the father had very little complaint to
make of the treatment he received at the hands of
the rebels. They supplied him regularly with good
and sufficient food, of which there never seemed
any lack, and treated him, moreover, as a person-
age of rank, being careful to show him personal
deference. As for the leader of these insurgents,
Yu Mantze, he is reported to be a man without edu-
cation or ability of any kind. What he did, there-
fore, any common man might have done : the time
was ripe, the minds of the people were distracted, the
bonds of legality loosened, and he had only to raise
his standard to be joined by an imposing number of
men, as discontented and weary of the existing regime
as himself.
So rapid was his progress in the province of
Szechuan that the authorities at first were para-
lyzed, and did nothing to suppress the movement.
His extraordinary success accentuated the discon-
tent in neighboring provinces, where more than one
Roman Catholic village was destroyed, and where
no Catholic priest could be considered safe. No
doubt also the troubles which had been for some
time brewing in Hunan were partly due to the im-
munity with which Yu Mantze was allowed to carry
on his anti-Romaii-Cathoiic crusade, and what beoran
in the form of outrages on Christians rapidly devel-
oped into a general anti- foreign campaign in the
Upper and Central Yangtsze Valley. The success-
351
OVERLAND TO CHINA
ful rebel leader was treated by the Chinese authori-
ties in their habitual manner — it is the one piece of
strategy that never fails them — that of buying off
an enemy. They offered Yu Mantze a government
appointment with emoluments, as the readiest and
cheapest way of neutralizing his rebellion. It is
believed, indeed, that he had actually come to terms
with the government, got his button, and become a
military oflficer; but the arrangement, if made, did
not last long. The compact was broken, and event-
ually a state of war existed between the rebel and
the provincial authorities. The Chinese troops sent
out a2:ainst Yu Mantze reallv fought well in some
serious encounters they had w^ith him. Father Fleury
thought they would be able to break up the rebels'
power entirely and would capture and kill Yu Mantze
and his lieutenants.
It is an open question, however, whether the local
officials had not, in point of fact, been secretly sup-
porting the insurgents in their attack on the Roman
Catholic missions, a proceeding with which the man-
darins in general are in entire sympathy. But, as has
often happened before in the history of foreign rela-
tions with the Chinese, the officials, conniving at pop-
ular risings which suit their purpose and do their
dirty work without compromising them, are in the
end unable to put out the fire which they have kin-
dled, and the movement thus spreads farther than
they intended; the result being that they become
fully compromised with the foreigners, and have
ihcn a demon on their hands which they are unable
352
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
to exorcise. The severe action taken Later by the
authorities a2:ainst the rebel leader was no doubt due
to stringent instructions from Peking, where strong
pressure had been put upon the government, accompa-
nied by unpleasant menaces of ulterior consequences.
However that may be, there seems no doubt that
the Chinese troops really did some hard fighting,
and had honestly determined to put down the ris-
ing. Father Fleury himself maintains that this is
so, having been a witness of some severe engage-
ments. The father's recital frequently reminded the
writer of another Roman Catholic priest's advent-
ures among the Mantzu hill - men, as quoted by
Baber. From the priest's narration, as given in
Annalcs de la Propagation de la Foi, the Mantzu
rebels, like the present band, occupied a mountain
fastness protected by inaccessible heights ; the dif-
ference between the two cases being that Fleury, as
has been said, received no personal ill-treatment ; in
both cases the negotiations for ransom were in much
the same terms.
It is not only the Roman Catholics, however, who
suffer. Mr. Parsons, of the Church of England mis-
sion, early in 1899, was attacked, in his opinion by
the local militia. Several of his followers were ill-
treated, one having the fingers of his hand chopped
off ; while Mr. Parsons himself only escaped by jump-
ing into the river, and there clinging to a sedan-chair
which had accidentally been pushed into the water,
until rescued by a Chinese gunboat or salvage-junk.
On board this boat he was compelled to lie as if dead,
z 353
OVERLAND TO CHINA
a crowd hooting on the bank. The master of the
boat wisely said : " If you move you are a dead man,
for then we cannot save you. Lie still as you are,
as if dead." News of the occurrence was telegraphed
by the United States consul to Peking and Washing-
ton, while, there being no British representative near,
the missionaries telegraphed to the consul, Mr. Lit-
ton, who was then in the next province, fifteen days'
journey away.
The Chinese oilficials try to make this appear to
have been the work of Yu Mantze, but such is not
the case. There can be little doubt that the culprits
were local militia, precisely as in the case of Mr.
Fleming, near Kweiyang-fu, in the next province.
In connection with the Fleming murder, it may be
noted that Mr. Litton, who was sent from Chung-
king to investigate the matter, was highly successful
in fighting the Chinese authorities at Kweiyang-fu,
securing the punishment of several officers impli-
cated, although the ringleader of all, the head of the
local militia there, had evaded arrest at the time the
writer was there.
On the road to Kweiyang the writer hoped to
have the opportunity of meeting Mr. Litton, then
on his way back to Chungking. The general opin-
ion at that place was that he had discharged his
mission splendidly at Kweiyang. No man, indeed,
is more highly esteemed by the scattered British
communities of missionaries and others in the west
of China, he being regarded as keen, strong, thor-
oughly self-reliant and fearless, and one not to be
354
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
put off with plausible words. He stayed at Kwei-
yang without any support but his own resolution,
and saw the guilty officials punished. A few such
men in the interior of China, properly supported,
would reawaken hope of the conservation of both
British and Chinese interests.* The writer received,
during his journey, the greatest kindness and every
possible assistance from all the missionaries resi-
dent in Chungking, and from the United States
consul, in the absence of any British representative.
When the writer was in Peking, the current phrase
in diplomatic mouths was, "Everything quiet in the
Yangtsze Valley"; but opinions may differ on this
point. The truth rather is that there is trouble
everywhere, and more always threatening, and the
Chinese officials are inclined to take advantacje of
this state of the country to prevent any foreigners
from travelling. The Taotai at Chungking, for in-
stance, tried to prevent the writer from starting for
Kweiyang-fu, C7i route to Yunnan -fu and Kunlon
Ferr)', and endeavored to bring about a delay of a
few weeks — delay in Chinese being equivalent to
noil possiLiims. The authorities, in fact, are much
averse to foreigners scouring the country, as they
are now doing, spying out the land, as they think.
At this time (early in 1899, when the writer passed
up the river) there was only one small British gun-
boat, the Esk, on the whole Yangtsze, she being
anchored at Ichang, and unable to move either up
* Later reports are to the effect that this meritorious officer has
been removed to a subordinate post in the consulate at Canton.
355
OVERLAND TO CHINA
or down until the water should rise. It was expect-
ed that the Woodcoc/c, a new gunboat, two feet draught
and thirteen knots speed, would be soon sent up;
but a number of such craft are wanted if any kind
of order is to be maintained on the river, and the
authorities supported for good and repressed for
evil. The provincial rulers being apparently quite
powerless, except for evil, it seemed to the writer
most lamentable that at such an important crisis
all British officers should be absent from the prov-
inces of Szechuan and Yunnan. In any case, there
were only three of them, all told — one at Chung-
king, one at Ssumao, and one at Tengyueh. Mr.
Litton was, in fact, as the event proved, the right
man to be sent ; but it is impossible to understand
the policy of denuding the large and important
province of Szechuan of its one British represent-
ative, to send him on a journey of fifteen ordinary
marches, though he actually did it, with immense
difficulty, in about ten days. The lack of wisdom
in the arrangement is obvious when it is known
that Chungking is so situated that, in the event of
any emergency, it would have been impossible for
any one, either from the coast or elsewhere, to re-
place Mr. Litton in less than five or six weeks. Sure-
ly there were abundance of men at the coast ports
available for the mission to Kweiyang-fu ; for in-
stance, at Shashi, a small town of no importance in a
lower province, the writer found a full-blown consul
living, not in the town, but on a pontoon anchored
in the river — a useless existence, which might well be
356
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
called a livinof death. As has been said, the absence
of any British agent at Szechuan was the more to be
regretted when it is considered that the French are
particularly active both in that province and in
Yunnan. Apart from M. Haas, to whom reference
has already been made, a staff of French army sur-
geons have come to Chengtu and Chungking, spread-
ing over Yunnan and Szechuan, to aid the Chinese
" to carry civilization into the remote regions of the
empire." They are to erect hospitals, a propos dc
rieji, in order to create French interests to be at-
tacked, defended, and avenged.
The release of Father Fleury is a great disap-
pointment to the French authorities, who reckoned
on vast concessions being obtained by way of revenge
for his capture and captivity. There is, in fact, lit-
tle doubt that the French have been preparing for a
big movement in Western China, somewhat on the
Russian pattern, and they may still have considerable
successes ; for though they have lost Father Fleury
for the moment as a means of pressure, there is still
the destruction of missions and other property, which
they will exploit to the utmost. For instance, the
Bonin mission, which was at work in Szechuan, came
to grief in the Ningyuan district, and, of their An-
namite military escort of sixteen men, one, as the
French declare, was poisoned. The mission, it may
be noted, provoked attack, behaving very brusquely
everywhere, and on one occasion even beating a
Chinese official. Another French mission, how-
ever, has succeeded in surveying as far as Yunnan-fu,
357
OVERLAND TO CHINA
and thence to Sui-fu, in Szechuan, examining two
routes, it is understood, but they keep their proceed-
ings very secret. There is, in fact, a further devel-
opment of the French propaganda, which is working
hke a cancer in the body poHtic of China, with intent
to destroy it.
It is not always remembered that the Roman Cath-
olic missions in China are enormously rich. Espe-
cially is this the case in Szechuan, where they have
accumulated real estate on a very large scale. This is
the practice of the Roman Catholic missions every-
where. The procureiir is always a very keen man of
business, who, through intimacy with family affairs, is
able to watch the decay of fortunes, the profligac}^
of sons, and the other factors which bring about the
financial ruin of old families, and the propaganda
is always ready in these cases to dispense its help
to the needy, irrespective of creed. Property is thus
continually passing into their hands, and, in some
places, such as Tientsin, for instance, the Church is
the principal landlord. It is this funded wealth
which enables the Roman Catholic missions to ex-
tend themselves over the world without requiring
subsidies from Europe.
As is usually the case when an outrage is committed
on the Roman Catholic missions, there is more in
the affair than meets the eye, and in judging of such
one has to contend with the enormous disadvantage
of hearing only one side of the alleged persecutions.
The present Taotai at Chungking is very anti-
foreign and weak, two characteristics which general-
358
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
ly go together. When the writer called on him, in
company with a missionary, Mr. Wilson, one of the
Taotai s servants was overheard to remark, on their
departure, " The dirt has entered and the dirt has gone
hence, but it leaves a nasty stain behind." The Taotai
was remonstrated with on the subject, but he merely
quoted to his followers some ancient maxim concern-
ing the etiquette of hospitality. It was this same
oflficialwho endeavored, by every argument he could
think of — such as the disturbed state of the country,
his own responsibility in the matter, etc. — to delay
the writers departure for Kweiyang. His efforts,
however, were unavailing, and he was informed that,
if he would not provide an efficient escort, the jour-
ney would be undertaken without escort, a statement
of the case being telegraphed to Peking and to Lon-
don, and that he would be held responsible for any
ill consequences, the writer assuring him that should
any outrage take place it would probably not be
quite so easily condoned as is usual in the case of
British missionaries. Thereupon the Taotai gave
way, and ordered an escort of six armed men to go
as far as Kweiyang, those from Chungking to be
changed on the road.
Both the Protestant and the Catholic mission-
aries, at the time of the writer's journey through
the southwest provinces, considered Szechuan and
Hupeh, and the country generally, to be in a very
dangerous situation. The empire, in their opinion,
was being partitioned by foreigners, the central
government having no power; while the authority
359
OVERLAND TO CHINA
of the Chinese officials was everywhere weakened,
universal unrest and discontent having seized upon
the people. The trading and well-to-do classes alone
were in favor of order, all others sympathizing with
Yu Mantze, and being ready to follow him or any
other man who would rise to lead the attack against
law and order.
In coming rapidly from the capital to the distant
provinces it is impossible to escape certain impres-
sions for which it would not be easy to give cate-
gorical reasons. It is by comparing one's experience
of one period with that of another, and by contrast-
ing impressions of various localities, that one may
reach conclusions which could not perhaps be sub-
stantiated by logical demonstration, but which are
yet as certain as forecasts of the weather by a gar-
dener or a fisherman, who could not prove them by
meteorological data. The first thing that strikes a
traveller in these days is the change that seems to
be coming over the relations between the supreme
government and the provincial authorities. Ac-
cording to Chinese traditions, viceroys and govern-
ors have been practically absolute rulers, the court
being exceedingly reluctant to interfere. This tra-
dition has been the chief obstacle to foreign powers
obtaining redress in the capital for outrages in the
provinces. The government would never, except
on the most urgent pressure, exercise its authority
over provincials, and so crimes against foreigners
have too often gone unpunished.
The tendency under the new regime is towards
360
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
the concentration of power in tlie Imperial court.
This movement has a far greater significance now
tlian it could ever have had before, because in the
court itself a similar concentration is taking place.
The court and the Imperial Government, boards and
councils, now mean one and the same individual —
namely, the Empress Regent. " Letaf c'cst mor is
her motto.* But she is invisible, and cannot be ap-
proached by the ordinary diplomatic avenue. What
passes in the palace and in the inner councils of the
Empress is to foreigners generally an unknown
quantity — to all, indeed, except to those who have
underground intelligence wires to guide them. The
various legations do not stand on an equal footing
in this matter, and undoubtedly the palm must be
given the Russian chajiccllerie for having the com-
pletest system both of receiving and imparting in-
telligence. This is due not merely to the com-
manding political position of Russia, which natural-
ly presses all sorts and conditions of men into her
service, but also to the supreme importance which
the Russian government attaches to the functions
of the lesiation in Pekins:. So manv Chinese offi-
cials and underlings are now stipendiaries of Russia
— Hau, the director of the Newchwang Railway, for
example, having been heavily subsidized for the last
four years — that it would probably be exceedingly
difficult for other legations to place themselves
abreast of Russia.
* This was written sometime before the coup d'etat at Peking, in
January, 1900.
361
OVERLAND TO CHINA
So long, however, as the office of minister is main-
tained in Peking, there seems to be every reason
whv the British leiration should be rendered as effi-
cient as possible. There have been difficulties of very
lonq; standinq- in the oro-anization of the staff which
ou2:ht to be remedied. One is that the office of first
secretary has long been a sinecure. The minister
may be worked off his legs and the staff driven to
their wits' end to copy all the despatches, while the
first secretary is a gentleman at large, who may, if
he pleases, volunteer to address envelopes or assist
the young attaches in their clerical work, but who,
for all the aid he renders his chief beyond such triv-
ial services, is little more than a cipher. No blame
necessarily attaches to individuals for this state of
things, for it has gone on for many years. The
names of several able men appear in the list of first
secretaries, to mention only Mr. Malet, Mr. Goschen,
Mr. Howard, and Mr. Beauclerk, who one and all de-
plored the necessity of spending their time in idleness,
not only doing no good to themselves, but losing
their previous experience. Reduced to the organiz-
ing of picnics and the arranging of cotillions, some
of them driven by ennui to the study of Chinese,
which would be of no service on their promotion to
another post, the secretaries always seem the fifth
wheel of the coach so far as the real work of the
legation is concerned. One definite function only
has always been reserved for them — namely, to make
the annual trade report. On this some of the secre-
taries named established their reputation, but none
362
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
of them had ever been, what it would seem natural
to suppose they would be, understudies for the min-
ister whose place they would be called on to occupy
in case of illness or absence. There is no reason to
suppose that the present occupant of the office of
first secretary is in any way different in these respects
from his long line of predecessors.
Why all this should be so has never been explained.
The common -sense of the matter would surely be
that, instead of being kept idle, between the respon-
sible work of the minister and the mechanical work
of the young attaches, the first secretary should be
called upon to assist the minister, and even in cer-
tain cases be consulted by him, as the first officer
of a ship is consulted by the captain. In Peking-
there is an immense amount of work which would,
in fact, be far more profitably done by the secretary
than by the minister. The diplomatic drudgery, the
mere routine work which is undertaken by the minis-
ter who attends weariedly at the Tsungli Yamen day
after day, might surely be devolved on his junior.
To argue and shout to the board when there is no
responsible minister present and no response obtain-
able, is not dignified work for a high official. It
were surely better that this rather humiliating rou-
tine should be undertaken by the secretary, while
the minister was employing his time and his thoughts
on more important questions of policy. By making
himself less familiar to the underlings of the Yamen
he would be likely to gain respect for his infrequent
utterances, and would be able to interfere with great-
OVERLAND TO CHINA
er effect after questions had been threshed out by a
subordinate, as in fact is the practice in Europe.
There is one other department of the legation
to which a greater importance might be given with
advantage. The office of Chinese secretary is a
most responsible one, for wliich the man should be
carefully selected. Since the days of Wade and
Mayers — that is to say, for the last twenty years or
more — it cannot be said that thisofifice has been ade-
quately filled. It has been considered, apparently, that
a junior consular ofificer, without any real experience
or weight, or, in fact, any other qualification than a
knowledge of the Chinese language, was good enough
to fill the post. Matters have, however, come to such
a pass now in China that the mere sinalogue, or in-
terpreter, is quite out of place in a position of such
importance as that of Chinese secretary; for since
it has become the practice in the appointment of
ministers to pass over all the men trained in the
consular service and having expert knowledge of
the country, and to select candidates from the diplo-
matic service in Europe or from the coast of Africa,
the Chinese secretary is practically the man who
runs the leiiation. The demands on the staff are
now so great that a new office ought to be created
by the elevation of the Chinese secretary to a higher
grade. The class of men who have been doing the
duties of that functionary would then be admirably
qualified for the post of assistant Chinese secretary,
havins: charoe of the trainins:, examination, etc.,
of the students, and keeping up the details of
364
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
the Chinese record. For the Chhiese secretaryship
the best man in the consular service, of good stand-
ing and large experience, ought to be chosen, and
such a man would not be overpaid at ^1200 or
^""1500 a year. The days for machine work and
accurate clerkship are over. Men of judgment,
originality, and receptivity are required to cope with
the new situation in China. The additional Chinese
secretary, with the qualifications mentioned, would
do something to make up for the deplorable want of
an intelligence department, but would still leave
much to be desired to put the legation on even
terms with its rivals. When, however, all has been
said and done that is ever likely to be done, it would
be too sanguine to expect the British legation to be
on the same level of efficiency as the Russian, or even
some of the others, and, if that be the case, British
interests must always be at a disadvantage in North
China, where they will have not only the inherent
obstructiveness of Chinese officialdom to contend
with, but also the open or secret hostility of Russia.
For some reasons it is unfortunate that the first def-
inite creation of a new British interest should hap-
pen to be in the very region where our course will
be beset by snares and pitfalls.
To a certain extent, no doubt, the disadvantages
which face us in Peking and the north will apply
crenerally to the wdiole empire, for when the Empress
succeeds in gathering all the reins into her own
hands, and Russia is able to direct those hands,
there is no part of the empire where we could be
365
OVERLAND TO CHINA
sure of having a fair field. Whatever may obtain
in the provinces would be subject to the dual ap-
proval of the Dowager Empress and the Russian
minister, who would exercise the veto with discre-
tion and always with a careful eye to the circum-
stances of the time. All these considerations go to
show that our safest field of enterprise is at a dis-
tance from the capital, and, in fact, in the populous
centre of the empire. There we should have to deal
with less of mystery, and with men who are more
practical, more experienced, and more patriotic than
any one connected with the court at Peking. The
viceroys, we may be sure, do not relish the curtail-
ment of their authority within the provinces, and
w'ould not be likely to resist proposals which would
tend to strengthen and confirm them in their posi-
tion. As for the people, they are easily managed,
and their good-will might be counted on so long as
the of^cials grave them the rjc^ht lead. In the cen-
tral provinces is concentrated the densest population
in China, because it is, taken as a whole, by far the
most productive region in the empire, and is so won-
derfully provided with waterways that communica-
tions are cheap and easy. It is the west and the
south with which we have chiefly to do in connec-
tion with our railway extension from Burma; so that
when the Yangtsze Valley was assigned by the pub-
lic opinion not of Great Britain only but of the world,
lono: before the orovernment had formulated any
views on the subject, as the natural sphere of influ-
ence of Great Britain, the idea was simply following
366
THE YANGTSZE VALLEY
the physical configuration of the country. All are
agreed that if there is any portion of the Chinese
Empire where Great Britain may safely and profita-
bly assert her influence it is that great belt described
as the Yangtsze Valley. Whether for mining, rail-
roads, steamboats, or ordinary operations of com-
merce, it is there that she will find her most promis-
ing theatre of action. Seeing, therefore, that her
diplomatic operations in Peking are subjected to the
serious disadvantages aforesaid, it may appear advis-
able to cultivate more than she has hitherto done
working relations with the various provincial author-
ities, taking care always to keep the people at her
back.
In order to do this, quite as good men are re-
quired in the provinces as in the legation itself,
and Britain has the men, if her government would
use them in a way that would allow free scope to
their energies. If a body of such men were em-
ployed to advance British interests among the
provincial authorities, they would probably do more
real good than can nowadays be accomplished by a
legation at Peking. Nor would an admiral or two,
occasionally, be thrown away on the Yangtsze region.
Admiral Seymour made a remarkably good impres-
sion on Chang Chih Tung when he visited him at
Wuchang. It is a great mistake to suppose that a
strong attitude is objectionable among the Chinese
officials. On the contrary, it is the only thing they
ever appreciate — in which, indeed, they are not very
different from the rest of mankind.
367
OVERLAND TO CHINA
M. Pavloff's visit, a short time ago, to the Yangtsze,
excited a screat deal of interest. The Chinese in-
terpret it to mean that Russia is preparing for a
movement in the Yangtsze Valley. The expecta-
tion api)arcntly is that Hankaii will be made a free
port of the type of Port Arthur and Talienwan. It
was certainly annoying to hear M. Pavloff constant-
ly commiserating his British colleague in Peking.
" Poor Sir Claude, he is so worried !" he was never
tired of repeating.
To sum up: Peking and the Tsungli Yamen be-
ing Russian, body and soul, Britain's best remaining
chance of establishing her influence in the empire
is in those provinces which, after all, count for two-
thirds of what is known as " China." The provincial
authorities are as yet pro-British, because they see
that Great Britain, taken at her worst, is a less evil
than Russia; but Britain is neglecting these provin-
cials while expending her forces against the blank
walls of the imperial palace. In so doing she is assist-
ing to weaken provincial authority, while she is not
balancing her action in Peking by adopting such
measures in the provinces as are necessary to draw
the country to her side. The natural, the inevitable
consequence must be that the provincials also will,
for their own security, become Russian, as the Dow-
ager Empress, Li Hung Chang, and most of the
magnates at Peking have already done. They can-
not help themselves, for they must lean on somebody,
and must pay the price of their own security, even
if that price be the surrender of their country.
368
CHAPTER XVII
SOUTHWEST CHIXA
In endeavoring to trace the early history of the
southwest provinces of China — like Indo-China sen-
erally, the true land of fable — it is difficult to distin-
guish between truth and myth.*
It was not till the twelfth century that the Chinese
exercised any real authority in Yunnan. Before
this period they had, indeed, organized various futile
expeditions and made military demonstrations, but
were generally defeated and compelled in the end to
resort to bribery of the native princes and their min-
isters. About A.D. 1252 the line of native princes
ended, Tali-fu was captured, and the Mongol Em-
peror assumed sovereignty. Colonization was then
attempted. Many Mongols fell during the taking
of Tali, and the site of the common Q:rave in which
they were interred is still to be seen behind the
single pagoda to the west of the town, a Mongol
tablet of marble being erected in later years to their
memory. In a.d. 1280, the great Mongol Kublai
Khan having overthrown the Southern Sung dy-
nasty of China, set up his own under the title of the
" Yuen Dynasty," and in this year Yunnan was for-
* See Appendix.
2 A 369
OVERLAND TO CHINA
inally annexed to the Chinese Empire, although the
province was not effectively subdued till a.d. 1305, a
" peace tablet," still in existence, being then erected
by the Mongols in commemoration of the event.
The Chinese annals show that about a.d. 1300
a Mohammedan named Prince Hsien-yang, or Sai-
tien-ci, commonly known among his co-religionists
as Omar, from Hsien-yang, in Central China, was
sent to Yunnan-fu, where, seeing the country flood-
ed by the overflow of the lake Er-hai, and the peo-
ple reduced to poverty, he surveyed the lake and
lowered its level by means of a cutting. He also
built two mosques, one at the south gate of Yunnan-
fu, and one at Yang-pi, on the high-road to Bhamo,
some distance west of the Hsia-kwan, near Tali-fu,
which, at the end of the great Mohammedan rebel-
lion in 1874, was turned into a Chinese temple.
This prince was also the founder at Tali of a soci-
ety, still in existence, for the relief of the poor. He
made roads and bridges, turned waste ground into
arable, and did much to improve the social customs
and general condition of the people, who held him
in great honor. On his death there was general
mourning throughout the country, and a statue was.
subsequently erected to his memory.
The neighboring province of Szechuan was peo-
pled, or rather repeopled, at a no more remote pe-
riod than the commencement of the present reign-
ing dynasty, the chronology extending not much
further back than to the end of the Ming dynasty,
about 1645. Even the celebrated emperors Kanghi
370
SOUTHWEST CHINA
an 
